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diff --git a/38539.txt b/38539.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7bc26fa --- /dev/null +++ b/38539.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20235 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 1, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 1 + "Gichtel, Johann" to "Glory" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: January 10, 2012 [EBook #38539] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + AUTHOR LIST: "Author of Asien und Europa nach den Aegyptischen + Denkmalern; &c." 'Aegyptischen' amended from 'Aegptischen'. + + ARTICLE GILGIT: "These basins include a system of glaciers of such + gigantic proportions that they are probably unrivalled in any part + of the world." 'part' amended from 'pact'. + + ARTICLE GILGIT: "... F. Younghusband, 'Journeys in the Pamirs and + Adjacent Countries,' Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiv., 1892; Curzon, + 'Pamirs,' Jour. R.G.S. vol. viii., 1896; Leitner, Dardistan + (1877)." 'Younghusband' amended from 'Tounghusband'. + + ARTICLE GILLRAY, JAMES: "Gillray lived with Miss (often called Mrs) + Humphrey during all the period of his fame. It is believed that he + several times thought of marrying her ..." 'Gillray' amended from + 'Gillary'. + + ARTICLE GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS: "... D. J. Garat, Notice sur la vie + et les ouvrages de P. L. Ginguene, prefixed to a catalogue of his + library (Paris, 1817)." 'Ginguene' amended from 'Guingene'. + + ARTICLE GINSENG: "Great care is taken in the preparation of the + drug. The account given by Kaempfer of the preparation of nindsin + ..." 'Kaempfer' amended from 'Koempfer'. + + ARTICLE GIRONDISTS: "... by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, 1860) + led to the publication of a Protestation by J. Guadet ..." + 'publication' amended from 'publicaton'. + + ARTICLE GIUSTO DA GUANTO: "Yet there are notable divergences + between these pictures and the 'Communion of the Apostles.'" + 'between' amended from 'betweeen'. + + ARTICLE GLACIAL PERIOD: "... the side of the hill facing the + advancing ice being rounded and gently curved (German Stossseite), + and the opposite side (Leeseite) steep, abrupt and much less + smooth." 'opposite' amended from 'opposte'. + + ARTICLE GLASS: "A non-spherical form can only be produced by + blowing the hollow bulb into a mould of the required shape. Moulds + are used both for giving shape to vessels and also for impressing + patterns on their surface." 'surface' amended from 'suface'. + + ARTICLE GLASS: "It must be remembered that the Romans possessed no + fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful glaze; + Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery which was then + made." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'. + + ARTICLE GLASS: "... a squat tumbler covered with prunts, gave rise + to the "Krautstrunk," which is like the "Igel," but longer and + narrow-waisted." 'Krautstrunk' amended from 'Krautsrunk'. + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + + + FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. + SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. + THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. + FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. + FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. + SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. + SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. + EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. + NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. + TENTH " ninth edition and eleven + supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. + ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. + + + COPYRIGHT + + in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention + + by + + THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS + of the + UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE + + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF + ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XII + GICHTEL to HARMONIUM + + New York + + Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. + 342 Madison Avenue + + + Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, + by + The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE I + + Gichtel, Johann to Glory + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG GIRART DE ROUSSILLON + GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED GIRAUD, GIOVANNI + GIDEON GIRDLE + GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH ANDREAS GIRGA + GIEN GIRGENTI + GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE GIRISHK + GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON GIRNAR + GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS + GIESSEN GIRONDE + GIFFARD, GODFREY GIRONDISTS + GIFFARD, WALTER GIRTIN, THOMAS + GIFFARD, WILLIAM GIRVAN + GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT GIRY, ARTHUR + GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN GISBORNE + GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON GISLEBERT OF MONS + GIFFORD, WILLIAM GISORS + GIFT GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT + GIFU GITSCHIN + GIG GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO + GIGLIO GIULIO ROMANO + GIJON GIUNTA PISANO + GILAN GIURGEVO + GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE + GILBERT, ALFRED GIUSTINIANI + GILBERT, ANN GIUSTO DA GUANTO + GILBERT, GROVE KARL GIVET + GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY GIVORS + GILBERT, JOHN GJALLAR + GILBERT, SIR JOHN GLABRIO + GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY GLACE BAY + GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ROSANNA GLACIAL PERIOD + GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT GLACIER + GILBERT, WILLIAM GLACIS + GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK GLADBACH + GILBERT DE LA PORREE GLADDEN, WASHINGTON + GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST GLADIATORS + GILBERT FOLIOT GLADIOLUS + GILBERT ISLANDS GLADSHEIM + GILBEY, SIR WALTER GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL + GILDAS GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART + GILDER, RICHARD WATSON GLADSTONE + GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU GLAGOLITIC + GILDING GLAIR + GILDS GLAISHER, JAMES + GILEAD GLAMIS + GILES, ST GLAMORGANSHIRE + GILFILLAN, GEORGE GLANDERS + GILGAL GLANVILL, JOSEPH + GILGAMESH, EPIC OF GLANVILL, RANULF DE + GILGIT GLAPTHORNE, HENRY + GILL, JOHN GLARUS (Swiss canton) + GILL GLARUS (Swiss city) + GILLES DE ROYE GLAS, GEORGE + GILLES LI MUISIS GLAS, JOHN + GILLESPIE, GEORGE GLASER, CHRISTOPHER + GILLESPIE, THOMAS GLASGOW + GILLIE GLASITES + GILLIES, JOHN GLASS + GILLINGHAM (town of Dorsetshire) GLASS, STAINED + GILLINGHAM (borough of Kent) GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF + GILLOT, CLAUDE GLASS CLOTH + GILLOTT, JOSEPH GLASSIUS, SALOMO + GILLOW, ROBERT GLASSWORT + GILLRAY, JAMES GLASTONBURY + GILLYFLOWER GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE + GILMAN, DANIEL COIT GLATZ + GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF + GILPIN, BERNARD GLAUBER'S SALT + GILSONITE GLAUCHAU + GILYAKS GLAUCONITE + GIMBAL GLAUCOUS + GIMLET GLAUCUS + GIMLI GLAZING + GIMP GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH + GIN GLEBE + GINDELY, ANTON GLEE + GINGALL GLEICHEN + GINGER GLEIG, GEORGE + GINGHAM GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG + GINGI GLEIWITZ + GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS GLENALMOND + GINKEL, GODART VAN GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF + GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID GLENCOE + GINSENG GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS + GIOBERTI, VINCENZO GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF + GIOIOSA-IONICA GLENDOWER, OWEN + GIOJA, MELCHIORRE GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT + GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI GLENELG + GIORDANO, LUCA GLENGARRIFF + GIORGIONE GLEN GREY + GIOTTINO GLENS FALLS + GIOTTO GLENTILT + GIPSIES GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL + GIRAFFE GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS + GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH + GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH + GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH + GIRANDOLE GLOBE-FISH + GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE GLOBIGERINA + GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE GLOCKENSPIEL + GIRARD, STEPHEN GLOGAU + GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE GLORIOSA + GIRARDIN, EMILE DE GLORY + GIRARDON, FRANCOIS + + + + +INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH +THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. + + + A. A. R.* + ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. + + Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the + University of Dublin and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. + + Grant, Robert. + + A. C. Se. + ALBERT CHARLES SEWARD, M.A., F.R.S. + + Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Hon. Fellow of + Emmanuel College, Cambridge. President of the Yorkshire + Naturalists' Union, 1910. + + Gymnosperms. + + A. F. P. + ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S. + + Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History + in the University of London. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary + of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Author of _England under the + Protector Somerset_; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c. + + Grindal. + + A. Go.* + REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. + + Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. + + Grynaeus, Simon; + Haetzer, + + A. G. B.* + HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.CE. + + Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member + of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. + + Guiana. + + A. H.-S. + SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. + + General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_. + + Giilan; + Hamadan. + + A. He. + ARTHUR HERVEY. + + Formerly Musical Critic to _Morning Post_ and _Vanity Fair_. + Author of _Masters of French Music_; _French Music in the XIX. + Century_. + + Gounod. + + A. H. S. + REV. A. H. SAYCE, D.D. + + See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. + + Grammar; + Gyges. + + A. J. G. + REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. + + Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United + Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras + University and Member of Mysore Educational Service. + + Haggai (_in part_). + + A. J. H. + ALFRED JAMES HIPKINS. + + Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of Royal College of + Music. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, + 1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, + 1900. Author of _Musical Instruments_; _A Description and History + of the Pianoforte_; &c. + + Harmonium (_in part_). + + A. L. + ANDREW LANG. + + See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. + + Gurney, Edmund. + + A. M. C. + AGNES MARY CLERKE. + + See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M. + + Halley; + Hansen. + + A. N. + ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. + + Goatsucker; + Godwit; + Golden-eye; + Goldfinch; + Goose; + Gos-Hawk; + Grackle; + Grebe; + Greenfinch; + Greenshank; + Grosbeak; + Grouse; + Guacharo; + Guan; + Guillemot; + Guinea-Fowl; + Gull; + Hammer-Kop. + + A. Ne. + ALEXANDER NESBITT, F.S.A. + + Author of the _Introduction_ to _A Descriptive Catalogue of the + Glass Vessels in South Kensington Museum_. + + Glass: _History of Manufacture (in part)_. + + A. S. C. + ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. + + Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author + of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_; + _Ornament in European Silks_; &c. + + Gold and Silver Thread. + + A. Sy. + ARTHUR SYMONS. + + See the biographical article, SYMONS, A. + + Goncourt, De; + Hardy, Thomas. + + A. W. H.* + ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. + + Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of + Gray's Inn, 1900. + + Godfrey of Viterbo; + Golden Bull; + Habsburg. + + A. W. R. + ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. + + Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of + _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_. + + Ground Rent; + Handwriting. + + A. W. W. + ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., LITT.D. + + See the biographical article, WARD, A. W. + + Greene, Robert. + + C. F. A. + CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of + London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold + Harbour_. + + Grand Alliance, War of the; + Grant, Ulysses S. (_in part_); + Great Rebellion. + + C. Gr. + CHARLES GROSS, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. (1857-1909). + + Professor of History at Harvard University, 1888-1909. Author of + _The Gild Merchant_; _Sources and Literature of English History_; + &c. + + Gilds. + + C. H.* + SIR C. HOLROYD. + + See the biographical article; HOLROYD, SIR C. + + Haden, Sir, F. C. + + C. H. C. + CHARLES H. COOTE. + + Formerly of Map Department, British Museum. + + Hakluyt (_in part_). + + C. H. Ha. + CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York + City. Member of the American Historical Association. + + Gregory: _Popes_, VIII. to XII.; + Guibert. + + C. J. L. + SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D (Edin.) + + Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of + King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home + Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, + India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic + Poetry_; &c. + + Hamasa. + + C. L.* + CHARLES LAPWORTH, M.SC., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. + + Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of + Birmingham. Editor of _Monograph on British Graptolites_, + Palaeontographical Society, 1900-1908. + + Graptolites. + + C. L. K. + CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A. + + Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of + Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_, and Stow's _Survey of + London_. + + Glendower, Owen; + Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of; + Hallam, Bishop; + Hardyng, John. + + C. M. + CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. + + Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author + of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte + des Papstthums_; &c. + + Gregory VII. + + C. Mi. + CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. + + Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister + Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', + 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. + + Gundulich. + + C. M. W. + SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. + + Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of + Fortifications, 1896-1902. Served under General Gordon in the + Soudan, 1874-1875. + + Gordon, General. + + C. Pf. + CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L. + + Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_. + + Gregory, St, of Tours; + Gunther of Schwarzburg. + + C. R. B. + CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. + + Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham. + Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer + in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. + Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; + _The Dawn of Modem Geography_; &c. + + Gomez; + Hakluyt (_in part_). + + C. We. + CECIL WEATHERLY. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. + + Graffito. + + C. W. E. + CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT. + + See the biographical article, ELIOT, C. W. + + Gray, Asa. + + D. C. To. + REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A. + + Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c. + + Gray, Thomas. + + D. F. T. + DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. + + Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising The Classical + Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other + classical works. + + Gluck; + Handel. + + D. G. H. + DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. + + Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen + College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at + Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; + Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; + Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. + + Halicarnassus. + + D. H. + DAVID HANNAY. + + Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short + History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_: _Life of Emilio Castelar_: &c. + + Gondomar, Count; Grand Alliance, War of the: _Naval Operations_; + Guichen; + Hamilton, Emma. + + D. Ll. T. + DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. + + Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at + Pontypridd and Rhondda. + + Glamorganshire; + Gower. + + D. Mn. + REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. + + Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of + _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c. + + Glas, John; + Glasites. + + D. M. W. + SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. + + Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the + Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of Institut + de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction Publique of + France. Joint-editor of new volumes (10th edition) of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the + Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c. + + Giers; + Gorchakov. + + E. A. F. + EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, FREEMAN, E. A. + + Goths (_in part_). + + E. A. J. + E. ALFRED JONES. + + Author of _Old English Gold Plate_; _Old Church Plate of the Isle + of Man_; _Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant + Churches in England_; _Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de + Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate_; _A Private Catalogue of The + Royal Plate at Windsor Castle_; &c. + + Golden Rose (_in part_). + + E. B.* + ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. + + Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of + Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of + the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier + of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions historiques des + monnaies de la republique romaine_; _Traites des monnaies grecques + et romaines_; _Catalogue des camees de la bibliotheque nationale_. + + Hadrumetum. + + E. Br. + ERNEST BARKER, M.A. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History at St John's College, + Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven + Scholar, 1895. + + Godfrey of Bouillon. + + E. C. B. + RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin). + + Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "_The Lausaic History of + Palladius_" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi. + + Gilbert of Sempringham, St; + Grandmontines; + Groot. + + E. C. Sp. + REV. EDWARD CLARKE SPICER, M.A. + + New College, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1900. + + Glacier. + + E. F. G. + EDWIN FRANCIS GAY, PH.D. + + Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of Business + Administration, Harvard University. + + Hanseatic League. + + E. F. S. D. + LADY DILKE. + + See the biographical article, DILKE, SIR C. W., Bart. + + Greuze. + + E. G. + EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, GOSSE, E. + + Gnome. + + E. H. P. + EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A. + + See the biographical article, PALMER, E. H. + + Hafiz. + + E. J. P. + EDWARD JOHN PAYNE, M.A. (1844-1904). + + Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of the + _Select Works of Burke_. Author of _History of European Colonies_; + _History of the New World called America_; _The Colonies_, in the + "British Citizen" Series; &c. + + Grey, 2nd Earl. + + Ed. M. + EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon), LL.D. (Chicago). + + Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author + of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_; + _Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_. + + Gotarzes. + + E. M. W. + REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. + + Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. + + Greece: _History, Ancient, to 146 B.C._ + + E. O.* + EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. + + Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the + Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the + Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of + Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for + Senior Students_. + + Goitre; + Haemorrhoids. + + E. Pr. + EDGAR PRESTAGE. + + Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of + Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, + Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. + Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon + Geographical Society, &c. Editor of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_; + _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c. + + Goes, Damiao De; + Gonzaga. + + E. R. + LORD LOCHEE OF GOWRIE (Edmund Robertson), P.C., LL.D., K.C. + + Civil Lord of the Admiralty, 1892-1895. Secretary to the + Admiralty, 1905-1908. M.P. for Dundee, 1885-1908. Fellow of Corpus + Christi College, Oxford. + + Hallam, Henry. + + E. S. G. + EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S. + + Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian + Demonstrator of Comparative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. + + Haplodrili. + + F. C. C. + FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). + + Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University + College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of + Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c. + + Gregory the Illuminator. + + F. G. M. B. + FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. + + Goths (_in part_). + + F. G. S. + F. G. STEPHENS. + + Formerly Art Critic of the _Athenaeum_. Author of _Artists at + Home_; _George Cruikshank_; _Memorials of W. Mulready_; _French + and Flemish Pictures_; _Sir E. Landseer_; _T. C. Hook, R.A._; &c. + + Gilbert, Sir John. + + F. H. D. + REV. FREDERICK HOMES DUDDEN, D.D. + + Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Theology, Lincoln College, Oxford. + Author of _Gregory the Great, his Place in History and Thought_; + &c. + + Gregory I. + + F. H. H. + FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. + + Assistant Editor of the _Century Dictionary_. + + Hancock, Winfield Scott. + + F. J. H. + FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. + + Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. + Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author + of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. + + Graham's Dyke. + + F. N. + FRIDTJOF NANSEN. + + See the biographical article, NANSEN, FRIDTJOF. + + Greenland. + + F. R. C. + FRANK R. CANA. + + Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_. + + Gold Coast. + + F. S. P. + FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., PH.D. + + Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University. Member + of American Historical Association. + + Hamilton, Alexander. + + F. W. R.* + FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, + 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. + + Gypsum; + Haematite. + + G. A. Gr. + GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (DUBLIN). + + Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of + Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal + Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic + Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The + Languages of India_; &c. + + Gujarati and Rajasthani. + + G. C. M. + GEORGE CAMPBELL MACAULAY, M.A. + + Lecturer in English in the University of Cambridge. Formerly + Professor of English Language and Literature in the University of + Wales. Editor of the _Works_ of John Gower; &c. + + Gower, John. + + G. C. W. + GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. + + Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Portrait + Miniatures_; _Life of Richard Cosway, R.A._; _George Engleheart_; + _Portrait Drawings_; &c. Editor of new edition of Bryan's + _Dictionary of Painters and Engravers_. + + Greco, El. + + G. F. Z. + GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INST.CE. + + Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_. + + Granaries. + + G. G. + SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S. + + Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, + Woolwich. Examiner in the University of Wales. Member of the + Aeronautical Committee. Author of _Notes on Dynamics_; + _Hydrostatics_; _Differential and Integral Calculus, with + Applications_; &c. + + Gyroscope and Gyrostat. + + G. Sn. + GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D. + + Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the + Archaeological Institute of America. Member of American + Philological Association. Author of _With the Professor_; _The + Great Mother of the Gods_; &c. + + Great Mother of the Gods. + + G. S. C. + SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S. + + Governor of Bombay. Author of _Imperial Defence_; _Russia's Great + Sea Power_; _The Last Great Naval War_; &c. + + Greco-Turkish War, 1897. + + G. W. E. R. + RT. HON. GEORGE WILLIAM ERSKINE RUSSELL, P.C., M.A., LL.D. + + Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1894-1895; for + India, 1892-1894. M.P. for Aylesbury, 1880-1885; for North Beds., + 1892-1895. Author of _Life of W. E. Gladstone_; _Collections and + Recollections_; &c. + + Gladstone, W. E. + + G. W. T. + REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. + + Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew + and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. + + Hajji Khalifa; + Hamadhani; + Handani; + Hammad ar-Rawiya; + Hariri. + + H. A. de C. + HENRY ANSELM DE COLYAR, K.C. + + Author of _The Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety_; &c. + + Guarantee. + + H. B. Wo. + HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. + + Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England + and Wales. President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. + Wollaston Medallist, 1908. + + Haidinger, W. K. + + H. Ch. + HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. + + Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the + 11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; co-editor of the + 10th edition. + + Goschen, 1st Viscount; + Granville, 2nd Earl; + Hamilton, Alexander (_in part_); + Harcourt, Sir William. + + H. De. + HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J. + + Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: + _Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta sanctorum_. + + Giles, St; + Hagiology. + + H. G. H. + HORATIO GORDON HUTCHINSON. + + Amateur Golf Champion, 1886-1887. Author of _Hints on Golf_; + _Golf_ (Badminton Library); _Book of Golf and Golfers_; &c. + + Golf. + + H. J. P. + HARRY JAMES POWELL, F.C.S. + + Of Messrs James Powell & Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, London. + Member of Committee of six appointed by Board of Education to + prepare the scheme for the rearrangement of the Art Collection of + the Victoria and Albert Museum. Author of _Glass Making_; &c. + + Glass. + + H. Lb. + HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S. + + Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly + Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member + of Council of Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. + President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of + _Hydrodynamics_; &c. + + Harmonic Analysis. + + H. L. H. + HARRIET L. HENNESSY, L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I., M.D.(Brux.) + + Gynaecology. + + H. M. C. + HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. + + Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of + _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_. + + Goths: _Gothic Language_. + + H. M. Wo. + HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.SC. + + Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. + Fellow of University College, London. Author of _Haemoflagellates_ + in Sir E. Ray Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, and of various + scientific papers. + + Gregarines; + Haemosporidia. + + H. R. + HENRY REEVE, D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, REEVE, HENRY. + + Guizot (_in part_). + + H. Sw. + HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. + + University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of + Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of _A History + of English Sounds since the Earliest Period_; _A Handbook of + Phonetics_; &c. + + Grimm, J. L. C.; + Grimm, Wilhelm Carl. + + H. S.-K. + SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. + + M.P. for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of _My Sporting Holidays_; + &c. + + Gun. + + H. W. C. D. + HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls + College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans + and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_. + + Gilbert, Foliot; + Gloucester, Robert, Earl of; + Grosseteste. + + H. W. R.* + REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. + + Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior + Kennicott Scholar, Oxford University, 1901. Author of _Hebrew + Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology_ (in _Mansfield + College Essays_); &c. + + Habakkuk. + + I. A. + ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. + + Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of + Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author + of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the + Middle Ages_. + + Graetz; + Habdala; + Halakha; + Halevi; + Haptara; + Harizi. + + J. A. F. M. + JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. + + Musical Critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The + Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music + in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor + of new edition of Grove's _Dictionary of Music_; &c. + + Grove, Sir George. + + J. A. H. + JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC. + + Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. + Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_. + + Glacial Period; + Greensand. + + J. A. S. + JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, SYMONDS, J. A. + + Guarini. + + J. Bl. + JAMES BLYTH, M.A., LL.D. + + Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow and West of + Scotland Technical College. Editor of Ferguson's _Electricity_. + + Graduation. + + J. Bt. + JAMES BARTLETT. + + Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, + &c., King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects, + Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity Surveyors' Association. + Author of _Quantities_. + + Glazing. + + J. D. B. + JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. + + King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in + South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of + Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order + of St Alexander of Bulgaria. + + Greece: _Geography and History: Modern_; + Greek Literature: III. _Modern_. + + J. E. S.* + JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. + + Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's + College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of + _History of Classical Scholarship_; &c. + + Greek Law. + + J. Fi. + JOHN FISKE. + + See the biographical article, FISKE, J. + + Grant, Ulysses S. + + J. G. C. A. + JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. + + Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of + Lincoln College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, + 1893. + + Gordium. + + J. G. R. + JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. + Author of _History of German Literature_; _Schiller after a + Century_; &c. Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_. + + Goethe; + Grillparzer. + + J. H. F. + JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. + + Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. + + Gracchus; + Gratian; + Hadrian (_in part_). + + J. H. H. + JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. + + Author of _Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation_. + + Gloss; + Gutenberg. + + J. H. P. + JOHN HENRY POYNTING, D.SC., F.R.S. + + Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the + University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, + Cambridge. Joint-author of _Text-Book of Physics_. + + Gravitation (_in part_). + + J. Hl. R. + JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. + + Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local + Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic + Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of + Pitt_; &c. + + Gourgaud, Baron. + + J. L. W. + MISS JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. + + Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_. + + Grail, The Holy; + Guenevere. + + J. M. M. + JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. + + Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, + East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of + Grote's _History of Greece_. + + Grote; + Hamilton, Sir William, Bart, (_in part_); + Harem. + + J. S. F. + JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S. + + Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on + Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal + Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society + of London. + + Glauconite; + Gneiss; + Granite; + Granulite; + Gravel; + Greisen; + Greywacke. + + J. T. Be. + JOHN T. BEALBY. + + Joint author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the + _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's + _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. + + Gobi. + + J. T. S.* + JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. + + Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. + + Golden Rose (_in part_); + Goliad; + Guizot (_in part_). + + K. G. J. + KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. + + Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold + Prizeman, 1903. Author of _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_. + + Goa. + + K. Kr. + KARL KRUMBACHER. + + See the biographical article, KRUMBACHER, CARL. + + Greek Literature: II. _Byzantine_. + + K. S. + MISS KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. + + Editor of the _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The + Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c. + + Glockenspiel; + Gong; + Guitar; + Guitar Fiddle; + Gusla; + Harmonica; + Harmonichord; + Harmonium (_in part_). + + L. D.* + LOUIS DUCHESNE. + + See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O. + + Gregory: _Popes_, II.-VI. + + L. F. D. + LEWIS FOREMAN DAY, F.S.A. (1845-1909). + + Formerly Vice-President of the Society of Arts. Past Master of the + Art Workers' Gild. Author of _Windows, a book about Stained + Glass_; &c. + + Glass, Stained. + + L. F. V.-H. + LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.INST.C.E. (1839-1907). + + Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, + London. Author of _Rivers and Canals_; _Harbours and Docks_; + _Civil Engineering as applied in Construction_; &c. + + Harbour. + + L. J. S. + LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. + + Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. + Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness + Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. + + Goniometer; + Gothite; + Graphite (_in part_); + Greenockite. + + L. R. F. + LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D. + + Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford; University + Lecturer in Classical Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative + Religion. Author of _Cults of the Greek States_; _Evolution of + Religion_. + + Greek Religion. + + M. + LORD MACAULAY. + + See the biographical article, MACAULAY, T. B. M., BARON. + + Goldsmith, Oliver. + + M. G. + MOSES GASTER, PH.D. + + Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. + Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester + Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and + 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. Vice-President, + Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular + Literature_; &c. + + Gipsies. + + M. H. S. + MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. + + Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art + Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos + Aires, Rome and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of + _History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the opening of + the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British + Sculpture and Sculptors of Today_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c. + + Gilbert, Alfred; + Greenaway, Kate. + + M. Ja. + MORRIS JASTROW, JUN., PH.D. + + Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. + Author of _Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians_; &c. + + Gilgamesh, Epic of; + Gula. + + M. M. + MAX ARTHUR MACAULIFFE. + + Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of _The Sikh + Religion, its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors_; &c. Editor of + _Life of Guru Nanak_, in the Punjabi language. + + Granth. + + M. N. T. + MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in + Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. + + Gythium + + M. O. B. C. + MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. + + Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek + at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. + + Greece: _History: 146 B.C. 1800 A.D._; + Hamilcar Barca; + Hannibal. + + M. P. + MARK PATTISON. + + See the biographical article, PATTISON, MARK. + + Grotius. + + M. P.* + LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. + + Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of + the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). + + Gouffier; + Harcourt. + + O. Ba. + OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. + + Editor of _The Ancestor_, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing + Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage. + + Girdle. + + P. A. + PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. + + Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes + Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les + heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_. + + Gonzalo de Berceo. + + P. A. A. + PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC. JURIS. + + New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von + Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_. + + Gneist. + + P. C. Y. + PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. + + Magdalen College, Oxford. + + Gunpowder Plot; + Halifax, 1st Marquess of; + Hamilton, 1st Duke of. + + P. G. + PERCY GARDNER, M.A. + + See the biographical article, GARDNER, PERCY. + + Greek Art. + + P. Gi. + PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. + + Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and + University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of + the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of + Comparative Philology_. + + Greek Language; + H. + + P. G. K. + PAUL GEORGE KONODY. + + Art Critic of the _Observer_ and the _Daily Mail_. Formerly Editor + of _The Artist_. Author of _The Art of Walter Crane_; _Velasquez, + Life and Work_; &c. + + Hals, Frans. + + P. G. T. + PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. + + Hamilton, Sir William Rowan. + + P. La. + PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. + + Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge + University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of + _Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and Editor + of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_. + + Greece: _Geology_. + + P. McC. + PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. + + Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of _Diary of a + Working Farmer_; &c. + + Grass and Grassland. + + R. A. W. + COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. + + Formerly H. M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served + with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the + Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895. + + Hadramut. + + R. A. S. M. + ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. + + St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the + Palestine Exploration Fund. + + Gilead; + Gilgal; + Goshen. + + R. C. J. + SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, L.L.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article, JEBB, SIR R. C. + + Greek Literature: I. _Ancient_. + + R. J. M. + RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. + + Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the + _St James's Gazette_, London. + + Gowrie, 3rd Earl of; + Gratton, Henry; + Green Ribbon Club; + Gymnastics; + Harcourt, 1st Viscount; + Hardwicke, 1st Earl of. + + R. L.* + RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. + + Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. + Author of _Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in + British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of + Africa_; &c. + + Giraffe; + Glutton; + Glyptodon; + Goat; + Gorilla; + Hamster; + Hare. + + R. N. B. + ROBERT NISBET BAIN (D. 1909). + + Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of + _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, + 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe, the + Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1469_; &c. + + Golitsuin, Boris, Dmitry, and Vasily; + Golovin, Count; + Golovkin, Count; + Gortz, Baron von; + Griffenfeldt, Count; + Gustavus I., and IV.; + Gyllenstjerna; + Hall, C. C. + + R. S. T. + RALPH STOCKMAN TARR. + + Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. + + Grand Canyon. + + R. We. + RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (Princeton). + + Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The + Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. + + Great Awakening. + + S. A. C. + STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. + + Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and + Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, + Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, + 1904-1908. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws + of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old + Testament History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c. + + Gideon. + + S. Bl. + SIGFUS BLONDAL. + + Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. + + Hallgrimsson. + + S. C. + SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, COLVIN, SIDNEY. + + Giorgione; Giotto. + + St. C. + VISCOUNT ST. CYRES. + + See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF. + + Guyon, Madame. + + S. N. + SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC. + + See the biographical article, NEWCOMB, SIMON. + + Gravitation (_in part_). + + T. As. + THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. + + Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. + Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven + Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the + Roman Campagna_; &c. + + Girgenti; + Gnatia; + Grottaferrata; + Grumentum; + Gubbio; + Hadria; + Halaesa. + + T. A. J. + THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. + + Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec., + Royal Anthropological Institute. + + Hamitic Races (I.). + + T. Ba. + SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. + + Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the + Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and + Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. + + Guerrilla. + + T. E. H. + THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. + + Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, + Oxford. Professor of International Law in the University of + Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of _Studies in + International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; _Alberici + Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; _Neutral + Duties in a Maritime War_; &c. + + Hall, William E. + + T. F. C. + THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, + Mass., U.S.A. + + Gregory: _Popes_, XIII--XV. + + T. H. H.* + SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S. + + Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, + India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. + Commissioner for the Persa-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The + Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c. + + Gilgit; + Hari-Rud. + + T. K. + THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. + + Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c. + + Hadrian (_in part_). + + T. Se. + THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. + + Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University + of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant + Editor of _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of + _The Age of Johnson_; &c.; Joint-author of _The Bookman History of + English Literature_. + + Gilbert, Sir W. S. + + V. H. S. + REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D. + + Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of + Ely and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _The + Gospels as Historical Documents_; _The Jewish and the Christian + Messiahs_; &c. + + Gospel. + + W. A. B. C. + REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. + (Bern). + + Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, + St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide du Haut + Dauphine_; _The Range of the Todi_; _Guide to Grindelwald_; _Guide + to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor + of _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889; &c. + + Glarus; + Goldast Ab Haiminsfeld; + Grasse; + Grenoble; + Grindelwald; + Grisons; + Gruner. G. S.; + Gruyere. + + W. A. P. + WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. + + Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St + John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. + + Girondists; + Goethe: _Descendants of_; + Greek Independence, War of. + + W. Bo. + WILHELM BOUSSET, D.TH. + + Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of + Gottingen. Author of _Das Wesen der Religion_; _The Antichrist + Legend_; &c. + + Gnosticism. + + W. Bu. + WILLIAM BURNSIDE, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.S. + + Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Hon. + Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Author of _The Theory of + Groups of Finite Order_. + + Groups, Theory of. + + W. F. C. + WILLIAM FELLDEN CRAIES, M.A. + + Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's + College, London. Author of _Craies on Statute Law_. Editor of + Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd edition). + + Habeas Corpus; + Hanging. + + W. G. M. + WALTER GEORGE MCMILLAN, F.C.S., M.I.M.E. (d. 1904). + + Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and + Lecturer on Metallurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author of _A + Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy_. + + Graphite (_in part_). + + W. Hu. + REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D. + + President of Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of + _History of English Church, 597-1906_; _The Church of England in + the Middle Ages_; _Political History of England 1760-1801_. + + Green, J. R. + + W. H. Be. + WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.). + + Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, + London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer + in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the + Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c. + + Gomer; + Ham. + + W. H. F.* + WILLIAM HENRY FAIRBROTHER, M.A. + + Formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of + _Philosophy of Thomas Hill Green_. + + Green, Thomas Hill. + + W. J. F. + WILLIAM JUSTICE FORD (d. 1904). + + Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. Headmaster of + Leamington College. + + Grace, W. G. + + W. McD. + WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A. + + Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Author of + _A Primer of Physiological Psychology_; _An Introduction to Social + Psychology_; &c. + + Hallucination. + + W. M. M. + W. MAX MULLER, PH.D. + + Professor of Exegesis in the R.E. Seminary, Philadelphia. Author + of _Asien und Europa nach den Aegyptischen Denkmalern_; &c. + + Hamitic Races: II. _Languages_. + + W. M. R. + WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. + + See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G. + + Giulio Romano; + Gozzoli; + Guido Reni. + + W. P. A + LIEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.INST.C.E., F.R.G.S. + + Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. + Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of + Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. + + Great Lakes. + + W. P. R. + HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. + + Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High + Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, + Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long + White Cloud: a History of New Zealand_; &c. + + Grey, Sir George. + + W. R. + WHITELAW REID, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, REID, WHITELAW. + + Greeley, Horace. + + W. Ri. + WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.SC. + + Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton + Reader in Classics. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, + Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. President of Royal + Anthropological Institute, 1908. President of Anthropological + Section, British Association, 1908. Author of _The Early Age of + Greece_; &c. + + Hallstatt. + + W. Rn. + W. ROSENHAIN, D.SC. + + Superintendent of the Metallurgical Department, National Physical + Laboratory. + + Glass (_in part_). + + W. R. D. + WYNDHAM ROWLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. + + Director of the Imperial Institute. President of the International + Association of Tropical Agriculture. Member of the Advisory + Committee for Tropical Agriculture, Colonial Office. + + Gutta-Percha. + + W. R. E. H. + WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (EDIN.), F.C.S. + + Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. + Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. + Part-author of Valentin-Hodgkinson's _Practical Chemistry_; &c. + + Gun Cotton; + Gunpowder. + + W. R. S. + WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. + + See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. + + Haggai (_in part_). + + W. R. S. R. + WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. + + Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. + Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c. + + Gogol. + + W. W. R.* + WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. + + Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, + New York. + + Gregory XVI. + + + + +PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES + + Gilding. Gotland. Guillotine. + Ginger. Gourd. Guise, House of. + Gironde. Government. Gum. + Gladiators. Grain Trade. Gwalior. + Glasgow. Granada. Haddingtonshire. + Glastonbury. Grasses. Hair. + Gloucestershire. Great Salt Lake. Haiti. + Glove. Griqualand East and West. Halo. + Glucose. Guanches. Hamburg. + Glue. Guards. Hamlet. + Glycerin. Guatemala. Hampshire. + Goat. Guelphs and Ghibellines. Hampton Roads. + Gold. Guiacum. Hanover. + Goldbeating. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in + the final volume. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XII + + + + +GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG (1638-1710), German mystic, was born at +Regensburg, where his father was a member of senate, on the 14th of +March 1638. Having acquired at school an acquaintance with Greek, +Hebrew, Syriac and even Arabic, he proceeded to Strassburg to study +theology; but finding the theological prelections of J. S. Schmidt and +P. J. Spener distasteful, he entered the faculty of law. He was admitted +an advocate, first at Spires, and then at Regensburg; but having become +acquainted with the baron Justinianus von Weltz (1621-1668), a Hungarian +nobleman who cherished schemes for the reunion of Christendom and the +conversion of the world, and having himself become acquainted with +another world in dreams and visions, he abandoned all interest in his +profession, and became an energetic promoter of the "_Christerbauliche +Jesusgesellschaft_," or Christian Edification Society of Jesus. The +movement in its beginnings provoked at least no active hostility; but +when Gichtel began to attack the teaching of the Lutheran clergy and +church, especially upon the fundamental doctrine of justification by +faith, he exposed himself to a prosecution which resulted in sentence of +banishment and confiscation (1665). After many months of wandering and +occasionally romantic adventure, he reached Holland in January 1667, and +settled at Zwolle, where he co-operated with Friedrich Breckling +(1629-1711), who shared his views and aspirations. Having become +involved in the troubles of this friend, Gichtel, after a period of +imprisonment, was banished for a term of years from Zwolle, but finally +in 1668 found a home in Amsterdam, where he made the acquaintance of +Antoinette Bourignon (1616-1680), and in a state of poverty (which, +however, never became destitution) lived out his strange life of visions +and day-dreams, of prophecy and prayer. He became an ardent disciple of +Jakob Boehme, whose works he published in 1682 (Amsterdam, 2 vols.); but +before the time of his death, on the 21st of January 1710, he had +attracted to himself a small band of followers known as Gichtelians or +Brethren of the Angels, who propagated certain views at which he had +arrived independently of Boehme. Seeking ever to hear the authoritative +voice of God within them, and endeavouring to attain to a life +altogether free from carnal desires, like that of "the angels in heaven, +who neither marry nor are given in marriage," they claimed to exercise a +priesthood "after the order of Melchizedek," appeasing the wrath of God, +and ransoming the souls of the lost by sufferings endured vicariously +after the example of Christ. While, however, Boehme "desired to remain a +faithful son of the Church," the Gichtelians became Separatists (cf. J. +A. Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, ii. p. 185). + + Gichtel's correspondence was published without his knowledge by + Gottfried Arnold, a disciple, in 1701 (2 vols.), and again in 1708 (3 + vols.). It has been frequently reprinted under the title _Theosophia + practica_. The seventh volume of the Berlin edition (1768) contains a + notice of Gichtel's life. See also G. C. A. von Harless, _Jakob Bohme + und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882); article in _Allgemeine + deutsche Biographie_. + + + + +GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED (1795-1864), American statesman, prominent in the +anti-slavery conflict, was born at Tioga Point, now Athens, Bradford +county, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of October 1795. In 1806 his parents +removed to Ashtabula county, Ohio, then sparsely settled and almost a +wilderness. The son worked on his father's farm, and, though he received +no systematic education, devoted much time to study and reading. For +several years after 1814 he was a school teacher, but in February 1821 +he was admitted to the Ohio bar and soon obtained a large practice, +particularly in criminal cases. From 1831 to 1837 he was in partnership +with Benjamin F. Wade. He served in the lower house of the state +legislature in 1826-1828, and from December 1838 until March 1859 was a +member of the national House of Representatives, first as a Whig, then +as a Free-soiler, and finally as a Republican. Recognizing that slavery +was a state institution, with which the Federal government had no +authority to interfere, he contended that slavery could only exist by a +specific state enactment, that therefore slavery in the District of +Columbia and in the Territories was unlawful and should be abolished, +that the coastwise slave-trade in vessels flying the national flag, like +the international slave-trade, should be rigidly suppressed, and that +Congress had no power to pass any act which in any way could be +construed as a recognition of slavery as a national institution. His +attitude in the so-called "Creole Case" attracted particular attention. +In 1841 some slaves who were being carried in the brig "Creole" from +Hampton Roads, Virginia, to New Orleans, revolted, killed the captain, +gained possession of the vessel, and soon afterwards entered the British +port of Nassau. Thereupon, according to British law, they became free. +The minority who had taken an active part in the revolt were arrested on +a charge of murder, and the others were liberated. Efforts were made by +the United States government to recover the slaves, Daniel Webster, then +secretary of state, asserting that on an American ship they were under +the jurisdiction of the United States and that they were legally +property. On the 21st of March 1842, before the case was settled, +Giddings introduced in the House of Representatives a series of +resolutions, in which he asserted that "in resuming their natural rights +of personal liberty" the slaves "violated no law of the United States." +For offering these resolutions Giddings was attacked with rancour, and +was formally censured by the House. Thereupon he resigned, appealed to +his constituents, and was immediately re-elected by a large majority. In +1859 he was not renominated, and retired from Congress after a +continuous service of more than twenty years. From 1861 until his death, +at Montreal, on the 27th of May 1864, he was U.S. consul-general in +Canada. Giddings published a series of political essays signed +"Pacificus" (1843); _Speeches in Congress_ (1853); _The Exiles of +Florida_ (1858); and a _History of the Rebellion: Its Authors and +Causes_ (1864). + + See _The Life of Joshua R. Giddings_ (Chicago, 1892), by his + son-in-law, George Washington Julian (1817-1899), a Free-soil leader + and a representative in Congress in 1849-1851, a Republican + representative in Congress in 1861-1871, a Liberal Republican in the + campaign of 1872, and afterwards a Democrat. + + + + +GIDEON (in Hebrew, perhaps "hewer" or "warrior"), liberator, reformer +and "judge" of Israel, was the son of Joash, of the Manassite clan of +Abiezer, and had his home at Ophrah near Shechem. His name occurs in +Heb. xi. 32, in a list of those who became heroes by faith; but, except +in Judges vi.-viii., is not to be met with elsewhere in the Old +Testament. He lived at a time when the nomad tribes of the south and +east made inroads upon Israel, destroying all that they could not carry +away. Two accounts of his deeds are preserved (see JUDGES). According to +one (Judges vi. 11-24) Yahweh appeared under the holy tree which was in +the possession of Joash and summoned Gideon to undertake, in dependence +on supernatural direction and help, the work of liberating his country +from its long oppression, and, in token that he accepted the mission, he +erected in Ophrah an altar which he called "Yahweh-Shalom" (Yahweh is +peace). According to another account (vi. 25-32) Gideon was a great +reformer who was commanded by Yahweh to destroy the altar of Baal +belonging to his father and the _asherah_ or sacred post by its side. +The townsmen discovered the sacrilege and demanded his death. His +father, who, as guardian of the sacred place, was priest of Baal, +enjoined the men not to take up Baal's quarrel, for "if Baal be a god, +let him contend (_rib_) for himself." Hence Gideon received the name +Jerubbaal.[1] From this latter name appearing regularly in the older +narrative (cf. ix.), and from the varying usage in vi.-viii., it has +been held that stories of two distinct heroes (Gideon and Jerubbaal) +have been fused in the complicated account which follows.[2] + +The great gathering of the Midianites and their allies on the north side +of the plain of Jezreel; the general muster first of Abiezer, then of +all Manasseh, and lastly of the neighbouring tribes of Asher, Zebulun +and Naphtali; the signs by which the wavering faith of Gideon was +steadied; the methods by which an unwieldy mob was reduced to a small +but trusty band of energetic and determined men; and the stratagem by +which the vast army of Midian was surprised and routed by the handful of +Israelites descending from "above Endor," are indicated fully in the +narratives, and need not be detailed here. The difficulties in the +account of the subsequent flight of the Midianites appear to have arisen +from the composite character of the narratives, and there are signs that +in one of them Gideon was accompanied only by his own clansmen (vi. 34). +So, when the Midianites are put to flight, according to one +representation, the Ephraimites are called out to intercept them, and +the two chiefs, Oreb ("raven") and Zeeb ("wolf"), in making for the +fords of the Jordan, are slain at "the raven's rock" and "the wolf's +press" respectively. As the sequel of this we are told that the +Ephraimites quarrelled with Gideon because their assistance had not been +invoked earlier, and their anger was only appeased by his tactful reply +(viii. 1-3; contrast xii. 1-6). The other narrative speaks of the +pursuit of the Midianite chiefs Zebah and Zalmunna[3] across the +northern end of Jordan, past Succoth and Penuel to the unidentified +place Karkor. Having taken relentless vengeance on the men of Penuel and +Succoth, who had shown a timid neutrality when the patriotic struggle +was at its crisis, Gideon puts the two chiefs to death to avenge his +brothers whom they had killed at Tabor.[4] The overthrow of Midian (cf. +Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Ps. lxxxiii. 9-12) induced "Israel" to offer Gideon +the kingdom. It was refused--out of religious scruples (viii. 22 seq.; +cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, 17, 19), and the ephod idol which he +set up at Ophrah in commemoration of the victory was regarded by a later +editor (v. 27) as a cause of apostasy to the people and a snare to +Gideon and his house; see, however, Ephod. Gideon's achievements would +naturally give him a more than merely local authority, and after his +death the attempt was made by one of his sons to set himself up as chief +(see ABIMELECH). + + See further JEWS, section 1; and the literature to the book of Judges. + (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Baal contends" (or Jeru-baal, "Baal founds," cf. Jeru-el), but + artificially explained in the narrative to mean "let Baal contend + against him," or "let Baal contend for himself," v. 31. In 2 Sam. xi. + 21 he is called Jerubbesheth, in accordance with the custom explained + in the article BAAL. + + [2] See, on this, Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1719 seq.; Ed. Meyer, + _Die Israeliten_, pp. 482 seq. + + [3] The names are vocalized to suggest the fanciful interpretations + "victim" and "protection withheld." + + [4] As the account of this has been lost and the narrative is + concerned not with the plain of Jezreel but rather with Shechem, it + has been inferred that the episode implies the existence of a + distinct story wherein Gideon's pursuit is such an act of vengeance. + + + + +GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED ANDREAS (1820-1881), German zoologist and +palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of September 1820 at Quedlinburg +in Saxony, and educated at the university of Halle, where he graduated +Ph.D. in 1845. In 1858 he became professor of zoology and director of +the museum in the university of Halle. He died at Halle on the 14th of +November 1881. His chief publications were _Palaozoologie_ (1846); +_Fauna der Vorwelt_ (1847-1856); _Deutschlands Petrefacten_ (1852); +_Odontographie_ (1855); _Lehrbuch der Zoologie_ (1857); _Thesaurus +ornithologiae_ (1872-1877); + + + + +GIEN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Loiret, situated on the right bank of the Loire, 39 m. +E.S.E. of Orleans by rail. Pop. (1906) 6325. Gien is a picturesque and +interesting town and has many curious old houses. The Loire is here +crossed by a stone bridge of twelve arches, built by Anne de Beaujeu, +daughter of Louis XI., about the end of the 15th century. Near it stands +a statue of Vercingetorix. The principal building is the old castle used +as a law-court, constructed of brick and stone arranged in geometrical +patterns, and built in 1494 by Anne de Beaujeu. The church of St Pierre +possesses a square tower dating from the end of the 15th century. +Porcelain is manufactured. + + + + +GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE (1820-1895), Russian statesman, was born on +the 21st of May 1820. Like his predecessor, Prince Gorchakov, he was +educated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, near St Petersburg, but his +career was much less rapid, because he had no influential protectors, +and was handicapped by being a Protestant of Teutonic origin. At the age +of eighteen he entered the service of the Eastern department of the +ministry of foreign affairs, and spent more than twenty years in +subordinate posts, chiefly in south-eastern Europe, until he was +promoted in 1863 to the post of minister plenipotentiary in Persia. Here +he remained for six years, and, after serving as a minister in +Switzerland and Sweden, he was appointed in 1875 director of the Eastern +department and assistant minister for foreign affairs under Prince +Gorchakov, whose niece he had married. No sooner had he entered on his +new duties than his great capacity for arduous work was put to a severe +test. Besides events in central Asia, to which he had to devote much +attention, the Herzegovinian insurrection had broken out, and he could +perceive from secret official papers that the incident had far-reaching +ramifications unknown to the general public. Soon this became apparent +to all the world. While the Austrian officials in Dalmatia, with hardly +a pretence of concealment, were assisting the insurgents, Russian +volunteers were flocking to Servia with the connivance of the Russian +and Austrian governments, and General Ignatiev, as ambassador in +Constantinople, was urging his government to take advantage of the +palpable weakness of Turkey for bringing about a radical solution of the +Eastern question. Prince Gorchakov did not want a radical solution +involving a great European war, but he was too fond of ephemeral +popularity to stem the current of popular excitement. Alexander II., +personally averse from war, was not insensible to the patriotic +enthusiasm, and halted between two opinions. M. de Giers was one of the +few who gauged the situation accurately. As an official and a man of +non-Russian extraction he had to be extremely reticent, but to his +intimate friends he condemned severely the ignorance and light-hearted +recklessness of those around him. The event justified his sombre +previsions, but did not cure the recklessness of the so-called patriots. +They wished to defy Europe in order to maintain intact the treaty of San +Stefano, and again M. de Giers found himself in an unpopular minority. +He had to remain in the background, but all the influence he possessed +was thrown into the scale of peace. His views, energetically supported +by Count Shuvalov, finally prevailed, and the European congress +assembled at Berlin. He was not present at the congress, and +consequently escaped the popular odium for the concessions which Russia +had to make to Great Britain and Austria. From that time he was +practically minister of foreign affairs, for Prince Gorchakov was no +longer capable of continued intellectual exertion, and lived mostly +abroad. On the death of Alexander II. in 1881 it was generally expected +that M. de Giers would be dismissed as deficient in Russian nationalist +feeling, for Alexander III. was credited with strong anti-German +Slavophil tendencies. In reality the young tsar had no intention of +embarking on wild political adventures, and was fully determined not to +let his hand be forced by men less cautious than himself. What he wanted +was a minister of foreign affairs who would be at once vigilant and +prudent, active and obedient, and who would relieve him from the trouble +and worry of routine work while allowing him to control the main lines, +and occasionally the details, of the national policy. M. de Giers was +exactly what he wanted, and accordingly the tsar not only appointed him +minister of foreign affairs on the retirement of Prince Gorchakov in +1882, but retained him to the end of his reign in 1894. In accordance +with the desire of his august master, M. de Giers followed +systematically a pacific policy. Accepting as a _fait accompli_ the +existence of the triple alliance, created by Bismarck for the purpose of +resisting any aggressive action on the part of Russia and France, he +sought to establish more friendly relations with the cabinets of Berlin, +Vienna and Rome. To the advances of the French government he at first +turned a deaf ear, but when the _rapprochement_ between the two +countries was effected with little or no co-operation on his part, he +utilized it for restraining France and promoting Russian interests. He +died on the 26th of January 1895, soon after the accession of Nicholas +II. (D. M. W.) + + + + +GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON (1814-1889), German historian, was a son of +Karl Giesebrecht (d. 1832), and a nephew of the poet Ludwig Giesebrecht +(1792-1873). Born in Berlin on the 5th of March 1814, he studied under +Leopold von Ranke, and his first important work, _Geschichte Ottos II._, +was contributed to Ranke's _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter dem +sachsischen Hause_ (Berlin, 1837-1840); In 1841 he published his +_Jahrbucher des Klosters Altaich_, a reconstruction of the lost _Annales +Altahenses_, a medieval source of which fragments only were known to be +extant, and these were obscured in other chronicles. The brilliance of +this performance was shown in 1867, when a copy of the original +chronicle was found, and it was seen that Giesebrecht's text was +substantially correct. In the meantime he had been appointed +_Oberlehrer_ in the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium in Berlin; had paid a visit +to Italy, and as a result of his researches there had published _De +litterarum studiis apud Italos primis medii aevi seculis_ (Berlin, +1845), a study upon the survival of culture in Italian cities during the +middle ages, and also several critical essays upon the sources for the +early history of the popes. In 1851 appeared his translation of the +_Historiae_ of Gregory of Tours, which is the standard German +translation. Four years later appeared the first volume of his great +work, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, the fifth volume of which +was published in 1888. This work was the first in which the results of +the scientific methods of research were thrown open to the world at +large. Largeness of style and brilliance of portrayal were joined to an +absolute mastery of the sources in a way hitherto unachieved by any +German historian. Yet later German historians have severely criticized +his glorification of the imperial era with its Italian entanglements, in +which the interests of Germany were sacrificed for idle glory. +Giesebrecht's history, however, appeared when the new German empire was +in the making, and became popular owing both to its patriotic tone and +its intrinsic merits. In 1857 he went to Konigsberg as professor +ordinarius, and in 1862 succeeded H. von Sybel as professor of history +in the university of Munich. The Bavarian government honoured him in +various ways, and he died at Munich on the 17th of December 1889. In +addition to the works already mentioned, Giesebrecht published a good +monograph on Arnold of Brescia (Munich, 1873), a collection of essays +under the title _Deutsche Reden_ (Munich, 1871), and was an active +member of the group of scholars who took over the direction of the +_Monumenta Germaniae historica_ in 1875. In 1895 B. von Simson added a +sixth volume to the _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, thus bringing +the work down to the death of the emperor Frederick I. in 1190. + + See S. Riezler, _Gedachtnisrede auf Wilhelm von Giesebrecht_ (Munich, + 1891); and Lord Acton in the _English Historical Review_, vol. v. + (London, 1890). + + + + +GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792-1854), German writer on church +history, was born on the 3rd of March 1792 at Petershagen, near Minden, +where his father, Georg Christof Friedrich, was preacher. In his tenth +year he entered the orphanage at Halle, whence he duly passed to the +university, his studies being interrupted, however, from October 1813 +till the peace of 1815 by a period of military service, during which he +was enrolled as a volunteer in a regiment of chasseurs. On the +conclusion of peace (1815) he returned to Halle, and, having in 1817 +taken his degree in philosophy, he in the same year became assistant +head master (_Conrector_) in the Minden gymnasium, and in 1818 was +appointed director of the gymnasium at Cleves. Here he published his +earliest work (_Historisch-kritischer Versuch uber die Entstehung u. die +fruhesten Schicksale der schriftlichen Evangelien_), a treatise which +had considerable influence on subsequent investigations as to the origin +of the gospels. In 1819 Gieseler was appointed a professor ordinarius in +theology in the newly founded university of Bonn, where, besides +lecturing on church history, he made important contributions to the +literature of that subject in Ernst Rosenmuller's _Repertorium_, K. F. +Staudlin and H. G. Tschirner's _Archiv_, and in various university +"programs." The first part of the first volume of his well-known _Church +History_ appeared in 1824. In 1831 he accepted a call to Gottingen as +successor to J. G. Planck. He lectured on church history, the history of +dogma, and dogmatic theology. In 1837 he was appointed a +_Consistorialrath_, and shortly afterwards was created a knight of the +Guelphic order. He died on the 8th of July 1854. The fourth and fifth +volumes of the _Kirchengeschichte_, embracing the period subsequent to +1814, were published posthumously in 1855 by E. R. Redepenning +(1810-1883); and they were followed in 1856 by a _Dogmengeschichte_, +which is sometimes reckoned as the sixth volume of the _Church History_. +Among church historians Gieseler continues to hold a high place. Less +vivid and picturesque in style than Karl Hase, conspicuously deficient +in Neander's deep and sympathetic insight into the more spiritual forces +by which church life is pervaded, he excels these and all other +contemporaries in the fulness and accuracy of his information. His +_Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte_, with its copious references to +original authorities, is of great value to the student: "Gieseler wished +that each age should speak for itself, since only by this means can the +peculiarity of its ideas be fully appreciated" (Otto Pfleiderer, +_Development of Theology_, p. 284). The work, which has passed through +several editions in Germany, has partially appeared also in two English +translations. That published in New York (_Text Book of Ecclesiastical +History_, 5 vols.) brings the work down to the peace of Westphalia, +while that published in "Clark's Theological Library" (_Compendium of +Ecclesiastical History_, Edinburgh, 5 vols.) closes with the beginning +of the Reformation. Gieseler was not only a devoted student but also an +energetic man of business. He frequently held the office of pro-rector +of the university, and did much useful work as a member of several of +its committees. + + + + +GIESSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the province of Upper Hesse, in +the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated in a beautiful and +fruitful valley at the confluence of the Wieseck with the Lahn, 41 m. +N.N.W. of Frankfort-on-Main on the railway to Cassel; and at the +junction of important lines to Cologne and Coblenz. Pop. (1885) 18,836; +(1905) 29,149. In the old part of the town the streets are narrow and +irregular. Besides the university, the principal buildings are the +Stadtkirche, the provincial government offices, comprising a portion of +the old castle dating from the 12th century, the arsenal (now barracks) +and the town-hall (containing an historical collection). The university, +founded in 1607 by Louis V, landgrave of Hesse, has a large and valuable +library, a botanic garden, an observatory, medical schools, a museum of +natural history, a chemical laboratory which was directed by Justus von +Liebig, professor here from 1824 to 1852, and an agricultural college. +The industries include the manufacture of woollen and cotton cloth of +various kinds, machines, leather, candles, tobacco and beer. + +Giessen, the name of which is probably derived from the streams which +pour (_giessen_) their waters here into the Lahn, was formed in the 12th +century out of the villages Selters, Aster and Kroppach, for whose +protection Count William of Gleiberg built the castle of Giessen. +Through marriage the town came, in 1203, into the possession of the +count palatine, Rudolph of Tubingen, who sold it in 1265 to the +landgrave Henry of Hesse. It was surrounded with fortifications in 1530, +which were demolished in 1547, but rebuilt in 1560. In 1805 they were +finally pulled down, and their site converted into promenades. + + See O. Buchner, _Fuhrer fur Giessen und das Lahntal_ (1891); and _Aus + Glessens Vergangenheit_ (1885). + + + + +GIFFARD, GODFREY (c. 1235-1302); chancellor of England and bishop of +Worcester, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, Wiltshire. Having +entered the church he speedily obtained valuable preferments owing to +the influence of his brother Walter, who became chancellor of England in +1265. In 1266 Godfrey became chancellor of the exchequer, succeeding +Walter as chancellor of England when, in the same year, the latter was +made archbishop of York. In 1268 he was chosen bishop of Worcester, +resigning the chancellorship shortly afterwards; and both before and +after 1279, when he inherited the valuable property of his brother the +archbishop, he was employed on public business by Edward I. His main +energies, however, were devoted to the affairs of his see. He had one +long dispute with the monks of Worcester, another with the abbot of +Westminster, and was vigilant in guarding his material interests. The +bishop died on the 26th of January 1302, and was buried in his +cathedral. Giffard, although inclined to nepotism, was a benefactor to +his cathedral, and completed and fortified the episcopal castle at +Hartlebury. + + See W. Thomas, _Survey of Worcester Cathedral_; _Episcopal Registers_; + _Register of Bishop Godfrey Giffard_, edited by J. W. Willis-Bund + (Oxford, 1898-1899); and the Annals of Worcester in the _Annales + monastici_, vol. iv., edited by H. R. Luard (London, 1869). + + + + +GIFFARD, WALTER (d. 1279), chancellor of England and archbishop of York, +was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, Wiltshire, and after serving as +canon and archdeacon of Wells, was chosen bishop of Bath and Wells in +May 1264. In August 1265 Henry III. appointed him chancellor of England, +and he was one of the arbitrators who drew up the _dictum de Kenilworth_ +in 1266. Later in this year Pope Clement IV. named him archbishop of +York, and having resigned the chancellorship he was an able and diligent +ruler of his see, although in spite of his great wealth he was +frequently in pecuniary difficulties. When Henry III. died in November +1272 the archbishopric of Canterbury was vacant, and consequently the +great seal was delivered to the archbishop of York, who was the chief of +the three regents who successfully governed the kingdom until the return +of Edward I. in August 1274. Having again acted in this capacity during +the king's absence in 1275, Giffard died in April 1279, and was buried +in his cathedral. + + See _Fasti Eboracenses_, edited by J. Raine (London, 1863). Giffard's + _Register_ from 1266 to 1279 has been edited for the Surtees Society + by W. Brown. + + + + +GIFFARD, WILLIAM (d. 1129), bishop of Winchester, was chancellor of +William II. and received his see, in succession to Bishop Walkelin, from +Henry I. (1100). He was one of the bishops elect whom Anselm refused to +consecrate (1101) as having been nominated and invested by the lay +power. During the investitures dispute Giffard was on friendly terms +with Anselm, and drew upon himself a sentence of banishment through +declining to accept consecration from the archbishop of York (1103). He +was, however, one of the bishops who pressed Anselm, in 1106, to give +way to the king. He was consecrated after the settlement of 1107. He +became a close friend of Anselm, aided the first Cistercians to settle +in England, and restored Winchester cathedral with great magnificence. + + See Eadmer, _Historia novorum_, edited by M. Rule (London, 1884); and + S. H. Cass, _Bishops of Winchester_ (London, 1827). + + + + +GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT (1837-1910), British statistician and economist, was +born at Strathaven, Lanarkshire. He entered a solicitor's office in +Glasgow, and while in that city attended courses at the university. He +drifted into journalism, and after working for the _Stirling Journal_ he +went to London in 1862 and joined the staff of the _Globe_. He also +assisted Mr John (afterwards Lord) Morley, when the latter edited the +_Fortnightly Review_. In 1868 he became Walter Bagehot's +assistant-editor on the _Economist_; and his services were also secured +in 1873 as city-editor of the _Daily News_, and later of _The Times_. +His high reputation as a financial journalist and statistician, gained +in these years, led to his appointment in 1876 as head of the +statistical department in the Board of Trade, and subsequently he became +assistant secretary (1882) and finally controller-general (1892), +retiring in 1897. In connexion with his position as chief statistical +adviser to the government, he was constantly employed in drawing up +reports, giving evidence before commissions of inquiry, and acting as a +government auditor, besides publishing a number of important essays on +financial subjects. His principal publications were _Essays on Finance_ +(1879 and 1884), _The Progress of the Working Classes_ (1884), _The +Growth of Capital_ (1890), _The Case against Bimetallism_ (1892), and +_Economic Inquiries and Studies_ (1904). He was president of the +Statistical Society (1882-1884); and after being made a C.B. in 1891 was +created K.C.B. in 1895. In 1892 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal +Society. Sir Robert Giffen continued in later years to take a leading +part in all public controversies connected with finance and taxation, +and his high authority and practical experience were universally +recognized. He died somewhat suddenly in Scotland on the 12th of April +1910. + + + + +GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (1840-1905), American marine and landscape +painter, was born on Naushon Island, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of +December 1840. He studied art with the Dutch marine painter Albert van +Beest, who had a studio in New Bedford, and in 1864 he opened a studio +for himself in Boston, subsequently settling in New York, where he was +elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1867 and an +academician in 1878. He was also a charter member of the American Water +Color Society and the Society of American Artists. From 1878 until 1896 +he was teacher of painting and chief master of the Woman's Art School of +Cooper Union, New York, and from 1896 until his death he was director. +Gifford painted longshore views, sand dunes and landscapes generally, +with charm and poetry. He was an etcher of considerable reputation, a +member of the Society of American Etchers, and an honorary member of the +Society of Painter-Etchers of London. He died in New York on the 13th of +January 1905. + + + + +GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823-1880), American landscape painter, was +born at Greenfield, New York, on the 10th of July 1823. He studied +(1842-1845) at Brown University, then went to New York, and entered the +art schools of the National Academy of Design, of which organization he +was elected an associate in 1851, and an academician in 1854. +Subsequently he studied in Paris and Rome. He was one of the best known +of the Hudson River school group, though it was at Lake George that he +found most of his themes. In his day he enjoyed an enormous popularity, +and his canvases are in many well-known American collections. He died in +New York City on the 29th of August 1880. + + + + +GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826), English publicist and man of letters, was +born at Ashburton, Devon, in April 1756. His father was a glazier of +indifferent character, and before he was thirteen William had lost both +parents. The business was seized by his godfather, on whom William and +his brother, a child of two, became entirely dependent. For about three +months William was allowed to remain at the free school of the town. He +was then put to follow the plough, but after a day's trial he proved +unequal to the task, and was sent to sea with the Brixham fishermen. +After a year at sea his godfather, driven by the opinion of the +townsfolk, put the boy to school once more. He made rapid progress, +especially in mathematics, and began to assist the master. In 1772 he +was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and when he wished to pursue his +mathematical studies, he was obliged to work his problems with an awl on +beaten leather. By the kindness of an Ashburton surgeon, William +Cooksley, a subscription was raised to enable him to return to school. +Ultimately he proceeded in his twenty-third year to Oxford, where he was +appointed a Bible clerk in Exeter College. Leaving the university +shortly after graduation in 1782, he found a generous patron in the +first Earl Grosvenor, who undertook to provide for him, and sent him on +two prolonged continental tours in the capacity of tutor to his son, +Lord Belgrave. Settling in London, Gifford published in 1794 his first +work, a clever satirical piece, after Persius, entitled the _Baviad_, +aimed at a coterie of second-rate writers at Florence, then popularly +known as the Della Cruscans, of which Mrs Piozzi was the leader. A +second satire of a similar description, the _Maeviad_, directed against +the corruptions of the drama, appeared in 1795. About this time Gifford +became acquainted with Canning, with whose help he in August 1797 +originated a weekly newspaper of Conservative politics entitled the +_Anti-Jacobin_, which, however, in the following year ceased to be +published. An English version of Juvenal, on which he had been for many +years engaged, appeared in 1802; to this an autobiographical notice of +the translator, reproduced in Nichol's _Illustrations of Literature_, +was prefixed. Two years afterwards Gifford published an annotated +edition of the plays of Massinger; and in 1809, when the _Quarterly +Review_ was projected, he was made editor. The success which attended +the _Quarterly_ from the outset was due in no small degree to the +ability and tact with which Gifford discharged his editorial duties. He +took, however, considerable liberties with the articles he inserted, and +Southey, who was one of his regular contributors, said that Gifford +looked on authors as Izaak Walton did on worms. His bitter opposition to +Radicals and his onslaughts on new writers, conspicuous among which was +the article on Keats's _Endymion_, called forth Hazlitt's _Letter to W. +Gifford_ in 1819. His connexion with the _Review_ continued until within +about two years of his death, which took place in London on the 31st of +December 1826. Besides numerous contributions to the _Quarterly_ during +the last fifteen years of his life, he wrote a metrical translation of +Persius, which appeared in 1821. Gifford also edited the dramas of Ben +Jonson in 1816, and his edition of Ford appeared posthumously in 1827. +His notes on Shirley were incorporated in Dyce's edition in 1833. His +political services were acknowledged by the appointments of commissioner +of the lottery and paymaster of the gentleman pensioners. He left a +considerable fortune, the bulk of which went to the son of his first +benefactor, William Cooksley. + + + + +GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _die Gift_, gift, _das Gift_, +poison, formed from the Teut. stem _gab-_, to give, cf. Dutch _geven_, +Ger. _geben_; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural +of later English is due to Scandinavian influence), a general English +term for a present or thing bestowed, i.e. an alienation of property +otherwise than for a legal consideration, although in law it is often +used to signify alienation with or without consideration. By analogy the +terms "gift" and "gifted" are also used to signify the natural endowment +of some special ability, or a miraculous power, in a person, as being +not acquired in the ordinary way. The legal effect of a gratuitous gift +only need be considered here. Formerly in English law property in land +could be conveyed by one person to another by a verbal gift of the +estate accompanied by delivery of possession. The Statute of Frauds +required all such conveyances to be in writing, and a later statute (8 & +9 Vict. c. 106) requires them to be by deed. Personal property may be +effectually transferred from one person to another by a simple verbal +gift accompanied by delivery. If A delivers a chattel to B, saying or +signifying that he does so by way of gift, the property passes, and the +chattel belongs to B. But unless the actual thing is bodily handed over +to the donee, the mere verbal expression of the donor's desire or +intention has no legal effect whatever. The persons are in the position +of parties to an agreement which is void as being without consideration. +When the nature of the thing is such that it cannot be bodily handed +over, it will be sufficient to put the donee in such a position as to +enable him to deal with it as the owner. For example, when goods are in +a warehouse, the delivery of the key will make a verbal gift of them +effectual; but it seems that part delivery of goods which are capable of +actual delivery will not validate a verbal gift of the part undelivered. +So when goods are in the possession of a warehouseman, the handing over +of a delivery order might, by special custom (but not otherwise, it +appears), be sufficient to pass the property in the goods, although +delivery of a bill of lading for goods at sea is equivalent to an actual +delivery of the goods themselves. + + + + +GIFU (IMAIZUMI), a city of Japan, capital of the _ken_ (government) of +Central Nippon, which comprises the two provinces of Mino and Hida. Pop. +about 41,000. It lies E. by N. of Lake Biwa, on the Central railway, on +a tributary of the river Kiso, which flows to the Bay of Miya Uro. +Manufactures of silk and paper goods are carried on. The _ken_ has an +area of about 4000 sq. m. and is thickly peopled, the population +exceeding 1,000,000. The whole district is subject to frequent +earthquakes. + + + + +GIG, apparently an onomatopoeic word for any light whirling object, and +so used of a top, as in Shakespeare's _Love's Labour's Lost_, v. i. 70 +("Goe whip thy gigge"), or of a revolving lure made of feathers for +snaring birds. The word is now chiefly used of a light two-wheeled cart +or carriage for one horse, and of a narrow, light, ship's boat for oars +or sails, and also of a clinker-built rowing-boat used for rowing on the +Thames. "Gig" is further applied, in mining, to a wooden chamber or box +divided in the centre and used to draw miners up and down a pit or +shaft, and to a textile machine, the "gig-mill" or "gigging machine," +which raises the nap on cloth by means of teazels. A "gig" or "fish-gig" +(properly "fiz-gig," possibly an adaptation of Span. _fisga_, harpoon) +is an instrument used for spearing fish. + + + + +GIGLIO (anc. _Igilium_), an island of Italy, off the S.W. coast of +Italy, in the province of Grosseto, 11 m. to the W. of Monte Argentario, +the nearest point on the coast. It measures about 5 m. by 3 and its +highest point is 1634 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2062. It is +partly composed of granite, which was quarried here by the Romans, and +is still used; the island is fertile, and produces wine and fruit, the +cultivation of which has taken the place of the forests of which +Rutilius spoke (_Itin._ i. 325, "eminus Igilii silvosa cacumina miror"). +Julius Caesar mentions its sailors in the fleet of Domitius Ahenobarbus. +In Rutilius's time it served as a place of refuge from the barbarian +invaders. Charlemagne gave it to the abbey of Tre Fontane at Rome. In +the 14th century it belonged to Pisa, then to Florence, ~~6 Antonio +Piccolomini, nephew of Pius II. In 1558 it was sold to the wife of +Cosimo I. of Florence. + + See Archduke Ludwig Salvator, _Die Insel Giglio_ (Prague, 1900). + + + + +GIJON, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the +Bay of Biscay, and at the terminus of railways from Aviles, Oviedo and +Langreo. Pop. (1900) 47,544. The older parts of Gijon, which are partly +enclosed by ancient walls, occupy the upper slopes of a peninsular +headland, Santa Catalina Point; while its more modern suburbs extend +along the shore to Cape Torres, on the west, and Cape San Lorenzo, on +the east. These suburbs contain the town-hall, theatre, markets, and a +bull-ring with seats for 12,000 spectators. Few of the buildings of +Gijon are noteworthy for any architectural merit, except perhaps the +15th-century parish church of San Pedro, which has a triple raw of +aisles on each side, the palace of the marquesses of Revillajigedo (or +Revilla Gigedo), and the Asturian Institute or Jovellanos Institute. The +last named has a very fine collection of drawings by Spanish and other +artists, a good library and classes for instruction in seamanship, +mathematics and languages. It was founded in 1797 by the poet and +statesman Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811). Jovellanos, a native +of Gijon, is buried in San Pedro. + +The Bay of Gijon is the most important roadstead on the Spanish coast +between Ferrol and Santander. Its first quay was constructed by means of +a grant from Charles V. in 1552-1554; and its arsenal, added in the +reign of Philip II. (1556-1598), was used in 1588 as a repairing station +for the surviving ships of the Invincible Armada. A new quay was built +in 1766-1768, and extended in 1859; the harbour was further improved in +1864, and after 1892, when the Musel harbour of refuge was created at +the extremity of the bay. It was, however, the establishment of railway +communication in 1884 which brought the town its modern prosperity, by +rendering it the chief port of shipment for the products of Langreo and +other mining centres in Oviedo. A rapid commercial development followed. +Besides large tobacco, glass and porcelain factories, Gijon possesses +iron foundries and petroleum refineries; while its minor industries +include fisheries, and the manufacture of preserved foods, soap, +chocolate, candles and liqueurs. In 1903 the harbour accommodated 2189 +vessels of 358,375 tons. In the same year the imports, consisting +chiefly of machinery, iron, wood and food-stuffs, were valued at +L660,889; while the exports, comprising zinc, copper, iron and other +minerals, with fish, nuts and farm produce, were valued at L100,941. + +Gijon is usually identified with the _Gigia_ of the Romans, which, +however, occupied the site of the adjoining suburb of Cima de Villa. +Early in the 8th century Gijon was captured and strengthened by the +Moors, who used the stones of the Roman city for their fortifications, +but were expelled by King Pelayo (720-737). In 844 Gijon successfully +resisted a Norman raid; in 1395 it was burned down; but thenceforward it +gradually rose to commercial importance. + + + + +GILAN (GHILAN, GUILAN), one of the three small but important Caspian +provinces of Persia, lying along the south-western shore of the Caspian +Sea between 48 deg. 50' and 50 deg. 30' E. with a breadth varying from +15 to 50 m. It has an area of about 5000 sq. m. and a population of +about 250,000. It is separated from Russia by the little river Astara, +which flows into the Caspian, and bounded W. by Azerbaijan, S. by Kazvin +and E. by Mazandaran. The greater portion of the province is a lowland +region extending inland from the sea to the base of the mountains of the +Elburz range and, though the Sefid Rud (White river), which is called +Kizil Uzain in its upper course and has its principal sources in the +hills of Persian Kurdistan, is the only river of any size, the province +is abundantly watered by many streams and an exceptionally great +rainfall (in some years 50 in.). + +The vegetation is very much like that of southern Europe, but in +consequence of the great humidity and the mild climate almost tropically +luxuriant, and the forests from the shore of the sea up to an altitude +of nearly 5000 ft. on the mountain slopes facing the sea are as dense as +an Indian jungle. The prevailing types of trees are the oak, maple, +hornbeam, beech, ash and elm. The box tree comes to rare perfection, but +in consequence of indiscriminate cutting for export during many years, +is now becoming scarce. Of fruit trees the apple, pear, plum, cherry, +medlar, pomegranate, fig, quince, as well as two kinds of vine, grow +wild; oranges, sweet and bitter, and other Aurantiaceae thrive well in +gardens and plantations. The fauna also is well represented, but tigers +which once were frequently seen are now very scarce; panther, hyena, +jackal, wild boar, deer (_Cervus maral_) are common; pheasant, woodcock, +ducks, teal, geese and various waterfowl abound; the fisheries are very +productive and are leased to a Russian firm. The ordinary cattle of the +province is the small humped kind, _Bos indicus_, and forms an article +of export to Russia, the humps, smoked, being much in demand as a +delicacy. Rice of a kind not much appreciated in Persia, but much +esteemed in Gilan and Russia, is largely cultivated and a quantity +valued at about L120,000 was exported to Russia during 1904-1905. Tea +plantations, with seeds and plants from Assam, Ceylon and the Himalayas, +were started in the early part of 1900 on the slopes of the hills south +of Resht at an altitude of about 1000 ft. The results were excellent and +very good tea was produced in 1904 and 1905, but the Persian government +gave no support and the enterprise was neglected. The olive thrives well +at Rudbar and Manjil in the Sefid Rud valley and the oil extracted from +it by a Provencal for some years until 1896, when he was murdered, was +of very good quality and found a ready market at Baku. Since then the +oil has been, as before, only used for the manufacture of soap. Tobacco +from Turkish seed, cultivated since 1875, grows well, and a considerable +quantity of it is exported. The most valuable produce of the province is +silk. In 1866 it was valued at L743,000 and about two-thirds of it was +exported. The silkworm disease appeared in 1864 and the crops decreased +in consequence until 1893 when the value of the silk exported was no +more than L6500. Since then there has been a steady improvement, and in +1905-1906 the value of the produce was estimated at L300,000 and that of +the quantity exported at L200,000. The eggs of the silk-worms, formerly +obtained from Japan, are now imported principally from Brusa by Greeks +under French protection and from France. + +There is only one good road in the province, that from Enzeli to Kazvin +by way of Resht; in other parts communication is by narrow and +frequently impassable lanes through the thick forest, or by intricate +pathways through the dense undergrowth. + +The province is divided into the following administrative districts: +Resht (with the capital and its immediate neighbourhood), Fumen (with +Tulam and Mesula, where are iron mines), Gesker, Talish (with +Shandarman, Kerganrud, Asalim, Gil-Dulab, Talish-Dulab), Enzeli (the +port of Resht), Sheft, Manjil (with Rahmetabad and Amarlu), Lahijan +(with Langarud, Rudsar and Ranehkuh), Dilman and Lashtnisha. The revenue +derived from taxes and customs is about L80,000. The crown lands have +been much neglected and the revenue from them amounts to hardly L3000 +per annum. The value of the exports and imports from and into Gilan, +much of them in transit, is close upon L2,000,000. + +Gilan was an independent khanate until 1567 when Khan Ahmed, the last of +the Kargia dynasty, which had reigned 205 years, was deposed by Tahmasp +I., the second Safawid shah of Persia (1524-1576). It was occupied by a +Russian force in the early part of 1723; and Tahmasp III., the tenth +Safawid shah (1722-1731); then without a throne and his country occupied +by the Afghans, ceded it, together with Mazandaran and Astarabad, to +Peter the Great by a treaty of the 12th of September of the same year. +Russian troops remained in Gilan until 1734, when they were compelled to +evacuate it. + +The derivation of the name Gilan from the modern Persian word _gil_ +meaning mud (hence "land of mud") is incorrect. It probably means "land +of the Gil," an ancient tribe which classical writers mention as the +Gelae. (A. H.-S.) + + + + +GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM (1794-1863), English writer on banking, was born +in London on the 21st of March 1794. From 1813 to 1825 he was clerk in +a London bank. After a two years' residence in Birmingham, he was +appointed manager of the Kilkenny branch of the Provincial Bank of +Ireland, and in 1829 he was promoted to the Waterford branch. In 1834 he +became manager of the London and Westminster Bank; and he did much to +develop the system of joint-stock banking. On more than one occasion he +rendered valuable services to the joint-stock banks by his evidence +before committees of the House of Commons; and, on the renewal of the +bank charter in 1844, he procured the insertion of a clause granting to +joint-stock banks the power of suing by their public officer, and also +the right of accepting bills at less than six months' date. In 1846 he +was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in London on the 8th +of August 1863. The Gilbart lectures on banking at King's College are +called after him. + + The following are his principal works on banking, most of which have + passed through more than one edition: _Practical Treatise on Banking_ + (1827); _The History and Principles of Banking_ (1834); _The History + of Banking in America_ (1837); _Lectures on the History and Principles + of Ancient Commerce_ (1847); _Logic for the Million_ (1851); and + _Logic of Banking_ (1857). + + + + +GILBERT, ALFRED (1854- ), British sculptor and goldsmith, born in +London, was the son of Alfred Gilbert, musician. He received his +education mainly in Paris (Ecole des Beaux-Arts, under Cavelier), and +studied in Rome and Florence where the significance of the Renaissance +made a lasting impression upon him and his art. He also worked in the +studio of Sir J. Edgar Boehm, R.A. His first work of importance was the +charming group of the "Mother and Child," then "The Kiss of Victory," +followed by "Perseus Arming" (1883), produced directly under the +influence of the Florentine masterpieces he had studied. Its success was +great, and Lord Leighton forthwith commissioned "Icarus," which was +exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with a remarkable "Study +of a Head," and was received with general applause. Then followed "The +Enchanted Chair," which, along with many other works deemed by the +artist incomplete or unworthy of his powers, was ultimately broken by +the sculptor's own hand. The next year Mr Gilbert was occupied with the +Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain, in Piccadilly, London, a work of great +originality and beauty, yet shorn of some of the intended effect through +restrictions put upon the artist. In 1888 was produced the statue of +H.M. Queen Victoria, set up at Winchester, in its main design and in the +details of its ornamentation the most remarkable work of its kind +produced in Great Britain, and perhaps, it may be added, in any other +country in modern times. Other statues of great beauty, at once novel in +treatment and fine in design, are those set up to Lord Reay in Bombay, +and John Howard at Bedford (1898); the highly original pedestal of which +did much to direct into a better channel what are apt to be the +eccentricities of what is called the "New Art" School. The sculptor rose +to the full height of his powers in his "Memorial to the Duke of +Clarence," and his fast developing fancy and imagination, which are the +main characteristics of all his work, are seen in his "Memorial +Candelabrum to Lord Arthur Russell" and "Memorial Font to the son of the +4th Marquess of Bath." Gilbert's sense of decoration is paramount in all +he does, and although in addition to the work already cited he produced +busts of extraordinary excellence of Cyril Flower, John R. Clayton +(since broken up by the artist--the fate of much of his admirable work), +G. F. Watts, Sir Henry Tate, Sir George Birdwood, Sir Richard Owen, Sir +George Grove and various others, it is on his goldsmithery that the +artist would rest his reputation; on his mayoral chain for Preston, the +epergne for Queen Victoria, the figurines of "Victory" (a statuette +designed for the orb in the hand of the Winchester statue), "St Michael" +and "St George," as well as smaller objects such as seals, keys and the +like. Mr Gilbert was chosen associate of the Royal Academy in 1887, full +member in 1892 (resigned 1909), and professor of sculpture (afterwards +resigned) in 1900. In 1889 he won the _Grand Prix_ at the Paris +International Exhibition. He was created a member of the Victorian Order +in 1897. (See SCULPTURE.) + + See _The Life and Work of Alfred Gilbert, R.A., M.V.O., D.C.L._, by + Joseph Hatton (_Art Journal_ Office, 1903). (M. H. S.) + + + + +GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904), American actress, was born at Rochdale, +Lancashire, on the 21st of October 1821, her maiden name being Hartley. +At fifteen she was a pupil at the ballet school connected with the +Haymarket theatre, conducted by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer on +the stage. In 1846 she married George H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer +in the company of which she was a member. Together they filled many +engagements in English theatres, moving to America in 1849. Mrs +Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857 as Wichavenda in +Brougham's _Pocahontas_. In 1869 she joined Daly's company, playing for +many years wives to James Lewis's husbands, and old women's parts, in +which she had no equal. Mrs. Gilbert held a unique position on the +American stage, on account of the admiration, esteem and affection which +she enjoyed both in front and behind the footlights. She died at Chicago +on the 2nd of December 1904. + + See _Mrs Gilbert's Stage Reminiscences_ (1901). + + + + +GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843- ), American geologist, was born at +Rochester, N.Y., on the 6th of May 1843. In 1869 he was attached to the +Geological Survey of Ohio and in 1879 he became a member of the United +States Geological Survey, being engaged on parts of the Rocky Mountains, +in Nevada, Utah, California and Arizona. He is distinguished for his +researches on mountain-structure and on the Great Lakes, as well as on +glacial phenomena, recent earth movements, and on topographic features +generally. His report on the _Geology of the Henry Mountains_ (1877), in +which the volcanic structure known as a laccolite was first described; +his _History of the Niagara River_ (1890) and _Lake Bonneville_ +(1891--the first of the Monographs issued by the United States +Geological Survey) are specially important. He was awarded the Wollaston +medal by the Geological Society of London in 1900. + + + + +GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583), English soldier, navigator and +pioneer colonist in America, was the second son of Otho Gilbert, of +Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and step-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. +He was educated at Eton and Oxford; intended for the law; introduced at +court by Raleigh's aunt, Catherine Ashley, and appointed (July 1566) +captain in the army of Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. In April 1566 he +had already joined with Antony Jenkinson in a petition to Elizabeth for +the discovery of the North-East Passage; in November following he +presented an independent petition for the "discovering of a passage by +the north to go to Cataia." In October 1569 he became governor of +Munster; on the 1st of January 1570 he was knighted; in 1571 he was +returned M.P. for Plymouth; in 1572 he campaigned in the Netherlands +against Spain without much success; from 1573 to 1578 he lived in +retirement at Limehouse, devoting himself especially to the advocacy of a +North-West Passage (his famous _Discourse_ on this subject was published +in 1576). Gilbert's arguments, widely circulated even before 1575, were +apparently of weight in promoting the Frobisher enterprises of 1576-1578. +On the 11th of June 1578, Sir Humphrey obtained his long-coveted charter +for North-Western discovery and colonization, authorizing him, his heirs +and assigns, to discover, occupy and possess such remote "heathen lands +not actually possessed of any Christian prince or people, as should seem +good to him or them." Disposing not only of his patrimony but also of the +estates in Kent which he had through his wife, daughter of John Aucher of +Ollerden, he fitted out an expedition which left Dartmouth on the 23rd of +September 1578, and returned in May 1579, having accomplished nothing. In +1579 Gilbert aided the government in Ireland; and in 1583, after many +struggles--illustrated by his appeal to Walsingham on the 11th of July +1582, for the payment of moneys due to him from government, and by his +agreement with the Southampton venturers--he succeeded in equipping +another fleet for "Western Planting." On the 11th of June 1583, he sailed +from Plymouth with five ships and the queen's blessing; on the 13th of +July the "Ark Raleigh," built and manned at his brother's expense, +deserted the fleet; on the 30th of July he was off the north coast of +Newfoundland; on the 3rd of August he arrived off the present St John's, +and selected this site as the centre of his operations; on the 5th of +August he began the plantation of the first English colony in North +America. Proceeding southwards with three vessels, exploring and +prospecting, he lost the largest near Cape Breton (29th of August); +immediately after (31st of August) he started to return to England with +the "Golden Hind" and the "Squirrel," of forty and ten tons respectively. +Obstinately refusing to leave the "frigate" and sail in his "great ship," +he shared the former's fate in a tempest off the Azores. "Monday the 9th +of September," reports Hayes, the captain of the "Hind," "the frigate was +near cast away, ... yet at that time recovered; and, giving forth signs +of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried out +unto us in the 'Hind,' 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.'.... +The same Monday night, about twelve, the frigate being ahead of us in the +'Golden Hind,' suddenly her lights were out, ... in that moment the +frigate was devoured and swallowed up of the sea." + + See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_ (1599); vol. iii. pp. 135-181; + Gilbert's _Discourse of a Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia_, + published by George Gascoigne in 1576, with additions, probably + without Gilbert's authority; Hooker's _Supplement_ to Holinshed's + _Irish Chronicle_; Roger Williams, _The Actions of the Low Countries_ + (1618); _State Papers, Domestic_ (1577-1583); Wood's _Athenae + Oxonienses_; _North British Review_, No. 45; Fox Bourne's _English + Seamen under the Tudors_; Carlos Slafter, _Sir H. Gylberte and his + Enterprise_ (Boston, 1903), with all important documents. Gilbert's + interesting writings on the need of a university for London, + anticipating in many ways not only the modern London University but + also the British Museum library and its compulsory sustenance through + the provisions of the Copyright Act, have been printed by Furnivall + (_Queen Elizabeth's Achademy_) in the Early English Text Society + Publications, extra series, No. viii. + + + + +GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889); American actor, whose real name was Gibbs, +was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of February 1810, and +made his first appearance there as Jaffier in _Venice Preserved_. He +soon found that his true vein was in comedy, particularly in old-men +parts. When in London in 1847 he was well received both by press and +public, and played with Macready. He was the leading actor at Wallack's +from 1861-1888. He died on the 17th of June 1889. + + See William Winter's _Life of John Gilbert_ (New York, 1890). + + + + +GILBERT, SIR JOHN (1817-1897), English painter and illustrator, one of +the eight children of George Felix Gilbert, a member of a Derbyshire +family, was born at Blackheath on the 21st of July 1817. He went to +school there, and even in childhood displayed an extraordinary fondness +for drawing and painting. Nevertheless, his father's lack of means +compelled him to accept employment for the boy in the office of Messrs +Dickson & Bell, estate agents, in Charlotte Row, London. Yielding, +however, to his natural bent, his parents agreed that he should take up +art in his own way, which included but little advice from others, his +only teacher being Haydon's pupil, George Lance, the fruit painter. This +artist gave him brief instructions in the use of colour. In 1836 Gilbert +appeared in public for the first time. This was at the gallery of the +Society of British Artists, where he sent drawings, the subjects of +which were characteristic, being "The Arrest of Lord Hastings," from +Shakespeare, and "Abbot Boniface," from _The Monastery_ of Scott. "Inez +de Castro" was in the same gallery in the next year; it was the first of +a long series of works in the same medium, representing similar themes, +and was accompanied, from 1837, by a still greater number of works in +oil which were exhibited at the British Institution. These included "Don +Quixote giving advice to Sancho Panza," 1841; "Brunette and Phillis," +from _The Spectator_, 1844; "The King's Artillery at Marston Moor," +1860; and "Don Quixote comes back for the last time to his Home and +Family," 1867. In that year the Institution was finally closed. Gilbert +exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1838, beginning with the "Portrait +of a Gentleman," and continuing, except between 1851 and 1867, till his +death to exhibit there many of his best and more ambitious works. These +included such capital instances as "Holbein painting the Portrait of +Anne Boleyn," "Don Quixote's first Interview with the Duke and Duchess," +1842, "Charlemagne visiting the Schools," 1846. "Touchstone and the +Shepherd," and "Rembrandt," a very fine piece, were both there in 1867; +and in 1873 "Naseby," one of his finest and most picturesque designs, +was also at the Royal Academy. Gilbert was elected A.R.A. 29th January +1872, and R.A. 29th June 1876. Besides these mostly large and powerful +works, the artist's true arena of display was undoubtedly the gallery of +the Old Water Colour Society, to which from 1852, when he was elected an +Associate exhibitor, till he died forty-five years later, he contributed +not fewer than 270 drawings, most of them admirable because of the +largeness of their style, massive coloration, broad chiaroscuro, and the +surpassing vigour of their designs. These qualities induced the leading +critics to claim for him opportunities for painting mural pictures of +great historic themes as decorations of national buildings. "The +Trumpeter," "The Standard-Bearer," "Richard II. resigning his Crown" +(now at Liverpool), "The Drug Bazaar at Constantinople," "The Merchant +of Venice" and "The Turkish Water-Carrier" are but examples of that +wealth of art which added to the attractions of the gallery in Pall +Mall. There Gilbert was elected a full Member in 1855, and president of +the Society in 1871, shortly after which he was knighted. As an +illustrator of books, magazines and periodicals of every kind he was +most prolific. To the success of the _Illustrated London News_ his +designs lent powerful aid, and he was eminently serviceable in +illustrating the _Shakespeare_ of Mr Howard Staunton. He died on the 6th +of October 1897. (F. G. S.) + + + + +GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901); English chemist, was born at Hull +on the 1st of August 1817. He studied chemistry first at Glasgow under +Thomas Thomson; then at University College, London, in the laboratory of +A. T. Thomson (1778-1849), the professor of medical jurisprudence, also +attending Thomas Graham's lectures; and finally at Giessen under Liebig. +On his return to England from Germany he acted for a year or so as +assistant to his old master A. T. Thomson at University College, and in +1843, after spending a short time in the study of calico dyeing and +printing near Manchester, accepted the directorship of the chemical +laboratory at the famous experimental station established by Sir J. B. +Lawes at Rothamsted, near St Albans, for the systematic and scientific +study of agriculture. This position he held for fifty-eight years, until +his death on the 23rd of December 1901. The work which he carried out +during that long period in collaboration with Lawes was of a most +comprehensive character, involving the application of many branches of +science, such as chemistry, meteorology, botany, animal and vegetable +physiology, and geology; and its influence in improving the methods of +practical agriculture extended all over the civilized world. Gilbert was +chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1860, and in 1867 was awarded a +royal medal jointly with Lawes. In 1880 he presided over the Chemical +Section of the British Association at its meeting at Swansea, and in +1882 he was president of the London Chemical Society, of which he had +been a member almost from its foundation in 1841. For six years from +1884 he filled the Sibthorpian chair of rural economy at Oxford, and he +was also an honorary professor at the Royal Agricultural College, +Cirencester. He was knighted in 1893, the year in which the jubilee of +the Rothamsted experiments was celebrated. + + + + +GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA ["LOLA MONTEZ"] (1818-1861), dancer +and adventuress, the daughter of a British army officer, was born at +Limerick, Ireland, in 1818. Her father dying in India when she was seven +years old, and her mother marrying again, the child was sent to Europe +to be educated, subsequently joining her mother at Bath. In 1837 she +made a runaway match with a Captain James of the Indian army, and +accompanied him to India. In 1842 she returned to England, and shortly +afterwards her husband obtained a decree _nisi_ for divorce. She then +studied dancing, making an unsuccessful first appearance at Her +Majesty's theatre, London, in 1843, billed as "Lola Montez, Spanish +dancer." Subsequently she appeared with considerable success in +Germany, Poland and Russia. Thence she went to Paris, and in 1847 +appeared at Munich, where she became the mistress of the old king of +Bavaria, Ludwig I.; she was naturalized, created comtesse de Landsfeld, +and given an income of L2000 a year. She soon proved herself the real +ruler of Bavaria, adopting a liberal and anti-Jesuit policy. Her +political opponents proved, however, too strong for her, and in 1848 she +was banished. In 1849 she came to England, and in the same year was +married to George Heald, a young officer in the Guards. Her husband's +guardian instituted a prosecution for bigamy against her on the ground +that her divorce from Captain James had not been made absolute, and she +fled with Heald to Spain. In 1851 she appeared at the Broadway theatre, +New York, and in the following year at the Walnut Street theatre, +Philadelphia. In 1853 Heald was drowned at Lisbon, and in the same year +she married the proprietor of a San Francisco newspaper, but did not +live long with him. Subsequently she appeared in Australia, but +returned, in 1857, to act in America, and to lecture on gallantry. Her +health having broken down, she devoted the rest of her life to visiting +the outcasts of her own sex in New York, where, stricken with paralysis, +she died on the 17th of January 1861. + + See E. B. D'Auvergne, _Lola Montez_ (New York, 1909). + + + + +GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751-1780), French poet, was born at +Fontenay-le-Chateau in Lorraine in 1751. Having completed his education +at the college of Dole, he devoted himself for a time to a +half-scholastic, half-literary life at Nancy, but in 1774 he found his +way to the capital. As an opponent of the Encyclopaedists and a +panegyrist of Louis XV., he received considerable pensions. He died in +Paris on the 12th of November 1780 from the results of a fall from his +horse. The satiric force of one or two of his pieces, as _Mon Apologie_ +(1778) and _Le Dix-huitieme Siecle_ (1775), would alone be sufficient to +preserve his reputation, which has been further increased by modern +writers, who, like Alfred de Vigny in his _Stello_ (chaps. 7-13), +considered him a victim to the spite of his philosophic opponents. His +best-known verses are the _Ode imitee de plusieurs psaumes_, usually +entitled Adieux a la vie. + + Among his other works may be mentioned _Les Familles de Darius et + d'Eridame, histoire persane_ (1770), _Le Carnaval des auteurs_ (1773), + _Odes nouvelles et patriotiques_ (1775). Gilbert's _Oeuvres completes_ + were first published in 1788, and they have since been edited by + Mastrella (Paris, 1823), by Charles Nodier (1817 or 1825), and by M. + de Lescure (1882). + + + + +GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603), the most distinguished man +of science in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and the +father of electric and magnetic science, was a member of an ancient +Suffolk family, long resident in Clare, and was born on the 24th of May +1544 at Colchester, where his father, Hierome Gilbert, became recorder. +Educated at Colchester school, he entered St John's College, Cambridge, +in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in due course, +graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected a senior fellow of +his college. Soon afterwards he left Cambridge, and after spending three +years in Italy and other parts of Europe, settled in 1573 in London, +where he practised as a physician with "great success and applause." He +was admitted to the College of Physicians probably about 1576, and from +1581 to 1590 was one of the censors. In 1587 he became treasurer, +holding the office till 1592, and in 1589 he was one of the committee +appointed to superintend the preparation of the _Pharmacopoeia +Londinensis_ which the college in that year decided to issue, but which +did not actually appear till 1618. In 1597 he was again chosen +treasurer, becoming at the same time consiliarius, and in 1599 he +succeeded to the presidency. Two years later he was appointed physician +to Queen Elizabeth, with the usual emolument of L100 a year. After this +time he seems to have removed to the court, vacating his residence, +Wingfield House, which was on Peter's Hill, between Upper Thames Street +and Little Knightrider Street, and close to the house of the College of +Physicians. On the death of the queen in 1603 he was reappointed by her +successor; but he did not long enjoy the honour, for he died, probably +of the plague, on the 30th of November (10th of December, N.S.) 1603, +either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the latter town, in +the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a monument was erected to his +memory. To the College of Physicians he left his books, globes, +instruments and minerals, but they were destroyed in the great fire of +London. + +Gilbert's principal work is his treatise on magnetism, entitled _De +magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure_ (London, +1600; later editions--Stettin, 1628, 1633; Frankfort, 1629, 1638). This +work, which embodied the results of many years' research, was +distinguished by its strict adherence to the scientific method of +investigation by experiment, and by the originality of its matter, +containing, as it does, an account of the author's experiments on +magnets and magnetical bodies and on electrical attractions, and also +his great conception that the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and +that it is this which explains, not only the direction of the magnetic +needle north and south, but also the variation and dipping or +inclination of the needle. Gilbert's is therefore not merely the first, +but the most important, systematic contribution to the sciences of +electricity and magnetism. A posthumous work of Gilbert's was edited by +his brother, also called William, from two MSS. in the possession of Sir +William Boswell; its title is _De mundo nostro sublunari philosophia +nova_ (Amsterdam, 1651). He is the reputed inventor besides of two +instruments to enable sailors "to find out the latitude without seeing +of sun, moon or stars," an account of which is given in Thomas +Blondeville's _Theoriques of the Planets_ (London, 1602). He was also +the first advocate of Copernican views in England, and he concluded that +the fixed stars are not all at the same distance from the earth. + +It is a matter of great regret for the historian of chemistry that +Gilbert left nothing on that branch of science, to which he was deeply +devoted, "attaining to great exactness therein." So at least says Thomas +Fuller, who in his _Worthies of England_ prophesied truly how he would +be afterwards known: "Mahomet's tomb at Mecca," he says, "is said +strangely to hang up, attracted by some invisible loadstone; but the +memory of this doctor will never fall to the ground, which his +incomparable book _De magnete_ will support to eternity." + + An English translation of the _De magnete_ was published by P. F. + Mottelay in 1893, and another, with notes by S. P. Thompson, was + issued by the Gilbert Club of London in 1900. + + + + +GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836- ), English playwright and +humorist, son of William Gilbert (a descendant of Sir Humphrey Gilbert), +was born in London on the 18th of November 1836. His father was the +author of a number of novels, the best-known of which were _Shirley Hall +Asylum_ (1863) and _Dr Austin's Guests_ (1866). Several of these +novels--which were characterized by a singular acuteness and lucidity of +style, by a dry, subacid humour, by a fund of humanitarian feeling and +by a considerable medical knowledge, especially in regard to the +psychology of lunatics and monomaniacs--were illustrated by his son, who +developed a talent for whimsical draughtsmanship. W. S. Gilbert was +educated at Boulogne, at Ealing and at King's College, graduating B.A. +from the university of London in 1856. The termination of the Crimean +War was fatal to his project of competing for a commission in the Royal +Artillery, but he obtained a post in the education department of the +privy council office (1857-1861). Disliking the routine work, he left +the Civil Service, entered the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in +November 1864, and joined the northern circuit. His practice was +inconsiderable, and his military and legal ambitions were eventually +satisfied by a captaincy in the volunteers and appointment as a +magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 1861 the comic journal _Fun_ +was started by H. J. Byron, and Gilbert became from the first a valued +contributor. Failing to obtain an _entree to Punch_, he continued +sending excellent comic verse to _Fun_, with humorous illustrations, the +work of his own pen, over the signature of "Bab." A collection of these +lyrics, in which deft craftsmanship unites a titillating satire on the +deceptiveness of appearances with the irrepressible nonsense of a Lewis +Carroll, was issued separately in 1869 under the title of _Bab Ballads_, +and was followed by _More Bab Ballads_. The two collections and _Songs +of a Savoyard_ were united in a volume issued in 1898, with many new +illustrations. The best of the old cuts, such as those depicting the +"Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo" and the "Discontented Sugar Broker," were +preserved intact. + +While remaining a staunch supporter of _Fun_, Gilbert was soon immersed +in other journalistic work, and his position as dramatic critic to the +_Illustrated Times_ turned his attention to the stage. He had not to +wait long for an opportunity. Early in December 1866 T. W. Robertson was +asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St James's theatre, to find some +one who could turn out a bright Christmas piece in a fortnight, and +suggested Gilbert; the latter promptly produced _Dulcamara_, a burlesque +of _L'Elisire d'amore_, written in ten days, rehearsed in a week, and +duly performed at Christmas. He sold the piece outright for L30, a piece +of rashness which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial +success. In 1870 he was commissioned by Buckstone to write a blank verse +fairy comedy, based upon _Le Palais de la verite_, the novel by Madame +de Genlis. The result was _The Palace of Truth_, a fairy drama, poor in +structure but clever in workmanship, which served the purpose of Mr and +Mrs Kendal in 1870 at the Haymarket. This was followed in 1871 by +_Pygmalion and Galatea_, another three-act "mythological comedy," a +clever and effective but artificial piece. Another fairy comedy, _The +Wicked World_, written for Buckstone and the Kendals, was followed in +March 1873 by a burlesque version, in collaboration with Gilbert a +Beckett, entitled _The Happy Land_. Gilbert's next dramatic ventures +inclined more to the conventional pattern, combining sentiment and a +cynical humour in a manner strongly reminiscent of his father's style. +Of these pieces, _Sweethearts_ was given at the Prince of Wales's +theatre, 7th November 1874; _Tom Cobb_ at the St James's, 24th April +1875; _Broken Hearts_ at the Court, 9th December 1875; _Dan'l Druce_ (a +drama in darker vein, suggested to some extent by _Silas Marner_) at the +Haymarket, 11th September 1876; and _Engaged_ at the Haymarket, 3rd +October 1877. The first and last of these proved decidedly popular. +_Gretchen_, a verse drama in four acts, appeared in 1879. A one-act +piece, called _Comedy and Tragedy_, was produced at the Lyceum, 26th +January, 1884. Two dramatic trifles of later date were _Foggerty's +Fairy_ and _Rozenkrantz and Guildenstern_, a travesty of _Hamlet_, +performed at the Vaudeville in June 1891. Several of these dramas were +based upon short stories by Gilbert, a number of which had appeared from +time to time in the Christmas numbers of various periodicals. The best +of them have been collected in the volume entitled _Foggerty's Fairy, +and other Stories_. In the autumn of 1871 Gilbert commenced his +memorable collaboration (which lasted over twenty years) with Sir Arthur +Sullivan. The first two comic operas, _Thespis; or The Gods grown Old_ +(26th September 1871) and _Trial by Jury_ (Royalty, 25th March 1875) +were merely essays. Like one or two of their successors, they were, as +regards plot, little more than extended "Bab Ballads." Later (especially +in the _Yeomen of the Guard_), much more elaboration was attempted. The +next piece was produced at the Opera Comique (17th November 1877) as +_The Sorcerer_. At the same theatre were successfully given _H.M.S. +Pinafore_ (25th May 1878), _The Pirates of Penzance; or The Slave of +Duty_ (3rd April 1880), and _Patience; or Bunthorne's Bride_ (23rd April +1881). In October 1881 the successful _Patience_ was removed to a new +theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the Gilbert and Sullivan operas +by Richard D'Oyly Carte. _Patience_ was followed, on 25th November 1882, +by _Iolanthe; or The Peer and the Peri_; and then came, on 5th January +1884, _Princess Ida; or Castle Adamant_, a re-cast of a charming and +witty fantasia which Gilbert had written some years previously, and had +then described as a "respectful perversion of Mr. Tennyson's exquisite +poem." The impulse reached its fullest development in the operas that +followed next in order--_The Mikado; or The Town of Titipu_ (14th March +1885); _Ruddigore_ (22nd January 1887); _The Yeomen of the Guard_ (3rd +October 1888); and _The Gondoliers_ (7th December 1889). After the +appearance of _The Gondoliers_ a coolness occurred between the composer +and librettist, owing to Gilbert's considering that Sullivan had not +supported him in a business disagreement with D'Oyly Carte. But the +estrangement was only temporary. Gilbert wrote several more librettos, +and of these _Utopia Limited_ (1893) and the exceptionally witty _Grand +Duke_ (1896) were written in conjunction with Sullivan. As a master of +metre Gilbert had shown himself consummate, as a dealer in quips and +paradoxes and ludicrous dilemmas, unrivalled. Even for the music of the +operas he deserves some credit, for the rhythms were frequently his own +(as in "I have a Song to Sing, O"), and the metres were in many cases +invented by himself. One or two of his librettos, such as that of +_Patience_, are virtually flawless. Enthusiasts are divided only as to +the comparative merit of the operas. _Princess Ida_ and _Patience_ are +in some respects the daintiest. There is a genuine vein of poetry in +_The Yeomen of the Guard_. Some of the drollest songs are in _Pinafore_ +and _Ruddigore_. _The Gondoliers_ shows the most charming lightness of +touch, while with the general public _The Mikado_ proved the favourite. +The enduring popularity of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas was +abundantly proved by later revivals. Among the birthday honours in June +1907 Gilbert was given a knighthood. In 1909 his _Fallen Fairies_ (music +by Edward German) was produced at the Savoy. (T. Se.) + + + + +GILBERT DE LA PORREE, frequently known as Gilbertus Porretanus or +Pictaviensis (1070-1154); scholastic logician and theologian, was born +at Poitiers. He was educated under Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of +Laon. After teaching for about twenty years in Chartres, he lectured on +dialectics and theology in Paris (from 1137), and in 1141 returned to +Poitiers, being elected bishop in the following year. His heterodox +opinions regarding the doctrine of the Trinity drew upon his works the +condemnation of the church. The synod of Reims in 1148 procured papal +sanction for four propositions opposed to certain of Gilbert's tenets, +and his works were condemned until they should be corrected in +accordance with the principles of the church. Gilbert seems to have +submitted quietly to this judgment; he yielded assent to the four +propositions, and remained on friendly terms with his antagonists till +his death on the 4th of September 1154. Gilbert is almost the only +logician of the 12th century who is quoted by the greater scholastics of +the succeeding age. His chief logical work, the treatise _De sex +principiis_, was regarded with a reverence almost equal to that paid to +Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous commentators, amongst them +Albertus Magnus. Owing to the fame of this work, he is mentioned by +Dante as the _Magister sex principiorum_. The treatise itself is a +discussion of the Aristotelian categories, specially of the six +subordinate modes. Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two +classes, one essential, the other derivative. Essential or inhering +(_formae inhaerentes_) in the objects themselves are only _substance_, +_quantity_, _quality_ and _relation_ in the stricter sense of that term. +The remaining six, _when_, _where_, _action_, _passion_, _position_ and +_habit_, are relative and subordinate (_formae assistentes_). This +suggestion has some interest, but is of no great value, either in logic +or in the theory of knowledge. More important in the history of +scholasticism are the theological consequences to which Gilbert's +realism led him. In the commentary on the treatise _De Trinitate_ +(erroneously attributed to Boetius) he proceeds from the metaphysical +notion that pure or abstract being is prior in nature to that which is. +This pure being is God, and must be distinguished from the triune God as +known to us. God is incomprehensible, and the categories cannot be +applied to determine his existence. In God there is no distinction or +difference, whereas in all substances or things there is duality, +arising from the element of matter. Between pure being and substances +stand the ideas or forms, which subsist, though they are not substances. +These forms, when materialized, are called _formae substantiales_ or +_formae nativae_; they are the essences of things, and in themselves +have no relation to the accidents of things. Things are temporal, the +ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form of existence, that by which +God is God, must be distinguished from the three persons who are God by +participation in this form. The form or essence is one, the persons or +substances three. It was this distinction between Deitas or Divinitas +and Deus that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's doctrine. + + _De sex principiis_ and commentary on the _De Trinitate_ in Migne, + _Patrologia Latina_, lxiv. 1255 and clxxxviii. 1257; see also Abbe + Berthaud, _Gilbert de la Porree_ (Poitiers, 1892); B. Haureau, _De la + philosophie scolastique_, pp. 294-318; R. Schmid's article "Gilbert + Porretanus" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. f. protest. Theol._ (vol. 6, + 1899); Prantl, _Geschichte d. Logik_, ii. 215; Bach, + _Dogmengeschichte_, ii. 133; article SCHOLASTICISM. + + + + +GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST, founder of the Gilbertines, the only +religious order of English origin, was born at Sempringham in +Lincolnshire, c. 1083-1089. He was educated in France, and ordained in +1123, being presented by his father to the living of Sempringham. About +1135 he established there a convent for nuns; and to perform the heavy +work and cultivate the fields he formed a number of labourers into a +society of lay brothers attached to the convent. Similar establishments +were founded elsewhere, and in 1147 Gilbert tried to get them +incorporated in the Cistercian order. Failing in this, he proceeded to +form communities of priests and clerics to perform the spiritual +ministrations needed by the nuns. The women lived according to the +Benedictine rule as interpreted by the Cistercians; the men according to +the rule of St Augustine, and were canons regular. The special +constitutions of the order were largely taken from those of the +Premonstratensian canons and of the Cistercians. Like Fontevrault (q.v.) +it was a double order, the communities of men and women living side by +side; but, though the property all belonged to the nuns, the superior of +the canons was the head of the whole establishment, and the general +superior was a canon, called "Master of Sempringham." The general +chapter was a mixed assembly composed of two canons and two nuns from +each house; the nuns had to travel to the chapter in closed carts. The +office was celebrated together in the church, a high stone screen +separating the two choirs of canons and nuns. The order received papal +approbation in 1148. By Gilbert's death (1189) there were nine double +monasteries and four of canons only, containing about 700 canons and +1000 nuns in all. At the dissolution there were some 25 monasteries, +whereof 4 ranked among the greater monasteries (see list in F. A. +Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The order never spread beyond +England. The habit of the Gilbertines was black, with a white cloak. + + See Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_ (4th of Feb.); William Dugdale, + _Monasticon_ (1846); Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714); ii. + c. 29. The best modern account is _St Gilbert of Sempringham, and the + Gilbertines_, by Rose Graham (1901). The art. in _Dictionary of + National Biography_ gives abundant information on St Gilbert, but is + unsatisfactory on the order, as it might easily convey the impression + that the canons and nuns lived together, whereas they were most + carefully separated; and altogether undue prominence is given to a + single scandal. Miss Graham declares that the reputation of the order + was good until the end. (E. C. B.) + + + + +GILBERT FOLIOT (d. 1187), bishop of Hereford, and of London, is first +mentioned as a monk of Cluny, whence he was called in 1136 to plead the +cause of the empress Matilda against Stephen at the Roman court. Shortly +afterwards he became prior of Cluny; then prior of Abbeville, a house +dependent upon Cluny. In 1139 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The +appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesiastical point +of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot proved himself a valuable +ally of the empress, and her ablest controversialist. Gilbert's +reputation grew rapidly. He was respected at Rome; and he acted as the +representative of the primate, Theobald, in the supervision of the Welsh +church. In 1148, on being nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford, +Gilbert with characteristic wariness sought confirmation both from Henry +of Anjou and from Stephen. But he was an Angevin at heart, and after +1154 was treated by Henry II. with every mark of consideration. He was +Becket's rival for the primacy, and the only bishop who protested +against the king's choice. Becket, with rare forbearance, endeavoured to +win his friendship by procuring for him the see of London (1163). But +Gilbert evaded the customary profession of obedience to the primate, and +apparently aspired to make his see independent of Canterbury. On the +questions raised by the Constitutions of Clarendon he sided with the +king, whose confessor he had now become. He urged Becket to yield, and, +when this advice was rejected, encouraged his fellow-bishops to +repudiate the authority of the archbishop. In the years of controversy +which followed Becket's flight the king depended much upon the bishop's +skill as a disputant and diplomatist. Gilbert was twice excommunicated +by Becket, but both on these and on other occasions he showed great +dexterity in detaching the pope from the cause of the exile. To him it +was chiefly due that Henry avoided an open conflict with Rome of the +kind which John afterwards provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishops +whose excommunication in 1170 provoked the king's knights to murder +Becket; but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His +later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence with the +king and among his fellow bishops. Scholarly, dignified, ascetic in his +private life, devoted to the service of the Church, he was nevertheless +more respected than loved. His nature was cold; he made few friends; and +the taint of a calculating ambition runs through his whole career. He +died in the spring of 1187. + + See Gilbert's _Letters_, ed. J. A. Giles (Oxford, 1845); _Materials + for the History of Thomas Becket_, ed. J. C. Robertson (Rolls series, + 1875-1885); and Miss K. Norgate's _England under the Angevin Kings_ + (1887). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS, an extensive archipelago belonging to Great +Britain in the mid-western Pacific Ocean, lying N. and S. of the +equator, and between 170 deg. and 180 deg. E. There are sixteen islands, +all coral reefs or atolls, extending in crescent form over about five +degrees of latitude. The principal is Taputenea or Drummond Island. The +soil, mostly of coral sand, is productive of little else than the +coco-nut palm, and the chief source of food supply is the sea. The +population of these islands presents a remarkable phenomenon; in spite +of adverse conditions of environment and complete barbarism it is +exceedingly dense, in strong contradistinction to that of many other +more favoured islands. The land area of the group is only 166 m., yet +the population is about 30,000. The Gilbert islanders are a dark and +coarse type of the Polynesian race, and show signs of much crossing. +They are tall and stout, with an average height of 5 ft. 8 in., and are +of a vigorous, energetic temperament. They are nearly always naked, but +wear a conical hat of pandanus leaf. In war they have an armour of +plaited coco-nut fibres. They are fierce fighters, their chief weapon +being a sword armed with sharks' teeth. Their canoes are well made of +coco-nut wood boards sewn neatly together and fastened on frames. +British and American missionary work has been prosecuted with some +success. The large population led to the introduction of natives from +these islands into Hawaii as labourers in 1878-1884, but they were not +found satisfactory. The islands were discovered by John Byron in 1765 +(one of them bearing his name); Captains Gilbert and Marshall visited +them in 1788; and they were annexed by Great Britain in 1892. + + + + +GILBEY, SIR WALTER, 1ST BART. (1831- ), English wine-merchant, was +born at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire, in 1831. His father, the owner +and frequently the driver of the daily coach between Bishop Stortford +and London, died when he was eleven years old, and young Gilbey was +shortly afterwards placed in the office of an estate agent at Tring, +subsequently obtaining a clerkship in a firm of parliamentary agents in +London. On the outbreak of the Crimean War, Walter Gilbey and his +younger brother, Alfred, volunteered for civilian service at the front, +and were employed at a convalescent hospital on the Dardanelles. +Returning to London on the declaration of peace, Walter and Alfred +Gilbey, on the advice of their eldest brother, Henry Gilbey, a wholesale +wine-merchant, started in the retail wine and spirit trade. The heavy +duty then levied by the British government on French, Portuguese and +Spanish wines was prohibitive of a sale among the English middle +classes, and especially lower middle classes, whose usual alcoholic +beverage was accordingly beer. Henry Gilbey was of opinion that these +classes would gladly drink wine if they could get it at a moderate +price, and by his advice Walter and Alfred determined to push the sales +of colonial, and particularly of Cape, wines, on which the duty was +comparatively light. Backed by capital obtained through Henry Gilbey, +they accordingly opened in 1857 a small retail business in a basement in +Oxford Street, London. The Cape wines proved popular, and within three +years the brothers had 20,000 customers on their books. The creation of +the off-licence system by Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the +exchequer, in 1860, followed by the large reduction in the duty on +French wines effected by the commercial treaty between England and +France in 1861, revolutionized their trade and laid the foundation of +their fortunes. Three provincial grocers, who had been granted the new +off-licence, applied to be appointed the Gilbeys' agents in their +respective districts, and many similar applications followed. These were +granted, and before very long a leading local grocer was acting as the +firm's agents in every district in England. The grocer who dealt in the +Gilbeys' wines and spirits was not allowed to sell those of any other +firm, and the Gilbeys in return handed over to him all their existing +customers in his district. This arrangement was of mutual advantage, and +the Gilbeys' business increased so rapidly that in 1864 Henry Gilbey +abandoned his own undertaking to join his brothers. In 1867 the three +brothers secured the old Pantheon theatre and concert hall in Oxford +Street for their headquarters. In 1875 the firm purchased a large +claret-producing estate in Medoc, on the banks of the Gironde, and +became also the proprietors of two large whisky-distilleries in +Scotland. In 1893 the business was converted, for family reasons, into a +private limited liability company, of which Walter Gilbey, who in the +same year was created a baronet, was chairman. Sir Walter Gilbey also +became well known as a breeder of shire horses, and he did much to +improve the breed of English horses (other than race-horses) generally, +and wrote extensively on the subject. He became president of the Shire +Horse Society, of the Hackney Horse Society, and of the Hunters' +Improvement Society, and he was the founder and chairman of the London +Cart Horse Parade Society. He was also a practical agriculturist, and +president of the Royal Agricultural Society. + + + + +GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516-570), the earliest of British historians (see +CELT: _Literature_, "Welsh"), surnamed by some Sapiens, and by others +Badonicus, seems to have been born in the year 516. Regarding him little +certain is known, beyond some isolated particulars that may be gathered +from hints dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist, +purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the 11th +and 12th centuries; but the writers of both are believed to have +confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the name. It is from +an incidental remark of his own, namely, that the year of the siege of +Mount Badon--one of the battles fought between the Saxons and the +Britons--was also the year of his own nativity, that the date of his +birth has been derived; the place, however, is not mentioned. His +assertion that he was moved to undertake his task mainly by "zeal for +God's house and for His holy law," and the very free use he has made of +quotations from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an +ecclesiastic of some order or other. In addition, we learn that he went +abroad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where, after 10 +years of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about 560, the work +bearing his name. His materials, he tells us, were collected from +foreign rather than native sources, the latter of which had been put +beyond his reach by circumstances. The _Cambrian Annals_ give 570 as the +year of his death. + +The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title of _Gildae +Sapientis de excidio Britanniae liber querulus_. Though at first written +consecutively, the work is now usually divided into three portions,--a +preface, the history proper, and an epistle,--the last, which is largely +made up of passages and texts of Scripture brought together for the +purpose of condemning the vices of his countrymen and their rulers, +being the least important, though by far the longest of the three. In +the second he passes in brief review the history of Britain from its +invasion by the Romans till his own times. Among other matters reference +is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of Tiberius; +the persecution under Diocletian; the spread of the Arian heresy; the +election of Maximus as emperor by the legions in Britain, and his +subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions of the Picts and Scots into +the southern part of the island; the temporary assistance rendered to +the harassed Britons by the Romans; the final abandonment of the island +by the latter; the coming of the Saxons and their reception by +Guortigern (Vortigern); and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons, +led by a noble Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the new invaders. +Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the statements +of Gildas are vague and obscure. With one exception already alluded to, +no dates are given, and events are not always taken up in the order of +their occurrence. These faults are of less importance during the period +when Greek and Roman writers notice the affairs of Britain; but they +become more serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of +the 5th century to the date of his death, Gildas's brief narrative is +our only authority for most of what passes current as the history of our +island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in this +instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous letter rests, +said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despairing Britons, +commencing:--"To Agitius (Aetius), consul for the third time, the groans +of the Britons." + + Gildas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil, but + with many avowed alterations and omissions. In 1568 John Josseline, + secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it more in + conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a still more + carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas Gale. It was + frequently reprinted on the Continent during the 16th century, and + once or twice since. The next English edition, described by Potthast + as _editio pessima_, was that published by the English Historical + Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Stevenson. The text of + Gildas founded on Gale's edition collated with two other MSS., with + elaborate introductions, is included in the _Monumenta historica + Britannica_, edited by Petrie and Sharpe (London, 1848). Another + edition is in A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, _Councils and Eccles. + Documents_ relating to Great Britain (Oxford, 1869); the latest + edition is that by Theodor Mommsen in _Monum. Germ. hist. auct. + antiq._ xiii. (Chronica min. iii.), 1894. + + + + +GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1909), American editor and poet, was born +in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 8th of February 1844, a brother of +William Henry Gilder (1838-1900), the Arctic explorer. He was educated +at Bellevue Seminary, an institution conducted by his father, the Rev. +William Henry Gilder (1812-1864), in Flushing, Long Island. After three +years (1865-1868) on the Newark, New Jersey, _Daily Advertiser_, he +founded, with Newton Crane, the Newark _Morning Register_. In 1869 he +became editor of _Hours at Home_, and in 1870 assistant editor of +_Scribner's Monthly_ (eleven years later re-named _The Century +Magazine_), of which he became editor in 1881. He was one of the +founders of the Free Art League, of the International Copyright League, +and of the Authors' Club; was chairman of the New York Tenement House +Commission in 1894; and was a prominent member of the National Institute +of Arts and Letters, of the Council of the National Civil Service Reform +League, and of the executive committee of the Citizens' Union of New +York City. His poems, which are essentially lyrical, have been collected +in various volumes, including _Five Books of Song_ (1894), _In Palestine +and other Poems_ (1898), _Poems and Inscriptions_ (1901), and _In the +Heights_ (1905). A complete edition of his poems was published in 1908. +He also edited _"Sonnets from the Portuguese" and other Poems by +Elizabeth Barrett Browning_; _"One Word More" and other Poems by Robert +Browning_ (1905). He died in New York on the 18th of November 1909. His +wife, Helena de Kay, a grand-daughter of Joseph Rodman Drake, assisted, +with Saint Gaudens and others, in founding the Society of American +Artists, now merged in the National Academy, and the Art Students' +League of New York. She translated Sensier's biography of Millet, and +painted, before her marriage in 1874, studies in flowers and ideal +heads, much admired for their feeling and delicate colouring. + + + + +GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU (1831- ), American classical scholar, was +born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd of October 1831, son of +Benjamin Gildersleeve (1791-1875), a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor +of the Charleston _Christian Observer_ in 1826-1845, of the Richmond +(Va.) _Watchman and Observer_ in 1845-1856, and of _The Central +Presbyterian_ in 1856-1860. The son graduated at Princeton in 1849, +studied under Franz in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under +Schneidewin at Gottingen, where he received his doctor's degree in 1853. +From 1856 to 1876 he was professor of Greek in the University of +Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also in 1861-1866; and in 1876 he +became professor of Greek in the newly founded Johns Hopkins University. +In 1880 _The American Journal of Philology_, a quarterly published by +the Johns Hopkins University, was established under his editorial +charge, and his strong personality was expressed in the department of +the _Journal_ headed "Brief Report" or "Lanx Satura," and in the +earliest years of its publication every petty detail was in his hands. +His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the +typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the true +aim of scholarship is "that which is." He published a _Latin Grammar_ +(1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez B. Lodge, 1894 and +1899) and a Latin Series for use in secondary schools (1875), both +marked by lucidity of order and mastery of grammatical theory and +methods. His edition of _Persius_ (1875) is of great value. But his bent +was rather toward Greek than Latin. His special interest in Christian +Greek was partly the cause of his editing in 1877 _The Apologies of +Justin Martyr_, "which" (to use his own words) "I used unblushingly as a +repository for my syntactical formulae." Gildersleeve's studies under +Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek syntax, and his +logic, untrammelled by previous categories, and his marvellous sympathy +with the language were displayed in this most unlikely of places. His +_Syntax of Classic Greek_ (Part I., 1900, with C. W. E. Miller) collects +these formulae. Gildersleeve edited in 1885 _The Olympian and Pythian +Odes of Pindar_, with a brilliant and valuable introduction. His views +on the function of grammar were summarized in a paper on _The Spiritual +Rights of Minute Research_ delivered at Bryn Mawr on the 16th of June +1895. His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared in +1890 under the title _Essays and Studies Educational and Literary_. + + + + +GILDING, the art of spreading gold, either by mechanical or by chemical +means, over the surface of a body for the purpose of ornament. The art +of gilding was known to the ancients. According to Herodotus, the +Egyptians were accustomed to gild wood and metals; and gilding by means +of gold plates is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Pliny +informs us that the first gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction +of Carthage, under the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans +began to gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol +being the first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds +that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you might +see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults, and +other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the comparative thickness of +the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it which yet remain +are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding has in all times occupied an +important place in the ornamental arts of Oriental countries; and the +native processes pursued in India at the present day may be taken as +typical of the arts as practised from the earliest periods. For the +gilding of copper, employed in the decoration of temple domes and other +large works, the following is an outline of the processes employed. The +metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned and polished, and next +heated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or other +impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing. It is then +dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe apricots, and +rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the surface is rubbed over +with mercury which forms a superficial amalgam with the copper, after +which it is left some hours in clean water, again washed with the acid +solution, and dried. It is now ready for receiving the gold, which is +laid on in leaf, and, on adhering, assumes a grey appearance from +combining with the mercury, but on the application of heat the latter +metal volatilizes, leaving the gold a dull greyish hue. The colour is +brought up by means of rubbing with agate burnishers. The weight of +mercury used in this process is double that of the gold laid on, and +the thickness of the gilding is regulated by the circumstances or +necessities of the case. For the gilding of iron or steel, the surface +is first scratched over with chequered lines, then washed in a hot +solution of green apricots, dried and heated just short of red-heat. The +gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with agate burnishers, when it +adheres by catching into the prepared scratched surface. + +Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces and by +various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted in many ways, +and is part of widely different ornamental and useful arts. It forms an +important and essential part of frame-making (see CARVING AND GILDING); +it is largely employed in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative +painting and house ornamentation; and it also bulks largely in +bookbinding and ornamental leather work. Further, gilding is much +employed for coating baser metals, as in button-making, in the gilt toy +trade, in electro-gilt reproductions and in electro-plating; and it is +also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain +and glass. The various processes fall under one or other of two +heads--mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency. + + _Mechanical Gilding_ embraces all the operations by which gold-leaf is + prepared (see GOLDBEATING), and the several processes by which it is + mechanically attached to the surfaces it is intended to cover. It thus + embraces the burnish or water-gilding and the oil-gilding of the + carver and gilder, and the gilding operations of the house decorator, + the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paper-stainer and several + others. Polished iron, steel and other metals are gilt mechanically by + applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface at a temperature just under + red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a burnisher and reheating, when + additional leaf may be laid on. The process is completed by cold + burnishing. + + _Chemical Gilding_ embraces those processes in which the gold used is + at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these the + following are the principal:-- + + _Cold Gilding._--In this process the gold is obtained in a state of + extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means. Cold gilding + on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia, applied by + dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning it, and rubbing the + black and heavy ashes on the silver with the finger or a piece of + leather or cork. _Wet gilding_ is effected by means of a dilute + solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether. The + liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the ether separates and + floats on the surface of the acid. The whole mixture is then poured + into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to rest for some + time, when the acid is run off and the ether separated. The ether will + be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid, and may be used + for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the metal is polished + with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The ether is then applied + with a small brush, and as it evaporates it deposits the gold, which + can now be heated and polished. For small delicate figures a pen or a + fine brush may be used for laying on the ether solution. + _Fire-gilding_ or _Wash-gilding_ is a process by which an amalgam of + gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury being subsequently + volatilized, leaving a film of gold or an amalgam containing from 13 + to 16% of mercury. In the preparation of the amalgam the gold must + first be reduced to thin plates or grains, which are heated red hot, + and thrown into mercury previously heated, till it begins to smoke. + Upon stirring the mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally + disappears. The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as six or + eight to one. When the amalgam is cold it is squeezed through chamois + leather for the purpose of separating the superfluous mercury; the + gold, with about twice its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming + a yellowish silvery mass of the consistence of butter. When the metal + to be gilt is wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with mercury + before the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread; + but when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied + to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be + gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of + mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of "quicksilver + water," a solution of nitrate of mercury,--the nitric acid attacking + the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free + metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally spread over the prepared + surface of the metal, the mercury is then sublimed by a heat just + sufficient for that purpose; for, if it is too great, part of the gold + may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some of the + surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated, which is + known by the surface having entirely become of a dull yellow colour, + the metal must undergo other operations, by which the fine gold colour + is given to it. First, the gilded surface is rubbed with a scratch + brush of brass wire, until its surface be smooth; then it is covered + over with a composition called "gilding wax," and again exposed to the + fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax is composed of beeswax mixed + with some of the following substances, viz. red ochre, verdigris, + copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax. By this operation the colour of + the gilding is heightened; and the effect seems to be produced by a + perfect dissipation of some mercury remaining after the former + operation. The dissipation is well effected by this equable + application of heat. The gilt surface is then covered over with nitre, + alum or other salts, ground together, and mixed up into a paste with + water or weak ammonia. The piece of metal thus covered is exposed to a + certain degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this method its + colour is further improved and brought nearer to that of gold, + probably by removing any particles of copper that may have been on the + gilt surface. This process, when skilfully carried out, produces + gilding of great solidity and beauty; but owing to the exposure of the + workmen to mercurial fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is + much loss of mercury. Numerous contrivances have been introduced to + obviate these serious evils. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are + gilt by this process, and there is an act of parliament (1796) yet + unrepealed which prescribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity + that may be used for the gilding of 12 dozen of buttons 1 in. in + diameter. + +_Gilding of Pottery and Porcelain._--The quantity of gold consumed for +these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aqua-regia, +and the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold may be precipitated by +means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the gold is mixed +with 1/12th of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together with a small +quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is applied to the articles +with a camel's hair pencil, and after passing through the fire the gold +is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought out by burnishing with +agate and bloodstone, and afterwards cleaning with vinegar or +white-lead. + + + + +GILDS, or GUILDS. Medieval gilds were voluntary associations formed for +the mutual aid and protection of their members. Among the gildsmen there +was a strong spirit of fraternal co-operation or Christian brotherhood, +with a mixture of worldly and religious ideals--the support of the body +and the salvation of the soul. Early meanings of the root _gild_ or +_geld_ were expiation, penalty, sacrifice or worship, feast or banquet, +and contribution or payment; it is difficult to determine which is the +earliest meaning, and we are not certain whether the gildsmen were +originally those who contributed to a common fund or those who +worshipped or feasted together. Their fraternities or societies may be +divided into three classes: religious or benevolent, merchant and craft +gilds. The last two categories, which do not become prominent anywhere +in Europe until the 12th century, had, like all gilds, a religious +tinge, but their aims were primarily worldly, and their functions were +mainly of an economic character. + +1. _Origin._--Various theories have been advanced concerning the origin +of gilds. Some writers regard them as a continuation of the Roman +_collegia_ and _sodalitates_, but there is little evidence to prove the +unbroken continuity of existence of the Roman and Germanic fraternities. +A more widely accepted theory derives gilds wholly or in part from the +early Germanic or Scandinavian sacrificial banquets. Much influence is +ascribed to this heathen element by Lujo Brentano, Karl Hegel, W. E. +Wilda and other writers. This view does not seem to be tenable, for the +old sacrificial carousals lack two of the essential elements of the +gilds, namely corporative solidarity or permanent association and the +spirit of Christian brotherhood. Dr Max Pappenheim has ascribed the +origin of Germanic gilds to the northern "foster-brotherhood" or +"sworn-brotherhood," which was an artificial bond of union between two +or more persons. After intermingling their blood in the earth and +performing other peculiar ceremonies, the two contracting parties with +grasped hands swore to avenge any injury done to either of them. The +objections to this theory are fully stated by Hegel (_Stadte und +Gilden_, i. 250-253). The foster-brotherhood seems to have been unknown +to the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, the nations in which medieval gilds +first appear; and hence Dr Pappenheim's conclusions, if tenable at all, +apply only to Denmark or Scandinavia. + +No theory on this subject can be satisfactory which wholly ignores the +influence of the Christian church. Imbued with the idea of the +brotherhood of man, the church naturally fostered the early growth of +gilds and tried to make them displace the old heathen banquets. The work +of the church was, however, directive rather than creative. Gilds were a +natural manifestation of the associative spirit which is inherent in +mankind. The same needs produce in different ages associations which +have striking resemblances, but those of each age have peculiarities +which indicate a spontaneous growth. It is not necessary to seek the +germ of gilds in any antecedent age or institution. When the old +kin-bond or _maegth_ was beginning to weaken or dissolve, and the state +did not yet afford adequate protection to its citizens, individuals +naturally united for mutual help. + +Gilds are first mentioned in the Carolingian capitularies of 779 and +789, and in the enactments made by the synod of Nantes early in the 9th +century, the text of which has been preserved in the ecclesiastical +ordinances of Hincmar of Rheims (A.D. 852). The capitularies of 805 and +821 also contain vague references to sworn unions of some sort, and a +capitulary of 884 prohibits villeins from forming associations "vulgarly +called gilds" against those who have despoiled them. The Carolingians +evidently regarded such "conjurations" as "conspirations" dangerous to +the state. The gilds of Norway, Denmark and Sweden are first mentioned +in the 11th, 12th and 14th centuries respectively; those of France and +the Netherlands in the 11th. + +Many writers believe that the earliest references to gilds come from +England. The laws of Ine speak of _gegildan_ who help each other pay the +_wergeld_, but it is not entirely certain that they were members of gild +fraternities in the later sense. These are more clearly referred to in +England in the second half of the 9th century, though we have little +information concerning them before the 11th century. To the first half +of that century belong the statutes of the fraternities of Cambridge, +Abbotsbury and Exeter. They are important because they form the oldest +body of gild ordinances extant in Europe. The thanes' gild at Cambridge +afforded help in blood-feuds, and provided for the payment of the +_wergeld_ in case a member killed any one. The religious element was +more prominent in Orcy's gild at Abbotsbury and in the fraternity at +Exeter; their ordinances exhibit much solicitude for the salvation of +the brethren's souls. The Exeter gild also gave assistance when property +was destroyed by fire. Prayers for the dead, attendance at funerals of +gildsmen, periodical banquets, the solemn entrance oath, fines for +neglect of duty and for improper conduct, contributions to a common +purse, mutual assistance in distress, periodical meetings in the +gildhall,--in short, all the characteristic features of the later gilds +already appear in the statutes of these Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Some +continental writers, in dealing with the origin of municipal government +throughout western Europe, have, however, ascribed too much importance +to the Anglo-Saxon gilds, exaggerating their prevalence and contending +that they form the germ of medieval municipal government. This view +rests almost entirely on conjecture; there is no good evidence to show +that there was any organic connexion between gilds and municipal +government in England before the coming of the Normans. It should also +be noted that there is no trace of the existence of either craft or +merchant gilds in England before the Norman Conquest. Commerce and +industry were not yet sufficiently developed to call for the creation of +such associations. + +2. _Religious Gilds after the Norman Conquest._--Though we have not much +information concerning the religious gilds in the 12th century, they +doubtless flourished under the Anglo-Norman kings, and we know that they +were numerous, especially in the boroughs, from the 13th century onward. +In 1388 parliament ordered that every sheriff in England should call +upon the masters and wardens of all gilds and brotherhoods to send to +the king's council in Chancery, before the 2nd of February 1389, full +returns regarding their foundation, ordinances and property. Many of +these returns were edited by J. Toulmin Smith (1816-1869), and they +throw much light on the functions of the gilds. Their ordinances are +similar to those of the above-mentioned Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Each +member took an oath of admission, paid an entrance-fee, and made a small +annual contribution to the common fund. The brethren were aided in old +age, sickness and poverty, often also in cases of loss by robbery, +shipwreck and conflagration; for example, any member of the gild of St +Catherine, Aldersgate, was to be assisted if he "fall into poverty or be +injured through age, or through fire or water, thieves or sickness." +Alms were often given even to non-gildsmen; lights were supported at +certain altars; feasts and processions were held periodically; the +funerals of brethren were attended; and masses for the dead were +provided from the common purse or from special contributions made by the +gildsmen. Some of the religious gilds supported schools, or helped to +maintain roads, bridges and town-walls, or even came, in course of time, +to be closely connected with the government of the borough; but, as a +rule, they were simply private societies with a limited sphere of +activity. They are important because they played a prominent role in the +social life of England, especially as eleemosynary institutions, down to +the time of their suppression in 1547. Religious gilds, closely +resembling those of England, also flourished on the continent during the +middle ages. + +3. _The Gild Merchant._--The merchant and craft fraternities are +particularly interesting to students of economic and municipal history. +The gild merchant came into existence in England soon after the Norman +Conquest, as a result of the increasing importance of trade, and it may +have been transplanted from Normandy. Until clearer evidence of foreign +influence is found, it may, however, be safer to regard it simply as a +new application of the old gild principle, though this new application +may have been stimulated by continental example. The evidence seems to +indicate the pre-existence of the gild merchant in Normandy, but it is +not mentioned anywhere on the continent before the 11th century. It +spread rapidly in England, and from the reign of John onward we have +evidence of its existence in many English boroughs. But in some +prominent towns, notably London, Colchester, Norwich and the Cinque +Ports, it seems never to have been adopted. In fact it played a more +conspicuous role in the small boroughs than in the large ones. It was +regarded by the townsmen as one of their most important privileges. Its +chief function was to regulate the trade monopoly conveyed to the +borough by the royal grant of _gilda mercatoria_. A grant of this sort +implied that the gildsmen had the right to trade freely in the town, and +to impose payments and restrictions upon others who desired to exercise +that privilege. The ordinances of a gild merchant thus aim to protect +the brethren from the commercial competition of strangers or +non-gildsmen. More freedom of trade was allowed at all times in the +selling of wares by wholesale, and also in retail dealings during the +time of markets and fairs. The ordinances were enforced by an alderman +with the assistance of two or more deputies, or by one or two masters, +wardens or keepers. The _Morwenspeches_ were periodical meetings at +which the brethren feasted, revised their ordinances, admitted new +members, elected officers and transacted other business. + +It has often been asserted that the gild merchant and the borough were +identical, and that the former was the basis of the whole municipal +constitution. But recent research has discredited this theory both in +England and on the continent. Much evidence has been produced to show +that gild and borough, gildsmen and burgesses, were originally distinct +conceptions, and that they continued to be discriminated in most towns +throughout the middle ages. Admission to the gild was not restricted to +burgesses; nor did the brethren form an aristocratic body having control +over the whole municipal polity. No good evidence has, moreover, been +advanced to prove that this or any other kind of gild was the germ of +the municipal constitution. On the other hand, the gild merchant was +certainly an official organ or department of the borough administration, +and it exerted considerable influence upon the economic and corporative +growth of the English municipalities. + +Historians have expressed divergent views regarding the early relations +of the craftsmen and their fraternities to the gild merchant. One of the +main questions in dispute is whether artisans were excluded from the +gild merchant. Many of them seem to have been admitted to membership. +They were regarded as merchants, for they bought raw material and sold +the manufactured commodity; no sharp line of demarcation was drawn +between the two classes in the 12th and 13th centuries. Separate +societies of craftsmen were formed in England soon after the gild +merchant came into existence; but at first they were few in number. The +gild merchant did not give birth to craft fraternities or have anything +to do with their origin; nor did it delegate its authority to them. In +fact, there seems to have been little or no organic connexion between +the two classes of gilds. As has already been intimated, however, many +artisans probably belonged both to their own craft fraternity and to the +gild merchant, and the latter, owing to its great power in the town, may +have exercised some sort of supervision over the craftsmen and their +societies. When the king bestowed upon the tanners or weavers or any +other body of artisans the right to have a gild, they secured the +monopoly of working and trading in their branch of industry. Thus with +every creation of a craft fraternity the gild merchant was weakened and +its sphere of activity was diminished, though the new bodies were +subsidiary to the older and larger fraternity. The greater the +commercial and industrial prosperity of a town, the more rapid was the +multiplication of craft gilds, which was a natural result of the +ever-increasing division of labour. The old gild merchant remained +longest intact and powerful in the smaller boroughs, in which, owing to +the predominance of agriculture, few or no craft gilds were formed. In +some of the larger towns the crafts were prominent already in the 13th +century, but they became much more prominent in the first half of the +14th century. Their increase in number and power was particularly rapid +in the time of Edward III., whose reign marks an era of industrial +progress. Many master craftsmen now became wealthy employers of labour, +dealing extensively in the wares which they produced. The class of +dealers or merchants, as distinguished from trading artisans, also +greatly increased and established separate fraternities. When these +various unions of dealers and of craftsmen embraced all the trades and +branches of production in the town, little or no vitality remained in +the old gild merchant; it ceased to have an independent sphere of +activity. The tendency was for the single organization, with a general +monopoly of trade, to be replaced by a number of separate organizations +representing the various trades and handicrafts. In short, the function +of guarding and supervising the trade monopoly split up into various +fragments, the aggregate of the crafts superseding the old general gild +merchant. This transference of the authority of the latter to a number +of distinct bodies and the consequent disintegration of the old +organization was a gradual spontaneous movement,--a process of slow +displacement, or natural growth and decay, due to the play of economic +forces,--which, generally speaking, may be assigned to the 14th and 15th +centuries, the very period in which the craft gilds attained the zenith +of their power. While in most towns the name and the old organization of +the gild merchant thus disappeared and the institution was displaced by +the aggregate of the crafts towards the close of the middle ages, in +some places it survived long after the 15th century either as a +religious fraternity, shorn of its old functions, or as a periodical +feast, or as a vague term applied to the whole municipal corporation. + +On the continent of Europe the medieval gild merchant played a less +important role than in England. In Germany, France and the Netherlands +it occupies a less prominent place in the town charters and in the +municipal polity, and often corresponds to the later fraternities of +English dealers established either to carry on foreign commerce or to +regulate a particular part of the local trade monopoly. + +4. _Craft Gilds._--A craft gild usually comprised all the artisans in a +single branch of industry in a particular town. Such a fraternity was +commonly called a "mistery" or "company" in the 15th and 16th centuries, +though the old term "gild" was not yet obsolete. "Gild" was also a +common designation in north Germany, while the corresponding term in +south Germany was _Zunft_, and in France _metier_. These societies are +not clearly visible in England or on the continent before the early part +of the 12th century. With the expansion of trade and industry the number +of artisans increased, and they banded together for mutual protection. +Some German writers have maintained that these craft organizations +emanated from manorial groups of workmen, but strong arguments have +been advanced against the validity of this theory (notably by F. +Keutgen). It is unnecessary to elaborate any profound theory regarding +the origin of the craft gilds. The union of men of the same occupation +was a natural tendency of the age. In the 13th century the trade of +England continued to expand and the number of craft gilds increased. In +the 14th century they were fully developed and in a flourishing +condition; by that time each branch of industry in every large town had +its gild. The development of these societies was even more rapid on the +continent than in England. + +Their organization and aims were in general the same throughout western +Europe. Officers, commonly called wardens in England, were elected by +the members, and their chief function was to supervise the quality of +the wares produced, so as to secure good and honest workmanship. +Therefore, ordinances were made regulating the hours of labour and the +terms of admission to the gild, including apprenticeship. Other +ordinances required members to make periodical payments to a common +fund, and to participate in certain common religious observances, +festivities and pageants. But the regulation of industry was always +paramount to social and religious aims; the chief object of the craft +gild was to supervise the processes of manufacture and to control the +monopoly of working and dealing in a particular branch of industry. + +We have already called attention to the gradual displacement of the gild +merchant by the craft organizations. The relations of the former to the +latter must now be considered more in detail. There was at no time a +general struggle in England between the gild merchant and the craft +gilds, though in a few towns there seems to have been some friction +between merchants and artisans. There is no exact parallel in England to +the conflict between these two classes in Scotland in the 16th century, +or to the great continental revolution of the 13th and 14th centuries, +by which the crafts threw off the yoke of patrician government and +secured more independence in the management of their own affairs and +more participation in the civic administration. The main causes of these +conflicts on the continent were the monopoly of power by the patricians, +acts of violence committed by them, their bad management of the finances +and their partisan administration of justice. In some towns the victory +of the artisans in the 14th century was so complete that the whole civic +constitution was remodelled with the craft fraternities as a basis. A +widespread movement of this sort would scarcely be found in England, +where trade and industry were less developed than on the continent, and +where the motives of a class conflict between merchants and craftsmen +were less potent. Moreover, borough government in England seems to have +been mainly democratic until the 14th or 15th century; there was no +oligarchy to be depressed or suppressed. Even if there had been motives +for uprisings of artisans such as took place in Germany and the +Netherlands, the English kings would probably have intervened. True, +there were popular uprisings in England, but they were usually conflicts +between the poor and the rich; the crafts as such seldom took part in +these tumults. While many continental municipalities were becoming more +democratic in the 14th century, those of England were drifting towards +oligarchy, towards government by a close "select body." As a rule the +craft gilds secured no dominant influence in the boroughs of England, +but remained subordinate to the town government. Whatever power they did +secure, whether as potent subsidiary organs of the municipal polity for +the regulation of trade, or as the chief or sole medium for the +acquisition of citizenship, or as integral parts of the common council, +was, generally speaking, the logical sequence of a gradual economic +development, and not the outgrowth of a revolutionary movement by which +oppressed craftsmen endeavoured to throw off the yoke of an arrogant +patrician gild merchant. + +Two new kinds of craft fraternities appear in the 14th century and +become more prominent In the 15th, namely, the merchants' and the +journeymen's companies. The misteries or companies of merchants traded +in one or more kinds of wares. They were pre-eminently dealers, who +sold what others produced. Hence they should not be confused with the +old gild merchant, which originally comprised both merchants and +artisans, and had the whole monopoly of the trade of the town. In most +cases, the company of merchants was merely one of the craft +organizations which superseded the gild merchant. + +In the 14th century the journeymen or yeomen began to set up +fraternities in defence of their rights. The formation of these +societies marks a cleft within the ranks of some particular class of +artisans--a conflict between employers, or master artisans, and workmen. +The journeymen combined to protect their special interests, notably as +regards hours of work and rates of wages, and they fought with the +masters over the labour question in all its aspects. The resulting +struggle of organized bodies of masters and journeymen was widespread +throughout western Europe, but it was more prominent in Germany than in +France or England. This conflict was indeed one of the main features of +German industrial life in the 15th century. In England the fraternities +of journeymen, after struggling a while for complete independence, seem +to have fallen under the supervision and control of the masters' gilds; +in other words, they became subsidiary or affiliated organs of the older +craft fraternities. + +An interesting phenomenon in connexion with the organization of crafts +is their tendency to amalgamate, which is occasionally visible in +England in the 15th century, and more frequently in the 16th and 17th. A +similar tendency is visible in the Netherlands and in some other parts +of the continent already in the 14th century. Several fraternities--old +gilds or new companies, with their respective cognate or heterogeneous +branches of industry and trade--were fused into one body. In some towns +all the crafts were thus consolidated into a single fraternity; in this +case a body was reproduced which regulated the whole trade monopoly of +the borough, and hence bore some resemblance to the old gild merchant. + +In dealing briefly with the modern history of craft gilds, we may +confine our attention to England. In the Tudor period the policy of the +crown was to bring them under public or national control. Laws were +passed, for example in 1503, requiring that new ordinances of +"fellowships of crafts or misteries" should be approved by the royal +justices or by other crown officers; and the authority of the companies +to fix the price of wares was thus restricted. The statute of 5 +Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their jurisdiction over journeymen and +apprentices (see APPRENTICESHIP). + +The craft fraternities were not suppressed by the statute of 1547 (1 +Edward VI.). They were indeed expressly exempted from its general +operation. Such portions of their revenues as were devoted to definite +religious observances were, however, appropriated by the crown. The +revenues confiscated were those used for "the finding, maintaining or +sustentation of any priest or of any anniversary, or obit, lamp, light +or other such things." This has been aptly called "the disendowment of +the religion of the misteries." Edward VI.'s statute marks no break of +continuity in the life of the craft organizations. Even before the +Reformation, however, signs of decay had already begun to appear, and +these multiplied in the 16th and 17th centuries. The old gild system was +breaking down under the action of new economic forces. Its dissolution +was due especially to the introduction of new industries, organized on a +more modern basis, and to the extension of the domestic system of +manufacture. Thus the companies gradually lost control over the +regulation of industry, though they still retained their old monopoly in +the 17th century, and in many cases even in the 18th. In fact, many +craft fraternities still survived in the second half of the 18th +century, but their usefulness had disappeared. The medieval form of +association was incompatible with the new ideas of individual liberty +and free competition, with the greater separation of capital and +industry, employers and workmen, and with the introduction of the +factory system. Intent only on promoting their own interests and +disregarding the welfare of the community, the old companies had become +an unmitigated evil. Attempts have been made to find in them the +progenitors of the trades unions, but there seems to be no immediate +connexion between the latter and the craft gilds. The privileges of the +old fraternities were not formally abolished until 1835; and the +substantial remains or spectral forms of some are still visible in other +towns besides London. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W. E. Wilda, _Das Gildenwesen im Mittelalter_ (Halle, + 1831); E. Levasseur; _Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France_ (2 + vols., Paris, 1859, new ed. 1900); Gustav von Schonberg, "Zur + wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung des deutschen Zunftwesens im Mittelalter," + in _Jahrbucher fur Nationalokonomie und Statistik_, ed. B. Hildebrand, + vol. ix. pp. 1-72, 97-169 (Jena, 1867); Joshua Toulmin Smith, _English + Gilds_, with Lujo Brentano's introductory essay on the _History and + Development of Gilds_ (London, 1870); Max Pappenheim, _Die + altdanischen Schutzgilden_ (Breslau, 1885); W. J. Ashley, + _Introduction to English Economic History_ (2 vols., London, + 1888-1893; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1894); C. Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (2 + vols., Oxford, 1890); Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden der germanischen + Volker_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891); J. Malet Lambert, _Two Thousand + Years of Gild Life_ (Hull, 1891); Alfred Doren, _Untersuchungen zur + Geschichte der Kaufmannsgilden_ (Leipzig, 1893); H. Vander Linden, + _Les Gildes marchandes dans les Pays-Bas au moyen age_ (Ghent, 1896); + E. Martin Saint-Leon, _Histoire des corporations de metiers_ (Paris, + 1897); C. Nyrop, _Danmarks Gilde- og Lavsskraaer fra middelalderen_ (2 + vols., Copenhagen, 1899-1904); F. Keutgen, _Amter und Zunfte_ (Jena, + 1903); George Unwin, _Industrial Organization in the Sixteenth and + Seventeenth Centuries_ (Oxford, 1904). For bibliographies of gilds, + see H. Blanc, _Bibliographie des corporations ouvrieres_ (Paris, + 1885); G. Gonetta, _Bibliografia delle corporazioni d' arti e + mestieri_ (Rome, 1891); C. Gross, _Bibliography of British Municipal + History_, including Gilds (New York, 1897); W. Stieda, in + _Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, ed. J. Conrad (2nd ed., + Jena, 1901, under "Zunftwesen"). (C. Gr.) + + + + +GILEAD (i.e. "hard" or "rugged," a name sometimes used, both in earlier +and in later writers, to denote the whole of the territory occupied by +the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending from the Arnon to the +southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. 1; Judg. xx. 1; Jos. _Ant._ xii. +8. 3, 4). More precisely, however, it was the usual name of that +picturesque hill country which is bounded on the N. by the Hieromax +(Yarmuk), on the W. by the Jordan, on the S. by the Arnon, and on the E. +by a line which may be said to follow the meridian of Amman +(Philadelphia or Rabbath-Ammon). It thus lies wholly within 31 deg. 25' +and 32 deg. 42' N. lat. and 35 deg. 34' and 36 deg. E. long., and is cut +in two by the Jabbok. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain +along the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 ft. above the +Mediterranean; but, as seen from the west, the relative height is very +much increased by the depression of the Jordan valley. The range from +the same point of view presents a singularly uniform outline, having the +appearance of an unbroken wall; in reality, however, it is traversed by +a number of deep ravines (wadis), of which the most important are the +Yabis, the Ajlun, the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the +Zerka Ma'in. The great mass of the Gilead range is formed of Jura +limestone, the base slopes being sandstone partly covered by white +marls. The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the +western are well supplied with oak, terebinth and pine. The pastures are +everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and winding glens, in which +the tangled shrubbery is here and there broken up by open glades and +flat meadows of green turf, exhibit a beauty of vegetation such as is +hardly to be seen in any other district of Palestine. + +The first biblical mention of "Mount Gilead" occurs in connexion with +the reconcilement of Jacob and Laban (Genesis xxxi.). The composite +nature of the story makes an identification of the exact site difficult, +but one of the narrators (E) seems to have in mind the ridge of what is +now known as Jebel Ajlun, probably not far from Mahneh (Mahanaim), near +the head of the wadi Yabis. Some investigators incline to Suf, or to the +Jebel Kafkafa. At the period of the Israelite conquest the portion of +Gilead northward of the Jabbok (Zerka) belonged to the dominions of Og, +king of Bashan, while the southern half was ruled by Sihon, king of the +Amorites, having been at an earlier date wrested from Moab (Numb. xxi. +24; Deut. iii. 12-16). These two sections were allotted respectively to +Manasseh and to Reuben and Gad, both districts being peculiarly suited +to the pastoral and nomadic character of these tribes. A somewhat wild +Bedouin disposition, fostered by their surroundings, was retained by the +Israelite inhabitants of Gilead to a late period of their history, and +seems to be to some extent discernible in what we read alike of +Jephthah, of David's Gadites, and of the prophet Elijah. As the eastern +frontier of Palestine, Gilead bore the first brunt of Syrian and +Assyrian attacks. + +After the close of the Old Testament history the word Gilead seldom +occurs. It seems to have soon passed out of use as a precise +geographical designation; for though occasionally mentioned by +Apocryphal writers, by Josephus, and by Eusebius, the allusions are all +vague, and show that those who made them had no definite knowledge of +Gilead proper. In Josephus and the New Testament the name Peraea or +[Greek: peran tou Iordanou] is most frequently used; and the country is +sometimes spoken of by Josephus as divided into small provinces called +after the capitals in which Greek colonists had established themselves +during the reign of the Seleucidae. At present Gilead south of the +Jabbok alone is known by the name of Jebel Jilad (Mount Gilead), the +northern portion between the Jabbok and the Yarmuk being called Jebel +Ajlun. Jebel Jilad includes Jebel Osha, and has for its capital the town +of Es-Salt. The cities of Gilead expressly mentioned in the Old +Testament are Ramoth, Jabesh and Jazer. The first of these has been +variously identified with Es-Salt, with Reimun, with Jerash or Gerasa, +with er-Remtha, and with Salhad. Opinions are also divided on the +question of its identity with Mizpeh-Gilead (see _Encyc. Biblica_, art. +"Ramoth-Gilead"). Jabesh is perhaps to be found at Meriamin, less +probably at ed-Deir; Jazer, at Yajuz near Jogbehah, rather than at Sar. +The city named Gilead (Judg. x. 17, xii. 7; Hos. vi. 8, xii. 11) has +hardly been satisfactorily explained; perhaps the text has suffered. + +The "balm" (Heb. _sori_) for which Gilead was so noted (Gen. xlvii. 11; +Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 17), is probably to be identified +with mastic (Gen. xxxvii. 25, R.V. marg.) i.e. the resin yielded by the +_Pistachia Lentiscus_. The modern "balm of Gilead" or "Mecca balsam," an +aromatic gum produced by the _Balsamodendron opobalsamum_, is more +likely the Hebrew _mor_, which the English Bible wrongly renders +"myrrh." + + See G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog._ xxiv. foll. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GILES (GIL, GILLES), ST, the name given to an abbot whose festival is +celebrated on the 1st of September. According to the legend, he was an +Athenian ([Greek: Aigidios], Aegidius) of royal descent. After the death +of his parents he distributed his possessions among the poor, took ship, +and landed at Marseilles. Thence he went to Arles, where he remained for +two years with St Caesarius. He then retired into a neighbouring desert, +where he lived upon herbs and upon the milk of a hind which came to him +at stated hours. He was discovered there one day by Flavius, the king of +the Goths, who built a monastery on the place, of which he was the first +abbot. Scholars are very much divided as to the date of his life, some +holding that he lived in the 6th century, others in the 7th or 8th. It +may be regarded as certain that St Giles was buried in the hermitage +which he had founded in a spot which was afterwards the town of +St-Gilles (diocese of Nimes, department of Gard). His reputation for +sanctity attracted many pilgrims. Important gifts were made to the +church which contained his body, and a monastery grew up hard by. It is +probable that the Visigothic princes who were in possession of the +country protected and enriched this monastery, and that it was destroyed +by the Saracens at the time of their invasion in 721. But there are no +authentic data before the 9th century concerning his history. In 808 +Charlemagne took the abbey of St-Gilles under his protection, and it is +mentioned among the monasteries from which only prayers for the prince +and the state were due. In the 12th century the pilgrimages to St-Gilles +are cited as among the most celebrated of the time. The cult of the +saint, who came to be regarded as the special patron of lepers, beggars +and cripples, spread very extensively over Europe, especially in +England, Scotland, France, Belgium and Germany. The church of St Giles, +Cripplegate, London, was built about 1090, while the hospital for lepers +at St Giles-in-the-Fields (near New Oxford Street) was founded by Queen +Matilda in 1117. In England alone there are about 150 churches dedicated +to this saint. In Edinburgh the church of St Giles could boast the +possession of an arm-bone of its patron. Representations of St Giles are +very frequently met with in early French and German art, but are much +less common in Italy and Spain. + + See _Acta Sanctorum_ (September), i. 284-299; Devic and Vaissete, + _Histoire generale de Languedoc_, pp. 514-522 (Toulouse, 1876); E. + Rembry, _Saint Gilles, sa vie, ses reliques, son culte en Belgique et + dans le nord de la France_ (Bruges, 1881); F. Arnold-Forster, _Studies + in Church Dedications, or England's Patron Saints_, ii. 46-51, iii. + 15, 363-365 (1899); A. Jameson, _Sacred and Legendary Art_, 768-770 + (1896); A. Bell, _Lives and Legends of the English Bishops and Kings, + Medieval Monks, and other later Saints_, pp. 61, 70, 74-78, 84, 197 + (1904). (H. De.) + + + + +GILFILLAN, GEORGE (1813-1878), Scottish author, was born on the 30th of +January 1813, at Comrie, Perthshire, where his father, the Rev. Samuel +Gilfillan, the author of some theological works, was for many years +minister of a Secession congregation. After an education at Glasgow +University, in March 1836 he was ordained pastor of a Secession +congregation in Dundee. He published a volume of his discourses in 1839, +and shortly afterwards another sermon on "Hades," which brought him +under the scrutiny of his co-presbyters, and was ultimately withdrawn +from circulation. Gilfillan next contributed a series of sketches of +celebrated contemporary authors to the _Dumfries Herald_, then edited by +Thomas Aird; and these, with several new ones, formed his first _Gallery +of Literary Portraits_, which appeared in 1846, and had a wide +circulation. It was quickly followed by a _Second_ and a _Third +Gallery_. In 1851 his most successful work, the _Bards of the Bible_, +appeared. His aim was that it should be "a poem on the Bible"; and it +was far more rhapsodical than critical. His _Martyrs and Heroes of the +Scottish Covenant_ appeared in 1832, and in 1856 he produced a partly +autobiographical, partly fabulous, _History of a Man_. For thirty years +he was engaged upon a long poem, on _Night_, which was published in +1867, but its theme was too vast, vague and unmanageable, and the result +was a failure. He also edited an edition of the _British Poets_. As a +lecturer and as a preacher he drew large crowds, but his literary +reputation has not proved permanent. He died on the 13th of August 1878. +He had just finished a new life of Burns designed to accompany a new +edition of the works of that poet. + + + + +GILGAL (Heb. for "circle" of sacred stones), the name of several places +in Palestine, mentioned in the Old Testament. The name is not found east +of the Jordan. + +1. The first and most important was situated "in the east border of +Jericho" (Josh. iv. 19), on the border between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. +xv. 7). Josephus (Ant. v. 1. 4) places it 50 stadia from Jordan and 10 +from Jericho (the New Testament site). Jerome (_Onomasticon_, s.v. +"Galgal") places Gilgal 2 Roman miles from Jericho, and speaks of it as +a deserted place held in wonderful veneration ("miro cultu") by the +natives. This site, which in the middle ages appears to have been +lost--Gilgal being shown farther north--was in 1865 recovered by a +German traveller (Hermann Zschokke), and fixed by the English survey +party, though not beyond dispute. It is about 2 m. east of the site of +Byzantine Jericho, and 1 m. from modern er-Riha. A fine tamarisk, traces +of a church (which is mentioned in the 8th century), and a large +reservoir, now filled up with mud, remain. The place is called +Jiljulieh, and its position north of the valley of Achor (Wadi Kelt) and +east of Jericho agrees well with the biblical indications above +mentioned. A tradition connected with the fall of Jericho is attached to +the site (see C. R. Conder, _Tent Work_, 203 ff.). This sanctuary and +camp of Israel held a high place in the national regard, and is often +mentioned in Judges and Samuel. But whether this is the Gilgal spoken of +by Amos and Hosea in connexion with Bethel is by no means certain [see +(3) below]. + +2. Gilgal, mentioned in Josh. xii. 23 in connexion with Dor, appears to +have been situated in the maritime plain. Jerome (_Onomasticon_, s.v. +"Gelgel") speaks of a town of the name 6 Roman miles north of +Antipatris (Ras el 'Ain). This is apparently the modern Kalkilia, but +about 4 m. north of Antipatris is a large village called Jiljulieh, +which is more probably the biblical town. + +3. The third Gilgal (2 Kings iv. 38) was in the mountains (compare 1 +Sam. vii. 16, 2 Kings ii. 1-3) near Bethel. Jerome mentions this place +also (_Onomasticon_, s.v. "Galgala"). It appears to be the present +village of Jiljilia, about 7 English miles north of Beitin (Bethel). It +may have absorbed the old shrine of Shiloh and been the sanctuary famous +in the days of Amos and Hosea. + +4. Deut. xi. 30 seems to imply a Gilgal near Gerizim, and there is still +a place called Juleijil on the plain of Makhna, 2-1/2 m. S.E. of Shechem. +This may have been Amos's Gilgal and was almost certainly that of 1 +Macc. ix. 2. + +5. The Gilgal described in Josh. xv. 7 is the same as the Beth-Gilgal of +Neh. xii. 29; its site is not known. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GILGAMESH, EPIC OF, the title given to one of the most important +literary products of Babylonia, from the name of the chief personage in +the series of tales of which it is composed. + +Though the Gilgamesh Epic is known to us chiefly from the fragments +found in the royal collection of tablets made by Assur-bani-pal, the +king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) for his palace at Nineveh, internal +evidence points to the high antiquity of at least some portions of it, +and the discovery of a fragment of the epic in the older form of the +Babylonian script, which can be dated as 2000 B.C., confirms this view. +Equally certain is a second observation of a general character that the +epic originating as the greater portion of the literature in +Assur-bani-pal's collection in Babylonia is a composite product, that is +to say, it consists of a number of independent stories or myths +originating at different times, and united to form a continuous +narrative with Gilgamesh as the central figure. This view naturally +raises the question whether the independent stories were all told of +Gilgamesh or, as almost always happens in the case of ancient tales, +were transferred to Gilgamesh as a favourite popular hero. Internal +evidence again comes to our aid to lend its weight to the latter theory. + +While the existence of such a personage as Gilgamesh may be admitted, he +belongs to an age that could only have preserved a dim recollection of +his achievements and adventures through oral traditions. The name[1] is +not Babylonian, and what evidence as to his origin there is points to +his having come from Elam, to the east of Babylonia. He may have +belonged to the people known as the Kassites who at the beginning of the +18th century B.C. entered Babylonia from Elam, and obtained control of +the Euphrates valley. Why and how he came to be a popular hero in +Babylonia cannot with our present material be determined, but the epic +indicates that he came as a conqueror and established himself at Erech. +In so far we have embodied in the first part of the epic dim +recollections of actual events, but we soon leave the solid ground of +fact and find ourselves soaring to the heights of genuine myth. +Gilgamesh becomes a god, and in certain portions of the epic clearly +plays the part of the sun-god of the spring-time, taking the place +apparently of Tammuz or Adonis, the youthful sun-god, though the story +shows traits that differentiate it from the ordinary Tammuz myths. A +separate stratum in the Gilgamesh epic is formed by the story of +Eabani--introduced as the friend of Gilgamesh, who joins him in his +adventures. There can be no doubt that Eabani, who symbolizes primeval +man, was a figure originally entirely independent of Gilgamesh, but his +story was incorporated into the epic by that natural process to be +observed in the national epics of other peoples, which tends to connect +the favourite hero with all kinds of tales that for one reason or the +other become embedded in the popular mind. Another stratum is +represented by the story of a favourite of the gods known as +Ut-Napishtim, who is saved from a destructive storm and flood that +destroys his fellow-citizens of Shurippak. Gilgamesh is artificially +brought into contact with Ut-Napishtim, to whom he pays a visit for the +purpose of learning the secret of immortal life and perpetual youth +which he enjoys. During the visit Ut-Napishtim tells Gilgamesh the story +of the flood and of his miraculous escape. Nature myths have been +entwined with other episodes in the epic and finally the theologians +took up the combined stories and made them the medium for illustrating +the truth and force of certain doctrines of the Babylonian religion. In +its final form, the outcome of an extended and complicated literary +process, the Gilgamesh Epic covered twelve tablets, each tablet devoted +to one adventure in which the hero plays a direct or indirect part, and +the whole covering according to the most plausible estimate about 3000 +lines. Of all twelve tablets portions have been found among the remains +of Assur-bani-pal's library, but some of the tablets are so incomplete +as to leave even their general contents in some doubt. The fragments do +not all belong to one copy. Of some tablets portions of two, and of some +tablets portions of as many as four, copies have turned up, pointing +therefore to the great popularity of the production. The best preserved +are Tablets VI. and XI., and of the total about 1500 lines are now +known, wholly or in part, while of those partially preserved quite a +number can be restored. A brief summary of the contents of the twelve +may be indicated as follows: + +In the 1st tablet, after a general survey of the adventures of +Gilgamesh, his rule at Erech is described, where he enlists the services +of all the young able-bodied men in the building of the great wall of +the city. The people sigh under the burden imposed, and call upon the +goddess Aruru to create a being who might act as a rival to Gilgamesh, +curb his strength, and dispute his tyrannous control. The goddess +consents, and creates Eabani, who is described as a wild man, living +with the gazelles and the beasts of the field. Eabani, whose name, +signifying "Ea creates," points to the tradition which made Ea (q.v.) +the creator of humanity, symbolizes primeval man. Through a hunter, +Eabani and Gilgamesh are brought together, but instead of becoming +rivals, they are joined in friendship. Eabani is induced by the snares +of a maiden to abandon his life with the animals and to proceed to +Erech, where Gilgamesh, who has been told in several dreams of the +coming of Eabani, awaits him. Together they proceed upon several +adventures, which are related in the following four tablets. At first, +indeed, Eabani curses the fate which led him away from his former life, +and Gilgamesh is represented as bewailing Eabani's dissatisfaction. The +sun-god Shamash calls upon Eabani to remain with Gilgamesh, who pays him +all honours in his palace at Erech. With the decision of the two friends +to proceed to the forest of cedars in which the goddess Irnina--a form +of Ishtar--dwells, and which is guarded by Khumbaba, the 2nd tablet +ends. In the 3rd tablet, very imperfectly preserved, Gilgamesh appeals +through a Shamash priestess Rimat-Belit to the sun-god Shamash for his +aid in the proposed undertaking. The 4th tablet contains a description +of the formidable Khumbaba, the guardian of the cedar forest. In the 5th +tablet Gilgamesh and Eabani reach the forest. Encouraged by dreams, they +proceed against Khumbaba, and despatch him near a specially high cedar +over which he held guard. This adventure against Khumbaba belongs to the +Eabani stratum of the epic, into which Gilgamesh is artificially +introduced. The basis of the 6th tablet is the familiar nature-myth of +the change of seasons, in which Gilgamesh plays the part of the youthful +solar god of the springtime, who is wooed by the goddess of fertility, +Ishtar. Gilgamesh, recalling to the goddess the sad fate of those who +fall a victim to her charms, rejects the offer. In the course of his +recital snatches of other myths are referred to, including he famous +Tammuz-Adonis tale, in which Tammuz, the youthful bridegroom, is slain +by his consort Ishtar. The goddess, enraged at the insult, asks her +father Anu to avenge her. A divine bull is sent to wage a contest +against Gilgamesh, who is assisted by his friend Eabani. This scene of +the fight with the bull is often depicted on seal cylinders. The two +friends by their united force succeed in killing the bull, and then +after performing certain votive and purification rites return to Erech, +where they are hailed with joy. In this adventure it is clearly Eabani +who is artificially introduced in order to maintain the association with +Gilgamesh. The 7th tablet continues the Eabani stratum. The hero is +smitten with sore disease, but the fragmentary condition of this and the +succeeding tablet is such as to envelop in doubt the accompanying +circumstances, including the cause and nature of his disease. The 8th +tablet records the death of Eabani. The 9th and 10th tablets, +exclusively devoted to Gilgamesh, describe his wanderings in quest of +Ut-Napishtim, from whom he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate +that has overtaken his friend Eabani. He goes through mountain passes +and encounters lions. At the entrance to the mountain Mashu, +scorpion-men stand guard, from one of whom he receives advice as to how +to pass through the Mashu district. He succeeds in doing so, and finds +himself in a wonderful park, which lies along the sea coast. In the 10th +tablet the goddess Sabitu, who, as guardian of the sea, first bolts her +gate against Gilgamesh, after learning of his quest, helps him to pass +in a ship across the sea to the "waters of death." The ferry-man of +Ut-Napishtim brings him safely through these waters, despite the +difficulties and dangers of the voyage, and at last the hero finds +himself face to face with Ut-Napishtim. In the 11th tablet, Ut-Napishtim +tells the famous story of the Babylonian flood, which is so patently +attached to Gilgamesh in a most artificial manner. Ut-Napishtim and his +wife are anxious to help Gilgamesh to new life. He is sent to a place +where he washes himself clean from impurity. He is told of a weed which +restores youth to the one grown old. Scarcely has he obtained the weed +when it is snatched away from him, and the tablet closes somewhat +obscurely with the prediction of the destruction of Erech. In the 12th +tablet Gilgamesh succeeds in obtaining a view of Eabani's shade, and +learns through him of the sad fate endured by the dead. With this +description, in which care of the dead is inculcated as the only means +of making their existence in Aralu, where the dead are gathered, +bearable, the epic, so far as we have it, closes. + +The reason why the flood episode and the interview with the dead Eabani +are introduced is quite clear. Both are intended as illustrations of +doctrines taught in the schools of Babylonia; the former to explain that +only the favourites of the gods can hope under exceptional circumstances +to enjoy life everlasting; the latter to emphasize the impossibility for +ordinary mortals to escape from the inactive shadowy existence led by +the dead, and to inculcate the duty of proper care for the dead. That +the astro-theological system is also introduced into the epic is clear +from the division into twelve tablets, which correspond to the yearly +course of the sun, while throughout there are indications that all the +adventures of Gilgamesh and Eabani, including those which have an +historical background, have been submitted to the influence of this +system and projected on to the heavens. This interpretation of the +popular tales, according to which the career of the hero can be followed +in its entirety and in detail in the movements in the heavens, in time, +with the growing predominance of the astral-mythological system, +overshadowed the other factors involved, and it is in this form, as an +astral myth, that it passes through the ancient world and leaves its +traces in the folk-tales and myths of Hebrews, Phoenicians, Syrians, +Greeks and Romans throughout Asia Minor and even in India. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The complete edition of the Gilgamesh Epic by Paul + Haupt under the title _Das babylonische Nimrodepos_ (Leipzig, + 1884-1891), with the 12th tablet in the _Beitrage zur Assyriologie_, + i. 48-79; German translation by Peter Jensen in vol. vi. of Schrader's + _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_ (Berlin, 1900), pp. 116-273. See also + the same author's comprehensive work, _Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der + Weltliteratur_ (vol. i. 1906, vol. ii. to follow). An English + translation of the chief portions in Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia + and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898), ch. xxiii. (M. Ja.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name of the hero, written always ideographically, was for a + long time provisionally read _Izdubar_; but a tablet discovered by T. + G. Pinches gave the equivalent _Gilgamesh_ (see Jastrow, _Religion of + Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 468). + + + + +GILGIT, an outlying province in the extreme north-west of India, over +which Kashmir has reasserted her sovereignty. Only a part of the basin +of the river Gilgit is included within its political boundaries. There +is an intervening width of mountainous country, represented chiefly by +glaciers and ice-fields, and intersected by narrow sterile valleys, +measuring some 100 to 150 m. in width, to the north and north-east, +which separates the province of Gilgit from the Chinese frontier beyond +the Muztagh and Karakoram. This part of the Kashmir borderland includes +Kanjut (or Hunza) and Ladakh. To the north-west, beyond the sources of +the Yasin and Ghazar in the Shandur range (the two most westerly +tributaries of the Gilgit river) is the deep valley of the Yarkhun or +Chitral. Since the formation of the North-West Frontier Province in +1901, the political charge of Chitral, Dir and Swat, which was formerly +included within the Gilgit agency, has been transferred to the chief +commissioner of the new province, with his capital at Peshawar. Gilgit +proper now forms a _wazarat_ of the Kashmir state, administered by a +_wazir_. Gilgit is also the headquarters of a British political agent, +who exercises some supervision over the _wazir_, and is directly +responsible to the government of India for the administration of the +outlying districts or petty states of Hunza, Nagar, Ashkuman, Yasin and +Ghizar, the little republic of Chilas, &c. These states acknowledge the +suzerainty of Kashmir, paying an annual tribute in gold or grain, but +they form no part of its territory. + +Within the wider limits of the former Gilgit agency are many mixed +races, speaking different languages, which have all been usually classed +together under the name Dard. The Dard, however, is unknown beyond the +limits of the Kohistan district of the Indus valley to the south of the +Hindu Koh, the rest of the inhabitants of the Indus valley belonging to +Shin republics, or Chilas. The great mass of the Chitral population are +Kho (speaking Khowar), and they may be accepted as representing the +aboriginal population of the Chitral valley. (See HINDU KUSH.) Between +Chitral and the Indus the "Dards" of Dardistan are chiefly Yeshkuns and +Shins, and it would appear from the proportions in which these people +occupy the country that they must have primarily moved up from the +valley of the Indus in successive waves of conquest, first the Yeshkuns, +and then the Shins. No one can put a date to these invasions, but +Biddulph is inclined to class the Yeshkuns with the Yuechi who conquered +the Bactrian kingdom about 120 B.C. The Shins are obviously a Hindu race +(as is testified by their veneration for the cow), who spread themselves +northwards and eastwards as far as Baltistan, where they collided with +the aboriginal Tatar of the Asiatic highlands. But the ethnography of +"Dardistan," or the Gilgit agency (for the two are, roughly speaking, +synonymous), requires further investigation, and it would be premature +to attempt to frame anything like an ethnographical history of these +regions until the neighbouring provinces of Tangir and Darel have been +more fully examined. The _wazarat_ of Gilgit contains a population +(1901) of 60,885, all Mahommedans, mostly of the Shiah sect, but not +fanatical. The dominant race is that of the Shins, whose language is +universally spoken. This is one of the so-called Pisacha languages, an +archaic Aryan group intermediate between the Iranian and the Sanskritic. + +In general appearance and dress all the mountain-bred peoples extending +through these northern districts are very similar. Thick felt coats +reaching below the knee, loose "pyjamas" with cloth "putties" and boots +(often of English make) are almost universal, the distinguishing feature +in their costume being the felt cap worn close to the head and rolled up +round the edges. They are on the whole a light-hearted, cheerful race of +people, but it has been observed that their temperament varies much with +their habitat--those who live on the shadowed sides of mountains being +distinctly more morose and more serious in disposition than the dwellers +in valleys which catch the winter sunlight. They are, at the same time, +bloodthirsty and treacherous to a degree which would appear incredible +to a casual observer of their happy and genial manners, exhibiting a +strange combination (as has been observed by a careful student of their +ways) of "the monkey and the tiger." Addicted to sport of every kind, +they pursue no manufacturing industries whatsoever, but they are +excellent agriculturists, and show great ingenuity in their local +irrigation works and in their efforts to bring every available acre of +cultivable soil within the irrigated area. Gold washing is more or less +carried on in most of the valleys north of the river Gilgit, and gold +dust (contained in small packets formed with the petals of a cup-shaped +flower) is an invariable item in their official presents and offerings. +Gold dust still constitutes part of the annual tribute which, strangely +enough, is paid by Hunza to China, as well as to Kashmir. + + _Routes in the Gilgit Agency._--One of the oldest recorded routes + through this country is that which connects Mastuj in the Chitral + valley with Gilgit, passing across the Shandur range (12,250). It now + forms the high-road between Gilgit and Chitral, and has been + engineered into a passable route. From the north three great + glacier-bred affluents make their way to the river of Gilgit, joining + it at almost equal intervals, and each of them affords opportunity for + a rough passage northwards. (1) The Yasin river, which follows a + fairly straight course from north to south for about 40 m. from the + foot of the Darkot pass across the Shandur range (15,000) to its + junction with the river Gilgit, close to the little fort of Gupis, on + the Gilgit-Mastuj road. Much of this valley is cultivated and + extremely picturesque. At the head of it is a grand group of glaciers, + one of which leads up to the well-known pass of Darkot. (2) 25 m. (by + map measurement) below Gupis the Gilgit receives the Ashkuman affluent + from the north. The little Lake of Karumbar is held to be its source, + as it lies at the head of the river. The same lake is sometimes called + the source of the river Yarkhun or Chitral; and it seems possible that + a part of its waters may be deflected in each direction. The Karumbar, + or Ashkuman, is nearly twice the length of the Yasin, and the upper + half of the valley is encompassed by glaciers, rendering the route + along it uncertain and difficult. (3) 40 m. or so below the Ashkuman + junction, and nearly opposite the little station of Gilgit, the river + receives certain further contributions from the north which are + collected in the Hunza and Nagar basins. These basins include a system + of glaciers of such gigantic proportions that they are probably + unrivalled in any part of the world. The glacial head of the Hunza is + not far from that of the Karumbar, and, like the Karumbar, the river + commences with a wide sweep eastwards, following a course roughly + parallel to the crest of the Hindu Kush (under whose southern slopes + it lies close) for about 40 m. Then striking south for another 40 m., + it twists amidst the barren feet of gigantic rock-bound spurs which + reach upwards to the Muztagh peaks on the east and to a mass of + glaciers and snow-fields on the west, hidden amidst the upper folds of + mountains towering to an average of 25,000 ft. The next great bend is + again to the west for 30 m., before a final change of direction to the + south at the historical position of Chalt and a comparatively straight + run of 25 m. to a junction with the Gilgit. The valley of Hunza lies + some 10 m. from the point of this westerly bend, and 20 (as the crow + flies) from Chalt. Much has been written of the magnificence of Hunza + valley scenery, surrounded as it is by a stupendous ring of + snow-capped peaks and brightened with all the radiant beauty that + cultivation adds to these mountain valleys; but such scenery must be + regarded as exceptional in these northern regions. + + _Glaciers and Mountains._--Conway and Godwin Austen have described the + glaciers of Nagar which, enclosed between the Muztagh spurs on the + north-east and the frontier peaks of Kashmir (terminating with + Rakapushi) on the south-west, and massing themselves in an almost + uninterrupted series from the Hunza valley to the base of those + gigantic peaks which stand about Mount Godwin Austen, seem to be set + like an ice-sea to define the farthest bounds of the Himalaya. From + its uttermost head to the foot of the Hispar, overhanging the valley + above Nagar, the length of the glacial ice-bed known under the name of + Biafo is said to measure about 90 m. Throughout the mountain region of + Kanjut (or Hunza) and Nagar the valleys are deeply sunk between + mountain ranges, which are nowhere less than 15,000 ft. in altitude, + and which must average above 20,000 ft. As a rule, these valleys are + bare of vegetation. Where the summits of the loftier ranges are not + buried beneath snow and ice they are bare, bleak and splintered, and + the nakedness of the rock scenery extends down their rugged spurs to + the very base of them. On the lower slopes of tumbled debris the sun + in summer beats with an intensity which is unmitigated by the cloud + drifts which form in the moister atmosphere of the monsoon-swept + summits of the Himalaya. Sun-baked in summer and frost-riven in + winter, the mountain sides are but immense ramps of loose rock debris, + only awaiting the yearly melting of the upper snow-fields, or the + advent of a casual rainstorm, to be swept downwards in an avalanche of + mud and stones into the gorges below. Here it becomes piled and massed + together, till the pressure of accumulation forces it out into the + main valleys, where it spreads in alluvial fans and silts up the + plains. This formation is especially marked throughout the high level + valleys of the Gilgit basin. + + _Passes._--Each of these northern affluents of the main stream is + headed by a pass, or a group of passes, leading either to the Pamir + region direct, or into the upper Yarkhun valley from which a Pamir + route diverges. The Yasin valley is headed by the Darkot pass (15,000 + ft.), which drops into the Yarkhun not far from the foot of the + Baroghil group over the main Hindu Kush watershed. The Ashkuman is + headed by the Gazar and Kora Bohrt passes, leading to the valley of + the Ab-i-Punja; and the Hunza by the Kilik and Mintaka, the connecting + links between the Taghdumbash Pamir and the Gilgit basin. They are all + about the same height--15,000 ft. All are passable at certain times of + the year to small parties, and all are uncertain. In no case do they + present insuperable difficulties in themselves, glaciers and + snow-fields and mountain staircases being common to all; but the + gorges and precipices which distinguish the approaches to them from + the south, the slippery sides of shelving spurs whose feet are washed + by raging torrents, the perpetual weary monotony of ascent and descent + over successive ridges multiplying the gradient indefinitely--these + form the real obstacles blocking the way to these northern passes. + + _Gilgit Station._--The pretty little station of Gilgit (4890 ft. above + sea) spreads itself in terraces above the right bank of the river + nearly opposite the opening leading to Hunza, almost nestling under + the cliffs of the Hindu Koh, which separates it on the south from the + savage mountain wilderness of Darel and Kohistan. It includes a + residency for the British political officer, with about half a dozen + homes for the accommodation of officials, barracks suitable for a + battalion of Kashmir troops, and a hospital. Evidences of Buddhist + occupation are not wanting in Gilgit, though they are few and + unimportant. Such as they are, they appear to prove that Gilgit was + once a Buddhist centre, and that the old Buddhist route between Gilgit + and the Peshawar plain passed through the gorges and clefts of the + unexplored Darel valley to Thakot under the northern spurs of the + Black Mountain. + + _Connexion with India._--The Gilgit river joins the Indus a few miles + above the little post of Bunji, where an excellent suspension bridge + spans the river. The valley is low and hot, and the scenery between + Gilgit and Bunji is monotonous; but the road is now maintained in + excellent condition. A little below Bunji the Astor river joins the + Indus from the south-east, and this deep pine-clad valley indicates + the continuation of the highroad from Gilgit to Kashmir via the + Tragbal and Burzil passes. Another well-known route connecting Gilgit + with the Abbottabad frontier of the Punjab lies across the Babusar + pass (13,000 ft.), linking the lovely Hazara valley of Kaghan to + Chilas; Chilas (4150 ft.) being on the Indus, some 50 m. below Bunji. + This is a more direct connexion between Gilgit and the plains of the + Punjab than that afforded by the Kashmir route via Gurais and Astor, + which latter route involves two considerable passes--the Tragbal + (11,400) and the Burzil (13,500); but the intervening strip of + absolutely independent territory (independent alike of Kashmir and the + Punjab), which includes the hills bordering the road from the Babusar + pass to Chilas, renders it a risky route for travellers unprotected by + a military escort. Like the Kashmir route, it is now defined by a good + military road. + +_History._--The Dards are located by Ptolemy with surprising accuracy +(_Daradae_) on the west of the Upper Indus, beyond the head-waters of +the Swat river (_Soastus_), and north of the _Gandarae_, i.e. the +Gandharis, who occupied Peshawar and the country north of it. The +_Dardas_ and _Chinas_ also appear in many of the old Pauranic lists of +peoples, the latter probably representing the _Shin_ branch of the +Dards. This region was traversed by two of the Chinese pilgrims of the +early centuries of our era, who have left records of their journeys, +viz. Fahien, coming from the north, c. 400, and Hsuan Tsang, ascending +from Swat, c. 631. The latter says: "Perilous were the roads, and dark +the gorges. Sometimes the pilgrim had to pass by loose cords, sometimes +by light stretched iron chains. Here there were ledges hanging in +mid-air; there flying bridges across abysses; elsewhere paths cut with +the chisel, or footings to climb by." Yet even in these inaccessible +regions were found great convents, and miraculous images of Buddha. How +old the name of _Gilgit_ is we do not know, but it occurs in the +writings of the great Mahommedan savant al-Biruni, in his notices of +Indian geography. Speaking of Kashmir, he says: "Leaving the ravine by +which you enter Kashmir and entering the plateau, then you have for a +march of two more days on your left the mountains of Bolor and Shamilan, +Turkish tribes who are called _Bhattavaryan_. Their king has the title +Bhatta-Shah. Their towns are _Gilgit_, Aswira and Shiltash, and their +language is the Turkish. Kashmir suffers much from their inroads" (Trs. +Sachau, i. 207). There are difficult matters for discussion here. It is +impossible to say what ground the writer had for calling the people +_Turks_. But it is curious that the _Shins_ say they are all of the same +race as the Moguls of India, whatever they may mean by that. Gilgit, as +far back as tradition goes, was ruled by rajas of a family called +Trakane. When this family became extinct the valley was desolated by +successive invasions of neighbouring rajas, and in the 20 or 30 years +ending with 1842 there had been five dynastic revolutions. The most +prominent character in the history was a certain Gaur Rahman or Gauhar +Aman, chief of Yasin, a cruel savage and man-seller, of whom many evil +deeds are told. Being remonstrated with for selling a _mullah_, he said, +"Why not? The Koran, the word of God, is sold; why not sell the +expounder thereof?" The Sikhs entered Gilgit about 1842, and kept a +garrison there. When Kashmir was made over to Maharaja Gulab Singh of +Jammu in 1846, by Lord Hardinge, the Gilgit claims were transferred with +it. And when a commission was sent to lay down boundaries of the tracts +made over, Mr Vans Agnew (afterwards murdered at Multan) and Lieut. +Ralph Young of the Engineers visited Gilgit, the first Englishmen who +did so. The Dogras (Gulab Singh's race) had much ado to hold their +ground, and in 1852 a catastrophe occurred, parallel on a smaller scale +to that of the English troops at Kabul. Nearly 2000 men of theirs were +exterminated by Gaur Rahman and a combination of the Dards; only one +person, a soldier's wife, escaped, and the Dogras were driven away for +eight years. Gulab Singh would not again cross the Indus, but after his +death (in 1857) Maharaja Ranbir Singh longed to recover lost prestige. +In 1860 he sent a force into Gilgit. Gaur Rahman just then died, and +there was little resistance. The Dogras after that took Yasin twice, but +did not hold it. They also, in 1866, invaded Darel, one of the most +secluded Dard states, to the south of the Gilgit basin, but withdrew +again. In 1889, in order to guard against the advance of Russia, the +British government, acting as the suzerain power of Kashmir, established +the Gilgit agency; in 1901, on the formation of the North-West Frontier +province, the rearrangement was made as stated above. + + AUTHORITIES.--Biddulph, _The Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, + 1880); W. Lawrence, _The Kashmir Valley_ (London, 1895); Tanner, "Our + Present Knowledge of the Himalaya," _Proc. R.G.S._ vol. xiii., 1891; + Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); _Report of Lockhart's + Mission_ (Calcutta, 1886); E. F. Knight, _Where Three Empires Meet_ + (London, 1892); F. Younghusband, "Journeys in the Pamirs and Adjacent + Countries," _Proc. R.G.S._ vol. xiv., 1892; Curzon, "Pamirs," _Jour. + R.G.S._ vol. viii., 1896; Leitner, _Dardistan_ (1877). (T. H. H.*) + + + + +GILL, JOHN (1697-1771), English Nonconformist divine, was born at +Kettering, Northamptonshire. His parents were poor and he owed his +education chiefly to his own perseverance. In November 1716 he was +baptized and began to preach at Higham Ferrers and Kettering, until the +beginning of 1719, when he became pastor of the Baptist congregation at +Horsleydown in Southwark. There he continued till 1757, when he removed +to a chapel near London Bridge. From 1729 to 1756 he was Wednesday +evening lecturer in Great Eastcheap. In 1748 he received the degree of +D.D. from the university of Aberdeen. He died at Camberwell on the 14th +of October 1771. Gill was a great Hebrew scholar, and in his theology a +sturdy Calvinist. + + His principal works are _Exposition of the Song of Solomon_ (1728); + _The Prophecies of the Old Testament respecting the Messiah_ (1728); + _The Doctrine of the Trinity_ (1731); _The Cause of God and Truth_ (4 + vols., 1731); _Exposition of the Bible_, in 10 vols. (1746-1766), in + preparing which he formed a large collection of Hebrew and Rabbinical + books and MSS.; _The Antiquity of the Hebrew Language--Letters, Vowel + Points, and Accents_ (1767); _A Body of Doctrinal Divinity_ (1767); _A + Body of Practical Divinity_ (1770); and _Sermons and Tracts_, with a + memoir of his life (1773). An edition of his _Exposition of the Bible_ + appeared in 1816 with a memoir by John Rippon, which has also appeared + separately. + + + + +GILL. (1) One of the _branchiae_ which form the breathing apparatus of +fishes and other animals that live in the water. The word is also +applied to the _branchiae_ of some kinds of worm and arachnids, and by +transference to objects resembling the _branchiae_ of fishes, such as +the wattles of a fowl, or the radiating films on the under side of +fungi. The word is of obscure origin. Danish has _giaelle_, and Swedish +_gal_ with the same meaning. The root which appears in "yawn," "chasm," +has been suggested. If this be correct, the word will be in origin the +same as "gill," often spelled "ghyll," meaning a glen or ravine, common +in northern English dialects and also in Kent and Surrey. The _g_ in +both these words is hard. (2) A liquid measure usually holding +one-fourth of a pint. The word comes through the O. Fr. _gelle_, from +Low Lat. _gello_ or _gillo_, a measure for wine. It is thus connected +with "gallon." The _g_ is soft. (3) An abbreviation of the feminine name +Gillian, also often spelled Jill, as it is pronounced. Like Jack for a +boy, with which it is often coupled, as in the nursery rhyme, it is used +as a homely generic name for a girl. + + + + +GILLES DE ROYE, or EGIDIUS DE ROYA (d. 1478), Flemish chronicler, was +born probably at Montdidier, and became a Cistercian monk. He was +afterwards professor of theology in Paris and abbot of the monastery of +Royaumont at Asnieres-sur-Oise, retiring about 1458 to the convent of +Notre Dame des Dunes, near Furnes, and devoting his time to study. +Gilles wrote the _Chronicon Dunense_ or _Annales Belgici_, a resume and +continuation of the work of another monk, Jean Brandon (d. 1428), which +deals with the history of Flanders, and also with events in Germany, +Italy and England from 792 to 1478. + + The Chronicle was published by F. R. Sweert in the _Rerum Belgicarum + annales_ (Frankfort, 1620); and the earlier part of it by C. B. Kervyn + de Lettenhove in the _Chroniques relatives a l'histoire de la + Belgique_ (Brussels, 1870). + + + + +GILLES LI MUISIS, or LE MUISET (c. 1272-1352), French chronicler, was +born probably at Tournai, and in 1289 entered the Benedictine abbey of +St Martin in his native city, becoming prior of this house in 1327, and +abbot four years later. He only secured the latter position after a +contest with a competitor, but he appears to have been a wise ruler of +the abbey. Gilles wrote two Latin chronicles, _Chronicon majus_ and +_Chronicon minus_, dealing with the history of the world from the +creation until 1349. This work, which was continued by another writer to +1352, is valuable for the history of northern France, and Flanders +during the first half of the 14th century. It is published by J. J. de +Senet in the _Corpus chronicorum Flandriae_, tome ii. (Brussels, 1841); +Gilles also wrote some French poems, and these _Poesies de Gilles li +Muisis_ have been published by Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove (Louvain, +1882). + + See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome iii. + (Paris, 1903). + + + + +GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648), Scottish divine, was born at Kirkcaldy, +where his father, John Gillespie, was parish minister, on the 21st of +January 1613, and entered the university of St Andrews as a "presbytery +bursar" in 1629. On the completion of a brilliant student career, he +became domestic chaplain to John Gordon, 1st Viscount Kenmure (d. 1634), +and afterwards to John Kennedy, earl of Cassillis, his conscience not +permitting him to accept the episcopal ordination which was at that time +in Scotland an indispensable condition of induction to a parish. While +with the earl of Cassillis he wrote his first work, _A Dispute against +the English Popish Ceremonies obtruded upon the Church of Scotland_, +which, opportunely published shortly after the "Jenny Geddes" incident +(but without the author's name) in the summer of 1637, attracted +considerable attention, and within a few months had been found by the +privy council to be so damaging that by their orders all available +copies were called in and burnt. In April 1638, soon after the authority +of the bishops had been set aside by the nation, Gillespie was ordained +minister of Wemyss (Fife) by the presbytery of Kirkcaldy, and in the +same year was a member of the famous Glasgow Assembly, before which he +preached (November 21st) a sermon against royal interference in matters +ecclesiastical so pronounced, as to call for some remonstrance on the +part of Argyll, the lord high commissioner. In 1642 Gillespie was +translated to Edinburgh; but the brief remainder of his life was chiefly +spent in the conduct of public business in London. Already, in 1640, he +had accompanied the commissioners of the peace to England as one of +their chaplains; and in 1643 he was appointed by the Scottish Church one +of the four commissioners to the Westminster Assembly. Here, though the +youngest member of the Assembly, he took a prominent part in almost all +the protracted discussions on church government, discipline and worship, +supporting Presbyterianism by numerous controversial writings, as well +as by an unusual fluency and readiness in debate. Tradition long +preserved and probably enhanced the record of his victories in debate, +and especially of his encounter, with John Selden on Matt. xviii. +15-17. In 1645 he returned to Scotland, and is said to have drawn the +act of assembly sanctioning the directory of public worship. On his +return to London he had a hand in drafting the Westminster confession of +faith, especially chap. i. Gillespie was elected moderator of the +Assembly in 1648, but the laborious duties of that office (the court +continued to sit from the 12th of July to the 12th of August) told +fatally on an overtaxed constitution; he fell into consumption, and, +after many weeks of great weakness, he died at Kirkcaldy on the 17th of +December 1648. In acknowledgment of his great public services, a sum of +L1000 Scots was voted, though destined never to be paid, to his widow +and children by the committee of estates. A simple tombstone, which had +been erected to his memory in Kirkcaldy parish church, was in 1661 +publicly broken at the cross by the hand of the common hangman, but was +restored in 1746. + + His principal publications were controversial and chiefly against + Erastianism: Three sermons against Thomas Coleman; _A Sermon before + the House of Lords_ (August 27th), on Matt. iii. 2, _Nihil Respondem_ + and _Male Audis_; _Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the Divine Ordinance of + Church-government vindicated_ (1646), which is deservedly regarded as + a really able statement of the case for an exclusive spiritual + jurisdiction in the church; _One Hundred and Eleven Propositions + concerning the Ministry and Government of the Church_ (Edinburgh, + 1647). The following were posthumously published by his brother: _A + Treatise of Miscellany Questions_ (1649); _The Ark of the New + Testament_ (2 vols., 1661-1667); _Notes of Debates and Proceedings of + the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, from February 1644 to January + 1645_. See _Works_, with memoir, published by Hetherington (Edinburgh, + 1843-1846). + + + + +GILLESPIE, THOMAS (1708-1774), Scottish divine, was born at Clearburn, +in the parish of Duddingston, Midlothian, in 1708. He was educated at +the university of Edinburgh, and studied divinity first at a small +theological seminary at Perth, and afterwards for a brief period under +Philip Doddridge at Northampton, where he received ordination in January +1741. In September of the same year he was admitted minister of the +parish of Carnock, Fife, the presbytery of Dunfermline agreeing not only +to sustain as valid the ordination he had received in England, but also +to allow a qualification of his subscription to the church's doctrinal +symbol, so far as it had reference to the sphere of the civil magistrate +in matters of religion. Having on conscientious grounds persistently +absented himself from the meetings of presbytery held for the purpose of +ordaining one Andrew Richardson, an unacceptable presentee, as minister +of Inverkeithing, he was, after an unobtrusive but useful ministry of +ten years, deposed by the Assembly of 1752 for maintaining that the +refusal of the local presbytery to act in this case was justified. He +continued, however, to preach, first at Carnock, and afterwards in +Dunfermline, where a large congregation gathered round him. His conduct +under the sentence of deposition produced a reaction in his favour, and +an effort was made to have him reinstated; this he declined unless the +policy of the church were reversed. In 1761, in conjunction with Thomas +Boston of Jedburgh and Collier of Colinsburgh, he formed a distinct +communion under the name of "The Presbytery of Relief,"--relief, that is +to say, "from the yoke of patronage and the tyranny of the church +courts." The Relief Church eventually became one of the communions +combining to form the United Presbyterian Church. He died on the 19th of +January 1774. His only literary efforts were an _Essay on the +Continuation of Immediate Revelations in the Church, and a Practical +Treatise on Temptation_. Both works appeared posthumously (1774). In the +former he argues that immediate revelations are no longer vouchsafed to +the church, in the latter he traces temptation to the work of a personal +devil. + + See Lindsay's _Life and Times of the Rev. Thomas Gillespie_; + Smithers's _History of the Relief Church_; for the Relief Church see + UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. + + + + +GILLIE (from the Gael. _gille_, Irish _gille_ or _giolla_, a servant or +boy), an attendant on a Gaelic chieftain; in this sense its use, save +historically, is rare. The name is now applied in the Highlands of +Scotland to the man-servant who attends a sportsman in shooting or +fishing. A _gillie-wetfoot_, a term now obsolete (a translation of +_gillie-casfliuch_, from the Gaelic _cas_, foot, and _fliuch_, wet), +was the gillie whose duty it was to carry his master over streams. It +became a term of contempt among the Lowlanders for the "tail" (as his +attendants were called) of a Highland chief. + + + + +GILLIES, JOHN (1747-1836), Scottish historian and classical scholar, was +born at Brechin, in Forfarshire, on the 18th of January 1747. He was +educated at Glasgow University, where, at the age of twenty, he acted +for a short time as substitute for the professor of Greek. In 1784 he +completed his _History of Ancient Greece, its Colonies and Conquests_ +(published 1786). This work, valuable at a time when the study of Greek +history was in its infancy, and translated into French and German, was +written from a strong Whig bias, and is now entirely superseded (see +GREECE: _Ancient History_, "Authorities"). On the death of William +Robertson (1721-1793), Gillies was appointed historiographer-royal for +Scotland. In his old age he retired to Clapham, where he died on the +15th of February 1836. + + Of his other works, none of which are much read, the principal are: + _View of the Reign of Frederic II. of Prussia, with a Parallel between + that Prince and Philip II. of Macedon_ (1789), rather a panegyric than + a critical history; translations of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_ (1823) and + _Ethics and Politics_ (1786-1797); of the _Orations_ of Lysias and + Isocrates (1778); and _History of the World from Alexander to + Augustus_ (1807), which, although deficient in style, was commended + for its learning and research. + + + + +GILLINGHAM, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of +Dorsetshire, England, 105 m. W.S.W. from London by the London & +South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3380. The church of St Mary the +Virgin has a Decorated chancel. There is a large agricultural trade, and +manufactures of bricks and tiles, cord, sacking and silk, brewing and +bacon-curing are carried on. The rich undulating district in which +Gillingham is situated was a forest preserved by King John and his +successors, and the site of their lodge is traceable near the town. + + + + +GILLINGHAM, a municipal borough of Kent, England, in the parliamentary +borough of Chatham and the mid-division of the county, on the Medway +immediately east of Chatham, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. +Pop. (1891) 27,809; (1901) 42,530. Its population is largely industrial, +employed in the Chatham dockyards, and in cement and brick works in the +neighbourhood. The church of St Mary Magdalene ranges in date from Early +English to Perpendicular, retaining also traces of Norman work and some +early brasses. A great battle between Edmund Ironside and Canute, c. +1016, is placed here; and there was formerly a palace of the archbishops +of Canterbury. Gillingham was incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a +mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. The borough includes the populous +districts of Brompton and New Brompton. Area, 4355 acres. + + + + +GILLOT, CLAUDE (1673-1722), French painter, best known as the master of +Watteau and Lancret, was born at Langres. His sportive mythological +landscape pieces, with such titles as "Feast of Pan" and "Feast of +Bacchus," opened the Academy of Painting at Paris to him in 1715; and he +then adapted his art to the fashionable tastes of the day, and +introduced the decorative _fetes champetres_, in which he was afterwards +surpassed by his pupils. He was also closely connected with the opera +and theatre as a designer of scenery and costumes. + + + + +GILLOTT, JOSEPH (1799-1873); English pen-maker, was born at Sheffield on +the 11th of October 1799. For some time he was a working cutler there, +but in 1821 removed to Birmingham, where he found employment in the +"steel toy" trade, the technical name for the manufacture of steel +buckles, chains and light ornamental steel-work generally. About 1830 he +turned his attention to the manufacture of steel pens by machinery, and +in 1831 patented a process for placing elongated points on the nibs of +pens. Subsequently he invented other improvements, getting rid of the +hardness and lack of flexibility, which had been a serious defect in +nibs, by cutting, in addition to the centre slit, side slits, and cross +grinding the points. By 1859 he had built up a very large business. +Gillott was a liberal art-patron, and one of the first to recognize the +merits of J. M. W. Turner. He died at Birmingham on the 5th of January +1873. His collection of pictures, sold after his death, realized +L170,000. + + + + +GILLOW, ROBERT (d. 1773), the founder at Lancaster of a distinguished +firm of English cabinet-makers and furniture designers whose books begin +in 1731. He was succeeded by his eldest son Richard (1734-1811), who +after being educated at the Roman Catholic seminary at Douai was taken +into partnership about 1757, when the firm became Gillow & Barton, and +his younger sons Robert and Thomas, and the business was continued by +his grandson Richard (1778-1866). In its early days the firm of Gillow +were architects as well as cabinet-makers, and the first Richard Gillow +designed the classical Custom House at Lancaster. In the middle of the +18th century the business was extended to London, and about 1761 +premises were opened in Oxford Street on a site which was continuously +occupied until 1906. For a long period the Gillows were the best-known +makers of English furniture--Sheraton and Heppelwhite both designed for +them, and replicas are still made of pieces from the drawings of Robert +Adam. Between 1760 and 1770 they invented the original form of the +billiard-table; they were the patentees (about 1800) of the telescopic +dining-table which has long been universal in English houses; for a +Captain Davenport they made, if they did not invent, the first +writing-table of that name. Their vogue is indicated by references to +them in the works of Jane Austen, Thackeray and the first Lord Lytton, +and more recently in one of Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas. + + + + +GILLRAY, JAMES (1757-1815), English caricaturist, was born at Chelsea in +1757. His father, a native of Lanark, had served as a soldier, losing an +arm at Fontenoy, and was admitted first as an inmate, and afterwards as +an outdoor pensioner, at Chelsea hospital. Gillray commenced life by +learning letter-engraving, in which he soon became an adept. This +employment, however, proving irksome, he wandered about for a time with +a company of strolling players. After a very checkered experience he +returned to London, and was admitted a student in the Royal Academy, +supporting himself by engraving, and probably issuing a considerable +number of caricatures under fictitious names. Hogarth's works were the +delight and study of his early years. "Paddy on Horseback," which +appeared in 1779, is the first caricature which is certainly his. Two +caricatures on Rodney's naval victory, issued in 1782, were among the +first of the memorable series of his political sketches. The name of +Gillray's publisher and printseller, Miss Humphrey--whose shop was first +at 227 Strand, then in New Bond Street, then in Old Bond Street, and +finally in St James's Street--is inextricably associated with that of +the caricaturist. Gillray lived with Miss (often called Mrs) Humphrey +during all the period of his fame. It is believed that he several times +thought of marrying her, and that on one occasion the pair were on their +way to the church, when Gillray said: "This is a foolish affair, +methinks, Miss Humphrey. We live very comfortably together; we had +better let well alone." There is no evidence, however, to support the +stories which scandalmongers invented about their relations. Gillray's +plates were exposed in Humphrey's shop window, where eager crowds +examined them. A number of his most trenchant satires are directed +against George III., who, after examining some of Gillray's sketches, +said, with characteristic ignorance and blindness to merit, "I don't +understand these caricatures." Gillray revenged himself for this +utterance by his splendid caricature entitled, "A Connoisseur Examining +a Cooper," which he is doing by means of a candle on a "save-all"; so +that the sketch satirizes at once the king's pretensions to knowledge of +art and his miserly habits. + +The excesses of the French Revolution made Gillray conservative; and he +issued caricature after caricature, ridiculing the French and Napoleon, +and glorifying John Bull. He is not, however, to be thought of as a keen +political adherent of either the Whig or the Tory party; he dealt his +blows pretty freely all round. His last work, from a design by Bunbury, +is entitled "Interior of a Barber's Shop in Assize Time," and is dated +1811. While he was engaged on it he became mad, although he had +occasional intervals of sanity, which he employed on his last work. The +approach of madness must have been hastened by his intemperate habits. +Gillray died on the 1st of June 1815, and was buried in St James's +churchyard, Piccadilly. + +The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable to the +growth of a great school of caricature. Party warfare was carried on +with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and personalities were +freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray's incomparable wit and humour, +knowledge of life, fertility of resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, +and beauty of execution, at once gave him the first place among +caricaturists. He is honourably distinguished in the history of +caricature by the fact that his sketches are real works of art. The +ideas embodied in some of them are sublime and poetically magnificent in +their intensity of meaning; while the coarseness by which others are +disfigured is to be explained by the general freedom of treatment common +in all intellectual departments in the 18th century. The historical +value of Gillray's work has been recognized by accurate students of +history. As has been well remarked: "Lord Stanhope has turned Gillray to +account as a veracious reporter of speeches, as well as a suggestive +illustrator of events." His contemporary political influence is borne +witness to in a letter from Lord Bateman, dated November 3, 1798. "The +Opposition," he writes to Gillray, "are as low as we can wish them. You +have been of infinite service in lowering them, and making them +ridiculous." Gillray's extraordinary industry may be inferred from the +fact that nearly 1000 caricatures have been attributed to him; while +some consider him the author of 1600 or 1700. He is invaluable to the +student of English manners as well as to the political student. He +attacks the social follies of the time with scathing satire; and nothing +escapes his notice, not even a trifling change of fashion in dress. The +great tact Gillray displays in hitting on the ludicrous side of any +subject is only equalled by the exquisite finish of his sketches--the +finest of which reach an epic grandeur and Miltonic sublimity of +conception. + + Gillray's caricatures are divided into two classes, the political + series and the social. The political caricatures form really the best + history extant of the latter part of the reign of George III. They + were circulated not only over Britain but throughout Europe, and + exerted a powerful influence. In this series, George III., the queen, + the prince of Wales, Fox, Pitt, Burke and Napoleon are the most + prominent figures. In 1788 appeared two fine caricatures by Gillray. + "Blood on Thunder fording the Red Sea" represents Lord Thurlow + carrying Warren Hastings through a sea of gore: Hastings looks very + comfortable, and is carrying two large bags of money. "Market-Day" + pictures the ministerialists of the time as horned cattle for sale. + Among Gillray's best satires on the king are: "Farmer George and his + Wife," two companion plates, in one of which the king is toasting + muffins for breakfast, and in the other the queen is frying sprats; + "The Anti-Saccharites," where the royal pair propose to dispense with + sugar, to the great horror of the family; "A Connoisseur Examining a + Cooper"; "Temperance enjoying a Frugal Meal"; "Royal Affability"; "A + Lesson in Apple Dumplings"; and "The Pigs Possessed." Among his other + political caricatures may be mentioned: "Britannia between Scylla and + Charybdis," a picture in which Pitt, so often Gillray's butt, figures + in a favourable light; "The Bridal Night"; "The Apotheosis of Hoche," + which concentrates the excesses of the French Revolution in one view; + "The Nursery with Britannia reposing in Peace"; "The First Kiss these + Ten Years" (1803), another satire on the peace, which is said to have + greatly amused Napoleon; "The Handwriting upon the Wall"; "The + Confederated Coalition," a fling at the coalition which superseded the + Addington ministry; "Uncorking Old Sherry"; "The Plum-Pudding in + Danger"; "Making Decent," i.e. "Broad-bottomites getting into the + Grand Costume"; "Comforts of a Bed of Roses"; "View of the Hustings in + Covent Garden"; "Phaethon Alarmed"; and "Pandora opening her Box." The + miscellaneous series of caricatures, although they have scarcely the + historical importance of the political series, are more readily + intelligible, and are even more amusing. Among the finest are: + "Shakespeare Sacrificed"; "Flemish Characters" (two plates); "Twopenny + Whist"; "Oh! that this too solid flesh would melt"; "Sandwich + Carrots"; "The Gout"; "Comfort to the Corns"; "Begone Dull Care"; "The + Cow-Pock," which gives humorous expression to the popular dread of + vaccination; "Dilletanti Theatricals"; and "Harmony before Matrimony" + and "Matrimonial Harmonics"--two exceedingly good sketches in violent + contrast to each other. + + A selection of Gillray's works appeared in parts in 1818; but the + first good edition was Thomas M'Lean's, which was published, with a + key, in 1830. A somewhat bitter attack, not only on Gillray's + character, but even on his genius, appeared in the _Athenaeum_ for + October 1, 1831, which was successfully refuted by J. Landseer in the + _Athenaeum_ a fortnight later. In 1851 Henry G. Bohn put out an + edition, from the original plates, in a handsome folio, the coarser + sketches being published in a separate volume. For this edition Thomas + Wright and R. H. Evans wrote a valuable commentary, which is a good + history of the times embraced by the caricatures. The next edition, + entitled _The Works of James Gillray, the Caricaturist: with the Story + of his Life and Times_ (Chatto & Windus, 1874), was the work of Thomas + Wright, and, by its popular exposition and narrative, introduced + Gillray to a very large circle formerly ignorant of him. This edition, + which is complete in one volume, contains two portraits of Gillray, + and upwards of 400 illustrations. Mr J. J. Cartwright, in a letter to + the _Academy_ (Feb. 28, 1874), drew attention to the existence of a + MS. volume, in the British Museum, containing letters to and from + Gillray, and other illustrative documents. The extracts he gave were + used in a valuable article in the _Quarterly Review_ for April 1874. + See also the _Academy_ for Feb. 21 and May 16, 1874. + + There is a good account of Gillray in Wright's _History of Caricature + and Grotesque in Literature and Art_ (1865); See also the article + CARICATURE. + + + + +GILLYFLOWER, a popular name applied to various flowers, but principally +to the clove, _Dianthus Caryophyllus_, of which the carnation is a +cultivated variety, and to the stock, _Matthiola incana_, a well-known +garden favourite. The word is sometimes written gilliflower or +gilloflower, and is reputedly a corruption of July-flower, "so called +from the month they blow in." Henry Phillips (1775-1838); in his _Flora +historica_, remarks that Turner (1568) "calls it gelouer, to which he +adds the word stock, as we would say gelouers that grow on a stem or +stock, to distinguish them from the clove-gelouers and the +wall-gelouers. Gerard, who succeeded Turner, and after him Parkinson, +calls it gilloflower, and thus it travelled from its original +orthography until it was called July-flower by those who knew not whence +it was derived." Dr Prior, in his useful volume on the _Popular Names of +British Plants_, very distinctly shows the origin of the name. He +remarks that it was "formerly spelt gyllofer and gilofre with the _o_ +long, from the French _giroflee_, Italian _garofalo_ (M. Lat. +_gariofilum_), corrupted from the Latin _Caryophyllum_, and referring to +the spicy odour of the flower, which seems to have been used in +flavouring wine and other liquors to replace the more costly clove of +India. The name was originally given in Italy to plants of the pink +tribe, especially the carnation, but has in England been transferred of +late years to several cruciferous plants." The gillyflower of Chaucer +and Spenser and Shakespeare was, as in Italy, _Dianthus Caryophyllus_; +that of later writers and of gardeners, _Matthiola_. Much of the +confusion in the names of plants has doubtless arisen from the vague use +of the French terms _giroflee_, _oeillet_ and _violette_, which were all +applied to flowers of the pink tribe, but in England were subsequently +extended and finally restricted to very different plants. The use made +of the flowers to impart a spicy flavour to ale and wine is alluded to +by Chaucer, who writes: + + "And many a clove gilofre + To put in ale"; + +also by Spenser, who refers to them by the name of sops in wine, which +was applied in consequence of their being steeped in the liquor. In both +these cases, however, it is the clove-gillyflower which is intended, as +it is also in the passage from Gerard, in which he states that the +conserve made of the flowers with sugar "is exceeding cordiall, and +wonderfully above measure doth comfort the heart, being eaten now and +then." The principal other plants which bear the name are the +wallflower, _Cheiranthus Cheiri_, called wall-gillyflower in old books; +the dame's violet, _Hesperis matronalis_, called variously the queen's, +the rogue's and the winter gillyflower; the ragged-robin, _Lychnis +Flos-cuculi_, called marsh-gillyflower and cuckoo-gillyflower; the +water-violet, _Hottonia palustris_, called water-gillyflower; and the +thrift, _Armeria vulgaris_, called sea-gillyflower. As a separate +designation it is nowadays usually applied to the wallflower. + + + + +GILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1908), American educationist, was born in +Norwich, Connecticut, on the 6th of July 1831. He graduated at Yale in +1852, studied in Berlin, was assistant librarian of Yale in 1856-1858 +and librarian in 1858-1865, and was professor of physical and political +geography in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University and a +member of the Governing Board of this School in 1863-1872. From 1856 to +1860 he was a member of the school board of New Haven, and from August +1865 to January 1867 secretary of the Connecticut Board of Education. In +1872 he became president of the University of California at Berkeley. On +the 30th of December 1874 he was elected first president of Johns +Hopkins University (q.v.) at Baltimore. He entered upon his duties on +the 1st of May 1875, and was formally inaugurated on the 22nd of +February 1876. This post he filled until 1901. From 1901 to 1904 he was +the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C. He +died at Norwich, Conn., on the 13th of October 1908. He received the +honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard, St John's, Columbia, Yale, North +Carolina, Princeton, Toronto, Wisconsin and Clark Universities, and +William and Mary College. His influence upon higher education in America +was great, especially at Johns Hopkins, where many wise details of +administration, the plan of bringing to the university as lecturers for +a part of the year scholars from other colleges, the choice of a +singularly brilliant and able faculty, and the marked willingness to +recognize workers in new branches of science were all largely due to +him. To the organization of the Johns Hopkins hospital, of which he was +made director in 1889, he contributed greatly. He was a singularly good +judge of men and an able administrator, and under him Johns Hopkins had +an immense influence, especially in the promotion of original and +productive research. He was always deeply interested in the researches +of the professors at Johns Hopkins, and it has been said of him that his +attention as president was turned inside and not outside the university. +He was instrumental in determining the policy of the Sheffield +Scientific School of Yale University while he was a member of its +governing board; on the 28th of October 1897 he delivered at New Haven a +semi-centennial discourse on the school, which appears in his +_University Problems_. He was a prominent member of the American +Archaeological Society and of the American Oriental Society; was one of +the original trustees of the John F. Slater Fund (for a time he was +secretary, and from 1893 until his death was president of the board); +from 1891 until his death was a trustee of the Peabody Educational Fund +(being the vice-president of the board); and was an original member of +the General Education Board (1902) and a trustee of the Russell Sage +Foundation for Social Betterment (1907). In 1896-1897 he served on the +Venezuela Boundary Commission appointed by President Cleveland. In 1901 +he succeeded Carl Schurz as president of the National Civil Service +Reform League and served until 1907. Some of his papers and addresses +are collected in a volume entitled _University Problems in the United +States_ (1888). He wrote, besides, _James Monroe_ (1883), in the +American Statesmen Series; a _Life of James D. Dana_, the geologist +(1899); _Science and Letters at Yale_ (1901), and _The Launching of a +University_ (1906), an account of the early years of Johns Hopkins. + + + + +GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD (1829-1892), American bandmaster, was born in +Ireland, and settled in America about 1850. He had been in the band of +an Irish regiment, and he had great success as leader of a military band +at Salem, Massachusetts, and subsequently (1859) in Boston. He increased +his reputation during the Civil War, particularly by organizing a +monster orchestra of massed bands for a festival at New Orleans in 1864; +and at Boston in 1869 and 1872 he gave similar performances. He was +enormously popular as a bandmaster, and composed or arranged a large +variety of pieces for orchestra. He died at St Louis on the 24th of +September 1892. + + + + +GILPIN, BERNARD (1517-1583), the "Apostle of the North," was descended +from a Westmorland family, and was born at Kentmere in 1517. He was +educated at Queen's College, Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1540, M.A. in +1542 and B.D. in 1549. He was elected fellow of Queen's and ordained in +1542; subsequently he was elected student of Christ Church. At Oxford he +first adhered to the conservative side, and defended the doctrines of +the church against Hooper; but his confidence was somewhat shaken by +another public disputation which he had with Peter Martyr. In 1552 he +preached before King Edward VI. a sermon on sacrilege, which was duly +published, and displays the high ideal which even then he had formed of +the clerical office; and about the same time he was presented to the +vicarage of Norton, in the diocese of Durham, and obtained a licence, +through William Cecil, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom as +long as the king lived. On Mary's accession he went abroad to pursue his +theological investigations at Louvain, Antwerp and Paris; and from a +letter of his own, dated Louvain, 1554, we get a glimpse of the quiet +student rejoicing in an "excellent library belonging to a monastery of +Minorites." Returning to England towards the close of Queen Mary's +reign, he was invested by his mother's uncle, Tunstall, bishop of +Durham, with the archdeaconry of Durham, to which the rectory of +Easington was annexed. The freedom of his attacks on the vices, and +especially the clerical vices, of his times excited hostility against +him, and he was formally brought before the bishop on a charge +consisting of thirteen articles. Tunstall, however, not only dismissed +the case, but presented the offender with the rich living of +Houghton-le-Spring; and when the accusation was again brought forward, +he again protected him. Enraged at this defeat, Gilpin's enemies laid +their complaint before Bonner, bishop of London, who secured a royal +warrant for his apprehension. Upon this Gilpin prepared for martyrdom; +and, having ordered his house-steward to provide him with a long +garment, that he might "goe the more comely to the stake," he set out +for London. Fortunately, however, for him, he broke his leg on the +journey, and his arrival was thus delayed till the news of Queen Mary's +death freed him from further danger. He at once returned to Houghton, +and there he continued to labour till his death on the 4th of March +1583. When the Roman Catholic bishops were deprived he was offered the +see of Carlisle; but he declined this honour and also the provostship of +Queen's, which was offered him in 1560. At Houghton his course of life +was a ceaseless round of benevolent activity. In June 1560 he +entertained Cecil and Dr Nicholas Wotton on their way to Edinburgh. His +hospitable manner of living was the admiration of all. His living was a +comparatively rich one, his house was better than many bishops' palaces, +and his position was that of a clerical magnate. In his household he +spent "every fortnight 40 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of malt and an ox, +besides a proportional quantity of other kinds of provisions." Strangers +and travellers found a ready reception; and even their horses were +treated with so much care that it was humorously said that, if one were +turned loose in any part of the country, it would immediately make its +way to the rector of Houghton. Every Sunday from Michaelmas till Easter +was a public day with Gilpin. For the reception of his parishioners he +had three tables well covered--one for gentlemen, the second for +husbandmen, the third for day-labourers; and this piece of hospitality +he never omitted, even when losses or scarcity made its continuance +difficult. He built and endowed a grammar-school at a cost of upwards of +L500, educated and maintained a large number of poor children at his own +charge, and provided the more promising pupils with means of studying at +the universities. So many young people, indeed, flocked to his school +that there was not accommodation for them in Houghton, and he had to fit +up part of his house as a boarding establishment. Grieved at the +ignorance and superstition which the remissness of the clergy permitted +to flourish in the neighbouring parishes, he used every year to visit +the most neglected parts of Northumberland, Yorkshire, Cheshire, +Westmorland and Cumberland; and that his own flock might not suffer, he +was at the expense of a constant assistant. Among his parishioners he +was looked up to as a judge, and did great service in preventing +law-suits amongst them. If an industrious man suffered a loss, he +delighted to make it good; if the harvest was bad, he was liberal in the +remission of tithes. The boldness which he could display at need is well +illustrated by his action in regard to duelling. Finding one day a +challenge-glove stuck up on the door of a church where he was to preach, +he took it down with his own hand, and proceeded to the pulpit to +inveigh against the unchristian custom. His theological position was not +in accord with any of the religious parties of his age, and Gladstone +thought that the catholicity of the Anglican Church was better +exemplified in his career than in those of more prominent ecclesiastics +(pref. to A. W. Hutton's edition of S. R. Maitland's _Essays on the +Reformation_). He was not satisfied with the Elizabethan settlement, had +great respect for the Fathers, and was with difficulty induced to +subscribe. Archbishop Sandys' views on the Eucharist horrified him; but +on the other hand he maintained friendly relations with Bishop +Pilkington and Thomas Lever, and the Puritans had some hope of his +support. + + A life of Bernard Gilpin, written by George Carleton, bishop of + Chichester, who had been a pupil of Gilpin's at Houghton, will be + found in Bates's _Vitae selectorum aliquot virorum_, &c. (London, + 1681). A translation of this sketch by William Freake, minister, was + published at London, 1629; and in 1852 it was reprinted in Glasgow, + with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. It forms one of the lives + in Christopher Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical Biography_ (vol. iii., 4th + ed.), having been compared with Carleton's Latin text. Another + biography of Gilpin, which, however, adds little to Bishop Carleton's, + was written by William Gilpin, M.A., prebendary of Ailsbury (London, + 1753 and 1854). See also _Dict. Nat. Biog._ + + + + +GILSONITE (so named after S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City), or UINTAHITE, +or UINTAITE, a description of asphalt occurring in masses several inches +in diameter in the Uinta (or Uintah) valley, near Fort Duchesne, Utah. +It is of black colour; its fracture is conchoidal, and it has a lustrous +surface. When warmed it becomes plastic, and on further beating fuses +perfectly. It has a specific gravity of 1.065 to 1.070. It dissolves +freely in hot oil of turpentine. The output amounted to 10,916 short +tons for the year 1905, and the value was $4.51 per ton. + + + + +GILYAKS, a hybrid people, originally widespread throughout the Lower +Amur district, but now confined to the Amur delta and the north of +Sakhalin. They have been affiliated by some authorities to the Ainu of +Sakhalin and Yezo; but they are more probably a mongrel people, and Dr +A. Anuchin states that there are two types, a Mongoloid with sparse +beard, high cheek-bones and flat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard +and more regular features. The Chinese call them _Yupitatse_, +"Fish-skin-clad people," from their wearing a peculiar dress made from +salmon skin. + + See E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (1861); Dr A. + Anuchin, _Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc._ xx., Supplement (Moscow, 1877); H. + von Siebold, _Uber die Aino_ (Berlin, 1881); J. Deniker in Revue + d'ethnographie (Paris, 1884); L. Schrenck, _Die Volker des Amurlandes_ + (St Petersburg, 1891). + + + + +GIMBAL, a mechanical device for hanging some object so that it should +keep a horizontal and constant position, while the body from which it is +suspended is in free motion, so that the motion of the supporting body +is not communicated to it. It is thus used particularly for the +suspension of compasses or chronometers and lamps at sea, and usually +consists of a ring freely moving on an axis, within which the object +swings on an axis at right angles to the ring. + +The word is derived from the O. Fr. _gemel_, from Lat. _gemellus_, +diminutive of _geminus_, a twin, and appears also in _gimmel_ or +_jimbel_ and as _gemel_, especially as a term for a ring formed of two +hoops linked together and capable of separation, used in the 16th and +17th centuries as betrothal and keepsake rings. They sometimes were made +of three or more hoops linked together. + + + + +GIMLET (from the O. Fr. _guimbelet_, probably a diminutive of the O.E. +_wimble_, and the Scandinavian _wammle_, to bore or twist; the modern +French is _gibelet_), a tool used for boring small holes. It is made of +steel, with a shaft having a hollow side, and a screw at the end for +boring the wood; the handle of wood is fixed transversely to the shaft. +A gimlet is always a small tool. A similar tool of large size is called +an "auger" (see TOOL). + + + + +GIMLI, in Scandinavian mythology, the great hall of heaven whither the +righteous will go to spend eternity. + + + + +GIMP, or GYMP. (1) (Of somewhat doubtful origin, but probably a nasal +form of the Fr. _guipure_, from _guiper_, to cover or "whip" a cord over +with silk), a stiff trimming made of silk or cotton woven around a firm +cord, often further ornamented by a metal cord running through it. It is +also sometimes covered with bugles, beads or other glistening ornaments. +The trimming employed by upholsterers to edge curtains, draperies, the +seats of chairs, &c., is also called gimp; and in lace work it is the +firmer or coarser thread which outlines the pattern and strengthens the +material. (2) A shortened form of gimple (the O.E. _wimple_), the +kerchief worn by a nun around her throat, sometimes also applied to a +nun's stomacher. + + + + +GIN, an aromatized or compounded potable spirit, the characteristic +flavour of which is derived from the juniper berry. The word "gin" is an +abbreviation of Geneva, both being primarily derived from the Fr. +_genievre_ (juniper). The use of the juniper for flavouring alcoholic +beverages may be traced to the invention, or perfecting, by Count de +Morret, son of Henry IV. of France, of juniper wine. It was the custom +in the early days of the spirit industry, in distilling spirit from +fermented liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, such +as ginger, grains of paradise, &c., to take off the nauseous flavour of +the crude spirits then made. The invention of juniper wine, no doubt, +led some one to try the juniper berry for this purpose, and as this +flavouring agent was found not only to yield an agreeable beverage, but +also to impart a valuable medicinal quality to the spirit, it was +generally made use of by makers of aromatized spirits thereafter. It is +probable that the use of grains of paradise, pepper and so on, in the +early days of spirit manufacture, for the object mentioned above, +indirectly gave rise to the statements which are still found in current +text-books and works of reference as to the use of Cayenne pepper, +_cocculus indicus_, sulphuric acid and so on, for the purpose of +adulterating spirits. It is quite certain that such materials are not +used nowadays, and it would indeed, in view of modern conditions of +manufacture and of public taste, be hard to find a reason for their use. +The same applies to the suggestions that such substances as acetate of +lead, alum or sulphate of zinc are employed for the fining of gin. + +There are two distinct types of gin, namely, the Dutch _geneva_ or +_hollands_ and the British gin. Each of these types exists in the shape +of numerous sub-varieties. Broadly speaking, British gin is prepared +with a highly rectified spirit, whereas in the manufacture of Dutch gin +a preliminary rectification is not an integral part of the process. The +old-fashioned Hollands is prepared much after the following fashion. A +mash consisting of about one-third of malted barley or bere and +two-thirds rye-meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high +temperature. After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small +quantity of yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete, +and the wash so obtained is distilled, and the resulting distillate (the +low wines) is redistilled, with the addition of the flavouring matter +(juniper berries, &c.) and a little salt. Originally the juniper berries +were ground with the malt, but this practice no longer obtains, but some +distillers, it is believed, still mix the juniper berries with the wort +and subject the whole to fermentation. When the redistillation over +juniper is repeated, the product is termed _double_ (_geneva_, &c.). +There are numerous variations in the process described, wheat being +frequently employed in lieu of rye. In the manufacture of British +gin,[1] a highly rectified spirit (see SPIRITS) is redistilled in the +presence of the flavouring matter (principally juniper and coriander), +and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The product so +obtained constitutes the "dry" gin of commerce. Sweetened or cordialized +gin is obtained by adding sugar and flavouring matter (juniper, +coriander, angelica, &c.) to the dry variety. Inferior qualities of gin +are made by simply adding essential oils to plain spirit, the +distillation process being omitted. The essential oil of juniper is a +powerful diuretic, and gin is frequently prescribed in affections of the +urinary organs. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The precise origin of the term "Old Tom," as applied to + unsweetened gin, appears to be somewhat obscure. In the English case + of _Boord & Son_ v. _Huddart_ (1903), in which the plaintiffs + established their right to the "Cat Brand" trade-mark, it was proved + before Mr Justice Swinfen Eady that this firm had first adopted about + 1849 the punning association of the picture of a Tom cat on a barrel + with the name of "Old Tom"; and it was at one time supposed that this + was due to a tradition that a cat had fallen into one of the vats, + the gin from which was highly esteemed. But the term "Old Tom" had + been known before that, and Messrs Boord & Son inform us that + previously "Old Tom" had been a man, namely "old Thomas Chamberlain + of Hodge's distillery"; an old label book in their possession (1909) + shows a label and bill-head with a picture of "Old Tom" the man on + it, and another label shows a picture of a sailor lad on shipboard + described as "Young Tom." + + + + +GINDELY, ANTON (1829-1892), German historian, was the son of a German +father and a Slavonic mother, and was born at Prague on the 3rd of +September 1829. He studied at Prague and at Olmutz, and, after +travelling extensively in search of historical material, became +professor of history at the university of Prague and archivist for +Bohemia in 1862. He died at Prague on the 24th of October 1892. +Gindely's chief work is his _Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges_ +(Prague, 1869-1880), which has been translated into English (New York, +1884); and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of +the Thirty Years' War. Perhaps the most important of his numerous other +works are: _Geschichte der bohmischen Bruder_ (Prague, 1857-1858); +_Rudolf II. und seine Zeit_ (1862-1868), and a criticism of Wallenstein, +_Waldstein wahrend seines ersten Generalats_ (1886). He wrote a history +of Bethlen Gabor in Hungarian, and edited the _Monumenta historiae +Bohemica_. Gindely's posthumous work, _Geschichte der Gegenreformation +in Bohmen_, was edited by T. Tupetz (1894). + + See the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band 49 (Leipzig, 1904). + + + + +GINGALL, or JINGAL (Hindostani _janjal_), a gun used by the natives +throughout the East, usually a light piece mounted on a swivel; it +sometimes takes the form of a heavy musket fired from a rest. + + + + +GINGER (Fr. _gingembre_, Ger. _Ingwer_), the rhizome or underground stem +of _Zingiber officinale_ (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae), a perennial +reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 ft. high. The flowers and leaves are +borne on separate stems, those of the former being shorter than those of +the latter, and averaging from 6 to 12 in. The flowers themselves are +borne at the apex of the stems in dense ovate-oblong cone-like spikes +from 2 to 3 in. long, composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with +membranous margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower. +The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows, bright green, smooth, +tapering at both ends, with very short stalks and long sheaths which +stand away from the stem and end in two small rounded auricles. The +plant rarely flowers and the fruit is unknown. Though not found in a +wild state, it is considered with very good reason to be a native of the +warmer parts of Asia, over which it has been cultivated from an early +period and the rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has +spread into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Africa, and +Australia. It is commonly grown in botanic gardens in Britain. + +The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very early times; it +was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a product of southern +Arabia, and was received by them by way of the Red Sea; in India it has +also been known from a very remote period, the Greek and Latin names +being derived from the Sanskrit. Fluckiger and Hanbury, in their +_Pharmacographia_, give the following notes on the history of ginger. On +the authority of Vincent's _Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients_, it +is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into Alexandria, +which in the second century of our era were there liable to the Roman +fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other Indian spices. So frequent is the +mention of ginger in similar lists during the middle ages, that it +evidently constituted an important item in the commerce between Europe +and the East. It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in +Palestine about 1173, in that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228 +and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in England even +before the Norman Conquest, being often referred to in the Anglo-Saxon +leech-books of the 11th century. It was very common in the 13th and 14th +centuries, ranking next in value to pepper, which was then the commonest +of all spices, and costing on an average about 1s. 7d. per lb. Three +kinds of ginger were known among the merchants of Italy about the middle +of the 14th century: (1) _Belledi_ or _Baladi_, an Arabic name, which, +as applied to ginger, would signify country or wild, and denotes common +ginger; (2) _Colombino_, which refers to Columbum, Kolam or Quilon, a +port in Travancore, frequently mentioned in the middle ages; and (3) +_Micchino_, a name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or +by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the ginger plant both in +India and China between 1280 and 1290. John of Montecorvino, a +missionary friar who visited India about 1292, gives a description of +the plant, and refers to the fact of the root being dug up and +transported. Nicolo di Conto, a Venetian merchant in the early part of +the 15th century, also describes the plant and the collection of the +root, as seen by him in India. Though the Venetians received ginger by +way of Egypt, some of the superior kinds were taken from India overland +by the Black Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America +by Francisco de Mendoca, who took it from the East Indies to New Spain. +It seems to have been shipped for commercial purposes from San Domingo +as early as 1585, and from Barbados in 1654; so early as 1547 +considerable quantities were sent from the West Indies to Spain. + +[Illustration: From Bentley & Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by permission +of J. & A. Churchill. + +Ginger (_Zingiber officinale_), about 1/2 nat. size, with leafy and +flowering stem; the former cut off short. + + 1. Flower. + 2. Flower in vertical section. + 3. Fertile stamen, enveloping the style which projects above it. + 4. Piece of leafy stem. 1-3 enlarged. + s, Sepals. + p, Petals.l, Labellum, representing two barren stamens. + st, Fertile stamen. + y, Staminode. + x, Tip of style bearing the stigma. + z, Style. + gl, Honey-secreting glands.] + +Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed respectively +coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting the epidermis. For the +first, the pieces, which are called "races" or "hands," from their +irregular palmate form, are washed and simply dried in the sun. In this +form ginger presents a brown, more or less irregularly wrinkled or +striated surface, and when broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard, +and sometimes horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the +rhizomes are washed, scraped and sun-dried, and are often subjected to a +system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning sulphur or by +immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorinated lime. The +whitewashed appearance that much of the ginger has, as seen in the +shops, is due to the fact of its being washed in whiting and water, or +even coated with sulphate of lime. This artificial coating is supposed +by some to give the ginger a better appearance; it often, however, +covers an inferior quality, and can readily be detected by the ease with +which it rubs off, or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the +bottom of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen in +trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to flattish +irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the "races" or "hands," +and from 3 to 4 in. long; each branch has a depression at its summit +showing the former attachment of a leafy stem. The colour, when not +whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking +with a short mealy fracture, and presenting on the surfaces of the +broken parts numerous short bristly fibres. + + The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to + which the characteristic odour of the spice is due) and resin (to + which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment or + spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used + internally. "The stimulant, aromatic and carminative properties render + it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accompanied with + much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines to correct + griping." Externally applied as a rubefacient, it has been found to + relieve headache and toothache. The rhizomes, collected in a young + green state, washed, scraped and preserved in syrup, form a delicious + preserve, which is largely exported both from the West Indies and from + China. Cut up into pieces like lozenges and preserved in sugar, ginger + also forms a very agreeable sweetmeat. + + + + +GINGHAM, a cotton or linen cloth, for the name of which several origins +are suggested. It is said to have been made at Guingamp, a town in +Brittany; the _New English Dictionary_ derives the word from Malay +_ging-gang_, meaning "striped." The cloth is now of a light or medium +weight, and woven of dyed or white yarns either in a single colour or +different colours, and in stripes, checks or plaids. It is made in +Lancashire and in Glasgow, and also to a large extent in the United +States. Imitations of it are obtained by calico-printing. It is used for +dresses, &c. + + + + +GINGI, or GINGEE, a rock fortress of southern India, in the South Arcot +district of Madras. It consists of three hills, connected by walls +enclosing an area of 7 sq. m., and practically impregnable to assault. +The origin of the fortress is shrouded in legend. When occupied by the +Mahrattas at the end of the 17th century, it withstood a siege of eight +years against the armies of Aurangzeb. In 1750 it was captured by the +French, who held it with a strong force for eleven years. It surrendered +to the English in 1761, in the words of Orme, "terminated the long +hostilities between the two rival European powers in Coromandel, and +left not a single ensign of the French nation avowed by the authority of +its government in any part of India." + + + + +GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), French author, was born on the 27th +of April 1748 at Rennes, in Brittany. He was educated at a Jesuit +college in his native town, and came to Paris in 1772. He wrote +criticisms for the _Mercure de France_, and composed a comic opera, +_Pomponin_ (1777). _The Satire des satires_ (1778) and the _Confession +de Zulme_ (1779) followed. _The Confession_ was claimed by six or seven +different authors, and though the value of the piece is not very great, +it obtained great success. His defence of Piccini against the partisans +of Gluck made him still more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms +of the Revolution, joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the _Memoire +pour le peuple francais_ (1788), and others in producing the _Feuille +villageoise_, a weekly paper addressed to the villages of France. He +also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening of the states-general. +In his _Lettres sur les confessions de J.-J. Rousseau_ (1791) he +defended the life and principles of his author. He was imprisoned during +the Terror, and only escaped with life by the downfall of Robespierre. +Some time after his release he assisted, as director-general of the +"commission executive de l'instruction publique," in reorganizing the +system of public instruction, and he was an original member of the +Institute of France. In 1797 the directory appointed him minister +plenipotentiary to the king of Sardinia. After fulfilling his duties for +seven months, very little to the satisfaction of his employers, Ginguene +retired for a time to his country house of St Prix, in the valley of +Montmorency. He was appointed a member of the tribunate, but Napoleon, +finding that he was not sufficiently tractable, had him expelled at the +first "purge," and Ginguene returned to his literary pursuits. He was +one of the commission charged to continue the _Histoire litteraire de la +France_, and he contributed to the volumes of this series which appeared +in 1814, 1817 and 1820. Ginguene's most important work is the _Histoire +litteraire d'Italie_ (14 vols., 1811-1835). He was putting the finishing +touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died on the 11th of +November 1815. The last five volumes were written by Francesco Salfi and +revised by Pierre Daunou. + +In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was guided +for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi, but he +avoids the prejudices and party views of his model. + + Ginguene edited the _Decade philosophique, politique et litteraire_ + till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely to + the _Biographie universelle_, the _Mercure de France_ and the + _Encyclopedie methodique_; and he edited the works of Chamfort and of + Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, _Pomponin ou le + tuteur mystifie_ (1777); _La Satire des satires_ (1778); _De + l'autorite de Rabelais dans la revolution presente_ (1791); _De M. + Neckar_ (1795); _Fables nouvelles_ (1810); _Fables inedites_ (1814). + See "Eloge de Ginguene" by Dacier, in the _Memoires de l'institut_, + tom. vii.; "Discours" by M. Daunou, prefixed to the 2nd ed. of the + _Hist. litt. d'Italie_; D. J. Garat, _Notice sur la vie et les + ouvrages de P. L. Ginguene_, prefixed to a catalogue of his library + (Paris, 1817). + + + + +GINKEL, GODART VAN (1630-1703); 1st earl of Athlone, Dutch general in +the service of England, was born at Utrecht in 1630. He came of a noble +family, and bore the title of Baron van Reede, being the eldest son of +Godart Adrian van Reede, Baron Ginkel. In his youth he entered the Dutch +army, and in 1688 he followed William, prince of Orange, in his +expedition to England. In the following year he distinguished himself by +a memorable exploit--the pursuit, defeat and capture of a Scottish +regiment which had mutinied at Ipswich, and was marching northward +across the fens. It was the alarm excited by this mutiny that +facilitated the passing of the first Mutiny Act. In 1690 Ginkel +accompanied William III. to Ireland, and commanded a body of Dutch +cavalry at the battle of the Boyne. On the king's return to England +General Ginkel was entrusted with the conduct of the war. He took the +field in the spring of 1691, and established his headquarters at +Mullingar. Among those who held a command under him was the marquis of +Ruvigny, the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in June +Ginkel took the fortress of Ballymore, capturing the whole garrison of +1000 men. The English lost only 8 men. After reconstructing the +fortifications of Ballymore the army marched to Athlone, then one of the +most important of the fortified towns of Ireland. The Irish defenders of +the place were commanded by a distinguished French general, Saint-Ruth. +The firing began on June 19th, and on the 30th the town was stormed, the +Irish army retreating towards Galway, and taking up their position at +Aughrim. Having strengthened the fortifications of Athlone and left a +garrison there, Ginkel led the English, on July 12th, to Aughrim. An +immediate attack was resolved on, and, after a severe and at one time +doubtful contest, the crisis was precipitated by the fall of Saint-Ruth, +and the disorganized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible slaughter +of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000 corpses were left unburied +on the field, besides a multitude of others that lay along the line of +the retreat. Galway next capitulated, its garrison being permitted to +retire to Limerick. There the viceroy Tyrconnel was in command of a +large force, but his sudden death early in August left the command in +the hands of General Sarsfield and the Frenchman D'Usson. The English +came in sight of the town on the day of Tyrconnel's death, and the +bombardment was immediately begun. Ginkel, by a bold device, crossed the +Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish cavalry. A few days later he +stormed the fort on Thomond Bridge, and after difficult negotiations a +capitulation was signed, the terms of which were divided into a civil +and a military treaty. Thus was completed the conquest or pacification +of Ireland, and the services of the Dutch general were amply recognized +and rewarded. He received the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and +was created by the king 1st earl of Athlone and baron of Aughrim. The +immense forfeited estates of the earl of Limerick were given to him, but +the grant was a few years later revoked by the English parliament. The +earl continued to serve in the English army, and accompanied the king to +the continent in 1693. He fought at the sieges of Namur and the battle +of Neerwinden, and assisted in destroying the French magazine at Givet. +In 1702, waiving his own claims to the position of commander-in-chief, +he commanded the Dutch serving under the duke of Marlborough. He died at +Utrecht on the 11th of February 1703, and was succeeded by his son the +2nd earl (1668-1719), a distinguished soldier in the reigns of William +III. and Anne. On the death of the 9th earl without issue in 1844, the +title became extinct. + + + + +GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831- ), Hebrew scholar, was born at Warsaw +on the 25th of December 1831. Coming to England shortly after the +completion of his education in the Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Dr +Ginsburg continued his study of the Hebrew Scriptures, with special +attention to the Megilloth. The first result of these studies was a +translation of the Song of Songs, with a commentary historical and +critical, published in 1857. A similar translation of Ecclesiastes, +followed by treatises on the Karaites, on the Essenes and on the +Kabbala, kept the author prominently before biblical students while he +was preparing the first sections of his _magnum opus_, the critical +study of the Massorah. Beginning in 1867 with the publication of Jacob +ben Chajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, Hebrew and English, +with notices, and the Massoreth Ha-Massoreth of Elias Levita, in Hebrew, +with translation and commentary, Dr Ginsburg took rank as an eminent +Hebrew scholar. In 1870 he was appointed one of the first members of the +committee for the revision of the English version of the Old Testament. +His life-work culminated in the publication of the Massorah, in three +volumes folio (1880-1886), followed by the Masoretico-critical edition +of the Hebrew Bible (1894), and the elaborate introduction to it (1897). +Dr Ginsburg had one predecessor in the field, the learned Jacob ben +Chajim, who in 1524-1525 published the second Rabbinic Bible, containing +what has ever since been known as the Massorah; but neither were the +materials available nor was criticism sufficiently advanced for a +complete edition. Dr Ginsburg took up the subject almost where it was +left by those early pioneers, and collected portions of the Massorah +from the countless MSS. scattered throughout Europe and the East. More +recently Dr Ginsburg has published _Facsimiles of Manuscripts of the +Hebrew Bible_ (1897 and 1898), and _The Text of the Hebrew Bible in +Abbreviations_ (1903), in addition to a critical treatise "on the +relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of A.D. 916 to the +Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text" (1899, for private circulation). +In the last-mentioned work he seeks to prove that the St Petersburg +Codex, for so many years accepted as the genuine text of the Babylonian +school, is in reality a Palestinian text carefully altered so as to +render it conformable to the Babylonian recension. He subsequently +undertook the preparation of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the +British and Foreign Bible Society. He also contributed many articles to +J. Kitto's _Encyclopaedia_, W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian +Biography_ and the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. + + + + +GINSENG, the root of a species of _Panax_ (_P. Ginseng_), native of +Manchuria and Korea, belonging to the natural order Araliaceae, used in +China as a medicine. Other roots are substituted for it, notably that of +_Panax quinquefolium_, distinguished as American ginseng, and imported +from the United States. At one time the ginseng obtained from Manchuria +was considered to be the finest quality, and in consequence became so +scarce that an imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection. +That prepared in Korea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of the +wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the older the +plant the better is the quality of the root considered to be. Great care +is taken in the preparation of the drug. The account given by Kaempfer +of the preparation of nindsin, the root of _Sium ninsi_, in Korea, will +give a good idea of the preparation of ginseng, ninsi being a similar +drug of supposed weaker virtue, obtained from a different plant, and +often confounded with ginseng. "In the beginning of winter nearly all +the population of Sjansai turn out to collect the root, and make +preparations for sleeping in the fields. The root, when collected, is +macerated for three days in fresh water, or water in which rice has been +boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed vessel over the fire, and +afterwards dried, until from the base to the middle it assumes a hard, +resinous and translucent appearance, which is considered a proof of its +good quality." + +Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather brittle, +translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger, and varying in +length from 2 to 4 in. The taste is mucilaginous, sweetish and slightly +bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently forked, and it is probably +owing to this circumstance that medicinal properties were in the first +place attributed to it, its resemblance to the body of a man being +supposed to indicate that it could restore virile power to the aged and +impotent. In price it varies from 6 or 12 dollars to the enormous sum of +300 or 400 dollars an ounce. + + Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng merchant. + Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper parcels + which appeared to fill the box, but under them was a second box, or + perhaps two small boxes, which, when taken out, showed the bottom of + the large box and all the intervening space filled with more paper + parcels. These parcels, he said, "contained quicklime, for the purpose + of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes quite dry, the lime + being packed in paper for the sake of cleanliness. The smaller box, + which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-lead; the ginseng further + enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken-covered boxes. + Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not to breathe upon + it, nor handle it; he would dilate upon the many merits of the drug + and the cures it had effected. The cover of the root, according to its + quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain, cotton cloth or + paper." In China the ginseng is often sent to friends as a valuable + present; in such cases, "accompanying the medicine is usually given a + small, beautifully-finished double kettle, in which the ginseng is + prepared as follows. The inner kettle is made of silver, and between + this and the outside vessel, which is a copper jacket, is a small + space for holding water. The silver kettle, which fits on a ring near + the top of the outer covering, has a cup-like cover in which rice is + placed with a little water; the ginseng is put in the inner vessel + with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and the apparatus is put + on the fire. When the rice in the cover is sufficiently cooked, the + medicine is ready, and is then eaten by the patient, who drinks the + ginseng tea at the same time." The dose of the root is from 60 to 90 + grains. During the use of the drug tea-drinking is forbidden for at + least a month, but no other change is made in the diet. It is taken in + the morning before breakfast, from three to eight days together, and + sometimes it is taken in the evening before going to bed. + + The action of the drug appears to be entirely psychic, and comparable + to that of the mandrake of the Hebrews. There is no evidence that it + possesses any pharmacological or therapeutic properties. + + See Porter Smith, _Chinese Materia Medica_, p. 103; _Reports on Trade + at the Treaty Ports of China_ (1868), p. 63; Lockhart, _Med. + Missionary in China_ (2nd ed.), p. 107; _Bull. de la Societe Imperiale + de Nat. de Moscou_ (1865), No. 1, pp. 70-76; _Pharmaceutical Journal_ + (2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333, (2), vol. ix. p. 77; Lewis, _Materia + Medica_, p. 324; Geoffroy, _Tract. de matiere medicale_, t. ii. p. + 112; Kaempfer, _Amoenitates exoticae_, p. 824. + + + + +GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852), Italian philosopher, publicist and +politician, was born in Turin on the 5th of April 1801. He was educated +by the fathers of the Oratory with a view to the priesthood and ordained +in 1825. At first he led a very retired life; but gradually took more +and more interest in the affairs of his country and the new political +ideas as well as in the literature of the day. Partly under the +influence of Mazzini, the freedom of Italy became his ruling motive in +life,--its emancipation, not only from foreign masters, but from modes +of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European +authority. This authority was in his mind connected with papal +supremacy, though in a way quite novel--intellectual rather than +political. This must be remembered in considering nearly all his +writings, and also in estimating his position, both in relation to the +ruling clerical party--the Jesuits--and also to the politics of the +court of Piedmont after the accession of Charles Albert in 1831. He was +now noticed by the king and made one of his chaplains. His popularity +and private influence, however, were reasons enough for the court party +to mark him for exile; he was not one of them, and could not be +depended on. Knowing this, he resigned his office in 1833, but was +suddenly arrested on a charge of conspiracy, and, after an imprisonment +of four months, was banished without a trial. Gioberti first went to +Paris, and, a year later, to Brussels, where he remained till 1845, +teaching philosophy, and assisting a friend in the work of a private +school. He nevertheless found time to write many works of philosophical +importance, with special reference to his country and its position. An +amnesty having been declared by Charles Albert in 1846, Gioberti (who +was again in Paris) was at liberty to return to Italy, but refused to do +so till the end of 1847. On his entrance into Turin on the 29th of April +1848 he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. He refused the +dignity of senator offered him by Charles Albert, preferring to +represent his native town in the Chamber of Deputies, of which he was +soon elected president. At the close of the same year, a new ministry +was formed, headed by Gioberti; but with the accession of Victor +Emmanuel in March 1849, his active life came to an end. For a short time +indeed he held a seat in the cabinet, though without a portfolio; but an +irreconcilable disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turin +was accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence he +never returned. There, refusing the pension which had been offered him +and all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally, and spent his days +and nights as at Brussels in literary labour. He died suddenly, of +apoplexy, on the 26th of October 1852. + + Gioberti's writings are more important than his political career. In + the general history of European philosophy they stand apart. As the + speculations of Rosmini-Serbati, against which he wrote, have been + called the last link added to medieval thought, so the system of + Gioberti, known as "Ontologism," more especially in his greater and + earlier works, is unrelated to other modern schools of thought. It + shows a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused Cousin to + declare that "Italian philosophy was still in the bonds of theology," + and that Gioberti was no philosopher. Method is with him a synthetic, + subjective and psychological instrument. He reconstructs, as he + declares, ontology, and begins with the "ideal formula," "the _Ens_ + creates _ex nihilo_ the existent." God is the only being (Ens); all + other things are merely existences. God is the origin of all human + knowledge (called _l'idea_, thought), which is one and so to say + identical with God himself. It is directly beheld (intuited) by + reason, but in order to be of use it has to be reflected on, and this + by means of language. A knowledge of being and existences (concrete, + not abstract) and their mutual relations, is necessary as the + beginning of philosophy. Gioberti is in some respects a Platonist. He + identifies religion with civilization, and in his treatise _Del + primato morale e civile degli Italiani_ arrives at the conclusion that + the church is the axis on which the well-being of human life revolves. + In it he affirms the idea of the supremacy of Italy, brought about by + the restoration of the papacy as a moral dominion, founded on religion + and public opinion. In his later works, the _Rinnovamento_ and the + _Protologia_, he is thought by some to have shifted his ground under + the influence of events. His first work, written when he was + thirty-seven, had a personal reason for its existence. A young + fellow-exile and friend, Paolo Pallia, having many doubts and + misgivings as to the reality of revelation and a future life, Gioberti + at once set to work with _La Teorica del sovrannaturale_, which was + his first publication (1838). After this, philosophical treatises + followed in rapid succession. The _Teorica_ was followed by + _Introduzione allo studio della filosofia_ in three volumes + (1839-1840). In this work he states his reasons for requiring a new + method and new terminology. Here he brings out the doctrine that + religion is the direct expression of the _idea_ in this life, and is + one with true civilization in history. Civilization is a conditioned + mediate tendency to perfection, to which religion is the final + completion if carried out; it is the end of the second cycle expressed + by the second formula, the Ens redeems existences. Essays (not + published till 1846) on the lighter and more popular subjects, _Del + bello_ and _Del buono_, followed the _Introduzione_. _Del primato + morale e civile degli Italiani_ and the _Prolegomeni_ to the same, and + soon afterwards his triumphant exposure of the Jesuits, Il Gesuita + moderno, no doubt hastened the transfer of rule from clerical to civil + hands. It was the popularity of these semi-political works, increased + by other occasional political articles, and his _Rinnovamento civile + d'Italia_, that caused Gioberti to be welcomed with such enthusiasm on + his return to his native country. All these works were perfectly + orthodox, and aided in drawing the liberal clergy into the movement + which has resulted since his time in the unification of Italy. The + Jesuits, however, closed round the pope more firmly after his return + to Rome, and in the end Gioberti's writings were placed on the _Index_ + (see J. Kleutgen, _Uber die Verurtheilung des Ontologismus durch den + heiligen Stuhl_, 1867). The remainder of his works, especially _La + Filosofia della Rivelazione_ and the _Protologia_, give his mature + views on many points. The entire writings of Gioberti, including + those left in manuscript, have been edited by Giuseppe Massari (Turin, + 1856-1861). + + See Massari, _Vita de V. Gioberti_ (Florence, 1848); A. + Rosmini-Serbati, _V. Gioberti e il panteismo_ (Milan, 1848); C. B. + Smyth, _Christian Metaphysics_ (1851); B. Spaventa, _La Filosofia di + Gioberti_ (Naples, 1854); A. Mauri, _Della vita e delle opere di V. + Gioberti_ (Genoa, 1853); G. Prisco, _Gioberti e l' ontologismo_ + (Naples, 1867); P. Luciani, _Gioberti e la filosofia nuova italiana_ + (Naples, 1866-1872); D. Berti, _Di V. Gioberti_ (Florence, 1881); see + also L. Ferri, _L'Histoire de la philosophie en Italie au XIX^e + siecle_ (Paris, 1869); C. Werner, _Die italienische Philosophie des + 19. Jahrhunderts_, ii. (1885); appendix to Ueberweg's _Hist. of + Philosophy_ (Eng. tr.); art. in _Brownson's Quarterly Review_ (Boston, + Mass.), xxi.; R. Mariano, _La Philosophie contemporaine en Italie_ + (1866); R. Seydel's exhaustive article in Ersch and Gruber's + _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_. The centenary of Gioberti called forth + several monographs in Italy. + + + + +GIOIOSA-IONICA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Reggio +Calabria, from which it is 65 m. N.E. by rail, and 38 m. direct, 492 ft. +above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 9072; commune, 11,200. Near the +station, which is on the E. coast of Calabria 3 m. below the town to the +S.E., the remains of a theatre belonging to the Roman period were +discovered in 1883; the orchestra was 46 ft. in diameter (_Notizie degli +scavi_, 1883, p. 423). The ruins of an ancient building called the +Naviglio, the nature of which does not seem clear, are described (ib. +1884, p. 252). + + + + +GIOJA, MELCHIORRE (1767-1829), Italian writer on philosophy and +political economy, was born at Piacenza, on the 20th of September 1767. +Originally intended for the church, he took orders, but renounced them +in 1796 and went to Milan, where he devoted himself to the study of +political economy. Having obtained the prize for an essay on "the kind +of free government best adapted to Italy" he decided upon the career of +a publicist. The arrival of Napoleon in Italy drew him into public life. +He advocated a republic under the dominion of the French in a pamphlet +_I Tedeschi, i Francesi, ed i Russi in Lombardia_, and under the +Cisalpine Republic he was named historiographer and director of +statistics. He was several times imprisoned, once for eight months in +1820 on a charge of being implicated in a conspiracy with the Carbonari. +After the fall of Napoleon he retired into private life, and does not +appear to have held office again. He died on the 2nd of January 1829. +Gioja's fundamental idea is the value of statistics or the collection of +facts. Philosophy itself is with him classification and consideration of +ideas. Logic he regarded as a practical art, and his _Esercizioni +logici_ has the further title, _Art of deriving benefit from +ill-constructed books_. In ethics Gioja follows Bentham generally, and +his large treatise _Del merito e delle recompense_ (1818) is a clear and +systematic view of social ethics from the utilitarian principle. In +political economy this avidity for facts produced better fruits. The +_Nuovo Prospetto delle scienze economiche_ (1815-1817), although long to +excess, and overburdened with classifications and tables, contains much +valuable material. The author prefers large properties and large +commercial undertakings to small ones, and strongly favours association +as a means of production. He defends a restrictive policy and insists on +the necessity of the action of the state as a regulating power in the +industrial world. He was an opponent of ecclesiastical domination. He +must be credited with the finest and most original treatment of division +of labour since the _Wealth of Nations_. Much of what Babbage taught +later on the subject of combined work is anticipated by Gioja. His +theory of production is also deserving of attention from the fact that +it takes into account and gives due prominence to immaterial goods. +Throughout the work there is continuous opposition to Adam Smith. +Gioja's latest work _Filosofia della statistica_ (2 vols., 1826; 4 +vols., 1829-1830) contains in brief compass the essence of his ideas on +human life, and affords the clearest insight into his aim and method in +philosophy both theoretical and practical. + + See monographs by G. D. Romagnosi (1829), F. Falco (1866); G. Pecchio, + _Storia dell' economia pubblica in Italia_ (1829), and article in + Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; for Gioja's philosophy, + L. Ferri, _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en Italie au XIX^e + siecle_ (1869); Ueberweg's _Hist. of Philosophy_ (Eng. tr., appendix + ii.); A. Rosmini-Serbati, _Opuscoli filosofici_, iii. (1844) + (containing an attack on Gioja's "sensualism"); for his political + economy, list of works in J. Conrad's _Handworterbuch der + Staatswissenschaften_ (1892); L. Cossa, _Introd. to Pol. Econ._ (Eng. + trans., p. 488). Gioja's complete works were published at Lugano + (1832-1849). He was one of the founders of the _Annali universali di + statistica_. + + + + +GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI (1842- ), Italian statesman, was born at Mondovi on +the 27th of October 1842. After a rapid career in the financial +administration he was, in 1882, appointed councillor of state and +elected to parliament. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by +attacks on Magliani, treasury minister in the Depretis cabinet, and on +the 9th of March 1889 was himself selected as treasury minister by +Crispi. On the fall of the Rudini cabinet in May 1892, Giolitti, with +the help of a court clique, succeeded to the premiership. His term of +office was marked by misfortune and misgovernment. The building crisis +and the commercial rupture with France had impaired the situation of the +state banks, of which one, the Banca Romana, had been further undermined +by maladministration. A bank law, passed by Giolitti failed to effect an +improvement. Moreover, he irritated public opinion by raising to +senatorial rank the director-general of the Banca Romana, Signor +Tanlongo, whose irregular practices had become a byword. The senate +declined to admit Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in consequence of an +interpellation in parliament upon the condition of the Banca Romana, was +obliged to arrest and prosecute. During the prosecution Giolitti abused +his position as premier to abstract documents bearing on the case. +Simultaneously a parliamentary commission of inquiry investigated the +condition of the state banks. Its report, though acquitting Giolitti of +personal dishonesty, proved disastrous to his political position, and +obliged him to resign. His fall left the finances of the state +disorganized, the pensions fund depleted, diplomatic relations with +France strained in consequence of the massacre of Italian workmen at +Aigues-Mortes, and Sicily and the Lunigiana in a state of revolt, which +he had proved impotent to suppress. After his resignation he was +impeached for abuse of power as minister, but the supreme court quashed +the impeachment by denying the competence of the ordinary tribunals to +judge ministerial acts. For several years he was compelled to play a +passive part, having lost all credit. But by keeping in the background +and giving public opinion time to forget his past, as well as by +parliamentary intrigue, he gradually regained much of his former +influence. He made capital of the Socialist agitation and of the +repression to which other statesmen resorted, and gave the agitators to +understand that were he premier they would be allowed a free hand. Thus +he gained their favour, and on the fall of the Pelloux cabinet he became +minister of the Interior in Zanardelli's administration, of which he was +the real head. His policy of never interfering in strikes and leaving +even violent demonstrations undisturbed at first proved successful, but +indiscipline and disorder grew to such a pitch that Zanardelli, already +in bad health, resigned, and Giolitti succeeded him as prime minister +(November 1903). But during his tenure of office he, too, had to resort +to strong measures in repressing some serious disorders in various parts +of Italy, and thus he lost the favour of the Socialists. In March 1905, +feeling himself no longer secure, he resigned, indicating Fortis as his +successor. When Sonnino became premier in February 1906, Giolitti did +not openly oppose him, but his followers did, and Sonnino was defeated +in May, Giolitti becoming prime minister once more. + + + + +GIORDANO, LUCA (1632-1705), Italian painter, was born in Naples, son of +a very indifferent painter, Antonio, who imparted to him the first +rudiments of drawing. Nature predestined him for the art, and at the age +of eight he painted a cherub into one of his father's pictures, a feat +which was at once noised abroad, and induced the viceroy of Naples to +recommend the child to Ribera. His father afterwards took him to Rome, +to study under Pietro da Cortona. He acquired the nickname of Luca +Fa-presto (Luke Work-fast). One might suppose this nickname to be +derived merely from the almost miraculous celerity with which from an +early age and throughout his life he handled the brush; but it is said +to have had a more express origin. The father, we are told, +poverty-stricken and greedy of gain, was perpetually urging his boy to +exertion with the phrase, "Luca, fa presto." The youth obeyed his parent +to the letter, and would actually not so much as pause to snatch a hasty +meal, but received into his mouth, while he still worked on, the food +which his father's hand supplied. He copied nearly twenty times the +"Battle of Constantine" by Julio Romano, and with proportionate +frequency several of the great works of Raphael and Michelangelo. His +rapidity, which belonged as much to invention as to mere handiwork, and +his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other painters +deceptively, earned for him two other epithets, "The Thunderbolt" +(Fulmine), and "The Proteus," of Painting. He shortly visited all the +main seats of the Italian school of art, and formed for himself a style +combining in a certain measure the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese and +the contrasting compositions and large schemes of chiaroscuro of Pietro +da Cortona. He was noted also for lively and showy colour. Returning to +Naples, and accepting every sort of commission by which money was to be +made, he practised his art with so much applause that Charles II. of +Spain towards 1687 invited him over to Madrid, where he remained +thirteen years. Giordano was very popular at the Spanish court, being a +sprightly talker along with his other marvellously facile gifts, and the +king created him a cavaliere. One anecdote of his rapidity of work is +that the queen of Spain having one day made some inquiry about his wife, +he at once showed Her Majesty what the lady was like by painting her +portrait into the picture on which he was engaged. Soon after the death +of Charles in 1700 Giordano, gorged with wealth, returned to Naples. He +spent large sums in acts of munificence, and was particularly liberal to +his poorer brethren of the art. He again visited various parts of Italy, +and died in Naples on the 12th of January 1705, his last words being "O +Napoli, sospiro mio" (O Naples, my heart's love!). One of his maxims was +that the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the +public are attracted more by colour than by design. + +Giordano had an astonishing readiness and facility, in spite of the +general commonness and superficiality of his performances. He left many +works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the latter one of the most +renowned is "Christ expelling the Traders from the Temple," in the +church of the Padri Girolamini, a colossal work, full of expressive +lazzaroni; also the frescoes of S. Martino, and those in the Tesoro +della Certosa, including the subject of "Moses and the Brazen Serpent"; +and the cupola-paintings in the Church of S. Brigida, which contains the +artist's own tomb. In Spain he executed a surprising number of +works,--continuing in the Escorial the series commenced by Cambiasi, and +painting frescoes of the "Triumphs of the Church," the "Genealogy and +Life of the Madonna," the stories of Moses, Gideon, David and Solomon, +and the "Celebrated Women of Scripture," all works of large dimensions. +His pupils, Aniello Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain. In +Madrid he worked more in oil-colour, a Nativity there being one of his +best productions. Other superior examples are the "Judgment of Paris" in +the Berlin Museum, and "Christ with the Doctors in the Temple," in the +Corsini Gallery of Rome. In Florence, in his closing days, he painted +the Cappella Corsini, the Galleria Riccardi and other works. In youth he +etched with considerable skill some of his own paintings, such as the +"Slaughter of the Priests of Baal." He also painted much on the crystal +borderings of looking-glasses, cabinets, &c., seen in many Italian +palaces, and was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofolo. +His best pupil, in painting of the ordinary kind, was Paolo de Matteis. + + Bellori, in his _Vite de' pittori moderni_, is a leading authority + regarding Luca Giordano. P. Benvenuto (1882) has written a work on the + Riccardi paintings. + + + + +GIORGIONE (1477-1510), Italian painter, was born at Castelfranco in +1477. In contemporary documents he is always called (according to the +Venetian manner of pronunciation and spelling) Zorzi, Zorzo or Zorzon of +Castelfranco. A tradition, having its origin in the 17th century, +represented him as the natural son of some member of the great local +family of the Barbarelli, by a peasant girl of the neighbouring village +of Vedelago; consequently he is commonly referred to in histories and +catalogues under the name of Giorgio Barbarelli or Barbarella. This +tradition has, however, on close examination been proved baseless. On +the other hand mention has been found in a contemporary document of an +earlier Zorzon, a native of Vedelago, living in Castelfranco in 1460. +Vasari, who wrote before the Barbarella legend had sprung up, says that +Giorgione was of very humble origin. It seems probable that he was +simply the son or grandson of the afore-mentioned Zorzon the elder; that +the after-claim of the Barbarelli to kindred with him was a mere piece +of family vanity, very likely suggested by the analogous case of +Leonardo da Vinci; and that, this claim once put abroad, the +peasant-mother of Vedelago was invented on the ground of some dim +knowledge that his real progenitors came from that village. + +Of the facts of his life we are almost as meagrely informed as of the +circumstances of his birth. The little city, or large fortified village, +for it is scarcely more, of Castelfranco in the Trevisan stands in the +midst of a rich and broken plain at some distance from the last spurs of +the Venetian Alps. From the natural surroundings of Giorgione's +childhood was no doubt derived his ideal of pastoral scenery, the +country of pleasant copses, glades, brooks and hills amid which his +personages love to wander or recline with lute and pipe. How early in +boyhood he went to Venice we do not know, but internal evidence supports +the statement of Ridolfi that he served his apprenticeship there under +Giovanni Bellini; and there he made his fame and had his home. That his +gifts were early recognized we know from the facts, recorded in +contemporary documents, that in 1500, when he was only twenty-three +(that is if Vasari gives rightly the age at which he died), he was +chosen to paint portraits of the Doge Agostino Barberigo and the +condottiere Consalvo Ferrante; that in 1504 he was commissioned to paint +an altarpiece in memory of Matteo Costanzo in the cathedral of his +native town, Castelfranco; that in 1507 he received at the order of the +Council of Ten part payment for a picture (subject not mentioned) on +which he was engaged for the Hall of the Audience in the ducal palace; +and that in 1507-1508 he was employed, with other artists of his own +generation, to decorate with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt +Fondaco dei Tedeschi or German merchants' hall at Venice, having already +done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa Grimani +alii Servi and other Venetian palaces. Vasari gives also as an important +event in Giorgione's life, and one which had influence on his work, his +meeting with Leonardo da Vinci on the occasion of the Tuscan master's +visit to Venice in 1500. In September or October 1510 he died of the +plague then raging in the city, and within a few days of his death we +find the great art-patroness and amateur, Isabella d'Este, writing from +Mantua and trying in vain to secure for her collection a night-piece by +his hand of which the fame had reached her. + +All accounts agree in representing Giorgione as a personage of +distinguished and romantic charm, a great lover, a great musician, made +to enjoy in life and to express in art to the uttermost the delight, the +splendour, the sensuous and imaginative grace and fulness, not untinged +with poetic melancholy, of the Venetian existence of his time. They +represent him further as having made in Venetian painting an advance +analogous to that made in Tuscan painting by Leonardo more than twenty +years before; that is as having released the art from the last shackles +of archaic rigidity and placed it in possession of full freedom and the +full mastery of its means. He also introduced a new range of subjects. +Besides altarpieces and portraits he painted pictures that told no +story, whether biblical or classical, or if they professed to tell such, +neglected the action and simply embodied in form and colour moods of +lyrical or romantic feeling, much as a musician might embody them in +sounds. Innovating with the courage and felicity of genius, he had for a +time an overwhelming influence on his contemporaries and immediate +successors in the Venetian school, including Titian, Sebastian del +Piombo, the elder Palma, Cariani and the two Campagnolas, and not a +little even on seniors of long-standing fame such as Giovanni Bellini. +His name and work have exercised, and continue to exercise, no less a +spell on posterity. But to identify and define, among the relics of his +age and school, precisely what that work is, and to distinguish it from +the kindred work of other men whom his influence inspired, is a very +difficult matter. There are inclusive critics who still claim for +Giorgione nearly every painting of the time that at all resembles his +manner, and there are exclusive critics who pare down to some ten or a +dozen the list of extant pictures which they will admit to be actually +his. + +To name first those which are either certain or command the most general +acceptance, placing them in something like an approximate and probable +order of date. In the Uffizi at Florence are two companion pieces of the +"Trial of Moses" and the "Judgment of Solomon," the latter the finer and +better preserved of the two, which pass, no doubt justly, as typical +works of Giorgione's youth, and exhibit, though not yet ripely, his +special qualities of colour-richness and landscape romance, the peculiar +facial types of his predilection, with the pure form of forehead, fine +oval of cheek, and somewhat close-set eyes and eyebrows, and the +intensity of that still and brooding sentiment with which, rather than +with dramatic life and movement, he instinctively invests his figures. +Probably the earliest of the portraits by common consent called his is +the beautiful one of a young man at Berlin. His earliest devotional +picture would seem to be the highly finished "Christ bearing his Cross" +(the head and shoulders only, with a peculiarly serene and high-bred +cast of features) formerly at Vicenza and now in the collection of Mrs +Gardner at Boston. Other versions of this picture exist, and it has been +claimed that one in private possession at Vienna is the true original: +erroneously in the judgment of the present writer. Another "Christ +bearing the Cross," with a Jew dragging at the rope round his neck, in +the church of San Rocco at Venice, is a ruined but genuine work, quoted +by Vasari and Ridolfi, and copied with the name of Giorgione appended, +by Van Dyck in that master's Chatsworth sketch-book. (Vasari gives it to +Giorgione in his first and to Titian in his second edition.) The +composition of a lost early picture of the birth of Paris is preserved +in an engraving of the "Teniers Gallery" series, and an old copy of part +of the same picture is at Budapest. In the Giovanelli Palace at Venice +is that fascinating and enigmatical mythology or allegory, known to the +Anonimo Morelliano, who saw it in 1530 in the house of Gabriel +Vendramin, simply as "the small landscape with the storm, the gipsy +woman and the soldier"; the picture is conjecturally interpreted by +modern authorities as illustrating a passage in Statius which describes +the meeting of Adrastus with Hypsipyle when she was serving as nurse +with the king of Nemea. Still belonging to the earlier part of the +painter's brief career is a beautiful, virginally pensive Judith at St +Petersburg, which passed under various alien names, as Raphael, Moretto, +&c., until its kindred with the unquestioned work of Giorgione was in +late years firmly established. The great Castelfranco altarpiece, still, +in spite of many restorations, one of the most classically pure and +radiantly impressive works of Renaissance painting, may be taken as +closing the earlier phase of the young master's work (1504). It shows +the Virgin loftily enthroned on a plain, sparely draped stone structure +with St Francis and a warrior saint (St Liberale) standing in attitudes +of great simplicity on either side of the foot of the throne, a high +parapet behind them, and a beautiful landscape of the master's usual +type seen above it. Nearly akin to this masterpiece, not in shape or +composition but by the type of the Virgin and the very Bellinesque St +Francis, is the altarpiece of the Madonna with St Francis and St Roch at +Madrid. Of the master's fully ripened time is the fine and again +enigmatical picture formerly in the house of Taddeo Contarini at Venice, +described by contemporary witnesses as the "Three Philosophers," and +now, on slender enough grounds, supposed to represent Evander showing +Aeneas the site of Troy as narrated in the eighth Aeneid. The portrait +of a knight of Malta in the Uffizi at Florence has more power and +authority, if less sentiment, than the earlier example at Berlin, and +may be taken to be of the master's middle time. Most entirely central +and typical of all Giorgione's extant works is the Sleeping Venus at +Dresden, first recognized by Morelli, and now universally accepted, as +being the same as the picture seen by the Anonimo and later by Ridolfi +in the Casa Marcello at Venice. An exquisitely pure and severe rhythm of +line and contour chastens the sensuous richness of the presentment: the +sweep of white drapery on which the goddess lies, and of glowing +landscape that fills the space behind her, most harmoniously frame her +divinity. It is recorded that the master left this piece unfinished and +that the landscape, with a Cupid which subsequent restoration has +removed, were completed after his death by Titian. The picture is the +prototype of Titian's own Venus at the Uffizi and of many more by other +painters of the school; but none of them attained the quality of the +first exemplar. Of such small scenes of mixed classical mythology and +landscape as early writers attribute in considerable number to +Giorgione, there have survived at least two which bear strong evidences +of his handiwork, though the action is in both of unwonted liveliness, +namely the Apollo and Daphne of the Seminario at Venice and the Orpheus +and Eurydice of Bergamo. The portrait of Antonio Grocardo at Budapest +represents his fullest and most penetrating power in that branch of art. +In his last years the purity and relative slenderness of form which mark +his earlier female nudes, including the Dresden Venus, gave way to +ideals of ampler mould, more nearly approaching those of Titian and his +successors in Venetian art; as is proved by those last remaining +fragments of the frescoes on the Grand Canal front of the Fondaco dei +Tedeschi which were seen and engraved by Zanetti in 1760, but have now +totally disappeared. Such change of ideal is apparent enough in the +famous "Concert" or "Pastoral Symphony" of the Louvre, probably the +latest, and certainly one of the most characteristic and harmoniously +splendid, of Giorgione's creations that has come down to us, and has +caused some critics too hastily to doubt its authenticity. + +We pass now to pictures for which some affirm and others deny the right +to bear Giorgione's name. As youthful in style as the two early pictures +in the Uffizi, and closely allied to them in feeling, though less so in +colour, is an unexplained subject in the National Gallery, sometimes +called for want of a better title the "Golden Age"; this is officially +and by many critics given only to the "school of" Giorgione, but may not +unreasonably be claimed for his own work (No. 1173). There is also in +England a group of three paintings which are certainly by one hand, and +that a hand very closely related to Giorgione if not actually his own, +namely the small oblong "Adoration of the Magi" in the National Gallery +(No. 1160), the "Adoration of the Shepherds" belonging to Lord Allendale +(with its somewhat inferior but still attractive replica at Vienna), and +the small "Holy Family" in the collection of Mr R. H. Benson. The type +of the Madonna in all these three pieces is different from that +customary with the master, but there seems no reason why he should not +at some particular moment have changed his model. The sentiment and +gestures of the figures, the cast of draperies, the technical handling, +and especially, in Lord Allendale's picture, the romantic richness of +the landscape, all incline us to accept the group as original, +notwithstanding the deviation of type already mentioned and certain +weaknesses of drawing and proportion which we should have hardly looked +for. Better known to European students in general are the two fine +pictures commonly given to the master at the Pitti gallery in Florence, +namely the "Three Ages" and the "Concert." Both are very Giorgionesque, +the "Three Ages" leaning rather towards the early manner of Lorenzo +Lotto, to whom by some critics it is actually given. The "Concert" is +held on technical grounds by some of the best judges rather to bear the +character of Titian at the moment when the inspiration of Giorgione was +strongest on him, at least so far as concerns the extremely beautiful +and expressive central figure of the monk playing on the clavichord with +reverted head, a very incarnation of musical rapture and yearning--the +other figures are too much injured to judge. + +There are at least two famous single portraits as to which critics will +probably never agree whether they are among the later works of Giorgione +or among the earliest of Titian under his influence: these are the +jovial and splendid half-length of Catherine Cornaro (or a stout lady +much resembling her) with a bas-relief, in the collection of Signor +Crespi at Milan, and the so-called "Ariosto" from Lord Darnley's +collection acquired for the National Gallery in 1904. Ancient and +half-effaced inscriptions, of which there is no cause to doubt the +genuineness, ascribe them both to Titian; both, to the mind of the +present writer at least, are more nearly akin to such undoubted early +Titians as the "Man with the Book" at Hampton Court and the "Man with +the Glove" at the Louvre than to any authenticated work of Giorgione. At +the same time it should be remembered that Giorgione is known to have +actually enjoyed the patronage of Catherine Cornaro and to have painted +her portrait. The Giorgionesque influence and feeling, to a degree +almost of sentimental exaggeration, encounter us again in another +beautiful Venetian portrait at the National Gallery which has sometimes +been claimed for him, that of a man in crimson velvet with white pleated +shirt and a background of bays, long attributed to the elder Palma (No. +636). The same qualities are present with more virility in a very +striking portrait of a young man at Temple Newsam, which stands indeed +nearer than any other extant example to the Brocardo portrait at +Budapest. The full-face portrait of a woman in the Borghese gallery at +Rome has the marks of the master's design and inspiration, but in its +present sadly damaged condition can hardly be claimed for his handiwork. +The head of a boy with a pipe at Hampton Court, a little over life size, +has been enthusiastically claimed as Giorgione's workmanship, but is +surely too slack and soft in handling to be anything more than an early +copy of a lost work, analogous to, though better than, the similar copy +at Vienna of a young man with an arrow, a subject he is known to have +painted. The early records prove indeed that not a few such copies of +Giorgione's more admired works were produced in his own time or shortly +afterwards. One of the most interesting and unmistakable such copies +still extant is the picture formerly in the Manfrin collection at +Venice, afterwards in that of Mr Barker in London, and now at Dresden, +which is commonly called "The Horoscope," and represents a woman seated +near a classic ruin with a young child at her feet, an armed youth +standing looking down at them, and a turbaned sage seated near with +compasses, disk and book. Of important subject pictures belonging to the +debatable borderland between Giorgione and his imitators are the large +and interesting unfinished "Judgment of Solomon" at Kingston Lacy, which +must certainly be the same that Ridolfi saw and attributed to him in the +Casa Grimani at Venice, but has weaknesses of design and drawing +sufficiently baffling to criticism; and the "Woman taken in Adultery" in +the public gallery at Glasgow, a picture truly Giorgionesque in richness +of colour, but betraying in its awkward composition, the relative +coarseness of its types and the insincere, mechanical animation of its +movements, the hand of some lesser master of the school, almost +certainly (by comparison with his existing engravings and woodcuts) that +of Domenico Campagnola. It seems unnecessary to refer, in the present +notice, to any of the numerous other and inferior works which have been +claimed for Giorgione by a criticism unable to distinguish between a +living voice and its echoes. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Morelli, _Notizie_, &c. (ed. Frizzoni, 1884): Vasari + (ed. Milanesi), vol. iv.; Ridolfi, _Le Maraviglie dell' arte_, vol. + i.; Zanetti, _Varie Pitture_ (1760); Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _History of + Painting in North Italy_; Morelli, _Kunstkritische Studien_; Gronau, + _Zorzon da Castelfranco, la sua origine_, &c. (1894); Herbert Cook, + _Giorgione_ (in "Great Masters" series, 1900); Ugo Monneret de + Villard, _Giorgione da Castelfranco_ (1905). The two last-named works + are critically far too inclusive, but useful as going over the whole + ground of discussion, with full references to earlier authorities, &c. + (S. C.) + + + + +GIOTTINO (1324-1357), an early Florentine painter. Vasari is the +principal authority in regard to this artist; but it is not by any means +easy to bring the details of his narrative into harmony with such facts +as can now be verified. It would appear that there was a painter of the +name of Tommaso (or Maso) di Stefano termed Giottino; and the Giottino +of Vasari is said to have been born in 1324, and to have died early, of +consumption, in 1357,--dates which must be regarded as open to +considerable doubt. Stefano, the father of Tommaso, was himself a +celebrated painter in the early revival of art; his naturalism was +indeed so highly appreciated by contemporaries as to earn him the +appellation of "Scimia della Natura" (ape of nature). He, it seems, +instructed his son, who, however, applied himself with greater +predilection to studying the works of the great Giotto, formed his style +on these, and hence was called Giottino. It is even said that Giottino +was really the son (others say the great-grandson) of Giotto. To this +statement little or no importance can be attached. To Maso di Stefano, +or Giottino, Vasari and Ghiberti attribute the frescoes in the chapel of +S. Silvestro (or of the Bardi family) in the Florentine church of S. +Croce; these represent the miracles of Pope S. Silvestro as narrated in +the "Golden Legend," one conspicuous subject being the sealing of the +lips of a malignant dragon. These works are animated and firm in +drawing, with naturalism carried further than by Giotto. From the +evidence of style, some modern connoisseurs assign to the same hand the +paintings in the funeral vault of the Strozzi family, below the Cappella +degli Spagnuoli in the church of S. Maria Novella, representing the +crucifixion and other subjects. Vasari ascribes also to his Giottino the +frescoes of the life of St Nicholas in the lower church of Assisi. This +series, however, is not really in that part of the church which Vasari +designates, but is in the chapel of the Sacrament; and the works in that +chapel are understood to be by Giotto di Stefano, who worked in the +second half of the 14th century--very excellent productions of their +period. They are much damaged, and the style is hardly similar to that +of the Sylvester frescoes. It might hence be inferred that two different +men produced the works which are unitedly fathered upon the +half-legendary "Giottino," the consumptive youth, solitary and +melancholic, but passionately devoted to his art. A large number of +other works have been attributed to the same hand; we need only mention +an "Apparition of the Virgin to St Bernard," in the Florentine Academy; +a lost painting, very popular in its day, commemorating the expulsion, +which took place in 1343, of the duke of Athens from Florence; and a +marble statue erected on the Florentine campanile. Vasari particularly +praises Giottino for well-blended chiaroscuro. + + + + +GIOTTO [GIOTTO DI BONDONE[1]] (1267?-1337), Italian painter, was born at +Vespignano in the Mugello, a few miles north of Florence, according to +one account in 1276, and according to another, which from the few known +circumstances of his life seems more likely to be correct, in 1266 or +1267. His father was a landowner at Colle in the commune of Vespignano, +described in a contemporary document as _vir praeclarus_, but by +biographers both early and late as a poor peasant; probably therefore a +peasant proprietor of no large possessions but of reputable stock and +descent. It is impossible to tell whether there is any truth in the +legend of Giotto's boyhood which relates how he first showed his +disposition for art, and attracted the attention of Cimabue, by being +found drawing one of his father's sheep with a sharp stone on the face +of a smooth stone or slate. With his father's consent, the story goes +on, Cimabue carried off the boy to be his apprentice, and it was under +Cimabue's tuition that Giotto took his first steps in the art of which +he was afterwards to be the great emancipator and renovator. The place +where these early steps can still, according to tradition, be traced, is +in the first and second, reckoning downwards, of the three courses of +frescoes which adorn the walls of the nave in the Upper Church of St +Francis at Assisi. These frescoes represent subjects of the Old and New +Testament, and great labour, too probably futile, has been spent in +trying to pick out those in which the youthful handiwork of Giotto can +be discerned, as it is imagined, among that of Cimabue and his other +pupils. But the truth is that the figure of Cimabue himself, in spite of +Dante's testimony to his having been the foremost painter of Italy until +Giotto arose, has under the search-light of modern criticism melted into +almost mythical vagueness. His accepted position as Giotto's instructor +and the pioneer of reform in his art has been attacked from several +sides as a mere invention of Florentine writers for the glorification of +their own city. One group of critics maintain that the real advance in +Tuscan painting before Giotto was the work of the Sienese school and not +of the Florentine. Another group contend that the best painting done in +Italy down to the last decade of the 13th century was not done by Tuscan +hands at all, but by Roman craftsmen trained in the inherited principles +of Italo-Byzantine decoration in mosaic and fresco, and that from such +Roman craftsmen alone could Giotto have learnt anything worth his +learning. The debate thus opened is far from closed, and considering how +scanty, ambiguous and often defaced are the materials existing for +discussion, it is perhaps never likely to be closed. But there is no +debate as to the general nature of the reform effected by the genius of +Giotto himself. He was the great humanizer of painting; it is his glory +to have been the first among his countrymen to breathe life into +wall-pictures and altar-pieces, and to quicken the dead conventionalism +of inherited practice with the fire of natural action and natural +feeling. Upon yet another point there is no question; and that is that +the reform thus effected by Giotto in painting had been anticipated in +the sister art of sculpture by nearly a whole generation. About the +middle of the 13th century Nicola Pisano had renewed that art, first by +strict imitation of classical models, and later by infusing into his +work a fresh spirit of nature and humanity, perhaps partly caught from +the Gothic schools of France. His son Giovanni had carried the same +re-vitalising of sculpture a great deal further; and hence to some +critics it would seem that the real inspirer and precursor of Giotto was +Giovanni Pisano the sculptor, and not any painter or wall-decorator, +whether of Florence, Siena or Rome. + +In this division of opinion it is safer to regard the revival of +painting in Giotto's hands simply as part of the general awakening of +the time, and to remember that, as of all Italian communities Florence +was the keenest in every form of activity both intellectual and +practical, so it was natural that a son of Florence should be the chief +agent in such an awakening. And in considering his career the question +of his possible participation in the primitive frescoes of the upper +courses at Assisi is best left out of account, the more so because of +the deplorable condition in which they now exist. But with reference to +the lowest course of paintings on the same walls, those illustrating the +life of St Francis according to the narrative of St Bonaventura, no one +has any doubt, at least in regard to nineteen or twenty of the +twenty-eight subjects which compose the series, that Giotto himself was +their designer and chief executant. In these, sadly as they too have +suffered from time and wholesale repair, there can nevertheless be +discerned the unmistakable spirit of the young Florentine master as we +know him in his other works--his shrewd realistic and dramatic vigour, +the deep sincerity and humanity of feeling which he knows how to express +in every gesture of his figures without breaking up the harmony of their +grouping or the grandeur of their linear design, qualities inherited +from the earlier schools of impressive but lifeless hieratic decoration. +The "Renunciation of the Saint by his Father," the "Pope's Dream of the +Saint upholding the tottering Church," the "Saint before the Sultan," +the "Miracle of the Spring of Water," the "Death of the Nobleman of +Celano," the "Saint preaching before Pope Honorius"--these are some of +the most noted and best preserved examples of the painter's power in +this series. Where doubt begins again is as to the relations of date and +sequence which the series bears to other works by the master executed at +Assisi and at Rome in the same early period of his career, that is, +probably between 1295 and 1300. Giotto's remaining undisputed works at +Assisi are the four celebrated allegorical compositions in honour of St +Francis in the vaulting of the Lower Church,--the "Marriage of St +Francis to Poverty," the "Allegory of Chastity," the "Allegory of +Obedience" and the "Vision of St Francis in Glory." These works are +scarcely at all retouched, and relatively little dimmed by time; they +are of a singular beauty, at once severe and tender, both in colour and +design; the compositions, especially the first three, fitted with +admirable art into the cramped spaces of the vaulting, the subjects, no +doubt in the main dictated to the artist by his Franciscan employers, +treated in no cold or mechanical spirit but with a full measure of vital +humanity and original feeling. Had the career and influence of St +Francis had no other of their vast and far-reaching effects in the world +than that of inspiring these noble works of art, they would still have +been entitled to no small gratitude from mankind. Other works at Assisi +which most modern critics, but not all, attribute to Giotto himself are +three miracles of St Francis and portions of a group of frescoes +illustrating the history of Mary Magdalene, both in the Lower Church; +and again, in one of the transepts of the same Lower Church, a series of +ten frescoes of the Life of the Virgin and Christ, concluding with the +Crucifixion. It is to be remarked as to this transept series that +several of the frescoes present not only the same subjects, but with a +certain degree of variation the same compositions, as are found in the +master's great series executed in the Arena chapel at Padua in the +fullness of his powers about 1306; and that the versions in the Assisi +transept show a relatively greater degree of technical accomplishment +than the Paduan versions, with a more attractive charm and more +abundance of accessory ornament, but a proportionately less degree of +that simple grandeur in composition and direct strength of human motive +which are the special notes of Giotto's style. Therefore a minority of +critics refuse to accept the modern attribution of this transept series +to Giotto himself, and see in it later work by an accomplished pupil +softening and refining upon his master's original creations at Padua. +Others, insisting that these unquestionably beautiful works must be by +the hand of Giotto and none but Giotto, maintain that in comparison with +the Paduan examples they illustrate a gradual progress, which can be +traced in other of his extant works, from the relatively ornate and soft +to the austerely grand and simple. This argument is enforced by +comparison with early work of the master's at Rome as to the date of +which we have positive evidence. In 1298 Giotto completed for Cardinal +Stefaneschi for the price of 2200 gold ducats a mosaic of Christ saving +St Peter from the waves (the celebrated "Navicella"); this is still to +be seen, but in a completely restored and transformed state, in the +vestibule of St Peter's. For the same patron he executed, probably just +before the "Navicella," an elaborate ciborium or altar-piece for the +high altar of St Peter's, for which he received 800 ducats. It +represents on the principal face a colossal Christ enthroned with +adoring angels beside him and a kneeling donor at his feet, and the +martyrdoms of St Peter and St Paul on separate panels to right and left; +on the reverse is St Peter attended by St George and other saints, +receiving from the donor a model of his gift, with stately full-length +figures of two apostles to right and two to left, besides various +accessory scenes and figures in the predellas and the margins. The +separated parts of this altar-piece are still to be seen, in a quite +genuine though somewhat tarnished condition, in the sacristy of St +Peter's. A third work by the master at Rome is a repainted fragment at +the Lateran of a fresco of Pope Boniface VIII. proclaiming the jubilee +of 1300. The "Navicella" and the Lateran fragment are too much ruined to +argue from; but the ciborium panels, it is contended, combine with the +aspects of majesty and strength a quality of ornate charm and suavity +such as is remarked in the transept frescoes of Assisi. The sequence +proposed for these several works is accordingly, first the St Peter's +ciborium, next the allegories in the vaulting of the Lower Church, next +the three frescoes of St Francis' miracles in the north transept, next +the St Francis series in the Upper Church; and last, perhaps after an +interval and with the help of pupils, the scenes from the life of Mary +Magdalene in her chapel in the Lower Church. This involves a complete +reversal of the prevailing view, which regards the unequal and sometimes +clumsy compositions of this St Francis series as the earliest +independent work of the master. It must be admitted that there is +something paradoxical in the idea of a progress from the manner of the +Lower Church transept series of the life of Christ to the much ruder +manner of the Upper Church series of St Francis. + +A kindred obscurity and little less conflict of opinion await the +inquirer at almost all stages of Giotto's career. In 1841 there were +partially recovered from the whitewash that had overlain them a series +of frescoes executed in the chapel of the Magdalene, in the Bargello or +Palace of the Podesta at Florence, to celebrate (as was supposed) a +pacification between the Black and White parties in the state effected +by the Cardinal d'Acquasparta as delegate of the pope in 1302. In them +are depicted a series of Bible scenes, besides great compositions of +Hell and Paradise, and in the Paradise are introduced portraits of +Dante, Brunetto Latini and Corso Donato. These recovered fragments, +freely "restored" as soon as they were disclosed, were acclaimed as the +work of Giotto and long held in especial regard for the sake of the +portrait of Dante. Latterly it has been shown that if Giotto ever +executed them at all, which is doubtful, it must have been at a later +date than the supposed pacification, and that they must have suffered +grievous injury in the fire which destroyed a great part of the building +in 1332, and been afterwards repainted by some well-trained follower of +the school. To about 1302 or 1303 would belong, if there is truth in it, +the familiar story of Giotto's O. Pope Benedict XI., the successor of +Boniface VIII., sent, as the tale runs, a messenger to bring him proofs +of the painter's powers. Giotto would give no other sample of his talent +than an O drawn with a free sweep of the brush from the elbow; but the +pope was satisfied and engaged him at a great salary to go and adorn +with frescoes the papal residence at Avignon. Benedict, however, dying +at this time (1305), nothing came of this commission; and the remains of +Italian 14th-century frescoes still to be seen at Avignon are now +recognized as the work, not, as was long supposed, of Giotto, but of the +Sienese Simone Martini and his school. + +At this point in Giotto's life we come to the greatest by far of his +undestroyed and undisputed enterprises, and one which can with some +certainty be dated. This is the series of frescoes with which he +decorated the entire internal walls of the chapel built at Padua in +honour of the Virgin of the Annunciation by a rich citizen of the town, +Enrico Scrovegni, perhaps in order to atone for the sins of his father, +a notorious usurer whom Dante places in the seventh circle of hell. The +building is on the site of an ancient amphitheatre, and is therefore +generally called the chapel of the Arena. Since it is recorded that +Dante was Giotto's guest at Padua, and since we know that it was in 1306 +that the poet came from Bologna to that city, we may conclude that to +the same year, 1306, belongs the beginning of Giotto's great undertaking +in the Arena chapel. The scheme includes a Saviour in Glory over the +altar, a Last Judgment, full of various and impressive incident, +occupying the whole of the entrance wall, with a series of subjects from +the Old and New Testament and the apocryphal Life of Christ painted in +three tiers on either side wall, and lowest of all a fourth tier with +emblematic Virtues and Vices in monochrome; the Virtues being on the +side of the chapel next the incidents of redemption in the entrance +fresco of the Last Judgment, the Vices on the side next the incidents of +perdition. A not improbable tradition asserts that Giotto was helped by +Dante in the choice and disposition of the subjects. The frescoes, +though not free from injury and retouching, are upon the whole in good +condition, and nowhere else can the highest powers of the Italian mind +and hand at the beginning of the 14th century be so well studied as +here. At the close of the middle ages we find Giotto laying the +foundation upon which all the progress of the Renaissance was afterwards +securely based. In his day the knowledge possessed by painters of the +human frame and its structure rested only upon general observation and +not upon detailed or scientific study; while to facts other than those +of humanity their observation had never been closely directed. Of linear +perspective they possessed but elementary and empirical ideas, and their +endeavours to express aerial perspective and deal with the problems of +light and shade were rare and partial. As far as painting could possibly +be carried under these conditions, it was carried by Giotto. In its +choice of subjects, his art is entirely subservient to the religious +spirit of his age. Even in its mode of conceiving and arranging those +subjects it is in part still trammelled by the rules and consecrated +traditions of the past. Many of those truths of nature to which the +painters of succeeding generations learned to give accurate and complete +expression, Giotto was only able to express by way oL imperfect symbol +and suggestion. But among the elements of art over which he has control +he maintains so just a balance that his work produces in the spectator +less sense of imperfection than that of many later and more accomplished +masters. In some particulars his mature painting, as we see it in the +Arena chapel, has never been surpassed--in mastery of concise and +expressive generalized line and of inventive and harmonious decorative +tint; in the judicious division of the field and massing and scattering +of groups; in the combination of high gravity with complete frankness in +conception, and the union of noble dignity in the types with direct and +vital truth in the gestures of the personages. + +The frescoes of the Arena chapel must have been a labour of years, and +of the date of their termination we have no proof. Of many other works +said to have been executed by Giotto at Padua, all that remains consists +of some scarce recognizable traces in the chapter-house of the great +Franciscan church of St Antonio. For twenty years or more we lose all +authentic data as to Giotto's doings and movements. Vasari, indeed, +sends him on a giddy but in the main evidently fabulous round of +travels, including a sojourn in France, which it is certain he never +made. Besides Padua, he is said to have resided and left great works at +Ferrara, Ravenna, Urbino, Rimini, Faenza, Lucca and other cities; in +some of them paintings of his school are still shown, but nothing which +can fairly be claimed to be by his hand. It is recorded also that he was +much employed in his native city of Florence; but the vandalism of later +generations has effaced nearly all that he did there. Among works +whitewashed over by posterity were the frescoes with which he covered no +less than five chapels in the church of Santa Croce. Two of these, the +chapels of the Bardi and the Peruzzi families, were scraped in the early +part of the 19th century, and very important remains were uncovered and +immediately subjected to a process of restoration which has robbed them +of half their authenticity. But through the ruins of time we can trace +in some of these Santa Croce frescoes all the qualities of Giotto's work +at an even higher and more mature development than in the best examples +at Assisi or Padua. The frescoes of the Bardi chapel tell again the +story of St Francis, to which so much of his best power had already been +devoted; those of the Peruzzi chapel deal with the lives of St John the +Baptist and St John the Evangelist. Such scenes as the Funeral of St +Francis, the Dance of Herodias's Daughter, and the Resurrection of St +John the Evangelist, which have to some extent escaped the +disfigurements of the restorer, are among acknowledged classics of the +world's art. The only clues to the dates of any of these works are to be +found in the facts that among the figures in the Bardi chapel occurs +that of St Louis of Toulouse, who was not canonized till 1317, therefore +the painting must be subsequent to that year, and that the "Dance of +Salome" must have been painted before 1331, when it was copied by the +Lorenzetti at Siena. The only other extant works of Giotto at Florence +are a fine "Crucifix," not undisputed, at San Marco, and the majestic +but somewhat heavy altar-piece of the Madonna, probably an early work, +which is placed in the Academy beside a more primitive Madonna supposed +to be the work of Cimabue. + +Towards the end of Giotto's life we escape again from confused legend, +and from the tantalizing record of works which have not survived for us +to verify, into the region of authentic document and fact. It appears +that Giotto had come under the notice of Duke Charles of Calabria, son +of King Robert of Naples, during the visits of the duke to Florence +which took place between 1326 and 1328, in which year he died. Soon +afterwards Giotto must have gone to King Robert's court at Naples, where +he was enrolled as an honoured guest and member of the household by a +royal decree dated the 20th of January 1330. Another document shows him +to have been still at Naples two years later. Tradition says much about +the friendship of the king for the painter and the freedom of speech and +jest allowed him; much also of the works he carried out at Naples in the +Castel Nuovo, the Castel dell' Uovo, and the church and convent of Sta +Chiara. Not a trace of these works remains; and others which later +criticism have claimed for him in a hall which formerly belonged to the +convent of Sta Chiara have been proved not to be his. + +Meantime Giotto had been advancing, not only in years and worldly fame, +but in prosperity. He was married young, and had, so far as is recorded, +three sons, Francesco, Niccola and Donato, and three daughters, Bice, +Caterina and Lucia. He had added by successive purchases to the plot of +land inherited from his father at Vespignano. His fellow-citizens of all +occupations and degrees delighted to honour him. And now, in his +sixty-eighth year (if we accept the birth-date 1266/7), on his return +from Naples by way of Gaeta, he received the final and official +testimony to the esteem in which he was held at Florence. By a solemn +decree of the _Priori_ on the 12th of April 1334, he was appointed +master of the works of the cathedral of Sta Reparata (later and better +known as Sta Maria del Fiore) and official architect of the city walls +and the towns within her territory. What training as a practical +architect his earlier career had afforded him we do not know, but his +interest in the art from the beginning is made clear by the carefully +studied architectural backgrounds of many of his frescoes. Dying on the +8th of January 1336 (old style 1337), Giotto only enjoyed his new +dignities for two years. But in the course of them he had found time not +only to make an excursion to Milan, on the invitation of Azzo Visconti +and with the sanction of his own government, but to plan two great +architectural works at Florence and superintend the beginning of their +execution, namely the west front of the cathedral and its detached +campanile or bell-tower. The unfinished enrichments of the cathedral +front were stripped away in a later age. The foundation-stone of the +Campanile was laid with solemn ceremony in the presence of a great +concourse of magistrates and people on the 18th of July 1334. Its lower +courses seem to have been completed from Giotto's design, and the first +course of its sculptured ornaments (the famous series of primitive Arts +and Industries) actually by his own hand, before his death. It is not +clear what modifications of his design were made by Andrea Pisano, who +was appointed to succeed him, or again by Francesco Talenti, to whom the +work was next entrusted; but the incomparable structure as we now see it +stands justly in the world's esteem as the most fitting monument to the +genius who first conceived and directed it. + +The art of painting, as re-created by Giotto, was carried on throughout +Italy by his pupils and successors with little change or development for +nearly a hundred years, until a new impulse was given to art by the +combined influences of naturalism and classicism in the hands of men +like Donatello and Masaccio. Most of the anecdotes related of the master +are probably inaccurate in detail, but the general character both as +artist and man which tradition has agreed in giving him can never be +assailed. He was from the first a kind of popular hero. He is celebrated +by the poet Petrarch and by the historian Villani. He is made the +subject of tales and anecdotes by Boccaccio and by Franco Sacchetti. +From these notices, as well as from Vasari, we gain a distinct picture +of the man, as one whose nature was in keeping with his country origin; +whose sturdy frame and plain features corresponded to a character rather +distinguished for shrewd and genial strength than for sublimer or more +ascetic qualities; a master craftsman, to whose strong combining and +inventing powers nothing came amiss; conscious of his own deserts, never +at a loss either in the things of art or in the things of life, and +equally ready and efficient whether he has to design the scheme of some +great spiritual allegory in colour or imperishable monument in stone, or +whether he has to show his wit in the encounter of practical jest and +repartee. From his own hand we have a contribution to literature which +helps to substantiate this conception of his character. A large part of +Giotto's fame as painter was won in the service of the Franciscans, and +in the pictorial celebration of the life and ordinances of their +founder. As is well known, it was a part of the ordinances of Francis +that his disciples should follow his own example in worshipping and +being wedded to poverty,--poverty idealized and personified as a +spiritual bride and mistress. Giotto, having on the commission of the +order given the noblest pictorial embodiment to this and other aspects +of the Franciscan doctrine, presently wrote an ode in which his own +views on poverty are expressed; and in this he shows that, if on the one +hand his genius was at the service of the ideals of his time, and his +imagination open to their significance, on the other hand his judgment +was shrewdly and humorously awake to their practical dangers and +exaggerations. + + AUTHORITIES.--Ghiberti, _Commentari_; Vasari, _Le Vite_, vol. i.; + Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _History of Painting in Italy_, ed. Langton + Douglas (1903); H. Thode, _Giotto_ (1899); M. G. Zimmermann, _Giotto + und die Kunst Italiens im Mittelalter_ (1899); B. Berenson, + _Florentine Painters of the Renaissance_; F. Mason Perkin, _Giotto_ + (in "Great Masters" series) (1902); Basil de Selincourt, _Giotto_ + (1905). (S. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Not to be confused with Giotto di Buondone, a contemporary + citizen and politician of Siena. + + + + +GIPSIES, or GYPSIES, a wandering folk scattered through every European +land, over the greater part of western Asia and Siberia; found also in +Egypt and the northern coast of Africa, in America and even in +Australia. No correct estimate of their numbers outside of Europe can be +given, and even in Europe the information derived from official +statistics is often contradictory and unreliable. The only country in +which the figures have been given correctly is Hungary. In 1893 there +were 274,940 in Transleithania, of whom 243,432 were settled, 20,406 +only partly settled and 8938 nomads. Of these 91,603 spoke the Gipsy +language in 1890, but the rest had already been assimilated. Next in +numbers stands Rumania, the number varying between 250,000 and 200,000 +(1895). Turkey in Europe counted 117,000 (1903), of whom 51,000 were in +Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, 22,000 in the vilayet of Adrianople and +2500 in the vilayet of Kossovo. In Asiatic Turkey the estimates vary +between 67,000 and 200,000. Servia has 41,000; Bosnia and Herzegovina, +18,000; Greece, 10,000; Austria (Cisleithania), 16,000, of whom 13,500 +are in Bohemia and Moravia; Germany, 2000; France, 2000 (5000?); Basque +Provinces, 500 to 700; Italy, 32,000; Spain, 40,000; Russia, 58,000; +Poland, 15,000; Sweden and Norway, 1500; Denmark and Holland, 5000; +Persia, 15,000; Transcaucasia, 3000. The rest is mere guesswork. For +Africa, America and Australia the numbers are estimated between 135,000 +and 166,000. The estimate given by Miklosich (1878) of 700,000 fairly +agrees with the above statistics. No statistics are forthcoming for the +number in the British Isles. Some estimate their number at 12,000. + +The Gipsies are known principally by two names, which have been modified +by the nations with whom they came in contact, but which can easily be +traced to either the one or the other of these two distinct stems. The +one group, embracing the majority of Gipsies in Europe, the compact +masses living in the Balkan Peninsula, Rumania and Transylvania and +extending also as far as Germany and Italy, are known by the name +_Atzigan_ or _Atsigan_, which becomes in time Tshingian (Turkey and +Greece), Tsigan (Bulgarian, Servian, Rumanian), Czigany (Hungarian), +Zigeuner (Germany), Zingari (Italian), and it is not unlikely that the +English word Tinker or Tinkler (the latter no doubt due to a popular +etymology connecting the gaudy gipsy with the tinkling coins or the +metal wares which he carried on his back as a smith and tinker) may be a +local transformation of the German _Zigeuner_. The second name, partly +known in the East, where the word, however, is used as an expression of +contempt, whilst Zigan is not felt by the gipsies as an insult, is +_Egyptian_; in England, Gipsy; in some German documents of the 16th +century _Aegypter_; Spanish _Gitano_; modern Greek _Gyphtos_. They are +also known by the parallel expressions _Faraon_ (Rumanian) and _Pharao +Nephka_ (Hungarian) or Pharaoh's people, which are only variations +connected with the Egyptian origin. In France they are known as +_Bohemiens_, a word the importance of which will appear later. To the +same category belong other names bestowed upon them, such as Walachi, +Saraceni, Agareni, Nubiani, &c. They were also known by the name of +Tartars, given to them in Germany, or as "Heathen," _Heydens_. All these +latter must be considered as nicknames without thereby denoting their +probable origin. The same may have now been the ease with the first name +with which they appear in history, _Atzigan_. Much ingenuity has been +displayed in attempts to explain the name, for it was felt that a true +explanation might help to settle the question of their origin and the +date of their arrival in Europe. Here again two extreme theories have +been propounded, the one supported by Bataillard, who connected them +with the Sigynnoi of Herodotus and identified them with the Komodromoi +of the later Byzantine writers, known already in the 6th century. Others +bring them to Europe as late as the 14th century; and the name has also +been explained by de Goeje from the Persian _Chang_, a kind of harp or +zither, or the Persian _Zang_, black, swarthy. Rienzi (1832) and Trumpp +(1872) have connected the name with the Changars of North-East India, +but all have omitted to notice that the real form was Atzigan or (more +correct) Atzingan and not Tsigan. The best explanation remains that +suggested by Miklosich, who derives the word from the Athinganoi, a name +originally belonging to a peculiar heretical sect living in Asia Minor +near Phrygia and Lycaonia, known also as the Melki-Zedekites. The +members of this sect observed very strict rules of purity, as they were +afraid to be defiled by the touch of other people whom they considered +unclean. They therefore acquired the name of Athinganoi (i.e. +"Touch-me-nots"). + +Miklosich has collected seven passages where the Byzantine historians of +the 9th century describe the Athinganoi as soothsayers, magicians and +serpent-charmers. From these descriptions nothing definite can be proved +as to the identity of the Athinganoi with the Gipsies, or the reason why +this name was given to soothsayers, charmers, &c. But the inner history +of the Byzantine empire of that period may easily give a clue to it and +explain how it came about that such a nickname was given to a new sect +or to a new race which suddenly appeared in the Greek Empire at that +period. In the history of the Church we find them mentioned in one +breath with the Paulicians and other heretical sects which were +transplanted in their tens of thousands from Asia Minor to the Greek +empire and settled especially in Rumelia, near Adrianople and +Philippopolis. The Greeks called these heretical sects by all kinds of +names, derived from ancient Church traditions, and gave to each sect +such names as first struck them, on the scantiest of imaginary +similarities. One sect was called Paulician, another Melki-Zedekite; so +also these were called Athinganoi, probably being considered the +descendants of the outcast Samer, who, according to ancient tradition, +was a goldsmith and the maker of the Golden Calf in the desert. For this +sin Samer was banished and compelled to live apart from human beings and +even to avoid their touch (Athinganos: "Touch-me-not"). Travelling from +East to West these heretical sects obtained different names in different +countries, in accordance with the local traditions or to imaginary +origins. The Bogomils and Patarenes became Bulgarians in France, and so +the gypsies Bohemiens, a name which was also connected with the +heretical sect of the Bohemian brothers (_Bohmische Bruder_). Curiously +enough the Kutzo-Vlachs living in Macedonia (q.v.) and Rumelia are also +known by the nickname Tsintsari, a word that has not yet been explained. +Very likely it stands in close connexion with Zingari, the name having +been transferred from one people to the other without the justification +of any common ethnical origin, except that the Kutzo-Vlachs, like the +Zingari, differed from their Greek neighbours in race, as in language, +habits and customs; while they probably followed similar pursuits to +those of the Zingari, as smiths, &c. As to the other name, Egyptians, +this is derived from a peculiar tale which the gipsies spread when +appearing in the west of Europe. They alleged that they had come from a +country of their own called Little Egypt, either a confusion between +Little Armenia and Egypt or the Peloponnesus. + +Attention may be drawn to a remarkable passage in the Syriac version of +the apocryphal Book of Adam, known as the _Cave of Treasures_ and +compiled probably in the 6th century: "And of the seed of Canaan were +as I said the Aegyptians; and, lo, they were scattered all over the +earth and served as slaves of slaves" (ed. Bezold, German translation, +p. 25). No reference to such a scattering and serfdom of the Egyptians +is mentioned anywhere else. This must have been a legend, current in +Asia Minor, and hence probably transferred to the swarthy Gipsies. + +A new explanation may now be ventured upon as to the name which the +Gipsies of Europe give to themselves, which, it must be emphasized, is +not known to the Gipsies outside of Europe. Only those who starting from +the ancient Byzantine empire have travelled westwards and spread over +Europe, America and Australia call themselves by the name of Rom, the +woman being Romni and a stranger Gazi. Many etymologies have been +suggested for the word Rom. Paspati derived it from the word Droma +(Indian), and Miklosich had identified it with Doma or Domba, a "low +caste musician," rather an extraordinary name for a nation to call +itself by. Having no home and no country of their own and no political +traditions and no literature, they would naturally try to identify +themselves with the people in whose midst they lived, and would call +themselves by the same name as other inhabitants of the Greek empire, +known also as the Empire of New Rom, or of the Romaioi, Romeliots, +Romanoi, as the Byzantines used to call themselves before they assumed +the prouder name of Hellenes. The Gipsies would therefore call +themselves also Rom, a much more natural name, more flattering to their +vanity, and geographically and politically more correct than if they +called themselves "low caste musicians." This Greek origin of the name +would explain why it is limited to the European Gipsies, and why it is +not found among that stock of Gipsies which has migrated from Asia Minor +southwards and taken a different route to reach Egypt and North Africa. + +_Appearance in Europe._--Leaving aside the doubtful passages in the +Byzantine writers where the Athinganoi are mentioned, the first +appearance of Gipsies in Europe cannot be traced positively further back +than the beginning of the 14th century. Some have hitherto believed that +a passage in what was erroneously called the Rhymed Version of Genesis +of Vienna, but which turns out to be the work of a writer before the +year 1122, and found only in the Klagenfurt manuscript (edited by +Ditmar, 1862), referred to the Gipsies. It runs as follows: Gen. xiii. +15--"Hagar had a son from whom were born the Chaltsmide. When Hagar had +that child, she named it Ismael, from whom the Ismaelites descend who +journey through the land, and we call them Chaltsmide, may evil befall +them! They sell only things with blemishes, and for whatever they sell +they always ask more than its real value. They cheat the people to whom +they sell. They have no home, no country, they are satisfied to live in +tents, they wander over the country, they deceive the people, they cheat +men but rob no one noisily." + +This reference to the Chaltsmide (not goldsmiths, but very likely +ironworkers, smiths) has wrongly been applied to the Gipsies. For it is +important to note that at least three centuries before historical +evidence proves the immigration of the genuine Gipsy, there had been +wayfaring smiths, travelling from country to country, and practically +paving the way for their successors, the Gipsies, who not only took up +their crafts but who probably have also assimilated a good proportion of +these vagrants of the west of Europe. The name given to the former, who +probably were Oriental or Greek smiths and pedlars, was then transferred +to the new-comers. The Komodromoi mentioned by Theophanes (758-818), who +speaks under the date 554 of one hailing from Italy, and by other +Byzantine writers, are no doubt the same as the Chaltsmide of the German +writer of the 12th century translated by Ducange as _Chaudroneurs_. We +are on surer ground in the 14th century. Hopf has proved the existence +of Gipsies in Corfu before 1326. Before 1346 the empress Catherine de +Valois granted to the governor of Corfu authority to reduce to vassalage +certain vagrants who came from the mainland; and in 1386, under the +Venetians, they formed the Feudum Acindanorum, which lasted for many +centuries. About 1378 the Venetian governor of Nauplia confirmed to the +"Acingani" of that colony the privileges granted by his predecessor to +their leader John. It is even possible to identify the people described +by Friar Simon in his _Itinerarium_, who, speaking of his stay in Crete +in 1322, says: "We saw there a people outside the city who declare +themselves to be of the race of Ham and who worship according to the +Greek rite. They wander like a cursed people from place to place, not +stopping at all or rarely in one place longer than thirty days; they +live in tents like the Arabs, a little oblong black tent." But their +name is not mentioned, and although the similarity is great between +these "children of Ham" and the Gipsies, the identification has only the +value of an hypothesis. By the end of the 15th century they must have +been settled for a sufficiently long time in the Balkan Peninsula and +the countries north of the Danube, such as Transylvania and Walachia, to +have been reduced to the same state of serfdom as they evidently +occupied in Corfu in the second half of the 14th century. The voivode +Mircea I. of Walachia confirms the grant made by his uncle Vladislav +Voivode to the monastery of St Anthony of Voditsa as to forty families +of "Atsigane," for whom no taxes should be paid to the prince. They were +considered crown property. The same gift is renewed in the year 1424 by +the voivode Dan, who repeats the very same words (i Acigane, m, celiudi. +da su slobodni ot vstkih rabot i dankov) (Hajdau, _Arhiva_, i. 20). At +that time there must already have been in Walachia settled Gipsies +treated as serfs, and migrating Gipsies plying their trade as smiths, +musicians, dancers, soothsayers, horse-dealers, &c., for we find the +voivode Alexander of Moldavia granting these Gipsies in the year 1478 +"freedom of air and soil to wander about and free fire and iron for +their smithy." But a certain portion, probably the largest, became +serfs, who could be sold, exchanged, bartered and inherited. It may be +mentioned here that in the 17th century a family when sold fetched forty +Hungarian florins, and in the 18th century the price was sometimes as +high as 700 Rumanian piastres, about L8, 10s. As late as 1845 an auction +of 200 families of Gipsies took place in Bucharest, where they were sold +in batches of no less than 5 families and offered at a "ducat" cheaper +per head than elsewhere. The Gipsies followed at least four distinct +pursuits in Rumania and Transylvania, where they lived in large masses. +A goodly proportion of them were tied to the soil; in consequence their +position was different from that of the Gipsies who had started +westwards and who are nowhere found to have obtained a permanent abode +for any length of time, or to have been treated, except for a very short +period, with any consideration of humanity. + +Their appearance in the West is first noted by chroniclers early in the +15th century. In 1414 they are said to have already arrived in Hesse. +This date is contested, but for 1417 the reports are unanimous of their +appearance in Germany. Some count their number to have been as high as +1400, which of course is exaggeration. In 1418 they reached Hamburg, +1419 Augsburg, 1428 Switzerland. In 1427 they had already entered France +(Provence). A troupe is said to have reached Bologna in 1422, whence +they are said to have gone to Rome, on a pilgrimage alleged to have been +undertaken for some act of apostasy. After this first immigration a +second and larger one seems to have followed in its wake, led by Zumbel. +The Gipsies spread over Germany, Italy and France between the years 1438 +and 1512. About 1500 they must have reached England. On the 5th of July +1505 James IV. of Scotland gave to "Antonius Gaginae," count of Little +Egypt, letters of recommendation to the king of Denmark; and special +privileges were granted by James V. on the 15th of February 1540 to +"oure louit johnne Faw Lord and Erle of Litill Egypt," to whose son and +successor he granted authority to hang and punish all Egyptians within +the realm (May 26, 1540). + +It is interesting to hear what the first writers who witnessed their +appearance have to tell us; for ever since the Gipsies have remained the +same. Albert Krantzius (Krantz), in his _Saxonia_ (xi. 2), was the first +to give a full description, which was afterwards repeated by Munster in +his _Cosmographia_ (iii. 5). He says that in the year 1417 there +appeared for the first time in Germany a people uncouth, black, dirty, +barbarous, called in Italian "Ciani," who indulge specially in thieving +and cheating. They had among them a count and a few knights well +dressed, others followed afoot. The women and children travelled in +carts. They also carried with them letters of safe-conduct from the +emperor Sigismund and other princes, and they professed that they were +engaged on a pilgrimage of expiation for some act of apostasy. + +The guilt of the Gipsies varies in the different versions of the story, +but all agree that the Gipsies asserted that they came from their own +country called "Litill Egypt," and they had to go to Rome, to obtain +pardon for that alleged sin of their forefathers. According to one +account it was because they had not shown mercy to Joseph and Mary when +they had sought refuge in Egypt from the persecution of Herod (_Basel +Chronicle_). According to another, because they had forsaken the +Christian faith for a while (_Rhaetia_, 1656), &c. But these were +fables, no doubt connected with the legend of Cartaphylus or the +Wandering Jew. + +Krantz's narrative continues as follows: This people have no country and +travel through the land. They live like dogs and have no religion +although they allow themselves to be baptized in the Christian faith. +They live without care and gather unto themselves also other vagrants, +men and women. Their old women practise fortune-telling, and whilst they +are telling men of their future they pick their pockets. Thus far +Krantz. It is curious that he should use the name by which these people +were called in Italy, "Ciani." Similarly Crusius, the author of the +_Annales Suevici_, knows their Italian name _Zigani_ and the French +_Bohemiens_. Not one of these oldest writers mentions them as +coppersmiths or farriers or musicians. The immunity which they enjoyed +during their first appearance in western Europe is due to the letter of +safe-conduct of the emperor. As it is of extreme importance for the +history of civilization as well as the history of the Gipsies, it may +find a place here. It is taken from the compilation of Felix Oefelius, +_Rerum Boicarum scriptores_ (Augsburg, 1763), ii. 15, who reproduces the +"Diarium sexennale" of "Andreas Presbyter," the contemporary of the +first appearance of the Gipsies in Germany. + +"Sigismundus Dei gratia Romanorum Rex semper Augustus, ac Hungariae, +Bohemiae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, &c. Rex Fidelibus nostris universis +Nobilibus, Militibus, Castellanis, Officialibus, Tributariis, +civitatibus liberis, opidis et eorum iudicibus in Regno et sub domino +nostro constitutis ex existentibus salutem cum dilectione. Fideles +nostri adierunt in praesentiam personaliter Ladislaus Wayuoda Ciganorum +cum aliis ad ipsum spectantibus, nobis humilimas porrexerunt +supplicationes, huc in sepus in nostra praesentia supplicationum precum +cum instantia, ut ipsis gratia nostra uberiori providere dignaremur. +Unde nos illorum supplicatione illecti eisdem hanc libertatem duximus +concedendam, qua re quandocunque idem Ladislaus Wayuoda et sua gens ad +dicta nostra dominia videlicet civitates vel oppida pervenerint, ex tunc +vestris fidelitatibus praesentibus firmiter committimus et mandamus ut +eosdem Ladislaum Wayuodam et Ciganos sibi subiectos omni sine +impedimento ac perturbatione aliquali fovere ac conservare debeatis, +immo ab omnibus impetitionibus seu offensionibus tueri velitis: Si autem +inter ipsos aliqua Zizania seu perturbatio evenerit ex parte, +quorumcunque ex tunc non vos nec aliquis alter vestrum, sed idem +Ladislaus Wayuoda iudicandi et liberandi habeat facultatem. Praesentes +autem post earum lecturam semper reddi iubemus praesentanti. + +"Datum in Sepus Dominica die ante festum St Georgii Martyris Anno Domini +MCCCCXXIII., Regnorum nostrorum anno Hungar. XXXVI., Romanorum vero +XII., Bohemiae tertio." + +Freely translated this reads: "We Sigismund by the grace of God emperor +of Rome, king of Hungary, Bohemia, &c. unto all true and loyal subjects, +noble soldiers, commanders, castellans, open districts, free towns and +their judges in our kingdom established and under our sovereignty, kind +greetings. Our faithful voivode of the Tsigani with others belonging to +him has humbly requested us that we might graciously grant them our +abundant favour. We grant them their supplication, we have vouchsafed +unto them this liberty. Whenever therefore this voivode Ladislaus and +his people should come to any part of our realm in any town, village or +place, we commit them by these presents, strongly to your loyalty and we +command you to protect in every way the same voivode Ladislaus and the +Tsigani his subjects without hindrance, and you should show kindness +unto them and you should protect them from every trouble and +persecution. But should any trouble or discord happen among them from +whichever side it may be, then none of you nor anyone else belonging to +you should interfere, but this voivode Ladislaus alone should have the +right of punishing and pardoning. And we moreover command you to return +these presents always after having read them. Given in our court on +Sunday the day before the Feast of St George in the year of our Lord +1423. The 36th year of our kingdom of Hungary, the 12th of our being +emperor of Rome and the 3rd of our being king of Bohemia." + +There is no reason to doubt the authenticity of this document, which is +in no way remarkable considering that at that time the Gipsies must have +formed a very considerable portion of the inhabitants of Hungary, whose +king Sigismund was. They may have presented the emperor's grant of +favours to Alexander prince of Moldavia in 1472, and obtained from him +safe-conduct and protection, as mentioned above. + +No one has yet attempted to explain the reason why the Gipsies should +have started in the 14th and especially in the first half of the 15th +century on their march westwards. But if, as has been assumed above, the +Gipsies had lived for some length of time in Rumelia, and afterwards +spread thence across the Danube and the plains of Transylvania, the +incursion of the Turks into Europe, their successive occupation of those +very provinces, the overthrow of the Servian and Bulgarian kingdoms and +the dislocation of the native population, would account to a remarkable +degree for the movement of the Gipsies: and this movement increases in +volume with the greater successes of the Turks and with the peopling of +the country by immigrants from Asia Minor. The first to be driven from +their homes would no doubt be the nomadic element, which felt itself ill +at ease in its new surroundings, and found it more profitable first to +settle in larger numbers in Walachia and Transylvania and thence to +spread to the western countries of Europe. But their immunity from +persecution did not last long. + +_Later History._--Less than fifty years from the time that they emerge +out of Hungary, or even from the date of the Charter of the emperor +Sigismund, they found themselves exposed to the fury and the prejudices +of the people whose good faith they had abused, whose purses they had +lightened, whose barns they had emptied, and on whose credulity they had +lived with ease and comfort. Their inborn tendency to roaming made them +the terror of the peasantry and the despair of every legislator who +tried to settle them on the land. Their foreign appearance, their +unknown tongue and their unscrupulous habits forced the legislators of +many countries to class them with rogues and vagabonds, to declare them +outlaws and felons and to treat them with extreme severity. More than +one judicial murder has been committed against them. In some places they +were suspected as Turkish spies and treated accordingly, and the +murderer of a Gipsy was often regarded as innocent of any crime. + +Weissenbruch describes the wholesale murder of a group of Gipsies, of +whom five men were broken on the wheel, nine perished on the gallows, +and three men and eight women were decapitated. This took place on the +14th and 15th of November 1726. Acts and edicts were issued in many +countries from the end of the 15th century onwards sentencing the +"Egyptians" to exile under pain of death. Nor was this an empty threat. +In Edinburgh four "Faas" were hanged in 1611 "for abyding within the +kingdome, they being Egiptienis," and in 1636 at Haddington the +Egyptians were ordered "the men to be hangied and the weomen to be +drowned, and suche of the weomen as hes children to be scourgit throw +the burg and burnt in the cheeks." The burning on the cheek or on the +back was a common penalty. In 1692 four Estremadura Gipsies caught by +the Inquisition were charged with cannibalism and made to own that they +had eaten a friar, a pilgrim and even a woman of their own tribe, for +which they suffered the penalty of death. And as late as 1782, 45 +Hungarian Gipsies were charged with a similar monstrous crime, and when +the supposed victims of a supposed murder could not be found on the spot +indicated by the Gipsies, they owned under torture and said on the rack, +"We ate them." Of course they were forthwith beheaded or hanged. The +emperor Joseph II., who was also the author of one of the first edicts +in favour of the Gipsies, and who abolished serfdom throughout the +Empire, ordered an inquiry into the incident; it was then discovered +that no murder had been committed, except that of the victims of this +monstrous accusation. + +The history of the legal status of the Gipsies, of their treatment in +various countries and of the penalties and inflictions to which they +have been subjected, would form a remarkable chapter in the history of +modern civilization. The materials are slowly accumulating, and it is +interesting to note as one of the latest instances, that not further +back than the year 1907 a "drive" was undertaken in Germany against the +Gipsies, which fact may account for the appearance of some German +Gipsies in England in that year, and that in 1904 the Prussian Landtag +adopted unanimously a proposition to examine anew the question of +granting peddling licences to German Gipsies; that on the 17th of +February 1906 the Prussian minister issued special instructions to +combat the Gipsy nuisance; and that in various parts of Germany and +Austria a special register is kept for the tracing of the genealogy of +vagrant and sedentary Gipsy families. + +Different has been the history of the Gipsies in what originally formed +the Turkish empire of Europe, notably in Rumania, i.e. Walachia and +Moldavia, and a careful search in the archives of Rumania would offer +rich materials for the history of the Gipsies in a country where they +enjoyed exceptional treatment almost from the beginning of their +settlement. They were divided mainly into two classes, (1) _Robi_ or +Serfs, who were settled on the land and deprived of all individual +liberty, being the property of the nobles and of churches or monastic +establishments, and (2) the Nomadic vagrants. They were subdivided into +four classes according to their occupation, such as the Lingurari +(woodcarvers; lit. "spoonmakers"), Caldarari (tinkers, coppersmiths and +ironworkers), Ursari (lit. "bear drivers") and Rudari (miners), also +called Aurari (gold-washers), who used formerly to wash the gold out of +the auriferous river-sands of Walachia. A separate and smaller class +consisted of the Gipsy _Laeshi_ or _Vatrashi_ (settled on a homestead or +"having a fireplace" of their own). Each _shatra_ or Gipsy community was +placed under the authority of a judge or leader, known in Rumania as +_jude_, in Hungary as _aga_; these officials were subordinate to the +_bulubasha_ or _voivod_, who was himself under the direct control of the +_yuzbasha_ (or governor appointed by the prince from among his nobles). +The _yuzbasha_ was responsible for the regular income to be derived from +the vagrant Gipsies, who were considered and treated as the prince's +property. These voivodi or yuzbashi who were not Gipsies by origin often +treated the Gipsies with great tyranny. In Hungary down to 1648 they +belonged to the aristocracy. The last Polish _Krolestvo cyganskie_ or +Gipsy king died in 1790. The _Robi_ could be bought and sold, freely +exchanged and inherited, and were treated as the negroes in America down +to 1856, when their final freedom in Moldavia was proclaimed. In Hungary +and in Transylvania the abolition of servitude in 1781-1782 carried with +it the freedom of the Gipsies. In the 18th and 19th centuries many +attempts were made to settle and to educate the roaming Gipsies; in +Austria this was undertaken by the empress Maria Theresa and the emperor +Francis II. (1761-1783), in Spain by Charles III. (1788). In Poland +(1791) the attempt succeeded. In England (1827) and in Germany (1830) +societies were formed for the reclamation of the Gipsies, but nothing +was accomplished in either case. In other countries, however, definite +progress was made. Since 1866 the Gipsies have become Rumanian citizens, +and the latest official statistics no longer distinguish between the +Rumanians and the Gipsies, who are becoming thoroughly assimilated, +forgetting their language, and being slowly absorbed by the native +population. In Bulgaria the Gipsies were declared citizens, enjoying +equal political rights in accordance with the treaty of Berlin in 1878, +but through an arbitrary interpretation they were deprived of that +right, and on the 6th of January 1906 the first Gipsy Congress was held +in Sofia, for the purpose of claiming political rights for the Turkish +Gipsies or Gopti as they call themselves. Ramadan Alief, the +_tzari-bashi_ (i.e. the head of the Gipsies in Sofia), addressed the +Gipsies assembled; they decided to protest and subsequently sent a +petition to the Sobranye, demanding the recognition of their political +rights. A curious reawakening, and an interesting chapter in the history +of this peculiar race. + +_Origin and Language of the Gipsies._--The real key to their origin is, +however, the Gipsy language. The scientific study of that language began +in the middle of the 19th century with the work of Pott, and was brought +to a high state of perfection by Miklosich. From that time on monographs +have multiplied and minute researches have been carried on in many parts +of the world, all tending to elucidate the true origin of the Gipsy +language. It must remain for the time being an open question whether the +Gipsies were originally a pure race. Many a strange element has +contributed to swell their ranks and to introduce discordant elements +into their vocabulary. Ruediger (1782), Grellmann (1783) and Marsden +(1783) almost simultaneously and independently of one another came to +the same conclusion, that the language of the Gipsies, until then +considered a thieves' jargon, was in reality a language closely allied +with some Indian speech. Since then the two principal problems to be +solved have been, firstly, to which of the languages of India the +original Gipsy speech was most closely allied, and secondly, by which +route the people speaking that language had reached Europe and then +spread westwards. Despite the rapid increase in our knowledge of Indian +languages, no solution has yet been found to the first problem, nor is +it likely to be found. For the language of the Gipsies, as shown now by +recent studies of the Armenian Gipsies, has undergone such a profound +change and involves so many difficulties, that it is impossible to +compare the modern Gipsy with any modern Indian dialect owing to the +inner developments which the Gipsy language has undergone in the course +of centuries. All that is known, moreover, of the Gipsy language, and +all that rests on reliable texts, is quite modern, scarcely earlier than +the middle of the 19th century. Followed up in the various dialects into +which that language has split, it shows such a thorough change from +dialect to dialect, that except as regards general outlines and +principles of inflexion, nothing would be more misleading than to draw +conclusions from apparent similarities between Gipsy, or any Gipsy +dialect, and any Indian language; especially as the Gipsies must have +been separated from the Indian races for a much longer period than has +elapsed since their arrival in Europe and since the formation of their +European dialects. It must also be borne in mind that the Indian +languages have also undergone profound changes of their own, under +influences totally different from those to which the Gipsy language has +been subjected. The problem would stand differently if by any chance an +ancient vocabulary were discovered representing the oldest form of the +common stock from which the European dialects have sprung; for there can +be no doubt of the unity of the language of the European Gipsies. The +question whether Gipsy stands close to Sanskrit or Prakrit, or shows +forms more akin to Hindi dialects, specially those of the North-West +frontier, or Dardestan and Kafiristan, to which may be added now the +dialects of the Pisaca language (Grierson, 1906), is affected by the +fact established by Fink that the dialect of the Armenian Gipsies shows +much closer resemblance to Prakrit than the language of the European +Gipsies, and that the dialects of Gipsy spoken throughout Syria and Asia +Minor differ profoundly in every respect from the European Gipsy, taken +as a whole spoken. The only explanation possible is that the European +Gipsy represents the first wave of the Westward movement of an Indian +tribe or caste which, dislocated at a certain period by political +disturbances, had travelled through Persia, making a very short stay +there, thence to Armenia staying there a little longer, and then +possibly to the Byzantine Empire at an indefinite period between 1100 +and 1200; and that another clan had followed in their wake, passing +through Persia, settling in Armenia and then going farther down to +Syria, Egypt and North Africa. These two tribes though of a common +remote Indian origin must, however, be kept strictly apart from one +another in our investigation, for they stand to each other in the same +relation as they stand to the various dialects in India. The linguistic +proof of origin can therefore now not go further than to establish the +fact that the Gipsy language is in its very essence an originally Indian +dialect, enriched in its vocabulary from the languages of the peoples +among whom the Gipsies had sojourned, whilst in its grammatical +inflection it has slowly been modified, to such an extent that in some +cases, like the English or the Servian, barely a skeleton has remained. + +Notwithstanding the statements to the contrary, a Gipsy from Greece or +Rumania could no longer understand a Gipsy of England or Germany, so +profound is the difference. But the words which have entered into the +Gipsy language, borrowed as they were from the Greeks, Hungarians, +Rumanians, &c., are not only an indication of the route taken--and this +is the only use that has hitherto been made of the vocabulary--but they +are of the highest importance for fixing the time when the Gipsies had +come in contact with these languages. The absence of Arabic is a +positive proof that not only did the Gipsies not come via Arabia (as +maintained by De Goeje) before they reached Europe, but that they could +not even have been living for any length of time in Persia after the +Mahommedan conquest, or at any rate that they could not have come in +contact with such elements of the population as had already adopted +Arabic in addition to Persian. But the form of the Persian words found +among European Gipsies, and similarly the form of the Armenian words +found in that language, are a clear indication that the Gipsies could +not have come in contact with these languages before Persian had assumed +its modern form and before Armenian had been changed from the old to the +modern form of language. Still more strong and clear is the evidence in +the case of the Greek and Rumanian words. If the Gipsies had lived in +Greece, as some contend, from very ancient times, some at least of the +old Greek words would be found in their language, and similarly the +Slavonic words would be of an archaic character, whilst on the contrary +we find medieval Byzantine forms, nay, modern Greek forms, among the +Gipsy vocabulary collected from Gipsies in Germany or Italy, England or +France; a proof positive that they could not have been in Europe much +earlier than the approximate date given above of the 11th or 12th +century. We then find from a grammatical point of view the same +deterioration, say among the English or Spanish Gipsies, as has been +noticed in the Gipsy dialect of Armenia. It is no longer Gipsy, but a +corrupt English or Spanish adapted to some remnants of Gipsy +inflections. The purest form has been preserved among the Greek Gipsies +and to a certain extent among the Rumanian. Notably through Miklosich's +researches and comparative studies, it is possible to follow the slow +change step by step and to prove, at any rate, that, as far as Europe is +concerned, the language of these Gipsies was one and the same, and that +it was slowly split up into a number of dialects (13 Miklosich, 14 +Colocci) which shade off into one another, and which by their +transitional forms mark the way in which the Gipsies have travelled, as +also proved by historical evidence. The Welsh dialect, known by few, has +retained, through its isolation, some of the ancient forms. + +_Religion, Habits and Customs._--Those who have lived among the Gipsies +will readily testify that their religious views are a strange medley of +the local faith, which they everywhere embrace, and some old-world +superstitions which they have in common with many nations. Among the +Greeks they belong to the Greek Church, among the Mahommedans they are +Mahommedans, in Rumania they belong to the National Church. In Hungary +they are mostly Catholics, according to the faith of the inhabitants of +that country. They have no ethical principles and they do not recognize +the obligations of the Ten Commandments. There is extreme moral laxity +in the relation of the two sexes, and on the whole they take life +easily, and are complete fatalists. At the same time they are great +cowards, and they play the role of the fool or the jester in the popular +anecdotes of eastern Europe. There the poltroon is always a Gipsy, but +he is good-humoured and not so malicious as those Gipsies who had +endured the hardships of outlawry in the west of Europe. + +There is nothing specifically of an Oriental origin in their religious +vocabulary, and the words _Devla_ (God), _Bang_ (devil) or _Trushul_ +(Cross), in spite of some remote similarity, must be taken as later +adaptations, and not as remnants of an old Sky-worship or +Serpent-worship. In general their beliefs, customs, tales, &c. belong to +the common stock of general folklore, and many of their symbolical +expressions find their exact counterpart in Rumanian and modern Greek, +and often read as if they were direct translations from these languages. +Although they love their children, it sometimes happens that a Gipsy +mother will hold her child by the legs and beat the father with it. In +Rumania and Turkey among the settled Gipsies a good number are carriers +and bricklayers; and the women take their full share in every kind of +work, no matter how hard it may be. The nomadic Gipsies carry on the +ancient craft of coppersmiths, or workers in metal; they also make +sieves and traps, but in the East they are seldom farriers or +horse-dealers. They are far-famed for their music, in which art they are +unsurpassed. The Gipsy musicians belong mostly to the class who +originally were serfs. They were retained at the courts of the boyars +for their special talent in reciting old ballads and love songs and +their deftness in playing, notably the guitar and the fiddle. The former +was used as an accompaniment to the singing of either love ditties and +popular songs or more especially in recital or heroic ballads and epic +songs; the latter for dances and other amusements. They were the +troubadours and minstrels of eastern Europe; the largest collection of +Rumanian popular ballads and songs was gathered by G. Dem. Teodorescu +from a Gipsy minstrel, Petre Sholkan; and not a few of the songs of the +guslars among the Servians and other Slavonic nations in the Balkans +come also from the Gipsies. They have also retained the ancient tunes +and airs, from the dreamy "doina" of the Rumanian to the fiery "czardas" +of the Hungarian or the stately "hora" of the Bulgarian. Liszt went so +far as to ascribe to the Gipsies the origin of the Hungarian national +music. This is an exaggeration, as seen by the comparison of the Gipsy +music in other parts of south-east Europe; but they undoubtedly have +given the most faithful expression to the national temperament. Equally +famous is the Gipsy woman for her knowledge of occult practices. She is +the real witch; she knows charms to injure the enemy or to help a +friend. She can break the charm if made by others. But neither in the +one case nor in the other, and in fact as little as in their songs, do +they use the Gipsy language. It is either the local language of the +natives as in the case of charms, or a slightly Romanized form of Greek, +Rumanian or Slavonic. The old Gipsy woman is also known for her skill in +palmistry and fortune-telling by means of a special set of cards, the +well-known Tarok of the Gipsies. They have also a large stock of fairy +tales resembling in each country the local fairy tales, in Greece +agreeing with the Greek, and in Rumania with the Rumanian fairy tales. +It is doubtful, however, whether they have contributed to the +dissemination of these tales throughout Europe, for a large number of +Gipsy tales can be shown to have been known in Europe long before the +appearance of the Gipsies, and others are so much like those of other +nations that the borrowing may be by the Gipsy from the Greek, Slav or +Rumanian. It is, however, possible that playing-cards might have been +introduced to Europe through the Gipsies. The oldest reference to cards +is found in the Chronicle of Nicolaus of Cavellazzo, who says that the +cards were first brought into Viterbo in 1379 from the land of the +Saracens, probably from Asia Minor or the Balkans. They spread very +quickly, but no one has been able as yet to trace definitely the source +whence they were first brought. Without entering here into the history +of the playing-cards and of the different forms of the faces and of the +symbolical meaning of the different designs, one may assume safely that +the cards, before they were used for mere pastime or for gambling, may +originally have had a mystical meaning and been used as _sortes_ in +various combinations. To this very day the oldest form is known by the +hitherto unexplained name of Tarock, played in Bologna at the beginning +of the 15th century and retained by the French under the form Tarot, +connected direct with the Gipsies, "Le Tarot des Bohemiens." It was +noted above that the oldest chronicler (Presbyter) who describes the +appearance of the Gipsies in 1416 in Germany knows them by their Italian +name "Cianos," so evidently he must have known of their existence in +Italy previous to any date recorded hitherto anywhere, and it is +therefore not impossible that coming from Italy they brought with them +also their book of divination. + +_Physical Characteristics._--As a race they are of small stature varying +in colour from the dark tan of the Arab to the whitish hue of the +Servian and the Pole. In fact there are some white-coloured Gipsies, +especially in Servia and Dalmatia, and these are often not easily +distinguishable from the native peoples, except that they are more lithe +and sinewy, better proportioned and more agile in their movements than +the thick-set Slavs and the mixed race of the Rumanians. By one feature, +however, they are easily distinguishable and recognize one another, viz. +by the lustre of their eyes and the whiteness of their teeth. Some are +well built; others have the features of a mongrel race, due no doubt to +intermarriage with outcasts of other races. The women age very quickly +and the mortality among the Gipsies is great, especially among children; +among adults it is chiefly due to pulmonary diseases. They love display +and Oriental showiness, bright-coloured dresses, ornaments, bangles, +&c.; red and green are the colours mostly favoured by the Gipsies in the +East. Along with a showy handkerchief or some shining gold coins round +their necks, they will wear torn petticoats and no covering on their +feet. And even after they have been assimilated and have forgotten their +own language they still retain some of the prominent features of their +character, such as the love of inordinate display and gorgeous dress; +and their moral defects not only remain for a long time as glaring as +among those who live the life of vagrants, but even become more +pronounced. The Gipsy of to-day is no longer what his forefathers have +been. The assimilation with the nations in the near East and the steps +taken for the suppression of vagrancy in the West, combine to +denationalize the Gipsy and to make "Romani Chib" a thing of the past. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The scientific study of the Gipsy language and its + origin, as well as the critical history of the Gipsy race, dates (with + the notable exception of Grellmann) almost entirely from Pott's + researches in 1844. + + I. _Collections of Documents, &c._--Lists of older publications + appeared in the books of Pott, Miklosich and the archduke Joseph; Pott + adds a critical appreciation of the scientific value of the books + enumerated. See also _Verzeichnis von Werken und Aufsatzen ... uber + die Geschichte und Sprache der Zigeuner, &c._, 248 entries (Leipzig, + 1886); J. Tipray, "Adalekok a cziganyokrol szolo irodalomhoz," in + _Magyar Konyvszemle_ (Budapest, 1877); Ch. G. Leland, _A Collection of + Cuttings ... relating to Gypsies_ (1874-1891), bequeathed by him to + the British Museum. See also the _Orientalischer Jahresbericht_, ed. + Muller (Berlin, 1887 ff.). + + II. _History._--(a) The first appearance of the Gipsies in Europe. + Sources: A. F. Oefelius, _Rerum Boicarum scriptores, &c._ (Augsburg, + 1763); M. Freher, _Andreae Presbyteri ... chronicon de ducibus + Bavariae ..._ (1602); S. Munster, _Cosmographia ... &c._ (Basel, + 1545); J. Thurmaier, _Annalium Boiorum libri septem_, ed. T. Zieglerus + (Ingolstad, 1554); M. Crusius, _Annales Suevici, &c._ (Frankfurt, + 1595-1596), _Schwabische Chronik ..._ (Frankfurt, 1733); A. Krantz, + _Saxonia_ (Cologne, 1520); Simon Simeon, _Itineraria, &c._, ed. J. + Nasmith (Cambridge, 1778). (b) Origin and spread of the Gipsies: H. M. + G. Grellmann, _Die Zigeuner, &c._ (1st ed., Dessau and Leipzig, 1783; + 2nd ed., Gottingen, 1787); English by M. Roper (London, 1787; 2nd ed., + London, 1807), entitled _Dissertation on the Gipsies, &c._; Carl von + Heister, _Ethnographische ... Notizen uber die Zigeuner_ (Konigsberg, + 1842), a third and greatly improved edition of Grellmann and the best + book of its kind up to that date; A. F. Pott, _Die Zigeuner in Europa + und Asien_ (2 vols., Halle, 1844-1845), the first scholarly work with + complete and critical bibliography, detailed grammar, etymological + dictionary and important texts; C. Hopf, _Die Einwanderung der + Zigeuner in Europa_ (Gotha, 1870); F. von Miklosich, "Beitrage zur + Kenntnis der Zigeuner-Mundarten," i.-iv., in _Sitzungsber. d. Wiener + Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna, 1874-1878), "Uber die Mundarten und + die Wanderungen der Zigeuner Europas," i.-xii., in _Denkschriften d. + Wiener Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (1872-1880); M. J. de Goeje, _Bijdrage + tot de geschiedenis der Zigeuners_ (Amsterdam, 1875), English + translation by MacRitchie, _Account of the Gipsies of India_ (London, + 1886); Zedler, _Universal-Lexicon_, vol. lxii., s.v. "Zigeuner," pp. + 520-544 containing a rich bibliography; many publications of P. + Bataillard from 1844 to 1885; A. Colocci, _Storia d' un popolo + errante_, with illustrations, map and Gipsy-Ital. and Ital.-Gipsy + glossaries (Turin, 1889); F. H. Groome, "The Gypsies," in E. + Magnusson, _National Life and Thought_ (1891), and art. "Gipsies" in + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th ed., 1879); C. Amero, _Bohemiens, + Tsiganes et Gypsies_ (Paris, 1895); M. Kogalnitschan, _Esquisse sur + l'histoire, les moeurs et la langue des Cigains_ (Berlin, 1837; German + trans., Stuttgart, 1840)--valuable more for the historical part than + for the linguistic; J. Czacki, _Dziela_, vol. iii. (1844-1845)--for + historic data about Gipsies in Poland; I. Kopernicki and J. Moyer, + _Charakterystyka fizyczna ludrosci galicyjskiej_ (1876)--for the + history and customs of Galician gipsies; _Ungarische statistische + Mitteilungen_, vol. ix. (Budapest, 1895), containing the best + statistical information on the Gipsies; V. Dittrich, A _nagy-idai + cziganyok_ (Budapest, 1898); T. H. Schwicker, "Die Zigeuner in Ungarn + u. Siebenburgen," in vol. xii. of _Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns_ + (Vienna, 1883), and in _Mitteilungen d. K. K. geographischen + Gesellschaft_ (Vienna, 1896); Dr J. Polek, _Die Zigeuner in der + Bukowina_ (Czernowitz, 1908); Ficker, "Die Zigeuner der Bukowina," in + _Statist. Monatschrift_, v. 6, _Hundert Jahre 1775-1875: Zigeuner in + d. Bukowina_ (Vienna, 1875), _Die Volkerstamme der osterr.-ungar. + Monarchie, &c._ (Vienna, 1869); V. S. Morwood, _Our Gipsies_ (London, + 1885); D. MacRitchie, _Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts_ + (Edinburgh, 1894); F. A. Coelho, "Os Ciganos de Portugal," in _Bol. + Soc. Geog._ (Lisbon, 1892); A. Dumbarton, _Gypsy Life in the Mysore + Jungle_ (London, 1902). + + III. _Linguistic._--[Armenia], F. N. Finck, "Die Sprache der + armenischen Zigeuner," in _Memoires de l'Acad. Imp. des Sciences_, + viii. (St Petersburg, 1907). [Austria-Hungary], R. von Sowa, _Die + Mundart der slovakischen Zigeuner_ (Gottingen, 1887), and _Die + mahrische Mundart der Romsprache_ (Vienna, 1893); A. J. Puchmayer, + _Romani Cib_ (Prague, 1821); P. Josef Jesina, _Romani Cib_ (in Czech, + 1880; in German, 1886); G. Ihnatko, _Czigany nyelvtan_ (Losoncon, + 1877); A. Kalina, _La Langue des Tsiganes slovaques_ (Posen, 1882); + the archduke Joseph, _Czigany nyelvtan_ (Budapest, 1888); H. von + Wlislocki, _Die Sprache der transsilvanischen Zigeuner_ (Leipzig, + 1884). [Brazil], A. T. de Mello Moraes, _Os ciganos no Brazil_ (Rio de + Janeiro, 1886). [France, the Basques], A. Baudrimont, _Vocabulaire de + la langue des Bohemiens habitant les pays basques-francais_ (Bordeaux, + 1862). [Germany], R. Pischel, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis der deutschen + Zigeuner_ (Halle, 1894); R. von Sowa, "Worterbuch des Dialekts der + deutschen Zigeuner," in _Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde d. Morgenlandes_, + xi. 1, very valuable (Leipzig, 1898); F. N. Finck, _Lehrbuch des + Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner_--very valuable (Marburg, 1903). + [Great Britain, &c.], Ch. G. Leland, _The English Gipsies and their + Language_ (London and New York, 1873; 2nd ed., 1874), _The Gipsies of + Russia, Austria, England, America, &c._ (London, 1882)--the validity + of Leland's conclusions is often doubtful; B. C. Smart and H. J. + Crofton, _The Dialect of the English Gypsies_ (2nd ed., London, 1875); + G. Borrow, _Romano lavo-lil_ (London, 1874, 1905), _Lavengro_, ed. F. + H. Groome (London, 1899). [Rumania], B. Constantinescu, _Probe de + Limba si literatura Tiganilor din Romania_ (Bucharest, 1878). [Russia, + Bessarabia], O. Boethlingk, _Uber die Sprache der Zigeuner in + Russland_ (St Petersburg, 1852; supplement, 1854). [Russia, Caucasus], + K. Badganian, _Cygany. Neskoliko slovu o narecijahu zakavkazskihu + cyganu_ (St Petersburg, 1887); Istomin, _Ciganskij Jazyku_ (1900). + [Spain], G. H. Borrow, _The Zincali, or an Account of the Gipsies of + Spain_ (London, 1841, and numerous later editions); R. Campuzano, + _Origen ... de los Gitanos, y diccionario de su dialecto_ (2nd ed., + Madrid, 1857); A. de C., _Diccionario del dialecto gitano, &c._ + (Barcelona, 1851); M. de Sales y Guindale, _Historia, costumbres y + dialecto de los Gitanos_ (Madrid, 1870); M. de Sales, _El Gitanismo_ + (Madrid, 1870); J. Tineo Rebolledo, _"A Chipicalli" la lengua gitana: + diccionario gitano-espanol_ (Granada, 1900). [Turkey], A. G. Paspati, + _Etudes sur les Tchinghianes, ou Bohemiens de l'empire ottoman_ + (Constantinople, 1870), with grammar, vocabulary, tales and French + glossary; very important. [General], John Sampson, "Gypsy Language and + Origin," in _Journ. Gypsy Lore Soc._ vol. i. (2nd ser., Liverpool, + 1907); J. A. Decourdemanche, _Grammaire du Tchingane, &c._ (Paris, + 1908)--fantastic in some of its philology; F. Kluge, _Rotwelsche + Quellen_ (Strassburg, 1901); L. Gunther, _Das Rotwelsch des deutschen + Gauners_ (Leipzig, 1905), for the influence of Gipsy on argot; L. + Besses, _Diccionario de argot espanol_ (Barcelona); G. A. Grierson, + _The Pi'saca Languages of North-Western India_ (London, 1906), for + parallels in Indian dialects; G. Borrow, _Criscote e majaro Lucas ... + El evangelio segun S. Lucas ..._ (London, 1837; 2nd ed., 1872)--this + is the only complete translation of any one of the gospels into Gipsy. + For older fragments of such translations, see Pott ii. 464-521. + + IV. _Folklore, Tales, Songs, &c._--Many songs and tales are found in + the books enumerated above, where they are mostly accompanied by + literal translations. See also Ch. G. Leland, E. H. Palmer and T. + Tuckey, _English Gipsy Songs in Romany, with Metrical English + Translation_ (London, 1875); G. Smith, _Gipsy Life, &c._ (London, + 1880); M. Rosenfeld, _Lieder der Zigeuner_ (1882); Ch. G. Leland, _The + Gypsies_ (Boston, Mass., 1882), _Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune-Telling_ + (London, 1891); H. von Wlislocki, _Marchen und Sagen der + transsilvanischen Zigeuner_ (Berlin, 1886)--containing 63 tales, very + freely translated; _Volksdichtungen der siebenburgischen und + sudungarischen Zigeuner_ (Vienna, 1890)--songs, ballads, charms, + proverbs and 100 tales; _Vom wandernden Zigeunervolke_ (Hamburg, + 1890); _Wesen und Wirkungskreis der Zauberfrauen bei den + siebenburgischen Zigeuner_ (1891); "Aus dem inneren Leben der + Zigeuner," in _Ethnologische Mitteilungen_ (Berlin, 1892); R. Pischel, + _Bericht uber Wlislocki vom wandernden Zigeunervolke_ (Gottingen, + 1890)--a strong criticism of Wlislocki's method, &c.; F. H. Groome, + _Gypsy Folk-Tales_ (London, 1899), with historical introduction and a + complete and trustworthy collection of 76 gipsy tales from many + countries; Katada, _Contes gitanos_ (Logrono, 1907); M. Gaster, + _Zigeunermarchen aus Rumanien_ (1881); "Tiganii, &c.," in _Revista + pentru Istorie, &c._, i. p. 469 ff. (Bucharest, 1883); "Gypsy + Fairy-Tales" in _Folklore_. The _Journal of the Gipsy-Lore Society_ + (Edinburgh, 1888-1892) was revived in Liverpool in 1907. + + V. _Legal Status._--A few of the books in which the legal status of + the Gipsies (either alone or in conjunction with "vagrants") is + treated from a juridical point of view are here mentioned, also the + history of the trial in 1726. J. B. Weissenbruch, _Ausfuhrliche + Relation von der famosen Zigeuner-Diebes-Mord und Rauber_ (Frankfurt + and Leipzig, 1727); A. Ch. Thomasius, _Tractatio juridica de + vagabundo, &c._ (Leipzig, 1731); F. Ch. B. Ave-Lallemant, _Das + deutsche Gaunertum, &c._ (Leipzig, 1858-1862); V. de Rochas, _Les + Parias de France et d'Espagne_ (Paris, 1876); P. Chuchul, _Zum Kampfe + gegen Landstreicher und Bettler_ (Kassel, 1881); R. Breithaupt, _Die + Zigeuner und der deutsche Staat_ (Wurzburg, 1907); G. Steinhausen, + _Geschichte der deutschen Kultur_ (Leipzig and Vienna, 1904). + (M. G.) + + + + +GIRAFFE, a corruption of _Zarafah_, the Arabic name for the tallest of +all mammals, and the typical representative of the family _Giraffidae_, +the distinctive characters of which are given in the article PECORA, +where the systematic position of the group is indicated. The classic +term "camelopard," probably introduced when these animals were brought +from North Africa to the Roman amphitheatre, has fallen into complete +disuse. + +In common with the okapi, giraffes have skin-covered horns on the head, +but in these animals, which form the genus _Giraffa_, these appendages +are present in both sexes; and there is often an unpaired one in advance +of the pair on the forehead. Among other characteristics of these +animals may be noticed the great length of the neck and limbs, the +complete absence of lateral toes and the long and tufted tail. The +tongue is remarkable for its great length, measuring about 17 in. in the +dead animal, and for its great elasticity and power of muscular +contraction while living. It is covered with numerous large papillae, +and forms, like the trunk of the elephant, an admirable organ for the +examination and prehension of food. Giraffes are inhabitants of open +country, and owing to their length of neck and long flexible tongues are +enabled to browse on tall trees, mimosas being favourites. To drink or +graze they are obliged to straddle the fore-legs apart; but they seldom +feed on grass and are capable of going long without water. When standing +among mimosas they so harmonize with their surroundings that they are +difficult of detection. Formerly giraffes were found in large herds, but +persecution has reduced their number and led to their extermination from +many districts. Although in late Tertiary times widely spread over +southern Europe and India, giraffes are now confined to Africa south of +the Sahara. + +Apart from the distinct Somali giraffe (_Giraffa reticulata_), +characterized by its deep liver-red colour marked with a very coarse +network of fine white lines, there are numerous local forms of the +ordinary giraffe (_Giraffa camelopardalis_). The northern races, such as +the Nubian _G. c. typica_ and the Kordofan _G. c. antiquorum_, are +characterized by the large frontal horn of the bulls, the white legs, +the network type of coloration and the pale tint. The latter feature is +specially developed in the Nigerian _G. c. peralta_, which is likewise +of the northern type. The Baringo _G. c. rothschildi_ also has a large +frontal horn and white legs, but the spots in the bulls are very dark +and those of the females jagged. In the Kilimanjaro _G. c. +tippelskirchi_ the frontal horn is often developed in the bulls, but +the legs are frequently spotted to the fetlocks. Farther south the +frontal horn tends to disappear more or less completely, as in the +Angola _G. c. angolensis_, the Transvaal _G. c. wardi_ and the Cape _G. +c. capensis_, while the legs are fully spotted and the colour-pattern on +the body (especially in the last-named) is more of a blotched type, that +is to say, consists of dark blotches on a fawn ground, instead of a +network of light lines on a dark ground. + +[Illustration: The North African or Nubian Giraffe (_Giraffa +camelopardalis_).] + + For details, see a paper on the subspecies of _Giraffa + camelopardalis_, by R. Lydekker in the _Proceedings of the Zoological + Society of London_ for 1904. (R. L.*) + + + + +GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO [LILIUS GREGORIUS GYRALDUS] (1479-1552), +Italian scholar and poet, was born on the 14th of June 1479, at Ferrara, +where he early distinguished himself by his talents and acquirements. On +the completion of his literary course he removed to Naples, where he +lived on familiar terms with Jovianus Pontanus and Sannazaro; and +subsequently to Lombardy, where he enjoyed the favour of the Mirandola +family. At Milan in 1507 he studied Greek under Chalcondylas; and +shortly afterwards, at Modena, he became tutor to Ercole (afterwards +Cardinal) Rangone. About the year 1514 he removed to Rome, where, under +Clement VII., he held the office of apostolic protonotary; but having in +the sack of that city (1527), which almost coincided with the death of +his patron Cardinal Rangone, lost all his property, he returned in +poverty once more to Mirandola, whence again he was driven by the +troubles consequent on the assassination of the reigning prince in 1533. +The rest of his life was one long struggle with ill-health, poverty and +neglect; and he is alluded to with sorrowful regret by Montaigne in one +of his _Essais_ (i. 34), as having, like Sebastian Castalio, ended his +days in utter destitution. He died at Ferrara in February 1552; and his +epitaph makes touching and graceful allusion to the sadness of his end. +Giraldi was a man of very extensive erudition; and numerous testimonies +to his profundity and accuracy have been given both by contemporary and +by later scholars. His _Historia de diis gentium_ marked a distinctly +forward step in the systematic study of classical mythology; and by his +treatises _De annis et mensibus_, and on the _Calendarium Romanum et +Graecum_, he contributed to bring about the reform of the calendar, +which was ultimately effected by Pope Gregory XIII. His _Progymnasma +adversus literas et literatos_ deserves mention at least among the +curiosities of literature; and among his other works to which reference +is still occasionally made are _Historiae poetarum Graecorum ac +Latinorum_; _De poetis suorum temporum_; and _De sepultura ac vario +sepeliendi ritu_. Giraldi was also an elegant Latin poet. + + His _Opera omnia_ were published at Leiden in 1696. + + + + +GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1504-1573), surnamed CYNTHIUS, CINTHIO or +CINTIO, Italian novelist and poet, born at Ferrara in November 1504, was +educated at the university of his native town, where in 1525 he became +professor of natural philosophy, and, twelve years afterwards, succeeded +Celio Calcagnini in the chair of belles-lettres. Between 1542 and 1560 +he acted as private secretary, first to Ercole II. and afterwards to +Alphonso II. of Este; but having, in connexion with a literary quarrel +in which he had got involved, lost the favour of his patron in the +latter year, he removed to Mondovi, where he remained as a teacher of +literature till 1568. Subsequently, on the invitation of the senate of +Milan, he occupied the chair of rhetoric at Pavia till 1573, when, in +search of health, he returned to his native town, where on the 30th of +December he died. Besides an epic entitled _Ercole_ (1557), in +twenty-six cantos, Giraldi wrote nine tragedies, the best known of +which, _Orbecche_, was produced in 1541. The sanguinary and disgusting +character of the plot of this play, and the general poverty of its +style, are, in the opinion of many of its critics, almost fully redeemed +by occasional bursts of genuine and impassioned poetry; of one scene in +the third act in particular it has even been affirmed that, if it alone +were sufficient to decide the question, the _Orbecche_ would be the +finest play in the world. Of the prose works of Giraldi the most +important is the _Hecatommithi_ or _Ecatomiti_, a collection of tales +told somewhat after the manner of Boccaccio, but still more closely +resembling the novels of Giraldi's contemporary Bandello, only much +inferior in workmanship to the productions of either author in vigour, +liveliness and local colour. Something, but not much, however, may be +said in favour of their professed claim to represent a higher standard +of morality. Originally published at Monteregale, Sicily, in 1565, they +were frequently reprinted in Italy, while a French translation by +Chappuys appeared in 1583 and one in Spanish in 1590. They have a +peculiar interest to students of English literature, as having +furnished, whether directly or indirectly, the plots of _Measure for +Measure_ and _Othello_. That of the latter, which is to be found in the +_Hecatommithi_ (iii. 7), is conjectured to have reached Shakespeare +through the French translation; while that of the former (_Hecat._ viii. +5) is probably to be traced to Whetstone's _Promos and Cassandra_ +(1578), an adaptation of Cinthio's story, and to his _Heptamerone_ +(1582), which contains a direct English translation. To Giraldi also +must be attributed the plot of Beaumont and Fletcher's _Custom of the +Country_. + + + + +GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (1146?-1220), medieval historian, also called GERALD +DE BARRI, was born in Pembrokeshire. He was the son of William de Barri +and Augharat, a daughter of Gerald, the ancestors of the Fitzgeralds and +the Welsh princess, Nesta, formerly mistress of King Henry I. Falling +under the influence of his uncle, David Fitzgerald, bishop of St +David's, he determined to enter the church. He studied at Paris, and his +works show that he had applied himself closely to the study of the Latin +poets. In 1172 he was appointed to collect tithe in Wales, and showed +such vigour that he was made archdeacon. In 1176 an attempt was made to +elect him bishop of St David's, but Henry II. was unwilling to see any +one with powerful native connexions a bishop in Wales. In 1180, after +another visit to Paris, he was appointed commissiary to the bishop of St +David's, who had ceased to reside. But Giraldus threw up his post, +indignant at the indifference of the bishop to the welfare of his see. +In 1184 he was made one of the king's chaplains, and was elected to +accompany Prince John on his voyage to Ireland. While there he wrote a +_Topographia Hibernica_, which is full of information, and a strongly +prejudiced history of the conquest, the _Expugnatio Hibernica_. In 1186 +he read his work with great applause before the masters and scholars of +Oxford. In 1188 he was sent into Wales with the primate Baldwin to +preach the Third Crusade. Giraldus declares that the mission was highly +successful; in any case it gave him the material for his _Itinerarium +Cambrense_, which is, after the _Expugnatio_, his best known work. He +accompanied the archbishop, who intended him to be the historian of the +Crusade, to the continent, with the intention of going to the Holy Land. +But in 1189 he was sent back to Wales by the king, who knew his +influence was great, to keep order among his countrymen. Soon after he +was absolved from his crusading vow. According to his own statements, +which often tend to exaggeration, he was offered both the sees of Bangor +and Llandaff, but refused them. From 1192 to 1198 he lived in retirement +at Lincoln and devoted himself to literature. It is probably during this +period that he wrote the _Gemma ecclesiastica_ (discussing disputed +points of doctrine, ritual, &c.) and the _Vita S. Remigii_. In 1198 he +was elected bishop of St David's. But Hubert Walter, the archbishop of +Canterbury, was determined to have in that position no Welshman who +would dispute the metropolitan pretensions of the English primates. The +king, for political reasons, supported Hubert Walter. For four years +Giraldus exerted himself to get his election confirmed, and to vindicate +the independence of St David's from Canterbury. He went three times to +Rome. He wrote the _De jure Meneviensis ecclesiae_ in support of the +claims of his diocese. He made alliances with the princes of North and +South Wales. He called a general synod of his diocese. He was accused of +stirring up rebellion among the Welsh, and the justiciar proceeded +against him. At length in 1202 the pope annulled all previous elections, +and ordered a new one. The prior of Llanthony was finally elected. +Gerald was immediately reconciled to the king and archbishop; the utmost +favour was shown to him; even the expenses of his unsuccessful election +were paid. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, though there was +some talk of his being made a cardinal. He certainly survived John. + +The works of Giraldus are partly polemical and partly historical. His +value as a historian is marred by his violent party spirit; some of his +historical tracts, such as the _Liber de instructione principum_ and the +_Vita Galfridi Archiepiscopi Eborecensis_, seem to have been designed as +political pamphlets. Henry II., Hubert Walter and William Longchamp, the +chancellor of Richard I., are the objects of his worst invectives. His +own pretensions to the see of St David are the motive of many of his +misrepresentations. But he is one of the most vivid and witty of our +medieval historians. + + See the Rolls edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimock and + G. F. Warner in 8 vols. (London, 1861-1891), some of which have + valuable introductions. + + + + +GIRANDOLE (from the Ital. _girandola_), an ornamental branched +candlestick of several lights. It came into use about the second half of +the 17th century, and was commonly made and used in pairs. It has always +been, comparatively speaking, a luxurious appliance for lighting, and in +the great 18th-century period of French house decoration the famous +_ciseleurs_ designed some exceedingly beautiful examples. A great +variety of metals has been used for the purpose--sometimes, as in the +case of the candlestick, girandoles have been made in hard woods. Gilded +bronze has been a very frequent medium, but for table purposes silver is +still the favourite material. + + + + +GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE [known as "Le Pere Girard" or "Le Pere Gregoire"] +(1765-1850), French-Swiss educationalist, was born at Fribourg and +educated for the priesthood at Lucerne. He was the fifth child in a +family of fourteen, and his gift for teaching was early shown at home in +helping his mother with the younger children; and after passing through +his noviciate he spent some time as an instructor in convents, notably +at Wurzburg (1785-1788). Then for ten years he was busy with religious +duty. In 1798, full of Kantian ideas, he published an essay outlining a +scheme of national Swiss education; and in 1804 he began his career as a +public teacher, first in the elementary school at Fribourg (1805-1823), +then (being driven away by Jesuit hostility) in the gymnasium at Lucerne +till 1834, when he retired to Fribourg and devoted himself with the +production of his books on education, _De l'enseignement regulier de la +langue maternelle_ (1834, 9th ed. 1894; Eng. trans. by Lord Ebrington, +_The Mother Tongue_, 1847), and _Cours educatif_ (1844-1846). Father +Girard's reputation and influence as an enthusiast in the cause of +education became potent not only in Switzerland, where he was hailed as +a second Pestalozzi, but in other countries. He had a genius for +teaching, his method of stimulating the intelligence of the children at +Fribourg and interesting them actively in learning, and not merely +cramming them with rules and facts, being warmly praised by the Swiss +educationalist Francois Naville (1784-1846) in his treatise on public +education (1832). His undogmatic method and his Liberal Christianity +brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, but his aim was, in all his +teaching, to introduce the moral idea into the minds of his pupils by +familiarizing them with the right or wrong working of the facts he +brought to their attention, and thus to elevate character all through +the educational curriculum. + + + + +GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE (1775-1845), French mechanician, was born at +Lourmarin, Vaucluse, on the 1st of February 1775. He is chiefly known in +connexion with flax-spinning machinery. Napoleon having in 1810 decreed +a reward of one million francs to the inventor of the best machine for +spinning flax, Girard succeeded in producing what was required. But he +never received the promised reward, although in 1853, after his death, a +comparatively small pension was voted to his heirs, and having relied on +the money to pay the expenses of his invention he got into serious +financial difficulties. He was obliged, in 1815, to abandon the flax +mills he had established in France, and at the invitation of the emperor +of Austria founded a flax mill and a factory for his machines at +Hirtenberg. In 1825, at the invitation of the emperor Alexander I. of +Russia, he went to Poland, and erected near Warsaw a flax manufactory, +round which grew up a village which received the name of Girardow. In +1818 he built a steamer to run on the Danube. He did not return to Paris +till 1844, where he still found some of his old creditors ready to press +their claims, and he died in that city on the 26th of August 1845. He +was also the author of numerous minor inventions. + + + + +GIRARD, STEPHEN (1750-1831), American financier and philanthropist, +founder of Girard College in Philadelphia, was born in a suburb of +Bordeaux, France, on the 20th of May 1750. He lost the sight of his +right eye at the age of eight and had little education. His father was a +sea captain, and the son cruised to the West Indies and back during +1764-1773, was licensed captain in 1773, visited New York in 1774, and +thence with the assistance of a New York merchant began to trade to and +from New Orleans and Port au Prince. In May 1776 he was driven into the +port of Philadelphia by a British fleet and settled there as a merchant; +in June of the next year he married Mary (Polly) Lum, daughter of a +shipbuilder, who, two years later, after Girard's becoming a citizen of +Pennsylvania (1778), built for him the "Water Witch," the first of a +fleet trading with New Orleans and the West Indies--most of Girard's +ships being named after his favourite French authors, such as +"Rousseau," "Voltaire," "Helvetius" and "Montesquieu." His beautiful +young wife became insane and spent the years from 1790 to her death in +1815 in the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1810 Girard used about a million +dollars deposited by him with the Barings of London for the purchase of +shares of the much depreciated stock of the Bank of the United States--a +purchase of great assistance to the United States government in +bolstering European confidence in its securities. When the Bank was not +rechartered the building and the cashier's house in Philadelphia were +purchased at a third of the original cost by Girard, who in May 1812 +established the Bank of Stephen Girard. He subscribed in 1814 for about +95% of the government's war loan of $5,000,000, of which only $20,000 +besides had been taken, and he generously offered at par shares which +upon his purchase had gone to a premium. He pursued his business +vigorously in person until the 12th of February 1830, when he was +injured in the street by a truck; he died on the 26th of December 1831. +His public spirit had been shown during his life not only financially +but personally; in 1793, during the plague of yellow fever in +Philadelphia, he volunteered to act as manager of the wretched hospital +at Bush Hill, and with the assistance of Peter Helm had the hospital +cleansed and its work systematized; again during the yellow fever +epidemic of 1797-1798 he took the lead in relieving the poor and caring +for the sick. Even more was his philanthropy shown in his disposition by +will of his estate, which was valued at about $7,500,000, and doubtless +the greatest fortune accumulated by any individual in America up to that +time. Of his fortune he bequeathed $116,000 to various Philadelphia +charities, $500,000 to the same city for the improvement of the Delaware +water front, $300,000 to Pennsylvania for internal improvements, and the +bulk of his estate to Philadelphia, to be used in founding a school or +college, in providing a better police system, and in making municipal +improvements and lessening taxation. Most of his bequest to the city was +to be used for building and maintaining a school "to provide for such a +number of poor male white orphan children ... a better education as well +as a more comfortable maintenance than they usually receive from the +application of the public funds." His will planned most minutely for the +erection of this school, giving details as to the windows, doors, walls, +&c.; and it contained the following phrase: "I enjoin and require that +no ecclesiastic, missionary or minister of any sect whatsoever, shall +ever hold or exercise any duty whatsoever in the said college; nor shall +any such person ever be admitted for any purpose, or as a visitor, +within the premises appropriated to the purposes of the said college.... +I desire to keep the tender minds of orphans ... free from the +excitements which clashing doctrines and sectarian controversy are so +apt to produce." Girard's heirs-at-law contested the will in 1836, and +they were greatly helped by a public prejudice aroused by the clause +cited; in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1844 Daniel Webster, +appearing for the heirs, made a famous plea for the Christian religion, +but Justice Joseph Story handed down an opinion adverse to the heirs +(_Vidals_ v. _Girard's Executors_). Webster was opposed in this suit by +John Sergeant and Horace Binney. Girard specified that those admitted to +the college must be white male orphans, of legitimate birth and good +character, between the ages of six and ten; that no boy was to be +permitted to stay after his eighteenth year; and that as regards +admissions preference was to be shown, first to orphans born in +Philadelphia, second to orphans born in any other part of Pennsylvania, +third to orphans born in New York City, and fourth to orphans born in +New Orleans. Work upon the buildings was begun in 1833, and the college +was opened on the 1st of January 1848, a technical point of law making +instruction conditioned upon the completion of the five buildings, of +which the principal one, planned by Thomas Ustick Walter (1804-1887), +has been called "the most perfect Greek temple in existence." To a +sarcophagus in this main building the remains of Stephen Girard were +removed in 1851. In the 40 acres of the college grounds there were in +1909 18 buildings (valued at $3,350,000), 1513 pupils, and a total +"population," including students, teachers and all employes, of 1907. +The value of the Girard estate in the year 1907 was $35,000,000, of +which $550,000 was devoted to other charities than Girard College. The +control of the college was under a board chosen by the city councils +until 1869, when by act of the legislature it was transferred to +trustees appointed by the Common Pleas judges of the city of +Philadelphia. The course of training is partly industrial--for a long +time graduates were indentured till they came of age--but it is also +preparatory to college entrance. + + See H. A. Ingram, _The Life and Character of Stephen Girard_ + (Philadelphia, 1884), and George P. Rupp, "Stephen Girard--Merchant + and Mariner," in _1848-1898: Semi-Centennial of Girard College_ + (Philadelphia, 1898). + + + + +GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE (1804-1855), French author, was born at +Aix-la-Chapelle on the 26th of January 1804. Her mother, the well-known +Madame Sophie Gay, brought her up in the midst of a brilliant literary +society. She published two volumes of miscellaneous pieces, _Essais +poetiques_ (1824) and _Nouveaux Essais poetiques_ (1825). A visit to +Italy in 1827, during which she was enthusiastically welcomed by the +literati of Rome and even crowned in the capitol, was productive of +various poems, of which the most ambitious was _Napoline_ (1833). Her +marriage in 1831 to Emile de Girardin (see below) opened up a new +literary career. The contemporary sketches which she contributed from +1836 to 1839 to the feuilleton of _La Presse_, under the _nom de plume_ +of Charles de Launay, were collected under the title of _Lettres +parisiennes_ (1843), and obtained a brilliant success. _Contes d'une +vieille fille a ses neveux_ (1832), _La Canne de Monsieur de Balzac_ +(1836) and _Il ne faut pas jouer avec la douleur_ (1853) are among the +best-known of her romances; and her dramatic pieces in prose and verse +include _L'Ecole des journalistes_ (1840), _Judith_ (1843), _Cleopatre_ +(1847), _Lady Tartufe_ (1853), and the one-act comedies, _C'est la faute +du mari_ (1851), _La Joie fait peur_ (1854), _Le Chapeau d'un horloger_ +(1854) and _Une Femme qui deteste son mari_, which did not appear till +after the author's death. In the literary society of her time Madame +Girardin exercised no small personal influence, and among the +frequenters of her drawing-room were Theophile Gautier and Balzac, +Alfred de Musset and Victor Hugo. She died on the 29th of June 1855. Her +collected works were published in six volumes (1860-1861). + + See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; G. de Molenes, "Les + Femmes poetes," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (July 1842); Taxile Delord, + _Les Matinees litteraires_ (1860); _L'Esprit de Madame Girardin, avec + une preface par M. Lamartine_ (1862); G. d'Heilly, _Madame de + Girardin, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1868); Imbert de Saint Amand, _Mme + de Girardin_ (1875). + + + + +GIRARDIN, EMILE DE (1802-1881), French publicist, was born, not in +Switzerland in 1806 of unknown parents, but (as was recognized in 1837) +in Paris in 1802, the son of General Alexandre de Girardin and of Madame +Dupuy, wife of a Parisian advocate. His first publication was a novel, +_Emile_, dealing with his birth and early life, and appeared under the +name of Girardin in 1827. He became inspector of fine arts under the +Martignac ministry just before the revolution of 1830, and was an +energetic and passionate journalist. Besides his work on the daily press +he issued miscellaneous publications which attained an enormous +circulation. His _Journal des connaissances utiles_ had 120,000 +subscribers, and the initial edition of his _Almanach de France_ (1834) +ran to a million copies. In 1836 he inaugurated cheap journalism in a +popular Conservative organ, _La Presse_, the subscription to which was +only forty francs a year. This undertaking involved him in a duel with +Armand Carrel, the fatal result of which made him refuse satisfaction to +later opponents. In 1839 he was excluded from the Chamber of Deputies, +to which he had been four times elected, on the plea of his foreign +birth, but was admitted in 1842. He resigned early in February 1847, and +on the 24th of February 1848 sent a note to Louis Philippe demanding his +resignation and the regency of the duchess of Orleans. In the +Legislative Assembly he voted with the Mountain. He pressed eagerly in +his paper for the election of Prince Louis Napoleon, of whom he +afterwards became one of the most violent opponents. In 1856 he sold _La +Presse_, only to resume it in 1862, but its vogue was over, and Girardin +started a new journal, _La Liberte_, the sale of which was forbidden in +the public streets. He supported Emile Ollivier and the Liberal Empire, +but plunged into vehement journalism again to advocate war against +Prussia. Of his many subsequent enterprises the most successful was the +purchase of _Le Petit Journal_, which served to advocate the policy of +Thiers, though he himself did not contribute. The crisis of the 16th of +May 1877, when Jules Simon fell from power, made him resume his pen to +attack MacMahon and the party of reaction in _La France_ and in _Le +Petit Journal_. Emile de Girardin married in 1831 Delphine Gay (see +above), and after her death in 1855 Guillemette Josephine Brunold, +countess von Tieffenbach, widow of Prince Frederick of Nassau. He was +divorced from his second wife in 1872. + + The long list of his social and political writings includes: _De la + presse periodique au XIX^e, siecle_ (1837); _De l'instruction + publique_ (1838); _Etudes politiques_ (1838); _De la liberte de la + presse et du journalisme_ (1842); _Le Droit au travail au Luxembourg + et a l'Assemblee Nationale_ (2 vols., 1848); _Les Cinquante-deux_ + (1849, &c.), a series of articles on current parliamentary questions; + _La Politique universelle, decrets de l'avenir_ (Brussels, 1852); _Le + Condamne du 6 mars_ (1867), an account of his own differences with the + government in 1867 when he was fined 5000 fr. for an article in _La + Liberte; Le Dossier de la guerre_ (1877), a collection of official + documents; _Questions de mon temps, 1836 a 1856_, articles extracted + from the daily and weekly press (12 vols., 1858). + + + + +GIRARDON, FRANCOIS (1628-1715), French sculptor, was born at Troyes on +the 17th of March 1628. As a boy he had for master a joiner and +wood-carver of his native town, named Baudesson, under whom he is said +to have worked at the chateau of Liebault, where he attracted the notice +of Chancellor Seguier. By the chancellor's influence Girardon was first +removed to Paris and placed in the studio of Francois Anguier, and +afterwards sent to Rome. In 1652 he was back in France, and seems at +once to have addressed himself with something like ignoble subserviency +to the task of conciliating the court painter Charles Le Brun. Girardon +is reported to have declared himself incapable of composing a group, +whether with truth or from motives of policy it is impossible to say. +This much is certain, that a very large proportion of his work was +carried out from designs by Le Brun, and shows the merits and defects of +Le Brun's manner--a great command of ceremonial pomp in presenting his +subject, coupled with a large treatment of forms which if it were more +expressive might be imposing. The court which Girardon paid to the +"premier peintre du roi" was rewarded. An immense quantity of work at +Versailles was entrusted to him, and in recognition of the successful +execution of four figures for the Bains d'Apollon, Le Brun induced the +king to present his protege personally with a purse of 300 louis, as a +distinguishing mark of royal favour. In 1650 Girardon was made member of +the Academy, in 1659 professor, in 1674 "adjoint au recteur," and +finally in 1695 chancellor. Five years before (1690), on the death of Le +Brun, he had also been appointed "inspecteur general des ouvrages de +sculpture"--a place of power and profit. In 1699 he completed the bronze +equestrian statue of Louis XIV., erected by the town of Paris on the +Place Louis le Grand. This statue was melted down during the Revolution, +and is known to us only by a small bronze model (Louvre) finished by +Girardon himself. His Tomb of Richelieu (church of the Sorbonne) was +saved from destruction by Alexandre Lenoir, who received a bayonet +thrust in protecting the head of the cardinal from mutilation. It is a +capital example of Girardon's work, and the theatrical pomp of its style +is typical of the funeral sculpture of the reigns of Louis XIV. and +Louis XV.; but amongst other important specimens yet remaining may also +be cited the Tomb of Louvois (St Eustache), that of Bignon, the king's +librarian, executed in 1656 (St Nicolas du Chardonneret), and decorative +sculptures in the Galerie d'Apollon and Chambre du roi in the Louvre. +Mention should not be omitted of the group, signed and dated 1699, "The +Rape of Proserpine" at Versailles, which also contains the "Bull of +Apollo." Although chiefly occupied at Paris Girardon never forgot his +native Troyes, the museum of which town contains some of his best works, +including the marble busts of Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa. In the hotel +de ville is still shown a medallion of Louis XIV., and in the church of +St Remy a bronze crucifix of some importance--both works by his hand. He +died in Paris in 1715. + + See Corrard de Breban, _Notice sur la vie et les oeuvres de Girardon_ + (1850). + + + + +GIRART DE ROUSSILLON, an epic figure of the Carolingian cycle of +romance. In the genealogy of romance he is a son of Doon de Mayence, and +he appears in different and irreconcilable circumstances in many of the +_chansons de geste_. The legend of Girart de Roussillon is contained in +a _Vita Girardi de Roussillon_ (ed. P. Meyer, in _Romania_, 1878), +dating from the beginning of the 12th century and written probably by a +monk of the abbey of Pothieres or of Vezelai, both of which were founded +in 860 by Girart; in _Girart de Roussillon, a chanson de geste_ written +early in the 12th century in a dialect midway between French and +Provencal, and apparently based on an earlier Burgundian poem; in a 14th +century romance in alexandrines (ed. T. J. A. P. Mignard, Paris and +Dijon, 1878); and in a prose romance by Jehan Wauquelin in 1447 (ed. L. +de Montille, Paris, 1880). The historical Girard, son of Leuthard and +Grimildis, was a Burgundian chief who was count of Paris in 837, and +embraced the cause of Lothair against Charles the Bald. He fought at +Fontenay in 841, and doubtless followed Lothair to Aix. In 855 he became +governor of Provence for Lothair's son Charles, king of Provence (d. +863). His wife Bertha defended Vienne unsuccessfully against Charles the +Bald in 870, and Girard, who had perhaps aspired to be the titular ruler +of the northern part of Provence, which he had continued to administer +under Lothair II. until that prince's death in 869, retired with his +wife to Avignon, where he died probably in 877, certainly before 879. +The tradition of his piety, of the heroism of his wife Bertha, and of +his wars with Charles passed into romance; but the historical facts are +so distorted that in _Girart de Roussillon_ the _trouvere_ makes him the +opponent of Charles Martel, to whom he stands in the relation of +brother-in-law. He is nowhere described in authentic historic sources as +of Roussillon. The title is derived from his castle built on Mount +Lassois, near Chatillon-sur-Seine. Southern traditions concerning Count +Girart, in which he is made the son of Garin de Monglane, are embodied +in _Girart de Viane_ (13th century) by Bertrand de Bar-sur-l'Aube, and +in the _Aspramonte_ of Andrea da Barberino, based on the French _chanson +of Aspremont_, where he figures as Girart de Frete or de Fratte.[1] +_Girart de Viane_ is the recital of a siege of Vienne by Charlemagne, +and in _Aspramonte_ Girart de Fratte leads an army of infidels against +Charlemagne. _Girart de Roussillon_ was long held to be of Provencal +origin, and to be a proof of the existence of an independent Provencal +epic, but its Burgundian origin may be taken as proved. + + See F. Michel, _Gerard de Rossillon ... publie en francais et en + provencal d'apres les MSS. de Paris et de Londres_ (Paris, 1856); P. + Meyer, _Girart de Roussillon_ (1884), a translation in modern French + with a comprehensive introduction. For _Girart de Viane_ (ed. P. + Tarbe, Reims, 1850) see L. Gautier, _Epopees francaises_, vol. iv.; F. + A. Wulff, _Notice sur les sagas de Magus et de Geirard_ (Lund, 1874). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It is of interest to note that Freta was the old name for the + town of Saint Remy, and that it is close to the site of the ancient + town of Glanum, the name of which is possibly preserved in Garin de + Monglane, the ancestor of the heroes of the cycle of Guillaume + d'Orange. + + + + +GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, Count (1776-1834), Italian dramatist, of French +origin, was born at Rome, and showed a precocious passion for the +theatre. His first play, _L'Onesta non si vince_, was successfully +produced in 1798. He took part in politics as an active supporter of +Pius VI., but was mainly occupied with the production of his plays, and +in 1809 became director-general of the Italian theatres. He died at +Naples in 1834. Count Giraud's comedies, the best of which are _Gelosie +per equivoco_ (1807) and _L'Ajonell' imbarazzo_ (1824), were bright and +amusing on the stage, but of no particular literary quality. + + His collected comedies were published in 1823 and his _Teatro + domestico_ in 1825. + + + + +GIRDLE (O. Eng. _gyrdel_, from _gyrdan_, to gird; cf. Ger. _Gurtel_, +Dutch _gordel_, from _gurten_ and _gorden_; "gird" and its doublet +"girth" together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by +some to the root _ghar_--to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. [Greek: cheir], +hand, Lat. _hortus_, garden, and also English yard, garden, garth, &c.), +a band of leather or other material worn round the waist, either to +confine the loose and flowing outer robes so as to allow freedom of +movement, or to fasten and support the garments of the wearer. Among the +Romans it was used to confine the _tunica_, and it formed part of the +dress of the soldier; when a man quitted military service he was said, +_cingulum deponere_, to lay aside the girdle. Money being carried in +the girdle, _zonam perdere_ signified to lose one's purse, and, among +the Greeks, to cut the girdle was to rob a man of his money. + +Girdles and girdle-buckles are not often found in Gallo-Roman graves, +but in the graves of Franks and Burgundians they are constantly present, +often ornamented with bosses of silver or bronze, chased or inlaid. +Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of the Franks as belted round the waist, and +Gregory of Tours in the 6th century says that a dagger was carried in +the Frankish girdle. + +In the Anglo-Saxon dress the girdle makes an unimportant figure, and the +Norman knights, as a rule, wore their belts under their hauberks. After +the Conquest, however, the artificers gave more attention to a piece +whose buckle and tongue invited the work of the goldsmith. Girdles of +varying richness are seen on most of the western medieval effigies. That +of Queen Berengaria lets the long pendant hang below the knee, following +a fashion which frequently reappears. + +In the latter part of the 13th century the knight's surcoat is girdled +with a narrow cord at the waist, while the great belt, which had become +the pride of the well-equipped cavalier, loops across the hips carrying +the heavy sword aslant over the thighs or somewhat to the left of the +wearer. + +But it is in the second half of the following century that the knightly +belt takes its most splendid form. Under the year 1356 the continuator +of the chronicle of Nangis notes that the increase of jewelled belts had +mightily enhanced the price of pearls. The belt is then worn, as a rule, +girdling the hips at some distance below the waist, being probably +supported by hooks as is the belt of a modern infantry soldier. The end +of the belt, after being drawn through the buckle, is knotted or caught +up after the fashion of the tang of the Garter. The waist girdle either +disappears from sight or as a narrow and ornamented strap is worn +diagonally to help in the support of the belt. A mass of beautiful +ornament covers the whole belt, commonly seen as an unbroken line of +bosses enriched with curiously worked roundels or lozenges which, when +the loose strap-end is abandoned, meet in a splendid morse or clasp on +which the enameller and jeweller had wrought their best. About 1420 this +fashion tends to disappear, the loose tabards worn over armour in the +jousting-yard hindering its display. The belt never regains its +importance as an ornament, and, at the beginning of the 16th century, +sword and dagger are sometimes seen hanging at the knight's sides +without visible support. + +In civil dress the magnificent belt of the 14th century is worn by men +of rank over the hips of the tight short-skirted coat, and in that +century and in the 15th and 16th there are sumptuary laws to cheek the +extravagance of rich girdles worn by men and women whose humble station +made them unseemly. Even priests must be rebuked for their silver +girdles with baselards hanging from them. Purses, daggers, keys, penners +and inkhorns, beads and even books, dangled from girdles in the 15th and +early 16th centuries. Afterwards the girdle goes on as a mere strap for +holding up the clothing or as a sword-belt. At the Restoration men +contrasted the fashion of the court, a light rapier hung from a broad +shoulder-belt, with the fashion of the countryside, where a heavy weapon +was supported by a narrow waistbelt. Soon afterwards both fashions +disappeared. Sword-hangers were concealed by the skirt, and the belt, +save in certain military and sporting costumes, has no more been in +sight in England. Even as a support for breeches or trousers, the use of +braces has gradually supplanted the girdle during the past century. + +In most of those parts of the Continent--Brittany, for example--where +the peasantry maintains old fashions in clothing, the belt or girdle is +still an important part of the clothing. Italian non-commissioned +officers find that the Sicilian recruit's main objection to the first +bath of his life-time lies in the fact that he must lay down the +cherished belt which carries his few valuables. With the Circassian the +belt still buckles on an arsenal of pistols and knives. + +Folklore and ancient custom are much concerned with the girdle. +Bankrupts at one time put it off in open court; French law refused +courtesans the right to wear it; Saint Guthlac casts out devils by +buckling his girdle round a possessed man; an earl is "a belted earl" +since the days when the putting on of a girdle was part of the ceremony +of his creation; and fairy tales of half the nations deal with girdles +which give invisibility to the wearer. (O. Ba.) + + + + +GIRGA, or GIRGEH, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank of the Nile, 313 +m. S.S.E. of Cairo by rail and about 10 m. N.N.E. of the ruins of +Abydos. Pop. (1907) 19,893, of whom about one-third are Copts. The town +presents a picturesque appearance from the Nile, which at this point +makes a sharp bend. A ruined mosque with a tall minaret stands by the +river-brink. Many of the houses are of brick decorated with glazed +tiles. The town is noted for the excellence of its pottery. Girga is the +seat of a Coptic bishop. It also possesses a Roman Catholic monastery, +considered the most ancient in the country. As lately as the middle of +the 18th century the town stood a quarter of a mile from the river, but +is now on the bank, the intervening space having been washed away, +together with a large part of the town, by the stream continually +encroaching on its left bank. + + + + +GIRGENTI (anc. _Agrigentum_, q.v.), a town of Sicily, capital of the +province which bears its name, and an episcopal see, on the south coast, +58 m. S. by E. of Palermo direct and 84-1/2 m. by rail. Population +(1901) 25,024. The town is built on the western summit of the ridge +which formed the northern portion of the ancient site; the main street +runs from E. to W. on the level, but the side streets are steep and +narrow. The cathedral occupies the highest point in the town; it was not +founded till the 13th century, taking the place of the so-called temple +of Concord. The campanile still preserves portions of its original +architecture, but the interior has been modernized. In the chapter-house +a famous sarcophagus, with scenes illustrating the myth of Hippolytus, +is preserved. There are other scattered remains of 13th-century +architecture in the town, while, in the centre of the ancient city, +close to the so-called oratory of Phalaris, is the Norman church of S. +Nicolo. A small museum in the town contains vases, terra-cottas, a few +sculptures, &c. The port of Girgenti, 5-1/2 m. S.W. by rail, now known +as Porto Empedocle (population in 1901, 11,529), as the principal place +of shipment for sulphur, the mining district beginning immediately north +of Girgenti. (T. As.) + + + + +GIRISHK, a village and fort of Afghanistan. It stands on the right bank +of the Helmund 78 m. W. of Kandahar on the road to Herat; 3641 ft. above +the sea. The fort, which is garrisoned from Kandahar and is the +residence of the governor of the district (Pusht-i-Rud), has little +military value. It commands the fords of the Helmund and the road to +Seistan, from which it is about 190 m. distant; and it is the centre of +a rich agricultural district. Girishk was occupied by the British during +the first Afghan War; and a small garrison of sepoys, under a native +officer, successfully withstood a siege of nine months by an +overwhelming Afghan force. The Dasht-i-Bakwa stretches beyond Girishk +towards Farah, a level plain of considerable width, which tradition +assigns as the field of the final contest for supremacy between Russia +and England. + + + + +GIRNAR, a sacred hill in Western India, in the peninsula of Kathiawar, +10 m. E. of Junagarh town. It consists of five peaks, rising about 3500 +ft. above the sea, on which are numerous old Jain temples, much +frequented by pilgrims. At the foot of the hill is a rock, with an +inscription of Asoka (2nd century B.C.), and also two other inscriptions +(dated 150 and 455 A.D.) of great historical importance. + + + + +GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS (1767-1824), French painter, better known +as Girodet-Trioson, was born at Montargis on the 5th of January 1767. He +lost his parents in early youth, and the care of his fortune and +education fell to the lot of his guardian, M. Trioson, "medecin de +mesdames," by whom he was in later life adopted. After some preliminary +studies under a painter named Luquin, Girodet entered the school of +David, and at the age of twenty-two he successfully competed for the +Prix de Rome. At Rome he executed his "Hippocrate refusant les presents +d'Artaxerxes" and "Endymion dormant" (Louvre), a work which was hailed +with acclamation at the Salon of 1792. The peculiarities which mark +Girodet's position as the herald of the romantic movement are already +evident in his "Endymion." The firm-set forms, the grey cold colour, the +hardness of the execution are proper to one trained in the school of +David, but these characteristics harmonize ill with the literary, +sentimental and picturesque suggestions which the painter has sought to +render. The same incongruity marks Girodet's "Danae" and his "Quatre +Saisons," executed for the king of Spain (repeated for Compiegne), and +shows itself to a ludicrous extent in his "Fingal" (St Petersburg, +Leuchtenberg collection), executed for Napoleon I. in 1802. This work +unites the defects of the classic and romantic schools, for Girodet's +imagination ardently and exclusively pursued the ideas excited by varied +reading both of classic and of modern literature, and the impressions +which he received from the external world afforded him little stimulus +or check; he consequently retained the mannerisms of his master's +practice whilst rejecting all restraint on choice of subject. The credit +lost by "Fingal" Girodet regained in 1806, when he exhibited "Scene de +Deluge" (Louvre), to which (in competition with the "Sabines" of David) +was awarded the decennial prize. This success was followed up in 1808 by +the production of the "Reddition de Vienne" and "Atala au Tombeau"--a +work which went far to deserve its immense popularity, by a happy choice +of subject, and remarkable freedom from the theatricality of Girodet's +usual manner, which, however, soon came to the front again in his +"Revolte de Caire" (1810). His powers now began to fail, and his habit +of working at night and other excesses told upon his constitution; in +the Salon of 1812 he exhibited only a "Tete de Vierge"; in 1819 +"Pygmalion et Galatee" showed a still further decline of strength; and +in 1824--the year in which he produced his portraits of Cathelineau and +Bonchamps--Girodet died on the 9th of December. + + He executed a vast quantity of illustrations, amongst which may be + cited those to the Didot _Virgil_ (1798) and to the Louvre _Racine_ + (1801-1805). Fifty-four of his designs for _Anacreon_ were engraved by + M. Chatillon. Girodet wasted much time on literary composition, his + poem _Le Peintre_ (a string of commonplaces), together with poor + imitations of classical poets, and essays on _Le Genie_ and _La + Grace_, were published after his death (1829), with a biographical + notice by his friend M. Coupin de la Couperie; and M. Delecluze, in + his _Louis David et son temps_, has also a brief life of Girodet. + + + + +GIRONDE, a maritime department of south-western France, formed from four +divisions of the old province of Guyenne, viz. Bordelais, Bazadais, and +parts of Perigord and Agenais. Area, 4140 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 823,925. It +is bounded N. by the department of Charente-Inferieure, E. by those of +Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by that of Landes, and W. by the Bay of +Biscay. It takes its name from the river or estuary of the Gironde +formed by the union of the Garonne and Dordogne. The department divides +itself naturally into a western and an eastern portion. The former, +which is termed the _Landes_ (q.v.), occupies more than a third of the +department, and consists chiefly of morass or sandy plain, thickly +planted with pines and divided from the sea by a long line of dunes. +These dunes are planted with pines, which, by binding the sand together +with their roots, prevent it from drifting inland and afford a barrier +against the sea. On the east the dunes are fringed for some distance by +two extensive lakes, Carcans and Lacanau, communicating with each other +and with the Bay of Arcachon, near the southern extremity of the +department. The Bay of Arcachon contains numerous islands, and on the +land side forms a vast shallow lagoon, a considerable portion of which, +however, has been drained and converted into arable land. The eastern +portion of the department consists chiefly of a succession of hill and +dale, and, especially in the valley of the Gironde, is very fertile. The +estuary of the Gironde is about 45 m. in length, and varies in breadth +from 2 to 6 m. It presents a succession of islands and mud banks which +divide it into two channels and render navigation somewhat difficult. It +is, however, well buoyed and lighted, and has a mean depth of 21 ft. +There are extensive marshes on the right bank to the north of Blaye, and +the shores on the left are characterized, especially towards the mouth, +by low-lying polders protected by dikes and composed of fertile salt +marshes. At the mouth of the Gironde stands the famous tower of +Cordouan, one of the finest lighthouses of the French coast. It was +built between the years 1585 and 1611 by the architect and engineer +Louis de Foix, and added to towards the end of the 18th century. The +principal affluent of the Dordogne in this department is the Isle. The +feeders of the Garonne are, with the exception of the Dropt, all small. +West of the Garonne the only river of importance is the Leyre, which +flows into the Bay of Arcachon. The climate is humid and mild and very +hot in summer. Wheat, rye, maize, oats and tobacco are grown to a +considerable extent. The corn produced, however, does not meet the wants +of the inhabitants. The culture of the vine is by far the most important +branch of industry carried on (see Wine), the vineyards occupying about +one-seventh of the surface of the department. The wine-growing districts +are the Medoc, Graves, Cotes, Palus, Entre-deux-Mers and Sauternes. The +Medoc is a region of 50 m. in length by about 6 m. in breadth, bordering +the left banks of the Garonne and the Gironde between Bordeaux and the +sea. The Graves country forms a zone 30 m. in extent, stretching along +the left bank of the Garonne from the neighbourhood of Bordeaux to +Barsac. The Sauternes country lies to the S.E. of the Graves. The Cotes +lie on the right bank of the Dordogne and Gironde, between it and the +Garonne, and on the left bank of the Garonne. The produce of the Palus, +the alluvial land of the valleys, and of the Entre-deux-Mers, situated +on the left bank of the Dordogne, is inferior. Fruits and vegetables are +extensively cultivated, the peaches and pears being especially fine. +Cattle are extensively raised, the Bazadais breed of oxen and the +Bordelais breed of milch-cows being well known. Oyster-breeding is +carried on on a large scale in the Bay of Arcachon. Large supplies of +resin, pitch and turpentine are obtained from the pine woods, which also +supply vine-props, and there are well-known quarries of limestone. The +manufactures are various, and, with the general trade, are chiefly +carried on at Bordeaux (q.v.), the chief town and third port in France. +Pauillac, Blaye, Libourne and Arcachon are minor ports. Gironde is +divided into the arrondissements of Bordeaux, Blaye, Lesparre, Libourne, +Bazas and La Reole, with 49 cantons and 554 communes. The department is +served by five railways, the chief of which are those of the Orleans and +Southern companies. It forms part of the circumscription of the +archbishopric, the appeal-court and the _academie_ (educational +division) of Bordeaux, and of the region of the XVIII. army corps, the +headquarters of which are at that city. Besides Bordeaux, Libourne, La +Reole, Bazas, Blaye, Arcachon, St Emilion and St Macaire are the most +noteworthy towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other places +of interest the chief are Cadillac, on the right bank of the Garonne, +where there is a castle of the 16th century, surrounded by +fortifications of the 14th century; Labrede, with a feudal chateau in +which Montesquieu was born and lived; Villandraut, where there is a +ruined castle of the 13th century; Uzeste, which has a church begun in +1310 by Pope Clement V.; Mazeres with an imposing castle of the 14th +century; La Sauve, which has a church (11th and 12th centuries) and +other remains of a Benedictine abbey; and Ste Foy-la-Grande, a bastide +created in 1255 and afterwards a centre of Protestantism, which is still +strong there. La Teste (pop. in 1906, 5699) was the capital in the +middle ages of the famous lords of Buch. + + + + +GIRONDISTS (Fr. _Girondins_), the name given to a political party in the +Legislative Assembly and National Convention during the French +Revolution (1791-1793). The Girondists were, indeed, rather a group of +individuals holding certain opinions and principles in common than an +organized political party, and the name was at first somewhat loosely +applied to them owing to the fact that the most brilliant exponents of +their point of view were deputies from the Gironde. These deputies were +twelve in number, six of whom--the lawyers Vergniaud, Guadet, Gensonne, +Grangeneuve and Jay, and the tradesman Jean Francois Ducos--sat both in +the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. In the Legislative +Assembly these represented a compact body of opinion which, though not +as yet definitely republican, was considerably more advanced than the +moderate royalism of the majority of the Parisian deputies. Associated +with these views was a group of deputies from other parts of France, of +whom the most notable were Condorcet, Fauchet, Lasource, Isnard, +Kersaint, Henri Lariviere, and, above all, Jacques Pierre Brissot, +Roland and Petion, elected mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly on the +16th of November 1791. On the spirit and policy of the Girondists Madame +Roland, whose _salon_ became their gathering-place, exercised a powerful +influence (see ROLAND); but such party cohesion as they possessed they +owed to the energy of Brissot (q.v.), who came to be regarded as their +mouthpiece in the Assembly and the Jacobin Club. Hence the name +_Brissotins_, coined by Camille Desmoulins, which was sometimes +substituted for that of _Girondins_, sometimes closely coupled with it. +As strictly party designations these first came into use after the +assembling of the National Convention (September 20th, 1792), to which a +large proportion of the deputies from the Gironde who had sat in the +Legislative Assembly were returned. Both were used as terms of +opprobrium by the orators of the Jacobin Club, who freely denounced "the +Royalists, the Federalists, the Brissotins, the Girondins and all the +enemies of the democracy" (F. Aulard, _Soc. des Jacobins_, vi. 531). + +In the Legislative Assembly the Girondists represented the principle of +democratic revolution within and of patriotic defiance to the European +powers without. They were all-powerful in the Jacobin Club (see +JACOBINS), where Brissot's influence had not yet been ousted by +Robespierre, and they did not hesitate to use this advantage to stir up +popular passion and intimidate those who sought to stay the progress of +the Revolution. They compelled the king in 1792 to choose a ministry +composed of their partisans--among them Roland, Dumouriez, Claviere and +Servan; and it was they who forced the declaration of war against +Austria. In all this there was no apparent line of cleavage between "La +Gironde" and the Mountain. _Montagnards_ and Girondists alike were +fundamentally opposed to the monarchy; both were democrats as well as +republicans; both were prepared to appeal to force in order to realize +their ideals; in spite of the accusation of "federalism" freely brought +against them, the Girondists desired as little as the Montagnards to +break up the unity of France. Yet from the first the leaders of the two +parties stood in avowed opposition, in the Jacobin Club as in the +Assembly. It was largely a question of temperament. The Girondists were +idealists, doctrinaires and theorists rather than men of action; they +encouraged, it is true, the "armed petitions" which resulted, to their +dismay, in the _emeute_ of the 20th of June; but Roland, turning the +ministry of the interior into a publishing office for tracts on the +civic virtues, while in the provinces riotous mobs were burning the +chateaux unchecked, is more typical of their spirit. With the ferocious +fanaticism or the ruthless opportunism of the future organizers of the +Terror they had nothing in common. As the Revolution developed they +trembled at the anarchic forces they had helped to unchain, and tried in +vain to curb them. The overthrow of the monarchy on the 10th of August +and the massacres of September were not their work, though they claimed +credit for the results achieved. + +The crisis of their fate was not slow in coming. It was they who +proposed the suspension of the king and the summoning of the National +Convention; but they had only consented to overthrow the kingship when +they found that Louis XVI. was impervious to their counsels, and, the +republic once established, they were anxious to arrest the revolutionary +movement which they had helped to set in motion. As Daunou shrewdly +observes in his _Memoires_, they were too cultivated and too polished to +retain their popularity long in times of disturbance, and were therefore +the more inclined to work for the establishment of order, which would +mean the guarantee of their own power.[1] Thus the Girondists, who had +been the Radicals of the Legislative Assembly, became the Conservatives +of the Convention. But they were soon to have practical experience of +the fate that overtakes those who attempt to arrest in mid-career a +revolution they themselves have set in motion. The ignorant populace, +for whom the promised social millennium had by no means dawned, saw in +an attitude seemingly so inconsistent obvious proof of corrupt motives, +and there were plenty of prophets of misrule to encourage the +delusion--orators of the clubs and the street corners, for whom the +restoration of order would have meant well-deserved obscurity. Moreover, +the _Septembriseurs_--Robespierre, Danton, Marat and their lesser +satellites--realized that not only their influence but their safety +depended on keeping the Revolution alive. Robespierre, who hated the +Girondists, whose lustre had so long obscured his own, had proposed to +include them in the proscription lists of September; the Mountain to a +man desired their overthrow. + +The crisis came in March 1793. The Girondists, who had a majority in the +Convention, controlled the executive council and filled the ministry, +believed themselves invincible. Their orators had no serious rivals in +the hostile camp; their system was established in the purest reason. But +the Montagnards made up by their fanatical, or desperate, energy and +boldness for what they lacked in talent or in numbers. They had behind +them the revolutionary Commune, the Sections and the National Guard of +Paris, and they had gained control of the Jacobin club, where Brissot, +absorbed in departmental work, had been superseded by Robespierre. And +as the motive power of this formidable mechanism of force they could +rely on the native suspiciousness of the Parisian populace, exaggerated +now into madness by famine and the menace of foreign invasion. The +Girondists played into their hands. At the trial of Louis XVI. the bulk +of them had voted for the "appeal to the people," and so laid themselves +open to the charge of "royalism"; they denounced the domination of Paris +and summoned provincial levies to their aid, and so fell under suspicion +of "federalism," though they rejected Buzot's proposal to transfer the +Convention to Versailles. They strengthened the revolutionary Commune by +decreeing its abolition, and then withdrawing the decree at the first +sign of popular opposition; they increased the prestige of Marat by +prosecuting him before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where his acquittal +was a foregone conclusion. In the suspicious temper of the times this +vacillating policy was doubly fatal. Marat never ceased his +denunciations of the "_faction des hommes d'Etat_," by which France was +being betrayed to her ruin, and his parrot cry of "_Nous sommes +trahis!_" was re-echoed from group to group in the streets of Paris. The +Girondists, for all their fine phrases, were sold to the enemy, as +Lafayette, Dumouriez and a hundred others--once popular favourites--had +been sold. + +The hostility of Paris to the Girondists received a fateful +advertisement by the election, on the 15th of February 1793, of the +ex-Girondist Jean Nicolas Pache (1746-1823) to the mayoralty. Pache had +twice been minister of war in the Girondist government; but his +incompetence had laid him open to strong criticism, and on the 4th of +February he had been superseded by a vote of the Convention. This was +enough to secure him the suffrages of the Paris electors ten days later, +and the Mountain was strengthened by the accession of an ally whose one +idea was to use his new power to revenge himself on his former +colleagues. Pache, with Chaumette, _procureur_ of the Commune, and +Hebert, deputy _procureur_, controlled the armed organization of the +Paris Sections, and prepared to turn this against the Convention. The +abortive _emeute_ of the 10th of March warned the Girondists of their +danger, but the Commission of Twelve appointed on the 18th of May, the +arrest of Marat and Hebert, and other precautionary measures, were +defeated by the popular risings of the 27th and 31st of May, and, +finally, on the 2nd of June, Hanriot with the National Guards purged +the Convention of the Girondists. Isnard's threat, uttered on the 25th +of May, to march France upon Paris had been met by Paris marching upon +the Convention. + +The list drawn up by Hanriot, and endorsed by a decree of the +intimidated Convention, included twenty-two Girondist deputies and ten +members of the Commission of Twelve, who were ordered to be detained at +their lodgings "under the safeguard of the people." Some submitted, +among them Gensonne, Guadet, Vergniaud, Petion, Birotteau and +Boyer-Fonfrede. Others, including Brissot, Louvet, Buzot, Lasource, +Grangeneuve, Lariviere and Bergoing, escaped from Paris and, joined +later by Guadet, Petion and Birotteau, set to work to organize a +movement of the provinces against the capital. This attempt to stir up +civil war determined the wavering and frightened Convention. On the 13th +of June it voted that the city of Paris had deserved well of the +country, and ordered the imprisonment of the detained deputies, the +filling up of their places in the Assembly by their _suppleants_, and +the initiation of vigorous measures against the movement in the +provinces. The excuse for the Terror that followed was the imminent +peril of France, menaced on the east by the advance of the armies of the +Coalition, on the west by the Royalist insurrection of La Vendee, and +the need for preventing at all costs the outbreak of another civil war. +The assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (q.v.) only served to +increase the unpopularity of the Girondists and to seal their fate. On +the 28th of July a decree of the Convention proscribed, as traitors and +enemies of their country, twenty-one deputies, the final list of those +sent for trial comprising the names of Antiboul, Boilleau the younger, +Boyer-Fonfrede, Brissot, Carra, Duchastel, the younger Ducos, Dufriche +de Valaze, Duprat, Fauchet, Gardien, Gensonne, Lacaze, Lasource, +Lauze-Deperret, Lehardi, Lesterpt-Beauvais, the elder Minvielle, +Sillery, Vergniaud and Viger, of whom five were deputies from the +Gironde. The names of thirty-nine others were included in the final +_acte d'accusation_, accepted by the Convention on the 24th of October, +which stated the crimes for which they were to be tried as their +perfidious ambition, their hatred of Paris, their "federalism" and, +above all, their responsibility for the attempt of their escaped +colleagues to provoke civil war. + +The trial of the twenty-one, which began before the Revolutionary +Tribunal on the 24th of October, was a mere farce, the verdict a +foregone conclusion. On the 31st they were borne to the guillotine in +five tumbrils, the corpse of Dufriche de Valaze--who had killed +himself--being carried with them. They met death with great courage, +singing the refrain "_Plutot la mort que l'esclavage!_" Of those who +escaped to the provinces the greater number, after wandering about +singly or in groups, were either captured and executed or committed +suicide, among them Barbaroux, Buzot, Condorcet, Grangeneuve, Guadet, +Kersaint, Petion, Rabaut de Saint-Etienne and Rebecqui. Roland had +killed himself at Rouen on the 15th of November, a week after the +execution of his wife. Among the very few who finally escaped was Jean +Baptiste Louvet, whose _Memoires_ give a thrilling picture of the +sufferings of the fugitives. Incidentally they prove, too, that the +sentiment of France was for the time against the Girondists, who were +proscribed even in their chief centre, the city of Bordeaux. The +survivors of the party made an effort to re-enter the Convention after +the fall of Robespierre, but it was not until the 5th of March 1795 that +they were formally reinstated. On the 3rd of October of the same year +(11 Vendemiaire, year III.) a solemn fete in honour of the Girondist +"martyrs of liberty" was celebrated in the Convention. See also the +article FRENCH REVOLUTION and separate biographies. + + Of the special works on the Girondists Lamartine's _Histoire des + Girondins_ (2 vols., Paris, 1847, new ed. 1902, in 6 vols.) is + rhetoric rather than history and is untrustworthy; the _Histoire des + Girondins_, by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, 1860) led to the + publication of a _Protestation_ by J. Guadet, a nephew of the + Girondist orator, which was followed by his _Les Girondins, leur vie + privee, leur vie publique, leur proscription et leur mort_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1861, new ed. 1890); with which cf. Alary, _Les Girondins par + Guadet_ (Bordeaux, 1863); also Charles Vatel, _Charlotte de Corday et + les Girondins: pieces classees et annotees_ (3 vols., Paris, + 1864-1872); _Recherches historiques sur les Girondins_ (2 vols., + ib. 1873); Ducos, _Les Trois Girondines_ (Madame Roland, Charlotte + Corday, Madame Bouquey) _et les Girondins_ (ib. 1896); Edmond Bire, + _La Legende des Girondins_ (Paris, 1881, new ed. 1896); also Helen + Maria Williams, _State of Manners and Opinions in the French Republic + towards the close of the 18th Century_ (2 vols., London, 1801). + Memoirs or fragments of memoirs also exist by particular Girondists, + e.g. Barbaroux, Petion, Louvet, Madame Roland. See, further, the + bibliography to the article FRENCH REVOLUTION. (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Daunou, "Memoires pour servir a l'hist. de la Convention + Nationale," p. 409, vol. xii. of M. Fr. Barriere, _Bibl. des mem. rel + a l'hist. de la France_, &c. (Paris, 1863). + + + + +GIRTIN, THOMAS (1775-1802), English painter and etcher, was the son of a +well-to-do cordage maker in Southwark, London. His father died while +Thomas was a child, and his widow married Mr Vaughan, a +pattern-draughtsman. Girtin learnt drawing as a boy, and was apprenticed +to Edward Doyes (1763-1804), the mezzotint engraver, and he soon made J. +M. W. Turner's acquaintance. His architectural and topographical +sketches and drawings soon established his reputation, his use of +water-colour for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of +having created modern water-colour painting, as opposed to mere +"tinting." His etchings also were characteristic of his artistic genius. +His early death from consumption (9th of November 1802) led indeed to +Turner saying that "had Tom Girtin lived I should have starved." From +1794 to his death he was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy; and some +fine examples of his work have been bequeathed by private owners to the +British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. + + + + +GIRVAN, a police burgh, market and fishing town of Ayrshire, Scotland, +at the mouth of the Girvan, 21 m. S.W. of Ayr, and 63 m. S.W. of Glasgow +by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4024. The principal +industry was weaving, but the substitution of the power-loom for the +hand-loom nearly put an end to it. The herring fishery has developed to +considerable proportions, the harbour having been enlarged and protected +by piers and a breakwater. Moreover, the town has grown in repute as a +health and holiday resort, its situation being one of the finest in the +west of Scotland. There is excellent sea-bathing, and a good +golf-course. The vale of Girvan, one of the most fertile tracts in the +shire, is made so by the Water of Girvan, which rises in the loch of +Girvan Eye, pursues a very tortuous course of 36 m. and empties into the +sea. Girvan is the point of communication with Ailsa Craig. About 13 m. +S.W. at the mouth of the Stinchar is the fishing village of Ballantrae +(pop. 511). + + + + +GIRY (JEAN MARIE JOSEPH), ARTHUR (1848-1899), French historian, was born +at Trevoux (Ain) on the 29th of February 1848. After rapidly completing +his classical studies at the _lycee_ at Chartres, he spent some time in +the administrative service and in journalism. He then entered the Ecole +des Chartes, where, under the influence of J. Quicherat, he developed a +strong inclination to the study of the middle ages. The lectures at the +Ecole des Hautes Etudes, which he attended from its foundation in 1868, +revealed his true bent; and henceforth he devoted himself almost +entirely to scholarship. He began modestly by the study of the municipal +charters of St Omer. Having been appointed assistant lecturer and +afterwards full lecturer at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, it was to the +town of St Omer that he devoted his first lectures and his first +important work, _Histoire de la ville de Saint-Omer et de ses +institutions jusqu'au XIV^e siecle_ (1877). He, however, soon realized +that the charters of one town can only be understood by comparing them +with those of other towns, and he was gradually led to continue the work +which Augustin Thierry had broadly outlined in his studies on the _Tiers +Etat_. A minute knowledge of printed books and a methodical examination +of departmental and communal archives furnished him with material for a +long course of successful lectures, which gave rise to some important +works on municipal history and led to a great revival of interest in the +origins and significance of the urban communities in France. Giry +himself published _Les Etablissements de Rouen_ (1883-1885), a study, +based on very minute researches, of the charter granted to the capital +of Normandy by Henry II., king of England, and of the diffusion of +similar charters throughout the French dominions of the Plantagenets; a +collection of _Documents sur les relations de la royaute avec les +villes de France de 1180 a 1314_ (1885); and _Etude sur les origines de +la commune de Saint-Quentin_ (1887). + +About this time personal considerations induced Giry to devote the +greater part of his activity to the study of diplomatic, which had been +much neglected at the Ecole des Chartes, but had made great strides in +Germany. As assistant (1883) and successor (1885) to Louis de Mas +Latrie, Giry restored the study of diplomatic, which had been founded in +France by Dom Jean Mabillon, to its legitimate importance. In 1894 he +published his _Manuel de diplomatique_, a monument of lucid and +well-arranged erudition, which contained the fruits of his long +experience of archives, original documents and textual criticism; and +his pupils, especially those at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, soon caught +his enthusiasm. With their collaboration he undertook the preparation of +an inventory and, subsequently, of a critical edition of the Carolingian +diplomas. By arrangement with E. Muhlbacher and the editors of the +_Monumenta Germaniae historica_, this part of the joint work was +reserved for Giry. Simultaneously with this work he carried on the +publication of the annals of the Carolingian epoch on the model of the +German _Jahrbucher_, reserving for himself the reign of Charles the +Bald. Of this series his pupils produced in his lifetime _Les Derniers +Carolingiens_ (by F. Lot, 1891), _Eudes, comte de Paris et roi de +France_ (by E. Favre, 1893), and _Charles le Simple_ (by Eckel, 1899). +The biographies of Louis IV. and Hugh Capet and the history of the +kingdom of Provence were not published until after his death, and his +own unfinished history of Charles the Bald was left to be completed by +his pupils. The preliminary work on the Carolingian diplomas involved +such lengthy and costly researches that the Academie des Inscriptions et +Belles-Lettres took over the expenses after Giry's death. + +In the midst of these multifarious labours Giry found time for extensive +archaeological researches, and made a special study of the medieval +treatises dealing with the technical processes employed in the arts and +industries. He prepared a new edition of the monk Theophilus's +celebrated treatise, _Diversarum artium schedula_, and for several years +devoted his Saturday mornings to laboratory research with the chemist +Aime Girard at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, the results of +which were utilized by Marcellin Berthelot in the first volume (1894) of +his _Chimie au moyen age_. Giry took an energetic part in the +_Collection de textes relatifs a l'histoire du moyen age_, which was due +in great measure to his initiative. He was appointed director of the +section of French history in _La Grande Encyclopedie_, and contributed +more than a hundred articles, many of which, e.g. "Archives" and +"Diplomatique," were original works. In collaboration with his pupil +Andre Reville, he wrote the chapters on "L'Emancipation des villes, les +communes et les bourgeoisies" and "Le Commerce et l'industrie au moyen +age" for the _Histoire generale_ of Lavisse and Rambaud. Giry took a +keen interest in politics, joining the republican party and writing +numerous articles in the republican newspapers, mainly on historical +subjects. He was intensely interested in the Dreyfus case, but his +robust constitution was undermined by the anxieties and disappointments +occasioned by the Zola trial and the Rennes court-martial, and he died +in Paris on the 13th of November 1899. + + For details of Giry's life and works see the funeral orations + published in the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, and afterwards + in a pamphlet (1899). See also the biography by Ferdinand Lot in the + _Annuaire de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes_ for 1901; and the bibliography + of his works by Henry Maistre in the _Correspondance historique et + archeologique_ (1899 and 1900). + + + + +GISBORNE, a seaport of New Zealand, in Cook county, provincial district +of Auckland, on Poverty Bay of the east coast of North Island. Pop. +(1901) 2733; (1906) 5664. Wool, frozen mutton and agricultural produce +are exported from the rich district surrounding. Petroleum has been +discovered in the neighbourhood, and about 40 m. from the town there are +warm medicinal springs. Near the site of Gisborne Captain Cook landed in +1769, and gave Poverty Bay its name from his inability to obtain +supplies owing to the hostility of the natives. Young Nick's Head, the +southern horn of the bay, was named from Nicholas Young, his ship's boy, +who first observed it. + + + + +GISLEBERT (or GILBERT) OF MONS (c. 1150-1225), Flemish chronicler, +became a clerk, and obtained the positions of provost of the churches of +St Germanus at Mons and St Alban at Namur, in addition to several other +ecclesiastical appointments. In official documents he is described as +chaplain, chancellor or notary, of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut (d. +1195), who employed him on important business. After 1200 Gislebert +wrote the _Chronicon Hanoniense_, a history of Hainaut and the +neighbouring lands from about 1050 to 1195, which is specially valuable +for the latter part of the 12th century, and for the life and times of +Baldwin V. + + The chronicle is published in Band xxi. of the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica_ (Hanover, 1826 fol.); and separately with introduction by + W. Arndt (Hanover, 1869). Another edition has been published by L. + Vanderkindere in the _Recueil de textes pour servir a l'etude de + l'histoire de Belgique_ (Brussels, 1904); and there is a French + translation by G. Menilglaise (Tournai, 1874). + + See W. Meyer, _Das Werk des Kanzlers Gislebert von Mons als + verfassungsgeschichtliche Quelle_ (Konigsberg, 1888); K. Huygens, _Sur + la valeur historique de la chronique Gislebert de Mons_ (Ghent, 1889); + and W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band ii. (Berlin, + 1894). + + + + +GISORS, a town of France, in the department of Eure, situated in the +pleasant valley of the Epte, 44. m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to +Dieppe. Pop. (1906) 4345. Gisors is dominated by a feudal stronghold +built chiefly by the kings of England in the 11th and 12th centuries. +The outer enceinte, to which is attached a cylindrical donjon erected by +Philip Augustus, king of France, embraces an area of over 7 acres. On a +mound in the centre of this space rises an older donjon, octagonal in +shape, protected by another enceinte. The outer ramparts and the ground +they enclose have been converted into promenades. The church of St +Gervais dates in its oldest parts--the central tower, the choir and +parts of the aisles--from the middle of the 13th century, when it was +founded by Blanche of Castile. The rest of the church belongs to the +Renaissance period. The Gothic and Renaissance styles mingle in the west +facade, which, like the interior of the building, is adorned with a +profusion of sculptures; the fine carving on the wooden doors of the +north and west portals is particularly noticeable. The less interesting +buildings of the town include a wooden house of the Renaissance era, an +old convent now used as an hotel de ville, and a handsome modern +hospital. There is a statue of General de Blanmont, born at Gisors in +1770. Among the industries of Gisors are felt manufacture, bleaching, +dyeing and leather-dressing. + +In the middle ages Gisors was capital of the Vexin. Its position on the +frontier of Normandy caused its possession to be hotly contested by the +kings of England and France during the 12th century, at the end of which +it and the dependent fortresses of Neaufles and Dangu were ceded by +Richard Coeur de Lion to Philip Augustus. During the wars of religion of +the 16th century it was occupied by the duke of Mayenne on behalf of the +League, and in the 17th century, during the Fronde, by the duke of +Longueville. Gisors was given to Charles Auguste Fouquet in 1718 in +exchange for Belle-Ile-en-Mer and made a duchy in 1742. It afterwards +came into the possession of the count of Eu and the duke of Penthievre. + + + + +GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT (1857-1903), English novelist, was born at +Wakefield on the 22nd of November 1857. He was educated at the Quaker +boarding-school of Alderley Edge and at Owens College, Manchester. His +life, especially its earlier period, was spent in great poverty, mainly +in London, though he was for a time also in the United States, +supporting himself chiefly by private teaching. He published his first +novel, _Workers in the Dawn_, in 1880. _The Unclassed_ (1884) and +_Isabel Clarendon_ (1886) followed. _Demos_ (1886), a novel dealing with +socialistic ideas, was, however, the first to attract attention. It was +followed by a series of novels remarkable for their pictures of lower +middle class life. Gissing's own experiences had preoccupied him with +poverty and its brutalizing effects on character. He made no attempt at +popular writing, and for a long time the sincerity of his work was +appreciated only by a limited public. Among his more characteristic +novels were: _Thyrza_ (1887), _A Life's Morning_ (1888), _The Nether +World_ (1889), _New Grub Street_ (1891), _Born in Exile_ (1892), _The +Odd Women_ (1893), _In the Year of Jubilee_ (1894), _The Whirlpool_ +(1897). Others, e.g. _The Town Traveller_ (1901), indicate a humorous +faculty, but the prevailing note of his novels is that of the struggling +life of the shabby-genteel and lower classes and the conflict between +education and circumstances. The quasi-autobiographical _Private Papers +of Henry Ryecroft_ (1903) reflects throughout Gissing's studious and +retiring tastes. He was a good classical scholar and had a minute +acquaintance with the late Latin historians, and with Italian +antiquities; and his posthumous _Veranilda_ (1904), a historical romance +of Italy in the time of Theodoric the Goth, was the outcome of his +favourite studies. Gissing's powers as a literary critic are shown in +his admirable study on Charles Dickens (1898). A book of travel, _By the +Ionian Sea_, appeared in 1901. He died at St Jean de Luz in the Pyrenees +on the 28th of December 1903. + + See also the introductory essay by T. Seccombe to _The House of + Cobwebs_ (1906), a posthumous volume of Gissing's short stories. + + + + +GITSCHIN (Czech _Jicin_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m. N.E. of +Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9790, mostly Czech. The parish church was +begun by Wallenstein after the model of the pilgrims' church of Santiago +de Compostela in Spain, but not completed till 1655. The castle, which +stands next to the church, was built by Wallenstein and finished in +1630. It was here that the emperor Francis I. of Austria signed the +treaty of 1813 by which he threw in his lot with the Allies against +Napoleon. Wallenstein was interred at the neighbouring Carthusian +monastery, but in 1639 the head and right hand were taken by General +Baner to Sweden, and in 1702 the other remains were removed by Count +Vincent of Waldstein to his hereditary burying ground at Munchengratz. +Gitschin was originally the village of Zidineves and received its +present name when it was raised to the dignity of a town by Wenceslaus +II. in 1302. The place belonged to various noble Bohemian families, and +in the 17th century came into the hands of Wallenstein, who made it the +capital of the duchy of Friedland and did much to improve and extend it. +His murder, and the miseries of the Thirty Years' War, brought it very +low; and it passed through several hands before it was bought by Prince +Trauttmannsdorf, to whose family it still belongs. On the 29th of June +1866 the Prussians gained here a great victory over the Austrians. This +victory made possible the junction of the first and second Prussian army +corps, and had as an ultimate result the Austrian defeat at Koniggratz. + + + + +GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO (1812-1872), Italian writer, was born in Sicily. +His _History of Italian Literature_ (1844) brought him to the front, and +in 1848 he became professor of Italian literature at Pisa, but after a +few months was deprived of the chair on account of his liberal views in +politics. On the re-establishment of the Italian kingdom he became +professor of aesthetics (resigning 1862) and secretary of the Academy of +Fine Arts at Florence, and in 1867 was elected to the chamber of +deputies. He held a prominent place as an historian, his works including +a _Storia del teatro_ (1860), and _Storia dei comuni italiani_ (1861), +besides a translation of Macaulay's _History of England_ (1856). He died +at Tonbridge in England, on the 8th of September 1872. + + A _Life_ appeared at Florence in 1874. + + + + +GIULIO ROMANO, or GIULIO PIPPI (c. 1492-1546), the head of the Roman +school of painting in succession to Raphael. This prolific painter, +modeller, architect and engineer receives his common appellation from +the place of his birth--Rome, in the Macello de' Corbi. His name in full +was Giulio di Pietro de Filippo de' Giannuzzi--Giannuzzi being the true +family name, and Pippi (which has practically superseded Giannuzzi) +being an abbreviation from the name of his grandfather Filippo. The date +of Giulio's birth is a little uncertain. Vasari (who knew him +personally) speaks of him as fifty-four years old at the date of his +death, 1st November 1546; thus he would have been born in 1492. Other +accounts assign 1498 as the date of birth. This would make Giulio young +indeed in the early and in such case most precocious stages of his +artistic career, and would show him as dying, after an infinity of hard +work, at the comparatively early age of forty-eight. + +Giulio must at all events have been quite youthful when he first became +the pupil of Raphael, and at Raphael's death in 1520 he was at the +utmost twenty-eight years of age. Raphael had loved him as a son, and +had employed him in some leading works, especially in the Loggie of the +Vatican; the series there popularly termed "Raphael's Bible" is done in +large measure by Giulio,--as for instance the subjects of the "Creation +of Adam and Eve," "Noah's Ark," and "Moses in the Bulrushes." In the +saloon of the "Incendio del Borgo," also, the figures of "Benefactors of +the Church" (Charlemagne, &c.) are Giulio's handiwork. It would appear +that in subjects of this kind Raphael simply furnished the design, and +committed the execution of it to some assistant, such as Giulio,--taking +heed, however, to bring it up, by final retouching, to his own standard +of style and type. Giulio at a later date followed out exactly the same +plan; so that in both instances inferiorities of method, in the general +blocking-out and even in the details of the work, are not to be +precisely charged upon the _caposcuola_. Amid the multitude of Raphael's +pupils, Giulio was eminent in pursuing his style, and showed universal +aptitude; he did, among other things, a large amount of architectural +planning for his chief. Raphael bequeathed to Giulio, and to his +fellow-pupil Gianfrancesco Penni ("Il Fattore"), his implements and +works of art; and upon them it devolved to bring to completion the vast +fresco-work of the "Hall of Constantine" in the Vatican--consisting, +along with much minor matter, of the four large subjects, the "Battle of +Constantine," the "Apparition of the Cross," the "Baptism of +Constantine" and the "Donation of Rome to the Pope." The two former +compositions were executed by Pippi, the two latter by Penni. The whole +of this onerous undertaking was completed within a period of only three +years,--which is the more remarkable as, during some part of the +interval since Raphael's decease, the Fleming, Adrian VI., had been +pope, and his anti-aesthetic pontificate had left art and artists almost +in a state of inanition. Clement VII. had now, however, succeeded to the +popedom. By this time Giulio was regarded as the first painter in Rome; +but his Roman career was fated to have no further sequel. + +Towards the end of 1524 his friend the celebrated writer Baldassar +Castiglione seconded with success the urgent request of the duke of +Mantua, Federigo Gonzaga, that Giulio should migrate to that city, and +enter the duke's service for the purpose of carrying out his projects in +architecture and pictorial decoration. These projects were already +considerable, and under Giulio's management they became far more +extensive still. The duke treated his painter munificently as to house, +table, horses and whatever was in request; and soon a very cordial +attachment sprang up between them. In Pippi's multifarious work in +Mantua three principal undertakings should be noted. (1) In the Castello +he painted the "History of Troy," along with other subjects. (2) In the +suburban ducal residence named the Palazzo del Te (this designation +being apparently derived from the form of the roads which led towards +the edifice) he rapidly carried out a rebuilding on a vastly enlarged +scale,--the materials being brick and terra-cotta, as there is no local +stone,--and decorated the rooms with his most celebrated works in oil +and fresco painting--the story of Psyche, Icarus, the fall of the +Titans, and the portraits of the ducal horses and hounds. The foreground +figures of Titans are from 12 to 14 ft. high; the room, even in its +structural details, is made to subserve the general artistic purpose, +and many of its architectural features are distorted accordingly. +Greatly admired though these pre-eminent works have always been, and at +most times even more than can now be fully ratified, they have suffered +severely at the hands of restorers, and modern eyes see them only +through a dull and deadening fog of renovation. The whole of the work on +the Palazzo del Te, which is of the Doric order of architecture, +occupied about five years. (3) Pippi recast and almost rebuilt the +cathedral of Mantua; erected his own mansion, replete with numerous +antiques and other articles of vertu; reconstructed the street +architecture to a very large extent, and made the city, sapped as it is +by the shallows of the Mincio, comparatively healthy; and at Marmiruolo, +some 5 m. distant from Mantua, he worked out other important buildings +and paintings. He was in fact, for nearly a quarter of a century, a sort +of Demiurgus of the arts of design in the Mantuan territory. + +Giulio's activity was interrupted but not terminated by the death of +Duke Federigo. The duke's brother, a cardinal who became regent, +retained him in full employment. For a while he went to Bologna, and +constructed the facade of the church of S. Petronio in that city. He was +afterwards invited to succeed Antonio Sangallo as architect of St +Peter's in Rome,--a splendid appointment, which, notwithstanding the +strenuous opposition of his wife and of the cardinal regent, he had +almost resolved to accept, when a fever overtook him, and, acting upon a +constitution somewhat enfeebled by worry and labour, caused his death on +the 1st of November 1546. He was buried in the church of S. Barnaba in +Mantua. At the time of his death Giulio enjoyed an annual income of more +than 1000 ducats, accruing from the liberalities of his patrons. He left +a widow, and a son and daughter. The son, named Raffaello, studied +painting, but died before he could produce any work of importance; the +daughter, Virginia, married Ercole Malatesta. + +Wide and solid knowledge of design, combined with a promptitude of +composition that was never at fault, formed the chief motive power and +merit of Giulio Romano's art. Whatever was wanted, he produced it at +once, throwing off, as Vasari says, a large design in an hour; and he +may in that sense, though not equally so when an imaginative or ideal +test is applied, be called a great inventor. It would be difficult to +name any other artist who, working as an architect, and as the plastic +and pictorial embellisher of his architecture, produced a total of work +so fully and homogeneously his own; hence he has been named "the prince +of decorators." He had great knowledge of the human frame, and +represented it with force and truth, though sometimes with an excess of +movement; he was also learned in other matters, especially in medals, +and in the plans of ancient buildings. In design he was more strong and +emphatic than graceful, and worked a great deal from his accumulated +stores of knowledge, without consulting nature direct. As a general +rule, his designs are finer and freer than his paintings, whether in +fresco or in oil--his easel pictures being comparatively few, and some +of them the reverse of decent; his colouring is marked by an excess of +blackish and heavy tints. + +Giulio Romano introduced the style of Raphael into Mantua, and +established there a considerable school of art, which surpassed in +development that of his predecessor Mantegna, and almost rivalled that +of Rome. Very many engravings--more than three hundred are +mentioned--were made contemporaneously from his works; and this not only +in Italy, but in France and Flanders as well. His plan of entrusting +principally to assistants the pictorial execution of his cartoons has +already been referred to; Primaticcio was one of the leading coadjutors. +Rinaldo Mantovano, a man of great ability who died young, was the chief +executant of the "Fall of the Giants"; he also co-operated with +Benedetto Pagni da Pescia in painting the remarkable series of horses +and hounds, and the story of Psyche. Another pupil was Fermo Guisoni, +who remained settled in Mantua. The oil pictures of Giulio Romano are +not generally of high importance; two leading ones are the "Martyrdom of +Stephen," in the church of that saint in Genoa, and a "Holy Family" in +the Dresden Gallery. Among his architectural works not already mentioned +is the Villa Madama in Rome, with a fresco of Polyphemus, and boys and +satyrs; the Ionic facade of this building may have been sketched out by +Raphael. + +Vasari gives a pleasing impression of the character of Giulio. He was +very loving to his friends, genial, affable, well-bred, temperate in the +pleasures of the table, but liking fine apparel and a handsome scale of +living. He was good-looking, of middle height, with black curly hair and +dark eyes, and an ample beard; his portrait, painted by himself, is in +the Louvre. + + Besides Vasari, Lanzi and other historians of art, the following works + may be mentioned: C. D. Arco, _Vita di G. Pippi_ (1828); G. C. von + Murr, _Notice sur les estampes gravees apres dessins de Jules Romain_ + (1865); R. Sanzio, two works on _Etchings and Paintings_ (1800, 1836). + (W. M. R.) + + + + +GIUNTA PISANO, the earliest Italian painter whose name is found +inscribed on an extant work. He is said to have exercised his art from +1202 to 1236. He may perhaps have been born towards 1180 in Pisa, and +died in or soon after 1236; but other accounts give 1202 as the date of +his birth, and 1258 or thereabouts for his death. There is some ground +for thinking that his family name was Capiteno. The inscribed work above +referred to, one of his earliest, is a "Crucifix," long in the kitchen +of the convent of St Anne in Pisa. Other Pisan works of like date are +very barbarous, and some of them may be also from the hand of Giunta. It +is said that he painted in the upper church of Assisi,--in especial a +"Crucifixion" dated 1236, with a figure of Father Elias, the general of +the Franciscans, embracing the foot of the cross. In the sacristy is a +portrait of St Francis, also ascribed to Giunta; but it more probably +belongs to the close of the 13th century. He was in the practice of +painting upon cloth stretched on wood, and prepared with plaster. + + + + +GIURGEVO (_Giurgiu_), the capital of the department of Vlashca, Rumania; +situated amid mud-flats and marshes on the left bank of the Danube. Pop. +(1900) 13,977. Three small islands face the town, and a larger one +shelters its port, Smarda, 2-1/2 m. E. The rich corn-lands on the north +are traversed by a railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in +Rumania, which was built in 1869 and afterwards extended to Smarda. +Steamers ply to Rustchuk, 2-1/2 m. S.W. on the Bulgarian shore, linking +the Rumanian railway system to the chief Bulgarian line north of the +Balkans (Rustchuk-Varna). Thus Giurgevo, besides having a considerable +trade with the home ports lower down the Danube, is the headquarters of +commerce between Bulgaria and Rumania. It exports timber, grain, salt +and petroleum; importing coal, iron and textiles. There are also large +saw-mills. + +Giurgevo occupies the site of Theodorapolis, a city built by the Roman +emperor Justinian (A.D. 483-565). It was founded in the 14th century by +Genoese merchant adventurers, who established a bank, and a trade in +silks and velvets. They called the town, after the patron saint of +Genoa, San Giorgio (St George); and hence comes its present name. As a +fortified town, Giurgevo figured often in the wars for the conquest of +the lower Danube; especially in the struggle of Michael the Brave +(1593-1601) against the Turks, and in the later Russo-Turkish Wars. It +was burned in 1659. In 1829, its fortifications were finally razed, the +only defence left being a castle on the island of Slobosia, united to +the shore by a bridge. + + + + +GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE (1809-1850), Tuscan satirical poet, was born at +Monsummano, a small village of the Valdinievole, on the 12th of May +1809. His father, a cultivated and rich man, accustomed his son from +childhood to study, and himself taught him, among other subjects, the +first rudiments of music. Afterwards, in order to curb his too vivacious +disposition, he placed the boy under the charge of a priest near the +village, whose severity did perhaps more evil than good. At twelve +Giusti was sent to school at Florence, and afterwards to Pistoia and to +Lucca; and during those years he wrote his first verses. In 1826 he went +to study law at Pisa; but, disliking the study, he spent eight years in +the course, instead of the customary four. He lived gaily, however, +though his father kept him short of money, and learned to know the +world, seeing the vices of society, and the folly of certain laws and +customs from which his country was suffering. The experience thus gained +he turned to good account in the use he made of it in his satire. + +His father had in the meantime changed his place of abode to Pescia; but +Giuseppe did worse there, and in November 1832, his father having paid +his debts, he returned to study at Pisa, seriously enamoured of a woman +whom he could not marry, but now commencing to write in real earnest in +behalf of his country. With the poem called _La Ghigliottina_ (the +guillotine), Giusti began to strike out a path for himself, and thus +revealed his great genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian +Beranger, and even surpassed the Frenchman in richness of language, +refinement of humour and depth of satirical conception. In Beranger +there is more feeling for what is needed for popular poetry. His poetry +is less studied, its vivacity perhaps more boisterous, more spontaneous; +but Giusti, in both manner and conception, is perhaps more elegant, more +refined, more penetrating. In 1834 Giusti, having at last entered the +legal profession, left Pisa to go to Florence, nominally to practise +with the advocate Capoquadri, but really to enjoy life in the capital of +Tuscany. He fell seriously in love a second time, and as before was +abandoned by his love. It was then he wrote his finest verses, by means +of which, although his poetry was not yet collected in a volume, but for +some years passed from hand to hand, his name gradually became famous. +The greater part of his poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at +no little risk, as the work was destined to undermine the Austrian rule +in Italy. After the publication of a volume of verses at Bastia, Giusti +thoroughly established his fame by his _Gingillino_, the best in moral +tone as well as the most vigorous and effective of his poems. The poet +sets himself to represent the vileness of the treasury officials, and +the base means they used to conceal the necessities of the state. The +_Gingillino_ has all the character of a classic satire. When first +issued in Tuscany, it struck all as too impassioned and personal. Giusti +entered heart and soul into the political movements of 1847 and 1848, +served in the national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany; but +finding that there was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of +princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he began to fear, and +to express the fear, that for Italy evil rather than good had resulted. +He fell, in consequence, from the high position he had held in public +estimation, and in 1848 was regarded as a reactionary. His friendship +for the marquis Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during +the last years of his life, and who published after Giusti's death a +volume of illustrated proverbs, was enough to compromise him in the eyes +of such men as Guerrazzi, Montanelli and Niccolini. On the 31st of May +1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his friend. + +The poetry of Giusti, under a light trivial aspect, has a lofty +civilizing significance. The type of his satire is entirely original, +and it had also the great merit of appearing at the right moment, of +wounding judiciously, of sustaining the part of the comedy that +"castigat ridendo mores." Hence his verse, apparently jovial, was +received by the scholars and politicians of Italy in all seriousness. +Alexander Manzoni in some of his letters showed a hearty admiration of +the genius of Giusti; and the weak Austrian and Bourbon governments +regarded them as of the gravest importance. + + His poems have often been reprinted, the best editions being those of + Le Monnier, Carducci (1859; 3rd ed., 1879), Fioretti (1876) and Bragi + (1890). Besides the poems and the proverbs already mentioned, we have + a volume of select letters, full of vigour and written in the best + Tuscan language, and a fine critical discourse on Giuseppe Parini, the + satirical poet. In some of his compositions the elegiac rather than + the satirical poet is seen. Many of his verses have been excellently + translated into German by Paul Heyse. Good English translations were + published in the _Athenaeum_ by Mrs T. A. Trollope, and some by W. D. + Howells are in his _Modern Italian Poets_ (1887). + + + + +GIUSTINIANI, the name of a prominent Italian family which originally +belonged to Venice, but established itself subsequently in Genoa also, +and at various times had representatives in Naples, Corsica and several +of the islands of the Archipelago. + +In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention:-- + +1. LORENZO (1380-1465), the Laurentius Justinianus of the Roman +calendar, at an early age entered the congregation of the canons of St +George in Alga, and in 1433 became general of that order. About the same +time he was made by Eugenius IV. bishop of Venice; and his episcopate +was marked by considerable activity in church extension and reform. On +the removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice by Nicholas V. in +1451, Giustiniani was promoted to that dignity, which he held for +fourteen years. He died on January 8, 1465, was canonized by Pope +Alexander VIII., his festival (semi-duplex) being fixed by Innocent +XII. for September 5th, the anniversary of his elevation to the +bishopric. His works, consisting of sermons, letters and ascetic +treatises, have been frequently reprinted,--the best edition being that +of the Benedictine P. N. A. Giustiniani, published at Venice in 2 vols. +folio, 1751. They are wholly devoid of literary merit. His life has been +written by Bernard Giustiniani, by Maffei and also by the Bollandists. + +2. LEONARDO (1388-1446), brother of the preceding, was for some years a +senator of Venice, and in 1443 was chosen procurator of St Mark. He +translated into Italian Plutarch's _Lives of Cinna and Lucullus_, and was +the author of some poetical pieces, amatory and religious--_strambotti_ +and _canzonetti_--as well as of rhetorical prose compositions. Some of +the popular songs set to music by him became known as _Giustiniani_. + +3. BERNARDO (1408-1489), son of Leonardo, was a pupil of Guarino and of +George of Trebizond, and entered the Venetian senate at an early age. He +served on several important diplomatic missions both to France and Rome, +and about 1485 became one of the council of ten. His orations and +letters were published in 1492; but his title to any measure of fame he +possesses rests upon his history of Venice, _De origine urbis Venetiarum +rebusque ab ipsa gestis historia_ (1492), which was translated into +Italian by Domenichi in 1545, and which at the time of its appearance +was undoubtedly the best work upon the subject of which it treated. It +is to be found in vol. i. of the _Thesaurus_ of Graevius. + +4. PIETRO, also a senator, lived in the 16th century, and wrote on +_Historia rerum Venetarum_ in continuation of that of Bernardo. He was +also the author of chronicles _De gestis Petri Mocenigi_ and _De bello +Venetorum cum Carolo VIII._ The latter has been reprinted in the +_Script. rer. Ital._ vol. xxi. + +Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent members were the +following:-- + +5. PAOLO, DI MONIGLIA (1444-1502), a member of the order of Dominicans, +was, from a comparatively early age, prior of their convent at Genoa. As +a preacher he was very successful, and his talents were fully recognized +by successive popes, by whom he was made master of the sacred palace, +inquisitor-general for all the Genoese dominions, and ultimately bishop +of Scio and Hungarian legate. He was the author of a number of Biblical +commentaries (no longer extant), which are said to have been +characterized by great erudition. + +6. AGOSTINO (1470-1536) was born at Genoa, and spent some wild years in +Valencia, Spain. Having in 1487 joined the Dominican order, he gave +himself with great energy to the study of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and +Arabic, and in 1514 began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the +Bible. As bishop of Nebbio in Corsica, he took part in some of the +earlier sittings of the Lateran council (1516-1517), but, in consequence +of party complications, withdrew to his diocese, and ultimately to +France, where he became a pensioner of Francis I., and was the first to +occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the university of Paris. After an +absence from Corsica for a period of five years, during which he visited +England and the Low Countries, and became acquainted with Erasmus and +More, he returned to Nebbio, about 1522, and there remained, with +comparatively little intermission, till in 1536, when, while returning +from a visit to Genoa, he perished in a storm at sea. He was the +possessor of a very fine library, which he bequeathed to the republic of +Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter was published +(_Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum, Arabicum, et Chaldaicum_, Genoa, 1616). +Besides the Hebrew text, the LXX. translation, the Chaldee paraphrase, +and an Arabic version, it contains the Vulgate translation, a new Latin +translation by the editor, a Latin translation of the Chaldee, and a +collection of scholia. Giustiniani printed 2000 copies at his own +expense, including fifty in vellum for presentation to the sovereigns of +Europe and Asia; but the sale of the work did not encourage him to +proceed with the New Testament, which he had also prepared for the +press. Besides an edition of the book of Job, containing the original +text, the Vulgate, and a new translation, he published a Latin version +of the _Moreh Nevochim_ of Maimonides (_Director dubitantium aut +perplexorum_, 1520), and also edited in Latin the _Aureus libellus_ of +Aeneas Platonicus, and the _Timaeus_ of Chalcidius. His annals of Genoa +(_Castigatissimi annali di Genova_) were published posthumously in 1537. + +The following are also noteworthy:-- + +7. POMPEIO (1569-1616), a native of Corsica, who served under Alessandro +Farnese and the marquis of Spinola in the Low Countries, where he lost +an arm, and, from the artificial substitute which he wore, came to be +known by the sobriquet Bras de Fer. He also defended Crete against the +Turks; and subsequently was killed in a reconnaissance at Friuli. He +left in Italian a personal narrative of the war in Flanders, which has +been repeatedly published in a Latin translation (_Bellum Belgicum_, +Antwerp, 1609). + +8. GIOVANNI (1513-1556), born in Candia, translator of Terence's +_Andria_ and _Eunuchus_, of Cicero's _In Verrem_, and of Virgil's +_Aeneid_, viii. + +9. ORSATTO (1538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the _Oedipus +Tyrannus_ of Sophocles and author of a collection of _Rime_, in +imitation of Petrarch. He is regarded as one of the latest +representatives of the classic Italian school. + +10. GERONIMO, a Genoese, flourished during the latter half of the 16th +century. He translated the _Alcestis_ of Euripides and three of the +plays of Sophocles; and wrote two original tragedies, _Jephte_ and +_Christo in Passione_. + +11. VINCENZO, who in the beginning of the 17th century built the Roman +palace and made the art collection which are still associated with his +name (see _Galleria Giustiniana_, Rome, 1631). The collection was +removed in 1807 to Paris, where it was to some extent broken up. In 1815 +all that remained of it, about 170 pictures, was purchased by the king +of Prussia and removed to Berlin, where it forms a portion of the royal +museum. + + + + +GIUSTO DA GUANTO [JODOCUS, or JUSTUS, OF GHENT] (fl. 1465-1475), Flemish +painter. The public records of the city of Ghent have been diligently +searched, but in vain, for a clue to the history of Justus or Jodocus, +whom Vasari and Guicciardini called Giusto da Guanto. Flemish annalists +of the 16th century have enlarged upon the scanty statements of Vasari, +and described Jodocus as a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck. But there is no +source to which this fable can be traced. The registers of St Luke's +gild at Ghent comprise six masters of the name of Joos or Jodocus who +practised at Ghent in the 15th century. But none of the works of these +masters has been preserved, and it is impossible to compare their style +with that of Giusto. It was between 1465 and 1474 that this artist +executed the "Communion of the Apostles" which Vasari has described, and +modern critics now see to the best advantage in the museum of Urbino. It +was painted for the brotherhood of Corpus Christi at the bidding of +Frederick of Montefeltro, who was introduced into the picture as the +companion of Caterino Zeno, a Persian envoy at that time on a mission to +the court of Urbino. From this curious production it may be seen that +Giusto, far from being a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck, was merely a disciple +of a later and less gifted master, who took to Italy some of the +peculiarities of his native schools, and forthwith commingled them with +those of his adopted country. As a composer and draughtsman Giusto +compares unfavourably with the better-known painters of Flanders; though +his portraits are good, his ideal figures are not remarkable for +elevation of type or for subtlety of character and expression. His work +is technically on a level with that of Gerard of St John, whose pictures +are preserved in the Belvedere at Vienna. Vespasian, a Florentine +bookseller who contributed much to form the antiquarian taste of +Frederick of Montefeltro, states that this duke sent to the Netherlands +for a capable artist to paint a series of "ancient worthies" for a +library recently erected in the palace of Urbino. It has been +conjectured that the author of these "worthies," which are still in +existence at the Louvre and in the Barberini palace at Rome, was Giusto. +Yet there are notable divergences between these pictures and the +"Communion of the Apostles." Still, it is not beyond the range of +probability that Giusto should have been able, after a certain time, to +temper his Flemish style by studying the masterpieces of Santi and +_Melozzo_, and so to acquire the mixed manner of the Flemings and +Italians which these portraits of worthies display. Such an +assimilation, if it really took place, might justify the Flemings in the +indulgence of a certain pride, considering that Raphael not only admired +these worthies, but copied them in the sketch-book which is now the +ornament of the Venetian Academy. There is no ground for presuming that +Giusto ad Guanto is identical with Justus d'Allamagna who painted the +"Annunciation" (1451) in the cloisters of Santa Maria di Castello at +Genoa. The drawing and colouring of this wall painting shows that Justus +d'Allamagna was as surely a native of south Germany as his homonym at +Urbino was a born Netherlander. + + + + +GIVET, a town of northern France, in the department of Ardennes, 40 m. +N. by E. of Mezieres on the Eastern railway between the town and Namur. +Pop. (1906) town, 5110; commune, 7468. Givet lies on the Meuse about 1 +m. from the Belgian frontier, and was formerly a fortress of +considerable importance. It is divided into three portions--the citadel +called Charlemont and Grand Givet on the left bank of the river, and on +the opposite bank Petit Givet, connected with Grand Givet by a stone +bridge of five arches. The fortress of Charlemont, situated at the top +of a precipitous rock 705 ft. high, was founded by the emperor Charles +V. in the 16th century, and further fortified by Vauban at the end of +the 17th century; it is the only survival of the fortifications of the +town, the rest of which were destroyed in 1892. In Grand Givet there are +a church and a town-hall built by Vauban, and a statue of the composer +Etienne Mehul stands in the fine square named after him. Petit Givet, +the industrial quarter, is traversed by a small tributary of the Meuse, +the Houille, which is bordered by tanneries and glue factories. Pencils +and tobacco-pipes are also manufactured. The town has considerable river +traffic, consisting chiefly of coal, copper and stone. There is a +chamber of arts and manufactures. + + + + +GIVORS, a manufacturing town of south-eastern France, in the department +of Rhone, on the railway between Lyons and St Etienne, 14 m. S. of Lyon. +Pop. (1906) 11,444. It is situated on the right bank of the Rhone, here +crossed by a suspension bridge, at its confluence with the Gier and the +canal of Givors, which starts at Grand Croix on the Gier, some 13 m. +distant. The chief industries are metal-working, engineering-construction +and glass-working. There are coal mines in the vicinity. On the hill +overlooking the town are the ruins of the chateau of St Gerald and of the +convent of St Ferreol, remains of the old town destroyed in 1594. + + + + +GJALLAR, in Scandinavian mythology, the horn of Heimdall, the guardian +of the rainbow bridge by which the gods pass and repass between earth +and heaven. This horn had to be blown whenever a stranger approached the +bridge. + + + + +GLABRIO. 1. MANIUS ACILIUS GLABRIO, Roman statesman and general, member +of a plebeian family. When consul in 191 B.C. he defeated Antiochus the +Great of Syria at Thermopylae, and compelled him to leave Greece. He +then turned his attention to the Aetolians, who had persuaded Antiochus +to declare war against Rome, and was only prevented from crushing them +by the intercession of T. Quinctius Flamininus. In 189 Glabrio was a +candidate for the censorship, but was bitterly opposed by the nobles. He +was accused by the tribunes of having concealed a portion of the Syrian +spoils in his own house; his legate gave evidence against him, and he +withdrew his candidature. It is probable that he was the author of the +law which left it to the discretion of the pontiffs to insert or omit +the intercalary month of the year. + + Censorinus, _De die natali_, xx.; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 13; + index to Livy; Appian, _Syr._ 17-21. + +2. MANIUS ACILIUS GLABRIO, Roman statesman and general, grandson of the +famous jurist P. Mucius Scaevola. When praetor urbanus (70 B.C.) he +presided at the trial of Verres. According to Dio Cassius (xxxvi. 38), +in conjunction with L. Calpurnius Piso, his colleague in the consulship +(67), he brought forward a severe law (Lex Acilia Calpurnia) against +illegal canvassing at elections. In the same year he was appointed to +supersede L. Lucullus in the government of Cilicia and the command of +the war against Mithradates, but as he did absolutely nothing and was +unable to control the soldiery, he was in turn superseded by Pompey +according to the provisions of the Manilian law. Little else is known of +him except that he declared in favour of the death punishment for the +Catilinarian conspirators. + + Dio Cassius xxxvi. 14, 16. 24; Cicero, _Pro lege Manilia_, 2. 9; + Appian, _Mithrid_. 90. + + + + +GLACE BAY, a city and port of entry of Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia, +Canada, on the Atlantic Ocean, 14 m. E. of Sydney, with which it is +connected both by steam and electric railway. It is the centre of the +properties of the Dominion Coal Company (founded 1893), which produce +most of the coal of Nova Scotia. Though it has a fair harbour, most of +the shipping is done from Sydney in summer and from Louisburg in winter. +Pop. (1892) 2000; (1901) 6945; (1906) 13,000. + + + + +GLACIAL PERIOD, in geology, the name usually given, by English and +American writers, to that comparatively recent time when all parts of +the world suffered a marked lowering of temperature, accompanied in +northern Europe and North America by glacial conditions, not unlike +those which now characterize the Polar regions. This period, which is +also known as the "Great Ice Age" (German _Die Eiszeit_), is synchronous +with the Pleistocene period, the earlier of the Post-Tertiary or +Quaternary divisions of geological time. Although "Glacial period" and +"Pleistocene" (q.v.) are often used synonymously it is convenient to +consider them separately, inasmuch as not a few Pleistocene formations +have no causal relationship with conditions of glaciation. Not until the +beginning of the 19th century did the deposits now generally recognized +as the result of ice action receive serious attention; the tendency was +to regard such superficial and irregular material as mere rubbish. Early +ideas upon the subject usually assigned floods as the formative agency, +and this view is still not without its supporters (see Sir H. H. +Howorth, _The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood_). Doubtless this attitude +was in part due to the comparative rarity of glaciers and ice-fields +where the work of ice could be directly observed. It was natural +therefore that the first scientific references to glacial action should +have been stimulated by the Alpine regions of Switzerland, which called +forth the writings of J. J. Scheuchzer, B. F. Kuhn, H. B. de Saussure, +F. G. Hugi, and particularly those of J. Venetz, J. G. von Charpentier +and L. Aggasiz. Canon Rendu, J. Forbes and others had studied the cause +of motion of glaciers, while keen observers, notably Sir James Hall, A. +Brongniart and J. Playfair, had noted the occurrence of travelled and +scratched stones. + +The result of these efforts was the conception of great ice-sheets +flowing over the land, grinding the rock surfaces and transporting rock +debris in the manner to be observed in the existing glaciers. However, +before this view had become established Sir C. Lyell evolved the "drift +theory" to explain the widely spread phenomenon of transported blocks, +boulder clay and the allied deposits; in this he was supported by Sir H. +de la Beche, Charles Darwin, Sir R. I. Murchison and many others. +According to the drift theory, the transport and distribution of +"erratic blocks," &c., had been effected by floating icebergs; this view +naturally involved a considerable and widespread submergence of the +land, an assumption which appeared to receive support from the +occasional presence of marine shells at high levels in the "drift" +deposits. So great was the influence of those who favoured the drift +theory that even to-day it cannot be said to have lost complete hold; we +still speak of "drift" deposits in England and America, and the belief +in one or more great submergences during the Glacial period is still +held more firmly by certain geologists than the evidence would seem to +warrant. The case against the drift theory was most clearly expressed by +Sir A. C. Ramsay for England and Scotland, and by the Swedish scientist +Otto Torell. Since then the labours of Professor James Geikie, Sir +Archibald Geikie, Professor P. Kendall and others in England; von +Verendt, H. Credner, de Geer, E. Geinitz, A. Helland, Jentzsch, K. +Keilhack, A. Penck, H. Schroder, F. Wahnschaffe in Scandinavia and +Germany; T. C. Chamberlin, W. Upham, G. F. Wright in North America, have +all tended to confirm the view that it is to the movement of glaciers +and ice-sheets that we must look as the predominant agent of transport +and abrasion in this period. The three stages through which our +knowledge of glacial work has advanced may thus be summarized: (1) the +diluvial hypothesis, deposits formed by floods; (2) the drift +hypothesis, deposits formed mainly by icebergs and floating ice; (3) the +ice-sheet hypothesis, deposits formed directly or indirectly through the +agency of flowing ice. + +_Evidences._--The evidence relied upon by geologists for the former +existence of the great ice-sheets which traversed the northern regions +of Europe and America is mainly of two kinds: (1) the peculiar erosion +of the older rocks by ice and ice-borne stones, and (2) the nature and +disposition of ice-borne rock debris. After having established the +criteria by which the work of moving ice is to be recognized in regions +of active glaciation, the task of identifying the results of earlier +glaciation elsewhere has been carried on with unabated energy. + +[Illustration: Glacial period.] + +1. _Ice Erosion._--Although there are certain points of difference +between the work of glaciers and broad ice-sheets, the former being more +or less restricted laterally by the valleys in which they flow, the +general results of their passage over the rocky floor are essentially +similar. Smooth rounded outlines are imparted to the rocks, markedly +contrasting with the pinnacled and irregular surfaces produced by +ordinary weathering; where these rounded surfaces have been formed on a +minor scale the well-known features of _roches moutonnees_ (German +_Rundhocker_) are created; on a larger scale we have the erosion-form +known as "crag and tail," when the ice-sheet has overridden ground with +more pronounced contours, the side of the hill facing the advancing ice +being rounded and gently curved (German _Stossseite_), and the opposite +side (_Leeseite_) steep, abrupt and much less smooth. Such features are +never associated with the erosion of water. The rounding of rock +surfaces is regularly accompanied by grooving and striation (German +_Schrammen, Schliffe_) caused by the grinding action of stones and +boulders embedded in the moving ice. These "glacial striae" are of great +value in determining the latest path of the vanished ice-sheets (see +map). Several other erosion-features are generally associated with ice +action; such are the circular-headed valleys, "cirques" or "corries" +(German _Zirkus_) of mountain districts; the pot-holes, giants' kettles +(_Strudellocher_, _Riesentopfe_), familiarly exemplified in the +Gletschergarten near Lucerne; the "rock-basins" (_Felsseebecken_) of +mountainous regions are also believed to be assignable to this cause on +account of their frequent association with other glacial phenomena, but +it is more than probable that the action of running water (waterfalls, +&c.)--influenced no doubt by the disposition of the ice--has had much +to do with these forms of erosion. As regards rock-basins, geologists +are still divided in opinion: Sir A. C. Ramsay, J. Geikie, Tyndall, +Helland, H. Hess, A. Penck, and others have expressed themselves in +favour of a glacial origin; while A. Heim, F. Stapff, T. Kjerulf, L. +Rutimeyer and many others have strongly opposed this view. + +2. Glacial deposits may be roughly classified in two groups: those that +have been formed directly by the action of the ice, and those formed +through the agency of water flowing under, upon, and from the +ice-sheets, or in streams and lakes modified by the presence of the ice. +To differentiate in practice between the results of these two agencies +is a matter of some difficulty in the case of unstratified deposits; but +the boulder clay may be taken as the typical formation of the glacier or +ice-sheet, whether it has been left as a _terminal moraine_ at the limit +of glaciation or as a _ground moraine_ beneath the ice. A stratified +form of boulder clay, which not infrequently rests upon, and is +therefore younger than, the more typical variety, is usually regarded as +a deposit formed by water from the material (_englacial_, _innenmoran_) +held in suspension within the ice, and set free during the process of +melting. Besides the innumerable boulders, large and small, embedded in +the boulder clay, isolated masses of rock, often of enormous size, have +been borne by ice-sheets far from their original home and stranded when +the ice melted. These "erratic blocks," "perched blocks" (German +_Findlinge_) are familiar objects in the Alpine glacier districts, where +they have frequently received individual names, but they are just as +easily recognized in regions from which the glaciers that brought them +there have long since been banished. Not only did the ice transport +blocks of hard rock, granite and the like, but huge masses of stratified +rock were torn from their bed by the same agency; the masses of chalk in +the cliffs near Cromer are well known; near Berlin, at Firkenwald, there +is a transported mass of chalk estimated to be at least 2,000,000 cubic +metres in bulk, which has travelled probably 15 kilometres from its +original site; a block of Lincolnshire oolite is recorded by C. +Fox-Strangways near Melton in Leicestershire, which is 300 yds. long and +100 yds. broad if no more; and instances of a similar kind might be +multiplied. + +When we turn to the "fluvio-glacial" deposits we find a bewildering +variety of stratified and partially bedded deposits of gravel, sand and +clay, occurring separately or in every conceivable condition of +association. Some of these deposits have received distinctive names; +such are the "Kames" of Scotland, which are represented in Ireland by +"Eskers," and in Scandinavia by "Asar." Another type of hillocky deposit +is exemplified by the "drums" or "drumlins." Everywhere beyond the +margin of the advancing or retreating ice-sheets these deposits were +being formed; streams bore away coarse and fine materials and spread +them out upon alluvial plains or upon the floors of innumerable lakes, +many of which were directly caused by the damming of the ordinary +water-courses by the ice. As the level of such lakes was changed new +beach-lines were produced, such as are still evident in the great lake +region of North America, in the parallel roads of Glen Roy, and the +"Strandlinien" of many parts of northern Europe. + +Viewed in relation to man's position on the earth, no geological changes +have had a more profound importance than those of the Glacial period. +The whole of the glaciated region bears evidence of remarkable +modification of topographic features; in parts of Scotland or Norway or +Canada the old rocks are bared of soil, rounded and smoothed as far as +the eye can see. The old soil and subsoil, the product of ages of +ordinary weathering, were removed from vast areas to be deposited and +concentrated in others. Old valleys were filled--often to a great depth, +300-400 ft.; rivers were diverted from their old courses, never to +return; lakes of vast size were caused by the damming of old outlets +(Lake Lahontan, Lake Agassiz, &c., in North America), while an infinite +number of shifting lakelets--with their deposits--played an important +part along the ice-front at all stages of its career. The influence of +this period upon the present distribution of plant and animal life in +northern latitudes can hardly be overestimated. + +Much stress has been laid upon supposed great changes in the level of +the land in northern regions during the Glacial period. The occurrence +of marine shells at an elevation of 1350 ft. at Moel Tryfaen in north +Wales, and at 1200 ft. near Macclesfield in Cheshire, has been cited as +evidence of profound submergence by some geologists, though others see +in these and similar occurrences only the transporting action of +ice-sheets that have traversed the floor of the adjoining seas. Marine +shells in stratified materials have been found on the coast of Scotland +at 100 ft. and over, in S. Scandinavia at 600 to 800 ft., and in the +"Champlain" deposits of North America at various heights. The dead +shells of the "Yoldia clay" cover wide areas at the bottom of the North +Atlantic at depths from 500 to 1300 fathoms, though the same mollusc is +now found living in Arctic seas at the depth of 5 to 15 fathoms. This +has been looked upon as a proof that in the N.W. European region the +lithosphere stood about 2600 ft. higher than it does now (Brogger, +Nansen, &c.), and it has been suggested that a union of the mainland of +Europe with that of North America--forming a northern continental mass, +"Prosarctis"--may have been achieved by way of Iceland, Jan Mayen Land +and Greenland. The pre-glacial valleys and fjords of Norway and +Scotland, with their deeply submerged seaward ends, are regarded as +proofs of former elevation. The great depth of alluvium in some places +(236 metres at Bremen) points in the same direction. Evidences of +changes of level occur in early, middle and late Pleistocene formations, +and the nature of the evidence is such that it is on the whole safer to +assume the existence only of the more moderate degree of change. + +_The Cause of the Glacial Period._--Many attempts have been made to +formulate a satisfactory hypothesis that shall conform with the known +facts and explain the great change in climatic conditions which set in +towards the close of the Tertiary era, and culminated during the Glacial +period. Some of the more prominent hypotheses may be mentioned, but +space will not permit of a detailed analysis of theories, most of which +rest upon somewhat unsubstantial ground. The principal facts to be taken +into consideration are (1) the great lowering of temperature over the +whole earth; (2) the localization of extreme glaciation in north-west +Europe and north-east America; and (3) the local retrogression of the +ice-sheets, once or more times repeated. + +Some have suggested the simple solution of a change in the earth's axis, +and have indicated that the pole may have travelled through some 15 deg. +to 20 deg. of latitude; thus, the polar glaciation, as it now exists, +might have been in this way transferred to include north-west Europe and +North America; but modern views on the rigidity of the earth's body, +together with the lack of any evidence of the correlative movement of +climatic zones in other parts of the world, render this hypothesis quite +untenable. On similar grounds a change in the earth's centre of gravity +is unthinkable. Theories based upon the variations in the obliquity of +the ecliptic or eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or on the passage of +the solar system through cold regions of space, or upon the known +variations in the heat emitted by the sun, are all insecure and +unsatisfactory. The hypothesis elaborated by James Croll (_Phil. Mag._, +1864, 28, p. 121; _Climate and Time_, 1875; and _Discussion on Climate +and Cosmology_, 1889) was founded upon the assumption that with the +earth's eccentricity at its maximum and winter in the north at aphelion, +there would be a tendency in northern latitudes for the accumulation of +snow and ice, which would be accentuated indirectly by the formation of +fogs and a modification of the trade winds. The shifting of the thermal +equator, and with it the direction of the trade winds, would divert some +of the warm ocean currents from the cold regions, and this effect was +greatly enhanced, he considered, by the configuration of the Atlantic +Ocean. Croll's hypothesis was supported by Sir R. Ball (_The Cause of +the Great Ice Age_, 1893), and it met with very general acceptance; but +it has been destructively criticized by Professor S. Newcomb (_Phil. +Mag._, 1876, 1883, 1884) and by E. P. Culverwell (_Phil. Mag._, 1894, +p. 541, and _Geol. Mag._, 1895, pp. 3 and 55). The difficulties in the +way of Croll's theory are: (1) the fundamental assumption, that +midwinter and midsummer temperatures are directly proportional to the +sun's heat at those periods, is not in accordance with observed facts; +(2) the glacial periods would be limited in duration to an appropriate +fraction of the precessional period (21,000 years), which appears to be +too short a time for the work that was actually done by ice agency; and +(3) Croll's glacial periods would alternate between the northern and +southern hemispheres, affecting first one then the other. Sir C. Lyell +and others have advocated the view that great elevation of the land in +polar regions would be conducive to glacial conditions; this is +doubtless true, but the evidence that the Glacial period was primarily +due to this cause is not well established. Other writers have +endeavoured to support the elevation theory by combining with it various +astronomical and meteorological agencies. More recently several +hypotheses have been advanced to explain the glacial period as the +result of changes in the atmosphere; F. W. Harmer ("The Influence of +Winds upon the Climate during the Pleistocene Epoch," _Q.J.G.S._, 1901, +57, p. 405) has shown the importance of the influence of winds in +certain circumstances; Marsden Manson ("The Evolution of Climate," +_American Geologist_, 1899, 24, p. 93) has laid stress upon the +influence of clouds; but neither of these theories grapples successfully +with the fundamental difficulties. Others again have requisitioned the +variability in the amount of the carbon dioxide in the +atmosphere--hypotheses which depend upon the efficiency of this gas as a +thermal absorbent. The supply of carbon dioxide may be increased from +time to time, as by the emanations from volcanoes (S. Arrhenius and A. +G. Hogbom), or it may be decreased by absorption into sea-water, and by +the carbonation of rocks. Professor T. C. Chamberlin based a theory of +glaciation on the depletion of the carbon dioxide of the air ("An +Attempt to frame a Working Hypothesis of the cause of Glacial Periods on +an Atmospheric Basis," _Jl. Geol._, 1899, vii. 752-771; see also +Chamberlin and Salisbury, _Geology_, 1906, ii. 674 and iii. 432). The +outline of this hypothesis is as follows: The general conditions for +glaciation were (1) that the oceanic circulation was interrupted by the +existence of land; (2) that vertical circulation of the atmosphere was +accelerated by continental and other influences; (3) that the thermal +blanketing of the earth was reduced by a depletion of the moisture and +carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and that hence the average temperature +of the surface of the earth and of the body of the ocean was reduced, +and diversity in the distribution of heat and moisture introduced. The +localization of glaciation is assignable to the two great areas of +permanent atmospheric depression that have their present centres near +Greenland and the Aleutian Islands respectively. The periodicity of +glacial advances and retreats, demanded by those who believe in the +validity of so-called "interglacial" epochs, is explained by a series of +complicated processes involving the alternate depletion and completion +of the normal charge of carbon dioxide in the air. + +Whatever may be the ultimate verdict upon this difficult subject, it is +tolerably clear that no simple cause of glacial conditions is likely to +be discovered, but rather it will appear that these conditions resulted +from the interaction of a complicated series of factors; and further, +until a greater degree of unanimity can be approached in the +interpretation of observed facts, particularly as regards the +substantiality of interglacial epochs, the very foundations of a sound +working hypothesis are wanting. + +_Classification of Glacial Deposits--Interglacial Epochs._--Had the +deposits of glaciated regions consisted solely of boulder clay little +difficulty might have been experienced in dealing with their +classification. But there are intercalated in the boulder clays those +irregular stratified and partially stratified masses of sand, gravel and +loam, frequently containing marine or freshwater shells and layers of +peat with plant remains, which have given rise to the conception of +"interglacial epochs"--pauses in the rigorous conditions of glaciation, +when the ice-sheets dwindled almost entirely away, while plants and +animals re-established themselves on the newly exposed soil. Glacialists +may be ranged in two schools: those who believe that one or more phases +of milder climatic conditions broke up the whole Glacial period into +alternating epochs of glaciation and "deglaciation"; and those who +believe that the intercalated deposits represent rather the _localized_ +recessional movements of the ice-sheets within one single period of +glaciation. In addition to the stratified deposits and their contents, +important evidence in favour of interglacial epochs occurs in the +presence of weathered surfaces on the top of older boulder clays, which +are themselves covered by younger glacial deposits. + + The cause of the interglacial hypothesis has been most ardently + championed in England by Professor James Geikie; who has endeavoured + to show that there were in Europe six distinct glacial epochs within + the Glacial period, separated by five epochs of more moderate + temperature. These are enumerated below: + + 6th Glacial epoch, Upper Turbarian, indicated by the deposits of peat + which underlie the lower raised beaches. + + 5th _Interglacial epoch, Upper Forestian_. + + 5th Glacial epoch, Lower Turbarian, indicated by peat deposits + overlying the lower forest-bed, by the raised beaches and carse-clays + of Scotland, and in part by the _Littorina_-clays of Scandinavia. + + 4th _Interglacial epoch, Lower Forestian_, the lower forests under + peat beds, the _Ancylus_-beds of the great freshwater Baltic lake and + the _Littorina_-clays of Scandinavia. + + 4th Glacial epoch, Mecklenburgian, represented by the moraines of the + last great Baltic glacier, which reach their southern limit in + Mecklenburg; the 100-ft. terrace of Scotland and the _Yoldia_-beds of + Scandinavia. + + 3rd _Interglacial epoch, Neudeckian_, intercalations of marine and + freshwater deposits in the boulder clays of the southern Baltic + coasts. + + 3rd Glacial epoch, Polandian, glacial and fluvio-glacial formations of + the minor Scandinavian ice-sheet; and the "upper boulder clay" of + northern and western Europe. + + 2nd _Interglacial epoch, Helvetian_, interglacial beds of Britain and + lignites of Switzerland. + + 2nd Glacial epoch, Saxonian, deposits of the period of maximum + glaciation when the northern ice-sheet reached the low ground of + Saxony, and the Alpine glaciers formed the outermost moraines. + + 1st _Interglacial epoch, Norfolkian_, the forest-bed series of + Norfolk. + + 1st Glacial epoch, Scanian, represented only in the south of Sweden, + which was overridden by a large Baltic glacier. The Chillesford clay + and Weybourne crag of Norfolk and the oldest moraines and + fluvio-glacial gravels of the Arctic lands may belong to this epoch. + + In a similar manner Professor Chamberlin and other American geologists + have recognized the following stages in the glaciation of North + America: + + The Champlain, marine substage. + The Glacio-lacustrine substage. + The later Wisconsin (6th glacial). + _The fifth interglacial._ + The earlier Wisconsin (5th glacial) + _The Peorian (4th interglacial)._ + The Iowan (4th glacial). + _The Sangamon (3rd interglacial)._ + The Illinoian (3rd glacial). + _The Yarmouth or Buchanan (2nd interglacial)._ + The Kansan (2nd glacial). + _The Aftonian (1st interglacial)._ + The sub-Aftonian or Jerseyan (1st glacial). + + Although it is admitted that no strict correlation of the European and + North American stages is possible, it has been suggested that the + Aftonian may be the equivalent of the Helvetian; the Kansan may + represent the Saxonian; the Iowan, the Polandian; the Jerseyan, the + Scanian; the early Wisconsin, the Mecklenburgian. But considering how + fragmentary is much of the evidence in favour of these stages both in + Europe and America, the value of such attempts at correlation must be + infinitesimal. This is the more evident when it is observed that there + are other geologists of equal eminence who are unable to accept so + large a number of epochs after a close study of the local + circumstances; thus, in the subjoined scheme for north Germany, after + H. W. Munthe, there are three glacial and two interglacial epochs. + + / The _Mya_ time = beech-time. + Post-Glacial epoch < The _Littorina_ time = oak-time. + \ The _Ancylus_ time = pine- and birch-time. + + / Including the upper boulder clay, + | "younger Baltic moraine" with the + 3rd Glacial " < _Yoldia_ or _Dryas_ phase in the + \ retrogressive stage. + + 2nd _Interglacial_ epoch including the _Cyprina_-clay. + 2nd Glacial epoch, the maximum glaciation. + 1st _Interglacial epoch_. + 1st Glacial epoch, "older boulder clay." + + Again, in the Alps four interglacial epochs have been recognized; + while in England there are many who are willing to concede one such + epoch, though even for this the evidence is not enough to satisfy all + glacialists (G. W. Lamplugh, Address, Section C, _Brit. Assoc._, York, + 1906). + + This great diversity of opinion is eloquent of the difficulties of the + subject; it is impossible not to see that the discovery of + interglacial epochs bears a close relationship to the origin of + certain hypotheses of the cause of glaciation; while it is significant + that those who have had to do the actual mapping of glacial deposits + have usually greater difficulty in finding good evidence of such + definite ameliorations of climate, than those who have founded their + views upon the examination of numerous but isolated areas. + + _Extent of Glacial Deposits._--From evidence of the kind cited above, + it appears that during the glacial period a series of great ice-sheets + covered enormous areas in North America and north-west Europe. The + area covered during the maximum extension of the ice has been reckoned + at 20 million square kilometres (nearly 8 million sq. m.) in North + America and 6-1/2 million square kilometres (about 2-1/2 million sq. + m.) in Europe. + + In Europe three great centres existed from which the ice-streams + radiated; foremost in importance was the region of Fennoscandia (the + name for Scandinavia with Finland as a single geological region); from + this centre the ice spread out far into Germany and Russia and + westward, across the North Sea, to the shores of Britain. The southern + boundary of the ice extended from the estuary of the Rhine in an + irregular series of lobes along the Schiefergebirge, Harz, + Thuringerwald, Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge, and the northern flanks + of the Carpathians towards Cracow. Down the valley of the Dnieper a + lobe of the ice-sheet projected as far as 40 deg. 50' N.; another lobe + extended down the Don valley as far as 48 deg. N.; thence the boundary + runs north-easterly towards the Urals and the Kara Sea. The British + Islands constituted the centre second in importance; Scotland, Ireland + and all but the southern part of England were covered by a moving + ice-cap. On the west the ice-sheets reached out to sea; on the east + they were conterminous with those from Scandinavia. The third European + centre was the Alpine region; it is abundantly clear from the masses + of morainic detritus and perched blocks that here, in the time of + maximum glaciation, the ice-covered area was enormously in excess of + the shrivelled remnants, which still remain in the existing glaciers. + All the valleys were filled with moving ice; thus the Rhone glacier at + its maximum filled Lake Geneva and the plain between the Bernese + Oberland and the Jura; it even overrode the latter and advanced + towards Besancon. Extensive glaciation was not limited to the + aforesaid regions, for all the areas of high ground had their + independent glaciers strongly developed; the Pyrenees, the central + highlands of France, the Vosges, Black Forest, Apennines and Caucasus + were centres of minor but still important glaciation. + + The greatest expansion of ice-sheets was located on the North American + continent; here, too, there were three principal centres of outflow: + the "Cordilleran" ice-sheet in the N.W., the "Keewatin" sheet, + radiating from the central Canadian plains, and the eastern "Labrador" + or "Laurentide" sheet. From each of these centres the ice poured + outwards in every direction, but the principal flow in each case was + towards the south-west. The southern boundary of the glaciated area + runs as an irregular line along the 49 deg. parallel in the western + part of the continent, thence it follows the Mississippi valley down + to its junction with the Ohio (southern limit 37 deg. 30' N.), + eastward it follows the direction of that river and turns + north-eastward in the direction of New Jersey. As in Europe, the + mountainous regions of North America produced their own local + glaciers; in the Rockies, the Olympics and Sierras, the Bighorn + Mountains of Wyoming, the Uinta Mountains of Utah, &c. Although it was + in the northern hemisphere that the most extensive glaciation took + place, the effects of a general lowering of temperature seem to have + been felt in the mountainous regions of all parts; thus in South + America, New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania glaciers reached down the + valleys far below the existing limits, and even where none are now to + be found. In Asia the evidences of a former extension of glaciation + are traceable in the Himalayas, and northward in the high ranges of + China and Eastern Siberia. The same is true of parts of Turkestan and + Lebanon. In Africa also, in British East Africa moraines are + discovered 5400 ft. below their modern limit. In Iceland and + Greenland, and even in the Antarctic, there appears to be evidence of + a former greater extension of the ice. It is of interest to note that + Alaska seems to be free from excessive glaciation, and that a + remarkable "driftless" area lies in Wisconsin. The maximum glaciation + of the Glacial period was clearly centred around the North Atlantic. + + _Glacial Epochs in the Older Geological Periods._--Since Ramsay drew + attention to the subject in 1855 ("On the occurrence of angular, + subangular, polished and striated fragments and boulders in the + Permian Breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire, &c., and on the + probable existence of glaciers and icebergs in the Permian epoch," + _Q.J.G.S._, 1855, pp. 185-205), a good deal of attention has been paid + to such formations. It is now generally acknowledged that the + Permo-carboniferous conglomerates with striated boulders and polished + rock surfaces, such as are found in the Karoo formation of South + Africa, the Talkir conglomerate of the Salt Range in India, and the + corresponding formations in Australia, represent undeniable glacial + conditions at that period on the great Indo-Australian continent. A + glacial origin has been suggested for numerous other conglomeratic + formations, such as the Pre-Cambrian Torridonian of Scotland, and + "Geisaschichten" of Norway; the basal Carboniferous conglomerate of + parts of England; the Permian breccias of England and parts of Europe; + the Trias of Devonshire; the coarse conglomerates in the Tertiary + Flysch in central Europe; and the Miocene conglomerates of the + Ligurian Apennines. In regard to the glacial nature of all these + formations there is, however, great divergence of opinion (see A. + Heim, "Zur Frage der exotischen Blocke in Flysch," _Eclogae geologicae + Helvetiae_, vol. ix. No. 3, 1907, pp. 413-424). + + AUTHORITIES.--The literature dealing directly with the Glacial period + has reached enormous dimensions; in addition to the works already + mentioned the following may be taken as a guide to the general outline + of the subject: J. Geikie, _The Great Ice Age_ (3rd ed., London, + 1904), also _Earth Sculpture_ (1898); G. F. Wright, _The Ice Age in + North America_ (4th ed., New York, 1905) and _Man and the Glacial + Period_ (1892); F. E. Geinitz, _Die Eiszeit_ (Braunschweig, 1906); A. + Penck and E. Bruckner, _Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter_ (Leipzig, + 1901-1906, uncompleted). Many references to the literature will be + found in Sir A. Geikie's _Textbook of Geology_, vol. ii. (4th ed., + 1903); Chamberlin and Salisbury, _Geology_, vol. iii. (1906). As an + example of glacial theories carried beyond the usual limits, see M. + Gugenhan, _Die Ergletscherung der Erde von Pol zu Pol_ (Berlin, 1906). + See also _Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde_ (Berlin, 1906 and onwards + quarterly); Sir H. H. Howorth (opposing accepted glacial theories), + _The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood_, i., ii. (London, 1893), _Ice + and Water_, i., ii. (London, 1905), _The Mammoth and the Flood_ + (London, 1887). (J. A. H.) + + + + +GLACIER (adopted from the French; from _glace_, ice, Lat. _glacies_), a +mass of compacted ice originating in a snow-field. Glaciers are formed +on any portion of the earth's surface that is permanently above the +snow-line. This line varies locally in the same latitudes, being in some +places higher than in others, but in the main it may be described as an +elliptical shell surrounding the earth with its longest diameter in the +tropics and its shortest in the polar regions, where it touches +sea-level. From the extreme regions of the Arctic and Antarctic circles +this cold shell swells upwards into a broad dome, from 15,000 to 18,000 +ft. high over the tropics, truncating, as it rises, a number of peaks +and mountain ranges whose upper portions like all regions above this +thermal shell receive all their moisture in the form of snow. Since the +temperature above the snow-line is below freezing point evaporation is +very slight, and as the snow is solid it tends to accumulate in +snow-fields, where the snow of one year is covered by that of the next, +and these are wrapped over many deeper layers that have fallen in +previous years. If these piles of snow were rigid and immovable they +would increase in height until the whole field rose above the zone of +ordinary atmospheric precipitation, and the polar ice-caps would add a +load to these regions that would produce far-reaching results. The +mountain regions also would rise some miles in height, and all their +features would be buried in domes of snow some miles in thickness. When, +however, there is sufficient weight the mass yields to pressure and +flows outwards and downwards. Thus a balance of weight and height is +established, and the ice-field is disintegrated principally at the +edges, the surplus in polar regions being carried off in the form of +icebergs, and in mountain regions by streams that flow from the melting +ends of the glaciers. + +_Formation._--The formation of glaciers is in all cases due to similar +causes, namely, to periodical and intermittent falls of snow. After a +snow-fall there is a period of rest during which the snow becomes +compacted by pressure and assumes the well-known granular character seen +in banks and patches of ordinary snow that lie longest upon the ground +when the snow is melting. This is the _firn_ or _neve_. The next fall of +snow covers and conceals the neve, but the light fresh crystals of this +new snow in turn become compacted to the coarsely crystalline granular +form of the underlying layer and become neve in turn. The process goes +on continually; the lower layers become subject to greater and greater +pressure, and in consequence become gradually compacted into dense clear +ice, which, however, retains its granular crystalline texture +throughout. The upper layers of neve are usually stratified, owing to +some individual peculiarity in the fall, or to the accumulation of dust +or debris upon the surface before it is covered by fresh snow. This +stratification is often visible on the emerging glacier, though it is +to be distinguished from the foliation planes caused by shearing +movement in the body of the glacier ice. + +_Types._--The snow-field upon which a glacier depends is always formed +when snow-fall is greater than snow-waste. This occurs under varying +conditions with a differently resulting type of glacier. There are +limited fields of snow in many mountain regions giving rise to long +tongues of ice moving slowly down the valleys and therefore called +"valley glaciers." The greater part of Greenland is covered by an +ice-cap extending over nearly 400,000 sq. m., forming a kind of enormous +continuous glacier on its lower slopes. The Antarctic ice region is +believed to extend over more than 3,000,000 sq. m. Each of these +continental fields, besides producing block as distinguished from tongue +glaciers, sends into the sea a great number of icebergs during the +summer season. These ice-caps covering great regions are by far the most +important types. Between these "polar" or "continental glaciers" and the +"alpine" type there are many grades. Smaller detached ice-caps may rest +upon high plateaus as in Iceland, or several tongues of ice coming down +neighbouring valleys may splay out into convergent lobes on lower ground +and form a "piedmont glacier" such as the Malaspina Glacier in Alaska. +When the snow-field lies in a small depression the glacier may remain +suspended in the hollow and advance no farther than the edge of the +snow-field. This is called a "cliff-glacier," and is not uncommon in +mountain regions. The end of a larger glacier, or the edge of an +ice-sheet, may reach a precipitous cliff, where the ice will break from +the edge of the advancing mass and fall in blocks to the lower ground, +where a "reconstructed glacier" will be formed from the fragments and +advance farther down the slope. + +When a glacier originates upon a dome-shaped or a level surface the ice +will deploy radially in all directions. When a snow-field is formed +above steep valleys separated by high ridges the ice will flow downwards +in long streams. If the valleys under the snow-fields are wide and +shallow the resultant glaciers will broaden out and partially fill them, +and in all cases, since the conditions of glacier formation are similar, +the resultant form and the direction of motion will depend upon the +amount of ice and the form of the surface over which the glacier flows. +A glacier flowing down a narrow gorge to an open valley, or on to a +plain, will spread at its foot into a fan-shaped lobe as the ice spreads +outwards while moving downwards. An ice-cap is in the main thickest at +the centre, and thins out at the edges. A valley glacier is thickest at +some point between its source and its end, but nearer to its source than +to its termination, but its thickness at various portions will depend +upon the contour of the valley floor over which the glacier rides, and +may reach many hundreds of feet. At its centre the Greenland ice-cap is +estimated to be over 5000 ft. thick. In all cases the glacier ends where +the waste of ice is greater than the supply, and since the relationship +varies in different years, or cycles of years, the end of a glacier may +advance or retreat in harmony with greater or less snow-fall or with +cooler or hotter summers. There seems to be a cycle of inclusive +contraction and expansion of from 35 to 40 or 50 years. At present the +ends of the Swiss glaciers are cradled in a mass of moraine-stuff due to +former extension of the glaciers, and investigations in India show that +in some parts of the Himalayas the glaciers are retreating as they are +in North America and even in the southern hemisphere (_Nature_, January +2, 1908, p. 201). + +_Movement._--The fact that a glacier moves is easily demonstrated; the +cause of the movement is pressure upon a yielding mass; the nature of +the movement is still under discussion. Rows of stakes or stones placed +in line across a glacier are found to change their position with respect +to objects on the bank and also with regard to each other. The posts in +the centre of the ice-stream gradually move away from those at the side, +proving that the centre moves faster than the sides. It has also been +proved that the surface portions move more rapidly than the deeper +layers and that the motion is slowest at the sides and bottom where +friction is greatest. + +The rate of motion past the same spot is not uniform. Heat accelerates +it, cold arrests it, and the pressure of a large amount of water +stimulates the flow. The rate of flow under the same conditions varies +at different parts of the glacier directly as the thickness of ice, the +steepness of slope and the smoothness of rocky floor. Generally +speaking, the rate of motion depends upon the amount of ice that forms +the "head" pressure, the slope of the under surface and of the upper +surface, the nature of the floor, the temperature and the amount of +water present in the ice. The ordinary rate of motion is very slow. In +Switzerland it is from 1 or 2 in. to 4 ft. per day, in Alaska 7 ft., in +Greenland 50 to 60 ft., and occasionally 100 ft. per day in the height +of summer under exceptional conditions of quantity of ice and of water +and slope. Measurements of Swiss glaciers show that near the ice foot +where wastage is great there is very little movement, and observations +upon the inland border of Greenland ice show that it is almost +stationary over long distances. In many aspects the motion of a body of +ice resembles that of a body of water, and an alpine glacier is often +called an ice-river, since like a river it moves faster in the centre +than at the sides and at the top faster than at the bottom. A glacier +follows a curve in the same way as a river, and there appear to be ice +swirls and eddies as well as an upward creep on shelving curves +recalling many features of stream action. The rate of motion of both +ice-stream and river is accelerated by quantity and steepness of slope +and retarded by roughness of bed, but here the comparison ends, for +temperature does not affect the rate of water motion, nor will a liquid +crack into crevasses as a glacier does, or move upwards over an adverse +slope as a glacier always does when there is sufficient "head" of ice +above it. So that although in many respects ice behaves as a viscous +fluid the comparison with such a fluid is not perfect. The cause of +glacier motion must be based upon some more or less complex +considerations. The flakes of snow are gradually transformed into +granules because the points and angles of the original flakes melt and +evaporate more readily than the more solid central portions, which +become aggregated round some master flake that continues to grow in the +neve at the expense of its smaller neighbours, and increases in size +until finally the glacier ice is composed of a mass of interlocked +crystalline granules, some as large as a walnut, closely compacted under +pressure with the principal crystalline axes in various directions. In +the upper portions of the glacier movement due to pressure probably +takes place by the gliding of one granule over another. In this +connexion it must be noted that pressure lowers the melting point of ice +while tension raises it, and at all points of pressure there is +therefore a tendency to momentary melting, and also to some evaporation +due to the heat caused by pressure, and at the intermediate tension +spaces between the points of pressure this resultant liquid and vapour +will be at once re-frozen and become solid. The granular movement is +thus greatly facilitated, while the body of ice remains in a crystalline +solid condition. In this connexion it is well to remember that the +pressure of the glacier upon its floor will have the same result, but +the effect here is a mass-effect and facilitates the gliding of the ice +over obstacles, since the friction produces heat and the pressure lowers +the melting point, so that the two causes tend to liquefy the portion +where pressure is greatest and so to "lubricate" the prominences and +enable the glacier to slide more easily over them, while the liquid thus +produced is re-frozen when the pressure is removed. + +In polar regions of very low temperature a very considerable amount of +pressure must be necessary before the ice granules yield to momentary +liquefaction at the points of pressure, and this probably accounts for +the extreme thickness of the Arctic and Antarctic ice-caps where the +slopes are moderate, for although equally low temperatures are found in +high Alpine snow-fields the slopes there are exceedingly steep and +motion is therefore more easily produced. + +Observations made upon the Greenland glaciers indicate a considerable +amount of "shearing" movement in the lower portions of a glacier. Where +obstacles in the bed of the glacier arrest the movement of the ice +immediately above it, or where the lower portion of the glacier is +choked by debris, the upper ice glides over the lower in shearing planes +that are sometimes strongly marked by debris caught and pushed forwards +along these planes of foliation. It must be remembered that there is a +solid push from behind upon the lower portion of a glacier, quite +different from the pressure of a body of water upon any point, for the +pressure of a fluid is equal in all directions, and also that this push +will tend to set the crystalline granules in positions in which their +crystalline axes are parallel along the gliding planes. The production +of gliding planes is in some cases facilitated by the descent into the +glacier of water melted during summer, where it expands in freezing and +pushes the adjacent ice away from it, forming a surface along which +movement is readily established. + +If under all circumstances the glacier melted under pressure at the +bottom, glacial abrasion would be nearly impossible, since every small +stone and fragment of rock would rotate in a liquid shell as the ice +moved forward, but since the pressure is not always sufficient to +produce melting, the glacier sometimes remains dry at its base; rock +fragments are held firmly; and a dry glacier may thus become a graving +tool of enormous power. Whatever views may be adopted as to the causes +of glacier motion, the peculiar character of glacier ice as distinct +from homogeneous river or pond ice must be kept in view, as well as the +characteristic tendency of water to expand in freezing, the lowering of +the melting point of ice under pressure, the raising of the melting +point under tension, the production of gliding or shearing planes under +pressure from above, the presence in summer of a considerable quantity +of water in the lower portions of the glacier which are thus loosened, +the cracking of ice (as into crevasses), under sudden strain, and the +regelation of ice in contact. A result of this last process is that +fissures are not permanent, but having been produced by the passage of +ice over an obstruction, they subsequently become healed when the ice +proceeds over a flatter bed. Finally it must be remembered that although +glacier ice behaves in some sense like a viscous fluid its condition is +totally different, since "a glacier is a crystalline rock of the purest +and simplest type, and it never has other than the crystalline state." + +_Characteristics._--The general appearance of a glacier varies according +to its environment of position and temperature. The upper portion is +hidden by neve and often by freshly fallen snow, and is smooth and +unbroken. During the summer, when little snow falls, the body of the +glacier moves away from the snow-field and a gaping crevasse of great +depth is usually established called the _bergschrund_, which is +sometimes taken as the upper limit of the glacier. The glacier as it +moves down the valley may become "loaded" in various ways. Rock-falls +send periodical showers of stones upon it from the heights, and these +are spread out into long lines at the glacier sides as the ice moves +downwards carrying the rock fragments with it. These are the "lateral +moraines." When two or more glaciers descending adjacent valleys +converge into one glacier one or more sides of the higher valleys +disappear, and the ice that was contained in several valleys is now +carried by one. In the simplest case where two valleys converge into one +the two inner lateral moraines meet and continue to stream down the +larger valley as one "median moraine." Where several valleys meet there +are several such parallel median moraines, and so long as the ice +remains unbroken these will be carried upon the surface of the glacier +and finally tipped over the end. There is, however, differential heating +of rock and ice, and if the stones carried are thin they tend to sink +into the ice because they absorb heat readily and melt the ice under +them. Dust has the same effect and produces "dust wells" that honeycomb +the upper surface of the ice with holes into which the dust sinks. If +the moraine rocks are thick they prevent the ice under them from melting +in sunlight, and isolated blocks often remain supported upon ice-pillars +in the form of ice tables, which finally collapse, so that such rocks +may be scattered out of the line of the moraine. As the glacier descends +into the lower valleys it is more strongly heated, and surface streams +are established in consequence that flow into channels caused by unequal +melting of the ice and finally plunge into crevasses. These crevasses +are formed by strains established as the central parts drag away from +the sides of the glacier and the upper surface from the lower, and more +markedly by the tension due to a sudden bend in the glacier caused by an +inequality in its bed which must be over-ridden. These crevasses are +developed at right angles to the strain and often produce intersecting +fissures in several directions. The morainic material is gradually +dispersed by the inequalities produced, and is further distributed by +the action of superficial streams until the whole surface is strewn with +stones and debris, and presents, as in the lower portions of the Mer de +Glace, an exceedingly dirty appearance. Many blocks of stone fall into +the gaping crevasses and much loose rock is carried down as "englacial +material" in the body of the glacier. Some of it reaches the bottom and +becomes part of the "ground moraine" which underlies the glacier, at +least from the _bergschrund_ to the "snout," where much of it is carried +away by the issuing stream and spread finally on to the plains below. It +appears that a very considerable amount of degradation is caused under +the _bergschrund_ by the mass of ice "plucking" and dragging great +blocks of rock from the side of the mountain valley where the great head +of ice rests in winter and whence it begins to move in summer. These +blocks and many smaller fragments are carried downwards wedged in the +ice and cause powerful abrasion upon the rocky floor, rasping and +scoring the channel, producing conspicuous striae, polishing and +rounding the rock surfaces, and grinding the contained fragments as well +as the surface over which it passes into small fragments and fine +powder, from which "boulder clay" or "till" is finally produced. +Emerging, then, from the snow-field as pure granular ice the glacier +gradually becomes strewn and filled with foreign material, not only from +above but also, as is very evident in some Greenland glaciers, +occasionally from below by masses of fragments that move upwards along +gliding planes, or are forced upwards by slow swirls in the ice itself. + +As a glacier is a very brittle body any abrupt change in gradient will +produce a number of crevasses, and these, together with those produced +by dragging strains, will frequently wedge the glacier into a mass of +pinnacles or _seracs_ that may be partially healed but are usually +evident when the melting end of the glacier emerges suddenly from a +steep valley. Here the streams widen the weaker portions and the moraine +rocks fall from the end to produce the "terminal" moraine, which usually +lies in a crescentic heap encircling the glacier snout, whence it can +only be moved by a further advance of the glacier or by the ordinary +slow process of atmospheric denudation. + +In cases where no rock falls upon the surface there is a considerable +amount of englacial material due to upturning either over accumulated +ground debris or over structural inequalities in the rock floor. This is +well seen at the steep sides and ends of Greenland glaciers, where +material frequently comes to the surface of the melting ice and produces +median and lateral moraines, besides appearing in enormous "eyes" +surrounded in the glacial body by contorted and foliated ice and +sometimes producing heaps and embankments as it is pushed out at the end +of the melting ice. + +The environment of temperature requires consideration. At the upper or +dorsal portion of the glacier there is a zone of variable (winter and +summer) temperature, beneath which, if the ice is thick enough, there is +a zone of constant temperature which will be about the mean annual +temperature of the region of the snow-field. Underlying this there is a +more or less constant ventral or ground temperature, depending mainly +upon the internal heat of the earth, which is conducted to the under +surface of the glacier where it slowly melts the ice, the more readily +because the pressure lowers the melting point considerably, so that +streams of water run constantly from beneath many glaciers, adding their +volume to the springs which issue from the rock. The middle zone of +constant temperature is wedge-shaped in "alpine" glaciers, the apex +pointing downwards to the zone of waste. The upper zone of variable +temperature is thinnest in the snow-field where the mean temperature is +lowest, and entirely dominant in the snout end of the glacier where the +zone of constant temperature disappears. Two temperature wedges are thus +superposed base to point, the one being thickest where the other is +thinnest, and both these lie upon the basal film of temperature where +the escaping earth-heat is strengthened by that due to friction and +pressure. The cold wave of winter may pass right through a thin glacier, +or the constant temperature may be too low to permit of the ice melting +at the base, in which cases the glacier is "dry" and has great eroding +power. But in the lower warmer portions water running through crevasses +will raise the temperature, and increase the strength of the downward +heat wave, while the mean annual temperature being there higher, the +combined result will be that the glacier will gradually become "wet" at +the base and have little eroding power, and it will become more and more +wet as it moves down the lower valley zone of ice-waste, until at last +the balance is reached between waste and supply and the glacier finally +disappears. + +If the mean annual temperature be 20 deg. F., and the mean winter +temperature be -12 deg. F., as in parts of Greenland, all the ice must +be considerably below the melting point, since the pressure of ice a +mile in depth lowers the melting point only to 30 deg. F., and the +earth-heat is only sufficient to melt 1/4 in. of ice in a year. +Therefore in these regions, and in snow-fields and high glaciers with an +equal or lower mean temperature than 20 deg. F., the glacier will be +"dry" throughout, which may account for the great eroding power stated +to exist near the _bergschrund_ in glaciers of an alpine type, which +usually have their origin on precipitous slopes. + +A considerable amount of ice-waste takes place by water-drainage, though +much is the result of constant evaporation from the ice surface. The +lower end of a glacier is in summer flooded by streams of water that +pour along cracks and plunge into crevasses, often forming "pot-holes" +or _moulins_ where stones are swirled round in a glacial "mill" and wear +holes in the solid rock below. Some of these streams issue in a spout +half way up the glacier's end wall, but the majority find their way +through it and join the water running along the glacier floor and +emerging where the glacier ends in a large glacial stream. + +_Results of Glacial Action._--A glacier is a degrading and an aggrading +agent. Much difference of opinion exists as to the potency of a glacier +to alter surface features, some maintaining that it is extraordinarily +effective, and considering that a valley glacier forms a pronounced +_cirque_ at the region of its origin and that the cirque is gradually +cut backward until a long and deep valley is formed (which becomes +evident, as in the Rocky Mountains, in an upper valley with "reversed +grade" when the glacier disappears), and also that the end of a glacier +plunging into a valley or a fjord will gouge a deep basin at its region +of impact. The Alaskan and Norwegian fjords and the rock basins of the +Scottish lochs are adduced as examples. Other writers maintain that a +glacier is only a modifying and not a dominant agent in its effects upon +the land-surface, considering, for example, that a glacier coming down a +lateral valley will preserve the valley from the atmospheric denudation +which has produced the main valley over which the lateral valley +"hangs," a result which the believers in strong glacial action hold to +be due to the more powerful action of the main glacier as contrasted +with the weaker action of that in the lateral valley. Both the advocates +and the opponents of strenuous ice action agree that a V-shaped valley +of stream erosion is converted to a U-shaped valley of glacial +modification, and that rock surfaces are rounded into _roches +moutonnees_, and are grooved and striated by the passage of ice shod +with fragments of rock, while the subglacial material is ground into +finer and finer fragments until it becomes mud and "rock-flour" as the +glacier proceeds. In any case striking results are manifest in any +formerly glaciated region. The high peaks rise into pinnacles, and +ridges with "house-roof" structure, above the former glacier, while +below it the contours are all rounded and typically subdued. A landscape +that was formerly completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but +these rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys that at +least bear evidence to the great modifying power that a glacier has upon +a landscape. + +There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation and +the distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial material, +which during the active existence of a glacier is finally distributed by +glacial streams that produce very considerable alluviation. In many +regions which were covered by the Pleistocene ice-sheet the work of the +glacier was arrested by melting before it was half done. Great deposits +of till and boulder clay that lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned +_in situ_, and remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles +and mingled fragments, embedded in clay or sand. The lateral, median and +terminal moraines were stranded where they sank as the ice disappeared, +and together with perched blocks (_roches perchees_) remain as a +permanent record of former conditions which are now found to have +existed temporarily in much earlier geological times. In glaciated North +America lateral moraines are found that are 500 to 1000 ft. high and in +northern Italy 1500 to 2000 ft. high. The surface of the ground in all +these places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape, +and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial debris either +completely changing the local drainage systems, or compelling the +reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed drainage system. +Kames also and eskers (q.v.) are left under certain conditions, with +many puzzling deposits that are clearly due to some features of ice-work +not thoroughly understood. + + See L. Agassiz, _Etudes sur les glaciers_ (Neuchatel, 1840) and + _Nouvelles Etudes ..._ (Paris, 1847); N. S. Shaler and W. M. Davis, + _Glaciers_ (Boston, 1881); A. Penck, _Die Begletscherung der deutschen + Alpen_ (Leipzig, 1882); J. Tyndall, _The Glaciers of the Alps_ + (London, 1896); T. G. Bonney, _Ice-Work, Past and Present_ (London, + 1896); I. C. Russell, _Glaciers of North America_ (Boston, 1897); E. + Richter, _Neue Ergebnisse und Probleme der Gletscherforschung_ + (Vienna, 1899); F. Forel, _Essai sur les variations periodiques des + glaciers_ (Geneva, 1881 and 1900); H. Hess, _Die Gletscher_ + (Brunswick, 1904). (E. C. Sp.) + + + + +GLACIS, in military engineering (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT), an +artificial slope of earth in the front of works, so constructed as to +keep an assailant under the fire of the defenders to the last possible +moment. On the natural ground-level, troops attacking any high work +would be sheltered from its fire when close up to it; the ground +therefore is raised to form a glacis, which is swept by the fire of the +parapet. More generally, the term is used to denote any slope, natural +or artificial, which fulfils the above requirements. + + + + +GLADBACH, the name of two towns in Germany distinguished as +Bergisch-Gladbach and Munchen-Gladbach. + +1. BERGISCH-GLADBACH is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of Cologne by +rail. Pop. (1905) 13,410. It possesses four large paper mills and among +its other industries are paste-board, powder, percussion caps, nets and +machinery. Ironstone, peat and lime are found in the vicinity. The town +has four Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant. The +Stundenthalshohe, a popular resort, is in the neighbourhood, and near +Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built for the +Cistercian abbey at this place. + +2. MUNCHEN-GLADBACH, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m. W.S.W. of Dusseldorf +on the main line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1885) 44,230; +(1905) 60,714. It is one of the chief manufacturing places in Rhenish +Prussia, its principal industries being the spinning and weaving of +cotton, the manufacture of silks, velvet, ribbon and damasks, and dyeing +and bleaching. There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine +works and foundries. The town possesses a fine park and has statues of +the emperor William I. and of Prince Bismarck. There are ten Roman +Catholic churches here, among them being the beautiful minster, with a +Gothic choir dating from 1250, a nave dating from the beginning of the +13th century and a crypt of the 8th century. The town has two hospitals, +several schools, and is the headquarters of important insurance +societies. Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a +Benedictine monastery was founded near it in 793. It was thus called +Munchen-Gladbach or Monks' Gladbach, to distinguish it from another town +of the same name. The monastery was suppressed in 1802. It became a town +in 1336; weaving was introduced here towards the end of the 18th +century, and having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Juliers it +came into the possession of Prussia in 1815. + + See Strauss, _Geschichte der Stadt Munchen-Gladbach_ (1895); and G. + Eckertz, _Das Verbruderungs und Todtenbuch der Abtei Gladbach_ (1881). + + + + +GLADDEN, WASHINGTON (1836- ), American Congregational divine, was born +in Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, on the 11th of February 1836. He graduated +at Williams College in 1859, preached in churches in Brooklyn, +Morrisania (New York City), North Adams, Massachusetts, and Springfield, +Massachusetts, and in 1882 became pastor of the First Congregational +Church of Columbus, Ohio. He was an editor of the _Independent_ in +1871-1875, and a frequent contributor to it and other periodicals. He +consistently and earnestly urged in pulpit and press the need of +personal, civil and, particularly, social righteousness, and in +1900-1902 was a member of the city council of Columbus. Among his many +publications, which include sermons, occasional addresses, &c., are: +_Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living_ (1868); _Workingmen and their +Employers_ (1876); _The Christian Way_ (1877); _Things New and Old_ +(1884); _Applied Christianity_ (1887); _Tools and the Man--Property and +Industry under the Christian Law_ (1893); _The Church and the Kingdom_ +(1894), arguing against a confusion and misuse of these two terms; +_Seven Puzzling Bible Books_ (1897); _How much is Left of the Old +Doctrines_ (1899); _Social Salvation_ (1901); _Witnesses of the Light_ +(1903); the William Belden Noble Lectures (Harvard), being addresses on +Dante, Michelangelo, Fichte, Hugo, Wagner and Ruskin; _The New Idolatry_ +(1905); _Christianity and Socialism_ (1906), and _The Church and Modern +Life_ (1908). In 1909 he published his _Recollections_. + + + + +GLADIATORS (from Lat. _gladius_, sword), professional combatants who +fought to the death in Roman public shows. That this form of spectacle, +which is almost peculiar to Rome and the Roman provinces, was originally +borrowed from Etruria is shown by various indications. On an Etruscan +tomb discovered at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial +games; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from the arena +wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and we learn from Isidore +of Seville (_Origines_, x.) that the name for a trainer of gladiators +(_lanista_) is an Etruscan word meaning butcher or executioner. These +gladiatorial games are evidently a survival of the practice of +immolating slaves and prisoners on the tombs of illustrious chieftains, +a practice recorded in Greek, Roman and Scandinavian legends, and +traceable even as late as the 19th century as the Indian _suttee_. Even +at Rome they were for a long time confined to funerals, and hence the +older name for gladiators was _bustuarii_; but in the later days of the +republic their original significance was forgotten, and they formed as +indispensable a part of the public amusements as the theatre and the +circus. + +The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius Maximus (ii. +4. 7), to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum Boarium in 264 B.C. +by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the funeral of their father. On this +occasion only three pairs fought, but the taste for these games spread +rapidly, and the number of combatants grew apace. In 174 Titus +Flamininus celebrated his father's obsequies by a three-days' fight, in +which 74 gladiators took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant +numbers for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and +carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers, but +notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no less than 300 +pairs. During the later days of the republic the gladiators were a +constant element of danger to the public peace. The more turbulent +spirits among the nobility had each his band of gladiators to act as a +bodyguard, and the armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the +same part in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons +or the condottieri of the Italian republics. Under the empire, +notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the arena steadily +increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows to two a year, and +forbade a praetor to exhibit more than 120 gladiators, yet allusions in +Horace (_Sat._ ii. 3. 85) and Persius (vi. 48) show that 100 pairs was +the fashionable number for private entertainments; and in the Marmor +Ancyranum the emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during +his reign. The imbecile Claudius was devoted to this pastime, and would +sit from morning till night in his chair of state, descending now and +then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant gladiators to resume +their bloody work. Under Nero senators and even well-born women appeared +as combatants; and Juvenal (viii. 199) has handed down to eternal infamy +the descendant of the Gracchi who appeared without disguise as a +_retiarius_, and begged his life from the _secutor_, who blushed to +conquer one so noble and so vile.[1] Titus, whom his countrymen surnamed +the Clement, ordered a show which lasted 100 days; and Trajan, in +celebration of his triumph over Decebalus, exhibited 5000 pairs of +gladiators. Domitian at the Saturnalia of A.D. 90 arranged a battle +between dwarfs and women. Even women of high birth fought in the arena, +and it was not till A.D. 200 that the practice was forbidden by edict. +How widely the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout +the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions and the +remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria there was not a +town of any size that could not boast its arena and annual games. After +Italy, Gaul, North Africa and Spain were most famous for their +amphitheatres; and Greece was the only Roman province where the +institution never thoroughly took root. + +Gladiators were commonly drawn either from prisoners of war, or slaves +or criminals condemned to death. Thus in the first class we read of +tattooed Britons in their war chariots, Thracians with their peculiar +bucklers and scimitars, Moors from the villages round Atlas and negroes +from central Africa, exhibited in the Colosseum. Down to the time of the +empire only greater malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries, were +condemned to the arena; but by Caligula, Claudius and Nero this +punishment was extended to minor offences, such as fraud and peculation, +in order to supply the growing demand for victims. For the first century +of the empire it was lawful for masters to sell their slaves as +gladiators, but this was forbidden by Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. +Besides these three regular classes, the ranks were recruited by a +considerable number of freedmen and Roman citizens who had squandered +their estates and voluntarily took the _auctoramentum gladiatorium_, by +which for a stated time they bound themselves to the _lanista_. Even men +of birth and fortune not seldom entered the lists, either for the pure +love of fighting or to gratify the whim of some dissolute emperor; and +one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in person in the arena. + +Gladiators were trained in schools (_ludi_) owned either by the state or +by private citizens, and though the trade of a _lanista_ was considered +disgraceful, to own gladiators and let them out for hire was reckoned a +legitimate branch of commerce. Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus, +congratulates his friend on the good bargain he had made in purchasing a +band, and urges that he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let +them out twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals, whose +lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous characters than +modern galley slaves or convicts; and, though highly fed and carefully +tended, they were of necessity subject to an iron discipline. In the +school of gladiators discovered at Pompeii, of the sixty-three skeletons +buried in the cells many were in irons. But hard as was the gladiators' +lot,--so hard that special precautions had to be taken to prevent +suicide,--it had its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far +greater fame than any modern prize-fighter or athlete. He was presented +with broad pieces, chains and jewelled helmets, such as may be seen in +the museum at Naples; poets like Martial sang his prowess; his portrait +was multiplied on vases, lamps and gems; and high-born ladies contended +for his favours. Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there +must have been many noble barbarians condemned to the vile trade by the +hard fate of war. There are few finer characters in Roman history than +the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy of his comrades from +the school of Lentulus at Capua, for three years defied the legions of +Rome; and after Antony's defeat at Actium, the only part of his army +that remained faithful to his cause were the gladiators whom he had +enrolled at Cyzicus to grace his anticipated victory. + +There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms or +modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with the national weapons--a +large oblong shield, a vizor, a plumed helmet and a short sword. The +Thraces had a small round buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe; +they were generally pitted against the Mirmillones, who were armed in +Gallic fashion with helmet, sword and shield, and were so called from +the fish ([Greek: mormulos] or [Greek: mormuros]) which served as the +crest of their helmet. In like manner the Retiarius was matched with the +Secutor: the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and +sought to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net +(_jaculum_) that he carried in his right hand; and if successful, he +despatched him with the trident (_tridens_, _fuscina_) that he carried +in his left. We may also mention the Andabatae who are generally +believed to have fought on horseback and wore helmets with closed +vizors; the Dimachaeri of the later empire, who carried a short sword in +each hand; the Essedarii, who fought from chariots like the ancient +Britons; the Hoplomachi, who wore a complete suit of armour; and the +Laquearii, who tried to lasso their antagonists. + +Gladiators also received special names according to the time or +circumstances in which they exercised their calling. The Bustuarii have +already been mentioned; the Catervarii fought, not in pairs, but in +bands; the Meridiani came forward in the middle of the day for the +entertainment of those spectators who had not left their seats; the +Ordinarii fought only in pairs, in the regular way; the Fiscales were +trained and supported at the expense of the imperial treasury; the +Paegniarii used harmless weapons, and their exhibition was a sham one; +the Postulaticii were those whose appearance was asked as a favour from +the giver of the show, in addition to those already exhibited. + +The shows were announced some days before they took place by bills +affixed to the walls of houses and public buildings, copies of which +were also sold in the streets. These bills gave the names of the chief +pairs of competitors, the date of the show, the name of the giver and +the different kinds of combats. The spectacle began with a procession of +the gladiators through the arena, after which their swords were examined +by the giver of the show. The proceedings opened with a sham fight +(_praelusio_, _prolusio_) with wooden swords and javelins. The signal +for real fighting was given by the sound of the trumpet, those who +showed fear being driven on to the arena with whips and red-hot irons. +When a gladiator was wounded, the spectators shouted _Habet_ (he is +wounded); if he was at the mercy of his adversary, he lifted up his +forefinger to implore the clemency of the people, with whom (in the +later times of the republic) the giver left the decision as to his life +or death. If the spectators were in favour of mercy, they waved their +handkerchiefs; if they desired the death of the conquered gladiator, +they turned their thumbs downwards.[2] The reward of victory consisted +of branches of palm, sometimes of money. Gladiators who had exercised +their calling for a long time, or such as displayed special skill and +bravery, were presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), and discharged +from further service. + + Both the estimation in which gladiatorial games were held by Roman + moralists, and the influence that they exercised upon the morals and + genius of the nation, deserve notice. The Roman was essentially cruel, + not so much from spite or vindictiveness as from callousness and + defective sympathies. This element of inhumanity and brutality must + have been deeply ingrained in the national character to have allowed + the games to become popular, but there can be no doubt that it was fed + and fostered by the savage form which their amusements took. That the + sight of bloodshed provokes a love of bloodshed and cruelty is a + commonplace of morals. To the horrors of the arena we may attribute in + part, not only the brutal treatment of their slaves and prisoners, but + the frequency of suicide among the Romans. On the other hand, we + should be careful not to exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping + inferences from the prevalence of this degrading amusement. Human + nature is happily illogical; and we know that many of the Roman + statesmen who gave these games, and themselves enjoyed these sights of + blood, were in every other department of life + irreproachable--indulgent fathers, humane generals and mild rulers of + provinces. In the present state of society it is difficult to conceive + how a man of taste can have endured to gaze upon a scene of human + butchery. Yet we should remember that it is not so long since + bear-baiting was prohibited in England, and we are only now attaining + that stage of morality in respect of cruelty to animals that was + reached in the 5th century, by the help of Christianity, in respect of + cruelty to men. We shall not then be greatly surprised if hardly one + of the Roman moralists is found to raise his voice against this + amusement, except on the score of extravagance. Cicero in a well-known + passage commends the gladiatorial games as the best discipline against + the fear of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The + younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approaches nearest to our + ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks approvingly of them. Marcus + Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet in his + writings condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca is + indeed a splendid exception, and his letter to Lentulus is an eloquent + protest against this inhuman sport. But it is without a parallel till + we come to the writings of the Christian fathers, Tertullian, + Lactantius, Cyprian and Augustine. In the _Confessions_ of the last + there occurs a narrative which is worth quoting as a proof of the + strange fascination which the games exercised even on a religious man + and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Alipius was dragged + against his will to the amphitheatre, how he strove to quiet his + conscience by closing his eyes, how at some exciting crisis the shouts + of the whole assembly aroused his curiosity, how he looked and was + lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and returned again and + again, knowing his guilt yet unable to abstain. The first Christian + emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing gladiatorial games + (325), yet in 404 we read of an exhibition of gladiators to celebrate + the triumph of Honorius over the Goths, and it is said that they were + not totally extinct in the West till the time of Theodoric. + + Gladiators formed admirable models for the sculptor. One of the finest + pieces of ancient sculpture that has come down to us is the "Wounded + Gladiator" of the National Museum at Naples. The so-called "Fighting + Gladiator" of the Borghese collection, now in the Museum of the + Louvre, and the "Dying Gladiator" of the Capitoline Museum, which + inspired the famous stanza of _Childe Harold_, have been pronounced by + modern antiquaries to represent, not gladiators, but warriors. In this + connexion we may mention the admirable picture of Gerome which bears + the title, "Ave, Caesar, morituri te salutant." + + The attention of archaeologists has been recently directed to the + tesserae of gladiators. These tesserae, of which about sixty exist in + various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with an + inscription on each of the four sides. The first line contains a name + in the nominative case, presumably that of the gladiator; the second + line a name in the genitive, that of the _patronus_ or _dominus_; the + third line begins with the letters SP (for _spectatus_ = approved), + which shows that the gladiator had passed his preliminary trials; this + is followed by a day of a Roman month; and in the fourth line are the + names of the consuls of a particular year. + + AUTHORITIES.--All needful information on the subject will be found in + L. Friedlander's _Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_, (part + ii, 6th ed., 1889), and in the section by him on "The Games" in + Marquardt's _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885) p. 554; see also + article by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_. See also F. W. Ritschl, _Tesserae gladiatoriae_ (1864) + and P. J. Meier, _De gladiatura Romana quaestiones selectae_ (1881). + The articles by Lipsius on the _Saturnalia_ and _amphitheatrum_ in + Graevius, _Thesaurus antiquitatum Romanarum_, ix., may still be + consulted with advantage. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See A. E. Housman on the passage in _Classical Review_ (November + 1904). + + [2] A different account is given by Mayor on Juvenal iii. 36, who + says: "Those who wished the death of the conquered gladiator turned + their thumbs towards their breasts, as a signal to his opponents to + stab him; those who wished him to be spared, turned their thumbs + downwards, as a signal for dropping the sword." + + + + +GLADIOLUS, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging to the natural +order Iridaceae. They are herbaceous plants growing from a solid +fibrous-coated bulb (or corm), with long narrow plaited leaves and a +terminal one-sided spike of generally bright-coloured irregular flowers. +The segments of the limb of the perianth are very unequal, the perianth +tube is curved, funnel-shaped and widening upwards, the segments +equalling or exceeding the tube in length. There are about 150 known +species, a large number of which are South African, but the genus +extends into tropical Africa, forming a characteristic feature of the +mountain vegetation, and as far north as central Europe and western +Asia. One species _G. illyricus_ (sometimes regarded as a variety of _G. +communis_) is found wild in England, in the New Forest and the Isle of +Wight. Some of the species have been cultivated for a long period in +English flower-gardens, where both the introduced species and the modern +varieties bred from them are very ornamental and popular. _G. segetum_ +has been cultivated since 1596, and _G. byzantinus_ since 1629, while +many additional species were introduced during the latter half of the +18th century. One of the earlier of the hybrids originated in gardens +was the beautiful _G. Colvillei_, raised in the nursery of Mr Colville +of Chelsea in 1823 from _G. tristis_ fertilized by _G. cardinalis_. In +the first decade of the 19th century, however, the Hon. and Rev. W. +Herbert had successfully crossed the showy _G. cardinalis_ with the +smaller but more free-flowering _G. blandus_, and the result was the +production of a race of great beauty and fertility. Other crosses were +made with _G. tristis_, _G. oppositiflorus_, _G. hirsutus_, _G. alatus_ +and _G. psittacinus_; but it was not till after the production of _G. +gandavensis_ that the gladiolus really became a general favourite in +gardens. This fine hybrid was raised in 1837 by M. Bedinghaus, gardener +to the duc d'Aremberg, at Enghien, crossing _G. psittacinus_ and _G. +cardinalis_. There can, however, be little doubt that before the +_gandavensis_ type had become fairly fixed the services of other species +were brought into force, and the most likely of these were _G. +oppositiflorus_ (which shows in the white forms), _G. blandus_ and _G. +ramosus_. Other species may also have been used, but in any case the +_gandavensis_ gladiolus, as we now know it, is the result of much +crossing and inter-crossing between the best forms as they developed (J. +Weathers, _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_). Since that time +innumerable varieties have appeared only to sink into oblivion upon +being replaced by still finer productions. + +The modern varieties of gladioli have almost completely driven the +natural species out of gardens, except in botanical collections. The +most gorgeous groups--in addition to the _gandavensis_ type--are those +known under the names of _Lemoinei_, _Childsi_, _nanceianus_ and +_brenchleyensis_. The last-named was raised by a Mr Hooker at Brenchley +in 1848, and although quite distinct in appearance from _gandavensis_, +it undoubtedly had that variety as one of its parents. Owing to the +brilliant scarlet colour of the flowers, this is always a great +favourite for planting in beds. The _Lemoinei_ forms originated at +Nancy, in France, by fertilizing _G. purpureo-auratus_ with pollen from +_G. gandavensis_, the first flower appearing in 1877, and the plants +being put into commerce in 1880. The _Childsi_ gladioli first appeared +in 1882, having been raised at Baden-Baden by Herr Max Leichtlin from +the best forms of _G. gandavensis_ and _G. Saundersi_. The flowers of +the best varieties are of great size and substance, often measuring 7 to +9 in. across, while the range of colour is marvellous, with shades of +grey, purple, scarlet, salmon, crimson, rose, white, pink, yellow, &c., +often beautifully mottled and blotched in the throat. The plants are +vigorous in growth, often reaching a height of 4 to 5 ft. _G. +nanceianus_ was raised at Nancy by MM. Lemoine and were first put into +commerce in 1889. Next to the _Childsi_ group they are the most +beautiful, and have the blood of the best forms of _G. Saundersi_ and +_G. Lemoinei_ in their veins. The plants are quite as hardy as the +_gandavensis_ hybrids, and the colours of the flowers are almost as +brilliant and varied in hue as those of the _Childsi_ section. + + A deep and rather stiff sandy loam is the best soil for the gladiolus, + and this should be trenched up in October and enriched with + well-decomposed manure, consisting partly of cow dung, the manure + being disposed altogether below the corms, a layer at the bottom of + the upper trench, say 9 in. from the surface, and another layer at + double that depth. The corms should be planted in succession at + intervals of two or three weeks through the months of March, April and + May; about 3 to 5 in. deep and at least 1 ft. apart, a little pure + soil or sand being laid over each before the earth is closed in about + them, an arrangement which may be advantageously followed with + bulbous plants generally. In hot summer weather they should have a + good mulching of well-decayed manure, and, as soon as the flower + spikes are produced, liquid manure may occasionally be given them with + advantage. + + The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in + March or April in pots of rich soil placed in slight heat, the pots + being kept near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants + being gradually hardened to permit their being placed out-of-doors in + a sheltered spot for the summer. Modern growers often grow the seeds + in the open in April on a nicely prepared bed in drills about 6 in. + apart and 1/2 in. deep, covering them with finely sifted gritty mould. + The seed bed is then pressed down evenly and firmly, watered + occasionally and kept free from weeds during the summer. In October + they will have ripened off, and must be taken out of the soil, and + stored in paper bags in a dry room secure from frost. They will have + made little bulbs from the size of a hazel nut downwards, according to + their vigour. In the spring they should be planted like the old bulbs, + and the larger ones will flower during the season, while the smaller + ones must be again harvested and planted out as before. The time + occupied from the sowing of the seed until the plant attains its full + strength is from three to four years. The approved sorts, which are + identified by name, are multiplied by means of bulblets or offsets or + "spawn," which form around the principal bulb or corm; but in this + they vary greatly, some kinds furnishing abundant increase and soon + becoming plentiful, while others persistently refuse to yield offsets. + The stately habit and rich glowing colours of the modern gladioli + render them exceedingly valuable as decorative plants during the late + summer months. They are, moreover, very desirable and useful flowers + for cutting for the purpose of room decoration, for while the blossoms + themselves last fresh for some days if cut either early in the morning + or late in the evening, the undeveloped buds open in succession, if + the stalks are kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming + for some time. + + + + +GLADSHEIM (Old Norse _Gladsheimr_), in Scandinavian mythology, the +region of joy and home of Odin. Valhalla, the paradise whither the +heroes who fell in battle were escorted, was situated there. + + + + +GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL (1827-1902), English chemist, was born at Hackney, +London, on the 7th of March 1827. From childhood he showed great +aptitude for science; geology was his favourite subject, but since this +in his father's opinion did not afford a career of promise, he devoted +himself to chemistry, which he studied under Thomas Graham at University +College, London, and Liebig at Giessen, where he graduated as Ph.D. in +1847. In 1850 he became chemical lecturer at St Thomas's hospital, and +three years later was elected a fellow of the Royal Society at the +unusually early age of twenty-six. From 1858 to 1861 he served on the +royal commission on lighthouses, and from 1864 to 1868 was a member of +the war office committee on gun-cotton. From 1874 to 1877 he was +Fullerian professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution, in 1874 he +was chosen first president of the Physical Society, and in 1877-1879 he +was president of the Chemical Society. In 1897 the Royal Society +recognized his fifty years of scientific work by awarding him the Davy +medal. Dr Gladstone's researches were large in number and wide in range, +dealing to a great extent with problems that lie on the border-line +between physics and chemistry. Thus a number of his inquiries, and those +not the least important, were partly chemical, partly optical. He +determined the optical constants of hundreds of substances, with the +object of discovering whether any of the elements possesses more than +one atomic refraction. Again, he investigated the connexion between the +optical behaviour, density and chemical composition of ethereal oils, +and the relation between molecular magnetic rotation and the refraction +and dispersion of nitrogenous compounds. So early as 1856 he showed the +importance of the spectroscope in chemical research, and he was one of +the first to notice that the Fraunhofer spectrum at sunrise and sunset +differs from that at midday, his conclusion being that the earth's +atmosphere must be responsible for many of its absorption lines, which +indeed were subsequently traced to the oxygen and water-vapour in the +air. Another portion of his work was of an electro-chemical character. +His studies, with Alfred Tribe (1840-1885) and W. Hibbert, in the +chemistry of the storage battery, have added largely to our knowledge, +while the "copper-zinc couple," with which his name is associated +together with that of Tribe, among other things, afforded a simple means +of preparing certain organo-metallic compounds, and thus promoted +research in branches of organic chemistry where those bodies are +especially useful. Mention may also be made of his work on phosphorus, +on explosive substances, such as iodide of nitrogen, gun-cotton and the +fulminates, on the influence of mass in the process of chemical +reactions, and on the effect of carbonic acid on the germination of +plants. Dr Gladstone always took a great interest in educational +questions, and from 1873 to 1894 he was a member of the London School +Board. He was also a member of the Christian Evidence Society, and an +early supporter of the Young Men's Christian Association. His death +occurred suddenly in London on the 6th of October 1902. + + + + +GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-1898), British statesman, was born on the +29th of December 1809 at No. 62 Rodney Street, Liverpool. His +forefathers were Gledstanes of Gledstanes, in the upper ward of +Lanarkshire; or in Scottish phrase, Gledstanes of that Ilk. As years +went on their estates dwindled, and by the beginning of the 17th century +Gledstanes was sold. The adjacent property of Arthurshiel remained in +the hands of the family for nearly a hundred years longer. Then the son +of the last Gledstanes of Arthurshiel removed to Biggar, where he opened +the business of a maltster. His grandson, Thomas Gladstone (for so the +name was modified), became a corn-merchant at Leith. He happened to send +his eldest son, John, to Liverpool to sell a cargo of grain there, and +the energy and aptitude of the young man attracted the favourable notice +of a leading corn-merchant of Liverpool, who recommended him to settle +in that city. Beginning his commercial career as a clerk in his patron's +house, John Gladstone lived to become one of the merchant-princes of +Liverpool, a baronet and a member of parliament. He died in 1851 at the +age of eighty-seven. Sir John Gladstone was a pure Scotsman, a Lowlander +by birth and descent. He married Anne, daughter of Andrew Robertson of +Stornoway, sometime provost of Dingwall. Provost Robertson belonged to +the Clan Donachie, and by this marriage the robust and business-like +qualities of the Lowlander were blended with the poetic imagination, the +sensibility and fire of the Gael. + + + Childhood and education. + +John and Anne Gladstone had six children. The fourth son, William Ewart, +was named after a merchant of Liverpool who was his father's friend. He +seems to have been a remarkably good child, and much beloved at home. In +1818 or 1819 Mrs Gladstone, who belonged to the Evangelical school, said +in a letter to a friend, that she believed her son William had been +"truly converted to God." After some tuition at the vicarage of +Seaforth, a watering-place near Liverpool, the boy went to Eton in 1821. +His tutor was the Rev. Henry Hartopp Knapp. His brothers, Thomas and +Robertson Gladstone, were already at Eton. Thomas was in the fifth form, +and William, who was placed in the middle remove of the fourth form, +became his eldest brother's fag. He worked hard at his classical +lessons, and supplemented the ordinary business of the school by +studying mathematics in the holidays. Mr Hawtrey, afterwards headmaster, +commended a copy of his Latin verses, and "sent him up for good"; and +this experience first led the young student to associate intellectual +work with the ideas of ambition and success. He was not a fine scholar, +in that restricted sense of the term which implies a special aptitude +for turning English into Greek and Latin, or for original versification +in the classical languages. "His composition," we read, "was stiff," but +he was imbued with the substance of his authors; and a contemporary who +was in the sixth form with him recorded that "when there were thrilling +passages of Virgil or Homer, or difficult passages in the _Scriptores +Graeci_, to translate, he or Lord Arthur Hervey was generally called up +to edify the class with quotation or translation." By common consent he +was pre-eminently God-fearing, orderly and conscientious. "At Eton," +said Bishop Hamilton of Salisbury, "I was a thoroughly idle boy, but I +was saved from some worse things by getting to know Gladstone." His most +intimate friend was Arthur Hallam, by universal acknowledgment the most +remarkable Etonian of his day; but he was not generally popular or even +widely known. He was seen to the greatest advantage, and was most +thoroughly at home, in the debates of the Eton Society, learnedly called +"The Literati," and vulgarly "Pop," and in the editorship of the _Eton +Miscellany_. He left Eton at Christmas 1827. He read for six months with +private tutors, and in October 1828 went up to Christ Church, where, in +the following year, he was nominated to a studentship. + +At Oxford Gladstone read steadily, but not laboriously, till he neared +his final schools. During the latter part of his undergraduate career he +took a brief but brilliant share in the proceedings of the Union, of +which he was successively secretary and president. He made his first +speech on the 11th of February 1830. Brought up in the nurture and +admonition of Canning, he defended Roman Catholic emancipation, and +thought the duke of Wellington's government unworthy of national +confidence. He opposed the removal of Jewish disabilities, arguing, we +are told by a contemporary, "on the part of the Evangelicals," and +pleaded for the gradual extinction, in preference to the immediate +abolition, of slavery. But his great achievement was a speech against +the Whig Reform Bill. One who heard this famous discourse says: "Most of +the speakers rose, more or less, above their usual level, but when Mr +Gladstone sat down we all of us felt that an epoch in our lives had +occurred. It certainly was the finest speech of his that I ever heard." +Bishop Charles Wordsworth said that his experience of Gladstone at this +time "made me (and I doubt not others also) feel no less sure than of my +own existence that Gladstone, our then Christ Church undergraduate, +would one day rise to be prime minister of England." In December 1831 +Gladstone crowned his career by taking a double first-class. Lord +Halifax (1800-1885) used to say, with reference to the increase in the +amount of reading requisite for the highest honours: "My double-first +must have been a better thing than Peel's; Gladstone's must have been +better than mine." + + + Entry into parliament. + +Now came the choice of a profession. Deeply anxious to make the best use +of his life, Gladstone turned his thoughts to holy orders. But his +father had determined to make him a politician. Quitting Oxford in the +spring of 1832, Gladstone spent six months in Italy, learning the +language and studying art. In the following September he was suddenly +recalled to England, to undertake his first parliamentary campaign. The +fifth duke of Newcastle was one of the chief potentates of the High Tory +party. His frank claim to "do what he liked with his own" in the +representation of Newark has given him a place in political history. But +that claim had been rudely disputed by the return of a Radical lawyer at +the election of 1831. The Duke was anxious to obtain a capable candidate +to aid him in regaining his ascendancy over the rebellious borough. His +son, Lord Lincoln, had heard Gladstone's speech against the Reform Bill +delivered in the Oxford Union, and had written home that "a man had +uprisen in Israel." At his suggestion the duke invited Gladstone to +stand for Newark in the Tory interest against Mr Serjeant Wilde, +afterwards Lord Chancellor Truro. The last of the Unreformed parliaments +was dissolved on the 3rd of December 1832. Gladstone, addressing the +electors of Newark, said that he was bound by the opinions of no man and +no party, but felt it a duty to watch and resist that growing desire for +change which threatened to produce "along with partial good a melancholy +preponderance of mischief." The first principle to which he looked for +national salvation was, that the "duties of governors are strictly and +peculiarly religious, and that legislatures, like individuals, are bound +to carry throughout their acts the spirit of the high truths they have +acknowledged." The condition of the poor demanded special attention; +labour should receive adequate remuneration; and he thought favourably +of the "allotment of cottage grounds." He regarded slavery as sanctioned +by Holy Scripture, but the slaves ought to be educated and gradually +emancipated. The contest resulted in his return at the head of the poll. + + + The question of slavery. + +The first Reformed parliament met on the 29th of January 1833, and the +young member for Newark took his seat for the first time in an assembly +which he was destined to adorn, delight and astonish for more than half +a century. His maiden speech was delivered on the 3rd of June in reply +to what was almost a personal challenge. The colonial secretary, Mr +Stanley, afterwards Lord Derby, brought forward a series of resolutions +in favour of the extinction of slavery in the British colonies. On the +first night of the debate Lord Howick, afterwards Lord Grey, who had +been under-secretary for the Colonies, and who opposed the resolutions +as proceeding too gradually towards abolition, cited certain occurrences +on Sir John Gladstone's plantation in Demerara to illustrate his +contention that the system of slave-labour in the West Indies was +attended by great mortality among the slaves. Gladstone in his +reply--his first speech in the House--avowed that he had a pecuniary +interest in the question, "and, if he might say so much without exciting +suspicion, a still deeper interest in it as a question of justice, of +humanity and of religion." If there had recently been a high mortality +on his father's plantation, it was due to the age of the slaves rather +than to any peculiar hardship in their lot. It was true that the +particular system of cultivation practised in Demerara was more trying +than some others; but then it might be said that no two trades were +equally conducive to health. Steel-grinding was notoriously unhealthy, +and manufacturing processes generally were less favourable to life than +agricultural. While strongly condemning cruelty, he declared himself an +advocate of emancipation, but held that it should be effected gradually, +and after due preparation. The slaves must be religiously educated, and +stimulated to profitable industry. The owners of emancipated slaves were +entitled to receive compensation from parliament, because it was +parliament that had established this description of property. "I do +not," said Gladstone, "view property as an abstract thing; it is the +creature of civil society. By the legislature it is granted, and by the +legislature it is destroyed." On the following day King William IV. +wrote to Lord Althorp: "The king rejoices that a young member has come +forward in so promising a manner as Viscount Althorp states Mr W. E. +Gladstone to have done." In the same session Gladstone spoke on the +question of bribery and corruption at Liverpool, and on the +temporalities of the Irish Church. In the session of 1834 his most +important performance was a speech in opposition to Hume's proposal to +throw the universities open to Dissenters. + +On the 10th of November 1834 Lord Althorp succeeded to his father's +peerage, and thereby vacated the leadership of the House of Commons. The +prime minister, Lord Melbourne, submitted to the king a choice of names +for the chancellorship of the exchequer and leadership of the House of +Commons; but his majesty announced that, having lost the services of +Lord Althorp as leader of the House of Commons, he could feel no +confidence in the stability of Lord Melbourne's government, and that it +was his intention to send for the duke of Wellington. The duke took +temporary charge of affairs, but Peel was felt to be indispensable. He +had gone abroad after the session, and was now in Rome. As soon as he +could be brought back he formed an administration, and appointed +Gladstone to a junior lordship of the treasury. Parliament was dissolved +on the 29th of December. Gladstone was returned unopposed, this time in +conjunction with the Liberal lawyer whom he had beaten at the last +election. The new parliament met on the 19th of February 1835. The +elections had given the Liberals a considerable majority. Immediately +after the meeting of parliament Gladstone was promoted to the +under-secretaryship for the colonies, where his official chief was Lord +Aberdeen. The administration was not long-lived. On the 30th of March +Lord John Russell moved a resolution in favour of an inquiry into the +temporalities of the Irish Church, with the intention of applying the +surplus to general education without distinction of religious creed. +This was carried against ministers by a majority of thirty-three. On the +8th of April Sir Robert Peel resigned, and the under-secretary for the +colonies of course followed his chief into private life. + + + Literary work. + +Released from the labours of office, Gladstone, living in chambers in +the Albany, practically divided his time between his parliamentary +duties and study. Then, as always, his constant companions were Homer +and Dante, and it is recorded that he read the whole of St Augustine, in +twenty-two octavo volumes. He used to frequent the services at St +James's, Piccadilly, and Margaret chapel, since better known as All +Saints', Margaret Street. On the 20th of June 1837 King William IV. +died, and Parliament, having been prorogued by the young queen in +person, was dissolved on the 17th of the following month. Simply on the +strength of his parliamentary reputation Gladstone was nominated, +without his consent, for Manchester, and was placed at the bottom of the +poll; but, having been at the same time nominated at Newark, was again +returned. The year 1838 claims special note in a record of Gladstone's +life, because it witnessed the appearance of his famous work on _The +State in its Relations with the Church_. He had left Oxford just before +the beginning of that Catholic revival which has transfigured both the +inner spirit and the outward aspect of the Church of England. But the +revival was now in full strength. The _Tracts for the Times_ were +saturating England with new influences. The movement counted no more +enthusiastic or more valuable disciple than Gladstone. Its influence had +reached him through his friendships, notably with two Fellows of +Merton--Mr James Hope, who became Mr Hope-Scott of Abbotsford, and the +Rev. H. E. Manning, afterwards cardinal archbishop. _The State in its +Relations with the Church_ was his practical contribution to a +controversy in which his deepest convictions were involved. He contended +that the Church, as established by law, was to be "maintained for its +truth," and that this principle, if good for England, was good also for +Ireland. + +On the 25th of July 1839 Gladstone was married at Hawarden to Miss +Catherine Glynne, sister, and in her issue heir, of Sir Stephen Glynne, +ninth and last baronet of that name. In 1840 he published _Church +Principles considered in their Results_. + + + Enters the cabinet. + +Parliament was dissolved in June 1841. Gladstone was again returned for +Newark. The general election resulted in a Tory majority of eighty. Sir +Robert Peel became prime minister, and made the member for Newark +vice-president of the Board of Trade. An inevitable change is from this +time to be traced in the topics of Gladstone's parliamentary speaking. +Instead of discoursing on the corporate conscience of the state and the +endowments of the Church, the importance of Christian education, and the +theological unfitness of the Jews to sit in parliament, he is solving +business-like problems about foreign tariffs and the exportation of +machinery; waxing eloquent over the regulation of railways, and a +graduated tax on corn; subtle on the monetary merits of half-farthings, +and great in the mysterious lore of _quassia_ and _cocculus indicus_. In +1842 he had a principal hand in the preparation of the revised tariff, +by which duties were abolished or sensibly diminished in the case of +1200 duty-paying articles. In defending the new scheme he spoke +incessantly, and amazed the House by his mastery of detail, his intimate +acquaintance with the commercial needs of the country, and his +inexhaustible power of exposition. In 1843 Gladstone, succeeding Lord +Ripon as president of the Board of Trade, became a member of the cabinet +at the age of thirty-three. He has recorded the fact that "the very +first opinion which he ever was called upon to give in cabinet" was an +opinion in favour of withdrawing the bill providing education for +children in factories, to which vehement opposition was offered by the +Dissenters, on the ground that it was too favourable to the Established +Church. + + + Maynooth grant: resignation. + +At the opening of the session of 1845 the government, in pursuance of a +promise made to Irish members that they would deal with the question of +academical education in Ireland, proposed to establish non-sectarian +colleges in that country and to make a large addition to the grant to +the Roman Catholic College of Maynooth. Gladstone resigned office, in +order, as he announced in the debate on the address, to form "not only +an honest, but likewise an independent and an unsuspected judgment," on +the plan to be submitted by the government with respect to Maynooth. His +subsequent defence of the proposed grant, on the ground that it would be +improper and unjust to exclude the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland from +a "more indiscriminating support" which the state might give to various +religious beliefs, was regarded by men of less sensitive conscience as +only proving that there had been no adequate cause for his resignation. +Before he resigned he completed a second revised tariff, carrying +considerably further the principles on which he had acted in the earlier +revision of 1842. + + + Free trade. + +In the autumn of 1845 the failure of the potato crop in Ireland +threatened a famine, and convinced Sir Robert Peel that all restrictions +on the importation of food must be at once suspended. He was supported +by only three members of the cabinet, and resigned on the 5th of +December. Lord John Russell, who had just announced his conversion to +total and immediate repeal of the Corn Laws, declined the task of +forming an administration, and on the 20th of December Sir Robert Peel +resumed office. Lord Stanley refused to re-enter the government, and his +place as secretary of state for the colonies was offered to and accepted +by Gladstone. He did not offer himself for re-election at Newark, and +remained outside the House of Commons during the great struggle of the +coming year. It was a curious irony of fate which excluded him from +parliament at this crisis, for it seems unquestionable that he was the +most advanced Free Trader in Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet. The Corn Bill +passed the House of Lords on the 28th of June 1846, and on the same day +the government were beaten in the House of Commons on an Irish Coercion +Bill. Lord John Russell became prime minister, and Gladstone retired for +a season into private life. Early in 1847 it was announced that one of +the two members for the university of Oxford intended to retire at the +general election, and Gladstone was proposed for the vacant seat. The +representation of the university had been pronounced by Canning to be +the most coveted prize of public life, and Gladstone himself confessed +that he "desired it with an almost passionate fondness." Parliament was +dissolved on the 23rd of July 1847. The nomination at Oxford took place +on the 29th of July, and at the close of the poll Sir Robert Inglis +stood at the head, with Gladstone as his colleague. + + + Naple prisons. + +The three years 1847, 1848, 1849 were for Gladstone a period of mental +growth, of transition, of development. A change was silently proceeding, +which was not completed for twenty years. "There have been," he wrote in +later days to Bishop Wilberforce, "two great deaths, or transmigrations +of spirit, in my political existence--one, very slow, the breaking of +ties with my original party." This was now in progress. In the winter of +1850-1851 Gladstone spent between three and four months at Naples, where +he learned that more than half the chamber of deputies, who had followed +the party of Opposition, had been banished or imprisoned; that a large +number, probably not less than 20,000, of the citizens had been +imprisoned on charges of political disaffection, and that in prison they +were subjected to the grossest cruelties. Having made careful +investigations, Gladstone, on the 7th of April 1851, addressed an open +letter to Lord Aberdeen, bringing an elaborate, detailed and horrible +indictment against the rulers of Naples, especially as regards the +arrangements of their prisons and the treatment of persons confined in +them for political offences. The publication of this letter caused a +wide sensation in England and abroad, and profoundly agitated the court +of Naples. In reply to a question in the House of Commons, Lord +Palmerston accepted and adopted Gladstone's statement, expressed keen +sympathy with the cause which he had espoused, and sent a copy of his +letter to the queen's representative at every court of Europe. A second +letter and a third followed, and their effect, though for a while +retarded, was unmistakably felt in the subsequent revolution which +created a free and united Italy. + + + Gladstone and Disraeli. + +In February 1852 the Whig government was defeated on a Militia Bill, and +Lord John Russell was succeeded by Lord Derby, formerly Lord Stanley, +with Mr Disraeli, who now entered office for the first time, as +chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. Mr +Disraeli introduced and carried a makeshift budget, and the government +tided over the session, and dissolved parliament on the 1st of July +1852. There was some talk of inducing Gladstone to join the Tory +government, and on the 29th of November Lord Malmesbury dubiously +remarked, "I cannot make out Gladstone, who seems to me a dark horse." +In the following month the chancellor of the exchequer produced his +second budget. The government redeemed their pledge to do something for +the relief of the agricultural interest by reducing the duty on malt. +This created a deficit, which they repaired by doubling the duty on +inhabited houses. The voices of criticism were heard simultaneously on +every side. The debate waxed fast and furious. In defending his +proposals Mr Disraeli gave full scope to his most characteristic gifts; +he pelted his opponents right and left with sarcasms, taunts and +epigrams. Gladstone delivered an unpremeditated reply, which has ever +since been celebrated. Tradition says that he "foamed at the mouth." The +speech of the chancellor of the exchequer, he said, must be answered "on +the moment." It must be "tried by the laws of decency and propriety." He +indignantly rebuked his rival's language and demeanour. He tore his +financial scheme to ribbons. It was the beginning of a duel which lasted +till death removed one of the combatants from the political arena. +"Those who had thought it impossible that any impression could be made +upon the House after the speech of Mr Disraeli had to acknowledge that a +yet greater impression was produced by the unprepared reply of Mr +Gladstone." The House divided, and the government were left in a +minority of nineteen. Lord Derby resigned. + + + Chancellor of the exchequer. + +The new government was a coalition of Whigs and Peelites. Lord Aberdeen +became prime minister, and Gladstone chancellor of the exchequer. Having +been returned again for the university of Oxford, he entered on the +active duties of a great office for which he was pre-eminently fitted by +an unique combination of financial, administrative and rhetorical gifts. +His first budget was introduced on the 18th of April 1853. It tended to +make life easier and cheaper for large and numerous classes; it promised +wholesale remissions of taxation; it lessened the charges on common +processes of business, on locomotion, on postal communication, and on +several articles of general consumption. The deficiency thus created was +to be met by a "succession-duty," or application of the legacy-duty to +real property; by an increase of the duty on spirits; and by the +extension of the income-tax, at 5d. in the pound, to all incomes between +L100 and L150. The speech in which these proposals were introduced held +the House spellbound. Here was an orator who could apply all the +resources of a burnished rhetoric to the elucidation of figures; who +could sweep the widest horizon of the financial future, and yet stoop to +bestow the minutest attention on the microcosm of penny stamps and +post-horses. Above all, the chancellor's mode of handling the income-tax +attracted interest and admiration. It was a searching analysis of the +financial and moral grounds on which the impost rested, and a historical +justification and eulogy of it. Yet, great as had been the services of +the tax at a time of national danger, Gladstone could not consent to +retain it as a part of the permanent and ordinary finances of the +country. It was objectionable on account of its unequal incidence, of +the harassing investigation into private affairs which it entailed, and +of the frauds to which it inevitably led. Therefore, having served its +turn, it was to be extinguished in 1860. The scheme astonished, +interested and attracted the country. The queen and Prince Albert wrote +to congratulate the chancellor of the exchequer. Public authorities and +private friends joined in the chorus of eulogy. The budget demonstrated +at once its author's absolute mastery over figures and the persuasive +force of his expository gift. It established the chancellor of the +exchequer as the paramount financier of his day, and it was only the +first of a long series of similar performances, different, of course, in +detail, but alike in their bold outlines and brilliant handling. +Looking back on a long life of strenuous exertion, Gladstone declared +that the work of preparing his proposals about the succession-duty and +carrying them through Parliament was by far the most laborious task +which he ever performed. + +War between Great Britain and Russia was declared on the 27th of March +1854, and it thus fell to the lot of the most pacific of ministers, the +devotee of retrenchment, and the anxious cultivator of all industrial +arts, to prepare a war budget, and to meet as well as he might the +exigencies of a conflict which had so cruelly dislocated all the +ingenious devices of financial optimism. No amount of skill in the +manipulation of figures, no ingenuity in shifting fiscal burdens, could +prevent the addition of forty-one millions to the national debt, or +could countervail the appalling mismanagement at the seat of war. +Gladstone declared that the state of the army in the Crimea was a +"matter for weeping all day and praying all night." As soon as +parliament met in January 1855 J. A. Roebuck, the Radical member for +Sheffield, gave notice that he would move for a select committee "to +inquire into the condition of our army before Sevastopol, and into the +conduct of those departments of the government whose duty it has been to +minister to the wants of that army." On the same day Lord John Russell, +without announcing his intention to his colleagues, resigned his office +as president of the council sooner than attempt the defence of the +government. Gladstone, in defending the government against Roebuck, +rebuked in dignified and significant terms the conduct of men who, +"hoping to escape from punishment, ran away from duty." On the division +on Mr Roebuck's motion the government was beaten by the unexpected +majority of 157. + +Lord Palmerston became prime minister. The Peelites joined him, and +Gladstone resumed office as chancellor of the exchequer. A shrewd +observer at the time pronounced him indispensable. "Any other chancellor +of the exchequer would be torn in bits by him." The government was +formed on the understanding that Mr Roebuck's proposed committee was to +be resisted. Lord Palmerston soon saw that further resistance was +useless; his Peelite colleagues stuck to their text, and, within three +weeks after resuming office, Gladstone, Sir James Graham and Mr Sidney +Herbert resigned. Gladstone once said of himself and his Peelite +colleagues, during the period of political isolation, that they were +like roving icebergs on which men could not land with safety, but with +which ships might come into perilous collision. He now applied himself +specially to financial criticism, and was perpetually in conflict with +the chancellor of the exchequer, Sir George Cornewall Lewis. + +In 1858 Lord Palmerston was succeeded by Lord Derby at the head of a +Conservative administration, and Gladstone accepted the temporary office +of high commissioner extraordinary to the Ionian Islands. Returning to +England for the session of 1859, he found himself involved in the +controversy which arose over a mild Reform Bill introduced by the +government. They were defeated on the second reading of the bill, +Gladstone voting with them. A dissolution immediately followed, and +Gladstone was again returned unopposed for the university of Oxford. As +soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence in the +ministry was moved in the House of Commons. In the critical division +which ensued Gladstone voted with the government, who were left in a +minority. Lord Derby resigned. Lord Palmerston became prime minister, +and asked Gladstone to join him as chancellor of the exchequer. To vote +confidence in an imperilled ministry, and on its defeat to take office +with the rivals who have defeated it, is a manoeuvre which invites the +reproach of tergiversation. But Gladstone risked the reproach, accepted +the office and had a sharp tussle for his seat. He emerged from the +struggle victorious, and entered on his duties with characteristic zeal. +The prince consort wrote: "Gladstone is now the real leader in the House +of Commons, and works with an energy and vigour altogether incredible." + + + Budget of 1860. + +The budget of 1860 was marked by two distinctive features. It asked the +sanction of parliament for the commercial treaty which Cobden had +privately arranged with the emperor Napoleon, and it proposed to abolish +the duty on paper. The French treaty was carried, but the abolition of +the paper-duty was defeated in the House of Lords. Gladstone justly +regarded the refusal to remit a duty as being in effect an act of +taxation, and therefore as an infringement of the rights of the House of +Commons. The proposal to abolish the paper-duty was revived in the +budget of 1861, the chief proposals of which, instead of being divided, +as in previous years, into several bills, were included in one. By this +device the Lords were obliged to acquiesce in the repeal of the +paper-duty. + +During Lord Palmerston's last administration, which lasted from 1859 to +1865, Gladstone was by far the most brilliant and most conspicuous +figure in the cabinet. Except in finance, he was not able to accomplish +much, for he was met and thwarted at every turn by his chief's +invincible hostility to change; but the more advanced section of the +Liberal party began to look upon him as their predestined leader. In +1864, in a debate on a private member's bill for extending the suffrage, +he declared that the burden of proof lay on those "who would exclude +forty-nine fiftieths of the working-classes from the franchise." In +1865, in a debate on the condition of the Irish Church Establishment, he +declared that the Irish Church, as it then stood, was in a false +position, inasmuch as it ministered only to one-eighth or one-ninth of +the whole community. But just in proportion as Gladstone advanced in +favour with the Radical party he lost the confidence of his own +constituents. Parliament was dissolved in July 1865, and the university +elected Mr Gathorne Hardy in his place. + + + Leader of House of Commons. + +Gladstone at once turned his steps towards South Lancashire, where he +was returned with two Tories above him. The result of the general +election was to retain Lord Palmerston's government in power, but on the +18th of October the old prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord +Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer, +became for the first time leader of the House of Commons. Lord Russell, +backed by Gladstone, persuaded his colleagues to consent to a moderate +Reform Bill, and the task of piloting this measure through the House of +Commons fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate on +the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very finest, +which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail. The +government were defeated on an amendment in committee, and thereupon +resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister, with Disraeli as chancellor +of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. On the 18th of +March 1867 the Tory Reform Bill, which ended in establishing Household +Suffrage in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read a second time +without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in committee +at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill became law in +August. + + + Leader of Liberal party. + +At Christmas 1867 Lord Russell announced his final retirement from +active politics, and Gladstone was recognized by acclamation as leader +of the Liberal party. Nominally he was in Opposition; but his party +formed the majority of the House of Commons, and could beat the +government whenever they chose to mass their forces. Gladstone seized +the opportunity to give effect to convictions which had long been +forming in his mind. Early in the session he brought in a bill +abolishing compulsory church-rates, and this passed into law. On the +16th of March, in a debate raised by an Irish member, he declared that +in his judgment the Irish Church, as a State Church, must cease to +exist. Immediately afterwards he embodied this opinion in a series of +resolutions concerning the Irish Church Establishment, and carried them +against the government. Encouraged by this triumph, he brought in a Bill +to prevent any fresh appointments in the Irish Church, and this also +passed the Commons, though it was defeated in the Lords. Parliament was +dissolved on the 11th of November. A single issue was placed before the +country--Was the Irish Church to be, or not to be, disestablished? The +response was an overwhelming affirmative. Gladstone, who had been doubly +nominated, was defeated in Lancashire, but was returned for Greenwich. +He chose this moment for publishing a _Chapter of Autobiography_, in +which he explained and justified his change of opinion with regard to +the Irish Church. + + + Prime Minister: Irish Church disestablishment. + +On the 2nd of December Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord Derby as premier +in the preceding February, announced that he and his colleagues, +recognizing their defeat, had resigned without waiting for a formal vote +of the new parliament. On the following day Gladstone was summoned to +Windsor, and commanded by the queen to form an administration. The great +task to which the new prime minister immediately addressed himself was +the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The queen wrote to Archbishop +Tait that the subject of the Irish Church "made her very anxious," but +that Mr Gladstone "showed the most conciliatory disposition." "The +government can do nothing that would tend to raise a suspicion of their +sincerity in proposing to disestablish the Irish Church, and to withdraw +all state endowments from all religious communions in Ireland; but, were +these conditions accepted, all other matters connected with the question +might, the queen thinks, become the subject of discussion and +negotiation." The bill was drawn and piloted on the lines thus +indicated, and became law on the 26th of July. In the session of 1870 +Gladstone's principal work was the Irish Land Act, of which the object +was to protect the tenant against eviction as long as he paid his rent, +and to secure to him the value of any improvements which his own +industry had made. In the following session Religious Tests in the +universities were abolished, and a bill to establish secret voting was +carried through the House of Commons. This was thrown out by the Lords, +but became law a year later. The House of Lords threw out a bill to +abolish the purchase of commissions in the army. Gladstone found that +purchase existed only by royal sanction, and advised the queen to issue +a royal warrant cancelling, on and after the 1st of November following, +all regulations authorizing the purchase of commissions. + + + A Dissolution of 1874. + +In 1873 Gladstone set his hand to the third of three great Irish reforms +to which he had pledged himself. His scheme for the establishment of a +university which should satisfy both Roman Catholics and Protestants met +with general disapproval. The bill was thrown out by three votes, and +Gladstone resigned. The queen sent for Disraeli, who declined to take +office in a minority of the House of Commons, so Gladstone was compelled +to resume. But he and his colleagues were now, in Disraelitish phrase, +"exhausted volcanoes." Election after election went wrong. The +government had lost favour with the public, and was divided against +itself. There were resignations and rumours of resignations. When the +session of 1873 had come to an end Gladstone took the chancellorship of +the exchequer, and, as high authorities contended, vacated his seat by +doing so. The point was obviously one of vital importance; and we learn +from Lord Selborne, who was lord chancellor at the time, that Gladstone +"was sensible of the difficulty of either taking his seat in the usual +manner at the opening of the session, or letting ... the necessary +arrangements for business in the House of Commons be made in the prime +minister's absence. A dissolution was the only escape." On the 23rd of +January 1874 Gladstone announced the dissolution in an address to his +constituents, declaring that the authority of the government had now +"sunk below the point necessary for the due defence and prosecution of +the public interest." He promised that, if he were returned to power, he +would repeal the income-tax. This bid for popularity failed, the general +election resulting in a Tory majority of forty-six. Gladstone kept his +seat for Greenwich, but was only second on the poll. Following the +example of Disraeli in 1868, he resigned without meeting parliament. + + + Temporary retirement. + + Midlothian campaign. + +For some years he had alluded to his impending retirement from public +life, saying that he was "strong against going on in politics to the +end." He was now sixty-four, and his life had been a continuous +experience of exhausting labour. On the 12th of March 1874 he informed +Lord Granville that he could give only occasional attendance in the +House of Commons during the current session, and that he must "reserve +his entire freedom to divest himself of all the responsibilities of +leadership at no distant date." His most important intervention in the +debates of 1874 was when he opposed Archbishop Tait's Public Worship +Bill. This was read a second time without a division, but in committee +Gladstone enjoyed some signal triumphs over his late solicitor-general, +Sir William Harcourt, who had warmly espoused the cause of the +government and the bill. At the beginning of 1875 Gladstone carried into +effect the resolution which he had announced a year before, and formally +resigned the leadership of the Liberal party. He was succeeded by Lord +Hartington, afterwards duke of Devonshire. The learned leisure which +Gladstone had promised himself when released from official +responsibility was not of long duration. In the autumn of 1875 an +insurrection broke out in Bulgaria, and the suppression of it by the +Turks was marked by massacres and outrages. Public indignation was +aroused by what were known as the "Bulgarian atrocities," and Gladstone +flung himself into the agitation against Turkey with characteristic +zeal. At public meetings, in the press, and in parliament he denounced +the Turkish government and its champion, Disraeli, who had now become +Lord Beaconsfield. Lord Hartington soon found himself pushed aside from +his position of titular leadership. For four years, from 1876 to 1880, +Gladstone maintained the strife with a courage, a persistence and a +versatility which raised the enthusiasm of his followers to the highest +pitch. The county of Edinburgh, or Midlothian, which he contested +against the dominant influence of the duke of Buccleuch, was the scene +of the most astonishing exertions. As the general election approached +the only question submitted to the electors was--Do you approve or +condemn Lord Beaconsfield's foreign policy? The answer was given at +Easter 1880, when the Liberals were returned by an overwhelming majority +over Tories and Home Rulers combined. Gladstone was now member for +Midlothian, having retired from Greenwich at the dissolution. + +When Lord Beaconsfield resigned, the queen sent for Lord Hartington, the +titular leader of the Liberals, but he and Lord Granville assured her +that no other chief than Gladstone would satisfy the party. Accordingly, +on the 23rd of April he became prime minister for the second time. His +second administration, of which the main achievement was the extension +of the suffrage to the agricultural labourers, was harassed by two +controversies, relating to Ireland and Egypt, which proved disastrous to +the Liberal party. Gladstone alienated considerable masses of English +opinion by his efforts to reform the tenure of Irish land, and provoked +the Irish people by his attempts to establish social order and to +repress crime. A bill to provide compensation for tenants who had been +evicted by Irish landlords passed the Commons, but was shipwrecked in +the Lords, and a ghastly record of outrage and murder stained the +following winter. A Coercion Bill and a Land Bill passed in 1881 proved +unsuccessful. On the 6th of May 1882 the newly appointed chief secretary +for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary, Mr +Burke, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park at Dublin. A new Crimes +Act, courageously administered by Lord Spencer and Sir George Trevelyan, +abolished exceptional crime in Ireland, but completed the breach between +the British government and the Irish party in parliament. + +The bombardment of the forts at Alexandria and the occupation of Egypt +in 1882 were viewed with great disfavour by the bulk of the Liberal +party, and were but little congenial to Gladstone himself. The +circumstances of General Gordon's untimely death awoke an outburst of +indignation against those who were, or seemed to be, responsible for it. +Frequent votes of censure were proposed by the Opposition, and on the +8th of June 1885 the government were beaten on the budget. Gladstone +resigned. The queen offered him the dignity of an earldom, which he +declined. He was succeeded by Lord Salisbury. + + + First Home Rule Bill. + +The general election took place in the following November. When it was +over the Liberal party was just short of the numerical strength which +was requisite to defeat the combination of Tories and Parnellites. A +startling surprise was at hand. Gladstone had for some time been +convinced of the expediency of conceding Home Rule to Ireland in the +event of the Irish constituencies giving unequivocal proof that they +desired it. His intentions were made known only to a privileged few, and +these, curiously, were not his colleagues. The general election of 1885 +showed that Ireland, outside Ulster, was practically unanimous for Home +Rule. On the 17th of December an anonymous paragraph was published, +stating that if Mr Gladstone returned to office he was prepared to "deal +in a liberal spirit with the demand for Home Rule." It was clear that if +Gladstone meant what he appeared to mean, the Parnellites would support +him, and the Tories must leave office. The government seemed to accept +the situation. When parliament met they executed, for form's sake, some +confused manoeuvres, and then they were beaten on an amendment to the +address in favour of Municipal Allotments. On the 1st of February 1886 +Gladstone became, for the third time, prime minister. Several of his +former colleagues declined to join him, on the ground of their absolute +hostility to the policy of Home Rule; others joined on the express +understanding that they were only pledged to consider the policy, and +did not fetter their further liberty of action. On the 8th of April +Gladstone brought in his bill for establishing Home Rule, and eight days +later the bill for buying out the Irish landlords. Meanwhile two members +of his cabinet, feeling themselves unable to support these measures, +resigned. Hostility to the bills grew apace. Gladstone was implored to +withdraw them, or substitute a resolution in favour of Irish autonomy; +but he resolved to press at least the Home Rule Bill to a second +reading. In the early morning of the 8th of June the bill was thrown out +by thirty. Gladstone immediately advised the queen to dissolve +parliament. Her Majesty strongly demurred to a second general election +within seven months; but Gladstone persisted, and she yielded. +Parliament was dissolved on the 26th of June. In spite of Gladstone's +skilful appeal to the constituencies to sanction the principle of Home +Rule, as distinct from the practical provisions of his late bill, the +general election resulted in a majority of considerably over 100 against +his policy, and Lord Salisbury resumed office. Throughout the existence +of the new parliament Gladstone never relaxed his extraordinary efforts, +though now nearer eighty than seventy, on behalf of the cause of +self-government for Ireland. The fertility of argumentative resource, +the copiousness of rhetoric, and the physical energy which he threw into +the enterprise, would have been remarkable at any stage of his public +life; continued into his eighty-fifth year they were little less than +miraculous. Two incidents of domestic interest, one happy and the other +sad, belong to that period of political storm and stress. On the 25th of +July 1889 Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage, +and on the 4th of July 1891 his eldest son, William Henry, a man of fine +character and accomplishments, died, after a lingering illness, in his +fifty-second year. + + + Second Home Rule Bill. + +The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was now +approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the 28th of June +1892. The general election resulted in a majority of forty for Home +Rule, heterogeneously composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish. As +soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence in Lord +Salisbury's government was moved and carried. Lord Salisbury resigned, +and on the 15th of August 1892 Gladstone kissed hands as first lord of +the treasury. He was the first English statesman that had been four +times prime minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone +brought in his new Home Rule Bill on the 13th of February. It passed the +House of Commons, but was thrown out by the House of Lords on the second +reading on the 8th of September 1893. Gladstone's political work was +now, in his own judgment, ended. He made his last speech in the House of +Commons on the 1st of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments +introduced by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of +March he placed his resignation in the queen's hands. He never set foot +again in the House of Commons, though he remained a member of it till +the dissolution of 1895. He paid occasional visits to friends in +London, Scotland and the south of France; but the remainder of his life +was spent for the most part at Hawarden. He occupied his leisure by +writing a rhymed translation of the Odes of Horace, and preparing an +elaborately annotated edition of Butler's _Analogy_ and _Sermons_. He +had also contemplated some addition to the Homeric studies which he had +always loved, but this design was never carried into effect, for he was +summoned once again from his quiet life of study and devotion to the +field of public controversy. The Armenian massacres in 1894 and 1895 +revived all his ancient hostility to "the governing Turk." He denounced +the massacres and their perpetrators at public meetings held at Chester +on the 6th of August 1895, and at Liverpool on the 24th of September +1896. In March 1897 he recapitulated the hideous history in an open +letter to the duke of Westminster. + + + Death. + +But the end, though not yet apprehended, was at hand. Since his +retirement from office Gladstone's physical vigour, up to that time +unequalled, had shown signs of impairment. Towards the end of the summer +of 1897 he began to suffer from an acute pain, which was attributed to +facial neuralgia, and in November he went to Cannes. In February 1898 he +returned to England and went to Bournemouth. There he was informed that +the pain had its origin in a disease which must soon prove fatal. He +received the information with simple thankfulness, and only asked that +he might die at home. On the 22nd of March he returned to Hawarden, and +there he died on the 19th of May 1898. During the night of the 25th of +May his body was conveyed from Hawarden to London and the coffin was +placed on a bier in Westminster Hall. Throughout the 26th and 27th a +vast train of people, officially estimated at 250,000, and drawn from +every rank and class, moved in unbroken procession past the bier. On the +28th of May the coffin, preceded by the two Houses of Parliament and +escorted by the chief magnates of the realm, was carried from +Westminster Hall to Westminster Abbey. The heir-apparent and his son, +the prime minister and the leader of the House of Commons, were among +those who bore the pall. The body was buried in the north transept of +the abbey, where, on the 19th of June 1900, Mrs Gladstone's body was +laid beside it. + + + Family. + +Mr and Mrs Gladstone had four sons and four daughters, of whom one died +in infancy. The eldest son, W. H. Gladstone (1840-1891), was a member of +parliament for many years, and married the daughter of Lord Blantyre, +his son William (b. 1885) inheriting the family estates. The fourth son, +Herbert John (b. 1854), sat in parliament for Leeds from 1880 to 1910, +and filled various offices, being home secretary 1905-1910; in 1910 he +was created Viscount Gladstone, on being appointed governor-general of +united South Africa. The eldest daughter, Agnes, married the Rev. E. C. +Wickham, headmaster of Wellington, 1873-1893, and later Dean of Lincoln. +Another daughter married the Rev. Harry Drew, rector of Hawarden. The +youngest, Helen, was for some years vice-principal of Newnham College, +Cambridge. + + + Character. + +After a careful survey of Mr Gladstone's life, enlightened by personal +observation, it is inevitable to attempt some analysis of his character. +First among his moral attributes must be placed his religiousness. From +those early days when a fond mother wrote of him as having been "truly +converted to God," down to the verge of ninety years, he lived in the +habitual contemplation of the unseen world, and regulated his private +and public action by reference to a code higher than that of mere +prudence or worldly wisdom. A second characteristic, scarcely less +prominent than the first, was his love of power. His ambition had +nothing in common with the vulgar eagerness for place and pay and social +standing. Rather it was a resolute determination to possess that control +over the machine of state which should enable him to fulfil without let +or hindrance the political mission with which he believed that +Providence had charged him. The love of power was supported by a +splendid fearlessness. No dangers were too threatening for him to face, +no obstacles too formidable, no tasks too laborious, no heights too +steep. The love of power and the supporting courage were allied with a +marked imperiousness. Of this quality there was no trace in his manner, +which was courteous, conciliatory and even deferential; nor in his +speech, which breathed an almost exaggerated humility. But the +imperiousness showed itself in the more effectual form of action; in his +sudden resolves, his invincible insistence, his recklessness of +consequences to himself and his friends, his habitual assumption that +the civilized world and all its units must agree with him, his indignant +astonishment at the bare thought of dissent or resistance, his +incapacity to believe that an overruling Providence would permit him to +be frustrated or defeated. He had by nature what he himself called a +"vulnerable temper and impetuous moods." But so absolute was his +lifelong self-mastery that he was hardly ever betrayed into saying that +which, on cooler reflection, needed to be recalled. It was easy enough +to see the "vulnerable temper" as it worked within, but it was never +suffered to find audible expression. It may seem paradoxical, but it is +true, to say that Mr Gladstone was by nature conservative. His natural +bias was to respect things as they were. In his eyes, institutions, +customs, systems, so long as they had not become actively mischievous, +were good because they were old. It is true that he was sometimes forced +by conviction or fate or political necessity to be a revolutionist on a +large scale; to destroy an established Church; to add two millions of +voters to the electorate; to attack the parliamentary union of the +kingdoms. But these changes were, in their inception, distasteful to +their author. His whole life was spent in unlearning the prejudices in +which he was educated. His love of freedom steadily developed, and he +applied its principles more and more courageously to the problems of +government. But it makes some difference to the future of a democratic +state whether its leading men are eagerly on the look-out for something +to revolutionize, or approach a constitutional change by the gradual +processes of conviction and conversion. + +Great as were his eloquence, his knowledge and his financial skill, +Gladstone was accustomed to say of himself that the only quality in +which, so far as he knew, he was distinguished from his fellow-men was +his faculty of concentration. Whatever were the matter in hand, he so +concentrated himself on it, and absorbed himself in it, that nothing +else seemed to exist for him. + +A word must be said about physical characteristics. In his prime +Gladstone was just six feet high, but his inches diminished as his years +increased, and in old age the unusual size of his head and breadth of +his shoulders gave him a slightly top-heavy appearance. His features +were strongly marked; the nose trenchant and hawk-like, and the mouth +severely lined. His flashing eyes were deep-set, and in colour resembled +the onyx with its double band of brown and grey. His complexion was of +an extreme pallor, and, combined with his jet-black hair, gave in +earlier life something of an Italian aspect to his face. His dark +eyebrows were singularly flexible, and they perpetually expanded and +contracted in harmony with what he was saying. He held himself +remarkably upright, and even from his school-days at Eton had been +remarked for the rapid pace at which he habitually walked. His voice was +a baritone, singularly clear and far-reaching. In the Waverley Market at +Edinburgh, which is said to hold 20,000 people, he could be heard +without difficulty; and as late as 1895 he said to the present writer: +"What difference does it make to me whether I speak to 400 or 4000 +people?" His physical vigour in old age earned him the popular nickname +of the Grand Old Man. + + Lord Morley of Blackburn's _Life of Gladstone_ was published in 1903. + (G. W. E. R.) + + + + +GLADSTONE, a seaport of Clinton county, Queensland, Australia, 328 m. by +rail N.E. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 1566. It possesses a fine, +well-sheltered harbour reputed one of the best in Queensland, at the +mouth of the river Boyne. Gold, manganese, copper and coal are found in +the neighbourhood. Gladstone, founded in 1847, became a municipality in +1863. + + See J. F. Hogan, _The Gladstone Colony_ (London, 1898). + + + + +GLAGOLITIC, an early Slavonic alphabet: also the liturgy written +therein, and the people (Dalmatians and Roman Catholic Montenegrins) +among whom it has survived by special licence of the Pope (see SLAVS for +table of letters). + + + + +GLAIR (from Fr. _glaire_, probably from Lat. _clarus_, clear, bright), +the white of an egg, and hence a term used for a preparation made of +this and used, in bookbinding and in gilding, to retain the gold and as +a varnish. The adjective "glairy" is used of substances having the +viscous and transparent consistency of the white of an egg. + + + + +GLAISHER, JAMES (1809-1903); English meteorologist and aeronaut, was +born in London on the 7th of April 1809. After serving for a few years +on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, he acted as an assistant at the +Cambridge and Greenwich observatories successively, and when the +department of meteorology and magnetism was formed at the latter, he was +entrusted with its superintendence, which he continued to exercise for +thirty-four years, until his retirement from the public service. In 1845 +he published his well-known dew-point tables, which have gone through +many editions. In 1850 he established the Meteorological Society, acting +as its secretary for many years, and in 1866 he assisted in the +foundation of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He was +appointed a member of the royal commission on the warming and +ventilation of dwellings in 1875, and for twelve years from 1880 acted +as chairman of the executive committee of the Palestine Exploration +Fund. But his name is best known in connexion with the series of balloon +ascents which he made between 1862 and 1866, mostly in company with +Henry Tracey Coxwell. Many of these ascents were arranged by a committee +of the British Association, of which he was a member, and were strictly +scientific in character, the object being to carry out observations on +the temperature, humidity, &c., of the atmosphere at high elevations. In +one of them, that which took place at Wolverhampton on the 5th of +September 1862, Glaisher and his companion attained the greatest height +that had been reached by a balloon carrying passengers. As no +automatically recording instruments were available, and Glaisher was +unable to read the barometer at the highest point owing to loss of +consciousness, the precise altitude can never be known, but it is +estimated at about 7 m. from the earth. He died on the 7th of February +1903 at Croydon. + + + + +GLAMIS, a village and parish of Forfarshire, Scotland, 5-3/4 m. W. by S. +of Forfar by the Caledonian railway. Pop. of parish (1901) 1351. The +name is sometimes spelled Glammis and the _i_ is mute: it is derived +from the Gaelic, _glamhus_, "a wide gap," "a vale." The chief object in +the village is the sculptured stone, traditionally supposed to be a +memorial of Malcolm II., although Fordun's statement that the king was +slain in the castle is now rejected. About a mile from the station +stands Glamis Castle, the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, +a fine example of the Scottish Baronial style, enriched with certain +features of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly from +the 17th century, but the original structure was as old as the 11th +century, for Macbeth was Thane of Glamis. Several of the early Scots +kings, especially Alexander III., used it occasionally as a residence. +Robert II. bestowed the thanedom on John Lyon, who had married the +king's second daughter by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the founder of the +existing family. Patrick Lyon became hostage to England for James I. in +1424. When, in 1537, Janet Douglas, widow of the 6th Lord Glamis, was +burned at Edinburgh as a witch, for conspiring to procure James V.'s +death, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but it was restored to her son +six years later when her innocence had been established. The 3rd earl of +Strathmore entertained the Old Chevalier and eighty of his immediate +followers in 1715. After discharging the duties of hospitality the earl +joined the Jacobites at Sheriffmuir and fell on the battlefield. Sir +Walter Scott spent a night in the "hoary old pile" when he was about +twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences in +his _Demonology and Witchcraft_. The hall has an arched ceiling and +several historical portraits, including those of Claverhouse, Charles +II. and James II. of England. At Cossans, in the parish of Glamis, there +is a remarkable sculptured monolith, and other examples occur at the +Hunters' Hill and in the old kirkyard of Eassie. + + + + +GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh _Morganwg_), a maritime county occupying the +south-east corner of Wales, and bounded N.W. by Carmarthenshire, N. by +Carmarthenshire and Breconshire, E. by Monmouthshire and S. and S.W. by +the Bristol Channel and Carmarthen Bay. The contour of the county is +largely determined by the fact that it lies between the mountains of +Breconshire and the Bristol Channel. Its extreme breadth from the sea +inland is 29 m., while its greatest length from east to west is 53 m. +Its chief rivers, the Rhymney, Taff, Neath (or Nedd) and Tawe or Tawy, +have their sources in the Breconshire mountains, the two first trending +towards the south-east, while the two last trend to the south-west, so +that the main body of the county forms a sort of quarter-circle between +the Taff and the Neath. Near the apex of the angle formed by these two +rivers is the loftiest peak in the county, the great Pennant scarp of +Craig y Llyn or Carn Moesyn, 1970 ft. high, which in the Glacial period +diverted the ice-flow from the Beacons into the valley on either side of +it. To the south and south-east of this peak extend the great +coal-fields of mid-Glamorgan, their surface forming an irregular plateau +with an average elevation of 600 to 1200 ft. above sea-level, but with +numerous peaks about 1500 ft. high, or more; Mynydd y Caerau, the second +highest being 1823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved, to the +depth of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series +of narrow valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel. The +rivers which give their names to these valleys include the Cynon, the +Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taff) and the Ely flowing +to the S.E., the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its tributaries the Garw and +Llynfi) flowing south through Bridgend, and the Avan bringing the waters +of the Corwg and Gwynfi to the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon. +To the south of this central hill country, which is wet, cold and +sterile, and whose steep slopes form the southern edge of the +coal-field, there stretches out to the sea a gently undulating plain, +compendiously known as the "Vale of Glamorgan," but in fact consisting +of a succession of small vales of such fertile land and with such a mild +climate that it has been styled, not inaptly, the "Garden of Wales." To +the east of the central area referred to and divided from it by a spur +of the Brecknock mountains culminating in Carn Bugail, 1570 ft. high, is +the Rhymney, which forms the county's eastern boundary. On the west +other spurs of the Beacons divide the Neath from the Tawe (which enters +the sea at Swansea), and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with its +tributary the Amman, separates the county on the N.W. from +Carmarthenshire, in which it rises, and falling into Carmarthen Bay +forms what is known as the Burry estuary, so called from a small stream +of that name in the Gower peninsula. The rivers are all comparatively +short, the Taff, in every respect the chief river, being only 33 m. +long. + +Down to the middle of the 19th century most of the Glamorgan valleys +were famous for their beautiful scenery, but industrial operations have +since destroyed most of this beauty, except in the so-called "Vale of +Glamorgan," the Vale of Neath, the "combes" and limestone gorges of +Gower and the upper reaches of the Taff and the Tawe. The Vale of Neath +is _par excellence_ the waterfall district of South Wales, the finest +falls being the Cilhepste fall, the Sychnant and the three Clungwyns on +the Mellte and its tributaries near the Vale of Neath railway from Neath +to Hirwaun, Scwd Einon Gam and Scwd Gladys on the Pyrddin on the west +side of the valley close by, with Melin Court and Abergarwed still +nearer Neath. There are also several cascades on the Dulais, and in the +same district, though in Breconshire, is Scwd Henrhyd on the Llech near +Colbren Junction. Almost the only part of the county which is now well +timbered is the Vale of Neath. There are three small lakes, Llyn Fawr +and Llyn Fach near Craig y Llyn and Kenfig Pool amid the sand-dunes of +Margam. The rainfall of the county varies from an average of about 25 +in. at Porthcawl and other parts of the Vale of Glamorgan to about 37 +in. at Cardiff, 40 in. at Swansea and to upwards of 70 in. in the +northern part of the county, the fall being still higher in the +adjoining parts of Breconshire whence Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr and a +large area near Neath draw their main supplies of water. + +The county has a coast-line of about 83 m. Its two chief bays are the +Burry estuary and Swansea, one on either side of the Gower Peninsula, +which has also a number of smaller inlets with magnificent cliff +scenery. The rest of the coast is fairly regular, the chief openings +being at the mouths of the Ogmore and the Taff respectively. The most +conspicuous headlands are Whiteford Point, Worms Head and Mumbles Head +in Gower, Nash Point and Lavernock Point on the eastern half of the +coast. + + _Geology._--The Silurian rocks, the oldest in the county, form a small + inlier about 2 sq. m. in area at Rumney and Pen-y-lan, north of + Cardiff, and consist of mudstones and sandstones of Wenlock and Ludlow + age; a feeble representative of the Wenlock Limestone also is present. + They are conformably succeeded by the Old Red Sandstone which extends + westwards as far as Cowbridge as a deeply eroded anticline largely + concealed by Trias and Lias. The Old Red Sandstone consists in the + lower parts of red marls and sandstones, while the upper beds are + quartzitic and pebbly, and form bold scarps which dominate the low + ground formed by the softer beds below. Cefn-y-bryn, another anticline + of Old Red Sandstone (including small exposures of Silurian rocks), + forms the prominent backbone of the Gower peninsula. The next + formation is the Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies + the great South Wales coal-field, on the south of which, west of + Cardiff, it forms a bold escarpment of steeply-dipping beds + surrounding the Old Red Sandstone anticline. It shows up through the + Trias and Lias in extensive inliers near Bridgend, while in Gower it + dips away from the Old Red Sandstone of Cefn-y-bryn. On the north of + the coal-field it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone + Grit, which consists of grits, sandstones and shales, crops out above + the limestone and serves to introduce the Coal Measures, which lie in + the form of a great trough extending east and west across the county + and occupying most of its surface. The coal seams are most numerous in + the lower part of the series; the Pennant Sandstone succeeds and + occupies the inner parts of the basin, forming an elevated moorland + region deeply trenched by the teeming valleys (e.g. the Rhondda) which + cross the coal-field from north to south. Above the Pennant Sandstone + still higher coals come in. Taken generally, the coals are bituminous + in the south-east and anthracitic in the north-west. + + After the Coal Measures had been deposited, the southern part of the + region was subjected to powerful folding; the resulting anticlines + were worn down during a long period of detrition, and then submerged + slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the Keuper + conglomerates and marls which spread over the district west of Cardiff + and are traceable on the coast of Gower. The succeeding Rhaetic and + Lias which form most of the coastal plain (the fertile Vale of + Glamorgan) from Penarth to near Bridgend were laid down by the + Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is traceable in Gower. + Sand-dunes are present locally around Swansea Bay. Moraines, chiefly + formed of gravel and clay, occupy many of the Glamorgan valleys; and + these, together with the striated surfaces which may be observed at + higher levels, are clearly glacial in origin. In the Coal Measures and + the newer Limestones and Triassic, Rhaetic and Liassic conglomerates, + marls and shales, many interesting fossils have been disinterred: + these include the remains of an air-breathing reptile + (_Anthracespeton_). Bones of the cave-bear, lion, mammoth, reindeer, + rhinoceros, along with flint weapons and tools, have been discovered + in some caves of the Gower peninsula. + + _Agriculture._--The low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to + Margam is very fertile, the soil being a deep rich loam; and here the + standard of agriculture is fairly high, and there prevails a + well-defined tenant-right custom, supposed to be of ancient origin but + probably dating only from the beginning of the 19th century. + Everywhere on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while vegetation is + also injured by the smoke from the works, especially copper smoke. + Leland (c. 1535) describes the lowlands as growing good corn and grass + but little wood, while the mountains had "redde dere, kiddes plenty, + oxen and sheep." The land even in the "Vale" seems to have been open + and unenclosed till the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th + century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later. About + one-fifth of the total area is still common land, more than half of + which is unsuitable for cultivation. The total area under cultivation + in 1905 was 269,271 acres or about one-half of the total area of the + county. The chief crops raised (giving them in the order of their + respective acreages) are oats, barley, turnips and swedes, wheat, + potatoes and mangolds. A steady decrease of the acreage under + grain-crops, green-crops and clover has been accompanied by an + increase in the area of pasture. Dairying has been largely abandoned + for stock-raising, and very little "Caerphilly cheese" is now made in + that district. In 1905 Glamorgan had the largest number of horses in + agriculture of any Welsh county except those of Carmarthen and + Cardigan. Good sheep and ponies are reared in the hill-country. + Pig-keeping is much neglected, and despite the mild climate very + little fruit is grown. The average size of holdings in 1905 was 47.3 + acres, there being only 46 holdings above 300 acres, and 1719 between + 50 and 500 acres. + + _Mining and Manufactures._--Down to the middle of the 18th century the + county had no industry of any importance except agriculture. The coal + which underlies practically the whole surface of the county except the + Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was little worked till about 1755, + when it began to be used instead of charcoal for the smelting of iron. + By 1811, when there were 25 blast furnaces in the county, the demand + for coal for this purpose had much increased, but it was in the most + active period of railway construction that it reached its maximum. + Down to about 1850, if not later, the chief collieries were owned by + the ironmasters and were worked for their own requirements, but when + the suitability of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff + for steam purposes was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon + assumed enormous proportions, so that "the port of Cardiff" (including + Barry and Penarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped, + became the first port in the world for the shipment of coal. The + development of the anthracite coal-field lying to the north and west + of Swansea (from which port it is mostly shipped) dates mainly from + the closing years of the 19th century, when the demand for this coal + grew rapidly. There are still large areas in the Rhymney Valley on the + east, and in the districts of Neath and Swansea on the west, whose + development has only recently been undertaken. In connexion with the + coal industry, patent fuel (made from small coal and tar) is largely + manufactured at Cardiff, Port Talbot and Swansea, the shipments from + Swansea being the largest in the kingdom. Next in importance to coal + are the iron, steel and tin-plate industries, and in the Swansea + district the smelting of copper and a variety of other ores. + + The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Dowlais, Merthyr + Tydfil, Cardiff, Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea, + Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the 19th century + the use of the native ironstone was almost wholly given up, and the + necessary ore is now imported, mainly from Spain. As a result several + of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare, Ystalyfera and + Brynaman have been abandoned, and new works have been established on + or near the sea-board; e.g. the Dowlais company in 1891 opened large + works at Cardiff. The tin-plate industry is mainly confined to the + west of the county, Swansea being the chief port for the shipment of + tin-plates, though there are works near Llantrisant and at Melin + Griffith near Cardiff, the latter being the oldest in the county. + Copper-smelting is carried on on a large scale in the west of the + county, at Port Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and Swansea, and on a small + scale at Cardiff, the earliest works having been established at Neath + in 1584 and at Swansea in 1717. There are nickel works at Clydach near + Swansea, the nickel being imported in the form of "matte" from Canada. + Swansea has almost a monopoly of the manufacture of spelter or zinc. + Lead, silver and a number of other metals or their by-products are + treated in or near Swansea, which is often styled the "metallurgical + capital of Wales." Limestone and silica quarries are worked, while + sandstone and clay are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly + famous for their china, coarse ware is still made chiefly at Ewenny + and terra-cotta at Pencoed. Large numbers of people are employed in + engineering works and in the manufacture of machines, chains, + conveyances, tools, paper and chemicals. The textile factories are few + and unimportant. + + _Fisheries._--Fisheries exist all along the coast; by lines, + draught-nets, dredging, trawling, fixed nets and by hand. There is a + fleet of trawlers at Swansea. The principal fish caught are cod, + herring, pollock, whiting, flukes, brill, plaice, soles, turbot, + oysters, mussels, limpets, cockles, shrimps, crabs and lobsters. There + are good fish-markets at Swansea and Cardiff. + + _Communications._--The county has ample dock accommodation. The + various docks of Cardiff amount to 210 acres, including timber ponds; + Penarth has a dock and basin of 26 acres and a tidal harbour of 55 + acres. Barry docks cover 114 acres; Swansea has 147 acres, including + its new King's Dock; and Port Talbot 90 acres. There are also docks at + Briton Ferry and Porthcawl, but they are not capable of admitting + deep-draft vessels. + + Besides its ports, Glamorgan has abundant means of transit in many + railways, of which the Great Western is the chief. Its trunk line + traversing the country between the mountains and the sea passes + through Cardiff, Bridgend and Landore (on the outskirts of Swansea), + and throws off numerous branches to the north. The Taff Vale railway + serves all the valley of the Taff and its tributaries, and has also + extensions to Barry and (through Llantrisant and Cowbridge) to + Aberthaw. The Rhymney railway likewise serves the Rhymney Valley, and + has a joint service with the Great Western between Cardiff and Merthyr + Tydfil--the latter town being also the terminus of the Brecon and + Merthyr and a branch of the North-Western from Abergavenny. The Barry + railway visits Cardiff and then travels in a north-westerly direction + to Pontypridd and Porth, while it sends another branch along the coast + through Llantwit Major to Bridgend. Swansea is connected with Merthyr + by the Great Western, with Brecon by the Midland, with Craven Arms and + Mid-Wales generally by the London & North-Western, with the Rhondda + Valley by the Rhondda and Swansea Bay (now worked by the Great + Western) and with Mumbles by the Mumbles railway. The Port Talbot + railway runs to Blaengarw, and the Neath and Brecon railway (starting + from Neath) joins the Midland at Colbren Junction. The canals of the + county are the Glamorgan canal from Cardiff to Merthyr Tydfil (25-1/2 + m.), with a branch (7 m.) to Aberdare, the Neath canal (13 m.) from + Briton Ferry to Abernant, Glyn Neath (whence a tramway formerly + connected it with Aberdare), the Tennant canal connecting the rivers + Neath and Tawe, and the Swansea canal (16-1/2 m.), running up the + Swansea Valley from Swansea to Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively + little use is now made of these canals, excepting the lower portions + of the Glamorgan canal. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county with + which the administrative county is conterminous is 518,863 acres, with + a population in 1901 of 859,931 persons. In the three decades between + 1831 and 1861 it increased 35.2, 35.4 and 37.1% respectively, and in + 1881-1891, 34.4, its average increase in the other decennial periods + subsequent to 1861 being about 25%. The county is divided into five + parliamentary divisions (viz. Glamorganshire East, South and Middle, + Gower and Rhondda); it also includes the Cardiff district of boroughs + (consisting of Cardiff, Cowbridge and Llantrisant), which has one + member; the greater part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr + Tydfil (which mainly consists of the county borough of Merthyr, the + urban district of Aberdare and part of Mountain Ash), and returns two + members; and the two divisions of Swansea District returning one + member each, one division consisting of the major part of Swansea + town, the other comprising the remainder of Swansea and the boroughs + of Aberavon, Kenfig, Llwchwr and Neath. There are six municipal + boroughs: Aberavon (pop. in 1901, 7553), Cardiff (164,333), Cowbridge + (1202), Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), Neath (13,720) and Swansea (94,537). + Cardiff (which in 1905 was created a city), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea + are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aberdare + (43,365), Barry (27,030), Bridgend (6062), Briton Ferry (6973), + Caerphilly (15,835), Glyncorrwg (6452), Maesteg (15,012), Margam + (9014), Mountain Ash (31,093); Ogmore and Garw (19,907), Oystermouth + (4461), Penarth (14,228), Pontypridd (32,316); Porthcawl (1872) and + Rhondda, previously known as Ystradyfodwg (113,735). Glamorgan is in + the S. Wales circuit, and both assizes and quarter-sessions are held + at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. All the municipal boroughs have + separate commissions of the peace, and Cardiff and Swansea have also + separate courts of quarter-sessions. The county has thirteen other + petty sessional divisions, Cardiff, the Rhondda (with Pontypridd) and + the Merthyr and Aberdare district have stipendiary magistrates. There + are 165 civil parishes. Excepting the districts of Gower and Kilvey, + which are in the diocese of St David's, the whole county is in the + diocese of Llandaff. There are 159 ecclesiastical parishes or + districts situated wholly or partly within the county. + +_History._--The earliest known traces of man within the area of the +present county are the human remains found in the famous bone-caves of +Gower, though they are scanty as compared with the huge deposits of +still earlier animal remains. To a later stage, perhaps in the Neolithic +period, belongs a number of complete skeletons discovered in 1903 in +sand-blown tumuli at the mouth of the Ogmore, where many flint +implements were also found. Considerably later, and probably belonging +to the Bronze Age (though finds of bronze implements have been scanty), +are the many cairns and tumuli, mainly on the hills, such as on Garth +Mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east of the Tawe; the +stone circles often found in association with the tumuli, that of Carn +Llecharth near Pontardawe being one of the most complete in Wales; and +the fine cromlechs of Cefn Bryn in Gower (known as Arthur's Stone), of +St Nicholas and of St Lythan's near Cardiff. + +In Roman times the country from the Neath to the Wye was occupied by the +Silures, a pre-Celtic race, probably governed at that time by Brythonic +Celts. West of the Neath and along the fringe of the Brecknock Mountains +were probably remnants of the earlier Goidelic Celts, who have left +traces in the place-names of the Swansea valley (e.g. _llwch_, "a lake") +and in the illegible Ogham inscription at Loughor, the only other Ogham +stone in the county being at Kenfig, a few miles to the east of the +Neath estuary. The conquest of the Silures by the Romans was begun about +A.D. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and completed some 25 years later by Julius +Frontinus, who probably constructed the great military road, called Via +Julia Maritima, from Gloucester to St David's, with stations at Cardiff, +Bovium (variously identified with Boverton, Cowbridge and Ewenny), Nidum +(identified with Neath) and Leucarum or Loughor. The important station +of Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch roads, one +running from Cardiff through Gelligaer (where there was a strong hill +fort) and Merthyr Tydfil, and another from Neath through Capel Colbren. +Welsh tradition credits Glamorgan with being the first home of +Christianity, and Llandaff the earliest bishopric in Britain, the name +of three reputed missionaries of the 2nd century being preserved in the +names of parishes in south Glamorgan. What is certain, however, is that +the first two bishops of Llandaff, St Dubricius and St Teilo, lived +during the first half of the 6th century, to which period also belongs +the establishment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarvan by +Cadoc, of Llandough by Oudoceus and of Llantwit Major by Illtutus, the +last of which flourished as a seat of learning down to the 12th century. +A few moated mounds such as at Cardiff indicate that, after the +withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were visited by sporadic bands of +Saxons, but the Scandinavians who came in the 9th and succeeding +centuries left more abundant traces both in the place-names of the coast +and in such camps as that on Sully Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry +and Hardings Down in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes of the district +had regained their independence under a line of Welsh chieftains, whose +domain was consolidated into a principality known as Glywyssing, till +about the end of the 10th century when it acquired the name of Morganwg, +that is the territory of Morgan, a prince who died in A.D. 980; it then +comprised the whole country from the Neath to the Wye, practically +corresponding to the present diocese of Llandaff. Gwlad Morgan, later +softened into Glamorgan, never had much vogue and meant precisely the +same as Morganwg, though the two terms became differentiated a few +centuries later. + +The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the closing years of the +11th century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of Gloucester. His followers +settled in the low-lying lands of the "Vale," which became known as the +"body" of the shire, while in the hill country, which consisted of ten +"members," corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh +retained their customary laws and much of their independence. Glamorgan, +whose bounds were now contracted between the Neath and the Rhymney, then +became a lordship marcher, its status and organization being that of a +county palatine; its lord possessed _jura regalia_, and his chief +official was from the first a _vice-comes_, or sheriff, who presided +over a county court composed of his lord's principal tenants. The +inhabitants of Cardiff in which, as the _caput baroniae_, this court was +held (though sometimes ambulatory), were soon granted municipal +privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon and +Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial system was +introduced throughout the "Vale," the manor in many cases becoming the +parish, and the owner building for its protection first a castle and +then a church. The church itself became Normanized, and monasteries were +established--the Cistercian abbey of Neath and Margam in 1129 and 1147 +respectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141 and that of +Cardiff in 1147. Dominican and Franciscan houses were also founded at +Cardiff in the following century. + +Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between Neath and +Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered about 1100 by Henry de +Newburgh, 1st earl of Warwick, by whose descendants and the powerful +family of De Breos it was successively held as a marcher lordship, +organized to some extent on county lines, till 1469. Swansea (which was +the _caput baroniae_ of Gower) and Loughor received their earlier +charters from the lords of Gower (see GOWER). + +For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon's time the lordship of +Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, a title conferred by +Henry I. on his natural son Robert, who acquired Glamorgan by marrying +Fitzhamon's daughter. To the 1st earl's patronage of Geoffrey of +Monmouth and other men of letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he was the +builder, is probably due the large place which Celtic romance, +especially the Arthurian cycle, won for itself in medieval literature. +The lordship passed by descent through the families of Clare (who held +it from 1217 to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III., +on whose fall it escheated to the crown. From time to time, the Welsh of +the hills, often joined by their countrymen from other parts, raided +the Vale, and even Cardiff Castle was seized about 1153 by Ivor Bach, +lord of Senghenydd, who for a time held its lord a prisoner. At last +Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them in check, but this provoked an +invasion in 1270 by Prince Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle +and refused to retire except on conditions. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed +a revolt in the same district, but being defeated was put to death by +Despenser, whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less +safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404 Glendower +swept through the county, burning castles and laying waste the +possessions of the king's supporters. By the Act of Union of 1535 the +county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it now exists, by the addition +to the old county of the lordship of Gower and Kilvey, west of the +Neath. By another act of 1542 the court of great sessions was +established, and Glamorgan, with the counties of Brecon and Radnor, +formed one of its four Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, when the +English assize system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the +county was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two in +1832 and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a member. In 1832 +Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the Swansea group of boroughs +and the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil were given one member +each, increased to two, in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885 +the Swansea group was divided into two constituencies with a member +each. + +The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was granted +by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards 1st earl of Pembroke, from +whom it has descended to the present marquess of Bute. + +The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the +inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even the +descendants of the Norman knights had largely become Welsh both in +speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the prevalent speech almost +throughout the county, except in the peninsular part of Gower and +perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter of the 19th century. Since then +it has lost ground in the maritime towns and the south-east corner of +the county generally, while fairly holding its own, despite much English +migration, in the industrial districts to the north. In 1901 about 56% +of the total population above three years of age was returned as +speaking English only, 37% as speaking both English and Welsh, and about +6-1/2% as speaking Welsh only. + +In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly Royalist in the +Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its readiness to pay ship-money, +but when Charles I. visited Cardiff in July 1645 he failed to recruit +his army there, owing to the dissatisfaction of the county, which a few +months later declared for the parliament. There was, however, a +subsequent Royalist revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was signally +crushed by Colonel Horton at the battle of St Fagan's (8th of May). + +The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the great +university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century, and by the +dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent filled by the +foundation, by the Stradling family, of a grammar school at Cowbridge +which, refounded in 1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, is still carried on as +an endowed school. The only other ancient grammar school is that of +Swansea, founded by Bishop Gore in 1682, and now under the control of +the borough council. Besides the University College of South Wales and +Monmouthshire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college at +Swansea, there is a Church of England theological college (St Michael's) +at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training college for +school-mistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at Cardiff and +Swansea and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and Pontypridd. + +_Antiquities._--The antiquities of the county not already mentioned +include an unusually large number of castles, all of which, except the +castles of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil), Castell Coch and Llantrisant, +are between the hill country and the sea. The finest specimen is that of +Caerphilly, but there are also more or less imposing ruins at +Oystermouth, Coity, Newcastle (at Bridgend), Llanblethian, Pennard and +Swansea. Among the restored castles, resided in by their present +owners, are St Donat's, "the latest and most complete of the structures +built for defence," Cardiff, the residence of the marquess of Bute, St +Fagan's, Dunraven, Fonmon and Penrice. Of the monastic buildings, that +of Ewenny is best preserved, Neath and Margam are mere ruins, while all +the others have disappeared. Almost all the older churches possess +towers of a somewhat military character, and most of them, except in +Gower, retain some Norman masonry. Coity, Coychurch and Ewenny (all near +Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled towers +characteristic of the county. There are interesting monumental effigies +at St Mary's, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny, Llantwit Major, Llantrisant, +Coity and other churches in the Vale. There are from twenty-five to +thirty sculptured stones, of which some sixteen are both ornamented and +inscribed, five of the latter being at Margam and three at Llantwit +Major, and dating from the 9th century if not earlier. + + AUTHORITIES.--The records of the _Curia comitatus_ or County Court of + Glamorgan are supposed to have perished, so also have the records of + Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the county have been well + preserved. A collection edited by G. T. Clark under the title _Cartae + et alia munimenta quae ad dominium de Glamorgan pertinent_ was + privately printed by him in four volumes (1885-1893). _A Descriptive + Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam Abbey MSS. in the Possession of + Miss Talbot of Margam_ (6 vols.) was privately issued (1893-1905) + under the editorship of Dr de Gray Birch, who has also published + histories of the Abbeys of Neath and Margam. The _Book of Llan Daf_ + (edited by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative + of the early history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has published + its _Records_ in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters. + There is no complete history of the county, except a modest but useful + one in Welsh--_Hanes Morganwg_, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd Morganwg) + (1874); the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's _Booke of + Glamorganshire's Antiquities_, written in 1578; _The Land of Morgan_ + (1883) (a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose + _Genealogies of Glamorgan_ (1886) and _Medieval Military Architecture_ + (1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, _Annals and + Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales_ (2 vols., + 1872). For Gower, see GOWER. (D. Ll. T.) + + + + +GLANDERS, or FARCY (_Equinia_), a specific infective and contagious +disease, caused by a tissue parasite (_Bacillus mallei_), to which +certain animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are liable, and which +is communicable from them to man. Glanders in the domesticated animals +is dealt with under VETERINARY SCIENCE; it is happily a rare form of +disease in man, there being evidently less affinity for its development +in the human subject than in the equine species. For the pathology see +the article PARASITIC DISEASES. It occurs chiefly among those who from +their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as grooms, +coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary surgeons, &c.; the bacillus is +communicated from a glandered animal either through a wound or scratch +or through application to the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth. A +period of incubation, lasting from three to five days, generally follows +the introduction of the virus into the human system. This period, +however, appears sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially +where there has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The first +symptoms are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the +limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If the disease +has been introduced by means of an abraded surface, pain is felt at that +point, and inflammatory swelling takes place there, and extends along +the neighbouring lymphatics. An ulcer is formed at the point of +inoculation which discharges an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the +inflamed skin, along with diffuse abscesses, as in phlegmonous +erysipelas. Sometimes the disease stops short with these local +manifestations, but more commonly goes on rapidly accompanied with +symptoms of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface of +the body there appear numerous red spots or pustules, which break and +discharge a thick mucous or sanguineous fluid. Besides these there are +larger swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous tissue, which at first +are extremely hard and painful, and to which the term farcy "buds" or +"buttons" is applied. These ultimately open and become extensive +sloughing ulcers. + +The mucous membranes participate in the same lesions as are present in +the skin, and this is particularly the case with the interior of the +nose, where indeed, in many instances, the disease first of all shows +itself. This organ becomes greatly swollen and inflamed, while from one +or both nostrils there exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive +purulent or sanguineous matter. The lining membrane of the nostrils is +covered with papules similar in character to those on the skin, which +form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the cartilaginous and +bony textures of the nose. The diseased action extends into the throat, +mouth and eyes, while the whole face becomes swollen and erysipelatous, +and the lymphatic glands under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not +unfrequently the bronchial tubes become affected, and cough attended +with expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the nose is +the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms are exceedingly +severe, and advance with great rapidity, the patient passing into a +state of extreme prostration. In the acute form of the disease recovery +rarely if ever occurs, and the case generally terminates fatally in a +period varying from two or three days to as many weeks. + +A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with, in which +the symptoms, although essentially the same as those above described, +advance much more slowly, and are attended with relatively less urgent +constitutional disturbance. Cases of recovery from this form are on +record; but in general the disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion +of the patient, or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of +the acute form. On the other hand, acute glanders is never observed to +become chronic. + +In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance is mainly +placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength by strong +nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization should be resorted to if +the point of infection is early known. Abscesses may be opened and +antiseptic lotions used. In all cases of the outbreak of glanders it is +of the utmost consequence to prevent the spread of the disease by the +destruction of affected animals and the cleansing and disinfection of +infected localities. + + + + +GLANVILL (or GLANVIL), JOSEPH (1636-1680); English philosopher, was born +at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated at Exeter and Lincoln colleges, +Oxford, where he graduated as M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was +successively rector of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood, +Somersetshire, rector of Streat and Walton. In 1666 he was appointed to +the abbey church, Bath; in 1678 he became prebendary of Worcester +Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. from 1672. +He died at Bath in November 1680. Glanvill's first work (a passage in +which suggested the theme of Matthew Arnold's _Scholar Gipsy_), _The +Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions, manifested in a +Discourse of the shortness and uncertainty of our Knowledge, and its +Causes, with Reflexions on Peripateticism, and an Apology for +Philosophy_ (1661), is interesting as showing one special direction in +which the new method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed. +Pascal had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be employed +as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the same track. The +philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole system of things by referring +all events to their causes appears to him to be from the outset doomed +to failure. For if we inquire into this causal relation we find that +though we know isolated facts, we cannot perceive any such connexion +between them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the words +of Hume, "they seem conjoined but never connected." All causes then are +but secondary, i.e. merely the occasions on which the one first cause +operates. It is singular enough that Glanvill who had not only shown, +but even exaggerated, the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an +example of its weakness; for, after having combated scientific +dogmatism, he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, but actually +endeavoured to accredit them both in his revised edition of the _Vanity +of Dogmatizing_, published as _Scepsis scientifica_ (1665, ed. Rev. John +Owen, 1885), and in his _Philosophical Considerations concerning the +existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery_ (1666). The latter work appears to +have been based on the story of the drum which was alleged to have been +heard every night in a house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mr +Mompesson), a story which made much noise in the year 1663, and which is +supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea of his comedy the +_Drummer_. At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled _Sadducismus +Triumphatus_ (printed in 1681, reprinted with some additions in 1682, +German trans. 1701). He had there collected twenty-six relations or +stories of the same description as that of the drum, in order to +establish, by a series of facts, the opinion which he had expressed in +his _Philosophical Considerations_. Glanvill supported a much more +honourable cause when he undertook the defence of the Royal Society of +London, under the title of _Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement +of Science since the time of Aristotle_ (1668), a work which shows how +thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical method. + + Besides the works already noticed, Glanvill wrote _Lux orientalis_ + (1662); _Philosophia pia_ (1671); _Essays on Several Important + Subjects in Philosophy and Religion_ (1676); _An Essay concerning + Preaching; and Sermons_. See C. Remusat, _Hist. de la phil. en + Angleterre_, bk. iii. ch. xi.; W. E. H. Lecky, _Rationalism in Europe_ + (1865), i. 120-128; Hallam's _Literature of Europe_, iii. 358-362; + Tulloch's _Rational Theology_, ii. 443-455. + + + + +GLANVILL, RANULF DE (sometimes written GLANVIL, GLANVILLE) (d. 1190), +chief justiciar of England and reputed author of a book on English law, +was born at Stratford in Suffolk, but in what year is unknown. There is +but little information regarding his early life. He first comes to the +front as sheriff of Yorkshire from 1163 to 1170. In 1173 he became +sheriff of Lancashire and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In 1174 +he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick, and it was +to him that the king of the Scots, William the Lion, surrendered. In +1175 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire, in 1176 he became justice +of the king's court and a justice itinerant in the northern circuit, and +in 1180 chief justiciar of England. It was with his assistance that +Henry II. completed his judicial reforms, though the principal of them +had been carried out before he came into office. He became the king's +right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in effect +viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189, Glanvill was +removed from his office by Richard I., and imprisoned till he had paid a +ransom, according to one authority, of L15,000. Shortly after obtaining +his freedom he took the cross, and he died at the siege of Acre in 1190. +At the instance, it may be, of Henry II., Glanvill wrote or +superintended the writing of the _Tractatus de legibus et +consuetudinibus regni Angliae_, which is a practical treatise on the +forms of procedure in the king's court. As the source of our knowledge +regarding the earliest form of the _curia regis_, and for the +information it affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of +great value to the student of English history. It is now generally +agreed that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish +law book known from its first words as _Regiam Majestatem_, a work which +bears a close resemblance to his. + + The treatise of Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English + translation, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was published + at London in 1812. A French version is found in various MSS., but has + not yet been printed. (See also ENGLISH LAW: _History of_.) + + + + +GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fl. 1635-1642), English poet and dramatist, wrote in +the reign of Charles I. All that is known of him is gathered from his +own work. He published _Poems_ (1639), many of them in praise of an +unidentified "Lucinda"; a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome, +whose _Poems Divine and Humane_ he edited in 1641; and _Whitehall_ +(1642), dedicated to his "noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard +Lovelace." The first volume contains a poem in honour of the duke of +York, and _Whitehall_ is a review of the past glories of the English +court, containing abundant evidences of the writer's devotion to the +royal cause. _Argalus and Parthenia_ (1639) is a pastoral tragedy +founded on an episode in Sidney's _Arcadia; Albertus Wallenstein_ +(1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy, represents Wallenstein +as a monster of pride and cruelty. His other plays are _The Hollander_ +(written 1635; printed 1640), a romantic comedy of which the scene is +laid in Genoa; _Wit in a Constable_ (1640), which is probably a version +of an earlier play, and owes something to Shakespeare's _Much Ado about +Nothing_; and _The Ladies Priviledge_ (1640). _The Lady Mother_ (1635) +has been identified (Fleay, _Biog. Chron. of the Drama_) with _The Noble +Trial_, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton's cook, and Mr A. H. +Bullen prints it in vol. ii. of his _Old English Plays_ as most probably +Glapthorne's work. _The Paraside, or Revenge for Honour_ (1654), entered +at Stationers' Hall in 1653 as Glapthorne's, was printed in the next +year with George Chapman's name on the title-page. It should probably be +included among Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above +the level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous isolated +passages. + + The _Plays and Poems of Henry Glapthorne_ (1874) contains an unsigned + memoir, which, however, gives no information about the dramatist's + life. There is no reason for supposing that the George Glapthorne of + whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet. + + + + +GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), one of the Swiss cantons, the name being taken +from that of its chief town. Its area is 266.8 sq. m., of which 173.1 +sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 41 sq. m.), but it +also contains 13.9 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking as the fifth Swiss canton +in this respect. It is thus a mountain canton, the loftiest point in it +being the Todi (11,887 ft.), the highest summit that rises to the north +of the upper Aar and Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper +valley of the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a +line drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river rises in +the glaciers of the Todi, and has carved out for itself a deep bed, so +that the floor of the valley is comparatively level, and therefore is +occupied by a number of considerable villages. Glacier passes only lead +from its head to the Grisons, save the rough footpath over the Kisten +Pass, while a fine new carriage road over the Klausen Pass gives access +to the canton of Uri. The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the +Grossthal (main valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or +south-eastern) tributary, the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it +at Schwanden, a little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal +a mule track leads to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass, as also a +footpath over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another glen +(coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is watered by +the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass (a mule path, converted +into a carriage road) leads over to the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen +(uninhabited save in summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine +bold mass of the Glarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is +similarly cut off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running +northwards from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177 +ft.). The principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are of a +thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine waterfalls +near the head of the main valley, such as those formed by the Sandbach, +the Schreienbach and the Fatschbach. The Pantenbrucke, thrown over the +narrow cleft formed by the Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the +Alps below the snow-line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near +Linthal village, and an iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley +there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm those of +the Tschingelberg, whence a terrific landslip descended to Elm (11th +September 1881), destroying many houses and killing 115 persons. A +railway runs through the whole canton from north to south past Glarus to +Linthal village (16-1/4 m.), while from Schwanden there is an electric +line (opened in 1905) up to Elm (8-3/4 m.). + +In 1900 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease on the +33,825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which shows a +decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking, while there were 24,403 +Protestants, 7918 Romanists (many in Nafels) and 3 Jews. After the +capital, Glarus (q.v.), the largest villages are Nafels (2557 +inhabitants), Ennenda (2494 inhabitants, opposite Glarus, of which it is +practically a suburb), Netstal (2003 inhabitants), Mollis (1912 +inhabitants) and Linththal (1894 inhabitants). The slate industry is +now the most important as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly +fallen off, this being the real reason of the diminution in the number +of the population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral +region (owing to its height) and contains 87 mountain pastures (though +the finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Urnerboden, or +the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which can support +8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value of about L246,000. One +of the most characteristic products (though inferior qualities are +manufactured elsewhere in Switzerland) is the cheese called +_Schabzieger_, _Krauterkase_, or green cheese, made of skim milk +(_Zieger_ or _serac_), whether of goats or cows, mixed with buttermilk +and coloured with powdered _Steinklee_ (_Melilotus officinalis_) or +_blauer Honigklee_ (_Melilotus caerulea_). The curds are brought down +from the huts on the pastures, and, after being mixed with the dried +powder, are ground in a mill, then put into shapes and pressed. The +cheese thus produced is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is +largely exported, even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the +Klonthalersee in winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A +certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer, either to +profit by one or other of the mineral springs mentioned above, or simply +to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially at Obstalden, above the +Walensee. The canton forms but a single administrative district and +contains 28 communes. It sends to the Federal _Standerath_ 2 +representatives (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) and 2 also to the +Federal _Nationalrath_. The canton still keeps its primitive democratic +assembly or _Landsgemeinde_ (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus +on the first Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years +of age. It acts as the sovereign body, so that no "referendum" is +required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the +executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president, all holding +office for three years. The communes (forming 18 electoral circles) +elect for three years the _Landrath_, a sort of standing committee +composed of members in the proportion of 1 for every 500 inhabitants or +fraction over 250. The present constitution dates from 1887. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. +It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left bank of the Linth +(opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda on the right bank), at +the north-eastern foot of the imposing rock peak of the Vorder Glarnisch +(7648 ft.), while on the east rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now +contains but few houses built before 1861, for on the 10/11 May 1861 +practically the whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a +violent _Fohn_ or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains +through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The total loss is +estimated at about half a million sterling, of which about L100,000 were +made up by subscriptions that poured in from every side. It possesses +the broad streets and usual buildings of a modern town, the parish +church being by far the most stately and well-situated building; it is +used in common by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was +parish priest here from 1506 to 1516, before he became a Protestant. The +town is 1578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1900 had a population of +4877, almost all German-speaking, while 1248 were Romanists. For the +Linth canals (1811 and 1816) see LINTH. + +The DISTRICT OF GLARUS is said to have been converted to Christianity in +the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin, whose special protector was +St Hilary of Poitiers; the former was the founder, and both were +patrons, of the Benedictine nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between +Constance and Basel, that about the 9th century became the owner of the +district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs, protectors +of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the exercise of all the +rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus joined the Swiss +Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not gain their complete freedom +till after they had driven back the Habsburgs in the glorious battle of +Nafels (1388), the complement of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave +up their rights in 1398, while those of Sackingen were bought up in +1395, on condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted +Protestantism, but there were many struggles later on between the two +parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to the old faith. +At last it was arranged that, besides the common _Landsgemeinde_, each +party should have its separate _Landsgemeinde_ (1623) and tribunals +(1683), while it was not till 1798 that the Protestants agreed to accept +the Gregorian calendar. The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in +the 17th century, while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and +calico-printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance of +Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other districts +under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803 it was reduced to +its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed by the Russian army, under +Suworoff, coming over the Pragel Pass, but blocked by the French at +Nafels, and so driven over the Panixer to the Grisons. The old system of +government was set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal +constitution one single _Landsgemeinde_ was restored, despite the +resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. Babler, _Die Alpwirtschaft im Kant. G._ (Soleure, + 1898); J. J. Blumer, article on the early history of the canton in + vol. iii. (Zurich, 1844) of the _Archiv f. schweiz. Geschichte_; E. + Buss and A. Heim, _Der Bergsturz von Elm_ (1881) (Zurich, 1881); W. A. + B. Coolidge, _The Range of the Todi_ (London, 1894); J. G. Ebel, + _Schilderung der Gebirgsvolker d. Schweiz_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798); + Gottfried Heer, _Geschichte d. Landes Glarus_ (to 1830) (2 vols., + Glarus, 1898-1899), _Glarnerische Reformationsgeschichte_ (Glarus, + 1900), _Zur 500 jahrigen Gedachtnisfeier der Schlacht bei Nafels_ + (1388) (Glarus, 1888) and _Die Kirchen d. Kant. Glarus_ (Glarus, + 1890); Oswald Heer and J. J. Blumer-Heer, _Der Kant. Glarus_ (St Gall, + 1846); J. J. Hottinger, _Conrad Escher von der Linth_ (Zurich, 1852); + _Jahrbuch_, published annually since 1865 by the Cantonal Historical + Society; A. Jenny-Trumpy, "Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G." (article + in vol. xxxiii., 1899, of the _Jahrbuch_); M. Schuler, _Geschichte d. + Landes Glarus_ (Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, _Clubfuhrer durch die + Glarner-Alpen_ (Schwanden, 1902); Aloys Schulte, article on the true + and legendary early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii., + 1893, of the _Jahrbuch f. schweiz. Geschichte_ (Zurich); J. J. Blumer, + _Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols., St + Gall, 1850-1859); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zurich, + 1903); R. von Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in + 1799_ (Stans, 1895). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765); Scottish seaman and merchant adventurer in +West Africa, son of John Glas the divine, was born at Dundee in 1725, +and is said to have been brought up as a surgeon. He obtained command of +a ship which traded between Brazil, the N.W. coasts of Africa and the +Canary Islands. During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard +a river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed to +found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with certainty, but +it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place in about 29 deg. 10' N., +possibly the haven where the Spaniards had in the 15th and 16th +centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena. Glas made an +arrangement with the Lords of Trade whereby he was granted L15,000 if he +obtained free cession of the port he had discovered to the British +crown; the proposal was to be laid before parliament in the session of +1765. Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter, +sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made a treaty +with the Moors of the district. He named his settlement Port +Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough (afterwards marquis +of Downshire), president of the Board of Trade and Plantations, +1763-1765. In November 1764 Glas and some companions, leaving his ship +behind, went in the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small +barque suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his +settlement. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty he had +concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A few days later he +was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe and imprisoned at Santa +Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade from Teneriffe, dated the 15th +of December 1764, Glas said he believed the reason for his detention was +the jealousy of the Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough +"because from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery +and effectually stop the whole commerce of the Canary Islands." The +Spaniards further looked upon the settlement as a step towards the +conquest of the islands. "They are therefore contriving how to make out +a claim to the port and will forge old manuscripts to prove their +assertion" (_Calendar of Home Office Papers_, 1760-1765). In March 1765 +the ship's company at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and +several members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Miss +Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the +representations of the British government, Glas was released from +prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England on board the +barque "Earl of Sandwich." On the 30th of November Spanish and +Portuguese members of the crew, who had learned that the ship contained +much treasure, mutinied, killing the captain and passengers. Glas was +stabbed to death, and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The +murderers were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin.) After the +death of Glas the British government appears to have taken no steps to +carry out his project. + + In 1764 Glas published in London _The History of the Discovery and + Conquest of the Canary Islands_, which he had translated from the MS. + of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then recently + discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of the islands, + a continuation of the history and an account of the manners, customs, + trade, &c., of the inhabitants, displaying considerable knowledge of + the archipelago. + + + + +GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at Auchtermuchty, +Fife, where his father was parish minister, on the 5th of October 1695. +He was educated at Kinclaven and the grammar school, Perth, graduated +A.M. at the university of St Andrews in 1713, and completed his +education for the ministry at Edinburgh. He was licensed as a preacher +by the presbytery of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of +Dundee as minister of the parish of Tealing (1719), where his effective +preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his ministry he +was "brought to a stand" while lecturing on the "Shorter Catechism" by +the question "How doth Christ execute the office of a king?" This led to +an examination of the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church, +and in 1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie, +Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants. In the +same year his views found expression in the formation of a society +"separate from the multitude" numbering nearly a hundred, and drawn from +his own and neighbouring parishes. The members of this _ecclesiola in +ecclesia_ pledged themselves "to join together in the Christian +profession, to follow Christ the Lord as the righteousness of his +people, to walk together in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in +subjection to Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the +ordinance of the Lord's Supper once every month, to submit themselves to +the Lord's law for removing offences," &c. (Matt. xviii. 15-20). From +the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual nature of the +kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching drew the conclusions: (1) +that there is no warrant in the New Testament for a national church; (2) +that the magistrate as such has no function in the church; (3) that +national covenants are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true +Reformation cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but +by the word and spirit of Christ only. + +This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled _The +Testimony of the King of Martyrs_ (1729). For the promulgation of these +views, which were confessedly at variance with the doctrines of the +standards of the national church of Scotland, he was summoned (1726) +before his presbytery, where in the course of the investigations which +followed he affirmed still more explicitly his belief that "every +national church established by the laws of earthly kingdoms is +antichristian in its constitution and persecuting in its spirit," and +further declared opinions upon the subject of church government which +amounted to a repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the +puritan type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728 +suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and finally +deposed in 1730. The members of the society already referred to, +however, for the most part continued to adhere to him, thus +constituting the first "Glassite" or "Glasite" church. The seat of this +congregation was shortly afterwards transferred to Dundee (whence Glas +subsequently removed to Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as +an "elder." He next laboured in Perth for a few years, where he was +joined by Robert Sandeman (see GLASITES), who became his son-in-law, and +eventually was recognized as the leader and principal exponent of Glas's +views; these he developed in a direction which laid them open to the +charge of antinomianism. Ultimately in 1730 Glas returned to Dundee, +where the remainder of his life was spent. He introduced in his church +the primitive custom of the "osculum pacis" and the "agape" celebrated +as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congregation was known +as the "kail kirk." In 1739 the General Assembly, without any +application from him, removed the sentence of deposition which had been +passed against him, and restored him to the character and function of a +minister of the gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the +Established Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a +charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent with the +constitution of the church. + + A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in 1761 (4 + vols., 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). He died in + 1773. + + Glas's published works bear witness to his vigorous mind and scholarly + attainments. His reconstruction of the _True Discourse of Celsus_ + (1753), from Origen's reply to it, is a competent and learned piece of + work. The _Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His Kingdom_ + (1729) is a classic repudiation of erastianism and defence of the + spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His common sense + appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to prove that the + Bible supplies a complete system of physical science, and his + shrewdness in his _Notes on Scripture Texts_ (1747). He published a + volume of Christian Songs (Perth, 1784). (D. Mn.) + + + + +GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the 17th century, was a +native of Basel, became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi +in Paris and apothecary to Louis XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is +best known by his _Traite de la chymie_ (Paris, 1663), which went +through some ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was +translated into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was +an accomplice in the notorious poisonings carried out by the marchioness +de Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is doubtful. He +appears to have died some time before 1676. The _sal polychrestum +Glaseri_ is normal potassium sulphate which he prepared and used +medicinally. + + + + +GLASGOW, a city, county of a city, royal burgh and port of Lanarkshire, +Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 401-1/2 m. N.W. of London +by the West Coast railway route, and 47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the +North British railway. The valley of the Clyde is closely confined by +hills, and the city extends far over these, the irregularity of its site +making for picturesqueness. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the +majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank of the +river, which traverses the city from W.S.W. to E.N.E., and is crossed by +a number of bridges. The uppermost is Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from +1891, and next below it is Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and +superseding a structure of 1775. St Andrew's suspension bridge gives +access to the Green to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district +which is approached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading +from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and weir. +Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in 1856, taking the place of the +venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345, which was demolished in +1847. Then follows a suspension bridge (dating from 1853) by which +foot-passengers from the south side obtain access to St Enoch Square +and, finally, the most important bridge of all is reached, variously +known as Glasgow, Jamaica Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite +from Telford's designs and first used in 1835. Towards the close of the +century it was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier +periods of the day it bears a very heavy traffic. The stream is spanned +between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge belonging to the Glasgow +& South-Western railway and by two bridges carrying the lines of the +Caledonian railway, one below Dalmarnock Bridge and the other a massive +work immediately west of Glasgow Bridge. + +_Buildings._--George Square, in the heart of the city, is an open space +of which every possible advantage has been taken. On its eastern side +stand the municipal buildings, a palatial pile in Venetian renaissance +style, from the designs of William Young, a native of Paisley. They were +opened in 1889 and cost nearly L600,000. They form a square block four +storeys high and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade, +from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance hall and +grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting hall and reception +rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not unbecoming to the +commercial and industrial metropolis of Scotland. Several additional +blocks have been built or rented for the accommodation of the municipal +staff. Admirably equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, +including a bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till 1810 the +town council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved to +the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, which is now +used as court-houses. This was vacated in 1842 for the county buildings +in Wilson Street. Growth of business compelled another migration to +Ingram Street in 1875, and, fourteen years later, it occupied its +present quarters. On the southern side of George Square the chief +structure is the massive General Post Office. On the western side stand +two ornate Italian buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants' +House, the head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the +Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto member +of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised with a view to +adjusting the frequent disputes between the two gilds. The Royal +Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine portico of columns in two +rows, is an admired example of the work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a +native of Glasgow, who designed several of the public buildings and +churches, and gained the second prize for a design for the Houses of +Parliament. The news-room of the exchange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. +long, 60 ft. wide, 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported +by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important and handsome +street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange, the Western Club House +(by David Hamilton) and the offices of the _Glasgow Herald_. In +Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art Institute and the former Corporation +Art Gallery. Argyll Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied +with shops, leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are +now carefully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning the +pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating from 1637. It +is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was burned down in 1793 +during the revels of a notorious body known as the Hell Fire Club. On +the opposite side, at the corner of High Street, stood the ancient +tolbooth, or prison, a turreted building, five storeys high, with a fine +Jacobean crown tower. The only remnant of the structure is the tower +known as the Cross Steeple. + + + St Mungo's Cathedral. + +Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have been swept +away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation. It stands in the +north-eastern quarter of the city at a height of 104 ft. above the level +of the Clyde. It is a beautiful example of Early English work, +impressive in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, with +imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft., and its +width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the nave 85 ft. +At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal spire, 225 ft. +high. The choir, locally known as the High Church, serves as one of the +city churches, and the extreme east end of it forms the Lady chapel. The +rich western doorway is French in design but English in details. The +chapter-house projects from the north-eastern corner and somewhat mars +the harmony of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a +groined roof supported by a pillar 20 ft. high. Many citizens have +contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass, executed at +Munich, the government providing the eastern window in recognition of +their enterprise. The crypt beneath the choir is not the least +remarkable part of the edifice, being without equal in Scotland. It is +borne on 65 pillars and lighted by 41 windows. The sculpture of the +capitals of the columns and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite +and the whole is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not +a crypt, but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right +bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named from the +constant dropping of water from the roof. St Mungo's Well in the +south-eastern corner was considered to possess therapeutic virtues, and +in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless and handless, is faithfully +accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. The cathedral contains few monuments +of exceptional merit, but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely +paved with tombstones. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David, +prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the +bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at that date +a cathedral had already been endowed. When David ascended the throne in +1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick, besides +restoring many possessions of which it had been deprived. Jocelin (d. +1199), made bishop in 1174, was the first great bishop, and is memorable +for his efforts to replace the cathedral built in 1136 by Bishop John +Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is his work, and he +began the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure was +sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in 1197. Other famous bishops were +Robert Wishart (d. 1316), appointed in 1272, who was among the first to +join in the revolt of Wallace, and received Robert Bruce when he lay +under the ban of the church for the murder of Comyn; John Cameron (d. +1446), appointed in 1428, under whom the building as it stands was +completed; and William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed in 1447, who +founded the university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603) was +the last Roman Catholic archbishop. He fled to France at the reformation +in 1560, and took with him the treasures and records of the see, +including the Red Book of Glasgow dating from the reign of Robert III. +The documents were deposited in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at +the outbreak of the Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never +recovered. This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the +city. The zeal of the Reformers led them to threaten to mutilate the +cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of the +craftsmen, who mustered in force and dispersed the fanatics. + +[Illustration: Map of Glasgow and Environs.] + + + Churches. + +Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches possesses +historical interest; and, speaking generally, it is only the buildings +that have been erected since the beginning of the 19th century that have +pronounced architectural merit. This was due largely to the long +survival of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters, who discouraged, if +they did not actually forbid, the raising of temples of beautiful +design. Representative examples of later work are found in the United +Free churches in Vincent Street, in Caledonia Road and at Queen's Park, +designed by Alexander Thomson (1817-1875), an architect of distinct +originality; St George's church, in West George Street, a remarkable +work by William Stark, erected in the beginning of the 19th century; St +Andrew's church in St Andrew's Square off the Saltmarket, modelled after +St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, with a fine Roman portico; some of +the older parish churches, such as St Enoch's, dating from 1780, with a +good spire (the saint's name is said to be a corruption of Tanew, mother +of Kentigern); the episcopal church of St Mary (1870), in Great Western +Road, by Sir G. G. Scott; the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Andrew, on +the river-bank between Victoria and Broomielaw bridges; the Barony +church, replacing the older kirk in which Norman Macleod ministered; and +several admirable structures, well situated, on the eastern confines of +Kelvingrove Park. + +The principal burying-ground is the Necropolis, occupying Fir Park, a +hill about 300 ft. high in the northern part of the city. It provides a +not inappropriate background to the cathedral, from which it is +approached by a bridge, known as the "Bridge of Sighs," over the +Molendinar ravine. The ground, which once formed portion of the estate +of Wester Craigs, belongs to the Merchants' House, which purchased it in +1650 from Sir Ludovic Stewart of Minto. A Doric column to the memory of +Knox, surmounted by a colossal statue of the reformer, was erected by +public subscription on the crown of the height in 1824, and a few years +later the idea arose of utilizing the land as a cemetery. The Jews have +reserved for their own people a detached area in the north-western +corner of the cemetery. + + + Glasgow University. + +_Education._--The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull under a +bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old quarters till far in the +19th century. The _paedagogium_, or college of arts, was at first housed +in Rottenrow, but was moved in 1460 to a site in High Street, where Sir +James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord Hamilton (d. 1479), gave it four +acres of land and some buildings. Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen +acres of contiguous ground, and her son granted it a new charter and +enlarged the endowments. Prior to the Revolution its fortunes +fluctuated, but in the 18th century it became very famous. By the middle +of the 19th century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, and in +1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground had enormously +increased in value and a railway company purchased it for L100,000. In +1864 the university bought the Gilmore Hill estate for L65,000, the +adjacent property of Dowan Hill for L16,000 and the property of +Clayslaps for L17,400. Sir G. G. Scott was appointed architect and +selected as the site of the university buildings the ridge of Gilmore +Hill--the finest situation in Glasgow. The design is Early English with +a suggestion in parts of the Scots-French style of a much later period. +The main structure is 540 ft. long and 300 ft. broad. The principal +front faces southwards and consists of a lofty central tower with spire +and corner blocks with turrets, between which are buildings of lower +height. Behind the tower lies the Bute hall, built on cloisters, binding +together the various departments and smaller halls, and dividing the +massive edifice into an eastern and western quadrangle, on two sides of +which are ranged the class-rooms in two storeys. The northern facade +comprises two corner blocks, besides the museum, the library and, in the +centre, the students' reading-room on one floor and the Hunterian museum +on the floor above. On the south the ground falls in terraces towards +Kelvingrove Park and the Kelvin. On the west, but apart from the main +structure, stand the houses of the principal and professors. The +foundation stone was laid in 1868 and the opening ceremony was held in +1870. The total cost of the university buildings amounted to L500,000, +towards which government contributed L120,000 and public subscription +L250,000. The third marquess of Bute (1847-1900) gave L40,000 to provide +the Bute or common hall, a room of fine proportions fitted in Gothic +style and divided by a beautiful Gothic screen from the Randolph hall, +named after another benefactor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878), a native +of Stirling, who had prospered as shipbuilder and marine engineer and +left L60,000 to the university. The graceful spire surmounting the tower +was provided from the bequest of L5000 by Mr A. Cunningham, deputy +town-clerk, and Dr John M'Intyre erected the Students' Union at a cost +of L5000, while other donors completed the equipment so generously that +the senate was enabled to carry on its work, for the first time in its +history, in almost ideal circumstances. The library includes the +collection of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum, bequeathed +by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly rich in coins, medals, +black-letter books and anatomical preparations. The observatory on Dowan +Hill is attached to the chair of astronomy. An interesting link with the +past are the exhibitions founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of +Colmonell in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of +distinction to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. Amongst +distinguished exhibitioners have been Adam Smith, John Gibson Lockhart, +John Wilson ("Christopher North"), Archbishop Tait, Sir William Hamilton +and Professor Shairp. The curriculum of the university embraces the +faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, law and science. The governing +body includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council, +the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected +triennially by the students voting in "nations" according to their +birthplace (_Glottiana_, natives of Lanarkshire; _Transforthana_, of +Scotland north of the Forth; _Rothseiana_, of the shires of Bute, +Renfrew and Ayr; and _Loudonia_, all others). There are a large number +of well-endowed chairs and lectureships and the normal number of +students exceeds 2000. The universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen unite to +return one member to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women, +established in 1883, occupies a handsome building close to the botanic +gardens, has an endowment of upwards of L25,000, and was incorporated +with the university in 1893. Muirhead College is another institution for +women. + + + Schools and colleges. + + Elementary instruction is supplied at numerous board schools. Higher, + secondary and technical education is provided at several well-known + institutions. There are two educational endowments boards which apply + a revenue of about L10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of + bursaries. Anderson College in George Street perpetuates the memory of + its founder, John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of natural + philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics for + working men, which he conducted to the end of his life. By his will he + provided for an institution for the instruction of artisans and others + unable to attend the university. The college which bears his name + began in 1796 with lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry by + Thomas Garnett (1766-1802). Two years later mathematics and geography + were added. In 1799 Dr George Birkbeck (1776-1841) succeeded Garnett + and began those lectures on mechanics and applied science which, + continued elsewhere, ultimately led to the foundation of mechanics' + institutes in many towns. In later years the college was further + endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion of literature and + languages, but ultimately it was determined to limit the scope of its + work to medicine (comprising, however, physics, chemistry and botany + also). The lectures of its medical school, incorporated in 1887 and + situated near the Western Infirmary, are accepted by Glasgow and other + universities. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, + formed in 1886 out of a combination of the arts side of Anderson + College, the College of Science and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution and + the Atkinson Institution, is subsidized by the corporation and the + endowments board, and is especially concerned with students desirous + of following an industrial career. St Mungo's College, which has + developed from an extra-mural school in connexion with the Royal + Infirmary, was incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and + law. The United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove + Park, the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the + training of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized + objects. + + The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar school + (long housed in John Street) which was founded in the 14th century as + an appanage of the cathedral. It was placed under the jurisdiction of + the school board in 1873. Other secondary schools include Glasgow + Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls' and boys' schools endowed + by the Hutcheson trust. Several of the schools under the board are + furnished with secondary departments or equipped as science schools, + and the Roman Catholics maintain elementary schools and advanced + academies. + + _Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums._--Glasgow merchants and + manufacturers alike have been constant patrons of art, and their + liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who, + towards the close of the 19th century, broke away from tradition and, + stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known as the + "Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum in Kelvingrove Park, + which was built at a cost of L250,000 (partly derived from the profits + of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901), is + exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated in 1854 in the + purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan, and was + supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of important + pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corporation galleries in + Sauchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in Sauchiehall Street, + is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of modern art. There are + also pictures on exhibition in the People's Palace on Glasgow Green, + which was built by the corporation in 1898 and combines an art gallery + and museum with a conservatory and winter garden, and in the museum at + Camphill, situated within the bounds of Queen's Park. The library and + Hunterian museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of + students. The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which + is housed in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West + George Street. In Bath Street there are the Mechanics' and the + Philosophical Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St + Vincent Street. Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public + libraries. The premises once occupied by the water commission have + been converted to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a + bequest of L70,000 by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further + gifts of libraries and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000 + volumes. It is governed by the city council and has been in use since + 1877. Another building in this street accommodates both the Stirling + and Baillie libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is + particularly rich in tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the + Baillie was endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave + L18,000 for educational objects. The Athenaeum in St George's Place, + an institution largely concerned with evening classes in various + subjects, contains an excellent library and reading-room. + + _Charities._--The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam and + opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the + archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards + the close of the 18th century. The chief architectural feature of the + infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating + theatre. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical school + attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemorates the + Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north, in Castle + Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to some extent + used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion with the + university, to which it stands in immediate proximity. Near it is the + Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of Queen's Park is + Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb institution. On + the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern boundary of the + city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases, and at + Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character + opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near + Jordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a branch + at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the + north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively + devoted to the treatment of special diseases, and several nursing + institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David + Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in + Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has + become a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in + the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's + castle, which stood close to the spot where the Kelvin enters the + Clyde, founded the hospital for poor old men. His brother Thomas + (1589-1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging + and education of orphan boys, the sons of burgesses. The trust, + through the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its + educational scope and to subsidize schools apart from the charity. + + _Monuments._--Most of the statues have been erected in George Square. + They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, surmounted by a + colossal statue of Sir Walter Scott by John Ritchie (1809-1850), + erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort + (both equestrian) by Baron Marochetti; James Watt by Chantrey; Sir + Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who was born in Glasgow, and + David Livingstone, all by John Mossman; Sir John Moore, a native of + Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in 1819; James Oswald, the first member + returned to parliament for the city after the Reform Act of 1832; Lord + Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell), also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868; + Dr Thomas Graham, master of the mint, another native, by Brodie; + Robert Burns by G. E. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in + shillings by the working men of Scotland; and William Ewart Gladstone + by Hamo Thornycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in 1902. In front of + the Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of + Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman Macleod, + James White and James Arthur, and in front of the Royal infirmary is + that of Sir James Lumsden, lord provost and benefactor. Nelson is + commemorated by an obelisk 143 ft. high on the Green, which was + erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the Piazza del + Popolo at Rome. One of the most familiar statues is the equestrian + figure of William III. in the Trongate, which was presented to the + town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire lad who had + amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of Madras from 1725 + to 1730. + + _Recreations._--Of the theatres the chief are the King's in Bath + Street, the Royal and the Grand in Cowcaddens, the Royalty and Gaiety + in Sauchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Main Street. Variety + theatres, headed by the Empire in Sauchiehall Street, are found in + various parts of the town. There is a circus in Waterloo Street, a + hippodrome in Sauchiehall Street and a zoological garden in New City + Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall of the St + Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corporation; the + City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the Green, and + Queen's Rooms close to Kelvingrove Park. Throughout winter enormous + crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen's Park, the leading + amateur club, and the Celtic, the Rangers, the Third Lanark and other + prominent professional clubs. + + _Parks and Open Spaces._--The oldest open space is the Green (140 + acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely-populated + district. It once extended farther west, but a portion was built over + at a time when public rights were not vigilantly guarded. It is a + favourite area for popular demonstrations, and sections have been + reserved for recreation or laid out in flower-beds. Kelvingrove Park, + in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for the Kelvin burn flows + through it and the ground is naturally terraced, while the situation + is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with the university on its + summit. The park was laid out under the direction of Sir Joseph + Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain, erected to commemorate the + labours of Lord Provost Stewart and his colleagues in the promotion of + the Loch Katrine water scheme. The other parks on the right bank are, + in the north, Ruchill (53 acres), acquired in 1891, and Springburn + (53-1/4 acres), acquired in 1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park (120 + acres), in which is laid down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross + (82-3/4 acres), beyond the municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the + left bank Queen's Park (130 acres), occupying a commanding site, was + laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by + the enclosure of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are + Richmond (44 acres), acquired in 1898, and named after Lord Provost + Sir David Richmond, who opened it in 1899; Maxwell, which was taken + over on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston (176 + acres), acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), 3-1/2m. beyond + the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by James + Dick, a manufacturer, containing "Queen Mary's stone," a point which + commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the north-western + district of the town 40 acres between Great Western Road and the + Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens, which became public + property in 1891. They are beautifully laid out, and contain a great + range of hothouses. The gardens owed much to Sir William Hooker, who + was regius professor of botany in Glasgow University before his + appointment to the directorship of Kew Gardens. + + _Communications._--The North British railway terminus is situated in + Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) and a + low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District line, + largely underground, serving the northern side of the town, opened in + 1886. The Great Northern and North-Eastern railways use the high-level + line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the East Coast Joint + Service. The Central terminus of the Caledonian railway in Gordon + Street, served by the West Coast system (in which the London & + North-Western railway shares), also comprises a high-level station for + the main line traffic and a low-level station for the Cathcart + District railway, completed in 1886 and made circular for the southern + side and suburbs in 1894, and also for the connexion between Maryhill + and Rutherglen, which is mostly underground. Both the underground + lines communicate with certain branches of the main line, either + directly or by change of carriage. The older terminus of the + Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street now takes the northern and + eastern traffic. The terminus of the Glasgow & South-Western railway + company in St Enoch Square serves the country indicated in its title, + and also gives the Midland railway of England access to the west coast + and Glasgow. The Glasgow Subway--an underground cable passenger line, + 6-1/2 m. long, worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde + twice--was opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building will be + sanctioned west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at + certain points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying + vehicles across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for + foot and wheeled traffic. Steamers, carrying both goods and + passengers, constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and + ports on the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of + Argyllshire. The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate + every populous district and cross the river by Glasgow and Albert + bridges. + + _Trade._--Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of + coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of + pure water, account for much of the great development of trade in + Glasgow. It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest + predominance, which, however, has not been maintained, owing, it is + alleged, to the shortage of female labour. Several cotton mills are + still worked, but the leading feature in the trade has always been the + manufacture of such light textures as plain, striped and figured + muslins, ginghams and fancy fabrics. Thread is made on a considerable + scale, but jute and silk are of comparatively little importance. The + principal varieties of carpets are woven. Some factories are + exclusively devoted to the making of lace curtains. The allied + industries of bleaching, printing and dyeing, on the other hand, have + never declined. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced + in Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of James Watt, + whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher, + Charles Tennant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder + (chloride of lime). Turkey-red dyeing was begun at Glasgow by David + Dale and George M'Intosh, and the colour was long known locally as + Dale's red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be sent from + Lancashire and other mills to be bleached and printed in Scottish + works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the manufacture of + chemicals, and the works at St Rollox developed rapidly. Among + prominent chemical industries are to be reckoned the alkali + trades--including soda, bleaching powder and soap-making--the + preparation of alum and prussiates of potash, bichromate of potash, + white lead and other pigments, dynamite and gunpowder. Glass-making + and paper-making are also carried on, and there are several breweries + and distilleries, besides factories for the making of aerated waters, + starch, dextrine and matches. Many miscellaneous trades flourish, such + as clothing, confectionery, cabinet-making, bread and biscuit making, + boot and shoe making, flour mills and saw mills, pottery and + india-rubber. Since the days of the brothers Robert Foulis (1705-1776) + and Andrew Foulis (1712-1775), printing, both letterpress and colour, + has been identified with Glasgow, though in a lesser degree than with + Edinburgh. The tobacco trade still flourishes, though much lessened. + But the great industry is iron-founding. The discovery of the value of + blackband ironstone, till then regarded as useless "wild coal," by + David Mushet (1772-1847), and Neilson's invention of the hot-air blast + threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of Glasgow + ironmasters, although the furnaces themselves were mostly erected in + Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry was such that, + in 1859, one-third of the total output in the United Kingdom was + Scottish. During the following years, however, the trade seemed to + have lost its elasticity, the annual production averaging about one + million tons of pig-iron. Mild steel is manufactured extensively, and + some crucible cast steel is made. In addition to brass foundries there + are works for the extraction of copper and the smelting of lead and + zinc. With such resources every branch of engineering is well + represented. Locomotive engines are built for every country where + railways are employed, and all kinds of builder's ironwork is forged + in enormous quantities, and the sewing-machine factories in the + neighbourhood are important. Boiler-making and marine engine works, in + many cases in direct connexion with the shipbuilding yards, are + numerous. Shipbuilding, indeed, is the greatest of the industries of + Glasgow, and in some years more than half of the total tonnage in the + United Kingdom has been launched on the Clyde, the yards of which + extend from the harbour to Dumbarton on one side and Greenock on the + other side of the river and firth. Excepting a trifling proportion of + wooden ships, the Clyde-built vessels are of iron and steel, the trade + having owed its immense expansion to the prompt adoption of this + material. Every variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and + great liners to dredging-plant and hopper barges. + + _The Port._--The harbour extends from Glasgow Bridge to the point + where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, and occupies 206 acres. For the most + part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total length of + 8-1/4 m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing 26 ft. can + go up or down on one tide. It is curious to remember that in the + middle of the 18th century the river was fordable on foot at Dumbuck, + 12 m. below Glasgow and 1-1/2 m. S.E. of Dumbarton. Even within the + limits of the present harbour Smeaton reported to the town council in + 1740 that at Pointhouse ford, just east of the mouth of the Kelvin, + the depth at low water was only 15 in. and at high water 39 in. The + transformation effected within a century and a half is due to the + energy and enterprise of the Clyde Navigation Trust. The earliest + shipping-port of Glasgow was Irvine in Ayrshire, but lighterage was + tedious and land carriage costly, and in 1658 the civic authorities + endeavoured to purchase a site for a spacious harbour at Dumbarton. + Being thwarted by the magistrates of that burgh, however, in 1662 they + secured 13 acres on the southern bank at a spot some 2 m. above + Greenock, which became known as Port Glasgow, where they built + harbours and constructed the first graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen + years later the Broomielaw quay was built, but it was not until the + tobacco merchants appreciated the necessity of bringing their wares + into the heart of the city that serious consideration was paid to + schemes for deepening the waterway. Smeaton's suggestion of a lock and + dam 4 m. below the Broomielaw was happily not accepted. In 1768 John + Golborne advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the + scour by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of + sandbanks and shoals. After James Watt's report in 1769 on the ford at + Dumbuck, Golborne succeeded in 1775 in deepening the ford to 6 ft. at + low water with a width of 300 ft. By Rennie's advice in 1799, + following up Golborne's recommendation, as many as 200 jetties were + built between Glasgow and Bowling, some old ones were shortened and + low rubble walls carried from point to point of the jetties, and thus + the channel was made more uniform and much land reclaimed. By 1836 + there was a depth of 7 or 8 ft. at the Broomielaw at low water, and in + 1840 the whole duty of improving the navigation was devolved upon the + Navigation Trust. Steam dredgers were kept constantly at work, shoals + were removed and rocks blasted away. Two million cubic yards of matter + are lifted every year and dumped in Loch Long. By 1900 the channel had + been deepened to a minimum of 22 ft., and, as already indicated, the + largest vessels make the open sea in one tide, whereas in 1840 it took + ships drawing only 15 ft. two and even three tides to reach the sea. + The debt of the Trust amounts to L6,000,000, and the annual revenue to + L450,000. Long before these great results had been achieved, however, + the shipping trade had been revolutionized by the application of steam + to navigation, and later by the use of iron for wood in shipbuilding, + in both respects enormously enhancing the industry and commerce of + Glasgow. From 1812 to 1820 Henry Bell's "Comet," 30 tons, driven by an + engine of 3 horse-power, plied between Glasgow and Greenock, until she + was wrecked, being the first steamer to run regularly on any river in + the Old World. Thus since the appearance of that primitive vessel + phenomenal changes had taken place on the Clyde. When the quays and + wharves ceased to be able to accommodate the growing traffic, the + construction of docks became imperative. In 1867 Kingston Dock on the + south side, of 5-1/3 acres, was opened, but soon proved inadequate, + and in 1880 Queen's Dock (two basins) at Stobcross, on the north side, + of 30 acres, was completed. Although this could accommodate one + million tons of shipping, more dock space was speedily called for, and + in 1897 Prince's Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72 + acres, was opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes and + all the other latest appliances. There are, besides, three graving + docks, the longest of which (880 ft.) can be made at will into two + docks of 417 ft. and 457 ft. in length. The Caledonian and Glasgow & + South-Western railways have access to the harbour for goods and + minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock, and a mineral + dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank, about 3-1/2 m. + below the harbour. The shipping attains to colossal proportions. The + imports consist chiefly of flour, fruit, timber, iron ore, live stock + and wheat; and the exports principally of cotton manufactures, + manufactured iron and steel, machinery, whisky, cotton yarn, linen + fabrics, coal, jute, jam and foods, and woollen manufactures. + + _Government._--By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 the city + was placed entirely in the county of Lanark, the districts then + transferred having previously belonged to the shires of Dumbarton and + Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include six suburban + burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area being increased + from 6111 acres to 11,861 acres. The total area of the city and the + conterminous burghs of Govan, Partick and Kinning Park--which, though + they successfully resisted annexation in 1891, are practically part of + the city--is 15,659 acres. The extreme length from north to south and + from east to west is about 5 m. each way, and the circumference + measures 27 m. In 1893 the municipal burgh was constituted a county of + a city. Glasgow is governed by a corporation consisting of 77 members, + including 14 bailies and the lord provost. In 1895 all the powers + which the town council exercised as police commissioners and trustees + for parks, markets, water and the like were consolidated and conferred + upon the corporation. Three years later the two parish councils of the + city and barony, which administered the poor law over the greater part + of the city north of the Clyde, were amalgamated as the parish council + of Glasgow, with 31 members. As a county of a city Glasgow has a + lieutenancy (successive lords provost holding the office) and a court + of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magistrates + sitting as licensing authority. Under the corporation municipal + ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation owning + the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and municipal + lodging-houses. The enterprise of the corporation has brought its work + prominently into notice, not only in the United Kingdom, but in the + United States of America and elsewhere. In 1859 water was conveyed by + aqueducts and tunnels from Loch Katrine (364 ft. above sea-level, + giving a pressure of 70 or 80 ft. above the highest point in the city) + to the reservoir at Mugdock (with a capacity of 500,000,000 gallons), + a distance of 27 m., whence after filtration it was distributed by + pipes to Glasgow, a further distance of 7 m., or 34 m. in all. During + the next quarter of a century it became evident that this supply would + require to be augmented, and powers were accordingly obtained in 1895 + to raise Loch Katrine 5 ft. and to connect with it by tunnel Loch + Arklet (455 ft. above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000 + gallons, the two lochs together possessing a capacity of twelve + thousand million gallons. The entire works between the loch and the + city were duplicated over a distance of 23-1/2 m., and an additional + reservoir, holding 694,000,000 gallons, was constructed, increasing + the supply held in reserve from 12-1/2 days' to 30-1/2 days'. In 1909 + the building of a dam was undertaken 1-1/4 m. west of the lower end of + Loch Arklet, designed to create a sheet of water 2-1/2 m. long and to + increase the water-supply of the city by ten million gallons a day. + The water committee supplies hydraulic power to manufacturers and + merchants. In 1869 the corporation acquired the gasworks, the + productive capacity of which exceeds 70 million cub. ft. a day. In + 1893 the supply of electric light was also undertaken, and since that + date the city has been partly lighted by electricity. The corporation + also laid down the tramways, which were leased by a company for + twenty-three years at a rental of L150 a mile per annum. When the + lease expired in 1894 the town council took over the working of the + cars, substituting overhead electric traction for horse-power. One of + the most difficult problems that the corporation has had to deal with + was the housing of the poor. By the lapse of time and the congestion + of population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow + especially, had become slums and rookeries of the worst description. + The condition of the town was rapidly growing into a byword, when the + municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 enabling it to + condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and levy + rates. The scheme of reform contemplated the demolition of 10,000 + insanitary dwellings occupied by 50,000 persons, but the corporation + was required to provide accommodation for the dislodged whenever the + numbers exceeded 500. In point of fact they never needed to build, as + private enterprise more than kept pace with the operations of the + improvement. The work was carried out promptly and effectually, and + when the act expired in 1881 whole localities had been recreated and + nearly 40,000 persons properly housed. Under the amending act of 1881 + the corporation began in 1888 to build tenement houses in which the + poor could rent one or more rooms at the most moderate rentals; + lodging-houses for men and women followed, and in 1896 a home was + erected for the accommodation of families in certain circumstances. + The powers of the improvement trustees were practically exhausted in + 1896, when it appeared that during twenty-nine years L1,955,550 had + been spent in buying and improving land and buildings, and L231,500 in + building tenements and lodging-houses; while, on the other side, + ground had been sold for L1,072,000, and the trustees owned heritable + property valued at L692,000, showing a deficiency of L423,050. + Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded + L593,000, and it was estimated that these operations, beneficial to + the city in a variety of ways, had cost the citizens L24,000 a year. + In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with + insanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the + south side of the river, and for acquiring not more than 25 acres of + land, within or without the city, for dwellings for the poorest + classes. Along with these later improvements the drainage system was + entirely remodelled, the area being divided into three sections, each + distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage. One + section (authorized in 1891 and doubled in 1901) comprises 11 sq. + m.--one-half within the city north of the river, and the other in the + district in Lanarkshire--with works at Dalmarnock; another section + (authorized in 1896) includes the area on the north bank not provided + for in 1891, as well as the burghs of Partick and Clydebank and + intervening portions of the shires of Renfrew and Dumbarton, the total + area consisting of 14 sq. m., with works at Dalmuir, 7 m. below + Glasgow; and the third section (authorized in 1898) embraces the whole + municipal area on the south side of the river, the burghs of + Rutherglen, Pollokshaws, Kinning Park and Govan, and certain districts + in the counties of Renfrew and Lanark--14 sq. m. in all, which may be + extended by the inclusion of the burghs of Renfrew and Paisley--with + works at Braehead, 1 m. east of Renfrew. Among other works in which it + has interests there may be mentioned its representation on the board + of the Clyde Navigation Trust and the governing body of the West of + Scotland Technical College. In respect of parliamentary representation + the Reform Act of 1832 gave two members to Glasgow, a third was added + in 1868 (though each elector had only two votes), and in 1885 the city + was split up into seven divisions, each returning one member. + + _Population._--Throughout the 19th century the population grew + prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty + years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. It had + become 395,503 in 1861, and in 1881 it was 511,415. In 1891, prior to + extension of the boundary, it was 565,839, and, after extension, + 658,198, and in 1901 it stood at 761,709. The birth-rate averages 33, + and the death-rate 21 per 1000, but the mortality before the city + improvement scheme was carried out was as high as 33 per 1000. Owing + to its being convenient of access from the Highlands, a very + considerable number of Gaelic-speaking persons live in Glasgow, while + the great industries attract an enormous number of persons from other + parts of Scotland. The valuation of the city, which in 1878-1879 was + L3,420,697, now exceeds L5,000,000. + +_History._--There are several theories as to the origin of the name of +Glasgow. One holds that it comes from Gaelic words meaning "dark glen," +descriptive of the narrow ravine through which the Molendinar flowed to +the Clyde. But the more generally accepted version is that the word is +the Celtic _Cleschu_, afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning +"dear green spot" (_glas_, green; _cu_ or _ghu_, dear), which is +supposed to have been the name of the settlement that Kentigern found +here when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Mungo became +the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms of the city are +wholly identified with him--"Let Glasgow Flourish by the Preaching of +the Word," usually shortened to "Let Glasgow Flourish." It is not till +the 12th century, however, that the history of the city becomes clear. +About 1178 William the Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony, +and gave it a market with freedom and customs. Amongst more or less +isolated episodes of which record has been preserved may be mentioned +the battle of the Bell o' the Brae, on the site of High Street, in which +Wallace routed the English under Percy in 1300; the betrayal of Wallace +to the English in 1305 in a barn situated, according to tradition, in +Robroyston, just beyond the north-eastern boundary of the city; the +ravages of the plague in 1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran's +siege, in 1544, of the bishop's castle, garrisoned by the earl of +Glencairn, and the subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate) +when the terms of surrender were dishonoured, in which the regent's men +gained the day. Most of the inhabitants were opposed to Queen Mary and +many actively supported Murray in the battle of Langside--the site of +which is now occupied by the Queen's Park--on the 13th of May 1568, in +which she lost crown and kingdom. A memorial of the conflict was erected +on the site in 1887. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in +1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomielaw to the Cloch. But +the efforts to establish episcopacy aroused the fervent anti-prelatical +sentiment of the people, who made common cause with the Covenanters to +the end of their long struggle. Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily +after the battle of Kilsyth in 1645, and three years later the provost +and bailies were deposed for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague +and famine devastated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid +a third of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings +were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores of the west and +its prisons were constantly filled with rebels for conscience' sake. The +government scourged the townsfolk with an army of Highlanders, whose +brutality only served to strengthen the resistance at the battles of +Drumclog and Bothwell Brig. With the Union, hotly resented as it was at +the time, the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity arose. By the treaty of +Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the same +footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow enabled it to +acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic trade. Its commerce +was already considerable and in population it was now the second town in +Scotland. It enjoyed a practical monopoly of the sale of raw and refined +sugars, had the right to distil spirits from molasses free of duty, +dealt largely in cured herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners +and manufactured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol +in the tobacco trade--fetching cargoes from Virginia, Maryland and +Carolina in its own fleet--so that by 1772 its importations of tobacco +amounted to more than half of the whole quantity brought into the United +Kingdom. The tobacco merchants built handsome mansions and the town +rapidly extended westwards. With the surplus profits new industries were +created, which helped the city through the period of the American War. +Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow has always +held a foremost place date from this period. It was in 1764 that James +Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto unworkable model of Newcomen's +fire (steam) engine in his small workshop within the college precincts. +Shipbuilding on a colossal scale and the enormous developments in the +iron industries and engineering were practically the growth of the 19th +century. The failure of the Western bank in 1857, the Civil War in the +United States, the collapse of the City of Glasgow bank in 1878, among +other disasters, involved heavy losses and distress, but recovery was +always rapid. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. Cleland, _Annals of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1816); Duncan, + _Literary History of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1886); _Registrum Episcopatus + Glasgow_ (Maitland Club, 1843); Pagan, _Sketch of the History of + Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1847); Sir J. D. Marwick, _Extracts from the Burgh + Records of Glasgow_ (Burgh Records Society); _Charters relating to + Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1891); _River Clyde and Harbour of Glasgow_ + (Glasgow, 1898); _Glasgow Past and Present_ (Glasgow, 1884); + _Munimenta Universitatis Glasgow_ (Maitland Club, 1854); J. Strang, + _Glasgow and its Clubs_ (Glasgow, 1864); Reid ("Senex"), _Old + Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1864); A. Macgeorge, _Old Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1888); + Deas, _The River Clyde_ (Glasgow, 1881); Gale, _Loch Katrine + Waterworks_ (Glasgow, 1883); Mason, _Public and Private Libraries of + Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1885); J. Nicol, _Vital, Social and Economic + Statistics of Glasgow_ (1881); J. B. Russell, _Life in One Room_ + (Glasgow, 1888); _Ticketed Houses_ (Glasgow, 1889); T. Somerville, + _George Square_ (Glasgow, 1891); J. A. Kilpatrick, _Literary Landmarks + of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1898); J. K. M'Dowall, _People's History of + Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1899); Sir J. Bell and J. Paton, _Glasgow: Its + Municipal Organization and Administration_ (Glasgow, 1896); Sir D. + Richmond, _Notes on Municipal Work_ (Glasgow, 1899); J. M. Lang, + _Glasgow and the Barony_ (Glasgow, 1895); _Old Glasgow_ (Glasgow, + 1896); J. H. Muir, _Glasgow in 1901_. + + + + +GLASITES, or SANDEMANIANS,[1] a Christian sect, founded in Scotland by +John Glas (q.v.). It spread into England and America, but is now +practically extinct. Glas dissented from the Westminster Confession only +in his views as to the spiritual nature of the church and the functions +of the civil magistrate. But his son-in-law Robert Sandeman added a +distinctive doctrine as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on +his tombstone: "That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or +deed on the part of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners +spotless before God." In a series of letters to James Hervey, the author +of _Theron and Aspasia_, he maintained that justifying faith is a simple +assent to the divine testimony concerning Jesus Christ, differing in no +way in its character from belief in any ordinary testimony. In their +practice the Glasite churches aimed at a strict conformity with the +primitive type of Christianity as understood by them. Each congregation +had a plurality of elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according +to what were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to +previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a perfect +equality in office. To have been married a second time disqualified for +ordination, or for continued tenure of the office of bishop. In all the +action of the church unanimity was considered to be necessary; if any +member differed in opinion from the rest, he must either surrender his +judgment to that of the church, or be shut out from its communion. To +join in prayer with any one not a member of the denomination was +regarded as unlawful, and even to eat or drink with one who had been +excommunicated was held to be wrong. The Lord's Supper was observed +weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon service every Sunday a love +feast was held at which every member was required to be present. Mutual +exhortation was practised at all the meetings for divine service, when +any member who had the gift of speech ([Greek: charisma]) was allowed to +speak. The practice of washing one another's feet was at one time +observed; and it was for a long time customary for each brother and +sister to receive new members, on admission, with a holy kiss. "Things +strangled" and "blood" were rigorously abstained from; the lot was +regarded as sacred; the accumulation of wealth they held to be +unscriptural and improper, and each member considered his property as +liable to be called upon at any time to meet the wants of the poor and +the necessities of the church. Churches of this order were founded in +Paisley, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, +Dunkeld, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where Michael Faraday +was long an elder. Their exclusiveness in practice, neglect of education +for the ministry, and the antinomian tendency of their doctrine +contributed to their dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general body +of Scottish Congregationalists, and the sect may now be considered +extinct. The last of the Sandemanian churches in America ceased to exist +in 1890. + + See James Ross, _History of Congregational Independency in Scotland_ + (Glasgow, 1900). (D. Mn.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name Glasites or Glassites was generally used in Scotland; in + England and America the name Sandemanians was more common. + + + + +GLASS (O. E. _glaes_, cf. Ger. _Glas_, perhaps derived from an old +Teutonic root _gla-_, a variant of _glo-_, having the general sense of +shining, cf. "glare," "glow"), a hard substance, usually transparent or +translucent, which from a fluid condition at a high temperature has +passed to a solid condition with sufficient rapidity to prevent the +formation of visible crystals. There are many varieties of glass +differing widely in chemical composition and in physical qualities. Most +varieties, however, have certain qualities in common. They pass through +a viscous stage in cooling from a state of fluidity; they develop +effects of colour when the glass mixtures are fused with certain +metallic oxides; they are, when cold, bad conductors both of electricity +and heat, they are easily fractured by a blow or shock and show a +conchoidal fracture; they are but slightly affected by ordinary +solvents, but are readily attacked by hydrofluoric acid. + +The structure of glass has been the subject of repeated investigations. +The theory most widely accepted at present is that glass is a quickly +solidified solution, in which silica, silicates, borates, phosphates and +aluminates may be either solvents or solutes, and metallic oxides and +metals may be held either in solution or in suspension. Long experience +has fixed the mixtures, so far as ordinary furnace temperatures are +concerned, which produce the varieties of glass in common use. The +essential materials of which these mixtures are made are, for English +flint glass, sand, carbonate of potash and red lead; for plate and sheet +glass, sand, carbonate or sulphate of soda and carbonate of lime; and +for Bohemian glass, sand, carbonate of potash and carbonate of lime. It +is convenient to treat these glasses as "normal" glasses, but they are +in reality mixtures of silicates, and cannot rightly be regarded as +definite chemical compounds or represented by definite chemical +formulae. + +The knowledge of the chemistry of glass-making has been considerably +widened by Dr F. O. Schott's experiments at the Jena glass-works. The +commercial success of these works has demonstrated the value of pure +science to manufactures. + +The recent large increase in the number of varieties of glass has been +chiefly due to developments in the manufacture of optical glass. Glasses +possessing special qualities have been required, and have been supplied +by the introduction of new combinations of materials. The range of the +specific gravity of glasses from 2.5 to 5.0 illustrates the effect of +modified compositions. In the same way glass can be rendered more or +less fusible, and its stability can be increased both in relation to +extremes of temperature and to the chemical action of solvents. + +The fluidity of glass at a high temperature renders possible the +processes of ladelling, pouring, casting and stirring. A mass of glass +in a viscous state can be rolled with an iron roller like dough; can be +rendered hollow by the pressure of the human breath or by compressed +air; can be forced by air pressure, or by a mechanically driven plunger, +to take the shape and impression of a mould; and can be almost +indefinitely extended as solid rod or as hollow tube. So extensible is +viscous glass that it can be drawn out into a filament sufficiently fine +and elastic to be woven into a fabric. + +Glasses are generally transparent but may be translucent or opaque. +Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by +maintaining them for a long period at a temperature just insufficient to +cause fusion. In this way is produced the crystalline, devitrified +material, known as Reaumur's porcelain. Semi-opacity and opacity are +usually produced by the addition to the glass-mixtures of materials +which will remain in suspension in the glass, such as oxide of tin, +oxide of arsenic, phosphate of lime, cryolite or a mixture of felspar +and fluorspar. + +Little is known about the actual cause of colour in glass beyond the +fact that certain materials added to and melted with certain +glass-mixtures will in favourable circumstances produce effects of +colour. The colouring agents are generally metallic oxides. The same +oxide may produce different colours with different glass-mixtures, and +different oxides of the same metal may produce different colours. The +purple-blue of cobalt, the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the +dichroic canary-colour of uranium and the violet of manganese, are +constant. Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or a pale blue according +to the glass with which it is mixed. Ferric oxide gives a yellow colour, +but requires the presence of an oxidizing agent to prevent reduction to +the ferrous state. Lead gives a pale yellow colour. Silver oxide, mixed +as a paint and spread on the surface of a piece of glass and heated, +gives a permanent yellow stain. Finely divided vegetable charcoal added +to a soda-lime glass gives a yellow colour. It has been suggested that +the colour is due to sulphur, but the effect can be produced with a +glass mixture containing no sulphur, free or combined, and by increasing +the proportion of charcoal the intensity of the colour can be increased +until it reaches black opacity. Selenites and selenates give a pale pink +or pinkish yellow. Tellurium appears to give a pale pink tint. Nickel +with a potash-lead glass gives a violet colour, and a brown colour with +a soda-lime glass. Copper gives a peacock-blue which becomes green if +the proportion of the copper oxide is increased. If oxide of copper is +added to a glass mixture containing a strong reducing agent, a glass is +produced which when first taken from the crucible is colourless but on +being reheated develops a deep crimson-ruby colour. A similar glass, if +its cooling is greatly retarded, produces throughout its substance +minute crystals of metallic copper, and closely resembles the mineral +called avanturine. There is also an intermediate stage in which the +glass has a rusty red colour by reflected light, and a purple-blue +colour by transmitted light. Glass containing gold behaves in almost +precisely the same way, but the ruby glass is less crimson than copper +ruby glass. J. E. C. Maxwell Garnett, who has studied the optical +properties of these glasses, has suggested that the changes in colour +correspond with changes effected in the structure of the metals as they +pass gradually from solution in the glass to a state of crystallization. + +Owing to impurities contained in the materials from which glasses are +made, accidental coloration or discoloration is often produced. For this +reason chemical agents are added to glass mixtures to remove or +neutralize accidental colour. Ferrous oxide is the usual cause of +discoloration. By converting ferrous into ferric oxide the green tint is +changed to yellow, which is less noticeable. Oxidation may be effected +by the addition to the glass mixture of a substance which gives up +oxygen at a high temperature, such as manganese dioxide or arsenic +trioxide. With the same object, red lead and saltpetre are used in the +mixture for potash-lead glass. Manganese dioxide not only acts as a +source of oxygen, but develops a pink tint in the glass, which is +complementary to and neutralizes the green colour due to ferrous oxide. + +Glass is a bad conductor of heat. When boiling water is poured into a +glass vessel, the vessel frequently breaks, on account of the unequal +expansion of the inner and outer layers. If in the process of glass +manufacture a glass vessel is suddenly cooled, the constituent particles +are unable to arrange themselves and the vessel remains in a state of +extreme tension. The surface of the vessel may be hard, but the vessel +is liable to fracture on receiving a trifling shock. M. de la Bastie's +process of "toughening" glass consisted in dipping glass, raised to a +temperature slightly below the melting-point, into molten tallow. The +surface of the glass was hardened, but the inner layers remained in +unstable equilibrium. Directly the crust was pierced the whole mass was +shattered into minute fragments. In all branches of glass manufacture +the process of "annealing," i.e. cooling the manufactured objects +sufficiently slowly to allow the constituent particles to settle into a +condition of equilibrium, is of vital importance. The desired result is +obtained either by moving the manufactured goods gradually away from a +constant source of heat, or by placing them in a heated kiln and +allowing the heat gradually to die out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Siemens's Continuous Tank Furnace.] + +The furnaces (fig. 15) employed for melting glass are usually heated +with gas on the "Siemens," or some similar system of regenerative +heating. In the United States natural gas is used wherever it is +available. In some English works coal is still employed for direct +heating with various forms of mechanical stokers. Crude petroleum and a +thin tar, resulting from the process of enriching water-gas with +petroleum, have been used both with compressed air and with steam with +considerable success. Electrical furnaces have not as yet been employed +for ordinary glass-making on a commercial scale, but the electrical +plants which have been erected for melting and moulding quartz suggest +the possibility of electric heating being employed for the manufacture +of glass. Many forms of apparatus have been tried for ascertaining the +temperature of glass furnaces. It is usually essential that some parts +of the apparatus shall be made to acquire a temperature identical with +the temperature to be measured. Owing to the physical changes produced +in the material exposed prolonged observations of temperature are +impossible. In the Fery radiation pyrometer this difficulty is obviated, +as the instrument may be placed at a considerable distance from the +furnace. The radiation passing out from an opening in the furnace falls +upon a concave mirror in a telescope and is focused upon a +thermoelectric couple. The hotter the furnace the greater is the rise of +temperature of the couple. The electromotive force thus generated is +measured by a galvanometer, the scale of which is divided and figured so +that the temperature may be directly read. (See THERMOMETRY.) + +In dealing with the manufacture of glass it is convenient to group the +various branches in the following manner: + + _Manufactured Glass._ + + I. Optical Glass + | + II. Blown Glass + | + +----------------+-------+--------+-------------+ + | | | | + A. Table glass. B. Tube. C. Sheet D. Bottles. + Special glasses and crown + for thermometers, glass. + and other special + glasses. + + III. Mechanically Pressed Glass + | + +----------------+-----------------+ + | | + A. Plate and rolled plate glass. B. Pressed table glass. + +I. OPTICAL GLASS.--As regards both mode of production and essential +properties optical glass differs widely from all other varieties. These +differences arise primarily from the fact that glass for optical uses is +required in comparatively large and thick pieces, while for most other +purposes glass is used in the form of comparatively thin sheets; when, +therefore, as a consequence of Dollond's invention of achromatic +telescope objectives in 1757, a demand first arose for optical glass, +the industry was unable to furnish suitable material. Flint glass +particularly, which appeared quite satisfactory when viewed in small +pieces, was found to be so far from homogeneous as to be useless for +lens construction. The first step towards overcoming this vital defect +in optical glass was taken by P. L. Guinand, towards the end of the 18th +century, by introducing the process of stirring the molten glass by +means of a cylinder of fireclay. Guinand was induced to migrate from his +home in Switzerland to Bavaria, where he worked at the production of +homogeneous flint glass, first with Joseph von Utzschneider and then +with J. Fraunhofer; the latter ultimately attained considerable success +and produced telescope disks up to 28 centimetres (11 in.) diameter. +Fraunhofer further initiated the specification of refraction and +dispersion in terms of certain lines of the spectrum, and even attempted +an investigation of the effect of chemical composition on the relative +dispersion produced by glasses in different parts of the spectrum. +Guinand's process was further developed in France by Guinand's sons and +subsequently by Bontemps and E. Feil. In 1848 Bontemps was obliged to +leave France for political reasons and came to England, where he +initiated the optical glass manufacture at Chance's glass works near +Birmingham, and this firm ultimately attained a considerable reputation +in the production of optical glass, especially of large disks for +telescope objectives. Efforts at improving optical glass had, however, +not been confined to the descendants and successors of Guinand and +Fraunhofer. In 1824 the Royal Astronomical Society of London appointed a +committee on the subject, the experimental work being carried out by +Faraday. Faraday independently recognized the necessity for mechanical +agitation of the molten glass in order to ensure homogeneity, and to +facilitate his manipulations he worked with dense lead borate glasses +which are very fusible, but have proved too unstable for ordinary +optical purposes. Later Maes of Clichy (France) exhibited some "zinc +crown" glass in small plates of optical quality at the London Exhibition +of 1851; and another French glass-maker, Lamy, produced a dense thallium +glass in 1867. In 1834 W. V. Harcourt began experiments in glass-making, +in which he was subsequently joined by G. G. Stokes. Their object was to +pursue the inquiry begun by Fraunhofer as to the effect of chemical +composition on the distribution of dispersion. The specific effect of +boric acid in this respect was correctly ascertained by Stokes and +Harcourt, but they mistook the effect of titanic acid. J. Hopkinson, +working at Chance's glass works, subsequently made an attempt to produce +a titanium silicate glass, but nothing further resulted. + +The next and most important forward step in the progress of optical +glass manufacture was initiated by Ernst Abbe and carried out jointly by +him and O. Schott at Jena in Germany. Aided by grants from the Prussian +government, these workers systematically investigated the effect of +introducing a large number of different chemical substances (oxides) +into vitreous fluxes. As a result a whole series of glasses of novel +composition and optical properties were produced. A certain number of +the most promising of these, from the purely optical point of view, had +unfortunately to be abandoned for practical use owing to their chemical +instability, and the problem of Fraunhofer, viz. the production of pairs +of glasses of widely differing refraction and dispersion, but having a +similar distribution of dispersion in the various regions of the +spectrum, was not in the first instance solved. On the other hand, while +in the older crown and flint glasses the relation between refraction and +dispersion had been practically fixed, dispersion and refraction +increasing regularly with the density of the glass, in some of the new +glasses introduced by Abbe and Schott this relation is altered and a +relatively low refractive index is accompanied by a relatively high +dispersion, while in others a high refractive index is associated with +low dispersive power. + +The initiative of Abbe and Schott, which was greatly aided by the +resources for scientific investigation available at the Physikalische +Reichsanstalt (Imperial Physical Laboratory), led to such important +developments that similar work was undertaken in France by the firm of +Mantois, the successors of Feil, and somewhat later by Chance in +England. The manufacture of the new varieties of glass, originally known +as "Jena" glasses, is now carried out extensively and with a +considerable degree of commercial success in France, and also to a less +extent in England, but none of the other makers of optical glass has as +yet contributed to the progress of the industry to anything like the +same extent as the Jena firm. + +The older optical glasses, now generally known as the "ordinary" crown +and flint glasses, are all of the nature of pure silicates, the basic +constituents being, in the case of crown glasses, lime and soda or lime +and potash, or a mixture of both, and in the case of flint glasses, lead +and either (or both) soda and potash. With the exception of the heavier +flint (lead) glasses, these can be produced so as to be free both from +noticeable colour and from such defects as bubbles, opaque inclusions or +"striae," but extreme care in the choice of all the raw materials and in +all the manipulations is required to ensure this result. Further, these +glasses, when made from properly proportioned materials, possess a very +considerable degree of chemical stability, which is amply sufficient for +most optical purposes. The newer glasses, on the other hand, contain a +much wider variety of chemical constituents, the most important being +the oxides of barium, magnesium, aluminium and zinc, used either with or +without the addition of the bases already named in reference to the +older glasses, and--among acid bodies--boric anhydride (B2O3) which +replaces the silica of the older glasses to a varying extent. It must be +admitted that, by the aid of certain of these new constituents, glasses +can be produced which, as regards purity of colour, freedom from defects +and chemical stability are equal or even superior to the best of the +"ordinary" glasses, but it is a remarkable fact that when this is the +case the optical properties of the new glass do not fall very widely +outside the limits set by the older glasses. On the other hand, the more +extreme the optical properties of these new glasses, i.e. the further +they depart from the ratio of refractive index to dispersive power found +in the older glasses, the greater the difficulty found in obtaining them +of either sufficient purity or stability to be of practical use. It is, +in fact, admitted that some of the glasses, most useful optically, the +dense barium crown glasses, which are so widely used in modern +photographic lenses, cannot be produced entirely free either from +noticeable colour or from numerous small bubbles, while the chemical +nature of these glasses is so sensitive that considerable care is +required to protect the surfaces of lenses made from them if serious +tarnishing is to be avoided. In practice, however, it is not found that +the presence either of a decidedly greenish-yellow colour or of numerous +small bubbles interferes at all seriously with the successful use of the +lenses for the majority of purposes, so that it is preferable to +sacrifice the perfection of the glass in order to secure valuable +optical properties. + +It is a further striking fact, not unconnected with those just +enumerated, that the extreme range of optical properties covered even by +the relatively large number of optical glasses now available is in +reality very small. The refractive indices of all glasses at present +available lie between 1.46 and 1.90, whereas transparent minerals are +known having refractive indices lying considerably outside these limits; +at least one of these, fluorite (calcium fluoride), is actually used by +opticians in the construction of certain lenses, so that probably +progress is to be looked for in a considerable widening of the limits of +available optical materials; possibly such progress may lie in the +direction of the artificial production of large mineral crystals. + +The qualities required in optical glasses have already been partly +referred to, but may now be summarized:-- + + 1. _Transparency and Freedom from Colour._--These qualities can be + readily judged by inspection of the glass in pieces of considerable + thickness, and they may be quantitatively measured by means of the + spectro-photometer. + + 2. _Homogeneity._--The optical desideratum is uniformity of refractive + index and dispersive power throughout the mass of the glass. This is + probably never completely attained, variations in the sixth + significant figure of the refractive index being observed in + different parts of single large blocks of the most perfect glass. + While such minute and gradual variations are harmless for most optical + purposes, sudden variations which generally take the form of striae or + veins are fatal defects in all optical glass. In their coarsest forms + such striae are readily visible to the unaided eye, but finer ones + escape detection unless special means are taken for rendering them + visible; such special means conveniently take the form of an apparatus + for examining the glass in a beam of parallel light, when the striae + scatter the light and appear as either dark or bright lines according + to the position of the eye. Plate glass of the usual quality, which + appears to be perfectly homogeneous when looked at in the ordinary + way, is seen to be a mass of fine striae, when a considerable + thickness is examined in parallel light. Plate glass is, nevertheless, + considerably used for the cheaper forms of lenses, where the + scattering of the light and loss of definition arising from these fine + striae is not readily recognized. + + Bubbles and enclosures of opaque matter, although more readily + observed, do not constitute such serious defects; their presence in a + lens, to a moderate extent, does not interfere with its performance + (see above). + + 3. _Hardness and Chemical Stability._--These properties contribute to + the durability of lenses, and are specially desirable in the outer + members of lens combinations which are likely to be subjected to + frequent handling or are exposed to the weather. As a general rule, to + which, however, there are important exceptions, both these qualities + are found to a greater degree, the lower the refractive index of the + glass. The chemical stability, i.e. the power of resisting the + disintegrating effects of atmospheric moisture and carbonic acid, + depends largely upon the quantity of alkalis contained in the glass + and their proportion to the lead, lime or barium present, the + stability being generally less the higher the proportion of alkali. A + high silica-content tends towards both hardness and chemical + stability, and this can be further increased by the addition of small + proportions of boric acid; in larger quantities, however, the latter + constituent produces the opposite effect. + + 4. _Absence of Internal Strain._--Internal strain in glass arises from + the unequal contraction of the outer and inner portions of masses of + glass during cooling. Processes of annealing, or very gradual cooling, + are intended to relieve these strains, but such processes are only + completely effective when the cooling, particularly through those + ranges of temperature where the glass is just losing the last traces + of plasticity, is extremely gradual, a rate measured in hours per + degree Centigrade being required. The existence of internal strains in + glass can be readily recognized by examination in polarized light, any + signs of double refraction indicating the existence of strain. If the + glass is very badly annealed, the lenses made from it may fly to + pieces during or after manufacture, but apart from such extreme cases + the optical effects of internal strain are not readily observed except + in large optical apparatus. Very perfectly annealed optical glass is + now, however, readily obtainable. + + 5. _Refraction and Dispersion._--The purely optical properties of + refraction and dispersion, although of the greatest importance, cannot + be dealt with in any detail here; for an account of the optical + properties required in glasses for various forms of lenses see the + articles LENS and ABERRATION: II. _In Optical Systems_. As typical of + the range of modern optical glasses Table I. is given, which + constituted the list of optical glasses exhibited by Messrs Chance at + the Optical Convention in London in 1905. In this table n is the + refractive index of the glass for sodium light (the D line of the + solar spectrum), while the letters C, F and G' refer to lines in the + hydrogen spectrum by which dispersion is now generally specified. The + symbol [nu] represents the inverse of the dispersive power, its value + being (n_D - 1)/(C - F). The very much longer lists of German and + French firms contain only a few types not represented in this table. + + Table I.--_Optical Properties._ + + +--------+---------------+--------+------+--------+-----------------------------------------+ + | | | | | | Partial and Relative | + | | | | | Medium | Partial Dispersions. | + | Factory| | | | Disper-+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+ + | Number.| Name. | n_D. | [nu].| sion. | | C-D | | D-F | | F-G'| + | | | | | C-F. | C-D. | --- | D-F. | --- | F-G'. | --- | + | | | | | | | C-F | | C-F | | C-F.| + +--------+---------------+--------+------+--------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+ + | C. 644 | Extra Hard | | | | | | | | | | + | | Crown | 1.4959 | 64.4 | .00770 |.00228 |.296 |.00542 |.704 |.00431 |.560 | + | B. 646 | Boro-silicate | | | | | | | | | | + | | Crown | 1.5096 | 63.3 | .00803 |.00236 |.294 |.00562 |.700 |.00446 |.555 | + | A. 605 | Hard Crown | 1.5175 | 60.5 | .00856 |.00252 |.294 |.00604 |.706 |.00484 |.554 | + | C. 577 | Medium Barium | | | | | | | | | | + | | Crown | 1.5738 | 57.9 | .00990 |.00293 |.296 |.00697 |.704 |.00552 |.557 | + | C. 579 | Densest Barium| | | | | | | | | | + | | Crown | 1.6065 | 57.9 | .01046 |.00308 |.294 |.00738 |.705 |.00589 |.563 | + | A. 569 | Soft Crown. | 1.5152 | 56.9 | .00906 |.00264 |.291 |.00642 |.708 |.00517 |.570 | + | B. 563 | Medium Barium | | | | | | | | | | + | | Crown | 1.5660 | 56.3 | .01006 |.00297 |.295 |.00709 |.704 |.00576 |.572 | + | B. 535 | Barium Light | | | | | | | | | | + | | Flint | 1.5452 | 53.5 | .01020 |.00298 |.292 |.00722 |.701 |.00582 |.570 | + | A. 490 | Extra Light | | | | | | | | | | + | | Flint | 1.5316 | 49.0 | .01085 |.00313 |.288 |.00772 |.711 |.00630 |.580 | + | A. 485 | Extra Light | | | | | | | | | | + | | Flint | 1.5333 | 48.5 | .01099 |.00322 |.293 |.00777 |.707 |.00643 |.582 | + | C. 474 | Boro-silicate | | | | | | | | | | + | | Flint | 1.5623 | 47.4 | .01187 |.00343 |.289 |.00844 |.711 |.00693 |.584 | + | B. 466 | Barium Light | | | | | | | | | | + | | Flint | 1.5833 | 46.6 | .01251 |.00362 |.288 |.00889 |.711 |.00721 |.576 | + | B. 458 | Soda Flint | 1.5482 | 45.8 | .01195 |.00343 |.287 |.00852 |.713 |.00690 |.577 | + | A. 458 | Light Flint | 1.5472 | 45.8 | .01196 |.00348 |.291 |.00848 |.709 |.00707 |.591 | + | A. 432 | Light Flint | 1.5610 | 43.2 | .01299 |.00372 |.287 |.00927 |.713 |.00770 |.593 | + | A. 410 | Light Flint | 1.5760 | 41.0 | .01404 |.00402 |.286 |.01002 |.713 |.00840 |.598 | + | B. 407 | Light Flint | 1.5787 | 40.7 | .01420 |.00404 |.284 |.01016 |.715 |.00840 |.591 | + | A. 370 | Dense Flint. | 1.6118 | 36.9 | .01657 |.00470 |.284 |.01187 |.716 |.01004 |.606 | + | A. 361 | Dense Flint. | 1.6214 | 36.1 | .01722 |.00491 |.285 |.01231 |.715 |.01046 |.608 | + | A. 360 | Dense Flint. | 1.6225 | 36.0 | .01729 |.00493 |.286 |.01236 |.715 |.01054 |.609 | + | A. 337 | Extra Dense | | | | | | | | | | + | | Flint | 1.6469 | 33.7 | .01917 |.00541 |.285 |.01376 |.720 |.01170 |.655 | + | A. 299 | Densest Flint | 1.7129 | 29.9 | .02384 |.00670 |.281 |.01714 |.789 |.01661 |.678 | + +--------+---------------+--------+------+--------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+ + +_Manufacture of Optical Glass._--In its earlier stages, the process for +the production of optical glass closely resembles that used in the +production of any other glass of the highest quality. The raw materials +are selected with great care to assure chemical purity, but whereas in +most glasses the only impurities to be dreaded are those that are either +infusible or produce a colouring effect upon the glass, for optical +purposes the admixture of other glass-forming bodies than those which +are intended to be present must be avoided on account of their effect in +modifying the optical constants of the glass. Constancy of composition +of the raw materials and their careful and thorough admixture in +constant proportions are therefore essential to the production of the +required glasses. The materials are generally used in the form either of +oxides (lead, zinc, silica, &c.) or of salts readily decomposed by heat, +such as the nitrates or carbonates. Fragments of glass of the same +composition as that aimed at are generally incorporated to a limited +extent with the mixed raw materials to facilitate their fusion. The +crucibles or pots used for the production of optical glass very closely +resemble those used in the manufacture of flint glass for other +purposes; they are "covered" and the molten materials are thus protected +from the action of the furnace gases by the interposition of a wall of +fireclay, but as crucibles for optical glass are used for only one +fusion and are then broken up, they are not made so thick and heavy as +those used in flint-glass making, since the latter remain in the furnace +for many weeks. On the other hand, the chemical and physical nature of +the fireclays used in the manufacture of such crucibles requires careful +attention in order to secure the best results. The furnace used for the +production of optical glass is generally constructed to take one +crucible only, so that the heat of the furnace may be accurately +adjusted to the requirements of the particular glass under treatment. +These small furnaces are frequently arranged for direct coal firing, but +regenerative gas-fired furnaces are also employed. The empty crucible, +having first been gradually dried and heated to a bright red heat in a +subsidiary furnace, is taken up by means of massive iron tongs and +introduced into the previously heated furnace, the temperature of which +is then gradually raised. When a suitable temperature for the fusion of +the particular glass in question has been attained, the mixture of raw +materials is introduced in comparatively small quantities at a time. In +this way the crucible is gradually filled with a mass of molten glass, +which is, however, full of bubbles of all sizes. These bubbles arise +partly from the air enclosed between the particles of raw materials and +partly from the gaseous decomposition products of the materials +themselves. In the next stage of the process, the glass is raised to a +high temperature in order to render it sufficiently fluid to allow of +the complete elimination of these bubbles; the actual temperature +required varies with the chemical composition of the glass, a bright red +heat sufficing for the most fusible glasses, while with others the +utmost capacity of the best furnaces is required to attain the necessary +temperature. With these latter glasses there is, of course, considerable +risk that the partial fusion and consequent contraction of the fireclay +of the crucible may result in its destruction and the entire loss of the +glass. The stages of the process so far described generally occupy from +36 to 60 hours, and during this time the constant care and watchfulness +of those attending the furnace is required. This is still more the case +in the next stage. The examination of small test-pieces of the glass +withdrawn from the crucible by means of an iron rod having shown that +the molten mass is free from bubbles, the stirring process may be begun, +the object of this manipulation being to render the glass as homogeneous +as possible and to secure the absence of veins or striae in the product. +For this purpose a cylinder of fireclay, provided with a square axial +hole at the upper end, is heated in a small subsidiary furnace and is +then introduced into the molten glass. Into the square axial hole fits +the square end of a hooked iron bar which projects several yards beyond +the mouth of the furnace; by means of this bar a workman moves the +fireclay cylinder about in the glass with a steady circular sweep. +Although the weight of the iron bar is carried by a support, such as an +overhead chain or a swivel roller, this operation is very laborious and +trying, more especially during the earlier stages when the heat radiated +from the open mouth of the crucible is intense. The men who manipulate +the stirring bars are therefore changed at short intervals, while the +bars themselves have also to be changed at somewhat longer intervals, as +they rapidly become oxidized, and accumulated scale would tend to fail +off them, thus contaminating the glass below. The stirring process is +begun when the glass is perfectly fluid at a temperature little short of +the highest attained in its fusion, but as the stirring proceeds the +glass is allowed to cool gradually and thus becomes more and more +viscous until finally the stirring cylinder can scarcely be moved. When +the glass has acquired this degree of consistency it is supposed that no +fresh movements can occur within its mass, so that if homogeneity has +been attained the glass will preserve it permanently. The stirring is +therefore discontinued and the clay cylinder is either left embedded in +the glass, or by the exercise of considerable force it may be gradually +withdrawn. The crucible with the semi-solid glass which it contains is +now allowed to cool considerably in the melting furnace, or it may be +removed to another slightly heated furnace. When the glass has cooled so +far as to become hard and solid, the furnace is hermetically sealed up +and allowed to cool very gradually to the ordinary temperature. If the +cooling is very gradual--occupying several weeks--it sometimes happens +that the entire contents of a large crucible, weighing perhaps 1000 lb., +are found intact as a single mass of glass, but more frequently the mass +is found broken up into a number of fragments of various sizes. From the +large masses great lenses and mirrors may be produced, while the smaller +pieces are used for the production of the disks and slabs of moderate +size, in which the optical glass of commerce is usually supplied. In +order to allow of the removal of the glass, the cold crucible is broken +up and the glass carefully separated from the fragments of fireclay. The +pieces of glass are then examined for the detection of the grosser +defects, and obviously defective pieces are rejected. As the fractured +surfaces of the glass in this condition are unsuitable for delicate +examination a good deal of glass that passes this inspection has yet +ultimately to be rejected. The next stage in the preparation of the +glass is the process of moulding and annealing. Lumps of glass of +approximately the right weight are chosen, and are heated to a +temperature just sufficient to soften the glass, when the lumps are +caused to assume the shape of moulds made of iron or fireclay either by +the natural flow of the softened glass under gravity, or by pressure +from suitable tools or presses. The glass, now in its approximate form, +is placed in a heated chamber where it is allowed to cool very +gradually--the minimum time of cooling from a dull red heat being six +days, while for "fine annealing" a much longer period is required (see +above). At the end of the annealing process the glass issues in the +shape of disks or slabs slightly larger than required by the optician in +each case. The glass is, however, by no means ready for delivery, since +it has yet to be examined with scrupulous care, and all defective pieces +must be rejected entirely or at least the defective part must be cut out +and the slab remoulded or ground down to a smaller size. For the purpose +of rendering this minute examination possible, opposite plane surfaces +of the glass are ground approximately flat and polished, the faces to be +polished being so chosen as to allow of a view through the greatest +possible thickness of glass; thus in slabs the narrow edges are +polished. + +It will be readily understood from the above account of the process of +production that optical glass, relatively to other kinds of glass, is +very expensive, the actual price varying from 3s. to 30s. per lb. in +small slabs or disks. The price, however, rapidly increases with the +total bulk of perfect glass required in one piece, so that large disks +of glass suitable for telescope objectives of wide aperture, or blocks +for large prisms, become exceedingly costly. The reason for this high +cost is to be found partly in the fact that the yield of optically +perfect glass even in large and successful meltings rarely exceeds 20% +of the total weight of glass melted. Further, all the subsequent +processes of cutting, moulding and annealing become increasingly +difficult, owing to the greatly increased risk of breakage arising from +either external injury or internal strain, as the dimensions of the +individual piece of glass increase. Nevertheless, disks of optical +glass, both crown and flint, have been produced up to 39 in. in +diameter. + +II. BLOWN GLASS. (A) _Table-ware and Vases._--The varieties of glass +used for the manufacture of table-ware and vases are the potash-lead +glass, the soda-lime glass and the potash-lime glass. These glasses may +be colourless or coloured. Venetian glass is a soda-lime glass; Bohemian +glass is a potash-lime glass. The potash-lead glass, which was first +used on a commercial scale in England for the manufacture of table-ware, +and which is known as "flint" glass or "crystal," is also largely used +in France, Germany and the United States. Table II. shows the typical +composition of these glasses. + + TABLE II. + + +------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ + | | | | | | | | Fe2O3 | + | | SiO2. | K2O. | PbO. | Na2O. | CaO. | MgO. | and | + | | | | | | | | Al2O3. | + +------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ + | Potash-lead (flint) glass | 53.17 | 13.88 | 32.95 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | Soda-lime (Venetian) glass | 73.40 | .. | .. | 18.58 | 5.06 | .. | 2.48 | + | Potash-lime (Bohemian) glass | 71.70 | 12.70 | .. | 2.50 | 10.30 | .. | 0.90 | + +------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ + +For melting the leadless glasses, open, bowl-shaped crucibles are used, +ranging from 12 to 40 in. in diameter. Glass mixtures containing lead +are melted in covered, beehive-shaped crucibles holding from 12 to 18 +cwt. of glass. They have a hooded opening on one side near the top. This +opening serves for the introduction of the glass-mixture, for the +removal of the melted glass and as a source of heat for the processes of +manipulation. + +The Venetian furnaces in the island of Murano are small low structures +heated with wood. The heat passes from the melting furnace into the +annealing kiln. In Germany, Austria and the United States, gas furnaces +are generally used. In England directly-heated coal furnaces are still +in common use, which in many cases are stoked by mechanical feeders. +There are two systems of annealing. The manufactured goods are either +removed gradually from a constant source of heat by means of a train of +small iron trucks drawn along a tramway by an endless chain, or are +placed in a heated kiln in which the fire is allowed gradually to die +out. The second system is especially used for annealing large and heavy +objects. The manufacture of table-ware is carried on by small gangs of +men and boys. In England each "gang" or "chair" consists of three men +and one boy. In works, however, in which most of the goods are moulded, +and where less skilled labour is required, the proportion of boy labour +is increased. There are generally two shifts of workmen, each shift +working six hours, and the work is carried on continuously from Monday +morning until Friday morning. Directly work is suspended the glass +remaining in the crucibles is ladled into water, drained and dried. It +is then mixed with the glass mixture and broken glass ("cullet"), and +replaced in the crucibles. The furnaces are driven to a white heat in +order to fuse the mixture and expel bubbles of gas and air. Before work +begins the temperature is lowered sufficiently to render the glass +viscous. In the viscous state a mass of glass can be coiled upon the +heated end of an iron rod, and if the rod is hollow can be blown into a +hollow bulb. The tools used are extremely primitive--hollow iron +blowing-rods, solid rods for holding vessels during manipulation, spring +tools, resembling sugar-tongs in shape, with steel or wooden blades for +fashioning the viscous glass, callipers, measure-sticks, and a variety +of moulds of wood, carbon, cast iron, gun-metal and plaster of Paris +(figs. 16 and 17). The most important tool, however, is the bench or +"chair" on which the workman sits, which serves as his lathe. He sits +between two rigid parallel arms, projecting forwards and backwards and +sloping slightly from back to front. Across the arms he balances the +iron rod to which the glass bulb adheres, and rolling it backwards and +forwards with the fingers of his left hand fashions the glass between +the blades of his sugar-tongs tool, grasped in his right hand. The +hollow bulb is worked into the shape it is intended to assume, partly by +blowing, partly by gravitation, and partly by the workman's tool. If the +blowing iron is held vertically with the bulb uppermost the bulb becomes +flattened and shallow, if the bulb is allowed to hang downwards it +becomes elongated and reduced in diameter, and if the end of the bulb is +pierced and the iron is held horizontally and sharply trundled, as a mop +is trundled, the bulb opens out into a flattened disk. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Pontils and Blowing Iron. a, Puntee; b, spring +puntee; c, blowing iron.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Shaping and Measuring Tools. + + d, "Sugar-tongs" tool with wooden ends. + e,e, "Sugar-tongs" tools with cutting edges. + f, Pincers. + g, Scissors. + h, Battledore. + i, Marking compass.] + +During the process of manipulation, whether on the chair or whilst the +glass is being reheated, the rod must be constantly and gently trundled +to prevent the collapse of the bulb or vessel. Every natural development +of the spherical form can be obtained by blowing and fashioning by hand. +A non-spherical form can only be produced by blowing the hollow bulb +into a mould of the required shape. Moulds are used both for giving +shape to vessels and also for impressing patterns on their surface. +Although spherical forms can be obtained without the use of moulds, +moulds are now largely used for even the simplest kinds of table-ware in +order to economize time and skilled labour. In France, Germany and the +United States it is rare to find a piece of table-ware which has not +received its shape in a mould. The old and the new systems of making a +wine-glass illustrate almost all the ordinary processes of glass +working. Sufficient glass is first "gathered" on the end of a blowing +iron to form the bowl of the wine-glass. The mere act of coiling an +exact weight of molten glass round the end of a rod 4 ft. in length +requires considerable skill. The mass of glass is rolled on a polished +slab of iron, the "marvor," to solidify it, and it is then slightly +hollowed by blowing. Under the old system the form of the bowl is +gradually developed by blowing and by shaping the bulb with the +sugar-tongs tool. The leg is either pulled out from the substance of the +base of the bowl, or from a small lump of glass added to the base. The +foot starts as a small independent bulb on a separate blowing iron. One +extremity of this bulb is made to adhere to the end of the leg, and the +other extremity is broken away from its blowing iron. The fractured end +is heated, and by the combined action of heat and centrifugal force +opens out into a flat foot. The bowl is now severed from its blowing +iron and the unfinished wine-glass is supported by its foot, which is +attached to the end of a working rod by a metal clip or by a seal of +glass. The fractured edge of the bowl is heated, trimmed with scissors +and melted so as to be perfectly smooth and even, and the bowl itself +receives its final form from the sugar-tongs tool. + +Under the new system the bowl is fashioned by blowing the slightly +hollowed mass of glass into a mould. The leg is formed and a small lump +of molten glass is attached to its extremity to form the foot. The +blowing iron is constantly trundled, and the small lump of glass is +squeezed and flattened into the shape of a foot, either between two +slabs of wood hinged together, or by pressure against an upright board. +The bowl is severed from the blowing iron, and the wine-glass is sent to +the annealing oven with a bowl, longer than that of the finished glass, +and with a rough fractured edge. When the glass is cold the surplus is +removed either by grinding, or by applying heat to a line scratched with +a diamond round the bowl. The fractured edge is smoothed by the impact +of a gas flame. + +In the manufacture of a wine-glass the ductility of glass is illustrated +on a small scale by the process of pulling out the leg. It is more +strikingly illustrated in the manufacture of glass cane and tube. Cane +is produced from a solid mass of molten glass, tube from a mass hollowed +by blowing. One workman holds the blowing iron with the mass of glass +attached to it, and another fixes an iron rod by means of a seal of +glass to the extremity of the mass. The two workmen face each other and +walk backwards. The diameter of the cane or tube is regulated by the +weight of glass carried, and by the distance covered by the two workmen. +It is a curious property of viscous glass that whatever form is given to +the mass of glass before it is drawn out is retained by the finished +cane or tube, however small its section may be. Owing to this property, +tubes or canes can be produced with a square, oblong, oval or triangular +section. Exceedingly fine canes of milk-white glass play an important +part in the masterpieces produced by the Venetian glass-makers of the +16th century. Vases and drinking cups were produced of extreme +lightness, in the walls of which were embedded patterns rivalling +lace-work in fineness and intricacy. The canes from which the patterns +are formed are either simple or complex. The latter are made by dipping +a small mass of molten colourless glass into an iron cup around the +inner wall of which short lengths of white cane have been arranged at +regular intervals. The canes adhere to the molten glass, and the mass +is first twisted and then drawn out into fine cane, which contains white +threads arranged in endless spirals. The process can be almost +indefinitely repeated and canes formed of extreme complexity. A vase +decorated with these simple or complex canes is produced by embedding +short lengths of the cane on the surface of a mass of molten glass and +blowing and fashioning the mass into the required shape. + +Table-ware and vases may be wholly coloured or merely decorated with +colour. Touches of colour may be added to vessels in course of +manufacture by means of seals of molten glass, applied like sealing-wax; +or by causing vessels to wrap themselves round with threads or coils of +coloured glass. By the application of a pointed iron hook, while the +glass is still ductile, the parallel coils can be distorted into bends, +loops or zigzags. The surface of vessels may be spangled with gold or +platinum by rolling the hot glass on metallic leaf, or iridescent, by +the deposition of metallic tin, or by the corrosion caused by the +chemical action of acid fumes. Gilding and enamel decoration are applied +to vessels when cold, and fixed by heat. + +_Cutting_ and _engraving_ are mechanical processes for producing +decorative effects by abrading the surface of the glass when cold. The +abrasion is effected by pressing the glass against the edge of wheels, +or disks, of hard material revolving on horizontal spindles. The +spindles of cutting wheels are driven by steam or electric power. The +wheels for making deep cuts are made of iron, and are fed with sand and +water. The wheels range in diameter from 18 in. to 3 in. Wheels of +carborundum are also used. Wheels of fine sandstone fed with water are +used for making slighter cuts and for smoothing the rough surface left +by the iron wheels. Polishing is effected by wooden wheels fed with wet +pumice-powder and rottenstone and by brushes fed with moistened +putty-powder. Patterns are produced by combining straight and curved +cuts. Cutting brings out the brilliancy of glass, which is one of its +intrinsic qualities. At the end of the 18th century English cut glass +was unrivalled for design and beauty. Gradually, however, the process +was applied without restraint and the products lost all artistic +quality. At the present time cut glass is steadily regaining favour. + +_Engraving_ is a process of drawing on glass by means of small copper +wheels. The wheels range from 1/2 in. to 2 in. in diameter, and are fed +with a mixture of fine emery and oil. The spindles to which the wheels +are attached revolve in a lathe worked by a foot treadle. The true use +of engraving is to add interest to vessels by means of coats of arms, +crests, monograms, inscriptions and graceful outlines. The improper use +of engraving is to hide defective material. There are two other +processes of marking patterns on glass, but they possess no artistic +value. In the "sandblast" process the surface of the glass is exposed to +a stream of sharp sand driven by compressed air. The parts of the +surface which are not to be blasted are covered by adhesive paper. In +the "etching" process the surface of the glass is etched by the chemical +action of hydrofluoric acid, the parts which are not to be attacked +being covered with a resinous paint. The glass is first dipped in this +protective liquid, and when the paint has set the pattern is scratched +through it with a sharp point. The glass is then exposed to the acid. + +_Glass stoppers_ are fitted to bottles by grinding. The mouth of the +bottle is ground by a revolving iron cone, or mandrel, fed with sand and +water and driven by steam. The head of the stopper is fastened in a +chuck and the peg is ground to the size of the mouth of the bottle by +means of sand and water pressed against the glass by bent strips of thin +sheet iron. The mouth of the bottle is then pressed by hand on the peg +of the stopper, and the mouth and peg are ground together with a medium +of very fine emery and water until an air-tight joint is secured. + +The revival in recent years of the craft of glass-blowing in England +must be attributed to William Morris and T.G. Jackson, R.A. (Pl. II. +figs. 11 and 12). They, at any rate, seem to have been the first to +grasp the idea that a wine-glass is not merely a bowl, a stem and a +foot, but that, whilst retaining simplicity of form, it may nevertheless +possess decorative effect. They, moreover, suggested the introduction +for the manufacture of table-glass of a material similar in texture to +that used by the Venetians, both colourless and tinted. + +The colours previously available for English table-glass were ruby, +canary-yellow, emerald-green, dark peacock-green, light peacock-blue, +dark purple-blue and a dark purple. About 1870 the "Jackson" table-glass +was made in a light, dull green glass. The dull green was followed +successively by amber, white opal, blue opal, straw opal, sea-green, +horn colour and various pale tints of soda-lime glass, ranging from +yellow to blue. Experiments were also tried with a violet-coloured +glass, a violet opal, a transparent black and with glasses shading from +red to blue, red to amber and blue to green. + +In the Paris Exhibition of 1900 surface decoration was the prominent +feature of all the exhibits of table-glass. The carved or "cameo" glass, +introduced by Thomas Webb of Stourbridge in 1878, had been copied with +varying success by glass-makers of all nations. In many specimens there +were three or more layers of differently coloured glass, and curious +effects of blended colour were obtained by cutting through, or partly +through, the different layers. The surface of the glass had usually been +treated with hydrofluoric acid so as to have a satin-like gloss. Some +vases of this character, shown by Emile Galle and Daum Freres of Nancy, +possessed considerable beauty. The "Favrile" glass of Louis C. Tiffany +of New York (Pl. II. fig. 13) owes its effect entirely to surface colour +and lustre. The happiest specimens of this glass almost rival the wings +of butterflies in the brilliancy of their iridescent colours. The vases +of Karl Koepping of Berlin are so fantastic and so fragile that they +appear to be creations of the lamp rather than of the furnace. An +illustration is also given of some of Powell's "Whitefriars" glass, +shown at the St Louis Exhibition, 1904 (Pl. II. fig. 14). The specimens +of "pate de verre" exhibited by A. L. Dammouse, of Sevres, in the Musee +des Arts decoratifs in Paris, and at the London Franco-British +Exhibition in 1908, deserve attention. They have a semi-opaque body with +an "egg-shell" surface and are delicately tinted with colour. The shapes +are exceedingly simple, but some of the pieces possess great beauty. The +material and technique suggest a close relationship to porcelain. + +(B) _Tube._--The process of making tube has already been described. +Although the bore of the thermometer-tube is exceedingly small, it is +made in the same way as ordinary tube. The white line of enamel, which +is seen in some thermometers behind the bore, is introduced before the +mass of glass is pulled out. A flattened cake of viscous glass-enamel is +welded on to one side of the mass of glass after it has been hollowed by +blowing. The mass, with the enamel attached, is dipped into the crucible +and covered with a layer of transparent glass; the whole mass is then +pulled out into tube. If the section of the finished tube is to be a +triangle, with the enamel and bore at the base, the molten mass is +pressed into a V-shaped mould before it is pulled out. + +In modern thermometry instruments of extreme accuracy are required, and +researches have been made, especially in Germany and France, to +ascertain the causes of variability in mercurial thermometers, and how +such variability is to be removed or reduced. In all mercurial +thermometers there is a slight depression of the ice-point after +exposure to high temperatures; it is also not uncommon to find that the +readings of two thermometers between the ice- and boiling-points fail to +agree at any intermediate temperature, although the ice- and +boiling-points of both have been determined together with perfect +accuracy, and the intervening spaces have been equally divided. It has +been proved that these variations depend to a great extent on the +chemical nature of the glass of which the thermometer is made. Special +glasses have therefore been produced by Tonnelot in France and at the +Jena glass-works in Germany expressly for the manufacture of +thermometers for accurate physical measurements; the analyses of these +are shown in Table III. + + TABLE III. + + +-------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+------------+ + | | | | | | | | | | Depression | + | | SiO2. | Na2O. | K2O. | CaO. | Al2O3.| MgO. | B2O3.| ZnO.| of | + | | | | | | | | | | Ice-point. | + +-------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+------------+ + | Tonnelot's | | | | | | | | | | + | "Verre dur"| 70.96 | 12.02 | 0.56 |14.40 | 1.44 | 0.40 | .. | .. | 0.07 | + | Jena glass--| | | | | | | | | | + | XVI.-111 | 67.5 | 14.0 | .. | 7.0 | 2.5 | .. | 2.0 | 7.0 | 0.05 | + | 59-111 | 72.0 | 11.0 | .. | 5.0 | 5.0 | .. | 12.0 | .. | 0.02 | + +-------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+------------+ + +Since the discovery of the Rontgen rays, experiments have been made to +ascertain the effects of the different constituents of glass on the +transparency of glass to X-rays. The oxides of lead, barium, zinc and +antimony are found perceptibly to retard the rays. The glass tubes, +therefore, from which the X-ray bulbs are to be fashioned, must not +contain any of these oxides, whereas the glass used for making the +funnel-shaped shields, which direct the rays upon the patient and at the +same time protect the hands of the operator from the action of the rays, +must contain a large proportion of lead. + +Among the many developments of the Jena Works, not the least important +are the glasses made in the form of a tube, from which gas-chimneys, +gauge-glasses and chemical apparatus are fashioned, specially adapted to +resist sudden changes of temperature. One method is to form the tube of +two layers of glass, one being considerably more expansible than the +other. + +(C) _Sheet and Crown-glass._--Sheet-glass is almost wholly a +soda-lime-silicate glass, containing only small quantities of iron, +alumina and other impurities. The raw materials used in this manufacture +are chosen with considerable care, since the requirements as to the +colour of the product are somewhat stringent. The materials ordinarily +employed are the following: sand, of good quality, uniform in grain and +free from any notable quantity of iron oxide; carbonate of lime, +generally in the form of a pure variety of powdered limestone; and +sulphate of soda. A certain proportion of soda ash (carbonate of soda) +is also used in some works in sheet-glass mixtures, while "decolorizers" +(substances intended to remove or reduce the colour of the glass) are +also sometimes added, those most generally used being manganese dioxide +and arsenic. Another essential ingredient of all glass mixtures +containing sulphate of soda is some form of carbon, which is added +either as coke, charcoal or anthracite coal; the carbon so introduced +aids the reducing substances contained in the atmosphere of the furnace +in bringing about the reduction of the sulphate of soda to a condition +in which it combines more readily with the silicic acid of the sand. The +proportions in which these ingredients are mixed vary according to the +exact quality of glass required and with the form and temperature of the +melting furnace employed. A good quality of sheet-glass should show, on +analysis, a composition approximating to the following: silica (SiO2), +72%; lime (CaO), 13%; soda (Na2O), 14%; and iron and alumina (Fe2O3, +Al2O3), 1%. The actual composition, however, of a mixture that will give +a glass of this composition cannot be directly calculated from these +figures and the known composition of the raw materials, owing to the +fact that considerable losses, particularly of alkali, occur during +melting. + +The fusion of sheet-glass is now generally carried out in gas-fired +regenerative tank furnaces. The glass in process of fusion is contained +in a basin or tank built up of large blocks of fire-clay and is heated +by one or more powerful gas flames which enter the upper part of the +furnace chamber through suitable apertures or "ports." In Europe the gas +burnt in these furnaces is derived from special gas-producers, while in +some parts of America natural gas is utilized. With producer gas it is +necessary to pre-heat both the gas and the air which is supplied for its +combustion by passing both through heated regenerators (for an account +of the principles of the regenerative furnace see article FURNACE). In +many respects the glass-melting tank resembles the open-hearth steel +furnace, but there are certain interesting differences. Thus the +dimensions of the largest glass tanks greatly exceed those of the +largest steel furnaces; glass furnaces containing up to 250 tons of +molten glass have been successfully operated, and owing to the +relatively low density of glass this involves very large dimensions. The +temperature required in the fusion of sheet-glass and of other glasses +produced in tank furnaces is much lower than that attained in steel +furnaces, and it is consequently possible to work glass-tanks +continuously for many months together; on the other hand, glass is not +readily freed from foreign bodies that may become admixed with it, so +that the absence of detachable particles is much more essential in glass +than in steel melting. Finally, fluid steel can be run or poured off, +since it is perfectly fluid, while glass cannot be thus treated, but is +withdrawn from the furnace by means of either a ladle or a gatherer's +pipe, and the temperature required for this purpose is much lower than +that at which the glass is melted. In a sheet-glass tank there is +therefore a gradient of temperature and a continuous passage of material +from the hotter end of the furnace where the raw materials are +introduced to the cooler end where the glass, free from bubbles and raw +material, is withdrawn by the gatherers. For the purpose of the removal +of the glass, the cooler end of the furnace is provided with a number of +suitable openings, provided with movable covers or shades. The +"gatherer" approaches one of these openings, removes the shade and +introduces his previously heated "pipe." This instrument is an iron +tube, some 5 ft. long, provided at one end with an enlarged butt and at +the other with a wooden covering acting as handle and mouthpiece. The +gatherer dips the butt of the pipe into the molten "metal" and withdraws +upon it a small ball of viscous glass, which he allows to cool in the +air while constantly rotating it so as to keep the mass as nearly +spherical in shape as he can. When the first ball or "gathering" has +cooled sufficiently, the whole is again dipped into the molten glass and +a further layer adheres to the pipe-end, thus forming a larger ball. +This process is repeated, with slight modifications, until the gathering +is of the proper size and weight to yield the sheet which is to be +blown. When this is the case the gathering is carried to a block or +half-open mould in which it is rolled and blown until it acquires, +roughly, the shape of a hemisphere, the flat side being towards the pipe +and the convexity away from it; the diameter of this hemisphere is so +regulated as to be approximately that of the cylinder which is next to +be formed of the viscous mass. From the hemispherical shape the mass of +glass is now gradually blown into the form of a short cylinder, and then +the pipe with the adherent mass of glass is handed over to the blower +proper. This workman stands upon a platform in front of special furnaces +which, from their shape and purpose, are called "blowing holes." The +blower repeatedly heats the lower part of the mass of glass and keeps it +distended by blowing while he swings it over a deep trench which is +provided next to his working platform. In this way the glass is extended +into the form of a long cylinder closed at the lower end. The size of +cylinder which can be produced in this way depends chiefly upon the +dimensions of the working platform and the weight which a man is able to +handle freely. The lower end of the cylinder is opened, in the case of +small and thin cylinders, by the blower holding his thumb over the +mouthpiece of the pipe and simultaneously warming the end of the +cylinder in the furnace, the expansion of the imprisoned air and the +softening of the glass causing the end of the cylinder to burst open. +The blower then heats the end of the cylinder again and rapidly spins +the pipe about its axis; the centrifugal effect is sufficient to spread +the soft glass at the end to a radius equal to that of the rest of the +cylinder. In the case of large and thick cylinders, however, another +process of opening the ends is generally employed: an assistant attaches +a small lump of hot glass to the domed end, and the heat of this added +glass softens the cylinder sufficiently to enable the assistant to cut +the end open with a pair of shears; subsequently the open end is spun +out to the diameter of the whole as described above. The finished +cylinder is next carried to a rack and the pipe detached from it by +applying a cold iron to the neck of thick hot glass which connects +pipe-butt and cylinder, the neck cracking at the touch. Next, the rest +of the connecting neck is detached from the cylinder by the application +of a heated iron to the chilled glass. This leaves a cylinder with +roughly parallel ends; these ends are cut by the use of a diamond +applied internally and then the cylinder is split longitudinally by the +same means. The split cylinder is passed to the flattening furnace, +where it is exposed to a red heat, sufficient to soften the glass; when +soft the cylinder is laid upon a smooth flat slab and flattened down +upon it by the careful application of pressure with some form of rubbing +implement, which frequently takes the form of a block of charred wood. +When flattened, the sheet is moved away from the working opening of the +furnace, and pushed to a system of movable grids, by means of which it +is slowly moved along a tunnel, away from a source of heat nearly equal +in temperature to that of the flattening chamber. The glass thus cools +gradually as it passes down the tunnel and is thereby adequately +annealed. + +The process of sheet-glass manufacture described above is typical of +that in use in a large number of works, but many modifications are to be +found, particularly in the furnaces in which the glass is melted. In +some works, the older method of melting the glass in large pots or +crucibles is still adhered to, although the old-fashioned coal-fired +furnaces have nearly everywhere given place to the use of producer gas +and regenerators. For the production of coloured sheet-glass, however, +the employment of pot furnaces is still almost universal, probably +because the quantities of glass required of any one tint are +insufficient to employ even a small tank furnace continuously; the exact +control of the colour is also more readily attained with the smaller +bulk of glass which has to be dealt with in pots. The general nature of +the colouring ingredients employed, and the colour effects produced by +them, have already been mentioned. In coloured sheet-glass, two distinct +kinds are to be recognized; in one kind the colouring matter is +contained in the body of the glass itself, while in the other the +coloured sheet consists of ordinary white glass covered upon one side +with a thin coating of intensely coloured glass. The latter kind is +known as "flashed," and is universally employed in the case of colouring +matters whose effect is so intense that in any usual thickness of glass +they would cause almost entire opacity. Flashed glass is produced by +taking either the first or the last gathering in the production of a +cylinder out of a crucible containing the coloured "metal," the other +gatherings being taken out of ordinary white sheet-glass. It is +important that the thermal expansion of the two materials which are thus +incorporated should be nearly alike, as otherwise warping of the +finished sheet is liable to result. + +_Mechanical Processes for the Production of Sheet-glass._--The +complicated and indirect process of sheet-glass manufacture has led to +numerous inventions aiming at a direct method of production by more or +less mechanical means. All the earlier attempts in this direction failed +on account of the difficulty of bringing the glass to the machines +without introducing air-bells, which are always formed in molten glass +when it is ladled or poured from one vessel into another. More modern +inventors have therefore adopted the plan of drawing the glass direct +from the furnace. In an American process the glass is drawn direct from +the molten mass in the tank in a cylindrical form by means of an iron +ring previously immersed in the glass, and is kept in shape by means of +special devices for cooling it rapidly as it leaves the molten bath. In +this process, however, the entire operations of splitting and flattening +are retained, and although the mechanical process is said to be in +successful commercial operation, it has not as yet made itself felt as a +formidable rival to hand-made sheet-glass. An effort at a more direct +mechanical process is embodied in the inventions of Foucault which are +at present being developed in Germany and Belgium; in this process the +glass is drawn from the molten bath in the shape of flat sheets, by the +aid of a bar of iron, previously immersed in the glass, the glass +receiving its form by being drawn through slots in large fire-bricks, +and being kept in shape by rapid chilling produced by the action of +air-blasts. The mechanical operation is quite successful for thick +sheets, but it is not as yet available for the thinner sheets required +for the ordinary purposes of sheet-glass, since with these excessive +breakage occurs, while the sheets generally show grooves or lines +derived from small irregularities of the drawing orifice. For the +production of thick sheets which are subsequently to be polished the +process may thus claim considerable success, but it is not as yet +possible to produce satisfactory sheet-glass by such means. + +_Crown-glass_ has at the present day almost disappeared from the market, +and it has been superseded by sheet-glass, the more modern processes +described above being capable of producing much larger sheets of glass, +free from the knob or "bullion" which may still be seen in old +crown-glass windows. For a few isolated purposes, however, it is +desirable to use a glass which has not been touched upon either surface +and thus preserves the lustre of its "fire polish" undiminished; this +can be attained in crown-glass but not in sheet, since one side of the +latter is always more or less marked by the rubber used in the process +of flattening. One of the few uses of crown-glass of this kind is the +glass slides upon which microscopic specimens are mounted, as well as +the thin glass slips with which such preparations are covered. A full +account of the process of blowing crown-glass will be found in all older +books and articles on the subject, so that it need only be mentioned +here that the glass, instead of being blown into a cylinder, is blown +into a flattened sphere, which is caused to burst at the point opposite +the pipe and is then, by the rapid spinning of the glass in front of a +very hot furnace-opening, caused to expand into a flat disk of large +diameter. This only requires to be annealed and is then ready for +cutting up, but the lump of glass by which the original globe was +attached to the pipe remains as the bullion in the centre of the disk of +glass. + +_Coloured Glass for Mosaic Windows._--The production of coloured glass +for "mosaic" windows has become a separate branch of glass-making. +Charles Winston, after prolonged study of the coloured windows of the +13th, 14th and 15th centuries, convinced himself that no approach to the +colour effect of these windows could be made with glass which is thin +and even in section, homogeneous in texture, and made and coloured with +highly refined materials. To obtain the effect it was necessary to +reproduce as far as possible the conditions under which the early +craftsmen worked, and to create scientifically glass which is impure in +colour, irregular in section, and non-homogeneous in texture. The glass +is made in cylinders and in "crowns" or circles. The cylinders measure +about 14 in. in length by 8 in. in diameter, and vary in thickness from +1/8 to 3/8 in. The crowns are about 15 in. in diameter, and vary in +thickness from 1/8 to 1/2 in., the centre being the thickest. These +cylinders and crowns may be either solid colour or flashed. Great +variety of colour may be obtained by flashing one colour upon another, +such as blue on green, and ruby on blue, green or yellow. + +E. J. Prior has introduced an ingenious method of making small oblong +and square sheets of coloured glass, which are thick in the centre and +taper towards the edges, and which have one surface slightly roughened +and one brilliantly polished. Glass is blown into an oblong box-shaped +iron mould, about 12 in. in depth and 6 in. across. A hollow rectangular +bottle is formed, the base and sides of which are converted into sheets. +The outer surface of these sheets is slightly roughened by contact with +the iron mould. + +(D) _Bottles and mechanically blown Glass._--The manufacture of bottles +has become an industry of vast proportions. The demand constantly +increases, and, owing to constant improvements in material in the moulds +and in the methods of working, the supply fully keeps pace with the +demand. Except for making bottles of special colours, gas-heated tank +furnaces are in general use. Melting and working are carried on +continuously. The essential qualities of a bottle are strength and power +to resist chemical corrosion. The materials are selected with a view to +secure these qualities. For the highest quality of bottles, which are +practically colourless, sand, limestone and sulphate and carbonate of +soda are used. The following is a typical analysis of high quality +bottle-glass: SiO2, 69.15%; Na2O, 13.00%; CaO, 15.00%; Al2O3, 2.20%; and +Fe2O3, 0.65%. For the commoner grades of dark-coloured bottles the glass +mixture is cheapened by substituting common salt for part of the +sulphate of soda, and by the addition of felspar, granite, granulite, +furnace slag and other substances fusible at a high temperature. Bottle +moulds are made of cast iron, either in two pieces, hinged together at +the base or at one side, or in three pieces, one forming the body and +two pieces forming the neck. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Tool for moulding the inside and outside of the +neck of a bottle. + + C, Bottle. + + A, Conical piece of iron to form the inside of the neck. + + B, B, Shaped pieces of iron, which can be pressed upon the outside of + the neck by the spring-handle H.] + +A bottle gang or "shop" consists of five persons. The "gatherer" gathers +the glass from the tank furnace on the end of the blowing-iron, rolls it +on a slab of iron or stone, slightly expands the glass by blowing, and +hands the blowing iron and glass to the "blower." The blower places the +glass in the mould, closes the mould by pressing a lever with his foot, +and either blows down the blowing iron or attaches it to a tube +connected with a supply of compressed air. When the air has forced the +glass to take the form of the mould, the mould is opened and the blower +gives the blowing iron with the bottle attached to it to the "wetter +off." The wetter off touches the top of the neck of the bottle with a +moistened piece of iron and by tapping the blowing iron detaches the +bottle and drops it into a wooden trough. He then grips the body of the +bottle with a four-pronged clip, attached to an iron rod, and passes it +to the "bottle maker." The bottle maker heats the fractured neck of the +bottle, binds a band of molten glass round the end of it and +simultaneously shapes the inside and the outside of the neck by using +the tool shown in fig. 18. The finished bottle is taken by the "taker +in" to the annealing furnace. The bottles are stacked in iron trucks, +which, when full, are moved slowly away from a constant source of heat. + +The processes of manipulation which have been described, although in +practice they are very rapidly performed, are destined to be replaced by +the automatic working of a machine. Bottle-making machines, based on +Ashley's original patent, are already being largely used. They ensure +absolute regularity in form and save both time and labour. A +bottle-making machine combines the process of pressing with a plunger +with that of blowing by compressed air. The neck of the bottle is first +formed by the plunger, and the body is subsequently blown by compressed +air admitted through the plunger. A sufficient weight of molten glass to +form a bottle is gathered and placed in a funnel-shaped vessel which +serves as a measure, and gives access to the mould which shapes the +outside of the neck. A plunger is forced upwards into the glass in the +neck-mould and forms the neck. The funnel is removed, and the plunger, +neck-mould and the mass of molten glass attached to the neck are +inverted. A bottle mould rises and envelops the mass of molten glass. +Compressed air admitted through the plunger forces the molten glass to +take the form of the bottle mould and completes the bottle. + +In the case of the machine patented by Michael Owens of Toledo, U.S.A., +for making tumblers, lamp-chimneys, and other goods of similar +character, the manual operations required are (1) gathering the molten +glass at the end of a blowing iron; (2) placing the blowing iron with +the glass attached to it in the machine; (3) removing the blowing iron +with the blown vessel attached. Each machine (fig. 19) consists of a +revolving table carrying five or six moulds. The moulds are opened and +closed by cams actuated by compressed air. As soon as a blowing iron is +in connexion with an air jet, the sections of the mould close upon the +molten glass, and the compressed air forces the glass to take the form +of the mould. After removal from the machine, the tumbler is severed +from the blowing iron, and its fractured edge is trimmed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Owens's Glass-blowing Machine. g,g,g, +Blowing-irons.] + +Compressed air or steam is also used for fashioning very large vessels, +baths, dishes and reservoirs by the "Sievert" process. Molten glass is +spread upon a large iron plate of the required shape and dimensions. The +flattened mass of glass is held by a rim, connected to the edge of the +plate. The plate with the glass attached to it is inverted, and +compressed air or steam is introduced through openings in the plate. The +mass of glass, yielding to its own weight and the pressure of air or +steam, sinks downwards and adapts itself to any mould or receptacle +beneath it. + +The processes employed in the manufacture of the glass bulbs for +incandescent electric lamps, are similar to the old-fashioned processes +of bottle making. The mould is in two pieces hinged together; it is +heated and the inner surface is rubbed over with finely powdered +plumbago. When the glass is being blown in the mould the blowing iron is +twisted round and round so that the finished bulb may not be marked by +the joint of the mould. + +III. MECHANICALLY PRESSED GLASS. (A) _Plate-glass._--The glass popularly +known as "plate-glass" is made by casting and rolling. The following are +typical analyses: + + +---------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+ + | | SiO2. | CaO. | Na2O. | Al2O3. | Fe2O3. | + +---------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+ + | French. | 71.80 | 15.70 | 11.10 | 1.26 | 0.14% | + | English.| 70.64 | 16.27 | 11.47 | 0.70 | 0.49% | + +---------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+ + +The raw materials for the production of plate-glass are chosen with +great care so as to secure a product as free from colour as possible, +since the relatively great thickness of the sheets would render even a +faint tint conspicuous. The substances employed are the same as those +used for the manufacture of sheet-glass, viz. pure sand, a pure form of +carbonate of lime, and sulphate of soda, with the addition of a suitable +proportion of carbon in the form of coke, charcoal or anthracite coal. + +The glass to be used for the production of plate is universally melted +in pots or crucibles and not in open tank furnaces. When the glass is +completely melted and "fine," i.e. free from bubbles, it is allowed to +cool down to a certain extent so as to become viscous or pasty. The +whole pot, with its contents of viscous glass, is then removed bodily +from the furnace by means of huge tongs and is transported to a crane, +which grips the pot, raises it, and ultimately tips it over so as to +pour the glass upon the slab of the rolling-table. In most modern works +the greater part of these operations, as well as the actual rolling of +the glass, is carried out by mechanical means, steam power and +subsequently electrical power having been successfully applied to this +purpose; the handling of the great weights of glass required for the +largest sheets of plate-glass which are produced at the present time +would, indeed, be impossible without the aid of machinery. The +casting-table usually consists of a perfectly smooth cast-iron slab, +frequently built up of a number of pieces carefully fitted together, +mounted upon a low, massive truck running upon rails, so that it can be +readily moved to any desired position in the casting-room. The viscous +mass having been thrown on the casting-table, a large and heavy roller +passes over it and spreads it out into a sheet. Rollers up to 5 tons in +weight are employed and are now generally driven by power. The width of +the sheet or plate is regulated by moving guides which are placed in +front of the roller and are pushed along by it, while its thickness is +regulated by raising or lowering the roller relatively to the surface of +the table. Since the surfaces produced by rolling have subsequently to +be ground and polished, it is essential that the glass should leave the +rolling-table with as smooth a surface as possible, so that great care +is required in this part of the process. It is, however, equally +important that the glass as a whole should be flat and remains flat +during the process of gradual cooling (annealing), otherwise great +thicknesses of glass would have to be ground away at the projecting +parts of the sheet. The annealing process is therefore carried out in a +manner differing essentially from that in use for any other variety of +flat glass and nearly resembling that used for optical glass. The rolled +sheet is left on the casting-table until it has set sufficiently to be +pushed over a flat iron plate without risk of distortion; meanwhile the +table has been placed in front of the opening of one of the large +annealing kilns and the slab of glass is carefully pushed into the kiln. +The annealing kilns are large fire-brick chambers of small height but +with sufficient floor area to accommodate four or six large slabs, and +the slabs are placed directly upon the floor of the kiln, which is built +up of carefully dressed blocks of burnt fireclay resting upon a bed of +sand; in order to avoid any risk of working or buckling in this floor +these blocks are set slightly apart and thus have room to expand freely +when heated. Before the glass is introduced, the annealing kiln is +heated to dull red by means of coal fires in grates which are provided +at the ends or sides of the kiln for that purpose. When the floor of the +kiln has been covered with slabs of glass the opening is carefully built +up and luted with fire-bricks and fire-clay, and the whole is then +allowed to cool. In the walls and floor of the kiln special cooling +channels or air passages are provided and by gradually opening these to +atmospheric circulation the cooling is considerably accelerated while a +very even distribution of temperature is obtained; by these means even +the largest slabs can now be cooled in three or four days and are +nevertheless sufficiently well annealed to be free from any serious +internal stress. From the annealing kiln the slabs of glass are +transported to the cutting room, where they are cut square, defective +slabs being rejected or cut down to smaller sizes. The glass at this +stage has a comparatively dull surface and this must now be replaced by +that brilliant and perfectly polished surface which is the chief beauty +of this variety of glass. The first step in this process is that of +grinding the surface down until all projections are removed and a close +approximation to a perfect plane is obtained. This operation, like all +the subsequent steps in the polishing of the glass, is carried out by +powerful machinery. By means of a rotating table either two surfaces of +glass, or one surface of glass and one of cast iron, are rubbed together +with the interposition of a powerful abrasive such as sand, emery or +carborundum. The machinery by which this is done has undergone numerous +modifications and improvements, all tending to produce more perfectly +plane glass, to reduce the risk of breakage, and to lessen the +expenditure of time and power required per sq. yd. of glass to be +worked. It is impossible to describe this machinery within the limits of +this article, but it is notable that the principal difficulties to be +overcome arise from the necessity of providing the glass with a +perfectly continuous and unyielding support to which it can be firmly +attached but from which it can be detached without undue difficulty. + +When the surface of the glass has been ground down to a plane, the +surface itself is still "grey," i.e. deeply pitted with the marks of the +abrasive used in grinding it down; these marks are removed by the +process of smoothing, in which the surface is successively ground with +abrasives of gradually increasing fineness, leaving ultimately a very +smooth and very minutely pitted "grey" surface. This smooth surface is +then brilliantly polished by the aid of friction with a rubbing tool +covered with a soft substance like leather or felt and fed with a +polishing material, such as rouge. A few strokes of such a rubber are +sufficient to produce a decidedly "polished" appearance, but prolonged +rubbing under considerable pressure and the use of a polishing paste of +a proper consistency are required in order to remove the last trace of +pitting from the surface. This entire process must, obviously, be +applied in turn to each of the two surfaces of the slab of glass. +Plate-glass is manufactured in this manner in thicknesses varying from +3/16 in. to 1 in. or even more, while single sheets are produced +measuring more than 27 ft. by 13 ft. + +_"Rolled Plate" and figured "Rolled Plate."_--Glass for this purpose, +with perhaps the exception of the best white and tinted varieties, is +now universally produced in tank-furnaces, similar in a general way to +those used for sheet-glass, except that the furnaces used for "rolled +plate" glass of the roughest kinds do not need such minutely careful +attention and do not work at so high a temperature. The composition of +these glasses is very similar to that of sheet-glass, but for the +ordinary kinds of rolled plate much less scrupulous selection need be +made in the choice of raw materials, especially of the sand. + +The glass is taken from the furnace in large iron ladles, which are +carried upon slings running on overhead rails; from the ladle the glass +is thrown upon the cast-iron bed of a rolling-table, and is rolled into +sheet by an iron roller, the process being similar to that employed in +making plate-glass, but on a smaller scale. The sheet thus rolled is +roughly trimmed while hot and soft, so as to remove those portions of +glass which have been spoilt by immediate contact with the ladle, and +the sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing +tunnel or "lear," down which it is carried by a system of moving grids. + +The surface of the glass produced in this way may be modified by +altering the surface of the rolling-table; if the table has a smooth +surface, the glass will also be more or less smooth, but much dented and +buckled on the surface and far from having the smooth face of blown +sheet. If the table has a pattern engraved upon it the glass will show +the same pattern in relief, the most frequent pattern of the kind being +either small parallel ridges or larger ribs crossing to form a lozenge +pattern. + +The more elaborate patterns found on what is known as "figure rolled +plate" are produced in a somewhat different manner; the glass used for +this purpose is considerably whiter in colour and much softer than +ordinary rolled plate, and instead of being rolled out on a table it is +produced by rolling between two moving rollers from which the sheet +issues. The pattern is impressed upon the soft sheet by a printing +roller which is brought down upon the glass as it leaves the main rolls. +This glass shows a pattern in high relief and gives a very brilliant +effect. + +The various varieties of rolled plate-glass are now produced for some +purposes with a reinforcement of wire netting which is embedded in the +mass of the glass. The wire gives the glass great advantages in the +event of fracture from a blow or from fire, but owing to the difference +in thermal expansion between wire and glass, there is a strong tendency +for such "wired glass" to crack spontaneously. + +_Patent Plate-glass._--This term is applied to blown sheet-glass, whose +surface has been rendered plane and brilliant by a process of grinding +and polishing. The name "patent plate" arose from the fact that certain +patented devices originated by James Chance of Birmingham first made it +possible to polish comparatively thin glass in this way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Modern American Glass-Press.] + +(B) _Pressed Glass._--The technical difference between pressed and +moulded glass is that moulded glass-ware has taken its form from a mould +under the pressure of a workman's breath, or of compressed air, whereas +pressed glass-ware has taken its form from a mould under the pressure of +a plunger. Moulded glass receives the form of the mould on its interior +as well as on its exterior surface. In pressed glass the exterior +surface is modelled by the mould, whilst the interior surface is +modelled by the plunger (fig. 20). + +The process of pressing glass was introduced to meet the demand for +cheap table-ware. Pressed glass, which is necessarily thick and +serviceable, has well met this legitimate demand, but it also caters for +the less legitimate taste for cheap imitations of hand-cut glass. An +American writer has expressed his satisfaction that the day-labourer can +now have on his table at a nominal price glass dishes of elaborate +design, which only an expert can distinguish from hand-cut crystal. The +deceptive effect is in some cases heightened by cutting over and +polishing by hand the pressed surface. + +The glass for pressed ware must be colourless, and, when molten, must be +sufficiently fluid to adapt itself readily to the intricacies of the +moulds, which are often exceedingly complex. The materials employed are +sand, sulphate of soda, nitrate of soda, calcspar and in some works +carbonate of barium. The following is an analysis of a specimen of +English pressed glass; SiO2, 70.68%; Na2O, 18.38%; CaO, 5.45%; BaO, +4.17%; Al2O3, 0.33%; and Fe2O3, 0.20%. Tanks and pots are both used for +melting the glass. The moulds are made of cast iron. They are usually in +two main pieces, a base and an upper part or collar of hinged sections. +The plunger is generally worked by a hand lever. The operator knows by +touch when the plunger has pressed the glass far enough to exactly fill +the mould. Although the moulds are heated, the surface of the glass is +always slightly ruffled by contact with the mould. For this reason every +piece of pressed glass-ware, as soon as it is liberated from the mould, +is exposed to a sharp heat in a small subsidiary furnace in order that +the ruffled surface may be removed by melting. These small furnaces are +usually heated by an oil spray under the pressure of steam or compressed +air. + + See Antonio Neri, _Ars vitraria, cum Merritti observationibus_ + (Amsterdam, 1668) (Neri's work was translated into English by C. + Merritt in 1662, and the translation, _The Art of making Glass_, was + privately reprinted by Sir T. Phillipps, Bart., in 1826); Johann + Kunkel, _Vollstandige Glasmacher-Kunst_ (Nuremberg, 1785); Apsley + Pellatt, _Curiosities of Glass-making_ (London, 1849); A. Sauzay, + _Marvels of Glass-making_ (from the French) (London, 1869); G. + Bontemps, _Guide du verrier_ (Paris, 1868); E. Peligot, _Le Verre, son + histoire, sa fabrication_ (Paris, 1878); W. Stein, "Die + Glasfabrikation," in Bolley's _Technologie_, vol. iii. (Brunswick, + 1862); H. E. Benrath, _Die Glasfabrikation_ (Brunswick, 1875); J. + Falck and L. Lobmeyr, _Die Glasindustrie_ (Vienna, 1875); D. H. + Hovestadt, _Jenaer Glas_ (Jena, 1900; Eng. trans. by J. D. and A. + Everett, Macmillan, 1907); J. Henrivaux, _Le Verre et le cristal_ + (Paris, 1887), and _La Verrerie au XX^e siecle_ (1903); Chance, Harris + and Powell, _Principles of Glass-making_ (London, 1883); Moritz V. + Rohr, _Theorie und Geschichte der photographischen Objektive_ (Berlin, + 1899); C. E. Guillaume, _Traite pratique de la thermometrie de + precision_ (Paris, 1889); Louis Coffignal, _Verres et emaux_ (Paris, + 1900); R. Gerner, _Die Glasfabrikation_ (Vienna, 1897); C. Wetzel, + _Herstellung grosser Glaskorper_ (Vienna, 1900); C. Wetzel, + _Bearbeitung von Glaskorpern_ (Vienna, 1901); E. Tscheuschner, + _Handbuch der Glasfabrikation_ (Weimar, 1885); R. Dralle, _Anlage und + Betrieb der Glasfabriken_ (Leipzig, 1886); G. Tammann, + _Kristallisieren und Schmelzen_ (Leipzig, 1903); W. Rosenhain, "Some + Properties of Glass," _Trans. Optical Society_ (London, 1903), + "Possible Directions of Progress in Optical Glass," _Proc. Optical + Convention_ (London, 1905) and _Glass Manufacture_ (London, 1908); + Introduction to section 1, _Catalogue of the Optical Convention_ + (London, 1905). (H. J. P.; W. Rn.) + + +_History of Glass Manufacture._ + +The great similarity in form, technique and decoration of the earliest +known specimens of glass-ware suggests that the craft of glass-making +originated from a single centre. It has been generally assumed that +Egypt was the birthplace of the glass industry. It is true that many +conditions existed in Egypt favourable to the development of the craft. +The Nile supplied a waterway for the conveyance of fuel and for the +distribution of the finished wares. Materials were available providing +the essential ingredients of glass. The Egyptian potteries afforded +experience in dealing with vitreous glazes and vitreous colours, and +from Egyptian alabaster-quarries veined vessels were wrought, which may +well have suggested the decorative arrangement of zigzag lines (see +Plate I. figs, 1, 2, 4 d) so frequently found on early specimens of +glass-ware. In Egypt, however, no traces have at present been found of +the industry in a rudimentary condition, and the vases which have been +classified as "primitive" bear witness to an elaboration of technique +far in advance of the experimental period. The earliest specimens of +glass-ware which can be definitely claimed as Egyptian productions, and +the glass manufactory discovered by Dr Flinders Petrie at Tell el +Amarna, belong to the period of the XVIIIth dynasty. The comparative +lateness of this period makes it difficult to account for the wall +painting at Beni Hasan, which accurately represents the process of +glass-blowing, and which is attributed to the period of the XIth +dynasty. Dr Petrie surmounts the difficulty by saying that the process +depicted is not glass-blowing, but some metallurgical process in which +reeds were used tipped with lumps of clay. It is possible that the +picture does not represent Egyptian glass-blowers, but is a traveller's +record of the process of glass-blowing seen in some foreign or subject +country. The scarcity of specimens of early glass-ware actually found in +Egypt, and the advanced technique of those which have been found, lead +to the supposition that glass-making was exotic and not a native +industry. The tradition, recorded by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 65), +assigns the discovery of glass to Syria, and the geographical position +of that country, its forests as a source of fuel, and its deposits of +sand add probability to the tradition. The story that Phoenician +merchants found a glass-like substance under their cooking pots, which +had been supported on blocks of natron, need not be discarded as pure +fiction. The fire may well have caused the natron, an impure form of +carbonate of soda, to combine with the surrounding sand to form silicate +of soda, which, although not a permanent glass, is sufficiently +glass-like to suggest the possibility of creating a permanent +transparent material. Moreover, Pliny (xxxvi. 66) actually records the +discovery which effected the conversion of deliquescent silicate of soda +into permanent glass. The words are "Coeptus addi magnes lapis." There +have been many conjectures as to the meaning of the words "magnes +lapis." The material has been considered by some to be magnetic iron ore +and by others oxide of manganese. Oxides of iron and manganese can only +be used in glass manufacture in comparatively small quantities for the +purpose of colouring or neutralizing colour in glass, and their +introduction would not be a matter of sufficient importance to be +specially recorded. In chapter 25 of the same book Pliny describes five +varieties of "magnes lapis." One of these he says is found in magnesia, +is white in colour, does not attract iron and is like pumice stone. This +variety must certainly be magnesian limestone. Magnesian limestone mixed +and fused with sand and an alkaline carbonate produces a permanent +glass. The scene of the discovery of glass is placed by Pliny on the +banks of the little river Belus, under the heights of Mount Carmel, +where sand suitable for glass-making exists and wood for fuel is +abundant. In this neighbourhood fragments and lumps of glass are still +constantly being dug up, and analysis proves that the glass contains a +considerable proportion of magnesia. The district was a glass-making +centre in Roman times, and it is probable that the Romans inherited and +perfected an indigenous industry of remote antiquity. Pliny has so +accurately recorded the stages by which a permanent glass was developed +that it may be assumed that he had good reason for claiming for Syria +the discovery of glass. Between Egypt and Syria there was frequent +intercourse both of conquest and commerce. It was customary for the +victor after a successful raid to carry off skilled artisans as +captives. It is recorded that Tahutmes III. sent Syrian artisans to +Egypt. Glass-blowers may have been amongst their captive craftsmen, and +may have started the industry in Egypt. The claims of Syria and Egypt +are at the present time so equally balanced that it is advisable to +regard the question of the birthplace of the glass industry as one that +has still to be settled. + +The "primitive" vessels which have been found in Egypt are small in size +and consist of columnar stibium jars, flattened bottles and amphorae, +all decorated with zigzag lines, tiny wide-mouthed vases on feet and +minute jugs. The vessels of later date which have been found in +considerable quantities, principally in the coast towns and islands of +the Mediterranean, are amphorae and alabastra, also decorated with +zigzag lines. The amphorae (Plate I. figs. 1 and 2) terminate with a +point, or with an unfinished extension from the terminal point, or with +a knob. The alabastra have short necks, are slightly wider at the base +than at the shoulder and have rounded bases. Dr Petrie has called +attention to two technical peculiarities to be found in almost every +specimen of early glass-ware. The inner surface is roughened (Plate I. +fig. 4 c), and has particles of sand adhering to it, as if the vessel +had been filled with sand and subjected to heat, and the inside of the +neck has the impression of a metal rod (Plate I. fig. 4 a), which +appears to have been extracted from the neck with difficulty. From this +evidence Dr Petrie has assumed that the vessels were not blown, but +formed upon a core of sandy paste, modelled upon a copper rod, the rod +being the core of the neck (see EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_). The +evidence, however, hardly warrants the abandonment of the simple process +of blowing in favour of a process which is so difficult that it may +almost be said to be impossible, and of which there is no record or +tradition except in connexion with the manufacture of small beads. The +technical difficulties to which Dr Petrie has called attention seem to +admit of a somewhat less heroic explanation. A modern glass-blower, when +making an amphora-shaped vase, finishes the base first, fixes an iron +rod to the finished base with a seal of glass, severs the vase from the +blowing iron, and finishes the mouth, whilst he holds the vase by the +iron attached to its base. The "primitive" glass-worker reversed this +process. Having blown the body of the vase, he finished the mouth and +neck part, and fixed a small, probably hollow, copper rod inside the +finished neck by pressing the neck upon the rod (Plate I. fig. 4 b). +Having severed the body of the vase from the blowing iron, he heated and +closed the fractured base, whilst holding the vase by means of the rod +fixed in the neck. Nearly every specimen shows traces of the pressure of +a tool on the outside of the neck, as well as signs of the base having +been closed by melting. Occasionally a knob or excrescence, formed by +the residue of the glass beyond the point at which the base has been +pinched together, remains as a silent witness of the process. + +If glass-blowing had been a perfectly new invention of Graeco-Egyptian +or Roman times, some specimens illustrating the transition from +core-moulding to blowing must have been discovered. The absence of +traces of the transition strengthens the supposition that the revolution +in technique merely consisted in the discovery that it was more +convenient to finish the base of a vessel before its mouth, and such a +revolution would leave no trace behind. The roughened inner surface and +the adhering particles of sand may also be accounted for. The vessels, +especially those in which many differently coloured glasses were +incorporated, required prolonged annealing. It is probable that when the +metal rod was withdrawn the vessel was filled with sand, to prevent +collapse, and buried in heated ashes to anneal. The greater the heat of +the ashes the more would the sand adhere to and impress the inner +surface of the vessels. The decoration of zigzag lines was probably +applied directly after the body of the vase had been blown. Threads of +coloured molten glass were spirally coiled round the body, and, whilst +still viscid, were dragged into zigzags with a metal hook. + +_Egypt_.--The glass industry flourished in Egypt in Graeco-Egyptian and +Roman times. All kinds of vessels were blown, both with and without +moulds, and both moulding and cutting were used as methods of +decoration. The great variety of these vessels is well shown in the +illustrated catalogue of Graeco-Egyptian glass in the Cairo museum, +edited by C. C. Edgar. + +Another species of glass manufacture in which the Egyptians would appear +to have been peculiarly skilled is the so-called mosaic glass, formed by +the union of rods of various colours in such a manner as to form a +pattern; the rod so formed was then reheated and drawn out until reduced +to a very small size, 1 sq. in. or less, and divided into tablets by +being cut transversely, each of these tablets presenting the pattern +traversing its substance and visible on each face. This process was no +doubt first practised in Egypt, and is never seen in such perfection as +in objects of a decidedly Egyptian character. Very beautiful pieces of +ornament of an architectural character are met with, which probably once +served as decorations of caskets or other small pieces of furniture or +of trinkets; also tragic masks, human faces and birds. Some of the +last-named are represented with such truth of colouring and delicacy of +detail that even the separate feathers of the wings and tail are well +distinguished, although, as in an example in the British Museum, a +human-headed hawk, the piece which contains the figure may not exceed +3/4 in. in its largest dimension. Works of this description probably +belong to the period when Egypt passed under Roman domination, as +similar objects, though of inferior delicacy, appear to have been made +in Rome. + +_Assyria_.--Early Assyrian glass is represented in the British Museum by +a vase of transparent greenish glass found in the north-west palace of +Nineveh. On one side of this a lion is engraved, and also a line of +cuneiform characters, in which is the name of Sargon, king of Assyria, +722 B.C. Fragments of coloured glasses were also found there, but our +materials are too scanty to enable us to form any decided opinion as to +the degree of perfection to which the art was carried in Assyria. Many +of the specimens discovered by Layard at Nineveh have all the appearance +of being Roman, and were no doubt derived from the Roman colony, Niniva +Claudiopolis, which occupied the same site. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + FIG. 1. + FIG. 2. + FIG. 3. + FIG. 4. + FIG. 5. + FIG. 6. + FIG. 7. + FIG. 8. + FIG. 9. + FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + FIG. 11. + FIG. 12. + FIG. 13. + FIG. 14.] + +_Roman Glass_.--In the first centuries of our era the art of +glass-making was developed at Rome and other cities under Roman rule in +a most remarkable manner, and it reached a point of excellence which in +some respects has never been excelled or even perhaps equalled. It may +appear a somewhat exaggerated assertion that glass was used for more +purposes, and in one sense more extensively, by the Romans of the +imperial period than by ourselves in the present day; but it is one +which can be borne out by evidence. It is true that the use of glass for +windows was only gradually extending itself at the time when Roman +civilization sank under the torrent of German and Hunnish barbarism, and +that its employment for optical instruments was only known in a +rudimentary stage; but for domestic purposes, for architectural +decoration and for personal ornaments glass was unquestionably much more +used than at the present day. It must be remembered that the Romans +possessed no fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a +beautiful glaze; Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery +which was then made. Coloured and ornamental glass held among them much +the same place for table services, vessels for toilet use and the like, +as that held among us by porcelain. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26, 67) +tells us that for drinking vessels it was even preferred to gold and +silver. + +Glass was largely used in pavements, and in thin plates as a coating for +walls. It was used in windows, though by no means exclusively, mica, +alabaster and shells having been also employed. Glass, in flat pieces, +such as might be employed for windows, has been found in the ruins of +Roman houses, both in England and in Italy, and in the house of the faun +at Pompeii a small pane in a bronze frame remains. Most of the pieces +have evidently been made by casting, but the discovery of fragments of +sheet-glass at Silchester proves that the process of making sheet-glass +was known to the Romans. When the window openings were large, as was the +case in basilicas and other public buildings, and even in houses, the +pieces of glass were, doubtless, fixed in pierced slabs of marble or in +frames of wood or bronze. The Roman glass-blowers were masters of all +the ordinary methods of manipulation and decoration. Their craftsmanship +is proved by the large cinerary urns, by the jugs with wide, deeply +ribbed, scientifically fixed handles, and by vessels and vases as +elegant in form and light in weight as any that have been since produced +at Murano. Their moulds, both for blowing hollow vessels and for +pressing ornaments, were as perfect for the purposes for which they were +intended as those of the present time. Their decorative cutting (Plate +I. figs. 5 and 6), which took the form of simple, incised lines, or +bands of shallow oval or hexagonal hollows, was more suited to the +material than the deep prismatic cutting of comparatively recent times. + +The Romans had at their command, of transparent colours, blue, green, +purple or amethystine, amber, brown and rose; of opaque colours, white, +black, red, blue, yellow, green and orange. There are many shades of +transparent blue and of opaque blue, yellow and green. In any large +collection of fragments it would be easy to find eight or ten varieties +of opaque blue, ranging from lapis lazuli to turquoise or to lavender +and six or seven of opaque green. Of red the varieties are fewer; the +finest is a crimson red of very beautiful tint, and there are various +gradations from this to a dull brick red. One variety forms the ground +of a very good imitation of porphyry; and there is a dull +semi-transparent red which, when light is passed through it, appears to +be of a dull green hue. With these colours the Roman _vitrarius_ worked, +either using them singly or blending them in almost every conceivable +combination, sometimes, it must be owned, with a rather gaudy and +inharmonious effect. + +The glasses to which the Venetians gave the name "mille fiori" were +formed by arranging side by side sections of glass cane, the canes +themselves being built up of differently coloured rods of glass, and +binding them together by heat. A vast quantity of small cups and paterae +were made by this means in patterns which bear considerable resemblance +to the surfaces of madrepores. In these every colour and every shade of +colour seem to have been tried in great variety of combination with +effects more or less pleasing, but transparent violet or purple appears +to have been the most common ground colour. Although most of the vessels +of this mille fiori glass were small, some were made as large as 20 in. +in diameter. Imitations of natural stones were made by stirring together +in a crucible glasses of different colours, or by incorporating +fragments of differently coloured glasses into a mass of molten glass by +rolling. One variety is that in which transparent brown glass is so +mixed with opaque white and blue as to resemble onyx. This was sometimes +done with great success, and very perfect imitations of the natural +stone were produced. Sometimes purple glass is used in place of brown, +probably with the design of imitating the precious murrhine. Imitations +of porphyry, of serpentine, and of granite are also met with, but these +were used chiefly in pavements, and for the decoration of walls, for +which purposes the onyx-glass was likewise employed. + +The famous cameo glass was formed by covering a mass of molten glass +with one or more coatings of a differently coloured glass. The usual +process was to gather, first, a small quantity of opaque white glass; to +coat this with a thick layer of translucent blue glass; and, finally, to +cover the blue glass with a coating of the white glass. The outer coat +was then removed from that portion which was to constitute the ground, +leaving the white for the figures, foliage or other ornamentation; these +were then sculptured by means of the gem-engraver's tools. Pliny no +doubt means to refer to this when he says (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26. 66), +"aliud argenti modo caelatur," contrasting it with the process of +cutting glass by the help of a wheel, to which he refers in the words +immediately preceding, "aliud torno teritur." + +The Portland or Barberini vase in the British Museum is the finest +example of this kind of work which has come down to us, and was entire +until it was broken into some hundred pieces by a madman. The pieces, +however, were joined together by Mr Doubleday with extraordinary skill, +and the beauty of design and execution may still be appreciated. The two +other most remarkable examples of this cameo glass are an amphora at +Naples and the Auldjo vase. The amphora measures 1 ft. 5/8 in. in +height, 1 ft. 7-1/2 in. in circumference; it is shaped like the earthern +amphoras with a foot far too small to support it, and must no doubt have +had a stand, probably of gold; the greater part is covered with a most +exquisite design of garlands and vines, and two groups of boys gathering +and treading grapes and playing on various instruments of music; below +these is a line of sheep and goats in varied attitudes. The ground is +blue and the figures white. It was found in a house in the Street of +Tombs at Pompeii in the year 1839, and is now in the Royal Museum at +Naples. It is well engraved in Richardson's _Studies of Ornamental +Design_. The Auldjo vase, in the British Museum, is an oenochoe about 9 +in. high; the ornament consists mainly of a most beautiful band of +foliage, chiefly of the vine, with bunches of grapes; the ground is blue +and the ornaments white; it was found at Pompeii in the house of the +faun. It also has been engraved by Richardson. The same process was used +in producing large tablets, employed, no doubt, for various decorative +purposes. In the South Kensington Museum is a fragment of such a tablet +or slab; the figure, a portion of which remains, could not have been +less than about 14 in. high. The ground of these cameo glasses is most +commonly transparent blue, but sometimes opaque blue, purple or dark +brown. The superimposed layer, which is sculptured, is generally opaque +white. A very few specimens have been met with in which several colours +are employed. + +At a long interval after these beautiful objects come those vessels +which were ornamented either by means of coarse threads trailed over +their surfaces and forming rude patterns, or by coloured enamels merely +placed on them in lumps; and these, doubtless, were cheap and common +wares. But a modification of the first-named process was in use in the +4th and succeeding centuries, showing great ingenuity and manual +dexterity,--that, namely, in which the added portions of glass are +united to the body of the cup, not throughout, but only at points, and +then shaped either by the wheel or by the hand (Plate I. fig. 3). The +attached portions form in some instances inscriptions, as on a cup +found at Strassburg, which bears the name of the emperor Maximian (A.D. +286-310), on another in the Vereinigte Sammlungen at Munich, and on a +third in the Trivulzi collection at Milan, where the cup is white, the +inscription green and the network blue. Probably, however, the finest +example is a situla, 10-1/2 in. high by 8 in. wide at the top and 4 in. +at the bottom, preserved in the treasury of St Mark at Venice. This is +of glass of a greenish hue; on the upper part is represented, in relief, +the chase of a lion by two men on horseback accompanied by dogs; the +costume appears to be Byzantine rather than Roman, and the style is very +bad. The figures are very much undercut. The lower part has four rows of +circles united to the vessel at those points alone where the circles +touch each other. All the other examples have the lower portion covered +in like manner by a network of circles standing nearly a quarter of an +inch from the body of the cup. An example connected with the specimens +just described is the cup belonging to Baron Lionel de Rothschild; +though externally of an opaque greenish colour, it is by transmitted +light of a deep red. On the outside, in very high relief, are figures of +Bacchus with vines and panthers, some portions being hollow from within, +others fixed on the exterior. The changeability of colour may remind us +of the "calices versicolores" which Hadrian sent to Servianus. + +So few examples of glass vessels of this period which have been painted +in enamel have come down to us that it has been questioned whether that +art was then practised; but several specimens have been described which +can leave no doubt on the point; decisive examples are afforded by two +cups found at Vaspelev, in Denmark, engravings of which are published in +the _Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndeghed_ for 1861, p. 305. These are small +cups, 3 in. and 2-1/2 in. high, 3-3/4 in. and 3 in. wide, with feet and +straight sides; on the larger are a lion and a bull, on the smaller two +birds with grapes, and on each some smaller ornaments. On the latter are +the letters DVB. R. The colours are vitrified and slightly in relief; +green, blue and brown may be distinguished. They are found with Roman +bronze vessels and other articles. + +The art of glass-making no doubt, like all other art, deteriorated +during the decline of the Roman empire, but it is probable that it +continued to be practised, though with constantly decreasing skill, not +only in Rome but in the provinces. Roman technique was to be found in +Byzantium and Alexandria, in Syria, in Spain, in Germany, France and +Britain. + +_Early Christian and Byzantine Glass_.--The process of embedding gold +and silver leaf between two layers of glass originated as early as the +1st century, probably in Alexandria. The process consisted in spreading +the leaf on a thin film of blown glass and pressing molten glass on to +the leaf so that the molten glass cohered with the film of glass through +the pores of the metallic leaf. If before this application of the molten +glass the metallic leaf, whilst resting on the thin film of blown glass, +was etched with a sharp point, patterns, emblems, inscriptions and +pictures could be embedded and rendered permanent by the double coating +of glass. The plaques thus formed could be reheated and fashioned into +the bases of bowls and drinking vessels. In this way the so-called +"fondi d'oro" of the catacombs in Rome were made. They are the broken +bases of drinking vessels containing inscriptions, emblems, domestic +scenes and portraits etched in gold leaf. Very few have any reference to +Christianity, but they served as indestructible marks for indicating the +position of interments in the catacombs. The fondi d'oro suggested the +manufacture of plaques of gold which could be broken up into tesserae +for use in mosaics. + +Some of the Roman artificers in glass no doubt migrated to +Constantinople, and it is certain that the art was practised there to a +very great extent during the middle ages. One of the gates near the port +took its name from the adjacent glass houses. St Sofia when erected by +Justinian had vaults covered with mosaics and immense windows filled +with plates of glass fitted into pierced marble frames; some of the +plates, 7 to 8 in. wide and 9 to 10 in. high, not blown but cast, which +are in the windows may possibly date from the building of the church. +It is also recorded that pierced silver disks were suspended by chains +and supported glass lamps "wrought by fire." Glass for mosaics was also +largely made and exported. In the 8th century, when peace was made +between the caliph Walid and the emperor Justinian II., the former +stipulated for a quantity of mosaic for the decoration of the new mosque +at Damascus, and in the 10th century the materials for the decoration of +the niche of the kibla at Cordova were furnished by Romanus II. In the +11th century Desiderius, abbot of Monte Casino, sent to Constantinople +for workers in mosaic. + +We have in the work of the monk Theophilus, _Diversarum artium +schedula_, and in the probably earlier work of Eraclius, about the 11th +century, instructions as to the art of glass-making in general, and also +as to the production of coloured and enamelled vessels, which these +writers speak of as being practised by the Greeks. The only entire +enamelled vessel which we can confidently attribute to Byzantine art is +a small vase preserved in the treasury of St Mark's at Venice. This is +decorated with circles of rosettes of blue, green and red enamel, each +surrounded by lines of gold; within the circles are little figures +evidently suggested by antique originals, and precisely like similar +figures found on carved ivory boxes of Byzantine origin dating from the +11th or 12th century. Two inscriptions in Cufic characters surround the +vase, but they, it would seem, are merely ornamental and destitute of +meaning. The presence of these inscriptions may perhaps lead to the +inference that the vase was made in Sicily, but by Byzantine workmen. +The double-handled blue-glass vase in the British Museum, dating from +the 5th century, is probably a chalice, as it closely resembles the +chalices represented on early Christian monuments. + +Of uncoloured glass brought from Constantinople several examples exist +in the treasury of St Mark's at Venice, part of the plunder of the +imperial city when taken by the crusaders in 1204. The glass in all is +greenish, very thick, with many bubbles, and has been cut with the +wheel; in some instances circles and cones, and in one the outlines of +the figure of a leopard, have been left standing up, the rest of the +surface having been laboriously cut away. The intention would seem to +have been to imitate vessels of rock crystal. The so-called "Hedwig" +glasses may also have originated in Constantinople. These are small cups +deeply and rudely cut with conventional representations of eagles, lions +and griffins. Only nine specimens are known. The specimen in the Rijks +Museum at Amsterdam has an eagle and two lions. The specimen in the +Germanic Museum at Nuremberg has two lions and a griffin. + +_Saracenic Glass._--The Saracenic invasion of Syria and Egypt did not +destroy the industry of glass-making. The craft survived and flourished +under the Saracenic regime in Alexandria, Cairo, Tripoli, Tyre, Aleppo +and Damascus. In inventories of the 14th century both in England and in +France mention may frequently be found of glass vessels of the +manufacture of Damascus. A writer in the early part of the 15th century +states that "glass-making is an important industry at Haleb (Aleppo)." +Edward Dillon (_Glass_, 1902) has very properly laid stress on the +importance of the enamelled Saracenic glass of the 13th, 14th and 15th +centuries, pointing out that, whereas the Romans and Byzantine Greeks +made some crude and ineffectual experiments in enamelling, it was under +Saracenic influence that the processes of enamelling and gilding on +glass vessels were perfected. An analysis of the glass of a Cairene +mosque lamp shows that it is a soda-lime glass and contains as much as +4% of magnesia. This large proportion of magnesia undoubtedly supplied +the stability required to withstand the process of enamelling. The +enamelled Saracenic glasses take the form of flasks, vases, goblets, +beakers and mosque lamps. The enamelled decoration on the lamps is +restricted to lettering, scrolls and conventional foliage; on other +objects figure-subjects of all descriptions are freely used. C. H. Read +has pointed out a curious feature in the construction of the enamelled +beakers. The base is double but the inner lining has an opening in the +centre. Dillon has suggested that this central recess may have served to +support a wick. It is possible however, that it served no useful +purpose, but that the construction is a survival from the manufacture of +vessels with fondi d'oro. The bases containing the embedded gold leaf +must have been welded to the vessels to which they belonged, in the same +way as the bases are welded to the Saracenic beakers. The enamelling +process was probably introduced in the early part of the 13th century; +most of the enamelled mosque lamps belong to the 14th century. + +_Venetian Glass_.--Whether refugees from Padua, Aquileia or other +Italian cities carried the art to the lagoons of Venice in the 5th +century, or whether it was learnt from the Greeks of Constantinople at a +much later date, has been a disputed question. It would appear not +improbable that the former was the case, for it must be remembered that +articles formed of glass were in the later days of Roman civilization in +constant daily use, and that the making of glass was carried on, not as +now in large establishments, but by artisans working on a small scale. +It seems certain that some knowledge of the art was preserved in France, +in Germany and in Spain, and it seems improbable that it should have +been lost in that archipelago, where the traditions of ancient +civilization must have been better preserved than in almost any other +place. In 523 Cassiodorus writes of the "innumerosa navigia" belonging +to Venice, and where trade is active there is always a probability that +manufactures will flourish. However this may be, the earliest positive +evidence of the existence at Venice of a worker in glass would seem to +be the mention of Petrus Flavianus, phiolarius, in the ducale of Vitale +Falier in the year 1090. In 1224 twenty-nine persons are mentioned as +friolari (i.e. phiolari), and in the same century "mariegole," or codes +of trade regulations, were drawn up (_Monografia della vetraria +Veneziana e Muranese_, p. 219). The manufacture had then no doubt +attained considerable proportions: in 1268 the glass-workers became an +incorporated body; in their processions they exhibited decanters, +scent-bottles and the like; in 1279 they made, among other things, +weights and measures. In the latter part of this century the +glass-houses were almost entirely transferred to Murano. Thenceforward +the manufacture continued to grow in importance; glass vessels were made +in large quantities, as well as glass for windows. The earliest example +which has as yet been described--a cup of blue glass, enamelled and +gilt--is, however, not earlier than about 1440. A good many other +examples have been preserved which may be assigned to the same century: +the earlier of these bear a resemblance in form to the vessels of silver +made in the west of Europe; in the later an imitation of classical forms +becomes apparent. Enamel and gilding were freely used, in imitation no +doubt of the much-admired vessels brought from Damascus. Dillon has +pointed out that the process of enamelling had probably been derived +from Syria, with which country Venice had considerable commercial +intercourse. Many of the ornamental processes which we admire in +Venetian glass were already in use in this century, as that of mille +fiori, and the beautiful kind of glass known as "vitro di trina" or lace +glass. An elaborate account of the processes of making the vitro di +trina and the vasi a reticelli (Plate I., fig. 7) is given in Bontemps's +_Guide du verrier_, pp. 602-612. Many of the examples of these processes +exhibit surprising skill and taste, and are among the most beautiful +objects produced at the Venetian furnaces. That peculiar kind of glass +usually called schmelz, an imperfect imitation of calcedony, was also +made at Venice in the 15th century. Avanturine glass, that in which +numerous small particles of copper are diffused through a transparent +yellowish or brownish mass, was not invented until about 1600. + +The peculiar merits of the Venetian manufacture are the elegance of form +and the surprising lightness and thinness of the substance of the +vessels produced. The highest perfection with regard both to form and +decoration was reached in the 16th century; subsequently the Venetian +workmen somewhat abused their skill by giving extravagant forms to +vessels, making drinking glasses in the forms of ships, lions, birds, +whales and the like. + +Besides the making of vessels of all kinds the factories of Murano had +for a long period almost an entire monopoly of two other branches of the +art--the making of mirrors and of beads. Attempts to make mirrors of +glass were made as early as A.D. 1317, but even in the 16th century +mirrors of steel were still in use. To make a really good mirror of +glass two things are required--a plate free from bubbles and striae, and +a method of applying a film of metal with a uniform bright surface free +from defects. The principle of applying metallic films to glass seems to +have been known to the Romans and even to the Egyptians, and is +mentioned by Alexander Neckam in the 12th century, but it would appear +that it was not until the 16th century that the process of "silvering" +mirrors by the use of an amalgam of tin and mercury had been perfected. +During the 16th and 17th centuries Venice exported a prodigious quantity +of mirrors, but France and England gradually acquired knowledge and +skill in the art, and in 1772 only one glass-house at Murano continued +to make mirrors. + +The making of beads was probably practised at Venice from a very early +period, but the earliest documentary evidence bearing on the subject +does not appear to be of earlier date than the 14th century, when +prohibitions were directed against those who made of glass such objects +as were usually made of crystal or other hard stones. In the 16th +century it had become a trade of great importance, and about 1764 +twenty-two furnaces were employed in the production of beads. Towards +the end of the same century from 600 to 1000 workmen were, it is stated, +employed on one branch of the art, that of ornamenting beads by the help +of the blow-pipe. A very great variety of patterns was produced; a +tariff of the year 1800 contains an enumeration of 562 species and a +vast number of sub-species. + +The efforts made in France, Germany and England, in the 17th and 18th +centuries, to improve the manufacture of glass in those countries had a +very injurious effect on the industry of Murano. The invention of +colourless Bohemian glass brought in its train the practice of cutting +glass, a method of ornamentation for which Venetian glass, from its +thinness, was ill adapted. One remarkable man, Giuseppe Briati, exerted +himself, with much success, both in working in the old Venetian method +and also in imitating the new fashions invented in Bohemia. He was +especially successful in making vases and circular dishes of vitro di +trina; one of the latter in the Correr collection at Venice, believed to +have been made in his glass-house, measures 55 centimetres (nearly 23 +in.) in diameter. The vases made by him are as elegant in form as the +best of the Cinquecento period, but may perhaps be distinguished by the +superior purity and brilliancy of the glass. He also made with great +taste and skill large lustres and mirrors with frames of glass +ornamented either in intaglio or with foliage of various colours. He +obtained a knowledge of the methods of working practised in Bohemia by +disguising himself as a porter, and thus worked for three years in a +Bohemian glass-house. In 1736 he obtained a patent at Venice to +manufacture glass in the Bohemian manner. He died in 1772. + +The fall of the republic was accompanied by interruption of trade and +decay of manufacture, and in the last years of the 18th and beginning of +the 19th century the glass-making of Murano was at a very low ebb. In +the year 1838 Signor Bussolin revived several of the ancient processes +of glass-working, and this revival was carried on by C. Pietro Biguglia +in 1845, and by others, and later by Salviati, to whose successful +efforts the modern renaissance of Venetian art glass is principally due. + +The fame of Venice in glass-making so completely eclipsed that of other +Italian cities that it is difficult to learn much respecting their +progress in the art. Hartshorne and Dillon have drawn attention to the +important part played by the little Ligurian town, Altare, as a centre +from which glass-workers migrated to all parts of Europe. It is said +that the glass industry was established at Altare, in the 11th century, +by French craftsmen. In the 14th century Muranese glass-workers settled +there and developed the industry. It appears that as early as 1295 +furnaces had been established at Treviso, Vicenza, Padua, Mantua, +Ferrara, Ravenna and Bologna. In 1634 there were two glass-houses in +Rome and one in Florence; but whether any of these produced ornamented +vessels, or only articles of common use and window glass, would not +appear to have as yet been ascertained. + +_Germany_--Glass-making in Germany during the Roman period seems to have +been carried on extensively in the neighbourhood of Cologne. The Cologne +museum contains many specimens of Roman glass, some of which are +remarkable for their cut decoration. The craft survived the downfall of +the Roman power, and a native industry was developed. This industry must +have won some reputation, for in 758 the abbot of Jarrow appealed to the +bishop of Mainz to send him a worker in glass. There are few records of +glass manufacture in Germany before the beginning of the 16th century. +The positions of the factories were determined by the supply of wood for +fuel, and subsequently, when the craft of glass-cutting was introduced, +by the accessibility of water-power. The vessels produced by the +16th-century glass-workers in Germany, Holland and the Low Countries are +closely allied in form and decoration. The glass is coloured (generally +green) and the decoration consists of glass threads and glass studs, or +prunts ("Nuppen"). The use of threads and prunts is illustrated by the +development of the "Roemer," so popular as a drinking-glass, and as a +feature in Dutch studies of still life. The "Igel," a squat tumbler +covered with prunts, gave rise to the "Krautstrunk," which is like the +"Igel," but longer and narrow-waisted. The "Roemer" itself consists of a +cup, a short waist studded with prunts and a foot. The foot at first was +formed by coiling a thread of glass round the base of the waist; but, +subsequently, an open glass cone was joined to the base of the waist, +and a glass thread was coiled upon the surface of the cone. The +"Passglas," another popular drinking-glass, is cylindrical in form and +marked with horizontal rings of glass, placed at regular intervals, to +indicate the quantity of liquor to be taken at a draught. + +In the edition of 1581 of the _De re metallica_ by Georg Agricola, there +is a woodcut showing the interior of a German glass factory, and glass +vessels both finished and unfinished. + +In 1428 a Muranese glass-worker set up a furnace in Vienna, and another +furnace was built in the same town by an Italian in 1486. In 1531 the +town council of Nuremberg granted a subsidy to attract teachers of +Venetian technique. Many specimens exist of German winged and enamelled +glasses of Venetian character. The Venetian influence, however, was +indirect rather than direct. The native glass-workers adopted the +process of enamelling, but applied it to a form of decoration +characteristically German. On tall, roomy, cylindrical glasses they +painted portraits of the emperor and electors of Germany, or the +imperial eagle bearing on its wings the arms of the states composing the +empire. The earliest-known example of these enamelled glasses bears the +date 1553. They were immensely popular and the fashion for them lasted +into the 18th century. Some of the later specimens have views of cities, +battle scenes and processions painted in grisaille. + +A more important outcome, however, of Italian influence was the +production, in emulation of Venetian glass, of a glass made of refined +potash, lime and sand, which was more colourless than the material it +was intended to imitate. This colourless potash-lime glass has always +been known as Bohemian glass. It was well adapted for receiving cut and +engraved decoration, and in these processes the German craftsmen proved +themselves to be exceptionally skilful. At the end of the 16th century +Rudolph II. brought Italian rock-crystal cutters from Milan to take +control of the crystal and glass-cutting works he had established at +Prague. It was at Prague that Caspar Lehmann and Zachary Belzer learnt +the craft of cutting glass. George Schwanhart, a pupil of Caspar +Lehmann, started glass-cutting at Ratisbon, and about 1690 Stephen +Schmidt and Hermann Schwinger introduced the crafts of cutting and +engraving glass in Nuremberg. To the Germans must be credited the +discovery, or development, of colourless potash-lime glass, the +reintroduction of the crafts of cutting and engraving on glass, the +invention by H. Schwanhart of the process of etching on glass by means +of hydrofluoric acid, and the rediscovery by J. Kunkel, who was director +of the glass-houses at Potsdam in 1679, of the method of making +copper-ruby glass. + +_Low Countries and the United Provinces._--The glass industry of the Low +Countries was chiefly influenced by Italy and Spain, whereas German +influence and technique predominated in the United Provinces. The +history of glass-making in the provinces is almost identical with that +of Germany. In the 17th and 18th centuries the processes of scratching, +engraving and etching were brought to great perfection. + +The earliest record of glass-making in the Low Countries consists in an +account of payments made in 1453-1454 on behalf of Philip the Good of +Burgundy to "Gossiun de Vieuglise, Maitre Vorrier de Lille" for a glass +fountain and four glass plateaus. Schuermans has traced Italian +glass-workers to Antwerp, Liege, Brussels and Namur. Antwerp appears to +have been the headquarters of the Muranese, and Liege the headquarters +of the Altarists. Guicciardini in his description of the Netherlands, in +1563, mentions glass as among the chief articles of export to England. + +In 1599 the privilege of making "Voires de cristal a la faschon Venise," +was granted to Philippe de Gridolphi of Antwerp. In 1623 Anthony Miotti, +a Muranese, addressed a petition to Philip IV. of Spain for permission +to make glasses, vases and cups of fine crystal, equal to those of +Venice, but to be sold at one-third less than Venetian glasses. In 1642 +Jean Savonetti "gentilhomme Verrier de Murano" obtained a patent for +making glass in Brussels. The Low Country glasses are closely copied +from Venetian models, but generally are heavier and less elegant. Owing +to the fashion of Dutch and Flemish painters introducing glass vases and +drinking-glasses into their paintings of still life, interiors and +scenes of conviviality, Holland and Belgium at the present day possess +more accurate records of the products of their ancient glass factories +than any other countries. + +_Spain._--During the Roman occupation Pliny states that glass was made +"per Hispanias" (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26. 66). Traces of Roman glass +manufactories have been found in Valencia and Murcia, in the valleys +which run down to the coast of Catalonia, and near the mouth of the +Ebro. Little is known about the condition of glass-making in Spain +between the Roman period and the 13th century. In the 13th century the +craft of glass-making was practised by the Moors in Almeria, and was +probably a survival from Roman times. The system of decorating vases and +vessels by means of strands of glass trailed upon the surface in knots, +zigzags and trellis work, was adopted by the Moors and is characteristic +of Roman craftsmanship. Glass-making was continued at Pinar de la +Vidriera and at Al Castril de la Pena into the 17th century. The objects +produced show no sign of Venetian influence, but are distinctly Oriental +in form. Many of the vessels have four or as many as eight handles, and +are decorated with serrated ornamentation, and with the trailed strands +of glass already referred to. The glass is generally of a dark-green +colour. + +Barcelona has a long record as a centre of the glass industry. In 1324 a +municipal edict was issued forbidding the erection of glass-furnaces +within the city. In 1455 the glass-makers of Barcelona were permitted to +form a gild. Jeronimo Paulo, writing in 1491, says that glass vessels of +various sorts were sent thence to many places, and even to Rome. +Marineus Siculus, writing early in the 16th century, says that the best +glass was made at Barcelona; and Gaspar Baneiros, in his +_Chronographia_, published in 1562, states that the glass made at +Barcelona was almost equal to that of Venice and that large quantities +were exported. + +The author of the _Atlante espanol_, writing at the end of the 18th +century, says that excellent glass was still made at Barcelona on +Venetian models. The Italian influence was strongly felt in Spain, but +Spanish writers have given no precise information as to when it was +introduced or whence it came. Schuermans has, however, discovered the +names of more than twenty Italians who found their way into Spain, in +some cases by way of Flanders, either from Altare or from Venice. The +Spanish glass-makers were very successful in imitating the Venetian +style, and many specimens supposed to have originated from Murano are +really Spanish. In addition to the works at Barcelona, the works which +chiefly affected Venetian methods were those of Cadalso in the province +of Toledo, founded in the 16th century, and the works established in +1680 at San Martin de Valdeiglesias in Avila. There were also works at +Valdemaqueda and at Villafranca. In 1680 the works in Barcelona, +Valdemaqueda and Villafranca are named in a royal schedule giving the +prices at which glass was to be sold in Madrid. In 1772 important glass +works were established at Recuenco in the province of Cuenca, mainly to +supply Madrid. The royal glass manufactory of La Granja de San Ildefonso +was founded about 1725; in the first instance for the manufacture of +mirror plates, but subsequently for the production of vases and +table-ware in the French style. The objects produced are mostly of white +clear glass, cut, engraved and gilded. Engraved flowers, views and +devices are often combined with decorative cutting. Don Sigismundo Brun +is credited with the invention of permanent gilding fixed by heat. +Spanish glass is well represented in the Victoria and Albert Museum. + +_France._--Pliny states that glass was made in Gaul, and there is reason +to believe that it was made in many parts of the country and on a +considerable scale. There were glass-making districts both in Normandy +and in Poitou. + +Little information can be gathered concerning the glass industry between +the Roman period and the 14th century. It is recorded that in the 7th +century the abbot of Wearmouth in England obtained artificers in glass +from France; and there is a tradition that in the 11th century +glass-workers migrated from Normandy and Brittany and set up works at +Altare near Genoa. + +In 1302 window glass, probably crown-glass, was made at Beza le Foret in +the department of the Eure. In 1416 these works were in the hands of +Robin and Leban Guichard, but passed subsequently to the Le Vaillants. + +In 1338 Humbert, the dauphin, granted a part of the forest of Chamborant +to a glass-worker named Guionet on the condition that Guionet should +supply him with vessels of glass. + +In 1466 the abbess of St Croix of Poitiers received a gross of glasses +from the glass-works of La Ferriere, for the privilege of gathering fern +for the manufacture of potash. + +In France, as in other countries, efforts were made to introduce Italian +methods of glass-working. Schuermans in his researches discovered that +during the 15th and 16th centuries many glass-workers left Altare and +settled in France,--the Saroldi migrated to Poitou, the Ferri to +Provence, the Massari to Lorraine and the Bormioli to Normandy. In 1551 +Henry II. of France established at St Germain en Laye an Italian named +Mutio; he was a native of Bologna, but of Altare origin. In 1598 Henry +IV. permitted two "gentil hommes verriers" from Mantua to settle at +Rouen in order to make "verres de cristal, verres doree emaul et autres +ouvrages qui se font en Venise." + +France assimilated the craft of glass-making, and her craftsmen acquired +a wide reputation. Lorraine and Normandy appear to have been the most +important centres. To Lorraine belong the well-known names Hennezel, de +Thietry, du Thisac, de Houx; and to Normandy the names de Bongar, de +Cacqueray le Vaillant and de Brossard. + +In the 17th century the manufacture of mirror glass became an important +branch of the industry. In 1665 a manufactory was established in the +Faubourg St Antoine in Paris, and another at Tour-la-Ville near +Cherbourg. + +Louis Lucas de Nehou, who succeeded de Cacqueray at the works at +Tour-la-Ville, moved in 1675 to the works in Paris. Here, in 1688, in +conjunction with A. Thevart, he succeeded in perfecting the process of +casting plate-glass. Mirror plates previous to the invention had been +made from blown "sheet" glass, and were consequently very limited in +size. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table +rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible. + +The Manufactoire Royale des Glaces was removed in 1693 to the Chateau de +St Gobain. + +In the 18th century the manufacture of _vases de verre_ had become so +neglected that the Academy of Sciences in 1759 offered a prize for an +essay on the means by which the industry might be revived (Labarte, +_Histoire des arts industriels_). + +The famous Baccarat works, for making crystal glass, were founded in +1818 by d'Artigues. + +_English Glass._--The records of glass-making in England are exceedingly +meagre. There is reason to believe that during the Roman occupation the +craft was carried on in several parts of the country. Remains of a Roman +glass manufactory of considerable extent were discovered near the +Manchester Ship Canal at Warrington. Wherever the Romans settled glass +vessels and fragments of glass have been found. There is no evidence to +prove that the industry survived the withdrawal of the Roman garrison. + +It is probable that the glass drinking-vessels, which have been found in +pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon tombs, were introduced from Germany. Some are +elaborate in design and bear witness to advanced technique of Roman +character. In 675 Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, was obliged to +obtain glass-workers from France, and in 758 Cuthbert, abbot of Jarrow, +appealed to the bishop of Mainz to send him artisans to manufacture +"windows and vessels of glass, because the English were ignorant and +helpless." Except for the statement in Bede that the French artisans, +sent by Benedict Biscop, taught their craft to the English, there is at +present no evidence of glass having been made in England between the +Roman period and the 13th century. In some deeds relating to the parish +of Chiddingfold, in Surrey, of a date not later than 1230, a grant is +recorded of twenty acres of land to Lawrence "vitrearius," and in +another deed, of about 1280, the "ovenhusveld" is mentioned as a +boundary. This field has been identified, and pieces of crucible and +fragments of glass have been dug up. There is another deed, dated 1300, +which mentions one William "le verir" of Chiddingfold. + +About 1350 considerable quantities of colourless flat glass were +supplied by John Alemayn of Chiddingfold for glazing the windows in St +George's chapel, Windsor, and in the chapel of St Stephen, Westminster. +The name Alemayn (Aleman) suggests a foreign origin. In 1380 John +Glasewryth, a Staffordshire glass-worker, came to work at Shuerewode, +Kirdford, and there made brode-glas and vessels for Joan, widow of John +Shertere. + +There were two kinds of flat glass, known respectively as "brode-glas" +and "Normandy" glass. The former was made, as described by Theophilus, +from cylinders, which were split, reheated and flattened into square +sheets. It was known as Lorraine glass, and subsequently as "German +sheet" or sheet-glass. Normandy glass was made from glass circles or +disks. When, in after years, the process was perfected, the glass was +known as "crown" glass. In 1447 English flat glass is mentioned in the +contract for the windows of the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick, but +disparagingly, as the contractor binds himself not to use it. In 1486, +however, it is referred to in such a way as to suggest that it was +superior to "Dutch, Venice or Normandy glass." The industry does not +seem to have prospered, for when in 1567 an inquiry was made as to its +condition, it was ascertained that only small rough goods were being +made. + +In the 16th century the fashion for using glass vessels of ornamental +character spread from Italy into France and England. Henry VIII. had a +large collection of glass drinking-vessels chiefly of Venetian +manufacture. The increasing demand for Venetian drinking-glasses +suggested the possibility of making similar glass in England, and +various attempts were made to introduce Venetian workmen and Venetian +methods of manufacture. In 1550 eight Muranese glass-blowers were +working in or near the Tower of London. They had left Murano owing to +slackness of trade, but had been recalled, and appealed to the Council +of Ten in Venice to be allowed to complete their contract in London. +Seven of these glass-workers left London in the following year, but one, +Josepho Casselari, remained and joined Thomas Cavato, a Dutchman. In +1574 Jacob Verzellini, a fugitive Venetian, residing in Antwerp, +obtained a patent for making drinking-glasses in London "such as are +made in Murano." He established works in Crutched Friars, and to him is +probably due the introduction of the use of soda-ash, made from seaweed +and seaside plants, in place of the crude potash made from fern and wood +ashes. His manufactory was burnt down in 1575, but was rebuilt. He +afterwards moved his works to Winchester House, Broad Street. There is a +small goblet (Pl. I., fig. 8) in the British Museum which is attributed +to Verzellini. It is Venetian in character, of a brownish tint, with two +white enamel rings round the body. It is decorated with diamond or +steel-point etching, and bears on one side the date 1586, and on the +opposite side the words "In God is al mi trust." Verzellini died in 1606 +and was buried at Down in Kent. In 1592 the Broad Street works had been +taken over by Jerome Bowes. They afterwards passed into the hands of Sir +R. Mansel, and in 1618 James Howell, author of _Epistolae Ho-elianae_, +was acting as steward. The works continued in operation until 1641. +During excavations in Broad Street in 1874 many fragments of glass were +found; amongst them were part of a wine-glass, a square scent-bottle and +a wine-glass stem containing a spiral thread of white enamel. + +A greater and more lasting influence on English glass-making came from +France and the Low Countries. In 1567 James Carre of Antwerp stated that +he had erected two glass-houses at "Fernefol" (Fernfold Wood in Sussex) +for Normandy and Lorraine glass for windows, and had brought over +workmen. From this period began the records in England of the great +glass-making families of Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac and du Houx +from Lorraine, and of de Bongar and de Cacqueray from Normandy. About +this time glass-works were established at Ewhurst and Alford in Surrey, +Loxwood, Kirdford, Wisborough and Petworth in Sussex, and Sevenoaks and +Penshurst in Kent. Beginning in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, where wood for +fuel was plentiful, the foreign glass-workers and their descendants +migrated from place to place, always driven by the fuel-hunger of their +furnaces. They gradually made their way into Hampshire, Wiltshire, +Gloucestershire, Staffordshire, Northumberland, Scotland and Ireland. +They can be traced by cullet heaps and broken-down furnaces, and by +their names, often mutilated, recorded in parish registers. + +In 1610 a patent was granted to Sir W. Slingsby for burning coal in +furnaces, and coal appears to have been used in the Broad Street works. +In 1615 all patents for glass-making were revoked and a new patent +issued for making glass with coal as fuel, in the names of Mansel, +Zouch, Thelwall, Kellaway and Percival. To the last is credited the +first introduction of covered crucibles to protect the molten glass from +the products of burning coal. + +Simultaneously with the issue of this patent the use of wood for melting +glass was prohibited, and it was made illegal to import glass from +abroad. About 1617 Sir R. Mansel, vice-admiral and treasurer of the +navy, acquired the sole rights of making glass in England. These rights +he retained for over thirty years. + +During the protectorate all patent rights virtually lapsed, and mirrors +and drinking-glasses were once more imported from Venice. In 1663 the +duke of Buckingham, although unable to obtain a renewal of the monopoly +of glass-making, secured the prohibition of the importation of glass for +mirrors, coach plates, spectacles, tubes and lenses, and contributed to +the revival of the glass industry in all its branches. Evelyn notes in +his _Diary_ a visit in 1673 to the Italian glass-house at Greenwich, +"where glass was blown of finer metal than that of Murano," and a visit +in 1677 to the duke of Buckingham's glass-works, where they made huge +"vases of mettal as cleare, ponderous and thick as chrystal; also +looking-glasses far larger and better than any that came from Venice." + +Some light is thrown on the condition of the industry at the end of the +17th century by the Houghton letters on the improvement of trade and +commerce, which appeared in 1696. A few of these letters deal with the +glass trade, and in one a list is given of the glass-works then in +operation. There were 88 glass factories in England which are thus +classified: + + Bottles 39 + Looking-glass plates 2 + Crown and plate-glass 5 + Window glass 15 + Flint and ordinary glass 27 + -- + 88 + +It is probable that the flint-glass of that date was very different from +the flint-glass of to-day. The term flint-glass is now understood to +mean a glass composed of the silicates of potash and lead. It is the +most brilliant and the most colourless of all glasses, and was +undoubtedly first perfected in England. Hartshorne has attributed its +discovery to a London merchant named Tilson, who in 1663 obtained a +patent for making "crystal glass." E. W. Hulme, however, who has +carefully investigated the subject, is of opinion that flint-glass in +its present form was introduced about 1730. The use of oxide of lead in +glass-making was no new thing; it had been used, mainly as a flux, both +by Romans and Venetians. The invention, if it may be regarded as one, +consisted in eliminating lime from the glass mixture, substituting +refined potash for soda, and using a very large proportion of lead +oxide. It is probable that flint-glass was not invented, but gradually +evolved, that potash-lead glasses were in use during the latter part of +the 17th century, but that the mixture was not perfected until the +middle of the following century. + +The 18th century saw a great development in all branches of +glass-making. Collectors of glass are chiefly concerned with the +drinking-glasses which were produced in great profusion and adapted for +every description of beverage. The most noted are the glasses with stout +cylindrical legs (Plate I. fig. 9), containing spiral threads of air, or +of white or coloured enamel. To this type of glass belong many of the +Jacobite glasses which commemorate the old or the young Pretender. + +In 1746 the industry was in a sufficiently prosperous condition to tempt +the government to impose an excise duty. The report of the commission of +excise, dealing with glass, published in 1835 is curious and interesting +reading. So burdensome was the duty and so vexatious were the +restrictions that it is a matter for wonder that the industry survived. +In this respect England was more fortunate than Ireland. Before 1825, +when the excise duty was introduced into Ireland, there were flourishing +glass-works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Waterford. By 1850 the Irish +glass industry had been practically destroyed. Injurious as the excise +duty undoubtedly was to the glass trade generally, and especially to the +flint-glass industry, it is possible that it may have helped to develop +the art of decorative glass-cutting. The duty on flint-glass was imposed +on the molten glass in the crucibles and on the unfinished goods. The +manufacturer had, therefore, a strong inducement to enhance by every +means in his power the selling value of his glass after it had escaped +the exciseman's clutches. He therefore employed the best available art +and skill in improving the craft of glass-cutting. It is the development +of this craft in connexion with the perfecting of flint-glass that makes +the 18th century the most important period in the history of English +glass-making. Glass-cutting was a craft imported from Germany, but the +English material so greatly surpassed Bohemian glass in brilliance that +the Bohemian cut-glass was eclipsed. Glass-cutting was carried on at +works in Birmingham, Bristol, Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Glasgow, London, +Newcastle, Stourbridge, Whittington and Waterford. The most important +centres of the craft were London, Bristol, Birmingham and Waterford (see +Plate I., fig. 10, for oval cut-glass Waterford bowl). The finest +specimens of cut-glass belong to the period between 1780 and 1810. Owing +to the sacrifice of form to prismatic brilliance, cut-glass gradually +lost its artistic value. Towards the middle of the 19th century it +became the fashion to regard all cut-glass as barbarous, and services of +even the best period were neglected and dispersed. At the present time +scarcely anything is known about the origin of the few specimens of +18th-century English cut-glass which have been preserved in public +collections. It is strange that so little interest has been taken in a +craft in which for some thirty years England surpassed all competitors, +creating a wave of fashion which influenced the glass industry +throughout the whole of Europe. + +In the report of the Excise Commission a list is given of the glass +manufactories which paid the excise duty in 1833. There were 105 +factories in England, 10 in Scotland and 10 in Ireland. In England the +chief centres of the industry were Bristol, Birmingham, London, +Manchester, Newcastle, Stourbridge and York. Plate-glass was made by +Messrs Cookson of Newcastle, and by the British Plate Glass Company of +Ravenhead. Crown and German sheet-glass were made by Messrs Chance & +Hartley of Birmingham. The London glass-works were those of Apsley +Pellatt of Blackfriars, Christie of Stangate, and William Holmes of +Whitefriars. In Scotland there were works in Glasgow, Leith and +Portobello. In Ireland there were works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and +Waterford. The famous Waterford works were in the hands of Gatchell & +Co. + +_India._--Pliny states (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26, 66) that no glass was to +be compared to the Indian, and gives as a reason that it was made from +broken crystal; and in another passage (xii. 19, 42) he says that the +Troglodytes brought to Ocelis (Ghella near Bab-el-Mandeb) objects of +glass. We have, however, very little knowledge of Indian glass of any +considerable antiquity. A few small vessels have been found in the +"topes," as in that at Manikiala in the Punjab, which probably dates +from about the Christian era; but they exhibit no remarkable character, +and fragments found at Brahmanabad are hardly distinguishable from Roman +glass of the imperial period. The chronicle of the Sinhalese kings, the +_Mahavamsa_, however, asserts that mirrors of glittering glass were +carried in procession in 306 B.C., and beads like gems, and windows with +ornaments like jewels, are also mentioned at about the same date. If +there really was an important manufacture of glass in Ceylon at this +early time, that island perhaps furnished the Indian glass of Pliny. In +the later part of the 17th century some glass decorated with enamel was +made at Delhi. A specimen is in the Indian section of the South +Kensington Museum. Glass is made in several parts of India--as Patna and +Mysore--by very simple and primitive methods, and the results are +correspondingly defective. Black, green, red, blue and yellow glasses +are made, which contain a large proportion of alkali and are readily +fusible. The greater part is worked into bangles, but some small bottles +are blown (Buchanan, _Journey through Mysore_, i. 147, iii. 369). + +_Persia._--No very remarkable specimens of Persian glass are known in +Europe, with the exception of some vessels of blue glass richly +decorated with gold. These probably date from the 17th century, for +Chardin tells us that the windows of the tomb of Shah Abbas II. (ob. +1666), at Kum, were "de cristal peint d'or et d'azur." At the present +day bottles and drinking-vessels are made in Persia which in texture and +quality differ little from ordinary Venetian glass of the 16th or 17th +centuries, while in form they exactly resemble those which may be seen +in the engravings in Chardin's _Travels_. + +_China._--The history of the manufacture of glass in China is obscure, +but the common opinion that it was learnt from the Europeans in the 17th +century seems to be erroneous. A writer in the _Memoires concernant les +Chinois_ (ii. 46) states on the authority of the annals of the Han +dynasty that the emperor Wu-ti (140 B.C.) had a manufactory of the kind +of glass called "lieou-li" (probably a form of opaque glass), that in +the beginning of the 3rd century of our era the emperor Tsaou-tsaou +received from the West a considerable present of glasses of all colours, +and that soon after a glass-maker came into the country who taught the +art to the natives. + +The Wei dynasty, to which Tsaou-tsaou belonged, reigned in northern +China, and at this day a considerable manufacture of glass is carried on +at Po-shan-hien in Shantung, which it would seem has existed for a long +period. The Rev. A. Williamson (_Journeys in North China_, i. 131) says +that the glass is extremely pure, and is made from the rocks in the +neighbourhood. The rocks are probably of quartz, i.e. rock crystal, a +correspondence with Pliny's statement respecting Indian glass which +seems deserving of attention. + +Whether the making of glass in China was an original discovery of that +ingenious people, or was derived via Ceylon from Egypt, cannot perhaps +be now ascertained; the manufacture has, however, never greatly extended +itself in China. The case has been the converse of that of the Romans; +the latter had no fine pottery, and therefore employed glass as the +material for vessels of an ornamental kind, for table services and the +like. The Chinese, on the contrary, having from an early period had +excellent porcelain, have been careless about the manufacture of glass. +A Chinese writer, however, mentions the manufacture of a huge vase in +A.D. 627, and in 1154 Edrisi (first climate, tenth section) mentions +Chinese glass. A glass vase about a foot high is preserved at Nara in +Japan, and is alleged to have been placed there in the 8th century. It +seems probable that this is of Chinese manufacture. A writer in the +_Memoires concernant les Chinois_ (ii. 463 and 477), writing about 1770, +says that there was then a glass-house at Peking, where every year a +good number of vases were made, some requiring great labour because +nothing was blown (rien n'est souffle), meaning no doubt that the +ornamentation was produced not by blowing and moulding, but by cutting. +This factory was, however, merely an appendage to the imperial +magnificence. The earliest articles of Chinese glass the date of which +has been ascertained, which have been noticed, are some bearing the name +of the emperor Kienlung (1735-1795), one of which is in the Victoria and +Albert Museum. + +In the manufacture of ornamental glass the leading idea in China seems +to be the imitation of natural stones. The coloured glass is usually not +of one bright colour throughout, but semi-transparent and marbled; the +colours in many instances are singularly fine and harmonious. As in +1770, carving or cutting is the chief method by which ornament is +produced, the vessels being blown very solid. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Georg Agricola, _De re metallica_ (Basel, 1556); Percy + Bate, _English Table Glass_ (n.d.); G. Bontemps, _Guide du verrier_ + (Paris, 1868); Edward Dillon, _Glass_ (London, 1907); C. C. Edgar, + "Graeco-Egyptian Glass," _Catalogue du Musee du Caire_ (1905); Sir A. + W. Franks, _Guide to Glass Room in British Museum_ (1888); Rev. A. + Hallen, "Glass-making in Sussex," _Scottish Antiquary_, No. 28 (1893); + Albert Hartshorne, _Old English Glasses_ (London); E. W. Hulme, + "English Glass-making in XVI. and XVII. Centuries," _The Antiquary_, + Nos. 59, 60, 63, 64, 65; Alexander Nesbitt, "Glass," _Art Handbook_, + Victoria and Albert Museum; E. Peligot, _Le Verre, son histoire, sa + fabrication_ (Paris, 1878); Apsley Pellatt, _Curiosities of + Glass-making_ (London, 1849); F. Petrie, _Tell-el-Amarna_, Egypt + Exploration Fund (1894); "Egypt," sect. _Art_; H. J. Powell, "Cut + Glass," _Journal Society of Arts_, No. 2795; C. H. Read, "Saracenic + Glass," _Archaeologia_, vol. 58, part 1.; Juan F. Riano, "Spanish + Arts," _Art Handbook_, Victoria and Albert Museum; H. Schuermans, + "Muranese and Altarist Glass Workers," eleven letters: _Bulletins des + commissions royales_ (Brussels, 1883, 1891). For the United States, + see vol. x. of _Reports of the 12th Census_, pp. 949-1000, and + _Special Report of Census of Manufactures_ (1905), Part III., pp. + 837-935. (A. Ne.; H. J. P.) + + + + +GLASS, STAINED. All coloured glass is, strictly speaking, "stained" by +some metallic oxide added to it in the process of manufacture. But the +term "stained glass" is popularly, as well as technically, used in a +more limited sense, and is understood to refer to stained glass windows. +Still the words "stained glass" do not fully describe what is meant; for +the glass in coloured windows is for the most part not only stained but +painted. Such painting was, however, until comparatively modern times, +used only to give details of drawing and to define _form_. The _colour_ +in a stained glass window was not painted on the glass but incorporated +in it, mixed with it in the making--whence the term "pot-metal" by which +self-coloured glass is known, i.e. glass coloured in the melting pot. + +A medieval window was consequently a patchwork of variously coloured +pieces. And the earlier its date the more surely was it a mosaic, not in +the form of tesserae, but in the manner known as "opus sectile." Shaped +pieces of coloured glass were, that is to say, put together like the +parts of a puzzle. The nearest approach to an exception to this rule is +a fragment at the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which actual tesserae +are fused together into a solid slab of many-coloured glass, in effect a +window panel, through which the light shines with all the brilliancy of +an Early Gothic window. But apart from the fact that the design proves +in this case to be even more effective with the light upon it, the use +of gold leaf in the tesserae confirms the presumption that this work, +which (supposing it to be genuine) would be Byzantine, centuries earlier +than any coloured windows that we know of, and entirely different from +them in technique, is rather a specimen of fused mosaic that happens to +be translucent than part of a window designedly executed in tesserae. + +The Eastern (and possibly the earlier) practice was to set chips of +coloured glass in a heavy fretwork of stone or to imbed them in plaster. +In a medieval window they were held together by strips of lead, in +section something like the letter H, the upright strokes of which +represent the "tapes" extending on either side well over the edges of +the glass, and the crossbar the connecting "core" between them. The +leading was soldered together at the points of junction, cement or putty +was rubbed into the crevices between glass and lead, and the window was +attached (by means of copper wires soldered on to the leads) to iron +saddle-bars let into the masonry. + +Stained glass was primarily the art of the glazier; but the painter, +called in to help, asserted himself more and more, and eventually took +it almost entirely into his own hands. Between the period when it was +glazier's work eked out by painting and when it was painter's work with +the aid of the glazier lies the entire development of stained and +painted window-making. With the eventual endeavour of the glass painter +to do without the glazier, and to get the colour by painting in +translucent _enamel_ upon colourless glass, we have the beginning of a +form of art no longer monumental and comparatively trivial. + +This evolution of the painted window from a patchwork of little pieces +of coloured glass explains itself when it is remembered that coloured +glass was originally not made in the big sheets produced nowadays, but +at first in jewels to look as much as possible like rubies, sapphires, +emeralds and other precious stones, and afterwards in rounds and sheets +of small dimensions. Though some of the earliest windows were in the +form of pure glazing ("leaded-lights"), the addition of painting seems +to have been customary from the very first. It was a means of rendering +detail not to be got in lead. Glazing affords by itself scope for +beautiful pattern work; but the old glaziers never carried their art as +far as they might have done in the direction of ornament; their aim was +always in the direction of picture; the idea was to make windows serve +the purpose of coloured story books. That was beyond the art of the +glazier. It was easy enough to represent the drapery of a saint by red +glass, the ground on which he stood by green, the sky above by blue, his +crown by yellow, the scroll in his hand by white, and his flesh by +brownish pink; but when it came to showing the folds of red drapery, +blades of green grass, details of goldsmith's work, lettering on the +scroll, the features of the face--the only possible way of doing it was +by painting. The use of paint was confined at first to an opaque brown, +used, not as colour, but only as a means of stopping out light, and in +that way defining comparatively delicate details within the lead lines. +These themselves outlined and defined the main forms of the design. The +pigment used by the glass painter was of course vitreous: it consisted +of powdered glass and sundry metallic oxides (copper, iron, manganese, +&c.), so that, when the pieces of painted glass were made red hot in the +kiln, the powdered glass became fused to the surface, and with it the +dense colouring matter also. When the pieces of painted glass were +afterwards glazed together and seen against the light, the design +appeared in the brilliant colour of the glass, its forms drawn in the +uniform black into which, at a little distance, leadwork and painting +lines became merged. + +It needed solid painting to stop out the light entirely: thin paint only +obscured it. And, even in early glass, thin paint was used, whether to +subdue crude colour or to indicate what little shading a 13th-century +draughtsman might desire. In the present state of old glass, the surface +often quite disintegrated, it is difficult to determine to what extent +thin paint was used for either purpose. There must always have been the +temptation to make tint do instead of solid lines; but the more +workmanlike practice, and the usual one, was to get difference of tint, +as a pen-draughtsman does, by lines of solid opaque colour. In +comparatively colourless glass (_grisaille_) the pattern was often made +to stand out by cross-hatching the background; and another common +practice was to coat the glass with paint all over, and scrape the +design out of it. The effect of either proceeding was to lower the tone +of the glass without dirtying the colour, as a smear of thin paint would +do. + +Towards the 14th century, when Gothic design took a more naturalistic +direction, the desire to get something like modelling made it necessary +to carry painting farther, and they got rid to some extent of the ill +effect of shading-colour smeared on the glass by stippling it. This not +only softened the tint and allowed of gradation according to the amount +of stippling, but let some light through, where the bristles of the +stippling-tool took up the pigment. Shading of this kind enforced by +touches of strong brushwork, cross-hatching and some scratching out of +high lights was the method of glass painting adopted in the 14th +century. + +Glass was never at the best a pleasant surface to paint on; and glass +painting, following the line of least resistance, developed in the later +Gothic and early Renaissance periods into something unlike any other +form of painting. The outlines continued to be traced upon the glass and +fixed in the fire; but, after that, the process of painting consisted +mainly in the removal of paint. The entire surface of the glass was +coated with an even "matt" of pale brown; this was allowed to dry; and +then the high lights were rubbed off, and the modelling was got by +scrubbing away the paint with a dry hog-hair brush, more or less, +according to the gradations required. Perfect modelling was got by +repeating the operation--how often depended upon the dexterity of the +painter. A painter's method is partly the outcome of his individuality. +One man would float on his colour and manipulate it to some extent in +the moist state; another would work entirely upon the dry matt. Great +use was made of the pointed stick with which sharp lines of light were +easily scraped out; and in the 16th century Swiss glass painters, +working upon a relatively small scale, got their modelling entirely with +a needle-point, scraping away the paint just as an etcher scratches away +the varnish from his etching plate. The practice of the two craftsmen +is, indeed, identical, though the one scratches out what are to be black +lines and the other lines of light. In the end, then, though a painter +would always use touches of the brush to get crisp lines of dark, the +manipulation of glass painting consisted more in erasing lights than in +painting shadows, more in rubbing out or scraping off paint than in +putting it on in brush strokes. + +So far there was no thought of getting colour by means of paint. The +colour was in the glass itself, permeating the mass ("pot-metal"). There +was only one exception to this--ruby glass, the colour of which was so +dense that red glass thick enough for its purpose would have been +practically obscure; and so they made a colourless pot-metal coated on +one side only with red glass. This led to a practice which forms an +exception to the rule that in "pot-metal" glass every change of colour, +or from colour to white, is got by the use of a separate piece of glass. +It was possible in the ease of this "flashed" ruby to grind away +portions of the surface and thus obtain white on red or red on white. +Eventually they made coated glass of blue and other colours, with a view +to producing similar effects by abrasion. (The same result is arrived at +nowadays by means of etching. The skin of coloured glass, in old days +laboriously ground or cut away, is now easily eaten off by fluoric +acid.) One other exceptional expedient in colouring had very +considerable effect upon the development of glass design from about the +beginning of the 14th century. The discovery that a solution of silver +applied to glass would under the action of the fire stain it yellow +enabled the glass painter to get yellow upon colourless glass, green +upon grey-blue, and (by staining only the abraded portions) yellow upon +blue or ruby. This yellow was neither enamel nor pot-metal colour, but +stain--the only staining actually done by the glass painter as distinct +from the glass maker. It varied in colour from pale lemon to deep +orange, and was singularly pure in quality. As what is called "white" +glass became purer and was employed in greater quantities it was +lavishly used; so much so that a brilliant effect of silvery white and +golden yellow is characteristic of later Gothic windows. + +The last stage of glass painting was the employment of enamel not for +stopping out light but to get colour. It began to be used in the early +part of the 16th century--at first only in the form of a flesh tint; but +it was not long before other colours were introduced. This use of colour +no longer _in_ the glass but _upon_ it marks quite a new departure in +technique. Enamel colour was finely powdered coloured glass mixed with +gum or some such substance into a pigment which could be applied with a +brush. When the glass painted with it was brought to a red heat in the +oven, the powdered glass melted and was fused to it, just like the +opaque brown employed from the very beginning of glass-painting. + +This process of enamelling was hardly called for in the interests of +art. Even the red flesh-colour (borrowed from the Limoges enamellers +upon copper) did not in the least give the quality of flesh, though it +enabled the painter to suggest by contrast the whiteness of a man's +beard. As for the brighter enamel colours, they had nothing like the +depth or richness of "stained" glass. What enamel really did was to make +easy much that had been impossible in mosaic, as, for example, to +represent upon the very smallest shield of arms any number of "charges" +all in the correct tinctures. It encouraged the minute workmanship +characteristic of Swiss glass painting; and, though this was not +altogether inappropriate to domestic window panes, the painter was +tempted by it to depart from the simplicity and breadth of design +inseparable from the earlier mosaic practice. In the end he introduced +coloured glass only where he could hardly help it, and glazed the great +part of his window in rectangular panes of clear glass, upon which he +preferred to paint his picture in opaque brown and translucent enamel +colours. + +Enamel upon glass has not stood the test of time. Its presence is +usually to be detected in old windows by specks of light shining through +the colour. This is where the enamel has crumbled off. There is a very +good reason for that. Enamel must melt at a temperature at which the +glass it is painted on keeps its shape. The lower the melting point of +the powdered glass the more easily it is fused. The painter is +consequently inclined to use enamel of which the contraction and +expansion is much greater than that of his glass--with the result that, +under the action of the weather, the colour is apt to work itself free +and expose the bare white glass beneath. The only enamel which has held +its own is that of the Swiss glass-painters of the 16th and 17th +centuries. The domestic window panes they painted may not in all cases +have been tried by the sudden changes of atmosphere to which church +windows are subject; but credit must be given them for exceptionally +skilful and conscientious workmanship. + +The story of stained glass is bound up with the history of architecture, +to which it was subsidiary, and of the church, which was its patron. Its +only possible course of development was in the wake of church building. +From its very inception it was Gothic and ecclesiastical. And, though it +survived the upheaval of the Renaissance and was turned to civil and +domestic use, it is to church windows that we must go to see what +stained glass really was--or is; for time has been kind to it. The charm +of medieval glass lies to a great extent in the material, and especially +in the inequality of it. Chemically impure and mechanically imperfect, +it was rarely crude in tint or even in texture. It shaded off from light +to dark according to its thickness; it was speckled with air bubbles; it +was streaked and clouded; and all these imperfections of manufacture +went to perfection of colour. And age has improved it: the want of +homogeneousness in the material has led to the disintegration of its +surface; soft particles in it have been dissolved away by the action of +the weather, and the surface, pitted like an oyster-shell, refracts the +light in a way which adds greatly to the effect; at the same time there +is roothold for the lichen which (like the curtains of black cobwebs) +veils and gives mystery to the colour. An appreciable part of the beauty +of old glass is the result of age and accident. In that respect no new +glass can compare with it. There is, however, no such thing as "the lost +secret" of glass-making. It is no secret that age mellows. + +Stained and painted glass is commonly apportioned to its "period," +Gothic or Renaissance, and further to the particular phase of the style +to which it belongs. C. Winston, who was the first to inquire thoroughly +into English glass, adopting T. Rickman's classification, divided Gothic +windows into Early English (to c. 1280), Decorated (to c. 1380) and +Perpendicular (to c. 1530). These dates will do. But the transition from +one phase of design to another is never so sudden, nor so easily +defined, as any table of dates would lead us to suppose. The old style +lingered in one district long after the new fashion was flourishing in +another. Besides, the English periods do not quite coincide with those +of other countries. France, Germany and the Low Countries count for much +in the history of stained glass; and in no two places was the pace of +progress quite the same. There was, for example, scarcely any +13th-century Gothic in Germany, where the "geometric" style, equivalent +to our Decorated, was preceded by the Romanesque period; in France the +Flamboyant took the place of our Perpendicular; and in Italy Gothic +never properly took root at all. All these considered, a rather rough +and ready division presents the least difficulty to the student of old +glass; and it will be found convenient to think of Gothic glass as (1) +Early, (2) Middle and (3) Late, and of the subsequent windows as (1) +Renaissance and (2) Late Renaissance. The three periods of Gothic +correspond approximately to the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The +limits of the two periods of the Renaissance are not so easily defined. +In the first part of the 16th century (in Italy long before that) the +Renaissance and Gothic periods overlapped; in the latter part of it, +glass painting was already on the decline; and in the 17th and 18th +centuries it sank to deeper depths of degradation. + +The likeness of early windows to translucent enamel (which is also +glass) is obvious. The lines of lead glazing correspond absolutely to +the "cloisons" of Byzantine goldsmith's work. Moreover, the extreme +minuteness of the leading (not always either mechanically necessary or +architecturally desirable) suggests that the starting point of all this +gorgeous illumination was the idea of reproducing on a grandiose scale +the jewelled effect produced in small by cloisonne enamellers. In other +respects the earliest glass shows the influence of Byzantine tradition. +It is mainly according to the more or less Byzantine character of its +design and draughtsmanship that archaeologists ascribe certain remains +of old glass to the 12th or the 11th century. Apart from documentary or +direct historic evidence, it is not possible to determine the precise +date of any particular fragment. In the "restored" windows at St Denis +there are remnants of glass belonging to the year 1108. Elsewhere in +France (Reims, Anger, Le Mans, Chartres, &c.) there is to be found very +early glass, some of it probably not much later than the end of the 10th +century, which is the date confidently ascribed to certain windows at St +Remi (Reims) and at Tegernsee. The rarer the specimen the greater may be +its technical and antiquarian interest. But, even if we could be quite +sure of its date, there is not enough of this very early work, and it +does not sufficiently distinguish itself from what followed, to count +artistically for much. The glory of early glass belongs to the 13th +century. + +The design of windows was influenced, of course, by the conditions of +the workshop, by the nature of glass, the difficulty of shaping it, the +way it could be painted, and the necessity of lead glazing. The place of +glass in the scheme of church decoration led to a certain severity in +the treatment of it. The growing desire to get more and more light into +the churches, and the consequent manufacture of purer and more +transparent glass, affected the glazier's colour scheme. For all that, +the fashion of a window was, _mutatis mutandis_, that of the painting, +carving, embroidery, goldsmith's work, enamel and other craftsmanship of +the period. The design of an ivory triptych is very much that of a +three-light window. There is a little enamelled shrine of German +workmanship in the Victoria and Albert Museum which might almost have +been designed for glass; and the famous painted ceiling at Hildesheim is +planned precisely on the lines of a medallion window of the 13th +century. By that time glass had fallen into ways of its own, and there +were already various types of design which we now recognize as +characteristic of the first great period, in some respects the greatest +of all. + +Pre-eminently typical of the first period is the "medallion window." +Glaziers began by naively accepting the iron bars across the light as +the basis of their composition, and planned a window as a series of +panels, one above the other, between the horizontal crossbars and the +upright lines of the border round it. The next step was to mitigate the +extreme severity of this composition by the introduction of a circular +or other medallion within the square boundary lines. Eventually these +were abandoned altogether, the iron bars were shaped according to the +pattern, and there was evolved the "medallion window," in which the main +divisions of the design are emphasized by the strong bands of iron round +them. Medallions were invariably devoted to picturing scenes from Bible +history or from the lives of the saints, set forth in the simplest and +most straightforward manner, the figures all on one plane, and as far as +possible clear-cut against a sapphire-blue or ruby-red ground. Scenery +was not so much depicted as suggested. An arch or two did duty for +architecture, any scrap of foliated ornament for landscape. Simplicity +of silhouette was absolutely essential to the readableness of pictures +on the small scale allowed by the medallion. As it is, they are so +difficult to decipher, so confused and broken in effect, as to give rise +(the radiating shape of "rose windows" aiding) to the misconception that +the design of early glass is kaleidoscopic--which it is not. The +intervals between subject medallions were filled in England (Canterbury) +with scrollwork, in France (Chartres) more often with geometric diaper, +in which last sometimes the red and blue merge into an unpleasant +purple. Design on this small scale was obviously unsuited to distant +windows. Clerestory lights were occupied by figures, sometimes on a +gigantic scale, entirely occupying the window, except for the border and +perhaps the slightest pretence of a niche. This arrangement lent itself +to broad effects of colour. The drawing may be rude; at times the +figures are grotesque; but the general impression is one of mysterious +grandeur and solemnity. + +The depth and intensity of colour in the windows so far described comes +chiefly from the quality of the glass, but partly also from the fact +that very little white or pale-coloured glass was used. It was not the +custom at this period to dilute the colour of a rich window with white. +If light was wanted they worked in white, enlivened, it might be, by +colour. Strictly speaking, 13th-century glass was never colourless, but +of a greenish tint, due to impurities in the sand, potash or other +ingredients; it was of a horny consistency, too; but it is convenient to +speak of all would-be-clear glass as "white." The greyish windows in +which it prevails are technically described as "in grisaille." There are +examples (Salisbury, Chalons, Bonlieu, Angers) of "plain glazing" in +grisaille, in which the lead lines make very ingenious and beautiful +pattern. In the more usual case of painted grisaille the lead lines +still formed the groundwork of the design, though supplemented by +foliated or other detail, boldly outlined in strong brown and emphasized +by a background of cross-hatching. French grisaille was frequently all +in white (Reims, St Jean-aux-Bois, Sens), English work was usually +enlivened by bands and bosses of colour (Salisbury); but the general +effect of the window was still grey and silvery, even though there might +be distributed about it (the "five sisters," York minster) a fair amount +of coloured glass. The use of grisaille is sufficiently accounted for by +considerations of economy and the desire to get light; but it was also +in some sort a protest (witness the Cistercian interdict of 1134) +against undue indulgence in the luxury of colour. At this stage of its +development it was confined strictly to patternwork; figure subjects +were always in colour. For all that, some of the most restful and +entirely satisfying work of the 13th century was in grisaille +(Salisbury, Chartres, Reims, &c.). + +The second or Middle period of Gothic glass marks a stage between the +work of the Early Gothic artist who thought out his design as glazing, +and that of the later draughtsman who conceived it as something to be +painted. It represents to many the period of greatest interest--probably +because of its departure from the severity of Early work. It was the +period of more naturalistic design; and a touch of nature is more easily +appreciated than architectural fitness. Middle Gothic glass, halting as +it does between the relatively rude mosaic of early times and the +painter-like accomplishment of fully-developed glass painting, has not +the salient merits of either. In the matter of tone also it is +intermediate between the deep, rich, sober harmonies of Early windows +and the lighter, brighter, gayer colouring of later glass. Now for the +first time grisaille ornament and coloured figurework were introduced +into the same window. And this was done in a very judicious way, in +alternate bands of white and deep rich colour, binding together the long +lights into which windows were by this time divided (chapter-house, York +minster). A similar horizontal tendency of design is noticeable in +windows in which the figures are enshrined under canopies, henceforth a +feature in glass design. The pinnaclework falls into pronounced bands of +brassy yellow between the tiers of figures (nave, York minster) and +serves to correct the vertical lines of the masonry. Canopywork grew +sometimes to such dimensions as quite to overpower the figure it was +supposed to frame; but, then, the sense of scale was never a directing +factor in Decorated design. A more interesting form of ornament is to be +found in Germany, where it was a pleasing custom (Regensburg) to fill +windows with conventional foliage without figurework. There is abundance +of Middle Gothic glass in England (York, Wells, Ely, Oxford), but the +best of it, such as the great East window at Gloucester cathedral, has +features more characteristic of the 15th than of the 14th century. + +The keynote of Late Gothic glass is brilliancy. It had a silvery +quality. The 15th century was the period of white glass, which +approached at last to colourlessness, and was employed in great +profusion. Canopywork, more universal than ever, was represented almost +entirely in white touched with yellow stain, but not in sufficient +quantities to impair its silveriness. Whatever the banality of the idea +of imitation stonework in glass, the effect of thus framing coloured +pictures in delicate white is admirable: at last we have white and +colour in perfect combination. Fifteenth-century figurework contains +usually a large proportion of white glass; flesh tint is represented by +white; there is white in the drapery; in short, there is always white +enough in the figures to connect them with the canopywork and make the +whole effect one. The preponderance of white will be better appreciated +when it is stated that very often not a fifth or sixth part of the glass +is coloured. It is no uncommon thing to find figures draped entirely in +white with only a little colour in the background; and figurework all in +grisaille upon a ground of white latticework is quite characteristic of +Perpendicular glass. + +One of the most typical forms of Late English Gothic canopy is where +(York minster) its slender pinnacles fill the upper part of the window, +and its solid base frames a picture in small of some episode in the +history of the personage depicted as large as life above. A much less +satisfactory continental practice was to enrich only the lower half of +the window with stained glass and to make shift above (Munich) with +"roundels" of plain white glass, the German equivalent for diamond +latticework. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + I. EARLY GLAZING. From S. Serge, Angers, Grisaille, with colour + introduced in the small circles. + + II. AN EARLY BORDER. From S. Kunibert, Cologne. + + III. PORTION OF AN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOW. From Canterbury, showing + the plan of the design and the ornamental details. + + IV. AN EARLY FIGUREJFROM LYONS. Showing the leading of the eyes, hair, + nimbus, and drapery. + + V. DECORATED LIGHTS. From S. Urbain, Troyes, showing both the + influence of the early period in the figures, and the beginning of the + architectural canopy. + + VI. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY. From Exeter. + + Nos. I., II., III., IV., VI. are taken from illustrations in Lewis F. + Day, _Windows_, by permission of B. T. Batsford.] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + I. A TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY (from Lewis F. Day, _Windows_, by + permission of B. T. Batsford). + + II. A WINDOW FROM AUCH. Illustrating the transition from Perpendicular + to Renaissance. + + III. A SIXTEENTH-CENTURY JESSE WINDOW. From Beauvais (source as in + Fig. I.). + + IV. PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW. From Montmorency, showing the + perfection of glass painting. + + From Lutien Magne, _Oeuvre des Peintres Verriers Francais_, by + permission of Firmin-Didot et C^ie.] + +A sign of later times is the way pictures spread beyond the confines of +a single light. This happened by degrees. At first the connexion between +the figures in separate window openings was only in idea, as when a +central figure of the crucified Christ was flanked by the Virgin and St +John in the side lights. Then the arms of the cross would be carried +through, or as it were behind, the mullions. The expansion to a picture +right across the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist +ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his +picture--that happened later on--but that he often composed it with such +cunning reference to intervening stonework that it did not interfere +with it. It has been argued that each separate light of a window ought +to be complete in itself. On the other hand it has proved possible to +make due acknowledgment of architectural conditions without cramping +design in that way. There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth +of treatment gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design. +And, when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window, and +no separate part of it, which is the main consideration. + +By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on an entirely +different method from that of the 13th century. The designer of early +days began with glazing: he thought in mosaic and leadwork; the lines he +first drew were the lines of glazing; painting was only a supplementary +process, enabling him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late +Gothic draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him +of secondary importance; he reached a stage (Creation window, Great +Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his design, and +then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that the leadwork (which +once boldly outlined everything) should not interfere with the picture. +The artful way in which he would introduce little bits of colour into a +window almost entirely white, makes it certain that he had always at the +back of his mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he +thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with glass +painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult, if not +impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting upon white +glass with the comparatively brutal strength of his lead lines. It is +here that the conditions of painting and glazing clash at last. + +It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never by any +chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal predilection +prevented anything like monotonous progress in a single direction. There +is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle Gothic glass as dense in colour as any +13th-century work, and Late Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its +colour, one might take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In +Italy (Florence) and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom +to make canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the +picture than a frame to it. But that was by exception. The tendency was +towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less deeply stained when +painters depended more upon their power of deepening it by paint. It was +the seeking after delicate effects of painting, quite as much as the +desire to let light into the church, which determined the tone of later +windows. The clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting. + +It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renaissance. +Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which crocketed canopywork +occurs are Gothic, and that those with arabesque are Renaissance. But +that is an arbitrary distinction, which does not really distinguish. +Some of the most beautiful work in glass, such for example as that at +Auch, is so plainly intermediate between two styles that it is +impossible to describe it as anything but "transitional." And, apart +from particular instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic +work to see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine +Renaissance glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of +workmanship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was Gothic +impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the summit of +accomplishment reached in the first half of the 16th century. When that +subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age at last prevailed, the +bright days of glass were at an end. If we have to refer to the early +Renaissance as the culminating period of glass painting, it is because +the technique of an earlier period found in it freer and fuller +expression. With the Renaissance, design broke free from the restraints +of tradition. + +An interesting development of Renaissance design was the framing of +pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament, scarcely architectural +enough to be called canopywork, and reminiscent rather of beaten +goldsmith's work than of stone carving. This did for the glass picture +what a gilt frame does for a painting in oil. Very often framework of +any kind was dispensed with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and +mullions as boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by +them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result was +delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for iron and +masonry do not effectively separate glass pictures. There was no longer +in late glass any pretence of preserving the plane of the window. It was +commonly designed to suggest that one saw out of it. Throughout the +period of the Renaissance, architectural and landscape backgrounds play +an important part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early +16th-century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of +distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue glass which +represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture were +commonly painted upon white (King's College, Cambridge). The landscape +effect was always happiest when one or other of these conventions was +adopted. Canopywork never went quite out of fashion. For a long while +the plan was still to frame coloured pictures in white. Theoretically +this is no less effectually to be done by Italian than by Gothic +shrinework. Practically the architectural setting assumed in the 16th +century more and more the aspect of background to the figures, and, in +order that it should take its place in the picture, they painted it so +heavily that it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley's +magnificent transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal +arch behind the kneeling donors and their patron saints (in late glass +donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells dark +against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the end of the +century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda, the very quality of +white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow. + +The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the first, was +kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration. Medallion subjects +were framed in ornament, standing figures in canopywork, and pictures +were conceived with regard to the window and its place in architecture. +Severity of treatment in design may have been due more to the +limitations of technique than to restraint on the part of the painter. +The point is that it led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute +reliance upon the depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all +the beautiful effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare +early mosaic with later painted glass; each was in its way admirable; +but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more +proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest measure +the glory of glass--for the loss of which no quality of painting ever +got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial effects compatible with +glass design are those which go with pure, brilliant and translucent +colour. The ideal of a "primitive" Italian painter was more or less to +be realized in glass: that of a Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing +what glass painters did in the way of light and shade. But the fact +remains that heavy painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in +opaque surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before +all things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the 17th +century fell short of the qualities on the one hand of glass and on the +other of painting. + +The course of glass painting was not so even as this general survey of +its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened here, impeded there, +by historic events. The art made a splendid start in France; but its +development was stayed by the disasters of war, just when in England it +was thriving under the Plantagenets. It revived again under Francis I. +In Germany it was with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire +that glass painting prospered. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under +the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction was +determined by civil and domestic instead of church patronage. In most +countries there were in different districts local schools of glass +painting, each with some character of its own. To what extent design was +affected by national temperament it is not easy to say. The marked +divergence of the Flemish from the French treatment of glass in the +16th century is not entirely due to a preference on the one part for +colour and on the other for light and shade, but is partly owing to the +circumstance that, whilst in France design remained in the hands of +craftsmen, whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was +entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned himself as +little as possible with a technique of which he knew nothing. If in +France we come also upon the names of well-known artists, they seem, +like Jean Cousin, to have been closely connected with glass painting: +they designed so like glass painters that they might have begun their +artistic career in the workshop. + +The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not be too +readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern times to father +whatever is noteworthy upon some great name, the masterpieces of +medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen. In Italy, where glass +painting was not much practised, and it seems to have been the custom +either to import glass painters as they were wanted or to get work done +abroad, it may well be that designs were supplied by artists more or +less distinguished. Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the +cartoons for the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any +sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely in +the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not connected +with glass design would go far to explain the great difference of +Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th-century work at +Assisi is more correctly described as "Trecento" than as Gothic, and the +"Quattrocento" windows at Florence are as different as could be from +Perpendicular work. One compares them instinctively with Italian +paintings, not with glass elsewhere. And so with the 15th-century +Italian glass. The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles +at Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible +short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according to +contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian influence may be +traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona, Burgos, Granada, Leon, +Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to have been executed in France. If +so it must have been done to Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of +the design, the strength of the colour, the general robustness of the +art, are characteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the +Pyrenees do we find detail on a scale so enormous. + +We have passed by, in following the progressive course of craftsmanship, +some forms of design, peculiar to no one period but very characteristic +of glass. The "quarry window," barely referred to, its diamond-shaped or +oblong panes painted, richly bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured +ornament often heraldic, is of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too, +were from first to last given up to heraldry. The "Jesse window" occurs +in every style. According to the fashion of the time the "Stem of Jesse" +burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches or arbitrary +scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the scope it gave for freedom +of design. He found vent, again, for fantastic imagination in the +representation of the "Last Judgment," to which the west window was +commonly devoted. And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but +this is not the place to dwell upon them. + +The glass of the 17th century does not count for much. Some of the best +in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family (Wadham and Balliol +Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting came to in the 18th century is +nowhere better to be seen than in the great west window of the +ante-chapel at New College, Oxford. That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and +the best china painter of his day could do between them. The very idea +of employing a china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass +painter had died out. + +It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the 19th century; and +the Gothic revival determined the direction modern glass should take. +Early Victorian doings are interesting only as marking the steps of +recovery (cf. the work of T. Willement in the choir of the Temple +church; of Ward and Nixon, lately removed from the south transept of +Westminster Abbey; of Wailes). Better things begin with the windows at +Westminster inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable +influence over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was an +able artist content to walk, even after that master's death, reverently +in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose _Hints on Glass Painting_ was +the first real contribution towards the understanding of Gothic glass, +and who, by the aid of the Powells (of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting +something very like the texture and colour of old glass, was more +learned in ancient ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art +resulting from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow +cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window entrusted +by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown or +E. Burne-Jones, glass, from the beginning of its recovery, fell into the +hands of men with a strong bias towards archaeology. The architects +foremost in the Gothic revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E. +Street, &c.) were all inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of +commissions for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters. +Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeological +manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly as it may have +been, they made mock-medieval windows, the interest in which died with +the popular illusion about a Gothic revival. But they knew their trade; +and when an artist like John Clayton (master of a whole school of later +glass painters) took a window in hand (St Augustine's, Kilburn; Truro +cathedral; King's College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of +art from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather what +such men might have done had they been left free to follow their own +artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because it is +generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is due to the +romantic movement. The charms of Burne-Jones's design and of William +Morris's colour, place the windows done by them among the triumphs of +modern decorative art; but Morris was neither foremost in the reaction, +nor quite such a master of the material he was working in as he showed +himself in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in +connexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J. +Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger generation of able +men. + +Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just appreciation +of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of their day were enlisted for +its design. In Germany, King Louis of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius +and W. von Kaulbach (Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the +Bourbons employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vernet and J. H. +Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was entrusted to +the most expert painters to be procured at Munich and Sevres; but all to +little effect. They either used pot-metal glass of poor quality, or +relied upon enamel--with the result that their colour lacks the +qualities of glass. Where it is not heavy with paint it is thin and +crude. In Belgium happier results were obtained. In the chapel of the +Holy Sacrament at Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not +unworthy of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the +best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality of +glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows than English +designers of the mid-Victorian era, and painted them better; but they +missed the glory of translucent colour. + +Modern facilities of manufacture make possible many things which were +hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are richer; their range is +extended; and it may be possible, with the improved kilns and greater +chemical knowledge we possess, to make them hold permanently fast. It +was years ago demonstrated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in +colours upon a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2-1/2 ft. We are +now no doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger +sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they are, +hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so costly, so +fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the one hand and of +glass on the other. + +In America, John la Farge, finding European material not dense enough, +produced pot-metal more heavily charged with colour. This was wilfully +streaked, mottled and quasi-accidentally varied; some of it was +opalescent; much of it was more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other +forms of American enterprise were: the making of glass in lumps, to be +chipped into flakes; the ruckling it; the shaping it in a molten state, +or the pulling it out of shape. It takes an artist of some reserve to +make judicious use of glass like this. La Farge and L. C. Tiffany have +turned it to beautiful account; but even they have put it to purposes +more pictorial than it can properly fulfil. The design it calls for is a +severely abstract form of ornament verging upon the barbaric. + + _Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass._ + + There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France--at Le Mans, + Chartres, Chalons-sur-Marne, Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey + church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England--at York minster + (fragments): in Germany--at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in + Austria--in the cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz. + + The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic + and important windows, omitting for the most part isolated examples, + and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair + amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art + throve best is put first. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + EARLY GOTHIC + + _France._ _England._ + + Chartres \ Canterbury \ + Le Mans | Salisbury > cathedrals. + Bourges > cathedrals. Lincoln / + Reims | York minster. + Auxerre / + Ste Chapelle, Paris. + Church of St Jean-aux-Bois. + + _Germany._ + + Church of St Kunibert, Cologne (Romanesque). + Cologne cathedral. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + MIDDLE GOTHIC + + _England._ _Germany._ + + York minster. Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg. + Ely cathedral. Strassburg \ + Wells cathedral. Regensburg | + Tewkesbury abbey. Augsburg > cathedrals. + Erfurt | + Freiburg / + Church of Nieder Haslach. + + _France._ _Italy._ + + Evreux cathedral. Church of St Francis, Assisi. + Church of St Pierre, Chartres. Church of Or San Michele, + Cathedral and church of St Urbain, Florence. + Troyes. Church of S. Petronio, Bologna. + Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers. + Cathedral and church of St Ouen, Rouen. + + _Spain._ + + Toledo cathedral. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + LATE GOTHIC + + _England._ _France._ + + New College, Oxford. Bourges \ cathedrals. + Gloucester cathedral. Troyes / + York, minster and other churches. Church of Notre Dame, Alencon. + Great Malvern abbey. + Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury. + Fairford church. + + _Italy._ _Germany._ + + The Duomo, Florence. Cologne \ + Ulm > cathedrals. + _Spain._ Munich / + Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg. + Toledo cathedral. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + TRANSITION PERIOD + + The choir of the cathedral at Auch. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + RENAISSANCE + + _France._ _Netherlands._ + + St Vincent \ Brussels cathedral. + St Patrice > Rouen. Church of St Jacques \ + St Godard / Church of St Martin > Liege. + Church of St Foy, Conches. Cathedral / + Church of St Gervais, Paris. + Church of St Etienne-du-Mont, Paris. _Switzerland._ + Church of St Martin, Montmorency. + Church of Ecouen. Lucerne and most of the other + Church of St Etienne, Beauvais. principal museums. + Church of St Nizier, Troyes. + Church of Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse. + The Chateau de Chantilly. + + _Italy._ _England._ + + Arezzo \ cathedrals. King's College chapel, Cambridge. + Milan / Lichfield cathedral. + Certosa di Pavia. St George's church, Hanover Square, + Church of S. Petronio, Bologna. London. + Church of Sta Maria Novella, St Margaret's church, Westminster. + Florence. + + _Germany._ _Spain._ + + Freiburg cathedral. Granada \ cathedrals. + Seville / + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + LATE RENAISSANCE + + _Netherlands._ _France._ + + Groote Kirk, Gouda. Church of St Martin-es-Vignes, Troyes. + Choir of Brussels cathedral. Nave and transepts of Auch cathedral. + Antwerp cathedral. + + _England._ _Switzerland._ + + Wadham \ Most museums. + Balliol > colleges, Oxford. + New / + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Of late years each country has been learning so much from the others +that the newest effort is very much in one direction. It seems to be +agreed that the art of the window-maker begins with glazing, that the +all-needful thing is beautiful glass, that painting may be reduced to a +minimum, and on occasion (thanks to new developments in the making of +glass) dispensed with altogether. A tendency has developed itself in the +direction not merely of mosaic, but of carrying the glazier's art +farther than has been done before and rendering landscapes and even +figure subjects in unpainted glass. When, however, it comes to the +representation of the human face, the limitations of simple lead-glazing +are at once apparent. A possible way out of the difficulty was shown at +the Paris Exhibition of 1900 by M. Tournel, who, by fusing together +coloured tesserae on to larger pieces of colourless glass, anticipated +the discovery of the already mentioned fragment of Byzantine mosaic now +in the Victoria and Albert Museum. He may have seen or heard Of +something of the sort. There would be no advantage in building up whole +windows in this way; but for the rendering of the flesh and sundry +minute details in a window for the most part heavily leaded, this fusing +together of tesserae, and even of little pieces of glass cut carefully +to shape, seems to supply the want of something more in keeping with +severe mosaic glazing than painted flesh proves to be. + +Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly. They are +no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work; domestic glass +is an important industry; and a workman once comparatively exempt from +pedantic control is not so easily restrained from self-expression. +Moreover, the recognition of the artistic position of craftsmen in +general makes it possible for a man to devote himself to glass without +sinking to the rank of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the +scope glass offers them. What they lack as yet is experience in their +craft, and perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of +workmanship. When the old methods come to be superseded it will be only +by new ones evolved out of them. At present the conditions of glass +painting remain very much what they were. The supreme beauty of glass is +still in the purity, the brilliancy, the translucency of its colour. To +make the most of this the designer must be master of his trade. The test +of window design is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose +and everything to gain by execution in stained glass. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Theophilus, _Arts of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1847); + Charles Winston, _An Inquiry into the Difference of Style observable + in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England_ (Oxford, 1847), and + _Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting_ (London, 1865); N. + H. J. Westlake, _A History of Design in Painted Glass_ (4 vols., + London, 1881-1894); L. F. Day, _Windows, A Book about Stained and + Painted Glass_ (London, 1909), and _Stained Glass_ (London, 1903); A. + W. Franks, _A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries_ (London, 1849); _A + Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving for Glasiers_ (London, + 1615, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce, _The Fairford Windows_ (coloured + plates) (London, 1870); _Divers Works of Early Masters in + Ecclesiastical Decoration_, edited by John Weale (2 vols., London, + 1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre + d'apres ses monuments en France_ (2 vols., Paris, 1852), and _Quelques + mots sur la theorie de la peinture sur verre_ (Paris, 1853); L. Magne, + _Oeuvre des peintres verriers francais_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885); + Viollet le Duc, "Vitrail," vol. ix. of the _Dictionnaire raisonne de + l'architecture_ (Paris, 1868); O. Merson, "Les Vitraux," _Bibliotheque + de l'enseignement des beaux-arts_ (Paris, 1895); E. Levy and J. B. + Capronnier, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre_ (coloured plates) + (Brussels, 1860); Ottin, _Le Vitrail, son histoire a travers les ages_ + (Paris); Pierre le Vieil, _L'Art de la peinture sur verre et de la + vitrerie_ (Paris, 1774); C. Cahier and A. Martin, _Vitraux peints de + Bourges du XIII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and + A. Guitard, _Vitraux du XIII^e siecle de la cathedrale de Bourges_ + (Bourges, 1900): M. A. Gessert, _Geschichte der Glasmalerei in + Deutschland und den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, &c., von ihrem + Ursprung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Tubingen and Stuttgart, 1839; also + an English translation, London, 1851); F. Geiges, _Der alte + Fensterschmuck des Freiburger Munsters_, 5 parts (Freiburg im + Breisgau, 1902, &c.); A. Hafner, _Chefs-d'oeuvre de la peinture suisse + sur verre_ (Berlin). (L. F. D.) + + + + +GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist and satirist, was born +at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810. After being for a short time in a +merchant's office, he took to journalism, and in 1831 edited _Don +Quixote_, a periodical which was suppressed in 1833 owing to its +revolutionary tendencies. He next, under the pseudonym _Adolf +Brennglas_, published a series of pictures of Berlin life, under the +titles _Berlin wie es ist und--trinkt_ (30 parts, with illustrations, +1833-1849), and _Buntes Berlin_ (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin, +1837-1858), and thus became the founder of a popular satirical +literature associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress +Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year to +Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at the Grand +ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the political arena and +became the leader of the democratic party in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. +Expelled from that country in 1850, he settled in Hamburg, where he +remained until 1858; and then he became editor of the _Montagszeitung_ +in Berlin, where he died on the 25th of September 1876. + + Among Glassbrenner's other humorous and satirical writings may be + mentioned: _Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt_ (1834); _Bilder und + Traume aus Wien_ (2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870); the + comic epics, _Neuer Reineke Fuchs_ (1846, 4th ed. 1870) and _Die + verkehrte Welt_ (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also _Berliner Volksleben_ (3 + vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has published + some charming books for children, notably _Lachende Kinder_ (14th ed., + 1884), and _Sprechende Tiere_ (20th ed., Hamburg, 1899). + + See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, "Adolf Glassbrenner," in _Unsere Zeit_ (1881). + + + + +GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates the use for +which it was originally intended. The cloths are in general woven with +the plain weave, and the fabric may be all white, striped or cheeked +with red, blue or other coloured threads; the checked cloths are the +most common. The real article should be all linen, but a large quantity +is made with cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are +composed entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are +easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satisfactory +for the purpose for which they are intended. + + + + +GLASSIUS, SALOMO (1593-1656), theologian and biblical critic, was born +at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on +the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he entered the university of Jena. In +1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In +consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena after a year. +Here, as a student of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his +attention especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was +made an "adjunctus" of the philosophical faculty, and some time +afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of Hebrew. From 1625 +to 1638 he was superintendent in Sondershausen; but shortly after the +death of Gerhard (1637) he was, in accordance with Gerhard's last wish, +appointed to succeed him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest +invitation of Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court +preacher and general superintendent in the execution of important +reforms which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational +establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to this office +he discharged with tact and energy; and in the "syncretistic" +controversy, by which Protestant Germany was so long vexed, he showed an +unusual combination of firmness with liberality, of loyalty to the past +with a just regard to the demands of the present and the future. He died +on the 27th of July 1656. + + His principal work, _Philologia sacra_ (1623), marks the transition + from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of + the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his + lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A. + Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded + Gerhard as editor of the Weimar _Bibelwerk_, and wrote the commentary + on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A + volume of his _Opuscula_ was printed at Leiden in 1700. + + See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. + + + + +GLASSWORT, a name given to _Salicornia herbacea_ (also known as marsh +samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent, jointed, leafless stems, in +reference to its former use in glass-making, when it was burnt for +barilla. _Salsola Kali_, an allied plant with rigid, fleshy, +spinous-pointed leaves, which was used for the same purpose, was known +as prickly glasswort. Both plants are members of the natural order +Chenopodiaceae. + + + + +GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern +parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the main road from +London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by the Somerset & Dorset railway. +Pop. (1901) 4016. The town lies in the midst of orchards and +water-meadows, reclaimed from the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor, +a conical height once an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a +peninsula washed on three sides by the river Brue. + +The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are fragmentary, +and as the work of destruction has in many places descended to the very +foundations it is impossible to make out the details of the plan. Of the +vast range of buildings for the accommodation of the monks hardly any +part remains except the abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal +interior (the exterior plan being square, with the four corners filled +in with fireplaces and chimneys), the porter's lodge and the abbey barn. +Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St Joseph +at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady chapel, +occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel, which is the +finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the 12th century. It +measures about 66 ft. from east to west and about 36 from north to +south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the 15th century inserted beneath +a building which had no previous crypt. Between the chapel and the great +church is an Early English building which appears to have served as a +Galilee porch. The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir, +nave and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection. +From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the nave was +about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six. Of the nave three +bays of the south side are still standing, and the windows have pointed +arches externally and semicircular arches internally. Two of the tower +piers and a part of one arch give some indication of the grandeur of the +building. The foundations of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make +the whole church the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the +country. The old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury +(1322-1335), and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the +hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells cathedral, but +is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum. + +The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by Joseph of +Arimathea, has been the object of considerable comment. It is said to be +a distinct variety, flowering twice a year. The actual thorn visited by +the pilgrims was destroyed about the Reformation time, but specimens of +the same variety are still extant in various parts of the country. + +The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St John +Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some 15th-century +monuments; St Benedict's, dating from 1493-1524; St John's hospital, +founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in the time of Henry VII. or +VIII. The present stone cross replaced a far finer one of great age, +which had fallen into decay. The Antiquarian Museum contains an +excellent collection, including remains from a prehistoric village of +the marshes, discovered in 1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a +space of five acres. There is a Roman Catholic missionaries' college. In +the 16th century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of +Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th century. +Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of boots and sheep-skin +rugs are practised. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 5000 acres. + +The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a Celtic +settlement about 300-200 B.C. on an island in the midst of swamps, and +therefore easily defensible. British earthworks and Roman roads and +relics prove later occupation. The name of Glastonbury, however, is of +much later origin, being a corruption of the Saxon _Glaestyngabyrig_. By +the Britons the spot seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized +as Avallonia) or Ynysvitrin (see AVALON), and it became the local +habitation of various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the +legends which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of +Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of Arimathea +as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to Britain from Gaul by +St Philip. About a hundred years later, according to the same +authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus and Deruvianus, who came to +king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius, established a fraternity of +anchorites on the spot, and after three hundred years more St Patrick +introduced among them a regular monastic life. The British monastery +founded about 601 was succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708. +From the decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the Danish +invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been educated within its +walls and was appointed its abbot about 946. The church and other +buildings of his erection remained till the installation, in 1082, of +the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated the new epoch by commencing a +new church. His successor Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down +to make way for a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added +greatly to the extent of the monastery. In 1184 (on 25th May) the whole +of the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England, +in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain +Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be carried out +with much magnificence. The great church of which the ruins still remain +was then erected. In the end of the 12th century, and on into the +following, Glastonbury was distracted by a strange dispute, caused by +the attempt of Savaric, the ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself +master of the abbey. The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent +III., that the abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and +Glastonbury, and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On +Savaric's death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and allowed +the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the Reformation +the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys in England, continued +to flourish, the chief events in its history being connected with the +maintenance of its claims to the possession of the bodies or tombs of +King Arthur and St Dunstan. From early times through the middle ages it +was a place of pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the +11th century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury appears +to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II., according to +Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de Blois, causing search +to be made, discovered at the depth of 16 ft. a massive oak trunk with +an inscription "Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus in insula +Avalonia." After the fire of 1184 the monks asserted that they were in +possession of the remains of St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from +Canterbury after the Danish sack of 1011 and kept in concealment ever +since. The Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the +contest continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having +examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the +principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in reply as +stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day of such disputes +was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the last and 60th abbot of +Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was lodged in the Tower on account of +"divers and sundry treasons." "The 'account' or 'book' of his treasons +... seems to be lost, and the nature of the charges ... can only be a +matter of speculation" (Gairdner, _Cal. Pap._ on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii. +_pref._ xxxii). He was removed to Wells, where he was "arraigned and +next day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church." The +execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was quartered and his +head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker passage does not occur in the +annals of the English Reformation than this murder of an able and +high-spirited man, whose worst offence was that he defended as best he +could from the hand of the spoiler the property in his charge. + +In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings, which +had been in private hands since the granting of the estate to Sir Peter +Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr Ernest Jardine for the +purpose of transferring it to the Church of England. Bishop Kennion of +Bath and Wells entered into an agreement to raise a sum of L31,000, the +cost of the purchase; this was completed, and the site and buildings +were formally transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the +Diocesan Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the +property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for the +appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the archbishop of +Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four other bishops, each +with power to nominate one clerical and one lay member. The council has +the duty of deciding the purpose for which the property is to be used +"in connexion with and for the benefit of the Church of England." To +give time for further collection of funds and deliberation, the property +was re-let for five years to the original purchaser. + +In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned by the abbey, +which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution. The abbey obtained +charters in the 7th century, but the town received its first charter +from Henry II., who exempted the men of Glastonbury from the +jurisdiction of royal officials and freed them from certain tolls. This +was confirmed by Henry III. in 1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward II. +in 1313 and by Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne +in 1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835. In 1319 +Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament, but made no +return, and has not since been represented. A fair on the 8th of +September was granted in 1127; another on the 29th of May was held under +a charter of 1282. Fairs known as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now +held on the second Mondays in September and October and are chiefly +important for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other +Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its medieval +importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the Dissolution the +introduction of woollen manufacture checked the decay of the town. The +cloth trade flourished for a century and was replaced by silk-weaving, +stocking-knitting and glove-making, all of which have died out. + + See Abbot Gasquet. _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (1906), + and _The Last Abbot of Glastonbury_ (1895 and 1908); William of + Malmesbury, "De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae," in _Rerum Anglicarum + script. vet._ tom. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Migne); John + of Glastonbury, _Chronica sive de hist. de rebus Glast._, ed. by + Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham, _De rebus gestis + Glast._, ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727); _Hist. and Antiq. of + Glast._ (London, 1807); _Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury_ + (8th ed., 1839); Warner, _Hist. of the Abbey and Town_ (Bath, 1826); + Rev. F. Warre, "Glastonbury Abbey," in _Proc. of Somersetshire_ + _Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc._, 1849; Rev. F. Warre, "Notice of + Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey," ib. 1859; Rev. W. A. Jones, "On the + Reputed Discovery of King Arthur's Remains at Glastonbury," ib. 1859; + Rev. J. R. Green, "Dunstan at Glastonbury" and "Giso and Savaric," ib. + 1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, "Savaric, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury," + ib. 1862, 1863; E. A. Freeman, "King Ine," ib. 1872 and 1874; Dr W. + Beattie, in _Journ. of Brit. Archaeol. Ass._ vol. xii., 1856; Rev. R. + Willis, _Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1866); W. H. P. + Greswell, _Chapters on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1909); + Views and plans of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale's + _Monasticon_ (1655); Stevens's _Monasticon_ (1720); Stukeley, + _Itinerarium curiosum_ (1724); Grose, _Antiquities_ (1754); Carter, + _Ancient Architecture_ (1800); Storer, _Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet_, + ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton's _Architectural Antiquities_, iv. + (1813); _Vetusta monumenta_, iv. (1815); and _New Monasticon_, i. + (1817). + + + + +GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE (1830-1873), French poet, was born at +Lillebonne (Seine Inferieure) on the 21st of May 1839. His father, who +was a carpenter and afterwards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bernay, +where Albert received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school +he was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he produced a +three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a travelling company +of actors to whom he acted as prompter. Inspired primarily by the study +of Theodore de Banville, he published his _Vignes folles_ in 1857; his +best collection of lyrics, _Les Fleches d'or_, appeared in 1864; and a +third volume, _Gilles et pasquins_, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in +Paris he improvised at cafe concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On +an expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one +occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being mistaken by +the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage with Emma Dennie +brought him great happiness, but the hardships of his life weakened his +health and he died at Sevres on the 16th of April 1873. + + See Catulle Mendes, _Legende du Parnasse contemporain_ (1884), and + _Glatigny, drame funambulesque_ (1906). + + + + +GLATZ (Slav. _Kladsko_), a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank of the Neisse, +not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W. from Breslau by rail. +Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its narrow streets winds up the +fortified hill which is crowned by the old citadel. Across the river, on +the Schaferberg, lies a more modern fortress built by the Prussians +about 1750. Before the town on both banks of the river there is a +fortified camp by which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be +hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. The inner +ceinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is now occupied by +new streets. There are a Lutheran and two Roman Catholic churches, one +of which, the parish church, contains the monuments of seven Silesian +dukes. Among the other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic +gymnasium and the military hospital. The industries include machine +shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask, cloth, +hosiery, beads and leather. + +Glatz existed as early as the 10th century, and received German settlers +about 1250. It was besieged several times during the Thirty Years' War +and during the Seven Years' War and came into the possession of Prussia +in 1742. In 1821 and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods. +The county of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland and +of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, and in 1534 +was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it was taken by Frederick +the Great during his attack on Silesia. + + See Ludwig, _Die Grafschaft Glatz in Wort und Bild_ (Breslau, 1897); + Kutzen, _Die Grafschaft Glatz_ (Glogau, 1873); and _Geschichtsquellen + der Grafschaft Glatz_, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891). + + + + +GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668), German chemist, was born at +Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam in 1668. Little more +is known of his life than that he resided successively in Vienna, +Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before settling in Holland, where he +made his living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal +preparations. Though his writings abound in universal solvents and other +devices of the alchemists, he made some real contributions to chemical +knowledge. Thus he clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric +acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold +virtues of sodium sulphate--_sal mirabile_, Glauber's salt--formed in +the process being one of the chief themes of his _Miraculum mundi_; and +he noticed that nitric acid was formed when nitre was substituted for +the common salt. Further he prepared a large number of substances, +including the chlorides and other salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc, +copper, antimony and arsenic, and he even noted some of the phenomena of +double decomposition. He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to +practical account, whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering +industrial arts such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the +soil by artificial manures. One of his most notable works was his +_Teutschlands Wohlfarth_ in which he urged that the natural resources of +Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and gave +various instances of how this might be done. + + His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published at + Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English + translation by Packe, at London in 1689. + + + + +GLAUBER'S SALT, decahydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4, 10H2O. It is said +by J. Kunkel to have been known as an _arcanum_ or secret medicine to +the electoral house of Saxony in the middle of the 16th century, but it +was first described by J. R. Glauber (_De natura salium_, 1658), who +prepared it by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common +salt, and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed it _sal +mirabile Glauberi_. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which +crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of the +world, as in Spain, the western states of North America and the Russian +Caucasus; in the last-named region, about 25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a +thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft. below the surface, and at +Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds the waters of which are an almost +pure solution. The substance is the active principle of many mineral +waters, e.g. Frederickshall; it occurs in sea-water and it is a constant +constituent of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it +constitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na2SO4.CaSO4, which +assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and occurs in Spain and +Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not acrid taste. At ordinary +temperatures it crystallizes from aqueous solutions in large colourless +monoclinic prisms, which effloresce in dry air, and at 35 deg.C. melt in +their water of crystallization. At 100 deg. they lose all their water, +and on further heating fuse at 843 deg. Its maximum solubility in water +is at 34 deg.; above that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution +as a decahydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of +which decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber's salt readily forms +supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place suddenly +when a crystal of the salt is thrown in; the same effect is obtained by +exposure to the air or by touching the solution with a glass rod. In +medicine it is employed as an aperient, and is one of the safest and +most innocuous known. For children it may be mixed with common salt and +the two be used with the food without the child being conscious of any +difference. Its simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it +suitable for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to +take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium phosphate +may be substituted. + + + + +GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the right bank +of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. +(1875) 21,743; (1905) 24,556. It has important manufactures of woollen +and half-woollen goods, in regard to which it occupies a high position +in Germany. There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories of +paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a high grade +school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an orphanage and an +infirmary. Some portions of the extensive old castle date from the 12th +century, and the Gottesacker church contains interesting antiquarian +relics. Glauchau was founded by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and +belonged to the lords of Schonburg as early as the 12th century. + + See R. Hofmann, _Ruckblick uber die Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau_ + (1897). + + + + + +GLAUCONITE, a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a hydrous +silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the green sands +and muds which are gathering at the present time on the sea bottom at +many different places. The wide extension of these sands and muds was +first made known by the naturalists of the "Challenger," and it is now +found that they occur in the Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean, +but they have not been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water +lakes. These deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of +terrigenous origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the +continents, transported by marine currents. The greater part of the mass +consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar (often +labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which is +probably always derived from shells or other organic sources. Many +accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have been identified +also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic minerals occur in +varying proportion as in all the sediments of the open sea. The depth in +which they accumulate varies a good deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000 +fathoms, but as a rule is less than 1000 fathoms, and it is believed +that the most common situations are where the continental shores slope +rather steeply into moderate depths of water. Many of the blue muds, +which owe their colour to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain +also a small quantity of glauconite; in Globigerina oozes this substance +has also been found, and in fact there exists every gradation between +the glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which are +found at similar depths. + +The colouring matter is believed in every case to be glauconite. Other +ingredients, such as lime, alumina and magnesia are usually shown to be +present by the analyses, but may perhaps be regarded as non-essential: +it is impossible to isolate this substance in a pure state as it occurs +only in fine aggregates, mixed with other minerals. The glauconite, +though crystalline, never occurs well crystallized but only as dense +clusters of very minute particles which react feebly on polarized light. +They have one well-marked characteristic inasmuch as they often form +rounded lumps. In many cases it is certain that these are casts, which +fill up the interior of empty shells of Foraminifera. They may be seen +occupying these shells, and when the shell is dissolved away perfect +casts of glauconite are set free. Apparently in some manner not +understood, the decaying organic matter in the shell of the dead +organism initiated or favoured the chemical reactions by which the +glauconite was formed. That the mineral originated on the sea bottom +among the sand and mud is quite certainly established by these facts; +moreover, since it is so soft and friable that it is easily powdered up +by pressure with the fingers, it cannot have been transported from any +great distance by currents. Small rounded glauconite lumps, which are +common on the sands but show no trace of having filled the chambers of +Foraminifera, may have arisen by a re-deposit of broken-down casts such +as have been described; probably slight movement of the deposits, +occasioned by currents, may have broken up the glauconite casts and +scattered the soft material through the water. Films or stains of +glauconite on shells, sand grains and phosphate nodules are explained by +a similar deposit of fragmental glauconite. + +In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs as an +essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of Holland, the +Eocene sands of Paris and the "Molasse" of Switzerland, but is much more +abundant in the Lower Cretaceous rocks of N. Europe, especially in the +subdivision known as the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those +of the green sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, and +it is obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the same. +The green sand when weathered is brown or rusty coloured, the glauconite +being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous sands or impure limestones with +glauconite are also by no means rare, an example being the well-known +Kentish Rag. In the Chalk-rock and Chalk-marl of some parts of England +glauconite is rather frequent, and glauconitic chalk is known also in +the north of France. Among the oldest rocks which contain this mineral +are the Lower Silurian of the St Petersburg district, but it is very +rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it undergoes +crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized and converted into +other ferruginous minerals. It has been suggested that certain deposits +of iron ores may owe their origin to deposits of glauconite, as for +example those of the Mesabi range, Minnesota, U.S.A. (J. S. F.) + + + + +GLAUCOUS (Gr. [Greek: glaukos], bright, gleaming), a word meaning of a +sea-green colour, in botany covered with bloom, like a plum or a +cabbage-leaf. + + + + +GLAUCUS ("bright"), the name of several figures in Greek mythology, the +most important of which are the following: + +1. GLAUCUS, surnamed _Pontius_, a sea divinity. Originally a fisherman +and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten of a certain magical herb +sown by Cronus, he leapt into the sea, where he was changed into a god, +and endowed with the gift of unerring prophecy. According to others he +sprang into the sea for love of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was +often identified (Athenaeus vii. 296). He was worshipped not only at +Anthedon, but on the coasts of Greece, Sicily and Spain, where fishermen +and sailors at certain seasons watched for his arrival during the night +in order to consult him (Pausanias ix. 22). In art he is depicted as a +vigorous old man with long hair and beard, his body terminating in a +scaly tail, his breast covered with shells and seaweed. He was said to +have been the builder and pilot of the Argo, and to have been changed +into a god after the fight between the Argonauts and Tyrrhenians. He +assisted the expedition in various ways (Athenaeus, loc. cit.; see also +Ovid, _Metam._ xiii. 904). Glaucus was the subject of a satyric drama by +Aeschylus. He was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla +and Circe. + + See the exhaustive monograph by R. Gaedechens, _Glaukos der Meergott_ + (1860), and article by the same in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; + and for Glaucus and Scylla, E. Vinet in _Annali dell' Instituto di + Correspondenza archeologica_, xv. (1843). + +2. GLAUCUS, usually surnamed _Potnieus_, from Potniae near Thebes, son +of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. According to the legend +he was torn to pieces by his own mares (Virgil, _Georgics_, iii. 267; +Hyginus, _Fab._ 250, 273). On the isthmus of Corinth, and also at +Olympia and Nemea, he was worshipped as Taraxippus ("terrifier of +horses"), his ghost being said to appear and frighten the horses at the +games (Pausanias vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the +frantic horses of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the +other the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost +drama of Aeschylus. + +3. GLAUCUS, the son of Minos and Pasiphae. When a child, while playing +at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of honey and was +smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the +oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest +comparison for one of the cows of Minos which had the power of assuming +three different colours. Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a +mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to +black, soon afterwards discovered the child; but on his confessing his +inability to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the +corpse. Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, which +laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus brought the +dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, he owed his recovery to +Aesculapius. The story was the subject of plays by the three great Greek +tragedians, and was often represented in mimic dances. + + See Hyginus, _Fab._ 136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. Hock, _Kreta_, + iii. 1829; C. Eckermann, _Melampus_, 1840. + +4. GLAUCUS, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, mythical +progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian prince who, along with +his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in the Trojan War. When he found +himself opposed to Diomedes, with whom he was connected by ties of +hospitality, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. Since the +equipment of Glaucus was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the +expression "golden for brazen" (_Iliad_, vi. 236) came to be used +proverbially for a bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax. + + All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and + Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_. + + + + + +GLAZING.--The business of the glazier may be confined to the mere +fitting and setting of glass (q.v.), even the cutting up of the plates +into squares being generally an independent art, requiring a degree of +tact and judgment not necessarily possessed by the building artificer. +The tools generally used by the glazier are the diamond for cutting, +laths or straight edges, tee square, measuring rule, glazing knife, +hacking knife and hammer, duster, sash tool, two-foot rule and a +glazier's cradle for carrying the glass. Glaziers' materials are glass, +putty, priming or paint, springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door +panels, size, black. The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut +to the sizes required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is +made of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs of +1/2 or 1 cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over, and when +found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil should be put on it to +keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of paint with a small amount of +red lead in it. In the majority of cases after the sashes for the +windows are fitted they are sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed, +and then returned to the job and hung in their proper positions. When +priming sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed, +else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted requires +before being primed to have the knots coated with knotting. When the +priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted into its place; each pane +should fit easily with about 1/16th in. play all round. The glazier runs +the putty round the rebates with his hands, and then beds the glass in +it, pushing it down tight, and then further secures it by knocking in +small nails, called glaziers' sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims +up the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on the +rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash is then ready +for painting. Large squares and plate glass are usually inserted when +the sashes are hung to avoid risks of breakage. For inside work the +panes of glass are generally secured with beads (not with putty), and in +the best work these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow +of easy removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint, &c. +In the case of glass in door panels where there is much vibration and +slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather or india-rubber and +secured with beads as before mentioned. + + + Varieties of glass. + +The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet in varying +thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq. ft. This can be +had in several qualities of English or foreign manufacture. But there +are many other varieties--obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and +ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate, patent +plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and a variety of +figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass with bulls'-eyes in +the centre. + +Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares of glass, +which are held together by reticulations of lead; these are secured by +means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which are let into mortices in +the wood frames or stone jambs. This is formed with strips of lead, +soldered at the angles; the glass is placed between the strips and the +lead flattened over the edges of glass to secure it. This is much used +in public buildings and private residences. In Weldon's method the +saddle bars are bedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus +strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better appearance. + +_Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate_, usually 1/4 in. thick, has +wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling in the +case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern and +skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public and warehouse +buildings, in accordance with the London Building Act. It is also used +for the decks of ships and for port and cabin lights, as it is much +stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is held together by the +wire. + +Patent prismatic rolled glass, or "refrax" (fig. 1), consists of an +effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism; it +absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and diffuses it +in the most efficient manner possible in the darkest portions of the +apartment. It can be fixed in the ordinary way or placed over the +existing glass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Prism Window Glass.] + +Pavement lights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed with iron +frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic glass, and are +used to light basements. They are placed on the pavement and under shop +fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and are also inserted in +iron coal plates. + +Great skill has of late years been displayed in the ornamentation of +glass such as is seen in public saloons, restaurants, &c., as, for +instance, in bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting, +embossing, bending, cutting shelving to fancy shapes and polishing, and +in glass ventilators. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section through Prism Pavement Light, the +direction of light rays being indicated by arrows.] + + + Roof glazing. + + There are several patent methods of roof glazing, such as are applied + to railway stations, studios and printing and other factories + requiring light. Some of the first patents of this kind were erected + with wood glazing bars; these were unsightly, since they required to + be of large sectional area when spanning a distance of 7 or 8 ft., and + also required to be constantly painted. This was a source of trouble; + the roof was constantly leaking and, moreover, it was not + fire-resisting. + + Of subsequent patents one includes the use of steel T-bars, in which + the glass is bedded and covered with a capping of copper or zinc + secured with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars covered with + lead; and this is a very good method, as the bars are of small + section, require no painting, and are also fire-resisting. There is + one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood does not + expand and contract like steel does. After the sun has been on steel + bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle and then + when cold contract, thus getting out of shape; there is also the + possibility that when expanding they may break the glass. This is more + noticeable in the case of iron ventilating frames in this glazing, + which after having weathered for a year or two will begin to get out + of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing. + + Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but a + good 1/8th in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the systems + of patent roof glazing will be described in the following pages, + together with illustrations. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--"British Challenge" Glazing.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Mellowes' Glazing.] + + The system of glazing known as the "British Challenge" (fig. 3), with + steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-lb. lead, is very simple and + durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft. clear + bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the bars rest + on the wood or steel purlins or plates, and are either notched and + screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed. The + bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead wings on + top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This lead-covered + steel bar is a great improvement on the plain steel bar as it is + entirely unaffected by smoke, acids or exhaust fumes from steam + engines; this is important in the case of a railway station, where the + fumes would otherwise eat the steel away and so weaken the bars that + in time they would snap. Another somewhat similar system is known as + "Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing" (fig. 4). It consists of steel T-bars + having lead wings on top to turn on to the glass in a similar manner + to the last, the top wings being double and the underside of the bar + having an additional wing to catch the condensation. The Heywood + combination system (fig. 5) is composed of galvanized steel T-bars, + sometimes encased in lead and sometimes partly encased. It has a + capping and condensation gutters of lead, and the glass is bedded on + asbestos packing to get a better bearing edge, so as to be held more + securely. Hope's glazing is very similar, but the bars are either T or + cross according to the span. The "Perfection" glazing used by Messrs + Helliwell & Co. (fig. 6) is composed of steel shaped T bars with + copper capping, secured with bolts and nuts and having asbestos + packing on top of the glass under the edges of the capping. + Pennycook's glazing is composed of steel shaped T bars encased with + lead and lead wings. Rendle's "Invincible" glazing (fig. 7) is + composed of steel T bars with specially shaped copper water and + condensation channels, all formed in the one piece and resting on top + of the T steel; the glass rests on the zinc channel, and a copper + capping is fixed over the edges of the glass and secured with bolts + and nuts. Deard's glazing is very similar, and is composed of T steel + encased with lead; it claims to save all drilling for fixing to iron + roofs. There are also other systems composed of wood bars with + condensation gutter and capping of copper secured with bolts and nuts, + and asbestos packing with slight differences in some minor matters, + but these systems are but little used. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heywood's Glazing.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Helliwell's "Perfection" Glazing.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Rendle's "Invincible" Glazing.] + + Cloisonne glass is a patent ornamental glass formed by placing two + pieces flat against each other enclosing a species of glass mosaic. + Designs are worked and shaped in gilt wire and placed on one sheet of + glass; the space between the wire is then filled in with coloured + beads, and another sheet of glass is placed on top of it to keep them + in position, and the edges of the glass are bound with linen, &c., to + keep them firmly together. + + + Use in building. + +Glass is now used for decorative purposes, such as wall tiling and +ceilings; it is coloured and decorated in almost any shade and presents +a very effective appearance. An invention has been patented for building +houses entirely of glass; the walls are constructed of blocks or bricks +of opaque glass, the several walls being varied in thickness according +to the constructional requirements. + +It is certainly true that daylight has much to do with the sanitary +condition of all buildings, and this being so the proper distribution of +daylight to a building is of the greatest possible importance, and must +be effected by an ample provision of windows judiciously arranged. The +heads of all windows should be kept as near the ceiling as possible, as +well to obtain easy ventilation as to ensure good lighting. As far as is +practicable a building should be planned so that each room receives the +sun's rays for some part of the day. This is rarely an easy matter, +especially in towns where the aspect of the building is out of the +architect's hands. The best sites for light are found in streets running +north and south and east and west, and lighting areas or courts in +buildings should always if possible be arranged on these lines. The task +of adequately lighting lofty city buildings has been greatly minimized +by the introduction of many forms of reflecting and intensifying +contrivances, which are used to deflect light into those apartments into +which daylight does not directly penetrate, and which would otherwise +require the use of artificial light to render them of any use; the most +useful of these inventions are the various forms of prism glass already +referred to and illustrated in this article. + + See L. F. Day, _Stained and Painted Class_; and W. Eckstein, _Interior + Lighting_. (J. Bt.) + + + + +GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865- ), Russian musical composer, +was born in St Petersburg on the 10th of August 1865, his father being a +publisher and bookseller. He showed an early talent for music, and +studied for a year or so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he +composed a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as _op._ 5), +but his _opus_ 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte suite on +_S-a-c-h-a_, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In 1884 he was taken +up by Liszt, and soon became known as a composer. His first symphony was +played that year at Weimar, and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris +exhibition in 1889. In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were +performed in London under his own conducting. In 1900 he became +professor at the St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works, +including orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long +list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian school, +and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared with +contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form, and he was +much influenced by Brahms, though in "programme music" he is represented +by such works as his symphonic poems _The Forest_, _Stenka Razin_, _The +Kremlin_ and his suite _Aus dem Mittelalter_. His ballet music, as in +_Raymonda_, achieved much popularity. + + + + +GLEBE (Lat. _glaeba_, _gleba_, clod or lump of earth, hence soil, land), +in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the maintenance of the +incumbent of a church. Burn (_Ecclesiastical Law, s.v._ "Glebe Lands") +says: "Every church of common right is entitled to house and glebe, and +the assigning of them at the first was of such absolute necessity that +without them no church could be regularly consecrated. The house and +glebe are both comprehended under the word _manse_, of which the rule of +the canon law is, _sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus +integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur_." In the technical language of +English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in _abeyance_, +that is, it exists "only in the remembrance, expectation and intendment +of the law." But the freehold is in the parson, although at common law +he could alienate the same only with proper consent,--that is, in his +case, with the consent of the bishop. The disabling statutes of +Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops, 1559, and Dilapidations, &c., 1571) +made void all alienations by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for +the term of twenty-one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6 +Vict. c. 27, Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let +on lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving +lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres of glebe +situate most conveniently for occupation must not be leased. By the +Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 108) and 1858 glebe +lands may be let on building leases for not more than ninety-nine years +and on mining leases for not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842, +the Glebe Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the +sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots +ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister's +dwelling-house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in +addition to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a +glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot claim a +glebe unless there be a landowner's district annexed; and even in that +case, when there are two ministers, it is only the first who has a +claim. + + See Phillimore, _Ecclesiastical Law_ (2nd ed.); Cripps, _Law of Church + and Clergy_; Leach, _Tithe Acts_ (6th ed.); Dart, _Vendors and + Purchasers_ (7th ed.). + + + + +GLEE, a musical term for a part-song of a particular kind. The word, as +well as the thing, is essentially confined to England. The technical +meaning has been explained in different ways; but there is little doubt +of its derivation through the ordinary sense of the word (i.e. +merriment, entertainment) from the A.S. _gleov_, _gleo_, corresponding +to Lat. _gaudium_, _delectamentum_, hence _ludus musicus_; on the other +hand, a musical "glee" is by no means necessarily a merry composition. +Gleeman (A.S. "gleo-man") is translated simply as "musicus" or "cantor," +to which the less distinguished titles of "mimus, jocista, scurra," are +frequently added in old dictionaries. The accomplishments and social +position of the gleeman seem to have been as varied as those of the +Provencal "joglar." There are early examples of the word "glee" being +used as synonymous with harmony or concerted music. The former +explanation, for instance, is given in the _Promptorium parvulorum_, a +work of the 15th century. Glee in its present meaning signifies, broadly +speaking, a piece of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and +for male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two +restrictions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three. As +regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the +catch,--the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the same +song; but there is a distinct difference between it and the +madrigal--one of the earliest forms of concerted music known in England. +While the madrigal does not show a distinction of contrasted movements, +this feature is absolutely necessary in the glee. In the madrigal the +movement of the voices is strictly contrapuntal, while the more modern +form allows of freer treatment and more compact harmonies. Differences +of tonality are fully explained by the development of the art, for while +the madrigal reached its acme in Queen Elizabeth's time, the glee proper +was little known before the Commonwealth; and its most famous +representatives belong to the 18th century and the first quarter of the +19th. Among the numerous collections of the innumerable pieces of this +kind, only one of the earliest and most famous may be mentioned, _Catch +that Catch can, a Choice Collection of Catches, Rounds and Canons, for +three and four voices_, published by John Hilton in 1652. The name +"glee," however, appears for the first time in John Playford's _Musical +Companion_, published twenty-one years afterwards, and reprinted again +and again, with additions by later composers--Henry Purcell, William +Croft and John Blow among the number. The originator of the glee in its +modern form was Dr Arne, born in 1710. Among later English musicians +famous for their glees, catches and part-songs, the following may be +mentioned:--Attwood, Boyce, Bishop, Crotch, Callcott, Shield, Stevens, +Horsley, Webb and Knyvett. The convivial character of the glee led, in +the 18th century, to the formation of various societies, which offered +prizes and medals for the best compositions of the kind and assembled +for social and artistic purposes. The most famous amongst these--The +Glee Club--was founded in 1787, and at first used to meet at the house +of Mr Robert Smith, in St Paul's churchyard. This club was dissolved in +1857. A similar society--The Catch Club--was formed in 1761 and is still +in existence. + + + + +GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named from their +resemblance to each other (Ger. _gleich_ = like, or resembling). The +first is a group of three, each situated on a hill in Thuringia between +Gotha and Erfurt. One of these called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener +Gleiche (1221 ft. above the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the +emperor Henry IV. in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of +whom, Ernest III., a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend. +Having been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a Turkish +woman, who returned with him to Germany and became his wife, a papal +dispensation allowing him to live with two wives at the same time (see +Reineck, _Die Sage von der Doppelehe eines Grafen von Gleichen_, 1891). +After belonging to the elector of Mainz the castle became the property +of Prussia in 1803. The second castle is called Muhlburg (1309 ft. above +the sea). This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV. in +1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third castle, +Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains a collection of +weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the duke of +Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession of it in 1368. It +was built about 935 (see Beyer, _Die drei Gleichen_, Erfurt, 1898). The +other group consists of two castles, Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen. +Both are in ruins and crown two hills about 2 m. S.E. from Gottingen. + +The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from Prince Victor +of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage with Miss Laura Seymour, +daughter of Admiral Sir George Francis Seymour, a branch of the +Hohenlohe family having at one time owned part of the county of +Gleichen. + + + + +GLEIG, GEORGE (1753-1840), Scottish divine, was born at Boghall, +Kincardineshire, on the 12th of May 1753, the son of a farmer. At the +age of thirteen he entered King's College, Aberdeen, where the first +prize in mathematics and physical and moral sciences fell to him. In his +twenty-first year he took orders in the Scottish Episcopal Church, and +was ordained to the pastoral charge of a congregation at Pittenweem, +Fife, whence he removed in 1790 to Stirling. He became a frequent +contributor to the _Monthly Review_, the _Gentleman's Magazine_, the +_Anti-Jacobin Review_ and the _British Critic_. He also wrote several +articles for the third edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and +on the death of the editor, Colin Macfarquhar, in 1793, was engaged to +edit the remaining volumes. Among his principal contributions to this +work were articles on "Instinct," "Theology" and "Metaphysics." The two +supplementary volumes were mainly his own work. He was twice chosen +bishop of Dunkeld, but the opposition of Bishop Skinner, afterwards +primus, rendered the election on both occasions ineffectual. In 1808 he +was consecrated assistant and successor to the bishop of Brechin, in +1810 was preferred to the sole charge, and in 1816 was elected primus of +the Episcopal Church of Scotland, in which capacity he greatly aided in +the introduction of many useful reforms, in fostering a more catholic +and tolerant spirit, and in cementing a firm alliance with the sister +church of England. He died at Stirling on the 9th of March 1840. + + Besides various sermons, Gleig was the author of _Directions for the + Study of Theology_, in a series of letters from a bishop to his son on + his admission to holy orders (1827); an edition of _Stackhouse's + History of the Bible_ (1817); and a life of Robertson the historian, + prefixed to an edition of his works. See _Life of Bishop Gleig_, by + the Rev. W. Walker (1879). Letters to Henderson of Edinburgh and John + Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, are in the British Museum. + +His third and only surviving son, GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG (1796-1888), was +educated at Glasgow University, whence he passed with a Snell exhibition +to Balliol College, Oxford. He abandoned his scholastic studies to enter +the army, and served with distinction in the Peninsular War (1813-14), +and in the American War, in which he was thrice wounded. Resuming his +work at Oxford, he proceeded B.A. in 1818, M.A. in 1821, and, having +been ordained in 1820, held successively curacies at Westwell in Kent +and Ash (to the latter the rectory of Ivy Church was added in 1822). He +was subsequently appointed chaplain of Chelsea hospital (1824), +chaplain-general of the forces (1844-1875) and inspector-general of +military schools (1846-1857). From 1848 till his death on the 9th of +July 1888 he was prebend of Willesden in St Paul's cathedral. During the +last sixty years of his life he was a prolific, if not very scientific, +writer; he wrote for _Blackwood's Magazine_ and _Fraser's Magazine_, and +produced a large number of historical works. + + Among the latter were (besides histories of the campaigns in which he + served), _Life of Sir Thomas Munro_ (3 vols., 1830); _History of + India_ (4 vols., 1830-1835); _The Leipsic Campaign and Lives of + Military Commanders_ (1831); _Story of the Battle of Waterloo_ (1847); + _Sketch of the Military History of Great Britain_ (1845); _Sale's + Brigade in Afghanistan_ (1847); biographies of Lord Clive (1848), the + duke of Wellington (1862), and Warren Hastings (1848; the subject of + Macaulay's essay, in which it is described as "three big bad volumes + full of undigested correspondence and undiscerning panegyric"). + + + + +GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1719-1803), German poet, was born on the +2nd of April 1719 at Ermsleben, near Halberstadt. Having studied law at +the university of Halle he became secretary to Prince William of +Brandenburg-Schwedt at Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Ewald +von Kleist, whose devoted friend he became. When the prince fell at the +battle of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of Dessau; +but he soon gave up his position, not being able to bear the roughness +of the "Old Dessauer." After residing a few years in Berlin he was +appointed, in 1747, secretary of the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt. +"Father Gleim" was the title accorded to him throughout all literary +Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and +undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the +period. He wrote a large number of feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace +and the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled _Halladat oder das +rote Buch_ (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher +merit are his _Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier_ (1758). +These, which were inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II., are often +distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They +are also noteworthy as being the first of that long series of noble +political songs in which later German literature is so rich. With this +exception, Gleim's writings are for the most part tamely commonplace in +thought and expression. He died at Halberstadt on the 18th of February +1803. + + Gleim's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in the years 1811-1813; + a reprint of the _Lieder eines Grenadiers_ was published by A. Sauer + in 1882. A good selection of Gleim's poetry will be found in F. + Muncker, _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_ (1894). + See W. Korte, _Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schriften_ (1811). + His correspondence with Heinse was published in 2 vols. (1894-1896); + with Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schuddekopf. + + + + +GLEIWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the +Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the +former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156; (1905) 61,324. It possesses two +Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining +school, a convent, a hospital, two orphanages, and barracks. Gleiwitz is +the centre of the mining industry of Upper Silesia. Besides the royal +foundry, with which are connected machine manufactories and +boiler-works, there are other foundries, meal mills and manufactories of +wire, gas pipes, cement and paper. + + See B. Nietsche, _Geschichte der Stadt Gleiwitz_ (1886); and Seidel, + _Die konigliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz_ (Berlin, 1896). + + + + +GLENALMOND, a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, situated to the S.E. of Loch +Tay. It comprises the upper two-thirds of the course of the Almond, or a +distance of 20 m. For the greater part it follows a direction east by +south, but at Newton Bridge it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3 +m., and narrows to such a degree that this portion is known as the Small +(or Sma') Glen. At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs +eastwards as far as the well-known public school of Trinity College, +where it may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in +the glen is that traditionally known as the grave of Ossian. The +district east of Buchanty, near which are the remains of a Roman camp, +is said to be the Drumtochty of Ian Maclaren's stories. The mountainous +region at the head of the glen is dominated by Ben y Hone or Ben Chonzie +(3048 ft. high). + + + + +GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Glencairn in the Scottish peerage +was ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM (d. 1488), a son of Sir Robert Cunningham of +Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord of the Scottish parliament as Lord +Kilmaurs not later than 1469, Cunningham was created earl of Glencairn +in 1488; and a few weeks later he was killed at the battle of +Sauchieburn whilst fighting for King James III. against his rebellious +son, afterwards James IV. His son and successor, ROBERT (d. c. 1490), +was deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had been +revived in favour of Robert's son, CUTHBERT (d. c. 1540), who became 3rd +earl of Glencairn, and whose son WILLIAM (c. 1490-1547) was the 4th +earl. This noble, an early adherent of the Reformation, was during his +public life frequently in the pay and service of England, although he +fought on the Scottish side at the battle of Solway Moss (1542), where +he was taken prisoner. Upon his release early in 1543 he promised to +adhere to Henry VIII., who was anxious to bring Scotland under his rule, +and in 1544 he entered into other engagements with Henry, undertaking +_inter alia_ to deliver Mary queen of Scots to the English king. +However, he was defeated by James Hamilton, earl of Arran, and the +project failed; Glencairn then deserted his fellow-conspirator, Matthew +Stewart, earl of Lennox, and came to terms with the queen-mother, Mary +of Guise, and her party. + +William's son, ALEXANDER, the 5th earl (d. 1574), was a more pronounced +reformer than his father, whose English sympathies he shared, and was +among the intimate friends of John Knox. In March 1557 he signed the +letter asking Knox to return to Scotland; in the following December he +subscribed the first "band" of the Scottish reformers; and he +anticipated Lord James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking +up arms against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. Then, joined by +Stewart and the lords of the congregation, he fought, against the +regent, and took part in the attendant negotiations with Elizabeth of +England, whom he visited in London in December 1560. When in August 1561 +Mary queen of Scots returned to Scotland, Glencairn was made a member of +her council; he remained loyal to her after she had been deserted by +Murray, but in a few weeks rejoined Murray and the other Protestant +lords, returning to Mary's side in 1566. After the queen had married the +earl of Bothwell she was again forsaken by Glencairn, who fought against +her at Carberry Hill and at Langside. The earl, who was always to the +fore in destroying churches, abbeys and other "monuments of idolatry," +died on the 23rd of November 1574. His short satirical poem against the +Grey Friars is printed by Knox in his _History of the Reformation_. + +JAMES, the 7th earl (d. c. 1622), took part in the seizure of James VI., +called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. WILLIAM, the 9th earl (c. +1610-1664), a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during the Civil War, was a +party to the "engagement" between the king and the Scots in 1647; for +this proceeding the Scottish parliament deprived him of his office as +lord justice-general, and nominally of his earldom. In March 1653 +Charles II. commissioned the earl to command the Royalist forces in +Scotland, pending the arrival of General John Middleton, and the +insurrection of this year is generally known as Glencairn's rising. +After its failure he was betrayed and imprisoned, but although excepted +from pardon he was not executed; and when Charles II. was restored he +became lord chancellor of Scotland. After a dispute with his former +friend, James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews, he died at Belton in +Haddingtonshire on the 30th of May 1664. This earl's son JOHN (d. 1703), +who followed his brother Alexander as 11th earl in 1670, was a supporter +of the Revolution of 1688. His descendant, JAMES, the 14th earl +(1749-1791), is known as the friend and patron of Robert Burns. He +performed several useful services for the poet; and when he died on the +30th of January 1791 Burns wrote a _Lament_ beginning, "The wind blew +hollow frae the hills," and ending with the lines, "But I'll remember +thee, Glencairn, and a' that thou hast done for me." The 14th earl was +never married, and when his brother and successor, John, died childless +in September 1796 the earldom became extinct, although it was claimed by +Sir Adam Fergusson, Bart., a descendant of the 10th earl. + + + + +GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argyllshire. +Beginning at the north-eastern base of Buchaille Etive, it takes a +gentle north-westerly trend for 10 m. to its mouth on Loch Leven, a +salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe. On both sides it is shut in by wild and +precipitous mountains and its bed is swept by the Coe--Ossian's "dark +Cona,"--which rises in the hills at its eastern end. About half-way down +the glen the stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe the +landscape acquires a softer beauty. Here Lord Strathcona, who, in 1894, +purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, built his stately +mansion of Mount Royal. The principal mountains on the south side are +the various peaks of Buachaille Etive, Stob Dearg (3345 ft.), Bidean nam +Bian (3756 ft.) and Meall Mor (2215 ft.), and on the northern side the +Pap of Glencoe (2430 ft.), Sgor nam Fiannaidh (3168 ft.) and Meall Dearg +(3118 ft.). Points of interest are the Devil's Staircase, a steep, +boulder-strewn "cut" (1754 ft. high) across the hills to Fort William; +the Study; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says that he was born, +and the Iona cross erected in 1883 by a Macdonald in memory of his +clansmen who perished in the massacre of 1692. About 1 m. beyond the +head of the glen is Kingshouse, a relic of the old coaching days, when +it was customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum to +Loch Lomond. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made from Oban--by +rail to Achnacloich, steamer up Loch Etive, coach up Glen Etive and down +Glencoe and steamer at Ballachulish to Oban. One mile to the west of the +Glen lies the village of BALLACHULISH (pop. 1143). It is celebrated for +its slate quarries, which have been worked since 1760. The industry +provides employment for 600 men and the annual output averages 30,000 +tons. The slate is of excellent quality and is used throughout the +United Kingdom. Ballachulish is a station on the Callander and Oban +extension line to Fort William (Caledonian railway). The pier and ferry +are some 2 m. W. of the village. + + + + +GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS, Lord (1810-1891), Scottish judge, son of a +minister, was born at Edinburgh on the 21st of August 1810. From Glasgow +University he went to Balliol College, Oxford. He was admitted a member +of the Faculty of Advocates, and soon became known as an eloquent and +successful pleader. In 1852 he was made solicitor-general for Scotland +in Lord Derby's first ministry, three months later becoming Lord +Advocate. In 1858 he resumed this office in Lord Derby's second +administration, being returned to the House of Commons as member for +Stamford. He was responsible for the Universities of Scotland Act of +1858, and in the same year he was elevated to the bench as lord justice +clerk. In 1867 he was made lord justice general of Scotland and lord +president of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse. +Outside his judicial duties he was responsible for much useful public +work, particularly in the department of higher education. In 1869 he was +elected chancellor of Edinburgh University, having already been rector +of the university of Glasgow. He died on the 20th August 1891. + + + + +GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, a mountain glen of Co. Wicklow, Ireland, +celebrated and frequently visited both on account of its scenic beauty +and, more especially, because of the collection of ecclesiastical +remains situated in it. Fortunately for its appearance, it is not +approached by any railway, but services of cars are maintained to +several points, of which Rathdrum, 8-1/2 m. S.E., is the nearest railway +station, on the Dublin & South-Eastern. The glen is traversed by the +stream of Glenealo, a tributary of the Avonmore, expanding into small +loughs, the Upper and the Lower. The former of these is walled by the +abrupt heights of Camaderry (2296 ft.) and Lugduff (2176 ft.), and here +the extreme narrowness of the valley adds to its grandeur; while lower +down, where it widens, the romantic character of the scenery is enhanced +by the scattered ruins of the former monastic settlement. These ruins +have the collective name of the "Seven Churches." The settlement owed +its foundation to the hermit St Kevin, who is reputed to have died on +the 3rd of June 618; and it rapidly became a seat of learning of wide +fame, but suffered much at the hands of the Danes and the Anglo-Normans. +In close proximity to an hotel, and to one another, in an enclosure, are +a round tower, one of the finest in Ireland, 110 ft. high and 52 in +circumference; St Kevin's kitchen or church (closely resembling the +house of St Columba at Kells), which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a +high-pitched roof and round belfry--supposed to be the earliest example +of its type; and the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in +width. This possesses a good square-headed doorway, and an east window +of ornate character (the chancel being of later date than the nave), and +there are also some early tombs, but the whole is in a decayed +condition. In the enclosure are also a Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable +for its doorway of wrought granite, in a style of architecture +resembling Greek; a priest's house (restored), and slight remains of St +Chiaran's church. Here is also St Kevin's cross, a granite monolith +never completed; and the enclosure is entered by a fine though +dilapidated gateway. Other neighbouring remains are Trinity or the Ivy +Church, towards Laragh, with beautiful detailed work; St Saviour's +monastery, carefully restored under the direction of the Board of Works, +with a chancel arch of three orders (re-erected); while on the shores of +the upper lough are Reefert Church, the burial-place of the O'Toole +family, and Teampull-na-skellig, the church of the rock. St Kevin's bed +is a cave approachable with difficulty, above the lough, probably a +natural cavity artificially enlarged, to which attaches the legend of St +Kevin's hermitage. Along the valley there are a number of monuments and +stone crosses of various sizes and styles. The whole collection forms, +with the possible exception of Clonmacnoise in King's county, the most +striking monument of monasticism in Ireland. + + + + +GLENDOWER, OWEN (c. 1359-1415), the last to claim the title of an +independent prince of Wales, more correctly described as Owain ab +Gruffydd, lord of Glyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was a man of good family, +with two great houses, Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy in the north, besides +smaller estates in south Wales. His father was called Gruffydd Vychan, +and his mother Helen; on both sides he had pretensions to be descended +from the old Welsh princes. Owen was probably born about 1359, studied +law at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel, and a witness for +Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor lawsuit in 1386. Afterwards +he was in the service of Henry of Bolingbroke, the future king, though +by an error it has been commonly stated that he was squire to Richard +II. Welsh sympathies were, however, on Richard's side, and combined with +a personal quarrel to make Owen the leader of a national revolt. + +The lords of Glyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their English +neighbours, the Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey neglected to summon Owen, +as was his duty, for the Scottish expedition of 1400, and then charged +him with treason for failing to appear. Owen thereupon took up arms, and +when Henry IV. returned from Scotland in September he found north Wales +ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king's personal command was +ineffectual. Owen's estates were declared forfeit and vigorous measures +threatened by the English government. Still the revolt gathered +strength. In the spring of 1401 Owen was raiding in south Wales, and +credited with the intention of invading England. A second campaign by +the king in the autumn was defeated, like that of the previous year, +through bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had +already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who during 1401 held +command in north Wales, and with Percy's brother-in-law, Sir Edmund +Mortimer. During the winter of 1401-1402 his plans were further extended +to negotiations with the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the +spring he had grown so strong that he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey +prisoner. In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund +Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire. Mortimer was taken +prisoner and treated with such friendliness as to make the English doubt +his loyalty; within a few months he married Owen's daughter. In the +autumn the English king was for the third time driven "bootless home and +weather-beaten back." The few English strongholds left in Wales were now +hard pressed, and Owen boasted that he would meet his enemy in the +field. Nevertheless, in May 1403 Henry of Monmouth was allowed to sack +Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy unopposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The +Percies were to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm +the prince before help could arrive. But Owen's share in the undertaking +miscarried through his own defeat near Carmarthen on the 12th of July, +and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten days later. Still the Welsh +revolt was never so formidable. Owen styled himself openly prince of +Wales, established a regular government, and called a parliament at +Machynlleth. As a result of a formal alliance the French sent troops to +his aid, and in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and +Aberystwith fell into his hands. + +In the spring of 1405 Owen was at the height of his power; but the tide +turned suddenly. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh at Grosmont in March, +and twice again in May, when Owen's son Griffith and his chancellor were +made prisoners. Scrope's rebellion in the North prevented the English +from following up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge +in Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and Mortimer +(transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion) threatened a renewal +of danger. But Northumberland's plots and the active help of the French +proved ineffective. The English under Prince Henry gained ground +steadily, and the recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege, in the +autumn of 1408 marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409 +Harlech was also recaptured, and Owen's wife, daughter and grandchildren +were taken prisoners. Owen himself still held out and even continued to +intrigue with the French. In July 1415 Gilbert Talbot had power to treat +with Owen and his supporters and admit them to pardon. Owen's name does +not occur in the document renewing Talbot's powers in February 1416; +according to Adam of Usk he died in 1415. Later English writers allege +that he died of starvation in the mountains; but Welsh legend represents +him as spending a peaceful old age with his sons-in-law at Ewyas and +Monington in Herefordshire, till his death and burial at the latter +place. The dream of an independent and united Wales was never nearer +realization than under Owen's leadership. The disturbed state of England +helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and has not +undeservedly become a national hero. Sentiment and tradition have +magnified his achievements, and confused his career with tales of +portents and magical powers. Owen left many bastard children; his +legitimate representative in 1433 was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir +John Scudamore of Ewyas. + + The facts of Owen's life must be pieced together from scattered + references in contemporary chronicles and documents; perhaps the most + important are Adam of Usk's _Chronicle_ and Ellis's _Original + Letters_. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards Iolo Goch + and Lewis Glyn Cothi. For modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie's + _History of England under Henry IV._ (4 vols., 1884-1898); A. C. + Bradley's popular biography; and Professor Tout's article in the + _Dictionary of National Biography_. (C. L. K.) + + + + +GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT, BARON (1778-1866), eldest son of Charles Grant +(q.v.), chairman of the directors of the East India Company, was born in +India on the 26th of October 1778, and was educated at Magdalene +College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1802. Called to the +bar in 1807, he was elected member of parliament for the Inverness +burghs in 1807, and having gained some reputation as a speaker in the +House of Commons, he was made a lord of the treasury in December 1813, +an office which he held until August 1819, when he became secretary to +the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and a privy councillor. In 1823 he was +appointed vice-president of the board of trade; from September 1827 to +June 1828 he was president of the board and treasurer of the navy; then +joining the Whigs, he was president of the board of control under Earl +Grey and Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to November 1834. At the +board of control Grant was primarily responsible for the act of 1833, +which altered the constitution of the government of India. In April 1835 +he became secretary for war and the colonies, and was created Baron +Glenelg. His term of office was a stormy one. His differences with Sir +Benjamin d'Urban (q.v.), governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more +so were those with King William IV. and others over the administration +of Canada. He was still secretary when the Canadian rebellion broke out +in 1837; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely attacked in +parliament; he became involved in disputes with the earl of Durham, and +the movement for his supercession found supporters even among his +colleagues in the cabinet. In February 1839 he resigned, receiving +consolation in the shape of a pension of L2000 a year. From 1818 until +he was made a peer Grant represented the county of Inverness in +parliament, and he has been called "the last of the Canningites." Living +mainly abroad during the concluding years of his life, he died unmarried +at Cannes on the 23rd of April 1866 when his title became extinct. + +Glenelg's brother, SIR ROBERT GRANT (1779-1838), who was third wrangler +in 1801, was, like his brother, a fellow of Magdalene College, +Cambridge, and a barrister. From 1818 to 1834 he represented various +constituencies in parliament, where he was chiefly prominent for his +persistent efforts to relieve the disabilities of the Jews.[1] In June +1834 he was appointed governor of Bombay, and he died in India on the +9th of July 1838. Grant wrote a _Sketch of the History of the East India +Co._ (1813), and is also known as a writer of hymns. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sir S. Walpole (_History of England_, vol. v.) is wrong in + stating that Charles Grant introduced bills to remove Jewish + disabilities in 1833 and 1834. They were introduced by his brother + Robert. + + + + +GLENELG, a municipal town and watering place of Adelaide county, South +Australia, on Holdfast Bay, 6-1/2 m. by rail S.S.W. of the city of +Adelaide. Pop. (1901) 3949. It is a popular summer resort, connected +with Adelaide by two lines of railway. In the vicinity is the "Old Gum +Tree" under which South Australia was proclaimed British territory by +Governor Hindmarsh in 1836. + + + + +GLENGARRIFF, or GLENGARIFF ("Rough Glen"), a celebrated resort of +tourists in summer and invalids in winter, in the west riding of county +Cork, Ireland, on Glengarriff Harbour, an inlet on the northern side of +Bantry Bay, 11 m. by coach road from Bantry on the Cork, Bandon & South +Coast railway. Beyond its hotels, Glengarriff is only a small village, +but the island-studded harbour, the narrow glen at its head and the +surrounding of mountains, afford most attractive views, and its +situation on the "Prince-of Wales'" route travelled by King Edward VII. +in 1848, and on a fine mountain coach road from Macroom, brings it into +the knowledge of many travellers to Killarney. Thackeray wrote +enthusiastically of the harbour. The glaciated rocks of the glen are +clothed with vegetation of peculiar luxuriance, flourishing in the mild +climate which has given Glengarriff its high reputation as a health +resort for those suffering from pulmonary complaints. + + + + +GLEN GREY, a division of the Cape province south of the Stormberg, +adjoining on the east the Transkeian Territories. Pop. (1904) 55,107. +Chief town Lady Frere, 32 m. N.E. of Queenstown. The district is well +watered and fertile, and large quantities of cereals are grown. Over 96% +of the inhabitants are of the Zulu-Xosa (Kaffir) race, and a +considerable part of the district was settled during the Kaffir wars of +Cape Colony by Tembu (Tambookies) who were granted a location by the +colonial government in recognition of their loyalty to the British. Act +No. 25 of 1894 of the Cape parliament, passed at the instance of Cecil +Rhodes, which laid down the basis upon which is effected the change of +land tenure by natives from communal to individual holdings, and also +dealt with native local self-government and the labour question, applied +in the first instance to this division, and is known as the Glen Grey +Act (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). The provisions of the act respecting +individual land tenure and local self-government were in 1898 applied, +with certain modifications, to the Transkeian Territories. The division +is named after Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony 1854-1861. + + + + +GLENS FALLS, a village of Warren county, New York, U.S.A., 55 m. N. of +Troy, on the Hudson river. Pop. (1890) 9509; (1900) 12,613, of whom 1762 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,243. Glens Falls is served by the +Delaware & Hudson and the Hudson Valley (electric) railways. The village +contains a state armoury, the Crandall free public library, a Y.M.C.A. +building, the Park hospital, an old ladies' home, and St Mary's (Roman +Catholic) and Glens Falls (non-sectarian) academies. There are two +private parks, open to the public, and a waterworks system is maintained +by the village. An iron bridge crosses the river just below the falls, +connecting Glens Falls and South Glens Falls (pop. in 1910, 2247). The +falls of the Hudson here furnish a fine water-power, which is utilized, +in connexion with steam and electricity, in the manufacture of lumber, +paper and wood pulp, women's clothing, shirts, collars and cuffs, &c. In +1905 the village's factory products were valued at $4,780,331. About 12 +m. above Glens Falls, on the Hudson, a massive stone dam has been +erected; here electric power, distributed to a large area, is generated. +In the neighbourhood of Glens Falls are valuable quarries of black +marble and limestone, and lime, plaster and Portland cement works. Glens +Falls was settled about the close of the French and Indian War (1763), +and was incorporated as a village in 1839. + + + + +GLENTILT, a glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland. Beginning +at the confines of Aberdeenshire, it follows a north-westerly direction +excepting for the last 4 m., when it runs due S. to Blair Atholl. It is +watered throughout by the Tilt, which enters the Garry after a course of +14 m., and receives on its right the Tarff, which forms some beautiful +falls just above the confluence, and on the left the Fender, which has +some fine falls also. The attempt of the 6th duke of Atholl (1814-1864) +to close the glen to the public was successfully contested by the +Scottish Rights of Way Society. The group of mountains--Carn nan Gabhar +(3505 ft.), Ben y Gloe (3671) and Carn Liath (3193)--on its left side +dominate the lower half of the glen. Marble of good quality is +occasionally quarried in the glen, and the rock formation has attracted +the attention of geologists from the time of James Hutton. + + + + +GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL (1806-1874), French painter, of Swiss +origin, was born at Chevilly in the canton of Vaud on the 2nd of May +1806. His father and mother died while he was yet a boy of some eight or +nine years of age; and he was brought up by an uncle at Lyons, who sent +him to the industrial school of that city. Going up to Paris a lad of +seventeen or nineteen, he spent four years in close artistic study--in +Hersent's studio, in Suisse's academy, in the galleries of the Louvre. +To this period of laborious application succeeded four years of +meditative inactivity in Italy, where he became acquainted with Horace +Vernet and Leopold Robert; and six years more were consumed in +adventurous wanderings in Greece, Egypt, Nubia and Syria. At Cairo he +was attacked with ophthalmia, and in the Lebanon he was struck down by +fever; and he returned to Lyons in shattered health. On his recovery he +proceeded to Paris, and, fixing his modest studio in the rue de +Universite, began carefully to work out the conceptions which had been +slowly shaping themselves in his mind. Mention is made of two decorative +panels--"Diana leaving the Bath," and a "Young Nubian"--as almost the +first fruits of his genius; but these did not attract public attention +till long after, and the painting by which he practically opened his +artistic career was the "Apocalyptic Vision of St John," sent to the +Salon of 1840. This was followed in 1843 by "Evening," which at the time +received a medal of the second class, and afterwards became widely +popular under the title of the Lost Illusions. It represents a poet +seated on the bank of a river, with drooping head and wearied frame, +letting his lyre slip from a careless hand, and gazing sadly at a bright +company of maidens whose song is slowly dying from his ear as their boat +is borne slowly from his sight. + +In spite of the success which attended these first ventures, Gleyre +retired from public competition, and spent the rest of his life in quiet +devotion to his own artistic ideals, neither seeking the easy applause +of the crowd, nor turning his art into a means of aggrandizement and +wealth. After 1845, when he exhibited the "Separation of the Apostles," +he contributed nothing to the Salon except the "Dance of the Bacchantes" +in 1849. Yet he laboured steadily and was abundantly productive. He had +an "infinite capacity of taking pains," and when asked by what method he +attained to such marvellous perfection of workmanship, he would reply, +"En y pensant toujours." A long series of years often intervened between +the first conception of a piece and its embodiment, and years not +unfrequently between the first and the final stage of the embodiment +itself. A landscape was apparently finished; even his fellow artists +would consider it done; Gleyre alone was conscious that he had not +"found his sky." Happily for French art this high-toned laboriousness +became influential on a large number of Gleyre's younger contemporaries; +for when Delaroche gave up his studio of instruction he recommended his +pupils to apply to Gleyre, who at once agreed to give them lessons twice +a week, and characteristically refused to take any fee or reward. By +instinct and principle he was a confirmed celibate: "Fortune, talent, +health,--he had everything; but he was married," was his lamentation +over a friend. Though he lived in almost complete retirement from public +life, he took a keen interest in politics, and was a voracious reader of +political journals. For a time, indeed, under Louis Philippe, his studio +had been the rendezvous of a sort of liberal club. To the last--amid all +the disasters that befell his country--he was hopeful of the future, "la +raison finira bien par avoir raison." It was while on a visit to the +Retrospective Exhibition, opened on behalf of the exiles from Alsace and +Lorraine, that he died suddenly on the 5th of May 1874. He left +unfinished the "Earthly Paradise," a noble picture, which Taine has +described as "a dream of innocence, of happiness and of beauty--Adam and +Eve standing in the sublime and joyous landscape of a paradise enclosed +in mountains,"--a worthy counterpart to the "Evening." Among the other +productions of his genius are the "Deluge," which represents two angels +speeding above the desolate earth, from which the destroying waters have +just begun to retire, leaving visible behind them the ruin they have +wrought; the "Battle of the Lemanus," a piece of elaborate design, +crowded but not cumbered with figures, and giving fine expression to the +movements of the various bands of combatants and fugitives; the +"Prodigal Son," in which the artist has ventured to add to the parable +the new element of mother's love, greeting the repentant youth with a +welcome that shows that the mother's heart thinks less of the repentance +than of the return; "Ruth and Boaz"; "Ulysses and Nausicaa"; "Hercules +at the feet of Omphale"; the "Young Athenian," or, as it is popularly +called, "Sappho"; "Minerva and the Nymphs"; "Venus [Greek: pandemos]"; +"Daphnis and Chloe"; and "Love and the Parcae." Nor must it be omitted +that he left a considerable number of drawings and water-colours, and +that we are indebted to him for a number of portraits, among which is +the sad face of Heine, engraved in the _Revue des deux mondes_ for April +1852. In Clement's catalogue of his works there are 683 entries, +including sketches and studies. + + See Fritz Berthoud in _Bibliotheque universelle de Geneve_ (1874); + Albert de Montet, _Dict. biographique des Genevois et des Vaudois_ + (1877); and _Vie de Charles Gleyre_ (1877), written by his friend, + Charles Clement, and illustrated by 30 plates from his works. + + + + +GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS (1809-1857), British Egyptologist, was born in +Devonshire in 1809. His father, a merchant, was United States consul at +Alexandria, and there Gliddon was taken at an early age. He became +United States vice-consul, and took a great interest in Egyptian +antiquities. Subsequently he lectured in the United States and succeeded +in rousing considerable attention to the subject of Egyptology +generally. He died at Panama in 1857. His chief work was _Ancient Egypt_ +(1850, ed. 1853). He wrote also _Memoir on the Cotton of Egypt_ (1841); +_Appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe on the Destruction of the Monuments +of Egypt_ (1841); _Discourses on Egyptian Archaeology_ (1841); _Types of +Mankind_ (1854), in conjunction with J. C. Nott and others; _Indigenous +Races of the Earth_ (1857), also in conjunction with Nott and others. + + + + +GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH (1788-1849); Russian poet and author, was born +at Smolensk in 1788, and was specially educated for the army. In 1803 he +obtained a commission as an officer, and two years later took part in +the Austrian campaign. His tastes for literary pursuits, however, soon +induced him to leave the service, whereupon he withdrew to his estates +in the government of Smolensk, and subsequently devoted most of his time +to study or travelling about Russia. Upon the invasion of the French in +1812, he re-entered the Russian army, and remained in active service +until the end of the campaign in 1814. Upon the elevation of Count +Milarodovich to the military governorship of St Petersburg, Glinka was +appointed colonel under his command. On account of his suspected +revolutionary tendencies he was, in 1826, banished to Petrozavodsk, but +he nevertheless retained his honorary post of president of the Society +of the Friends of Russian Literature, and was after a time allowed to +return to St Petersburg. Soon afterwards he retired completely from +public life, and died on his estates in 1849. + + Glinka's martial songs have special reference to the Russian military + campaigns of his time. He is known also as the author of the + descriptive poem _Kareliya_, &c. (_Carelia, or the Captivity of Martha + Joanovna_) (1830), and of a metrical paraphrase of the book of Job. + His fame as a military author is chiefly due to his _Pisma Russkago + Ofitsera_ (_Letters of a Russian Officer_) (8 vols., 1815-1816). + + + + +GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1803-1857), Russian musical composer, was +born at Novospassky, a village in the Smolensk government, on the 2nd of +June 1803. His early life he spent at home, but at the age of thirteen +we find him at the Blagorodrey Pension, St Petersburg, where he studied +music under Carl Maier and John Field, the Irish composer and pianist, +who had settled in Russia. We are told that in his seventeenth year he +had already begun to compose romances and other minor vocal pieces; but +of these nothing now is known. His thorough musical training did not +begin till the year 1830, when he went abroad and stayed for three years +in Italy, to study the works of old and modern Italian masters. His +thorough knowledge of the requirements of the voice may be connected +with this course of study. His training as a composer was finished under +the contrapuntist Dehn, with whom Glinka stayed for several months at +Berlin. In 1833 he returned to Russia, and devoted himself to operatic +composition. On the 27th of September (9th of October) 1836, took place +the first representation of his opera _Life for the Tsar_ (the libretto +by Baron de Rosen). This was the turning-point in Glinka's life,--for +the work was not only a great success, but in a manner became the origin +and basis of a Russian school of national music. The story is taken from +the invasion of Russia by the Poles early in the 17th century, and the +hero is a peasant who sacrifices his life for the tsar. Glinka has +wedded this patriotic theme to inspiring music. His melodies, moreover, +show distinct affinity to the popular songs of the Russians, so that the +term "national" may justly be applied to them. His appointment as +imperial chapelmaster and conductor of the opera of St Petersburg was +the reward of his dramatic successes. His second opera _Russlan and +Lyudmila_, founded on Pushkin's poem, did not appear till 1842; it was +an advance upon _Life for the Tsar_ in its musical aspect, but made no +impression upon the public. In the meantime Glinka wrote an overture and +four entre-actes to Kukolnik's drama _Prince Kholmsky_. In 1844 he went +to Paris, and his _Jota Arragonesa_ (1847), and the symphonic work on +Spanish themes, _Une Nuit a Madrid_, reflect the musical results of two +years' sojourn in Spain. On his return to St Petersburg he wrote and +arranged several pieces for the orchestra, amongst which the so-called +_Kamarinskaya_ achieved popularity beyond the limits of Russia. He also +composed numerous songs and romances. In 1857 he went abroad for the +third time; he now wrote his autobiography, orchestrated Weber's +_Invitation a la valse_, and began to consider a plan for a musical +version of Gogol's _Tarass-Boulba_. Abandoning the idea and becoming +absorbed in a passion for ecclesiastical music he went to Berlin to +study the ancient church modes. Here he died suddenly on the 2nd of +February 1857. + + + + +GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH (1774-1847), Russian author, the elder brother +of Fedor N. Glinka, was born at Smolensk in 1774. In 1796 he entered the +Russian army, but after three years' service retired with the rank of +major. He afterwards employed himself in the education of youth and in +literary pursuits, first in the Ukraine, and subsequently at Moscow, +where he died in 1847. His poems are spirited and patriotic; he wrote +also several dramatic pieces, and translated Young's _Night Thoughts_. + + Among his numerous prose works the most important from an historical + point of view are: _Russkoe Chtenie_ (_Russian Reading: Historical + Memorials of Russia in the 18th and 19th Centuries_) (2 vols., 1845); + _Istoriya Rossii_, &c. (_History of Russia for the use of Youth_) (10 + vols., 1817-1819, 2nd ed. 1822, 3rd ed. 1824); _Istoriya Armyan_, &c. + (_History of the Migration of the Armenians of Azerbijan from Turkey + to Russia_) (1831); and his contributions to the _Russky Vyestnik + (Russian Messenger)_, a monthly periodical, edited by him from 1808 to + 1820. + + + + +GLOBE-FISH, or SEA-HEDGEHOG, the names by which some sea-fishes are +known, which have the remarkable faculty of inflating their stomachs +with air. They belong to the families Diodontidae and Tetrodontidae. +Their jaws resemble the sharp beak of a parrot, the bones and teeth +being coalesced into one mass with a sharp edge. In the Diodonts there +is no mesial division of the jaws, whilst in the Tetrodonts such a +division exists, so that they appear to have two teeth above and two +below. By means of these jaws they are able to break off branches of +corals, and to masticate other hard substances on which they feed. +Usually they are of a short, thick, cylindrical shape, with powerful +fins (fig. 1). Their body is covered with thick skin, without scales, +but provided with variously formed spines, the size and extent of which +vary in the different species. When they inflate their capacious +stomachs with air, they assume a globular form, and the spines protrude, +forming a more or less formidable defensive armour (fig. 2). A fish thus +blown out turns over and floats belly upwards, driving before the wind +and waves. Many of these fishes are highly poisonous when eaten, and +fatal accidents have occurred from this cause. It appears that they +acquire poisonous qualities from their food, which frequently consists +of decomposing or poisonous animal matter, such as would impart, and +often does impart, similar deleterious qualities to other fish. They are +most numerous between the tropics and in the seas contiguous to them, +but a few species live in large rivers, as, for instance, the _Tetrodon +fahaka_, a fish well known to all travellers on the Nile. Nearly 100 +different species are known. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diodon maculatus.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Diodon maculatus_ (inflated).] + + + + +GLOBIGERINA, A. d'Orbigny, a genus of Perforate Foraminifera (q.v.) of +pelagic habit, and formed of a conical spiral aggregate of spheroidal +chambers with a crescentic mouth. The shells accumulate at the bottom of +moderately deep seas to form "Globigerina ooze" and are preserved thus +in the chalk. _Hastigerina_ only differs in the "flat" or nautiloid +spiral. + + + + +GLOCKENSPIEL, or ORCHESTRAL BELLS (Fr. _carillon_; Ger. _Glockenspiel_, +_Stahlharmonika_; Ital. _campanelli_; Med. Lat. _tintinnabulum_, +_cymbalum_, _bombulum_), an instrument of percussion of definite musical +pitch, used in the orchestra, and made in two or three different styles. +The oldest form of glockenspiel, seen in illuminated MSS. of the middle +ages, consists of a set of bells mounted on a frame and played by one +performer by means of steel hammers. The name "bell" is now generally a +misnomer, other forms of metal or wood having been found more +convenient. The pyramid-shaped glockenspiel, formerly used in the +orchestra for simple rhythmical effects, consists of an octave of +semitone, hemispherical bells, placed one above the other and fastened +to an iron rod which passes through the centre of each, the bells being +of graduated sizes and diminishing in diameter as the pitch rises. The +lyre-shaped glockenspiel, or steel harmonica (_Stahlharmonika_), is a +newer model, which has instead of bells twelve or more bars of steel, +graduating in size according to their pitch. These bars are fastened +horizontally across two bars of steel set perpendicularly in a steel +frame in the shape of a lyre. The bars are struck by little steel +hammers attached to whalebone sticks. + + Wagner has used the glockenspiel with exquisite judgment in the fire + scene of the last act of _Die Walkure_ and in the peasants' waltz in + the last scene of _Die Meistersinger_. When chords are written for the + glockenspiel, as in Mozart's _Magic Flute_, the keyed harmonica[1] is + used. It consists of a keyboard having a little hammer attached to + each key, which strikes a bar of glass or steel when the key is + depressed. The performer, being able to use both hands, can play a + melody with full harmonies, scale and arpeggio passages in single and + double notes. A peal of hemispherical bells was specially constructed + for Sir Arthur Sullivan's _Golden Legend_. It consists of four bells + constructed of bell-metal about 1 in. thick, the largest measuring 27 + in. in diameter, the smallest 23. They are fixed on a stand one above + the other, with a clearance of about 3/4 in. between them; the rim of + the lowest and largest bell is 15 in. from the foot of the stand. The + bells are struck by mallets, which are of two kinds--a pair of hard + wood for forte passages, and a pair covered with wash-leather for + piano effects. The peal was unique at the time it was made for the + _Golden Legend_, but a smaller bell of the same shape, 1/4 in. thick, + with a diameter measuring about 16 in., specially made for the + performance of Liszt's _St Elizabeth_, when conducted by the composer + in London, evidently suggested the idea for the peal. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See "The Keyed Harmonica improved by H. Klein of Pressburg," + article in the _Allg. musik. Ztg._, Bd. i. pp. 675-699 (Leipzig, + 1798); also Becker, p. 254, _Bartel_. + + + + +GLOGAU, a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Silesia, 59 m. N.W. from Breslau, on the railway to Frankfort-on-Oder. +Pop. (1905) 23,461. It is built partly on an island and partly on the +left bank of the Oder; and owing to the fortified enceinte having been +pushed farther afield, new quarters have been opened up. Among its most +important buildings are the cathedral, in the Gothic, and a castle (now +used as a courthouse), in the Renaissance style, two other Roman +Catholic and three Protestant churches, a new town-hall, a synagogue, a +military hospital, two classical schools (_Gymnasien_) and several +libraries. Owing to its situation on a navigable river and at the +junction of several lines of railway, Glogau carries on an extensive +trade, which is fostered by a variety of local industries, embracing +machinery-building, tobacco, beer, oil, sugar and vinegar. It has also +extensive lithographic works, and its wool market is celebrated. + +In the beginning of the 11th century Glogau, even then a populous and +fortified town, was able to withstand a regular siege by the emperor +Henry V.; but in 1157 the duke of Silesia, finding he could not hold out +against Frederick Barbarossa, set it on fire. In 1252 the town, which +had been raised from its ashes by Henry I., the Bearded, became the +capital of a principality of Glogau, and in 1482 town and district were +united to the Bohemian crown. In the course of the Thirty Years' War +Glogau suffered greatly. The inhabitants, who had become Protestants +soon after the Reformation, were dragooned into conformity by +Wallenstein's soldiery; and the Jesuits received permission to build +themselves a church and a college. Captured by the Protestants in 1632, +and recovered by the Imperialists in 1633, the town was again captured +by the Swedes in 1642, and continued in Protestant hands till the peace +of Westphalia in 1648, when the emperor recovered it. In 1741 the +Prussians took the place by storm, and during the Seven Years' War it +formed an important centre of operations for the Prussian forces. After +the battle of Jena (1806) it fell into the hands of the French; and was +gallantly held by Laplane, against the Russian and Prussian besiegers, +after the battle of Katzbach in August 1813 until the 17th of the +following April. + + See Minsberg, _Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Glogau's_ (2 vols., + Glogau, 1853); and H. von Below, _Zur Geschichte des Jahres_ 1806. + _Glogau's Belagerung und Verteidigung_ (Berlin, 1893). + + + + +GLORIOSA, in botany, a small genus of plants belonging to the natural +order Liliaceae, native of tropical Asia and Africa. They are bulbous +plants, the slender stems of which support themselves by tendril-like +prolongations of the tips of some of the narrow generally lanceolate +leaves. The flowers, which are borne in the leaf-axils at the ends of +the stem, are very handsome, the six, generally narrow, petals are bent +back and stand erect, and are a rich orange yellow or red in colour; the +six stamens project more or less horizontally from the place of +insertion of the petals. They are generally grown in cultivation as +stove-plants. + + + + +GLORY (through the O. Fr. _glorie_, modern _gloire_, from Lat. _gloria_, +cognate with Gr. [Greek: kleos, kluein]), a synonym for fame, renown, +honour, and thus used of anything which reflects honour and renown on +its possessor. In the phrase "glory of God" the word implies both the +honour due to the Creator, and His majesty and effulgence. In liturgies +of the Christian Church are the _Gloria Patri_, the doxology beginning +"Glory be to the Father," the response _Gloria tibi, Domine_, "Glory be +to Thee, O Lord," sung or said after the giving out of the Gospel for +the day, and the _Gloria in excelsis_, "Glory be to God on high," sung +during the Mass and Communion service. A "glory" is the term often used +as synonymous with halo, nimbus or aureola (q.v.) for the ring of light +encircling the head or figure in a pictorial or other representation of +sacred persons. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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