diff options
Diffstat (limited to '38456-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/38456-h.htm | 17791 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu000.jpg | bin | 0 -> 520240 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4296 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu001.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4557 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu005.png | bin | 0 -> 51001 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu006.png | bin | 0 -> 41570 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu020.jpg | bin | 0 -> 114674 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3886 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu055.png | bin | 0 -> 52683 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu058.jpg | bin | 0 -> 33461 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu061.jpg | bin | 0 -> 66635 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2821 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu065.png | bin | 0 -> 62094 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu067.png | bin | 0 -> 46587 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu072.png | bin | 0 -> 55881 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu077.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56267 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu084.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32391 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu085.png | bin | 0 -> 29875 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu090.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39856 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu094.jpg | bin | 0 -> 53300 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu104.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10075 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu108.jpg | bin | 0 -> 19278 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu113.jpg | bin | 0 -> 20290 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu114.png | bin | 0 -> 49686 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu127.jpg | bin | 0 -> 78512 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu147.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6724 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu151.png | bin | 0 -> 84139 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu153.jpg | bin | 0 -> 27775 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu155.jpg | bin | 0 -> 60422 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu157.jpg | bin | 0 -> 23117 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu160.jpg | bin | 0 -> 47648 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu176.jpg | bin | 0 -> 29136 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu178.png | bin | 0 -> 64904 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu213.jpg | bin | 0 -> 27562 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu252.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13656 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu253.png | bin | 0 -> 45339 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu276.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39140 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu278.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43688 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu279.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41757 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu284.jpg | bin | 0 -> 25884 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu285.jpg | bin | 0 -> 28642 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu291.jpg | bin | 0 -> 18589 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu295.jpg | bin | 0 -> 50195 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu303.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40402 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu305.jpg | bin | 0 -> 17567 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu310.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7002 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu324.jpg | bin | 0 -> 37795 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu326.png | bin | 0 -> 48541 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu334.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31533 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu359.jpg | bin | 0 -> 61887 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu403.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11174 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu405.png | bin | 0 -> 40977 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu414.jpg | bin | 0 -> 49718 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu420.jpg | bin | 0 -> 60706 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu483.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12185 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu484.png | bin | 0 -> 34357 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu519.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36797 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu522.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10169 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu525.jpg | bin | 0 -> 20725 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu528.jpg | bin | 0 -> 27002 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu531.jpg | bin | 0 -> 53281 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/illu544.jpg | bin | 0 -> 14426 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate066.jpg | bin | 0 -> 164201 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3512 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate177.jpg | bin | 0 -> 153530 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2435 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate254.jpg | bin | 0 -> 121276 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2551 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate325.jpg | bin | 0 -> 125383 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2042 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate404.jpg | bin | 0 -> 140218 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2172 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate485.jpg | bin | 0 -> 129993 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2297 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate542.jpg | bin | 0 -> 129527 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2489 bytes |
76 files changed, 17791 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/38456-h/38456-h.htm b/38456-h/38456-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f080ba4 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/38456-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17791 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara (vol. 1), by Karl Scherzer + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 12%; + margin-right: 12%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} +h2 {padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 2em; +} + +a:focus, a:active { outline:#ffee66 solid 2px; background-color:#ffee66;} +a:focus img, a:active img {outline: #ffee66 solid 2px; } + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +sup {padding-left: 0.1em; vertical-align: text-top; line-height: 50%; font-size: small;} +sub {padding-left: 0.1em; vertical-align: text-bottom; line-height: 50%; font-size: small;} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 87%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: gray; + margin-top: -0.45em;} + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.bl {border-left: solid 1px black;} +.br {border-right: solid 1px black;} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: + 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-bottom: 0.75em; + font-size: 0.9em; text-align: justify;} +.footnote .label {} +.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: 0.8em; text-decoration: none; position: relative;} + +.poem { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i20 { + display: block; + margin-left: 20em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.ads {text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 2em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em;} +.c2 {font-size: 1.50em; margin: 0.75em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;} +.c3 {font-size: 1.17em; margin: 0.83em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;} +.c4 {font-size: 1.00em; margin: 1.00em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;} +.c5 {font-size: 0.83em; margin: 1.15em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;} +.ChapDescr {text-align: justify; font-size: 0.9em; padding-bottom: 1em;} +.ChapterTopRule {width: 85%;} +.loi1 {text-align: left; text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 2em;} +.loi2 {text-align: right;} + +/* For transparent absolute-position images at left margin, block text flow underneath: */ +.ilbl {float: left; clear: both; margin: 0 1em 0 0; visibility: hidden;} + +/* For portion of transparent absolute-position image in center, block all text flow: */ +.icba {margin: auto; visibility: hidden;} +/* For portion of transparent absolute-position images in center, restrict text flow to channel: */ +.icbl {float: left; padding-right: 50%; clear: left; visibility: hidden;} +.icbr {float: right; padding-left: 50%; clear: right; visibility: hidden;} + +.right {text-align: right;} +.toc1 {padding-top: 1.5em;} +.toc2 {font-size: 0.8em;} +.toc3 {text-align: justify; font-size: 0.9em;} + +div.fig { display:block; + margin:0 auto; + text-align:center; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the +Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I + (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order + of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, + Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the + Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the + Austrian Navy. + +Author: Karl Ritter von Scherzer + +Commentator: Alexander von Humboldt + +Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38456] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I *** + + + + +Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net +(This file made from scans of public domain material at +Austrian Literature Online.) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div class="center" style="width: 25em; margin: auto; border: solid 1px; padding: 1em;"> +Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been faithfully replicated except as listed +<a href="#Changes" name="Start">here</a>. +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div style="text-align: center; padding-bottom: 2em;"> +<a href="#PREFACE_TO_THE_ENGLISH_EDITION">Preface</a> + <a href="#CONTENTS">Table Of Contents</a> + <a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List Of Illustrations</a> + <a href="#PHYSICAL_AND_GEOGNOSTIC_SUGGESTIONS">Pre-Cruise Comments by A. V. Humboldt</a> + <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendices</a> + <a href="#ADS">Advertisements</a> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px; padding-bottom: 4em;"><a name="illu000t" id="illu000t"></a> +<img src="images/illu000t.jpg" width="350" height="151" alt="Eastward track around the world." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHART OF THE TRACK OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE NOVARA +ON HER VOYAGE ROUND THE GLOBE<br /><i>In The Years 1857, 1858 & 1859.</i></span><br /> +<a href="images/illu000.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<h1 style="line-height: 2em;">NARRATIVE<br /> + +<small>OF THE</small><br /> + +Circumnavigation of the Globe<br /> + +<small>BY THE AUSTRIAN FRIGATE</small><br /> + +NOVARA,<br /> + +<small>IN THE YEARS 1857, 1858, & 1859,</small><br /> + +VOL. I.</h1> + +<div class="c4">(COMMODORE B. VON WULLERSTORF-URBAIR,)<br /> + +<i>Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government</i>,<br /> + +UNDER THE IMMEDIATE AUSPICES OF HIS I. AND R. HIGHNESS<br /> + +THE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND MAXIMILIAN, + +COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.</div> + +<div class="c2">DR. KARL SCHERZER,</div> + +<div class="c5"><span class="smcap">MEMBER OF THE EXPEDITION, AUTHOR OF "TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA," ETC.</span></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 170px;"><a name="illu001" id="illu001"></a> +<img src="images/illu001.jpg" width="170" height="116" alt="Sans Changer" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="c4">LONDON:<br /> + +<i>SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.</i><br /> + +66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE.<br /> + +1861.</div> + +<div class="c5">[THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.]</div> + +<div class="c5" style="padding-top: 2em;">LONDON:<br /> +PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,<br /> +ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div class="c5">TO</div> + +<div class="c3">SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON,</div> + +<div class="c5">G.C.S.ST., M.A., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., G.S., L.S., F.R.G.S.,<br /> + +DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,<br /> + +TRUST. BRIT. MUS., ETC., ETC.,</div> + +<div class="c4">THE GREAT PROMOTER OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE,</div> + +<div class="c4">These Pages are respectfully Inscribed,</div> + +<div class="c5">IN RECOGNITION OF HIS VALUABLE EXERTIONS IN ADVANCING THE SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS<br /> + +OF THE AUSTRIAN EXPEDITION,<br /> + +AS WELL AS<br /> + +IN GRATITUDE FOR THE HOSPITABLE RECEPTION SECURED TO THE NAVIGATORS<br /> + +THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES,<br /> + +WHEREVER IT WAS THEIR GOOD FORTUNE TO CAST ANCHOR,<br /> + +BY</div> + +<div class="c4">THE AUTHOR OF THE FOLLOWING NARRATIVE.</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">iii</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"><a name="illu005" id="illu005"></a> +<img src="images/illu005.png" width="416" height="700" alt="Letter." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LETTER.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="illu006" id="illu006"></a> +<img src="images/illu006.png" width="387" height="644" alt="Letter continued." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LETTER CONTINUED.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_ENGLISH_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_ENGLISH_EDITION"></a>PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.</h2> + +<p>A member of the scientific corps attached to the Expedition, +which, under the auspices of that enlightened friend of +science and liberty, the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, was +despatched on a voyage round the globe, the high honour has +been conferred upon me of having entrusted to my care the +publication of the Narrative of our Cruise.</p> + +<p>In this not more difficult than enviable task, I have been +most liberally assisted by my eminent fellow-labourers—the +whole literary material collected during the voyage having +been kindly placed at my disposal. The comprehensive +journals and reports of the venerable Commander-in-Chief of +the Expedition, Commodore Wullerstorff-Urbair, as well as +the various memoranda of the other members of the Scientific +Commission, contributed materially to the elucidation of my +own general notes, as well as my observations upon special +subjects, which latter chiefly referred to the Geography, +Ethnography, and general Statistics of the various countries +visited.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span></p> + +<p>While preparing the details of our voyage for publication in +my own language, the idea perpetually presented itself that +a translation of this narrative into English might prove not +unacceptable to the British public. And although fully aware +that a voyage round the globe, in the course of which little +more than the coasts were visited of the various countries +we touched at, could not pretend to offer much new +information to the greatest of maritime nations, it seemed, +nevertheless, that it might interest a people so eager in +the pursuit of knowledge as the English, to know the +impression which has been made upon travellers of education +by the Colonies and Settlements of Britain throughout the +world.</p> + +<p>The English language, moreover, being spoken more or less +over the greater part of the earth's surface, geographically +speaking, the author who addresses his readers in that +tongue is sustained by the flattering conviction that he +will be understood by the majority of the nations of the +globe! For it is not alone the educated classes of all +countries that seek to master a language which possesses +such a grand—all but unrivalled literature! The political +and commercial development which Great Britain enjoys under +the benign influence of liberal institutions, has made +English the medium of intercourse among almost all +sea-faring nations; nay, even barbarous tribes find it their +obvious interest to get a slight inkling at least of the +language of a people whose civilizing and elevating +energies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span> they may not, it is true, understand, far less +appreciate, but whose imposing power inspires them with awe, +while they are more closely attached by the tie of material +advantage.</p> + +<p>The following narrative describes the most important +occurrences and most lasting impressions of a voyage during +which we traversed 51,686 miles, visited twenty-five +different places, and spent 551 days at sea, and 298 at +anchor or on shore.</p> + +<p>As the purely scientific results of the Expedition will be +published separately under the supervision of Commodore +Wullerstorf and the other members of the scientific corps, I +shall, in this place, only attempt to place before the +reader a general outline of the countries and races visited +during our cruise in different regions of the world.</p> + +<p>In relating simply and concisely what was seen and +experienced, I have endeavoured to avoid incurring the +reproach, so frequently launched by English critics against +German works of travel, of dryness and minute detail, such +as render them distasteful to the English reader, and make +it almost impossible to enlist his attention or evoke his +sympathy.</p> + +<p>If, as is specially the case with respect to natural +science, many a doubtful point still remains undecided—if +the ingenious "Suggestions" of the immortal Alexander von +Humboldt (for the translation of which I feel particularly +indebted to that profound scholar, my learned and esteemed +friend Mr. Haidinger, whose name will be familiar to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span> +scientific world in Great Britain), could not be acted upon +to the extent and in the effectual manner each of us could +have wished, the reason for such deficiencies will be found +in the peculiar mission of the Expedition, and in the +arrangement of our route, which was specially laid out with +reference to the numerous and widely different objects, +which it was specially intended to keep in view throughout +the voyage.</p> + +<p>Among the more prominent of these, may be specified the +opportunity thus afforded for the practical instruction of +our young and rapidly-increasing navy; the unfurling of the +Imperial flag of Austria in those distant climes, where it +had never before floated; the promulgation of commercial +treaties; the aid afforded to science in exploration and +investigation, as well as by the collection of those objects +of Natural History, the acquisition of which is all but +impossible to the solitary naturalist, owing to the expense +and difficulty of transport,<a name="Anchor-1" id="Anchor-1"></a><a href="#Footnote-1" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 1.">[1]</a> and the establishment +everywhere of friendly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span> correspondence between our own +scientific institutions and those in remote regions, I have +considered it necessary to invite the attention of the +British reading public to these circumstances, in order to +make them more intimately cognisant of our various and +manifold tasks, and thus make them the more readily disposed +to overlook the deficiencies and discrepancies of this book, +which I now respectfully commit to their perusal.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-1" id="Footnote-1"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-1">[1]</a> Notwithstanding the short period at our +disposal at each port, which concomitant necessity militates +so much against the practical utility of a circumnavigation +of the globe as compared with an expedition solely directed +to one single centre of scientific observation, the +collection of objects of Natural History made during the +cruise are very extensive, and unusually rich in new or rare +species. The zoological department alone embraces above +23,700 individuals of different kinds of animals: viz. 440 +mammalia, 300 reptiles, 1500 birds, 1400 <i>Amphibiæ</i>, 1330 +fish, 9000 insects, 8900 Molluscs and <i>Crustaceæ</i>, 300 +birds' eggs and nests, besides numerous skeletons. The +botanical collection consists of <i>Herbaria</i>, seeds of useful +plants, special regard being had to those best adapted for +the various climates of the respective Austrian provinces, +drugs, specimens of dye-woods, and timber, fruits preserved +in alcohol, &c. The Geological and Palæontological Museums +of our country have likewise been enriched with various rare +and valuable specimens, particularly in consequence of Dr. +Hochstetter, the geologist of the Expedition, having +prolonged his stay in New Zealand, where, at the special +request of the Colonial Government, he explored the province +of Auckland. The Ethnographical and Anthropological +collection consists of above 550 objects, among which are +100 skulls, representing the craniology of almost all the +races of the globe.</p></div> + +<p>Before concluding, I beg leave to express my hearty thanks +to all those who have contributed in such various ways to +aid my humble efforts—to specify some were invidious, as in +so doing I must wrong others. To each and all I return the +most heartfelt gratitude.</p> + +<p>May the indulgent reader peruse the following pages with an +approving eye—may they afford him as much satisfaction and +as much interest as I experienced in committing to paper the +descriptions and impressions therein set forth, since in so +doing, I, so to speak, made the delightful voyage for the +second time, and in thought visited once more the different +localities, from every one of which I, and my +fellow-travellers, brought away none but the most friendly +and agreeable recollections.</p> + +<p>It inspires a <i>German</i> traveller with a peculiar and lofty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span> +feeling of pride and delight that he can look upon himself +as belonging to a race, to whom seems to have been reserved +the diffusion of a New Life over the earth—whose special +mission it appears to be to make even the most primitive +tribes in the remotest corner of the world acquainted with +the blessings of Christian civilization, of political +liberty, of intellectual culture, and, standing triumphant +on the ruins of slavery and despotism, to proclaim to the +great family of universal mankind, the advent of a new, a +vernal era of Faith, Freedom, and Happiness!</p> + +<div class="right"> +<span class="smcap">Dr. Karl Scherzer.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trieste</span>, <i>18th March, 1861</i>.</p> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">xi</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">PREPARATIONS FOR THE VOYAGE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td class="smcap" style="font-size: 0.8em">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Approval of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a +Voyage round the World.—Object of the +Expedition.—Appointment of a Scientific +Commission.—Preparations.—Fitting out the Frigate <i>Novara</i> +at Pola.—Departure for Trieste.—Visit of the Archduke +Ferdinand Maximilian on board. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">FROM TRIESTE TO GIBRALTAR.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Departure.—Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.—A Man lost and +found again.—Passage through the Straits of Messina.—The +Steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> returns to Trieste.—Regulations and +Instructions for further Proceedings.—A Day on Board the +<i>Novara</i>.—Sunrise.—Cleaning the Ship.—Mental and Physical +Occupation.—Moonlight at Sea. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">GIBRALTAR.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Political Significance of the Rock.—Courtesy of the British +Authorities.—Fortifications.—Signal Stations.—The only +Place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.—Calcareous +Caves.—Chief Entrances into the Town.—Shutting the Town +Gates.—Public Establishments.—Inhabitants.—Elliott's +Gardens.—The Isthmus, or Neutral +Ground.—Algeziras.—Ceuta.—Commerce and +Navigation.—Excellent Regulation in the English Navy +relative to Officers' Outfit.—Small-pox appears on board +the <i>Caroline</i>.—Departure from Gibraltar.—A Fata +Morgana.—The <i>Novara</i> passes the Straits.—Takes leave of +Europe.—Voyage to Madeira.—Floating Bottles to ascertain +the Currents.—Arrival in the Roads of Funchal. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">MADEIRA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +First Impressions.—Difficulty in Landing.—Description of +the Island.—History.—Unfavourable Political Circumstances +connected with the Cultivation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a></span> of the +Ground.—Aqueducts.—First Planting of the +Sugar-cane.—Culture of the Vine.—Its Disease and +Decay.—Cochineal as a Compensation for its Loss.—Prospects +of Success.—Climate.—A favourable Winter Residence for the +Consumptive.—Strangers.—First Appearance of the +Cholera.—Observations with the Ozonometer.—Great Distress +among the Lower Classes.—Liberal Assistance from +England.—Decline of Commerce.—Inhabitants and their Mode +of Life.—Decrease of the Population, and its +Causes.—Benevolent Institutions.—Public Libraries.—The +Cathedral.—Barracks.—Prison.—Environs of +Funchal.—Excursion to St. Anna.—Ascent of the Pico +Ruivo.—Singular Sledge Party.—Return to +Funchal.—Departure. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">RIO DE JANEIRO.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Brazil the Land of Contrasts.—Appearance of the City of Rio +and its Environs.—Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and +the Tejuca Waterfalls.—Germans in Rio.—Brazilian Literary +Men.—Assacú (<i>Hura Brasiliensis</i>.)—Snake-bite as an +Antidote against Leprosy.—Public Institutions.—Negroes of +the Mozambique Coast.—The House of Misericordia.—Lunatic +Asylum.—Botanical Garden.—Public +Instruction.—Historico-Geographical Institution.—<i>Palæstra +Scientifica.</i>—Military Academy.—Library.—Conservatory of +Music.—Sanitary Police.—Yellow Fever and Cholera.—Water +Party on the Bay.—Chamber of +Deputies.—Petropolis.—Condition of the Slave +Population.—Prospects of German Emigration.—Suitability of +Brazil as a Market for German Commerce.—Natural Products, +and Exchange of Manufactures.—Audience of the Emperor and +Empress.—Extravagant Waste of Powder for Salvoes.—Songs of +the Sailors.—Departure from Rio.—Retrospect.—South-east +Trades.—Cape Pigeons.—Albatrosses—Cape Tormentoso.—A +Storm at the Cape.—Various Methods of Measuring the Height +of Waves.—Arrival in Simon's Bay. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Contrasts of Scenery and Seasons at Cape Colony.—Ramble +through Simon's Town.—Malay Population.—The Toad-fish, or +Sea-devil.—Rondebosch and its delightful Scenery.—Cape +Town.—Influence of the English Element.—Scientific and +other Institutions.—Botanical Gardens.—Useful +Plants.—Foreign Emigration.—A Caffre Prophet and the +Consequences of his Prophecies.—Caffre Prisoners in the +Armstrong Battery.—Five young Caffres take Service as +Sailors on Board the <i>Novara</i>.—Trip into the +Interior.—Stellenbosch.—Paarl.—Worcester.—Brand +Vley.—The Mission of Moravian Brethren at +Genaadendal.—Masticatories and intoxicating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a></span> Substances +used by the Hottentots.—Caledon.—Somerset +West.—Zandvliet.—Tomb of a Malay Prophet.—Horse +Sickness.—Tsetse-fly.—Vineyards of Constantia.—<i>Fête +Champétre</i> in Honour of the <i>Novara</i>.—Excursion to the +actual Cape of Good Hope.—Departure.—A Life +saved.—Experiments with Brook's Deep-sea Sounding +Apparatus.—Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South +Indian Ocean. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">THE ISLANDS OF ST. PAUL AND AMSTERDAM, IN THE SOUTH INDIAN +OCEAN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Former History.—Importance of the Situation of St. +Paul.—Present Inhabitants.—Preliminary Observations.—To +whom do the Islands belong?—Fisheries.—Hot +springs.—Singular +Experiment.—Penguins.—Disembarkation.—Inclement +Weather.—Remarks on the Climate of the Island.—Cultivation +of European Vegetables.—Animal Life.—Library in a +Fisherman's Hut.—Narrative of old +Viot.—Re-embarkation.—An official Document left +behind.—Some Results obtained during the Stay of the +Expedition.—Visit to the Island of +Amsterdam.—Whalers.—Search for a Landing-place.—Remarks +on the Natural History of the Islands.—A +Conflagration.—Comparison of the Two Islands.—A +<i>Rencontre</i> at Sea.—Trade-wind.—Christmas at Sea.—"A man +overboard!"—Cingalese Canoe.—Arrival at Point de Galle, in +Ceylon. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">CEYLON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English +Government.—Better Prospects for the Future.—The +Cingalese, their Language and Customs.—Buddhism and its +Ordinances.—Visit to a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of +Galle.—The sacred Bo-tree.—Other Aborigines of +Ceylon.—The Weddàhs.—Traditions as to their Origin.—Galle +as a City and Harbour.—Snake-charmers.—Departure for +Colombo.—Cultivation of the Cocoa-nut Palm a benevolent, +Buddha-pleasing work.—Polyandria; or, Community of +Husbands—Supposed Origin.—Annual Exportation of +Cocoa-nuts.—Rest-houses for Travellers.—Curry the national +Dish.—A Misfortune and its Consequences.—The Catholic +Mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn, and Father +Miliani.—Annoying Delays with restive Horses.—Colombo.—A +Stroll through the "<i>Pettah</i>," or Black Town.—Ice Trade of +the Americans with Tropical Countries.—Cinnamon Gardens and +Cinnamon Cultivation.—Consequences of the Monopoly of +Cinnamon.—Rise and Expansion of the Coffee Culture in +Ceylon.—Pearl-fishery.—Latest Examination of the Ceylon +Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its +Results.—Aripo at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv"></a></span> the Season of Pearl-fishing.—The +Divers.—Pearl-lime, a chewing Substance of wealthy +Malays.—Annual Profit of the Pearl-fishery.—Origin of the +Pearl.—Poetry and Natural Science.—Artificial Production +of the Pearl.—The Chank-shell.—The Wealth of Ceylon in +Precious Stones.—Visit to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.—The +Cowry-shell, a Promoter of the Slave Trade.—Discovery of +valuable Cingalese MSS. on Palm-leaves.—The heroic Poem of +"Mahawanso," and Turnour's English Translation of +it.—Hospitality of English Officials in Colombo.—A second +Visit to Father Miliani.—Agreeable Reception.—The +Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous Snakes.—Adventures +on the Journey back to Galle.—Ascent of Adam's Peak by two +Members of the Expedition.—The Sacred +Footprint.—Descent.—The "Bullock-bandy," or Native +Waggon.—Departure from Galle for Madras.—The Bassos +(Shallows).—A Berlin Rope-dancer among the +Passengers.—Nyctalopia; or, Night Blindness.—Fire on +Board.—Arrival in Madras Roads. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">MADRAS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3"> +"Catamarans" and "Masuli" Boats.—Difficulty of +Disembarkation, and Plans for remedying +it.—History.—Brahminism.—Festival in Honour of +Vishnù.—Employment of Heathens under a Christian +Government.—Politics and Religion.—Laws of Brahminic +Faith.—The Observatory.—Museum of Natural History and +Zoological Garden.—Academy of Fine Arts.—Medical +School.—Infirmary.—Orphan Asylum.—Dr. Bell.—Lancastrian +Method of Teaching Children first Applied in +Madras.—Colonel Mackenzie's Collection of Indian +Inscriptions and MSS.—The Palace of the former Nabob of the +Coromandel Coast.—Journey by Rail to Vellore.—<i>Féte</i> given +by the Governor in Guindy Park.—Visit to the Monolithic +Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.—Excursion to Pulicat +Lake.—Madras Club.—<i>Féte</i> in Honour of the Members of the +<i>Novara</i> Expedition.—"Tiffin" and Dance on +Board.—Departure from Madras.—Zodiacal Light.—Shrove +Tuesday in the Tropics.—Arrival at the Island of +Kar-Nicobar. +</td> + +<td><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td></tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + +<div class="c3">VOL. I.</div> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td class="smcap">page</td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu000t">The Track Of The Austrian Imperial Frigate Novara.</a></td><td class="loi2"><i>frontispiece</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu005">Letter.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_iii">iii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu006">Letter Continued.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_iv">iv</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu020t">Letter.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu055">Departure.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu058">Gun-room of the <i>Novara</i>.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu061t">Plate: Vertical Section of the Frigate "Novara".</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu065">Geodetical and Astronomical Instruments.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu067">Look-out Man.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate066t">Track from Triest To Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu072">"Palinurus".</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu077">Seamen off duty.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu084">View of Gibraltar from Seaward.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu085">Rock of Gibraltar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu090">Rock Cavern in Gibraltar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu094">South Gate, Gibraltar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu104">Inhabitant of Frangola.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu108">Cape Trafalgar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu113">Loo Rock (Madeira).</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu114">Scene in Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu127">Bridge over the Ribeiro Seco.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu147">Carapuça, or Cap worn by the Natives of Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu151">Cathedral of Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu153">Sleigh party in Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu155">Village of Fayal.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu157">"El Homem em pié".</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu160">Erica Trees.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate177t">Track From Madeira to Rio Di Janeiro.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu176">Cape Frio.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu178">The Quay at Rio.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu213">Island of Paquità, Bay of Rio.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate254t">Track from Rio Di Janeiro to the Cape Of Good Hope.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu252">Cabo Tormentoso.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu253">Cape Town.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu276">Rifle Volunteer <i>Fête</i> at Stellenbosch.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu278">Paine's Kloef as it was.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu279">Paine's Kloef as it is.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu284">Crossing the Breede River.</a></td><td class="loi2">226 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi"></a></span> +</td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu285">Hot Springs of Brand Vley.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu291">Hottentot Huts at Genaadendal.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu295">Church and Mission Houses of the Moravian Settlement<br />at Genaadendal.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu303">Tomb of a Malay Prophet at Zandvliet.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu305">Interior of the Mausoleum.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu310">Tsetse Fly.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate325t">Track from the Cape Of Good Hope to St. Paul's Island.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu324">Arrival at St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu326">View of St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu334">Distant view of Crater-Basin of St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu359">Rainy day at St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate404t">Track from St. Paul to Point De Galle (Ceylon).</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu403">Cingalese Canoe.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu405">View of Adam's Peak from Colombo.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu414">Buddha Temple near Galle.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu420">Interior of a House at Galle.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate485t">Track from Point De Galle To Madras.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu483">Masuli Boat at Madras.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu484">View of Madras (and Proposed Pier).</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu519">The Holy Mountain.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu522">The god Ganeza.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_461">461</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu525">Bivouac at Mahamalaipuran.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu528">Bas-relief on one of the Monolith Temples.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu531">Entrance to One of the Temples.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_470">470</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate542t">Track from Madras to the Nicobar Islands.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu544">Arrival at Kar-Nicobar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="illu020t" id="illu020t"></a> +<img src="images/illu020t.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="Letter." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LETTER.</span><br /> +<a href="images/illu020.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>Transcriber's Note: The text of the letter above, along with supplemental +address information, are in the first volume of the German edition:</p> + +<div class="blockquot" lang="de" xml:lang="de"> + <div style="text-align: center; margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1em;"> + Sr. Hochwohlgeboren<br /> + dem Herrn Oberst von Wüllerstorf,<br /> + kais. kön. Linienschiffs-Capitän,<br /> + Befehlshaber S. Maj. Fregatte Novara,<br /> + Ritter hoher Orden &c. &c. &c.<br /> + in<br /> + Triest.<br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Hochwohlgeborener Herr,<br /> + <br /> + Hochzuverehrender Herr Oberst, k. k. Linien-Schiffs-Capitän.<br /> + </div> + <div style="padding-bottom: 1em;"> + Ew. Hochwohlgeb. wollen, als Befehlshaber Sr. Maj. Fregatte Novara, die zu + einem großen, edeln, das deutsche Vaterland und die Wissenschaft ehrenden Unternehmen + durch kaiserliche Huld bestimmt ist, den Ausdruck meiner Verehrung nachsichtsvoll + empfangen, indem ich, von der Zeit naher Abfahrt in halber Genesung bedrängt, es + wage, Ihnen einige <i>physikalische</i> und <i>geognostische Erinnerungen</i> ganz + gehorsamst vorzulegen, von denen Einiges vielleicht den ausgezeichneten Gelehrten, die + die Expedition zu begleiten das Glück haben, von Nuzen sein kann. Ich würde + dies Wenige nicht angeboten haben, wenn eine so genädige und liebenswürdige Aufforderung + Sr. kaiserl. Hoheit des Herrn Erzherzogs Ferdinand Maximilian mich nicht + dazu bestimmt hätte. Was ich Nautisches über Richtung und Temperatur der Meeresströhmungen, + über die magnetischen Curven eingeflochten habe, muß ich besonders <i>Ihrer</i> + Nachsicht empfehlen. Wenn man erinnert, scheint man belehren zu wollen, und von dieser + Anmaßung bin ich weit entfernt. Da kein Entwurf, keine Abschrift meiner, wenigstens + fleißigen, mit Zahlen überladenen Arbeit existirt, so wäre es vielleicht vorsichtig, sie + von Jemand, der der behandelten Gegenstände kundig ist, abschreiben zu lassen. Meine + gelehrten und mir lieben Freunde Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter, Dr. Karl Scherzer und + Dr. Robert Lallemant, der mich bei seiner letzten Durchreise durch Berlin, um mir + sein wichtiges Werk über das Gelbe Fieber in der Tropenzone zu geben, verfehlt hat, + wage ich dringend Ihrem besonderen Schuze und Wohlwollen zu empfehlen.<br /> + <br /> + Mit der innigsten Verehrung und den heißesten Wünschen für den Erfolg eines + so schön vorbereiteten Unternehmens<br /> + </div> + <div style="text-align: center; margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1em;"> + Ew. Hochwohlgeboren + </div> + <div style="margin: auto; padding: 0 0 1em 30em;"> + gehorsamster<br /> + <br /> + Al. Humboldt. + </div> + <div style="text-align: left; margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1em;"> + Berlin, den 7. April<br />1857 Nachts. + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PHYSICAL_AND_GEOGNOSTIC_SUGGESTIONS" id="PHYSICAL_AND_GEOGNOSTIC_SUGGESTIONS"></a>PHYSICAL AND GEOGNOSTIC SUGGESTIONS,</h2> + +<div class="c5">BY</div> + +<div class="c3">ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT.</div> + +<p>In compliance with the gracious invitation which H.I.H. the +Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian was pleased to address to me +from Trieste (December 12th, 1856), and as yet barely +recovered from an indisposition, I jot down these hasty +notes, without presuming to give definite instructions, such +as those I drew up, conjointly with M. Arago, for the +guidance of the French expeditions, or for Lord Minto, then +First Lord of the Admiralty, on the occasion of the +Antarctic Voyage of Discovery of Sir James Ross (1840-43). +The following pages consist simply of hints which may +possibly prove serviceable to the distinguished and highly +informed gentlemen, who have the good fortune to sail on +board the Imperial Frigate, <i>Novara</i>, under the command of +Commodore von Wüllerstorf. With two of these savans, Dr. +Ferdinand Hochstetter and Dr. Karl Scherzer, I have had the +pleasure, here in Berlin, to agree verbally on various +subjects.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">xviii</a></span></p> + +<p>As I do not exactly know what course it is intended the +<i>Novara</i> shall follow in navigating the Atlantic, nor in +what meridian it is proposed to cross the Equator, (in +conformity with the sound and useful directions of my friend +Lieut. Maury, of Washington), on her voyage to Rio de +Janeiro, nor how near she shall keep to Cape San Roque and +Fernando de Noronha, I must content myself with inviting the +attention of the voyagers in a general way to the +temperature of the sea, as also to the variations and +aberrations of the magnetic curves, and their currents.</p> + +<p>A lower degree of temperature is usually observed W. of the +Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands, commencing with the +Salvages, the thermometer indicating as low as 72°·7 Fahr. +This has been already ascertained by Mr. Charles Deville, in +his chart of temperature on the voyage "aux Antilles, à +Ténériffe et à Fogo." I consider this diminution of +temperature results from the North Guinea current, bringing +with it cold water from the north southwards as far as the +Bight of Biafra and the River Gaboon, at which point it is +encountered by an opposite current flowing northwards along +the south-western coast of Africa from Loando and Congo.</p> + +<p>In 1825, Captain Duperrey had accurately laid down the point +of intersection of the magnetic, with the terrestrial +equator. In 1837, we learned from Sabine's investigations of +magnetic inclination near the Island of St. Thomas (on the +Equator, adjoining the above portion of the coast of +Africa),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">xix</a></span> that this point of intersection had already +shifted four degrees to the westward. A period of twenty +years having elapsed since Sabine's expedition for +determining observations with the pendulum, it would be most +desirable that fresh investigations should be made in that +neighbourhood, for the purpose of verifying the secular +changes of all magnetic curves, especially with regard to +their variation. In 1840, the line of no declination in +America began 9° 30′ E. of South Georgia, whence it ran to +the S.E. coast of Brazil, near Cape Frio, thus traversing +the mainland of South America only between the latter point +and the parallel of 0° 36′ S., when it leaves the continent +a little to the east of Gran Parà, near Cape Tigioca, +cutting the terrestrial equator again, but in 50° 6′ W. +According to Bache's Map of Equal Magnetic Declination, it +reaches the coast of North America near Cape Fear, to the +south-west of Cape Lookout. This line, along which the +magnetic declination is <i>nil</i>, extends to a point in Lake +Erie, 2° 40′ W. of Toronto, where the declination is already +1° 27′ W.<a name="Anchor-2" id="Anchor-2"></a><a href="#Footnote-2" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 2.">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-2" id="Footnote-2"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-2">[2]</a> Wherever, in this paper, it is not precisely +expressed to the contrary, the scale of the Centigrade +Thermometer, the longitude from the Meridian of Paris, the +French foot (<i>pied du roi</i>=12·79 inches English), and the +geographical mile, 15 to a degree of the Equator, measuring +3807 "toises," are meant.</p></div> + +<p>It is evident from the observations of Captains Beechey and +Findley, and still more particularly from those of the +French Captain Kerhallet, that the remarkable subdivision of +the main equinoctial current, flowing from east to west into +two branches, one directed to the N.W., the other to the +S.S.W.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">xx</a></span> commences at a considerable distance from the Capes +of St. Roque and St. Augustin. This bifurcation has always, +and with good reason, been ascribed to the protruding +convexity of the South American continent at these two +promontories. It would be an important step gained in +verifying the theory of currents, could the precise distance +be ascertained by chronometer. It is apparently like an +"<i>actio in distans</i>," probably a phenomenon of what is known +as "packing." As the frigate, on leaving Rio de Janeiro is +to make for the Cape of Good Hope, the opportunity will +present, should she steer sufficiently southerly, for many +interesting observations with respect to the <i>connecting +current</i> W.N.W. and E.S.E. which encounters that from +Madagascar and Mozambique, close to the Cape, more +especially with regard to the temperature of the sea.</p> + +<p>If the frigate is intended to approach the small cluster of +islands of Fernando de Noronha, E. of Pernambuco (Lat. 3° +50′ S.), I would recommend to that excellent geognostic, Dr. +Hochstetter, the hornblendic phonolithe rock found there, +far from a volcanic crater, but with trachytic dykes and +basaltic amygdaloid. The flat little island of St. Paul +(Peñedo de San Pedro), 1° N. Lat., singular to say, is not +volcanic at all, containing, like the Malouin or Falkland +Islands, slaty green-stone passing into serpentine.</p> + +<p>Should the frigate alter her course and cross the Equator +more to the eastward, without touching at Rio de Janeiro, +she might possibly fall in with the Marine Volcanic region,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span> +(Lat. 0° 20′ S., Long. 22° W.), which has quite lately +become famous again by the U. S. Expedition of the Brig +<i>Dolphin</i> (1854), commanded by Lieutenant Lee. On 19th May, +1806, columns of black smoke were seen issuing from the sea +by Krusenstern, and volcanic ashes were gathered, after a +singular bubbling of the sea from 1748 to 1836, according to +careful investigations by Daussy.</p> + +<p>As the frigate is commissioned to visit Ceylon and the +Nicobar Islands, she cannot sail direct from the Cape to +Australia; and the hope must therefore be abandoned of her +visiting the small basaltic islands, known as Prince +Edward's (47° 2′ S., 38° E.), and Possession (46° 28′ S., +47° 30′ E.), belonging to the Crozet's Group, or the two +islands, long confounded with each other, of Amsterdam (Lat. +37° 48′ S.) and St. Paul (Lat. 38° 38′ S.) The latter +island, the more southerly of the two, (a very +characteristic drawing of which was given by Willem de +Vlaming so far back as 1696), is supposed to be volcanic, +not only by its form, which will at once remind the +geologist of Santorin, Barren Island, and Deception Island, +(one of the New Shetland group), but also in consequence of +the eruption of steam, and the flames occasionally observed +there.</p> + +<p>As for Amsterdam, which consists of a single densely-wooded +mountain, the puzzle remains for solution as to how, during +the expedition of D'Entrecasteaux in 1792, the whole island +seemed, during two entire days, enveloped in smoke; whereas, +on landing there, the naturalists of that expedition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">xxii</a></span> were +satisfied that the mountain was not an active volcano, and +that the columns of steam issued out of the ground near the +shore! As yet, the phenomenon remains entirely unexplained.</p> + +<p>If we examine any map of the Indian Ocean, we may trace the +continuation of the Sunda group from Sumatra, N.W., through +the Nicobar, and Great and Little Andaman Islands, and +thence through the volcanoes of Barren Island, Narcondam and +Cheduba, nearly parallel with the coasts of Malacca and +Tenasserim, all on the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. +The minor volcanoes just enumerated will present valuable +opportunities of geological enquiry.</p> + +<p>Along the coasts of Orissa and Coromandel, the western +portion of the Bay of Bengal is quite free of islands, +Ceylon, like Madagascar presenting rather the type of a +continent.</p> + +<p>Off the W. coast of the peninsula of India, (that is +opposite the Neilgherrie hills, and the coast of Canara and +Malabar), there is a series of three archipelagoes, +extending from 14° N. to 8° S., viz., the Laccadives, the +Maldives, and the Chagos, which appears, as it were, +continued through the banks of Sahia di Malha, and Cargados +Carajos, to the volcanic group of the Mascarenhas and +Madagascar. As the first-named archipelagoes, so far as is +yet known, consist solely of coral, and are, consequently, +true "atolls," or reef-lagoons, the bottom of the ocean +should be examined over a large extent, adopting the +ingenious hypothesis of Darwin, that it is to be considered +<i>as an area of subsidence</i>, rather than an elevated region.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</a></span></p> + +<p>It would also be a matter of great importance to get +observations respecting terrestrial magnetism, particularly +so as to define the position of a given segment of the +magnetic equator. Capt. Elliott, as the result of his +comprehensive studies, (1846-49), ascertained that the +magnetic equator passes through the north end of Borneo, and +thence nearly due W. to the northern extremity of Ceylon. In +this region the curve of minimum intensity is nearly +parallel to the magnetic equator, which intersects the +Continent of Africa near Cape Guardafui—according to Rochet +d'Héricourt, in lat. 10° 7′ N., long. 38° 5′. E. Between +this point and the Bight of Biafra nothing is known.</p> + +<p>The South Asiatic islands comprise Formosa, the Philippines, +the Sunda group, and the Moluccas. The great and little +Sunda Islands and the Moluccas embrace 109 volcanoes, with +fiery eruptions, and 10 what are called mud-volcanoes. This +is not a mere estimate, but is the result of an enumeration +by Junghuhn, who, within the last year (1856), has returned +to Java, and thoroughly equipped by M. Pahud, +Governor-General of the Indian Netherlands, will be of great +assistance to the Imperial Expedition.</p> + +<p>An exact mineralogical determination of the volcanic rocks +(trachytes) is unfortunately wanting everywhere.</p> + +<p>The most active volcano of Sumatra is the Gunung Merapi +(8980 feet), which must not be confounded with a volcano in +Java, of the same name. That of Sumatra was ascended by Dr. +L. Horner, and Dr. Korthals in 1834. We may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</a></span> pronounce +Indrapura (11,500 feet, but this measurement is very +uncertain), and Gunung Pasoman (9010 feet), the Ophir of our +maps, to be utterly unknown geologically. The highest of the +Java volcanoes is Gunung Semeru (11,480 feet), ascended by +Junghuhn in 1844, 1220 feet higher than the Etna. The +largest craters of the 45 which are disposed in a line along +the shores of Java, are Gunung Tengger, and Gunung Raou. Dr. +Junghuhn has recently given the outlines of each separate +volcano in his splendid topographical and geological map of +Java, in four sheets, published in 1856, which does great +credit to the Dutch Government.</p> + +<p>The following subjects are worthy of special attention while +the frigate is at Java.</p> + +<p>1. The curious phenomenon of the ribbed surface. (<i>Vide</i> +Junghuhn, Java, Part II., p. 608.)</p> + +<p>2. The disposition, as yet unaccounted for, of a series of +regularly-shaped hills, formed by the mud-streams ejected in +the year 1822 by the volcano of Gunung Galungung. (<i>Vide ut +suprà</i>, pp. 127-731.)</p> + +<p>3. The ejection of water by the Gunung Idjen, on 21st +January, 1817, (pp. 707, and 717-121).</p> + +<p>4. The erroneousness of the assertion that the volcanoes of +the Island of Java do not emit streams of real lava.</p> + +<p>It must be admitted that the mighty Javanese volcano, Gunung +Merapi, already alluded to, has not, within the historic +period, presented any coherent compact streams of lava, but +mere fragments and boulders; although in 1837,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">xxv</a></span> lines of +fire were seen running uninterruptedly from the top down the +sides of the cones in eruption. But each of the three +volcanoes, Tengger, Idjen, and Slamat, present examples of +black lava currents, descending as far as the tertiary +strata.</p> + +<p>Streams of stone-boulders, red-hot, similar to those of the +Cotopaxi, but scarcely touching each other, flowed from +Gunung Lamorgan on 6th July, 1838.</p> + +<p>No active volcano is known in the island of Borneo. The +highest mountain of the whole island, perhaps of the whole +insular world of Southern Asia, is the Hina Baïlu (12,850 +feet?) on the northern point of Borneo. It is as yet +unexplored. According to Dr. Lewis Horner, son of the +astronomer of the Krusenstern expedition, there occur among +the syenite and serpentine mountain range of Rathus, on the +S.E. of the island, deposits yielding gold (which has even +been worked by diggings), diamonds, platinum, iridium, and +osmium,—presenting, in fact, a similar association to those +of the Ural mountains. No mention is made of palladium. +Rajah (now Sir James) Brooke describes in the province of +Sarawak in Borneo, a low hill, Gunung Api ("hill of fire" in +Malay), the slags of which attest former volcanic activity. +A visit to Borneo would be of very great service.</p> + +<p>There are eleven volcanoes in Celebes, and six in Flores, +all active.</p> + +<p>It is still uncertain whether the conical mountain Wawari,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">xxvi</a></span> +or Atiti, which is more generally known as the volcano of +the island of Amboyna, ever poured out anything except hot +mud (1674), or whether it should be merely classed as a +<i>solfatara</i>. The main group of the South Asiatic Islands is +connected through the Moluccas and the Philippines with the +Papua and Pellew islands, and the Caroline Archipelago of +the South Sea.</p> + +<p>The most important geological fact to be remarked with +reference to the island of Formosa, abounding in mineral +coals, is the break in the line of direction of the open +vents, when, instead of N.E. to S.W., the central line +follows the meridian line, which it pursues nearly as far as +6° S., passing through Formosa and the Philippine Islands +(Luzon and Mindanao), respecting which deviation nothing +certain is known, and in which region every mountain of +conical shape, or outline is invariably set down as a +volcano, even though there should be no indications of a +crater. The Sooloo Archipelago forms the connecting link +between the islands of Borneo and Mindanao, the long, narrow +island of Palawan, constituting that between Borneo and +Mindoro.</p> + +<p>The Island of Yesso, separated from that of Niphon by the +Straits of Sangar, or Tsugar, and from the islands of Krafto +(Saghalien) and Tschoka, or Tarakai, by the Straits of La +Pérouse, connects, through its North Eastern Cape, with the +archipelago of the Kuriles. From Broughton's Southern Vulcan +Bay up to its northernmost point, Yesso is traversed by an +uninterrupted range of volcanoes—a fact the more worthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">xxvii</a></span> of +being recorded, as in the expedition of La Pérouse there +were found red porous lavas, as well as wide areas, covered +with slags, in the Baie des Castries, in the narrow island +of Krafto (Saghalien), which is, as it were, merely a +continuation of Yesso. In our own day these regions command +a higher interest, from a political point of view, more +especially since Russia, dissatisfied with the situation of +Okhotsk, at the sanded mouth of the Amoor, was anxious, +after the destruction of Petropaulowski, on the coast of +Kamtschatka, to obtain, on the S.E. coast, a harbour +suitable for a military station.</p> + +<p>Among the three islands which form the main portion of the +Japanese Empire, six volcanoes are known to have had +eruptions in the historic period. The volcano, Fusi Jama, in +Niphon, province of Suruga (Lat. 35° 18′ N., Long. 136° 15′ +E., altitude 11,675 feet), is said to have risen out of the +plain 286 years before the Christian era. Its last eruption +was in 1707. The volcano, Asama Jama, in the district of +Saku, between the meridians of the two capitals, Miaco and +Jeddo, was last in eruption in 1783. On the island of +Kiusiu, adjoining the peninsula of Corea, four volcanoes are +situated, from one of which, called Wanzen, there was a most +destructive eruption in 1793.</p> + +<p>The beautiful work of Commodore Perry, U.S.N., detailing his +mission to Japan, on the part of the United States +Government, in 1852, containing excellent photographs of +races, as also drawings by the Berlin artist, Wilhelm +Heine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">xxviii</a></span> does not, as yet, comprise the scientific results of +that expedition.</p> + +<p>Proceeding northwards, the volcanoes are more densely +crowded, and are found arranged in series. Of the fifty-four +which I enumerated as still in activity among the islands of +Eastern Asia, there are thirty-four on the Aleutian, and ten +on the Kurile Islands. The Peninsula of Kamtschatka contains +nine volcanoes, which have been in activity within the +historic period. Lying under the 54th and 60th degrees of +northern latitude, we see a long strip of sea-bottom between +two continents undergoing a perpetual process of destruction +and re-arrangement.</p> + +<p>The South Sea, the superficial extent of which is one-sixth +greater than that of the entire solid crust of our planet, +actually presents a smaller number of active volcanoes, less +vents for communication between the centre of the earth and +its atmospheric envelope, than the single Island of Java! +Out of 40 volcanic cones, including those which are extinct, +only 26 have been seen in eruption during the historic +period. They are not scattered at random, but, on the +contrary, as was pointed out by Mr. James Dana, the +ingenious geologist of the great United States Exploring +Expedition, under the command of Capt. Wilkes (1838-42), +they have been thrown up, at widely extending clefts, +communicating by submarine mountain systems. They are +arranged in groups and distinct regions, analogous to the +mountain chains of Central Asia and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">xxix</a></span> Armenia (in the +district of the Caucasus), and belong to two quite distinct +systems, one running S.E. to N.W., the other S.S.W. to +N.N.E.</p> + +<p>In the Hawaiian Archipelago (or Sandwich Island group), we +find Mauna Loa, according to Wilkes, 12,900 feet in height, +which does not present any cone of volcanic scoriæ +(resembling, in this particular, the volcanoes of the +Eifel), but has emitted streams of lava. The lava basin of +Killauea, 13,000 feet in its greatest, by 4800 in its +smallest diameter, is not a <i>solfatara</i>, but a true lateral +vent on the flank of the powerful Mauna Loa itself, exactly +resembling the less elevated sheet of lava of Arak. Mauna +Kea is 180 feet higher than Mauna Loa, but is extinct. Tafoa +and Amangura, in the Tonga group, are still in eruption, the +last discharge of lava having occurred in July, 1847. The +volcano of Tanna was in full eruption during Capt. Cook's +Voyage of Discovery in 1774, as was also the volcano of +Ambrym, west of Malicollo in the archipelago of the New +Hebrides. At the south point of New Caledonia, lies +Matthew's Rock, a small smoking rocky island. The volcano of +Santa Cruz, N.N.W. of Tina Kora, with periodical eruptions +occasionally occurring at intervals of 10 minutes, had been +already noticed as a volcano by Mendana, so far back as +1595. In the Salomon Archipelago, there is found the volcano +of Sesarga, while others are said to be in full activity in +the Marianas or Ladrones, just like those of Guguan, Pagon, +and El Volcan Grande de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">xxx</a></span> Asuncion, which appear to have +broken forth along a line that follows the meridian. In New +Britannia, three conical mountains were observed vomiting +streams of lava, by Tasman, Carteret, and Labillardière. +There are two volcanoes in full activity on the north-east +coast of New Guinea, opposite Admiralty Islands, which +themselves are so rich in obsidian. In New Zealand, numerous +regions abound in basaltic and trachytic rocks. Of active +volcanoes there are Puhia-i-Wakati (the volcano of White +Island), and the lofty cone of Tongariro (5816 feet). To the +absence of centres of volcanic agency in New Caledonia, +where sedimentary formations and seams of coal have recently +been discovered, is ascribed the vast development of coral +reefs. Dana was the first to ascend the Peak of Tafua, in +the Island of Upolu, one of the Samoa group, not to be +confounded with the still active volcano of Tafoa, south of +Amangura, in the Tonga Archipelago. Dana found in it a +crater overgrown with thick forest. So, too, on the isolated +Vaihu or Easter Island group, there is found a range of +conical mountains with craters, but inactive.</p> + +<p>Of the volcanic groups of the South Sea, the most violent is +the farthest east, adjoining the shores of the New World, +viz., the archipelago of the Gallipagos, which consists of +five considerable islands, very admirably described by +Darwin. There are streams of lava down to the very shore of +the sea, but no pumice. Some of the trachytic lavas are said +to abound with crystals of albite. It is important to +examine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">xxxi</a></span> whether or not this is oligoclase, as on Teneriffe, +Popocatepetl, and Chimborazo; or labradorite, as on Etna and +Stromboli. Palagonite, exactly similar to that of Iceland or +in Italy, was discovered by Bunsen in the specimens of tufa +from Chatham Island, one of the Gallipagos.</p> + +<p>New Holland does not show any signs of recent volcanic +activity, except at its most southern point (Australia +Felix), at the foot of the Grampian Mountains. N.W. from +Port Philip, as also towards the Murray River, there are +numbers of volcanic cones and sheets or flows of lava.</p> + +<p>It would be of great interest and utility to observe the +relative inclinations of the Magnetic and the Geographical +Equators, by means of the dip of the magnetic needle, though +this will be rendered more difficult, from the fact of the +ship's course being easterly, that is, contrary, to the +Equinoctial current. As regards the low temperature of the +current, which I discovered in 1802, running up from 40° S. +to the Gallipagos along the coast of South America, and then +turning westward, it would be highly important to +investigate whether in the eastern part of the South Sea in +7° N. and between 117° and 140° W., there really exists in +every season a <i>counter current</i> from west to east. But I +need not enlarge upon this topic to such attentive +navigators.</p> + +<p>The line of no inclination was crossed six times by Duperrey +between 1822 and 1825. When I first discovered, near +Truxillo, the low temperature of the cold Peruvian current,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii">xxxii</a></span> +it was 12°·8 Réaumur (60°·8 Fahr.). The temperature observed +in the course of twenty years by Mr. Dirckinck von Holmfeld, +in the neighbourhood of Callao, expressed in degrees of +Réaumur, were as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col style="padding-right: 1em" /><col style="padding-right: 1em" /></colgroup> +<tr><td align="left">September 1802</td><td align="center">12°·8</td><td align="center">(Fahr.</td><td align="center">60°·8)</td><td align="center">Thermometer in the air. 13°·3 Réaumur. (61°·92 Fahr.)</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">November 1802</td><td align="center">12°·4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">59°·9</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">December, end of</td><td align="center">16°·8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">69°·8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">January 1825</td><td align="center">12°·7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">60°·57</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">February 1825</td><td align="center">15°·3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">66°·42</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">March 1825</td><td align="center">15°·7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">67°·32</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">April 1825</td><td align="center">14°·5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">64°·62</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The temperature of the sea I found to be 22° Réaumur (81°·5 +Fah.) north of Cape Blanco, when on my way from Callao de +Lima, at which point the cold current diverged towards the +Gallipagos.</p> + +<p>Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the +cold current, the temperature of the sea during the month of +April rose as high as 24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the +range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had carried on his +observations in compliance with my instructions, by means of +thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in +the current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° +to 72°·5 Fahr.); between Quilca and Callao, in January, +1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to 74°·75 Fahr.); between +Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39′ S.) and Valparaiso, in +August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.); +between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, +from 18°·8 to 9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii">xxxiii</a></span></p> + +<p>In sailing from the Sandwich Islands to the west coast of +America, the Imperial Expedition will have to choose between +the Ports of San Francisco or Acapulco. The first choice +would be of great mineralogical advantage for those regions +of the United States, lying North of the river Gila.<a name="Anchor-3" id="Anchor-3"></a><a href="#Footnote-3" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 3.">[3]</a> +Parallel with the chain of the Rocky Mountains, which, +according to Marcou, contains up to the present day several +volcanoes in full activity in its northern part (Lat. 46° +12′ N.), run single, and at certain points double ranges of +coast chains from San Diego to Monterey, from 32° 15′ N. to +46° 45′ N. They begin with the coast range specially +so-called, which is a continuation of the high ridge of the +Peninsula of Lower or Old California; after which, farther +to the North, there follow in succession, first the Sierra +Nevada di Alta California, between 36° and 38° N. the lofty +Shasty mountains, and the Cascade Range, nearly twenty six +miles distant from the littoral, including many high and +active volcanoes, and extending far beyond Fuca Straits. The +following are still in eruption:—Mount St. Elias (46° 2′ +N.); Mount Regnier, or Rainier, (46° 46′); and Mount Baker, +(48° 48′.) These three active cones would be most +conveniently visited by the geologist of the expedition from +San Francisco, as would likewise the whole Cascade Range. We +have as yet no certain intelligence as to the geology of the +entire longitudinal auriferous valley of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv">xxxiv</a></span> Sacramento +River, (where a trachytic crater, in a state of +disintegration, is known as the Butt of Sacramento). Does +the auriferous quartz occur in veins, and are these still +<i>in situ</i>, or are they broken up? What description of rock +is traversed by these veins? Does the wash-gold here contain +occasionally, as in the Ural Mountains, fragments of +vein-stones with isolated cavities, in which are found +impressions of leaves and membranes, clearly proving that +they have not been rolled, or transported by water, any +great distance to the spot they now occupy? Have these been +found, alongside of gold, diamonds, platinum, osmium, +iridium, or mercury?</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-3" id="Footnote-3"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-3">[3]</a> The Gila falls into the Colorado about forty +miles above the embouchure of the latter into the head of +the Gulf of California.</p></div> + +<p>Should the frigate steer for Acapulco, it may be assumed +that there exists an intention to cross the Continent to +Mexico and Vera Cruz, from the volcano of Colima (1877 +toises) as it were, along the parallel of the range of +volcanoes, and greatest heights rising in detached groups +between the two seas, about the parallel of 19° N. New +astronomical observations are greatly needed for determining +the position of the volcanoes of Colima and Jorullo (667 +toises). The volcano of Colima, with its twin peaks <i>de +fuego</i> and <i>de nieve</i>, should be carefully examined, as also +the volcano of Jorullo, with the fragments of granite +enclosed in its lava; the Nevado de Toluca (2372 toises), +Popocatepetl (2772 toises), Itztaccihuatl (2456 toises), +Cofre de Perote (2098 toises), and the volcano of Tuxtla +(18° 28′ N.), on the eastern slope of the Sierra St. Martin, +from which a column of flame shot up with great violence on +2nd March, 1793, a fair specimen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv">xxxv</a></span> what the Spaniards term +<i>Malpays</i>, the Sicilians <i>Sciarra viva</i>. The face of the +country is covered over with boulders of lava, at San +Nicolas de los Ranchos, at the foot of Popocatepetl, +adjoining the city of Puebla de los Angeles, after which, on +the road from Puebla to Vera Cruz, will be observed two +narrow strips of boulders of cooled basaltic lava, rich in +olivine. Similar examples will be found at Parage de Carros, +near Tochtilacuaja and Loma de Tablas, between Cancas and +the Casas de la Hoja. The mere ascension of volcanic cones +is geologically of far less importance, than the bringing +away numerous specimens, carefully selected, of various +trachytic rocks, which, by their oryctognostical +composition, are characteristic of each volcano. I would +nevertheless recommend that the Pico del Fraile of the +Toluca volcano (2372 toises) should be ascended, proper +caution being used. From this very sharp peak, I brought +away thin plates of trachyte perforated by lightning, and +within the holes of a melted glassy surface, resembling +those brought from Little Ararat. Both for the miner and +geologist, an interesting and useful visit might be paid to +the rich mines of Guanaxuato and the Mines de la Biscaina +and Regla, on the road from Mexico to Real del Monte, so as +to observe the close connection subsisting between the +richer silver ores, occurring in trachytic porphyry without +quartz, but with felspar, (glassy felspar?), and the +thoroughly volcanic Cerro del Jakal, abounding in obsidian, +and the Cerro de las Navajas (Razor Range), which remind one +of the environs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi">xxxvi</a></span> Schemnitz, with the sole exception, that +the trachytes "<i>porphyres meulières</i>" of Beudant, are +wanting here.</p> + +<p>As it is highly desirable that considerable time should be +devoted to the volcanoes of Quito, Peru, and Chili, it +appears uncertain whether the course of the frigate, on +leaving Acalpulco, will be shaped direct for Guayaquil, thus +reversing the route taken by myself, or whether she will not +touch at some of the central American ports—Realejo or +Sonsonate. The crowded series of volcanoes in Central +America, of which no less than eighteen, conical or +dome-shaped, may be considered as still in active eruption, +would yield a rich harvest of facts of all kinds in +elucidation of the theory of volcanic action, such as have +never hitherto been sufficiently taken advantage of. We are +still in need of the mineralogical determination of the +rocks, while the form and situation of the mountain masses +have been well described by Squier, Oersted, and other +modern travellers. The greater number, indeed, of the +eruptions of scoriæ and slag were unaccompanied by streams +of lava, as, for example, those of Mount Isalco, abounding +in ammonia. But recently eye-witnesses have furnished us +with quite different accounts regarding these eruptions, in +the case of several volcanoes—as the Nindiri (a twin +volcano with that called Massaya), on which Dr. Scherzer has +lately shed much light; the Volcano el Nuevo, erroneously +called Volcano de las Pilas, that of Coseguina, situated on +the Great Bay of Fonseca, and that of San Miguel de +Bosotlan, from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii">xxxvii</a></span> there flowed an extensive stream of +lava in July 1844. It would be most tempting to pass by land +from Mexico southwards to Oaxaca, and thence to the Isthmus +of Guasacualco or Tehuantepec, and Chiapas, so as to rejoin +the frigate at Realejo or Sonsonate. Facts might be +obtained, in such a journey, of great value in determining +the dependence of geological phenomena on each other; but it +is to be feared it would be attended with too much fatigue +and loss of time. For similar reasons, it cannot be proposed +that the scientific gentlemen attached to the Expedition, +should leave the frigate for three or four months, when they +reach Central America, in order to cross by rail the Isthmus +of Panama, with the object of examining the Volcancitos of +Turbaco and Gabra Zamba, both active, and thence ascend the +Rio Magdalena from Carthagena de las Indias, as far as +Honda, whence they could proceed by Bogotà and Popayan to +Quitó.</p> + +<p>It will be also unavoidable to forego the examination of the +sedimentary rocks, rich in fossils, between Honda, Bogotà +and Ibagues, the Mastodon fields (<i>Campos del Gigante</i>), and +the Salto de Tegumidama on the plateau of Bogotà, the wax +palm (<i>Ceroxylon Andicola</i>), and the Azufrales of the Passo +de Quindiu, the volcanoes of Tolima, measured by myself and +ascended by Boussingault, and of Paramo de Ruiz (4° 15′ N.), +as also the two volcanoes of Popayan, the Puracé and the +much more interesting but now extinct Sotará. As a middle +course, I may suggest a disembarkation, not exactly at +Guayaquil, but on the gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxviii" id="Page_xxxviii">xxxviii</a></span> and platinum coast of the Choco, +near San Buenaventura, so as to proceed thence to Popayan, +and afterwards return to the volcanoes of the province of +Pasto, which are highly important, and so on to Quitó, by +way of Guachucal, Tulcan, and Villa de Ibarra, rejoining the +frigate only at Guayaquil.</p> + +<p>I believe, however, it would be more advisable to select +Quitó as the starting-point, whence to examine the important +elevated volcanic region De los Pastos (between 2° 20′ and +0° 56′ N.), containing the volcano of the town of Pasto, the +volcanoes of Tuguerres, Chiles and Cumbal, and the Azufral +de Pasto, and not to land at any port of the Choco coast, +not even from the Bahia de Cupica, which for half a century +I have recommended in vain on account of its vicinity to the +Rio Naipi, one of the tributaries of the Atrato. In drawing +up a list of names of the volcanoes of the renowned lofty +plateau of Quitó, I may include, Imbaburu, Cotocachi, Rucu, +Pichincha, Antisana, the much-disputed question of the stony +walls like streams of lava, on the east slope of Tana +Volcan, and Reventazon de Ansango; Cotopaxi, with its +strange inexplicable quarries of pumice, of Guapecho and +Zumbalica, in the neighbourhood of Llactacunga and San +Felipe, the pumice containing oligoclase, not glassy +felspar, deposited in strata, like any rock <i>in situ</i> for a +considerable distance on all sides of Cotopaxi; Tunguragua +(mica slate), studded with garnets, and beds of granite, +which dip under the former, and have themselves been pierced +by the trachytes of Tungurahua at Rio Puela and the Hacienda +de Ganace;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxix" id="Page_xxxix">xxxix</a></span> the hills of Moya, near the village of Pelilco, +cast up in the celebrated earthquake of 7th February, 1797, +and still in a state of activity; the Chimborazo, which M. +Jules Rémy, accompanied by an Englishman named Princkley, +was in the belief they had ascended, on the 3rd of November, +1856, to the very summit, "<i>mais sans s'en douter</i>." +Poggendorff, (Vol. X. p. 480), has clearly demonstrated that +the boiling point given by Rémy for the summit, would not +give 6544 mètres (little different from my own +trigonometrical admeasurement of 6530 mètres), but fully +7328 mètres. As I distrust my own half-barometical +measurements, I have vainly implored travellers, these fifty +years past, to have a new series of trigonometrical +observations made of the summit of Chimborazo. The merit, +then, of settling this moot point, it also remains for the +members of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition to obtain.</p> + +<p>It would be important to examine the Sangay (16,068 +feet)—which, like Stromboli, is in constant activity, yet +without any traces of lava-streams—on account of the grains +of quartz discovered by Wisse in the trachytic boulders +ejected by the volcano, which is of such rare occurrence in +the trachytes out of Hungary; and also on account of the +close vicinity of beds of granite and gneiss, which are +broken through by the Sangay trachyte, forming an island, as +it were, of not hardly two miles in breadth. Still more +deserving of attention is the extinct volcano El Altar de +los Collanes (Capac Urcù) a sketch of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xl" id="Page_xl">xl</a></span> which I presented in +the atlas published in my "Kleine Schriften" (Plate V. p. +461), formerly higher than Chimborazo, and still (?) 16,380 +feet. Not a single specimen of its trachyte has ever been +deposited in a European museum. The Altar itself is readily +accessible from Riobamba Nuevo. In its vicinity may also be +seen mica slate and gneiss, cropping out at the Paramo del +Hatillo near Guamote, and Teocaxas, which are so seldom +fallen in with in the highlands of Quitó. Tradition relates +that gold-mines were worked here during the days of the +Incas, in the neighbourhood of volcanic trachytes. From the +Altar the geologist might proceed, by way of San Luis, +(Query, whether the primitive clay-slate found here be of +the Silurian formation?) and Guamote, to Paramo del Assuay +(2428 toises), and Cuenca, as far as Atausca (2° 13′ S.), +where an immense mass of sulphur, lying in a quartz seam is +worked, forming a bed in the mica slate. Of what rock does +the easily accessible Cayambe Urcù (18,170 feet) consist, +crossing the Equator, S.E. of Otavalo? <i>En route</i> from Quitó +to Cayambe, the rich deposits of obsidian near Quinche +should also be inspected, which furnished the large mirrors +to the Incas, and farther to the north of which are the +volcanoes of Los Pastos, which form a separate system by +themselves.</p> + +<p>For examining the rocks and exploring the volcanoes of +Southern Peru and Bolivia—respecting which see the last +edition of Pentland's Maps, not those published between 1830 +and 1848, in which the height of Sorata was indicated at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xli" id="Page_xli">xli</a></span> +3949 toises (25,257 feet), and Illimani at 3753 toises +(24,004), and accordingly both as much more lofty than +Chimborazo, which is 3350 toises (21,426 feet)—the best +starting-point would be the port of Arica, which may be +reached, sailing the whole distance against the cold +current, from Guayaquil, after a short stay at Callao de +Lima. Of the volcanoes of Peru and Bolivia only three are +now active.</p> + +<p>(<i>a.</i>) The volcano of Arequipa, three miles N.E. of the town +of the same name, which, according to Pentland and Rivero, +is situated about 7366 feet above the level of the sea. The +measurements of M. Dolley, of the French navy, which were +published under my superintendence, give the summit of the +volcano as 10,348 feet above the town of Arequipa, so that +its total elevation above the sea would be 17,714 feet. In +the table of heights for Mrs. Somerville's "Physical +Geography," Mr. Pentland speaks of the summit as being +20,320 English feet in height, or 19,065 Paris feet, closely +approximating to the old trigonometrical measurement (19,080 +feet) given by Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian, who accompanied +the expedition of Malaspina, in 1769. What a deplorable +state for the science of hypsometry to be in! which the +<i>Novara</i> ought to put an end to. Samuel Anzon, a North +American, in 1811, and Dr. Weddell, in 1847, have ascended +the volcano of Arequipa.</p> + +<p>(<i>b.</i>) Sahama (18° 7' S.), according to Pentland's new map +of 1848, is 871 feet higher than Chimborazo (which he gives +as 20,970 feet), and is still active. The true heights of +Illimani<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlii" id="Page_xlii">xlii</a></span> and Sorata, ascertained since 1848, are, instead +of 3949 and 3753 respectively, only 3329 toises (21,266 +English feet), and 3307 toises (21,145 English feet).</p> + +<p>(<i>c.</i>) Volcano Gualatieri, in the Bolivian province of +Carangas (18° 25′ S.), height 20,604 feet.</p> + +<p>The southern group of South American volcanoes, that, of +Chili, presents the largest number of active +fire-mountains—only second, indeed, to that of Central +America, there being from eleven to thirteen. In order to +increase the geological exploration of this region which has +been so well prepared by the memorable expedition under +Captain Fitzroy, in the ships <i>Adventure</i> and <i>Beagle</i>, the +excellent generalizing theories of Mr. Darwin, and the naval +astronomical expedition of Mr. Gilliss, for 1849-51, the +<i>Novara</i> will probably land at Valparaiso. A great +desideratum between Coquimbo and Valparaiso is an exact +measurement of—</p> + +<p><i>A</i>. The volcano of Aconcagua (32° 39′ S.). Its height has +been stated, in 1835, by Captain Fitzroy, as 21,767 feet, +Pentland's correction assigning 22,431 feet; while Captain +Kellet, of the frigate <i>Herald</i>, gives it as 21,584 feet. +Miers and Darwin are both of opinion that the Aconcagua is +still in activity, which is denied by Pentland and Gilliss. +The most recent measurement of Aconcagua—that by Pissis in +1854 (see Gilliss, Vol. I. p. 63)—makes the height 20,924 +feet. M. Pissis has published, in the "Anales de la +Universidad de Chili," for 1852, the geodetical elements of +his survey, which is based upon eight triangles. Aconcagua +being probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliii" id="Page_xliii">xliii</a></span> the highest mountain in the New World, a new +measurement is eminently desirable. Neither Dhawalagiri, +with his 4930 toises, nor Kintsinjunga, measured by Colonel +Waugh, with his 4406 toises, are any longer considered the +highest mountains in the Himalaya range, but the Deodunga +(Mount Everest), which is 29,003 English feet, equal to +27,212 Paris feet, or 4535 toises.</p> + +<p><i>B.</i> The volcano Maipu (34° 17′ S., height 16,572 feet), +ascended by Meyen. The trachytic rock on the summit has +broken through the Jurassic strata, in which Leopold von +Buch has ascertained, from heights of 9000 feet, the +existence of <i>Exogyra couloni</i>, <i>Trigonia costata</i>, and +<i>Ammonites biplex</i>. This volcano has no streams of lava, but +only eruptions of volcanic slags. It would be most desirable +that Dr. Hochstetter should examine this remarkable +protrusion of dislocated strata.</p> + +<p><i>C.</i> The volcano Antuco (37° 7′ S.), the geology of which +was described by Pöppig, is a lofty basaltic crater, having +a trachytic cone rising up in its centre to an elevation of +8672 feet. It was observed in full activity by Domeyko in +1845. Gilliss gives an account of an eruption in 1853. +According to Domeyko, a fresh-burning cone was thrown up on +the 25th of November, 1847, which remained in activity for a +whole year. Molina considers the Nevada Descabezado (35° 1′ +S.), ascended by Domeyko, to be the highest mountain in +Chili; but its height is estimated by Gilliss at only 12,300 +feet. The most southerly volcanoes are the still active +Corcovado<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliv" id="Page_xliv">xliv</a></span> (43° 12′ S.), 7046 feet; Yanteles (43° 29′ S.), +7534 feet; and the Volcan de San Clemente, opposite the +granite formation on the peninsula of Tres Montes. Still +further south, in 51° 41′ S., another, the Volcan de los +Gigantes, is laid down on the old maps of South America, by +La Cruz Olmedella, as opposite the archipelago of La Madre +de Dios.</p> + +<p>Should the <i>Novara</i> return to Europe through the Straits of +Maghellanes, it would be very desirable the members of the +Expedition should visit the locality from which Prince Paul +of Würtemberg, after long zoological travels through North +America, has, within the last year, brought back to Germany +a very large collection of specimens.</p> + +<p>Altogether, I calculate the number of active volcanoes on +the surface of the earth to be upwards of 225—one-third of +which, or 75, are upon the various continents, and the +remainder upon the insular world. The Western Continent has +53 active volcanoes—of which, North-Western America, north +of the river Gila, has 5; Mexico, 4; Central America, 18; +South America about 26. Viewing the globe as a whole, there +presents itself an extensive oblique region in which +volcanoes most abound, stretching from S.E. to N.W. in the +more westerly part of the Pacific, between 75° W. and 125° +E. of Paris, and between 47° S. and 66° N. In this region, +the fused elements of the interior of our earth may be said +to be most permanently in communication with the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The greatest attention should be paid, with the view of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlv" id="Page_xlv">xlv</a></span> +improving them, to the sections and maps of Chili, contained +in the work, "Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of Rio de la +Plata," published in 1852 by Sir Woodbine Parish, and still +more so, to that entitled "Map of the Republic of Chili, +compiled from the Surveys of Gilliss, Pissis, Allen, +Campbell, and Claude Gay, between 23° and 44° S., as +contained in Gilliss' 'United States Astronomical +Expedition, 1847-52 Washington, 1855.'"</p> + +<p>The chief object to be aimed at by the <i>Novara</i>, with +respect to scientific enquiry, seems to me to be the +formation of a collection in the Geological Institute of +Vienna, in comparison to which all the collections which at +present aspire to be considered rich in volcanic specimens, +(such as those of Berlin, Paris and London), should appear +to be insignificant. In all periods of history, travellers +are only the representatives of the state of knowledge of +their own time, and consequently, collections always present +the readiest means of promulgating new discoveries by +oryctognostical examination or chemical analysis. In order +to set on foot a grand Volcanic Museum, it would be +necessary to bring home from every one of the volcanoes +visited, not less than 10 or 12, but still better 15 or 18, +specimens of the porphyritic trachytes, all carefully +selected, well-shaped, containing crystals not +disintegrated, and of sufficient size to admit of a fresh +fracture being made. For such quantities, however, there +cannot be provided on board ship, even with the kindest +patronage of the commanding officer, sufficient space for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlvi" id="Page_xlvi">xlvi</a></span> +the accumulations of two years' arduous efforts in forming a +collection. The greatest part, therefore, should be sent by +other conveyance to Trieste, the most secure channel being +through the consuls of the Austrian Empire, or those of +allied powers, or through the medium of British, Dutch or +American mercantile establishments, or by the regular +packets.</p> + +<p>Duplicates, say four or five specimens, from each volcano, +should be taken on board the <i>Novara</i> in boxes of about 3 +feet long. It would be too disheartening to have any +misgivings of the success of this glorious scheme for +getting together a Museum of Volcanic Rocks in Vienna, of +all the regions of the globe, arranged upon a regular +geographical system, each labelled with its own name, so as +to promote a general acquaintance with these branches of +knowledge:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +1. Europe.<br /> +2. Atlantic Islands.<br /> +3. Continent of Asia, South Coast of Arabia (Aden), Kamtschatka.<br /> +4. Islands of Eastern Asia and India.<br /> +5. The Indian Ocean.<br /> +6. The Pacific.<br /> +7. Continent of South America: Chili, Peru, Bolivia, Quitó and New Grenada.<br /> +8. Central America.<br /> +9. Mexico, south of the river Gila.<br /> +10. North-Western America, north of the river Gila.<br /> +11. West Indies. +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlvii" id="Page_xlvii">xlvii</a></span></p> + +<p>Much of this work might be done on board the <i>Novara</i>. As to +Nos. 3 and 4, Kamtschatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, +the Red Sea, and the West Indies, it will not be difficult +to procure specimens at some future period.</p> + +<p>Our piping times of peace are favourable to the execution of +this project, which should be zealously kept in view +throughout the Expedition. Travelling as I was, during the +great wars, I did not dare shrink from the difficulty of +having to carry along with me 44 large boxes, as I did on +the road through Mexico from Acapulco to Vera Cruz, whence +they were sent to Cuba, Philadelphia, and so to Bordeaux. +The mechanical labour of having the collections carefully +packed, keeping duplicates distinct, and sending away +geological, botanical, zoological and ethnographical +collections, is itself quite as important as the purely +scientific work.</p> + +<p>The exhibition of comprehensive volcanic collections brings +to light the strong analogy subsisting between the trachytes +belonging to volcanoes, far distant from one another, while +it indicates the existence of great differences in the +mineralogical composition of volcanoes situated very near +each other. My most excellent friend and fellow-traveller in +Siberia, Professor Gustavus Rose, recently subjected the +trachytes of the Berlin Museum, the greater number of which +were collected by myself, to careful crystallographical and +chemical investigation. He found oligoclase and pyroxene on +the trachytes of Chimborazo, Popocatepetl,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlviii" id="Page_xlviii">xlviii</a></span> Colima, +Tunguragua, Puracé, Paramo de Ruiz, and the Peak of +Teneriffe, which has recently been accurately examined by +Mr. Charles Deville. The trachytes of Toluca, Orizaba, +Gunung Barang, and Burung Agung, on the Island of Java, +Argæus, in Asia Minor, Cuneguilla, south of Sta. Fé de +Nuevo-Mexico, the Sièrra de San Francisco, west of the Rocky +Mountains and Pueblo Zuni, consist of hornblende, +oligoclase, and brown mica. The trachytes of Stromboli and +Etna, those of the Siebengebirge (Drachenfels), and of Kara +Hissar in Phrygia, consist of large crystals of glassy +felspar, with numerous smaller crystals of oligoclase, some +hornblende and mica. Oligoclase, having been mistaken for +albite, led to the fantastic idea of a peculiar rock, the +<i>Andesite</i>, prevailing in the Andes, and even led our great +master, Leopold von Buch, to make some curious distinctions, +(Déscription des Iles Canaries, 1836, pp. 186-87.)</p> + +<p>To ascertain the average height above the level of the sea, +I propose that furrows should be cut in the rocks of the +different regions along with inscriptions, which might carry +information to unborn ages, as has been done, on my +suggestion, now some 25 years ago, by the Academy of Science +at St. Petersburg, on the Caspian Sea, while Sir James Ross, +in his "Voyage of Discovery in the Southern and Antarctic +Regions," 1839-43, Vol. II. p. 23, regrets not having done +so, or, at least, of having only once adopted this plan.</p> + +<p>I would also, with all deference, suggest observations +regarding the daily atmospheric variations or tides, so as +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlix" id="Page_xlix">xlix</a></span> obtain tables of <i>maxima</i> and <i>minima</i>. In order to +obtain these, whenever the frigate is at anchor near any +coast, but particularly within the tropics, hourly +observations with the barometer and thermometer (the latter +affixed to the barometer, and also freely suspended in the +open air), should be made through several consecutive days +and nights. During the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis (or +Australis), attention should be paid to the perturbations of +the magnetic variation, and the magnetic intensity of the +horizontal needle. Boreal Auroras have been seen in the +southern latitudes of the Peruvian Pacific, as low down as +12° 13′ S.; but the occurrence of such phenomena there is of +much less frequent occurrence than that of Austral Auroras +in Scotland. It is important to keep an exact register of +the intensity of blackness in the "coalbags," when the +smallest stars surrounding them are still visible to the +naked eye. The daily meteorological observations, as also +those on the temperature of the sea, will probably be made +on board ship, in conformity with the views of Lieutenant +Maury, and the method agreed upon at the last nautical +congress.</p> + +<div> </div> + +<p>As I shall have long ceased to be numbered with the living, +when the <i>Novara</i> returns to Trieste, richly freighted with +scientific treasures of all kinds, with fresh information +relating to organic and inorganic nature, to the races of +man, their habits and languages, I now pray to Almighty God +that His blessing may rest upon this great and noble +enterprise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_l" id="Page_l">l</a></span> to the honour of our common German Fatherland! +And concluding, in this night, these oblique, illegible +lines, I remember, not without emotion, and with very +mingled feelings, that joyous period of my life when, +fifty-eight years ago, in the beautiful gardens of +Schönbrunn, preparing myself for a long journey, I was +enjoying with grateful mind the friendly kindness of the +venerable Jacquin and Peter Frank.</p> + +<div class="right"> +A. v. HUMBOLDT. +</div> + +<p>Berlin, in the night of 7th April, 1857.</p> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; + width: 466px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu055.png'); + background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu055" id="illu055"></a><a name="I" id="I"></a> + <span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">DEPARTURE.</span></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 466px; height: 392px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 185px; height: 240px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 235px; height: 30px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 277px; height: 30px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">I.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Preparations for the Voyage.</div> + +<div class="ChapDescr" style="clear: none;"> +Approbation of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War +for a Voyage round the World.—Object of the +Expedition.—Appointment of a Scientific +Commission.—Preparations.—Fitting out the Frigate <i>Novara</i> +at Pola.—Departure for Trieste.—Visit of the Archduke +Ferdinand Maximilian on board. +</div> + +<p style="clear: none;">In the autumn of 1856, His Majesty the Emperor was +graciously pleased to approve of the proposal for a voyage +round the world, as projected by his Imperial Highness the +Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the head of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> Austrian +navy, and to commission the sailing frigate <i>Novara</i> for +that purpose, a vessel qualified to meet every requisite +condition.</p> + +<p style="clear: none;">The chief object of the Expedition—a circumstance which +must not be lost sight of—was to afford the officers and +cadets of the ship an opportunity of acquiring that +practical acquaintance with naval affairs which, added to +the theoretical knowledge previously attained, would render +them thoroughly familiar with nautical routine, and thus +materially contribute to the further development of the +Austrian navy.</p> + +<p style="clear: none;">This branch of the public service, placed since 1848 on an +entirely new basis, has with difficulty worked its way +through all those embarrassing circumstances inseparable +from the organization of a new system; but the honest zeal +and energy of the board appointed, supported by favour from +the highest quarters, have succeeded in introducing many +improvements, and in increasing by degrees the numerical +strength of the men, thereby laying a secure foundation for +the rising naval force, the importance of which, at this +moment, every reflecting patriot will acknowledge.</p> + +<p style="clear: none;">The intended Expedition offered, besides the advantages for +the service, another not less important for the State, +namely, the recognition of the Austrian flag in remote +quarters of the globe, to which it had never hitherto +penetrated; and by thus opening new channels for the outlet +of our natural products and manufactured goods, to promote +the industrial, commercial, and maritime interests of the +empire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span></p> + +<p>In order to satisfy the scientific requirements of the age, +the illustrious head of the navy issued orders, that the +officers on board should in every way assist in the +researches to be made, connected with navigation and +geography; and was, moreover, pleased to invite the Imperial +Academy of Sciences to nominate two members, he himself +naming a third, to accompany the Expedition for the purpose +of observing and investigating phenomena pertaining to the +different branches of physical science, as well as +collecting rare specimens and interesting objects of natural +history. To this commission were ultimately attached a +botanist, a practical zoologist, an artist, and a +flower-gardener.</p> + +<p>The Academy had, for the guidance of these gentlemen, drawn +up instructions which, with a multitude of other papers +containing useful hints and interesting queries, received +from the Imp. Geographical, Geological, and Medical +Societies, as well as from numerous foreign and native +scientific men, formed a most valuable collection of +materials for the purposes of the Expedition.<a name="Anchor-4" id="Anchor-4"></a><a href="#Footnote-4" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 4.">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-4" id="Footnote-4"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-4">[4]</a> Of these instructions, "The physical and +geognostical remarks," with which the Nestor of natural +science honoured the voyagers of the <i>Novara</i>, being of a +more general interest, are published at the end of this +volume, together with the facsimile of an autograph letter +of Baron von Humboldt to the commander of the Expedition.</p></div> + +<p>Foremost amongst these <i>savans</i> stood Alexander von +Humboldt, that illustrious man, who up to the last moment of +his existence was alive with youthful enthusiasm for every +scientific enterprise. In England great interest in the +success of the Expedition was evinced by Sir Roderic +Murchison, Sir W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> Hooker, Sir Charles Lyell, General +Sabine, Admiral Smyth, Admiral Fitzroy, Professor Robert +Owen, Professor Philips, Professor Bell, Professor W. A. +Ramsay, Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh, W. J. Hamilton, +Esq., Charles Darwin, Esq., L. Horner, Esq., James Yates, +Esq., B. Davis, Esq., &c., &c. From the United States of +North America, we received most valuable communications from +Commander M. F. Maury, National Observatory, Washington, +D. C.—Captain Rodgers, and others.</p> + +<p>Letters of introduction were received from Germany, and +particularly from England, to influential parties and +societies in a variety of places abroad, amongst which were +many warm and friendly recommendations from the English +Government and Admiralty, as well as the Directors of the +then East India Company, to various administrative +authorities in the British Colonies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 661px;"><a name="illu058" id="illu058"></a> +<img src="images/illu058.jpg" width="661" height="305" alt="A portion of the gun deck has been converted to a lounge." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GUN-ROOM OF THE NOVARA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The frigate <i>Novara</i> was laid up in the arsenal of Pola, +where all requisite steps were taken to complete her outfit, +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> prepare her thoroughly for the voyage. The ventilation +of the lower deck was improved, and the number of cabins +increased in proportion to the number of individuals for +whom accommodation was to be provided.</p> + +<p>The gun-room was, by command of the Archduke, converted into +a reading-room, and provided with a well-selected library as +well as with all the charts and maps necessary for the +information of the officers, who here made their +calculations and executed their drawings.</p> + +<p>The store-rooms for the sails and tackle were enlarged, so +as to hold a double quantity.</p> + +<p>A distilling apparatus, the same as patented by M. Rocher, +of Nantes, was fixed on the gun-deck, and being placed in +connection with the ship's coppers, it was found that, +during the few hours each day that the latter were used for +cooking, enough sea-water was distilled to supply the entire +ship's company with excellent water to drink. This distilled +water, after having been kept in iron tanks for a month, was +found pleasant to the taste, and agreed very well with the +health. The excellent health enjoyed by all the crew +throughout the voyage must, in a great measure, be ascribed +to the circumstance, that scarcely any other but this +distilled sea-water was used, so that the men were enabled +entirely to forego drinking river or spring-water, which in +the tropics are frequently found injurious.</p> + +<p>The use of such an apparatus permits a great diminution in +the store of water usually carried by a vessel. The space<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> +gained by this diminished bulk of water, enabled us to take +on board a larger cargo of coal and provisions, such as +preserved beef and compressed vegetables. The sailors were +not, however, particularly fond of the preserved beef, +because in cooking it loses a great part of its flavour +(though the broth is strong and good); nor does it seem as +an article of diet to have had a particularly beneficial +influence on the health, for the sanitary condition of the +crew was equally satisfactory, and the number of scorbutic +patients not materially increased when, towards the end of +the voyage, the fresh stores were exhausted, and only salt +and pickled rations were issued.</p> + +<p>Compressed dried vegetables were of great benefit to the +health of our men, and cannot be sufficiently recommended. +The so-called <i>melange d'équipage</i> of Chollet, as well as +<i>sauer kraut</i>, potatoes, and other vegetables, have an +excellent taste, improve the soups when mixed with them, and +are easily preserved, provided they be protected from the +effect of damp. Hence it might be advisable to keep them +enclosed in well-soldered tin boxes. The price of these +vegetables is so moderate, that it is surprising they are +not more generally employed.</p> + +<p>The long-continued satisfactory state of health of the crew +must also partly be sought for in the constant use of +shower-baths. For this purpose, apertures, three-quarters of +an inch in diameter, were bored in the planks of both the +deck and forecastle, under which a perforated disc could be +screwed, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> above which a pail of water was placed. By +these simple means every one was enabled to enjoy the luxury +of a bath; when, however, the desire for that refreshment +became general, so that the arrangement above-mentioned was +insufficient, a hand fire-engine was made use of, so as to +accommodate as many at once as might present themselves—a +process which found great favour with the jolly tars, as +affording abundant opportunities for fun and merriment.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="illu061t" id="illu061t"></a> +<img src="images/illu061t.jpg" width="350" height="109" alt="Shows the arrangement of the space onboard." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE "NOVARA."</span><br /> +<a href="#illu061" name="illuref061">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>The frigate <i>Novara</i> had been placed on the stocks in the +arsenal of Venice in the month of February, 1845, and was +launched in April, 1850. She was pierced for 42 guns, but +during the voyage carried only thirty 30-pounders,<a name="Anchor-5" id="Anchor-5"></a><a href="#Footnote-5" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 5.">[5]</a> and +four of smaller calibre.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-5" id="Footnote-5"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-5">[5]</a> The 30-pounder marine guns answer very nearly +to the English 32-pounders.</p></div> + +<p>The principal dimensions of the frigate (Vienna measurement) +are:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col style="text-align: left" /></colgroup> +<tr><td>Length between perpendiculars</td><td>165</td><td>feet</td><td>5½</td><td>inches.<a name="Anchor-6" id="Anchor-6"></a><a href="#Footnote-6" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 6.">[6]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td>Length of water line</td><td>156</td><td>"</td><td>5</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Greatest breadth</td><td>44</td><td>"</td><td>11½</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Greatest breadth on water line</td><td>43</td><td>"</td><td>2</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Depth of hold</td><td>19</td><td>"</td><td>¾</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Draught of water aft</td><td>18</td><td>"</td><td>9</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Draught of water fore</td><td>17</td><td>"</td><td>5 <sup>2</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-6" id="Footnote-6"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-6">[6]</a> 96 <sup>423</sup>⁄<sub>1000</sub> Austrian feet = 100 English.</p></div> + +<p>The superficial area of the ship, or the load-water line, +amounted to 5685.35 square feet; quantity of water displaced +2107 Austrian, or 2630 English tons. The superficial area of +the principal sails amounted to 18,291 square feet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span></p> + +<p>The frigate proved herself to be an excellent sailer, as, of +the various vessels which, throughout the voyage, sailed in +company with us, only three clippers outstripped her.</p> + +<p>The question may here be asked, why, in the present state of +navigation, a sailing-vessel was preferred to a steamer for +this voyage? The principal consideration which decided this +selection was the greater disposable area which a +sailing-vessel offers in comparison with a steamer of the +same dimensions, in which coal and machinery occupy so large +a space. On the present occasion, it will be perceived that +what was specially wanted was room for as great a number of +officers, cadets, and men as possible, who were, as has been +stated, to make this voyage for improvement in nautical +affairs. Plenty of space was also required for the numerous +instruments and bulky collections of objects of natural +history; while in most parts of the ocean which we were to +traverse, the winds blow so regularly, that, with very rare +exceptions, sails form the best motive power. The expense of +fuel requisite for a steamer, and the trouble of replacing +it during the voyage, are thus saved; whilst, finally, the +space occupied by the men employed in the management of the +machinery, and that required for the stowage of special +stores, would be withdrawn from more important objects.</p> + +<p>After the frigate had been properly fitted up in the arsenal +of Pola, she sailed on the 15th March, 1857, for Trieste, +where she cast anchor on the 17th in the Bay of Muggia. +H.I.M.'s corvette <i>Caroline</i>, likewise fitted out at Pola +for a voyage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> to the coast of South America and Western +Africa, followed in her wake, and it was now seen that the +frigate was a better sailer than the corvette, a +circumstance so much the more satisfactory, that the latter +had hitherto been considered the swiftest ship in our navy.</p> + +<p>The unfavourable state of the weather interfered so much +with the works which were to be finished at Trieste, that +the embarkation of provisions, swinging the compasses, &c., +&c., could only be proceeded with very slowly.</p> + +<p>At last, the members of the Commission arrived, and the +vessel only waited for sailing orders.</p> + +<p>Before leaving on so interesting an enterprise, with which +the most pleasing recollections of our lives will ever be +associated, we had the gratification of being honoured by a +visit on board from the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian. The +commander of the Expedition introduced the officers and +scientific gentlemen to his Imperial Highness, who addressed +them in affecting terms, and concluded his remarks by +expressing a hope that the frigate <i>Novara</i> would, with +God's help, return happily from her mission to her own +honour and that of the country.</p> + +<p>The narrative of the voyage is now presented, and, probably, +the results of the various scientific investigations will +very shortly be offered to a discerning public, leaving it +to them to judge how far we have succeeded in realizing the +hopes of the illustrious Prince. But if we have not +satisfied all the expectations entertained, it certainly was +not from insufficiency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> of means; for everything was +complete in that respect, and we owe it chiefly to the +circumspection and kind care of the Commander-in-chief of +our navy, that this enterprise had been so wisely planned, +and its details brought in so short a time to such a degree +of perfection that, during the whole voyage, it was not +found necessary to make the slightest alteration in the +original arrangements and regulations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 594px;"><a name="illu065" id="illu065"></a> +<img src="images/illu065.png" width="594" height="330" alt="Sextant, dividers, telescope etc. on a table." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GEODETICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; +width: 553px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu067.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu067" id="illu067"></a><a name="II" id="II"></a> +<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">LOOK-OUT MAN.</span></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 551px; height: 353px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 180px; height: 18px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 163px; height: 102px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 153px; height: 47px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 166px; height: 120px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 151px; height: 17px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 131px; height: 43px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">II.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">From Trieste to Gibraltar.</div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +Departure.—Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.—A Man lost and +found again.—Passage through the Straits of Messina.—The +Steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> returns to Trieste.—Regulations and +Instructions for further Proceedings.—A Day on Board the +<i>Novara</i>.—Sunrise.—Cleaning the Ship.—Mental and physical +occupation.—Moonlight at sea. +</div> + +<p>The departure of the frigate was fixed for the 30th April, +1857, and H.I.M.'s corvette <i>Caroline</i>, Captain Kohen, was +ordered to accompany her as far as the coast of South +America. H.I.M's steamer, <i>Sta. Lucia</i>, Captain von Littrow, +received orders to tow both ships as far as the extremity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> +of the Straits of Messina to avoid loss of time, such as +frequently arises in the Adriatic during the spring, from +calms and unfavourable winds.</p> + +<p>With the dawn of the day fixed for the departure of the +ships, all was bustle on board; craft of all kinds hovered +around, and relatives and friends had assembled in great +numbers to take leave. The verdant and thickly-wooded slopes +of the promenade to St. Andrea, near the shore, were +thronged with spectators, and the fair and lovely picture of +our native coast developed itself once more before our eyes, +clad in all its charms of spring, as if to wish us a hearty +farewell, an auspicious voyage, and a happy return!</p> + +<p>At 8 o'clock <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> we weighed anchor, and the steamer <i>Sta. +Lucia</i> approached the <i>Novara</i> for the purpose of towing her +from the Bay of Muggia into the roads of Trieste. She had +all her colours displayed, and saluted the city of Trieste, +Austria's chief and most important emporium, with 21 guns. +The salute was answered from the castle, whilst the band on +board struck up Haydn's beautiful hymn: "God preserve the +Emperor!" The frigate moved out of the road-stead, +accompanied by a great number of boats, and followed by the +best wishes of the numerous crowds assembled on shore, and +of all true patriots, who looked upon this Expedition as a +cheering evidence that a new and energetic spirit of +enterprise had arisen in their native country.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate066t" id="plate066t"></a> +<img src="images/plate066t.jpg" width="350" height="205" alt="Map of track." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE I.—TRACK FROM TRIESTE TO MADEIRA.</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate066.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>The corvette <i>Caroline</i>, which was waiting outside the +roads, was attached to the frigate, and soon Trieste +appeared like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span> a dim cloud on the distant horizon. The +outlines of the Carinthian Alps became fainter, and the +excitement of the parting scene was calmed by that busy +activity required from every one embarking on a long voyage, +if he desires to attain any degree of comfort, however +little, in the cramped and limited space of a crowded ship.</p> + +<p>A perfect calm, a smooth sea, and a but-slightly-clouded +sky, prognosticated fair weather, and promised leisure to +complete those arrangements which had been left undone. The +steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> performed her task of towing the two +vessels most satisfactorily, and, favoured by the prevailing +currents of wind and water, we made five miles an hour, and +came, on the day of departure, in sight of the promontory of +Pola.</p> + +<p>The passage down the Adriatic was on the whole most +pleasant, with the exception of some showers of rain near +the heights of Isola Grossa; which, however, on this +occasion saluted us only with a slight puff of wind. The +ship moved so gently and quietly on her way, that those +occupying the lower cabins could scarcely have fancied +themselves at sea, had they not been made aware of it by +other impressions.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of May, the crew became highly excited by a man +being missed, when the morning watch was called. Some +thought he had, from fear of a slight punishment hanging +over him, jumped overboard, but as nothing of the kind had +been observed by the watch on deck, every corner was +searched, but without success, upon which the man was given +over as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> lost. When, however, the dinner hour arrived, and +the tables and benches were being removed from the lower +deck, how great was the surprise, when the culprit was +discovered crouching among them! A peal of laughter roused +the poor fellow, who this time was let off with the fright +and the punishment of being made an object of ridicule by +his comrades.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd of May, being clear of the Adriatic, the steamer +<i>Sta. Lucia</i> was at midnight despatched to Corfu to complete +her store of coal, whilst we sailed for Cape Spartivento, on +the Calabrian coast, which had been assigned as our +<i>rendezvous</i>. On the 5th, we sighted this the most southerly +promontory of Italy, when, in consequence of a fresh breeze, +the sea began to make itself rather disagreeably felt. The +novices on board became somewhat alarmed. A feeble voice was +even heard, which endeavoured to prove from this phenomenon +that man is a creature made for <i>terra firma</i>, and not for +the watery element; but this excellent idea came rather +late; mankind are obliged to submit to existing +circumstances, and this thought alone held out some hope, +that a longer stay on board would prove the best cure for +the evil. Such indeed was the case; though pale faces, want +of appetite, and even worse effects, were produced, whenever +the ship made a heavier roll than usual. But these slight +inconveniences of sea life became rarer and rarer, till at +last they appeared only in really stiff gales. On the 7th +the steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> returned and took us again in tow.</p> + +<p>The weather during our passage through the charming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span> straits +of Messina was delightful. The colossal Etna exhibited in +all its glory its snow-capped summit, gilded by the rays of +the rising sun, and Messina shone with all the attractions +of its splendid situation. The coast of this part of Italy +is mostly bare and rugged, the broken outlines of the +mountains imparting to the landscape that characteristic +peculiarity which makes so deep an impression on the mind. +We passed the famous Charybdis, in which a multitude of +dolphins were disporting themselves. The neighbouring coast +formed a brilliant panorama, and we kept so close in shore +as to be able to distinguish the movements of the people. +The appearance of our three goodly ships seemed to have +attracted the attention of the inhabitants, for they stood +in groups in the streets and squares of Reggio and Villa San +Giovanni, saluting us by waving their handkerchiefs. When +towards the evening we had passed the straits, we could +descry the Neapolitan coast as far as Monte Bulgario, in the +Bay of Policastro, and distinguish the imposing Stromboli, +with its volume of smoke, far on the Western horizon.</p> + +<p>The following morning found us in sight of the small island +of Alicudi, situated on the north of Sicily. The estimable +captain of the <i>Lucia</i> came on board to take leave, on his +return to Trieste. The steamer, being relieved of her +burden, made her way briskly towards her destination; and, +before an hour had elapsed, we could perceive nothing but a +small streak of smoke in the haze of the horizon.</p> + +<p>With light breezes, we came, on the following day, in sight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span> +of the island of Ustica. Sea-gulls (<i>Thalassidroma +pelagica</i>) enlivened the scene, as they, from time to time, +flew after the garbage thrown from the ship, or sought for +sea-nettles and other small inhabitants of the sea's +surface. These birds much resemble our land swallows, and +their movements are so graceful, that one cannot but admire +them, especially when they lightly touch the agitated water +with their little webbed feet, and directly, as if repelled, +withdraw. The muscular power of these feathered creatures is +truly wonderful; they follow the ship for entire days +continually on the wing, ever on the watch to snatch at the +little food which the sea seems but scantily to supply to +them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"><a name="illu072" id="illu072"></a> +<img src="images/illu072.png" width="448" height="531" alt="Older helmsman and a youthful assistant with bemused expression." title="" /> +<span class="caption">"PALINURUS".</span> +</div> + +<p>Whilst we were passing down the Mediterranean, a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> deal +of time was employed in drawing up regulations, and in +digesting all those instructions which had reached the +Commander of the Expedition from all sides, and by which we +were to be guided in our future proceedings.</p> + +<p>The scientific gentlemen were the first who received certain +rules for their guidance; for, life on board a ship, and +especially of a man-of-war, is so entirely different from +that on shore,—the etiquette and usages practised appear, +to those unused to the sea, so vexatious and annoying, that +it was absolutely necessary to inform them of the +regulations which are essential in order to keep so singular +an organization as that of a ship at sea in working order. +Erelong every one perceived, that the matutinal annoyance of +holystoning the decks, the daily cleaning of everything on +board, &c., are measures of importance, which contribute +materially to the preservation of the health of the crew, +and that a strict observance of discipline is absolutely +necessary to exercise their powers, and thus to fit them for +all eventualities.</p> + +<p>For the better accommodation of the naturalists, a place on +the lower gun-deck was fitted up for those operations which, +on account of the limited space and noxious exhalations, +could not well be performed in the cabins.</p> + +<p>We had a large quantity of alcohol on board, destined for +the preservation of interesting objects of natural history. +In order to prevent any calamity by fire arising therefrom, +the whole quantity was put in a large iron tank placed in +the hold, and covered over with sand. It will, however, be +seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> in the sequel, that even this precaution proved +insufficient to protect the ship from the ignition of this +highly-combustible substance.</p> + +<p>The meteorological observations, and those connected with +the physical geography of the sea, were entrusted to four +officers, who, like those attached to the watches, had +alternately to be at their posts, and had, at prescribed +hours, to observe the barometer, thermometer, and +psychrometer, as well as the temperature of the surface of +the sea, the state of the sky and the ocean, and to note +down the obtained results. One of the junior officers was +intrusted with the nautical observations on shipboard, as +well as the astronomical and magnetical on shore.</p> + +<p>The midshipmen were at the same time trained by study and +practice, so as to enable them to assist the officers in +their duties. Besides the men on the look-out, one of the +midshipmen was employed on the same service. In stormy +nights, when the wind is howling, and rain or snow falling, +this post is certainly not very pleasant, but is, as may +readily be imagined, most important.</p> + +<p>Life in the limited space of a ship, completely cut off from +the external world, is so peculiar and interesting to those +unacquainted with the sea, that we will endeavour to +describe a day passed on board the <i>Novara</i>, from the +instant when at daybreak the bustle and activity begin, till +the late hour when night reminds one of repose, those sweet +moments which carry the voyager to his distant home on the +wings of a dream.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p> + +<p>As the sonorous bell strikes the fifth hour of the morning, +the crew are called on deck by the boatswain's whistle, the +hammocks are slung up and stowed away, and the work begins.</p> + +<p>This is the busiest time of the day, and for the mere +spectator the most uncomfortable. On all sides scouring, +rubbing, sweeping are going on, floods of water are +streaming along the decks, and he who is not as yet familiar +with these cleaning processes, runs some risk of a ducking +as soon as he makes his appearance outside his cabin. These +morning ablutions are, however, indispensable evils on board +ship, for cleanliness is a condition essential to the +preservation of health, and even the quantity of humidity +which penetrates the timber, and renders the air damp, +appears to be less injurious than the omission of these +daily scourings.</p> + +<p>When the cleaning of the various parts of the ship is +finished, the idlers, and such of the officers as are off +duty, appear on deck, whither people come to enjoy the fresh +air, and to greet the opening day. It may, however, be +permitted to observe, that a sunrise at sea, notwithstanding +its various charms, is by far less imposing than the same +scene on a lofty mountain, where the veil of night seems to +vanish as if by magic, and luxuriant nature lies at our feet +like a smiling infant awaking from a lovely dream. That wild +majesty of scenery, that overpowering grandeur of gigantic +mountain forms, such as one sees in the Swiss or Tyrolese +Alps, is wanting at sea, where the rising sun pours his +beams only over a boundless world of water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span></p> + +<p>The sailors breakfast at 7, the officers at 8, and the +Commander at 9. At the latter hour the bugle sounds the +order to "clear the ship," when the cleaning of arms, guns, +and all other articles of metal connected with the ship's +armoury, begins. During this process the band plays cheerful +airs, so that the work is done whilst keeping time with the +music, which serves to lighten the labour. This duty +requires to be completed within forty-five minutes, and +terminates with an inspection of the men and their arms.</p> + +<p>This being over, officers and midshipmen off duty assemble +together with the naturalists in the reading-room. Most of +the books in the library referred to those countries likely +to be visited by the Expedition, so that every one might +previously obtain useful information relative to their +physical, historical, and social conditions.</p> + +<p>The naturalists employ the greater part of the day in their +cabins, noting down their observations, and preparing for +those to be made in the course of the voyage. The crew are +kept in activity by being drilled and otherwise occupied.</p> + +<p>The men dine at 12; the dinner of the officers is served up +at 3, and that of the Commodore at half-past 3 o'clock <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> +The remainder of the afternoon is spent in prosecuting the +labours begun in the morning. Thus steals on the evening, +when a general assemblage takes place on deck, for air and +exercise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 644px;"><a name="illu077" id="illu077"></a> +<img src="images/illu077.jpg" width="644" height="547" alt="Sailors lounging around on deck." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SEAMEN OFF DUTY.</span> +</div> + +<p>The occurrences of the day, the sunset, the curious +formation of the clouds, or the bewitching beauty of a +brilliant tropical sky at night, form interesting topics for +lively discussion. It is, however, rather daring to +institute a comparison between the splendour of the sky in +the tropics and that of our higher latitudes. For, most men +become more or less unjust towards the beauties of a new and +foreign natural scenery, in consequence of their not being +able to divest themselves of former impressions produced in +them by phenomena of a similar nature. What impressions are, +for instance, deeper in young and old, and excite more +delightful recollections than the starry sky of home? And +can it be disputed that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> association of ideas has a most +powerful effect upon the impressions made by those phenomena +of nature which are so peculiarly attractive and so deeply +fixed in the human mind?</p> + +<p>The conversation generally becomes more lively on those +evenings when the moon, placid friend of the sailor, appears +on the distant horizon, shedding her silvery beams over the +unbroken expanse of water. The influence which she exercises +on the state of the weather, even the prejudices and +superstitions connected with our satellite, offer subjects +of interesting debate; involuntarily the mariner looks with +grateful feelings towards that heavenly luminary, the mild +soothing light of which diminishes the number of his anxious +nights, protects him in present, warns him of remote +dangers, and influences so powerfully that vast element on +which he passes the greater part of his life. Indeed he who +has ever spent a dark and stormy night on the ocean, when +the ship, lashed by the fury of the waves, and borne +resistlessly along, stands in constant peril of coming in +violent collision with a vessel similarly circumstanced, or +of being dashed to pieces on some iron-bound coast of rugged +rock, easily comprehends and will excuse the sailor who +ascribes to the moonlight somewhat of a supernatural and +mysterious power.</p> + +<p>In this manner, and notwithstanding the continued sameness, +days and months glide away like hours, until we again cast +anchor, and only the work accomplished gives an idea of the +length of time which has been passed at sea.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span></p> + +<p>Sunday alone breaks the monotony of life on board, when, +after the diurnal cleaning of the ship, and the inspection +of the crew, the officers, and all the men who are not on +duty, assemble for divine service on the lower gun-deck, +where the chaplain says mass on a temporary altar, whilst +the ship's band performs sacred music. In the afternoon the +men off duty amuse themselves for a couple of hours with the +"<i>tombola</i>," a game much liked by our sailors. Between 6 and +7 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> the band plays on deck, whilst the sailors are +cutting grotesque figures to the music. The singular capers +by which all evince their happiness; the good-humoured +awkwardness with which each clings to the brawny arm of his +companion; the mock graceful air those who enact the gentler +sex assume in the dance, and, finally, the affected attitude +with which the cavaliers bow to their partners as if they +really were of the gentler sex—all this is most ludicrous +and amusing. The playing the national dance "Monferina" +always elicits a particularly hearty reception. There is a +peculiar charm in national melodies, even though they awaken +no political reminiscences like the Marseillaise, or the +Rakoczy; they electrify alike the educated and the men of +the people; a thousand pleasing recollections suddenly crowd +into the memory, and when the well-known tunes strike the +ear, the heart seems to live again in bygone times! As if +touched by magic, the sailor from the Adriatic, as soon as +the Monferina is struck up, seizes his neighbour by the arm +with a noisy shout and hurls him about in wild hilarity; his +thoughts seem as if flying towards his distant home, where, +in the country inn, with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> buxom lass on his shoulder, he +has waltzed away many a happy hour. The whole village, with +all its familiar faces, seems to revive in his memory during +the playing of the melody,—now he fills his glass; now he +clinks it merrily with that of his companion; now he presses +his sweetheart more closely to his side: Lo! suddenly a +shrill whistle pierces the air, the music ceases, the call +is heard "to fall in," and the yet dance-stricken sailor, +suddenly, as if awakening from a sweet reverie, is once more +standing on the deck of the <i>Novara</i>!</p> + +<p>The frigate, in the Mediterranean also, maintained her +superiority as a sailer. The corvette <i>Caroline</i> was able to +keep the prescribed distance from the <i>Novara</i> only by the +latter reefing some of her sails. As some magnetic +observations were to be made at Gibraltar, and, as we had to +ascertain the results of the various chronometers on board, +on the 12th of May we signalled the corvette to take her own +time and rejoin us at Gibraltar, as we were anxious to avoid +unnecessary detention.</p> + +<p>The acquisitions of the naturalists had, as yet, been very +scanty: to their great annoyance they could not even obtain +any of the tortoises, which, from time to time, approached +the ship, though they were repeatedly fired at, and on one +occasion a boat was launched, in the hope of catching some +of them. The specimens which we saw were from fifteen to +twenty inches in diameter; they mostly floated quietly on +the surface, and seemed sleeping or basking themselves in +the sun.</p> + +<p>The night of the 16th May was exceedingly boisterous,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span> and +almost tangible darkness prevailed; thunder, lightning, and +occasionally strong easterly squalls, raged furiously, and +only subsided towards the morning, when it cleared up with +fresh southerly breezes. Not being far from Cape de Gatt, on +the Spanish coast, prudence required us to change course, +and, during the continuance of stormy weather, to keep at a +respectful distance from the shore. Here a merchantman, +apparently an American, bore down so close upon us, that, in +the darkness, an unpleasant collision seemed unavoidable. +However, we tacked about, and thus, fortunately avoiding our +dangerous neighbour, safely proceeded on our course.</p> + +<p>It is truly astonishing how often merchantmen, entirely +forgetful of their own safety, from want of caution, or +presumption, or it would occasionally seem, sheerly from +acting upon peculiar and abnormal principles of navigation, +wantonly expose ship, men, and cargo to many dangers, which +might easily be avoided, particularly in cases where no +tacking is required, and only a slight touch of the rudder +would suffice to prevent a collision, which is always +attended with danger to the smaller ship. In this respect +the North Americans are very unpleasant neighbours on +account of their national vanity, and the Dutch for their +phlegmatic temperament and the indifference they evince on +such occasions.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of May, the small rocky island of Alboran, in +the narrow part of the sea between Africa and Spain, was +observed; being flat and without vegetation, it is scarcely +perceptible, and the land-fall during the night should be +carefully avoided. The erection of a lighthouse on this +island<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> would certainly be regarded as a great boon by all +who navigate the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>On the 19th of May, the sea suddenly assumed a peculiar +orange colour; a dust-like covering was observed on the +surface of the water, and at some depth white points might +be seen, mingling with each other in the wake of the ship. +Clouds of this orange-like matter appeared spread upon the +sea, which thereby lost its usual transparency. On closer +examination this phenomenon appeared to arise from a mass +consisting of myriads of minute animalculæ, which had a +yellow opaque kernel, the gelatinous covering of which was +transparent and colourless. A quantity of sea-water +impregnated with this matter, having been brought into a +dark room, gave out a light, and when agitated, such +brightness proceeded from it, as justified the anticipation +that, during the night, the whole sea would be illuminated. +Accordingly the wake of the ship was illuminated by a +wonderful stream of light, in the depths of which larger +masses of luminous matter could be discerned, whilst on the +surface there was a sparkling and glittering, as if all the +stars of the firmament were reflected in the water.</p> + +<p>This phosphorescence of the sea, for the explanation of +which we are chiefly indebted to Professor Ehrenberg, +proceeds for the most part from the emanations of light from +molluscæ of the genus <i>Medusa</i>, and other living phosphoric +animalculæ; sometimes, however, as for instance in Venice, +it arises from the putrescent fibres of decayed molluscæ, +and other organisms in a state of decomposition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p> + +<p>On the evening of the 20th the splendid Ceuta Light was +seen, which, even at a distance of twenty miles, looks as if +it were quite near. This lighthouse is of the utmost +importance to ships emerging into the Atlantic from the +Mediterranean, as the current is exceedingly powerful, and +during the night is apt imperceptibly to carry a vessel out +of her course. On the morning of the 21st, the ship lay in a +calm before the rock of Gibraltar. Barren, gray, and gloomy +rose now before our sight this rocky, gun-studded, colossal +sentinel of that vigilantly-prudent, energetic, and jealous +Power, which is so constantly seeking to extend her rule +wherever her own interests are concerned, or where she +thinks it advisable to make herself respected by other +nations.</p> + +<p>A light breeze sprang up, and at half-past 3 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> the +anchorage, eleven and a half fathoms in depth, was reached. +The frigate now lay in front of the Alameda or public +gardens of Gibraltar, situated near the town gate, called +the Ragged Staff. This anchorage is tolerably safe at this +season, but in autumn and winter, as well as generally in +strong easterly winds, it is not to be recommended, it being +preferable to haul further in towards the place where the +merchant-vessels usually lie. We saluted the English flag on +the fortress with twenty-one guns, which were immediately +answered from the ramparts. There were no English men-of-war +in the Roads, except the sloop <i>Curlew</i>, Capt. Horton. The +following morning our consort, the <i>Caroline</i>, anchored in +our vicinity.</p> + +<p>The first day of the arrival of a man-of-war in harbour is +attended with much inconvenience, particularly if she +carries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> the flag of the Commodore, or it happens that the +mail packets are arriving or departing, or that there are +many ships of war in the Roads. The latter was not now the +case, but so many visitors, letters, and newspapers arrived +at once, that neither the one nor the other could be +thoroughly enjoyed.</p> + +<p>The local authorities, the governor, Sir James Fergusson, at +their head, were extremely obliging and attentive; Mr. +Falkland, an officer of the Engineers, was placed at our +disposal; a specially-reserved site was assigned us for +astronomical and magnetical observations; huts were erected +by the workmen of the arsenal for the protection of the +instruments, and in short everything, calculated to promote +scientific labours, was provided. The Chancellor of the +Austrian Consulate, Mr. John Frembly, himself a geologist, +proved likewise to be of great service to our scientific +men: and it was considered a fortunate omen to have found, +at this our first anchorage, so much sympathy with the +objects of the Expedition.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 659px;"><a name="illu084" id="illu084"></a> +<img src="images/illu084.jpg" width="659" height="385" alt="Mountain emerging from the sea." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VIEW OF GIBRALTAR FROM SEAWARD.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; + width: 444px; height: 701px; background-image: url('images/illu085.png'); + background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu085" id="illu085"></a><a name="III" id="III"></a> + <span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.</span></div> + +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 442px; height: 161px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 176px; height: 68px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 152px; height: 60px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 119px; height: 53px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 106px; height: 115px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 91px; height: 104px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 88px; height: 42px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 66px; height: 37px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 95px; height: 31px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 125px; height: 35px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">III.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Gibraltar.</div> + +<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Stay from the 20th to the 30th May, 1857.</span></div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +Political Significance of the Rock.—Courtesy of the British +Authorities.—Fortifications.—Signal Stations.—The only +place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.—Calcareous +Caves.—Chief Entrances into the Town.—Shutting the Town +Gates.—Public Establishments.—Inhabitants.—Elliott's +Gardens.—The Isthmus, or Neutral +Ground.—Algeziras.—Ceuta.—Commerce and +Navigation.—Excellent regulation in the English Navy +relative to Officers' Outfit.—Small-pox appears on Board +the <i>Caroline</i>.—Departure from Gibraltar.—A Fata +Morgana.—The <i>Novara</i> passes the Straits.—Take leave of +Europe.—Voyage to Madeira.—Floating Bottles to ascertain +the Currents.—Arrival in the Roads of Funchal. +</div> + +<p>This remarkable promontory, which in our days has obtained +so much political importance, the Calpe of the ancients, +constituted of old, with the opposite Abyla,<a name="Anchor-7" id="Anchor-7"></a><a href="#Footnote-7" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 7.">[7]</a> the +so-called pillars of Hercules, celebrated, at the same time, +as the boundary of the then-known world. It derives its name +from the corrupted Arabic <i>Gebel</i> (mountain) and <i>Tarik</i>, +the name of a Moorish conqueror, who had pitched his camp +here (<span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 711). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> Like +a colossal giant, guarding the +portal of Europe, and converted, by the energy and ingenuity +of the British, into an almost impregnable outpost, this +precipitous rock has, as regards the Mediterranean, the same +high strategic importance for that great maritime people, as +Heligoland for the German Ocean, Aden for the Red Sea, +Ceylon and Singapore for the Indian Archipelago, Hongkong +for the Chinese waters, or the Cape and St. Helena for the +Atlantic Ocean.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-7" id="Footnote-7"></a> +<a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-7">[7]</a> The present Apes Hill.</p></div> + +<p>Gibraltar was already strongly fortified, when it belonged +to the Andalusian kingdom, but its grandest fortifications +date from the treaty of Utrecht (1713), when it became an +appanage of the British crown. Stupendous and incomparable +are the works which since that period have been executed on +it, though the calcareous formation of the locality and its +numerous caves may have considerably facilitated their +construction.</p> + +<p>The English authorities, who so kindly assisted in the +scientific researches, obligingly furnished each individual +of the frigate's staff with a written permission to inspect +the fortifications as often as they pleased, and thereby +afforded them the particular gratification of being able to +view and admire these vast structures in all their details.</p> + +<p>Excellent and well-kept roads lead to the principal +fortifications, which only begin at an elevation of several +hundred feet above the town. The galleries, hewn in the +solid rock, forming a kind of casemates, are of such breadth +and height that they may be conveniently traversed by a man +on horseback<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span> with his hat on. They have been constructed at +an immense expense of labour and money, and are designated +by various names, as "Upper gallery," "Lower gallery," +"Queen's gallery," "St. George's Hall," and so on. Their +extent is estimated at an English mile, but is probably much +greater. Besides these galleries, passages run for miles in +the interior of the rock, affording the garrison a +thoroughly-protected connection with all points that may +chance to be threatened.</p> + +<p>The grandest and most imposing of these marvellous +excavations are the "Queen's gallery" and "St. George's +Hall." According to carved inscriptions, most of them were +begun and completed between the years 1783 and 1789. At the +period of our visit, there were mounted on the different +fortifications 707 guns, about one hundred of which peeped +out of the smaller embrasures. Since that date, however, the +number is said to have been increased so as to amount now to +about 1500.</p> + +<p>During the stay of the <i>Novara</i>, it fortunately happened +that the birthday of Queen Victoria was celebrated, and thus +an opportunity was offered of seeing the fiery mountain in +full activity. Though the occasion was peaceable, yet the +imposing spectacle gave a tolerable idea of the elements of +destruction which Gibraltar could put in action if really +attacked. The governor of the fortress, surrounded by a +brilliant staff, in which the Spanish governor of Algeziras +and his officers played but a sorry part, reviewed the +garrison, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, to +the number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> from 5000 to 6000 men; and whilst the troops +defiled in slow and quick step, lightnings and thunders +issued from all the crevices and embrasures of the +artificially-perforated rock; huge volumes of dense smoke +followed, and a rolling subterraneous rumbling gave the +mountain exactly the character of a volcano suddenly burst +into action. The echo of these salvoes of rejoicing must +have been heard, not only in the adjacent parts of Spain, +but also on the more remote coast of Africa; and he who was +ignorant of the real cause, might have supposed it a grand +rehearsal of that fearful tragedy which the English seem +determined to perform in the event of an attack. The +supposition, however, that the guns of Gibraltar are able +entirely to command the Straits is erroneous, for these, at +their narrowest part, are 12½ miles wide, and not even +the Armstrong guns, with which the fortress has lately been +furnished, have so extensive a range. The English are, +however, able to command the Straits by a fleet, which would +find in the Bay of Gibraltar a sufficiently safe and roomy +anchorage.</p> + +<p>From the fortifications, a narrow and rather steep path +leads to the telegraph station, at an elevation of 1300 feet +above the level of the sea. Steamers and men-of-war, as soon +as visible, are signalled from this point by means of +immense balls and flags. It would be very difficult to +signal merchantmen in the same way, as, during a prevailing +westerly wind, multitudes of ships often appear to the +eastward of the rock, anxiously waiting for a favourable +easterly breeze to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span> carry them through the Straits; in the +same way the westerly horizon is sometimes crowded with +ships, prevented by contrary winds from entering the +Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>We found at the station an Aneroid-barometer, and a +thermometer. The advantages for navigation and physical +science of extensive meteorological observations, regularly +made, are so evident, that it is astonishing to see how +often opportunities are neglected for making them, such as +are offered here.</p> + +<p>There was no opportunity for seeing any of those families of +monkeys, the occasional appearance of which on the Rock of +Gibraltar has given rise to tales found in books of travel +of the existence of a submarine communication, through which +this single representative of the genus in Europe has found +its way to this rock from Africa. Sometimes, however, during +easterly winds, single individuals are observed on the +highest peaks on the eastern side of the rock, where it is +completely inaccessible; probably the remnants of that +species (<i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>), which at some former time, +either by chance, or human agency, have found their way +hither from the Moorish coast.</p> + +<p>The calcareous caves are very remarkable. That on the +western side, called St. Michael's, situated at a height of +800 feet, is the most important. It contains beautiful +stalactite formations, and seems to be of considerable +extent; it has, however, not been closely examined hitherto, +as only a small part is conveniently accessible. St. +Martin's Cave, on the south-east, likewise about 800 feet +above the level of the sea, is smaller, but its stalactites +are of a purer whiteness. A third<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> was discovered a few +years since on the eastern side of the rock at a height of +only 80 feet, the lower portion of which consists of +accumulations of sand and recent shells. There have also +been found bones and teeth of large herbivorous animals.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 667px;"><a name="illu090" id="illu090"></a> +<img src="images/illu090.jpg" width="667" height="459" alt="Huge cavern as viewed while looking out from inside." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ROCK CAVERN IN GIBRALTAR.</span> +</div> + +<p>The characteristic vegetation of the mountain is Spanish +broom (<i>Spartium junceum</i>), the yellow blossom of which +strikes the eye pleasingly at a great distance. There is +also one species of cactus, and one of the dwarf palm +(<i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>, and <i>Chamærops humilis</i>), which grows +in great abundance, and forms, on the south face of the +rock, almost the only vegetation, whilst, on account of +difference of temperature, it is altogether absent on the +remaining sides.</p> + +<p>Gibraltar has little to attract strangers to settle; +barracks,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> military store-houses, and fortifications, render +the appearance of the place peculiarly monotonous, the more +so that there are no elegant buildings, or fine shops, on +the rock. There was nothing observed, however, to confirm +the statement, in a celebrated geographical work, copied by +all later compilers, that "most of the houses are painted +black, to soften the glare of the sun, and prevent an +attacking enemy having a distinct view of the place." The +town, which is built in terraces on the side of the rock, is +accessible only from three points. The greatest portion of +the traffic passes through the so-called Old Mole at the +north end, whilst the entrances on the south are generally +used by men-of-war sailors only. All are opened at 5 in the +morning, and, according to the season, shut between 7 and 8 +in the evening, precisely twenty-five minutes after the +first signal-gun. This closing of the gate is attended with +ceremonies verging on the comic. A broad-shouldered +corporal, carrying in his hand a heavy bunch of immense +keys, marches, visibly impressed with the importance of his +mission, in measured steps, accompanied by a number of red +jackets with fixed bayonets, towards the massive town-gate; +the bridge is then, with much ado, drawn up, and the +horribly-creaking gate, with great exertion, closed, bolted, +and finally locked. After "gun fire" no one can leave the +town by the Old Mole; at 10 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, however, and at midnight, +a little postern is opened, through which those jolly +stragglers, who have forgotten in merry company the measure +of time, may slip out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> to return to their floating abodes. +From this hour till morning all communication with the +harbour is arrested, and the utter impossibility (except in +extraordinary cases) of leaving the town <i>after</i> this hour, +has given rise amongst the people to the saying, "There is +only <i>one</i> thing more difficult than to get <i>out</i> of the +town after midnight, and that is to get <i>in</i>."</p> + +<p>There are in the city two Anglican churches, one Wesleyan, +one Presbyterian, two Catholic chapels, and two synagogues. +The garrison library, where likewise a great number of +journals and magazines are kept, possesses 22,000 volumes, +amongst them several very rare and costly works, especially +of ancient Spanish literature. It was founded in 1793 by +Captain Drinkwater, and has been hitherto kept up by private +subscriptions and the profits arising from a +printing-establishment attached to it.</p> + +<p>Gibraltar owes to the energy and public spirit of the +governor, Sir James Fergusson, the foundation of several +important establishments and undertakings. Since the +beginning of his administration in 1856, the number of +public schools has been considerably increased, the town +supplied with gas, and well-arranged public baths +established.</p> + +<p>The city does not possess a single well or spring; the water +used is obtained from tanks, in which the rain is collected. +The quantity of rain that fell during the twelve months of +1855 amounted to 78 inches; in 1856, it is said to have been +only 24 inches. Nevertheless, there is at no time any +scarcity of water. The Government have lately caused the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> +erection of a distilling apparatus for making sea-water fit +for domestic purposes, which, however, hitherto has not been +used.</p> + +<p>The population of Gibraltar, including the garrison of 6000 +men, amounts to about 20,000 souls, consisting of Spaniards, +English, Italians (mostly Genoese), Portuguese, Moors, +Turks, Greeks, and Jews; indeed, a mixture of races, +customs, and manners such as scarcely can be found at any +other place in Europe. The native residents call Gibraltar +briefly <i>the rock</i>, and themselves, with a kind of +pseudo-patriotism, <i>rock people</i>, though by the officers of +the garrison and navy generally complimented with the name +of "rock-scorpions."</p> + +<p>The permanent settling of foreigners, in consequence of its +being a fortress, requires a number of formalities, which +have the effect of limiting the population; and even the +English portion must be considered migratory, as it consists +chiefly of military and government officers, who, after the +lapse of certain intervals, exchange in regular order.</p> + +<p>The only really beautiful walk in the place is Elliott's +Gardens, situated at the south end of the town, laid out in +a grand style, but disfigured by a tasteless bronze statue +of General Elliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield), the heroic +defender of Gibraltar in 1782. In the evenings, when one of +the military bands is performing, the grounds are thronged +by visitors on foot, horseback, and in carriages, whilst +loving couples, of all races and grades, ramble in happy +union through the shady avenues.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span></p> + +<p>Near the gardens, towards the south, is a second quarter of +the city, which mostly consists of government buildings. On +the lowest terrace, which juts furthest into the sea, stands +the lighthouse, on the celebrated "Europa Point."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 638px;"><a name="illu094" id="illu094"></a> +<img src="images/illu094.jpg" width="638" height="512" alt="A soldier on guard as people pass across a narrow bridge." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SOUTH GATE, GIBRALTAR.</span> +</div> + +<p>Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish continent by a sandy +neck of land, called by the Spaniards <i>El Istmo</i>, and by the +English "the neutral ground." It runs between the +Mediterranean and the bay, one mile and a half in length and +2700 feet in breadth. This plain, which is not more than 10 +feet above the water, owes its origin to the formation of a +dune in the rocky bed of the ocean. Strong easterly gales +seem by degrees to have accumulated the sand on this shallow +run of the sea, which formerly separated Gibraltar from +Spain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p> + +<p>A similar sand formation, near Catalan Bay, has attained the +enormous height of 1000 feet. The Government have caused a +portion of the sand, at the point where the isthmus joins +the rock, to be excavated, and the water of the bay to be +let in, so that there only remains a narrow low dyke of firm +ground, which probably in time of war may be completely +submerged. The stagnant water of this cut must, however, +during the hot season, considerably increase the amount of +fever.</p> + +<p>From May till October the troops are encamped under tents on +this isthmus, along which the neighbouring Spaniards come to +market daily in crowds, with provisions of all kinds, +displaying their rancour against the foreign intruders by +endeavouring to make them pay the highest possible price for +their produce.</p> + +<p>The adjacent Spanish settlements, Campamiento and St. Roque, +are much resorted to by excursionists from Gibraltar, and, +during the summer, are selected by numerous families for +even a longer stay; for however little pleasure or interest +a ride over this arid and sandy plain affords, once arrived +at Campamiento, the rider enjoys a most charming prospect, +while there is probably no other point from which the +isolated rock appears more grand or picturesque than from +this neat little village.</p> + +<p>In following the road that runs from Campamiento along the +bay, the charming little town of Algeziras is reached. It +lies on the western shore, exactly opposite Gibraltar, with +which it is in regular correspondence by daily steamers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p> + +<p>Algeziras, formerly a poor fishing-village, has greatly +increased in extent and prosperity, through the smuggling +trade. This clean and pretty-looking place has a population +of 10,000 souls, and makes by contrast an extremely pleasant +impression on coming from the dismal and gloomy fortress. +Men and things here have quite an Andalusian appearance. The +small but neat one-storied houses are mostly painted a +bright white, and ornamented with green verandahs; at almost +every window beautiful flowers are exhibited; and the public +promenade, shaded by fine trees, is delightful. The +principal square is likewise planted with trees, and the +lower stories of its houses are occupied by apothecaries' +shops, coffee-rooms, confectioners, and one by a bookseller +even. The churches appear in every respect insignificant; +the hospital of San Juan de Dios, however, is an ancient and +noble structure, the management of which is admirable. One +of the arrangements here was eminently characteristic of +Spain: in the ward for male patients stands at the upper +end, by the side of the beds for common patients, a large, +broad, elegantly-polished bedstead, which, the porter told +us, was intended for "<i>caballeros</i>."</p> + +<p>At a short distance from the town is the Amphitheatre +Constantia, a large wooden booth, said to hold nearly 9000 +spectators. It is chiefly used for bull-fights, which always +attract a large audience. The aqueduct here, taken with the +fine scenery around, forms an exceedingly picturesque +object.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of Gibraltar sometimes make excursions to +the peninsula of Ceuta (the Sebta of the Moors), situated on +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> opposite coast of Africa. The lighthouse of this little +promontory has been lately furnished with a Fresnel +apparatus, throwing out a most intense light, which is +visible at a greater distance than any other observed during +our voyage. This place, which is used by the Spaniards as a +penal settlement, numbers 6500 inhabitants, and has a very +indifferent harbour. The "rock people" also occasionally +make excursions to Tangier, the most westerly town of the +strait, and the most important as regards the commerce of +Morocco.</p> + +<p>A great number of steamers on their various routes touch at +Gibraltar, for discharging and embarking freight and +passengers, and to coal. The quantity of the latter thus +shipped is estimated at 30,000 tons annually, all imported +from England. There is also a regular correspondence by +sailing vessels with all the leading Italian ports, and +those of the Levant, as well as with Constantinople, Corfu, +and Trieste.</p> + +<p>Gibraltar being a free port, there are no customs' dues, +except those on wines and spirits. All flags enjoy equal +privileges, and in all disputes the English law decides. It +is impossible to obtain a satisfactory statement of the +amount of imports and exports, as no Custom-house exists, +and the official reports merely give the number and +nationality of the flags of the ships that arrive and +depart. Smuggling is carried on to a great extent, and, +being a lucrative trade, will continue to be so, as long as +Spain retains her prohibitory duties on English goods.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span></p> + +<p>The principal items of commerce in Gibraltar are English +cotton goods, which are exported to Barbary in considerable +quantities. To compete successfully with the English in this +branch of trade would be very difficult for any other +nation; but there are a great number of other articles which +might find a ready sale on the African coast, and which are +produced cheaper in several States of the European continent +than in England; a consideration of so much the more +importance in trading with the Moors, that these people +regard lowness of price rather than the quality of the +goods.</p> + +<p>For this very reason, small but industrious Belgium has +become a powerful competitor of mighty England. Thus, for +instance, that country exports to Morocco, by way of +Gibraltar, sugar, both in loaves and crushed,<a name="Anchor-8" id="Anchor-8"></a><a href="#Footnote-8" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 8.">[8]</a> hardware +and cutlery, nails and screws, zinc, as well as all sorts of +earthenware and glass. A portion of these articles goes into +the neighbouring Spanish provinces.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-8" id="Footnote-8"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-8">[8]</a> The superior quality and cheapness of Belgian +sugars have of late in a great measure driven all others out +of the market. It is also worthy of remark, that though +Gibraltar is a British colony, all the accounts are kept in +Spanish currency, and that there are more Spanish and French +coins in circulation than English, which, when changed, even +sustain a small loss. The Spanish measures and weights also +are more in use than the English.</p></div> + +<p>It is rather singular that the Belgian glass goods are in +Gibraltar represented as of <i>German</i> manufacture, and +thereby obtain a readier sale. This seems to be a proof that +German (<i>i. e.</i> Bohemian) glass articles have been +patronized before the Belgian, and lost the market only +through the importation of the latter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span></p> + +<p>The intercourse between Gibraltar and Spain is carried on by +coasting vessels, and by French as well as Spanish steamers, +while the postal communication with Great Britain is +conducted by the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Packet +Company.</p> + +<p>Correspondence with Spain and other parts of the Continent +is carried on overland, but is little to be relied upon, as, +owing to the horrible condition of the Spanish roads, a +delay of from six to eight days sometimes occurs in bad +weather. Between Gibraltar and Cadiz, a distance of only +sixty English miles, the letter-bag is said to have often +been six days on its way.</p> + +<p>The narrative of our stay at Gibraltar would be defective if +we omitted mention of the numerous proofs of hospitality we +experienced on all sides. Invitations were repeatedly +received from the Convent (Government House), as well as +from private families, and everywhere we experienced the +most cordial reception.</p> + +<p>We must in particular mention a visit paid to Captain +Warden, the superintendent of the station and arsenal, as it +afforded an opportunity of becoming acquainted with a +feature in the English naval service, as practical as it is +worthy of imitation. The superintendent of the arsenal +inhabits a beautiful roomy house, belonging to the +Government, situated in a large garden, well planted with +splendid plane-trees, laurel, and orange-trees, and +ornamented with most beautiful and odoriferous flowers. As a +superintendent's income would not admit the outlay necessary +properly to furnish so large an edifice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> this is done by +contractors, who let out the furniture at the rate of five +per cent. annually on the value. This sum is deducted +monthly from the pay. The same system is also adopted on +board English men-of-war. The cabins of the officers are +there furnished and provided with all the requisite comforts +by contractors under the superintendence of the Admiralty. +The value of each article is marked in a printed list +deposited with the authorities. The captain pays a yearly +rate of five per cent. on the valuation, and binds himself +besides, in the event of the ship's being paid off, or of +being appointed to another vessel, to return in good +condition all the articles specified, and pay the value +noted in the list for everything missing. This agreement is +registered at the Admiralty, and the contractor receives the +amount monthly. The advantage of such an arrangement to the +commander of a ship will be more fully appreciated by those +who, from personal experience, are aware of the expense +attending an outfit, and the great loss which an officer +transferred from one ship to another suffers through a +sudden and forced sale of his property. The commander of a +ship is moreover often not in a condition to spend for his +personal outfit a sum of perhaps a thousand pounds sterling, +but he can conveniently pay annually from £40 to £50 for the +hire in monthly instalments; and it thus becomes easier for +him to maintain the appearance due to his position.</p> + +<p>The commander and officers of the <i>Caroline</i>, which, after +an absence since the 12th of May, had rejoined us on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> +23rd, were, like ourselves, received in the kindest manner +by all the authorities of Gibraltar.</p> + +<p>It had been arranged that we should make the voyage to +Madeira in company with the <i>Caroline</i>, but an unexpected +incident prevented it. The small-pox<a name="Anchor-9" id="Anchor-9"></a><a href="#Footnote-9" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 9.">[9]</a> made its appearance +on board, and although in a mild form and in but a few +cases, yet it was sufficiently alarming to interrupt, as a +matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> of precaution, all communication, and to postpone +indefinitely her departure, as a great part of the crew +might be overtaken with the disease whilst at sea, exposed +to sudden changes of temperature, thereby causing the most +serious consequences. Such is not the case with diseases +which are in some degree localized, as cholera, yellow +fever, dysentery, &c., when it is even prudent to set sail, +notwithstanding the presence of the malady, as a change of +place and climate is frequently accompanied with beneficial +results.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-9" id="Footnote-9"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-9">[9]</a> As there has lately been some difference +amongst the medical men of Europe as to the utility of +vaccination, the following observations from the report of +Dr. Wawra, the principal physician on board the <i>Caroline</i>, +regarding the appearance and the course of this epidemic, +may not be out of place:—"A day before our departure from +Trieste a man complained of a slight fever and headache, and +his skin was covered with spots which were judged at once to +be indications of an approaching eruption of small-pox. The +man was immediately sent on shore as a matter of precaution; +but, nevertheless, eight days after our departure we had a +second, and ten days after that a third case: the epidemic +was on board, and though in a mild form, yet serious +consequences were apprehended. The <i>re-vaccination</i> of the +men was therefore decided upon, and carried out, as far as +the virus on board would admit. Only five individuals of the +whole had not been vaccinated at all; some had undergone the +operation in their childhood, a great part of them, however, +had been vaccinated on board other vessels, from two to five +years before. Only fourteen cases occurred. Most remarkable, +and evidently in favour of those who advocate +re-vaccination, is the fact, that amongst most of those who +had been vaccinated in their childhood, the disorder was +more severe than among those who had been re-vaccinated on +board the ship. Among those who had <i>never</i> undergone the +operation before, the vaccination on board was most +successful; not one of them caught the disorder. Among the +<i>re-vaccinated</i> only four cases occurred, with slighter +symptoms than among those who had been once only operated +upon. We met with several instances of the kind at other +places where we touched. At Buenos Ayres, where the +vaccination laws are stricter than anywhere else, the +small-pox is extremely rare. Among the Brazilians, who +entertain an absolute prejudice against vaccination, the +<i>variola</i> is one of the most common and most frightful +diseases. It prevails still worse amongst the negro slaves, +among whom, from the ignorance and prejudice of their +masters, vaccination is neglected. The white marks of the +disease are particularly visible in the black skin, and are +evident proofs how virulently it has raged amongst them."</p></div> + +<p>After we had got through our duties at Gibraltar, an attempt +was made, with the first favourable wind, to set sail and +reach the Atlantic; the <i>Caroline</i> remaining behind for the +benefit of the sick on board. She was to follow only when +the health of the crew no longer excited any apprehension.</p> + +<p>On the 30th May the wind changed to south, and as the +current in the harbour was also favourable, we weighed +anchor in the hope that in the Straits we might meet with an +easterly wind. The <i>Novara</i> passed the <i>Caroline</i>, which +saluted with a round of cheers, when we tacked to clear the +roads, after which all sail was hoisted to beat out against +the western current in the Straits. The sea was covered with +a mucous substance, which generally indicates that there is +scarcely a chance of a fresh breeze; however, even the +little we had, would have sufficed to carry us through the +Straits, but towards 6 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> a perfect calm overtook us, and +notwithstanding the press of sail, we were carried back +towards the East, and about midnight found ourselves again +in the Mediterranean,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span> which did not seem disposed to part +with us. There was no improvement next day, and at sunset we +were exactly twenty-five miles east from the point we had +occupied the preceding day. The clouds passed from West to +East across the moon, and in the night from the 31st of May +to the 1st of June the westerly wind became so fresh that we +had even to reef the sails.</p> + +<p>Current, wind, sea, everything was against us; even tacking +was of no service, as we lost ground visibly with each tack. +When at last all hope of making the West had disappeared, we +anchored, like many others of our companions in sorrow, on +the 1st June, at 6 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, in the Bay of Frangerola, fifteen +miles north of Malaga.</p> + +<p>Here were anchored nearly sixty merchantmen, all wind-bound. +Behind the Punta Molinos, near Malaga, there must have been +quite as many more. Fresh additions were constantly being +made to the already considerable fleet, which had +involuntarily collected together, whilst those merchantmen +which with fruitless obstinacy kept on tacking about us, +were getting more and more out of their course, as with +every successive hour their position was changed for the +worse.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"><a name="illu104" id="illu104"></a> +<img src="images/illu104.jpg" width="233" height="415" alt="Possibly a cowboy." title="" /> +<span class="caption">INHABITANT OF FRANGOLA.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the hope of a favourable wind we were all a-taunto on the +2nd June, perfectly prepared for a start. Under these +circumstances no one could go on shore, but an officer was +despatched in a boat to make inquiries as to whether there +were any sanitary board in the neighbouring village. A +relative of the President of the Junta de la Sanidad came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> +on board, and stated that, though as a rule only vessels +clearing from Spanish harbours were permitted to have +intercourse with the shore, an exception should be made in +favour of ourselves. This Andalusian was very communicative, +and amongst other things told us that the inhabitants were +supported almost entirely by fishing. Many ships had now +been waiting several weeks for a favourable wind to pass the +Straits. Some had thrice attempted to sail towards the West, +but in every case were driven back by wind and current. In +1847, a year of scarcity, Louis Philippe had caused several +French steamers to be stationed in the Straits in order to +take in tow ships coming from the Black Sea laden with +grain, and thereby to facilitate their passage between the +Mediterranean and the Atlantic. In the afternoon we had a +visit from about thirty inhabitants of Frangerola, who came +on board in fishing-boats to view the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> ship. None of these +people had ever seen so large a man-of-war, and they all +therefore regarded the ship with great curiosity. The ship's +band greatly delighted them, but the signal-gun at sunset +seemed to terrify them and to hasten their departure.</p> + +<p>In the evening we felt from time to time some warm blasts of +wind from the east, and enjoyed for nearly an hour the +delightful spectacle of a "Fata Morgana." This phenomenon, +as is well known, arises from two currents of air of a +different density, separated by a distinctly-formed plane, +generally produced when the temperature of the two currents +happens to vary. When, for instance, as is frequently the +case at sea, a considerably warmer current of air comes +suddenly in contact with a colder current having a lower +position, the plane of separation of the former becomes +condensed, and forms a mirror for all those objects which +are in the lower current, so that their image is inversely +reflected. As this surface of separation is not level +throughout, various contractions and distortions result, +which impart to the whole a singular appearance. On land, as +for instance in the deserts of Africa, where the warmer +current of air is on the surface of the ground, the aërial +mirror is formed beneath the eye of the observer, by which +the same phenomenon is produced that results from the +reflection of objects on the surface of the water.</p> + +<p>In the present case the temperature of the atmosphere was +about ten degrees higher than that of the sea's surface at +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> point of observation. The surface of the current of +warm air appeared like a light fog, inclining in the East +towards the Spanish coast, and in the South-east to South +towards the surface of the sea. Where it was highest it +reached nearly five degrees above the horizon. The images of +the ships at anchor near Malaga, and those at sea under +sail, appeared reversed, and assumed curiously fantastic +forms, particularly in those places where the reflecting +surface became irregular, and inclined towards the horizon. +The appearance of these distorted ships in the air, joining +in the most singular way the real ones actually floating on +the sea,—the warm vapour which is from time to time wafted +on the face of the observer, as well as the perfect and +almost death-like stillness which, under such circumstances, +prevails both on the sea and in the atmosphere, may easily +produce the belief in a mysterious power, among a people who +are generally prone to ascribe to supernatural agencies +every phenomenon they cannot understand or explain.</p> + +<p>This "Fata Morgana"<a name="Anchor-10" id="Anchor-10"></a><a href="#Footnote-10" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 10.">[10]</a> was not merely interesting in itself, +but also gave reason to indulge in the hope of a favourable +wind. A light easterly breeze accordingly sprang up towards +midnight, the current became reversed, the anchor was +weighed, and all sail made with this favourable wind towards +Gibraltar, the rock of which was distinctly recognizable +through the misty air, at a distance of nearly sixty miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-10" id="Footnote-10"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-10">[10]</a> The name Morgana is of Breton origin, and +signifies "sea woman," from <i>mor</i>, sea, and <i>gan</i>, a fine +woman;—the fairy mermaid of English legendary tales.</p></div> + +<p>A calm still prevailed near Europa Point, but as the day +wore on, the easterly breeze blew strong through the +Straits, and, in company with innumerable other ships, the +Pillars of Hercules were at length passed. The wind +freshened, and the frigate cracked merrily on down +mid-channel; for, though the set of the current was dead +against us, yet the wind proved more than a match for it, +which in our case was the more apparent, that those +merchantmen which sailed along the coast, not having the +advantage of this wind, seemed as though left motionless in +the rear.</p> + +<p>When towards noon the <i>Novara</i> was off the place where the +<i>Caroline</i> had been anchored, that ship was no longer +visible. She had probably set sail in the morning. We +supposed her to be among the crowd of ships which were +sailing in the fog, but did not discover her, even after we +had overtaken and examined all of them. We now endeavoured +to reach the Atlantic as speedily as possible, making from +nine to ten knots an hour, and, with joyful sensations, +sailed through those beautiful straits, on whose shores the +ancient world unrolled its grand panorama, thanking +Providence here, at the entrance of that vast ocean, which +now shone so brilliantly, that we were permitted to carry +the Austrian flag into distant regions.</p> + +<p>At 4 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, aided by the fresh evening breeze, we passed the +most southerly point of Europe. We were just going to dinner +when the last glimpse of the old world passed before the +cabin windows, and we gazed once more with sorrowing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> eyes +at the rapidly-disappearing coast, which, illuminated by the +rays of the setting sun, seemed to wave us a last farewell +in letters of fire. However beautiful, however inspiring the +prospect of our task; however inviting the magnificent ocean +that lay extended under our eyes, magically lit up by the +silvery beams of the bright moon shining from a starry sky, +yet the painful sensations of parting with that old world, +with which so many pleasing associations—so many cherished +recollections were bound up, had a powerful influence, and +gave rise to melancholy impressions, of which we were only +relieved by the comforting hope that we should one day +return to all so dear to us.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 648px;"><a name="illu108" id="illu108"></a> +<img src="images/illu108.jpg" width="648" height="227" alt="Cape Trafalgar." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CAPE TRAFALGAR.</span> +</div> + +<p>The night was delightful. Not a single cloud obscured the +sky, and the ship, with all sails swelled by a fair wind, +ploughed the dark waves, leaving a glittering track behind. +We were now on the ocean! Below, blue, foam-crested billows; +above, the sky studded with stars;—below, the wide desert +of the sea; above, the infallible guides to lead us safely +through it.</p> + +<p>We awoke to new activity on that great element, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span> +conceals so many charms and so many hardships, where the +continued alternations of hope and fear, of enjoyment and +privation—where weariness and disappointment, and yet again +the new strength imparted by returning success—so +excitingly animate, and so gloriously manifest the innate +power of the human mind.</p> + +<p>Life on board, the various excitements at sea, the different +countries and people seen during a voyage, all tend to +arouse feelings and sensations which are reserved for the +mariner alone, and which render his life, if he knows how to +use it properly, happy and most enviable. At sea the mental +and physical eye gains strength, man there seeks to unravel +Nature in all her phases, and to know and to admire more +thoroughly her works. The seaman owes his energy, his +straightforwardness, and his piety, to a life spent in the +midst of nature, to his direct intercourse with creation. +Between him and the Sovereign of the Universe there is, as +it were, no mediator—he lives and labours uninterruptedly +on the steps of the throne of his Creator and Preserver. In +this great temple he directs to Him alone his complaints, +his thanks, and his prayers. At sea he learns law and order +from Nature herself in her constantly-recurring functions; +here he admires the omnipotence and goodness of God in the +sunrise after a stormy night, and in the brightness of the +moon that lights up his path; here he learns by his actual +experience the truth of that maxim of life, that "God only +helps him who helps himself."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span></p> + +<p>The wind, hitherto easterly, chopped round to the +North-east, which, according to Maury's excellent directions +and charts, may be considered as a trade wind, and in this +season might be called so. In fact, the trade winds are +produced by a current of air, which is directed towards the +Equator, and only in consequence of the earth's motion round +its axis acquires a north-easterly direction to the north of +the equator, and a south-easterly to the south of it. But +the trade winds become perceptible at a certain distance +from the equator, or rather from the hottest zone of the +earth's surface; and it is clear, that when the zone assumes +a greater breadth, the boundary of the trade winds is +extended further towards the poles, as the position of this +zone and its heat obtained from the sun are the causes of +these phenomena.</p> + +<p>This is exactly the case in these waters; Africa, with its +sandy deserts, presents a broader zone of the greatest heat +than is possible on the sea, and the trade winds, +accordingly, reach further towards the north. Its direction, +however, cannot always be north-easterly, and depends +necessarily on the direction of the northern boundaries of +this zone of greatest heat. Accordingly, we at first had a +more northerly wind, which in our progress towards Madeira +became much more easterly. The weather continued on the +whole beautiful, the sea was calm, and only the increased +length of the waves showed the greater expanse of water we +were now navigating.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span></p> + +<p>We overtook some other ships, which were sailing towards the +west. As we saw nothing of the <i>Caroline</i>, we concluded that +she was considerably ahead. The current, which near +Gibraltar has a westerly direction, tending towards the +Mediterranean, loses its power at a distance from the land, +and half-way to Madeira it changes its direction in such a +way that the ship is carried imperceptibly southwards, +though only a few miles a-day. This current is a lateral +branch of the great Gulf Stream, which from the Gulf of +Mexico is directed towards England, but about the latitude +of New York sends off a branch in a south-easterly +direction, which passes round Madeira, and, near the +Canaries, takes a parallel direction with the coast of +Africa and forms the commencement of the Guinea current. The +temperature of the sea water, which in the midst of this +current is generally rather higher than that of the air, +indicates to the mariner that he is in the Stream, and he +must take care that his ship is not carried more to the +south out of its course than he wishes. This shows clearly +of what importance ocean-currents are to navigation; and it +becomes evident that it is the duty of the scientific +navigator not only to find out their direction and strength, +but to use all means at his command, in order to ascertain +their general movement in given districts of ocean.</p> + +<p>For this latter purpose, it is customary (as often as +circumstances seem to render it advisable) to throw +overboard, and commit to the mercy of these currents, a +well-corked empty bottle, in which has been deposited a card +with the name and position of the ship. The bottle thus +prepared, and made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> conspicuous by a covering of white linen +cloth, or some such material, wanders hither and thither +with the current, until it is picked up by some other ship, +or is stranded anywhere on <i>terra firma</i>. The fact of such a +bottle having been picked up is usually published, together +with the particulars enclosed, by means of which it is +obvious that an estimate can be formed of the average +strength and direction of the current.</p> + +<p>At 1 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> each afternoon, it was our custom to despatch one +of these ocean-posts, under given conditions; but only +rarely did we afterwards receive any information with +respect to them. In each bottle was placed a card with the +following particulars, written in German, English, French, +Italian, and Spanish:—</p> + +<p>"H.I.M. frigate, <i>Novara</i>, such and such a day of the week +and month, hour at which thrown overboard, Longitude from +Greenwich, Latitude. Whoever finds this bottle, which is +about being thrown overboard well-corked and in good order, +is requested to forward for publication, to the nearest spot +at which there is a newspaper, the day, hour, latitude and +longitude, in which the bottle has been found, together with +the particulars of a similar nature already enclosed."</p> + +<p>On the 7th June, towards evening, we were not more than 55 +nautical miles distant from the E. point of Madeira, and as +the wind was favourable and pretty fresh, it became +necessary to shorten sail, so as to reach the anchorage by +daybreak.</p> + +<p>About 2.30 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, a vessel was perceived, which, by its +lights, was made out to be a man-of-war. We now burned a +port fire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span> which was not merely replied to, but accompanied +by signalling the number of the <i>Caroline</i>. She was steering +exactly our own course, and after having had to struggle +with calms on nearing the coast, we cast anchor together, in +the roads of Funchal, in 32 fathoms, sandy bottom, +immediately South of the Loo Rock, a singular-looking, +lofty, conical rock, which marks the best anchorage for +large ships. The U. S. corvette, <i>Dale</i>, lay in our +vicinity, and sent a boat on board with an officer to extend +to us the usual greetings, after which she saluted the +Commodore's standard with a salute of thirteen guns,<a name="Anchor-11" id="Anchor-11"></a><a href="#Footnote-11" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 11.">[11]</a> +which, as is the etiquette, we returned, gun for gun. We now +had the pleasure of hearing that the small-pox had entirely +disappeared on board the corvette <i>Caroline</i>, those attacked +being now in a fair way of convalescence, while on board the +<i>Novara</i>, the health of the ship's company was eminently +satisfactory.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-11" id="Footnote-11"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-11">[11]</a> Commodores of other nations receive only eleven +guns by way of salute.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"><a name="illu113" id="illu113"></a> +<img src="images/illu113.jpg" width="414" height="404" alt="Lighthouse? on a large coastal rock." title="" /> +<span class="caption">LOO ROCK (MADEIRA).</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; margin-left: -239px; + width: 477px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu114.png'); + background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu114" id="illu114"></a><a name="IV" id="IV"></a> + <span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">SCENE IN MADEIRA.</span></div> + +<div class="icba" style="width: 500px; height: 242px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 50px; margin-right: -88px;"></div> +<div class="icbr" style="height: 50px; margin-left: -88px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 50px; margin-right: -125px;"></div> +<div class="icbr" style="height: 50px; margin-left: -125px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -138px;"></div> +<div class="icbr" style="height: 70px; margin-left: -158px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -148px;"></div> +<div class="icbr" style="height: 70px; margin-left: -168px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -168px;"></div> +<div class="icbr" style="height: 50px; margin-left: -198px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -168px;"></div> +<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -178px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">IV.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Madeira.</div> + +<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">From the 8th to the 17th of June, 1857.</span></div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +First Impressions.—Difficulty in Landing.—Description of +the Island.—History.—Unfavourable political circumstances +connected with the cultivation of the +ground.—Aqueducts.—First Planting of the +Sugar-cane.—Culture of the Vine.—Its Disease and +Decay.—Cochineal as a compensation for its loss.—Prospects +of Success.—Climate.—A favourable Winter Residence for the +Consumptive.—Strangers.—First Appearance of the +Cholera.—Observations with the Ozonometer.—Great Distress +among the Lower Classes.—Liberal Assistance from +England.—Decline of Commerce.—Inhabitants and their Mode +of Life.—Decrease of the Population, and its +Causes.—Benevolent Institutions.—Public Libraries.—The +Cathedral.—Barracks.—Prison.—Environs of +Funchal.—Excursion to St. Anna.—Ascent of the Pico +Ruivo.—Singular Sledge Party.—Return to +Funchal.—Departure. +</div> + +<p>Delightful and striking is the first impression of Funchal, +its luxuriant gardens smiling with gorgeous flowers, and its +mountain sides cultivated almost to their summits; and +although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> the grander and more gigantic forms of true +tropical vegetation are wanting, and the landscape displays +rather the character of an island off the shores of Italy +than of the torrid zone—still Nature exhibits herself here +with such varied charms that imagination can scarcely +conceive a sweeter or lovelier scene. The most beautiful +plants of the temperate and sub-tropical zones meet here in +their highest development, whilst some representatives of +the tropics intermixed enhance the richness of the wonderful +picture. Odoriferous magnolias, large flowering tulip trees, +plane trees, laurels, myrtles, acacias, passion and trumpet +flowers, tree-like fuchsias with immense blossoms, gaudy +hortensias, sweet-smelling roses, blooming oleanders, aloes, +40 feet high, in full flower, imposing camellias with +shining green foliage, covered with beautiful rose-like +flowers, chestnut trees, Brazilian pines, cypresses—all +delight the eye, together with pomegranates, tamarinds, +bananas, sugar-canes, coffee-shrubs, gigantic dragon trees, +pine-apples, mangroves, papayas, and aquacatés. Certainly, +at a later date, we met in the primitive forests of the +Nicobar islands, or in Java, Luzon, and the Caroline +islands, with grander and more imposing scenery; but none +that surpassed in fragrance, luxuriance, and loveliness the +floral beauty of Madeira.</p> + +<p>The anchorage of Funchal<a name="Anchor-12" id="Anchor-12"></a><a href="#Footnote-12" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 12.">[12]</a> is merely an open, exceedingly +unsafe roadstead, which affords so little protection to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> +ships that often in southerly winds they are obliged to get +under sail. This is especially the case in the winter, when +the sea often rushes into the small unprotected bay with +fearful violence. In October, 1842, five vessels were cast +on shore within the space of a few hours, and another sank +whilst at anchor; a similar violent gale from the south +raged in December, 1848, when a like number of ships met +with the same fate, and were dashed to pieces. The British +sloop of war <i>Daphne</i> only escaped by making the open sea in +time. In order to run less risk of being surprised by such +gales, sailing vessels generally cast anchor to the south of +the Loo Rock, where there is tolerably safe anchorage at a +depth of twenty-five to thirty fathoms. In that position +they are clear of the rocky headlands, and can therefore +more easily set sail before the sea rushes in with all its +irresistible violence. Steamers, which are better able to +resist the force of the waves than sailing vessels, +generally cast anchor nearer the shore, so that passengers +may be more easily landed, and coals shipped with greater +facility.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-12" id="Footnote-12"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-12">[12]</a> The Portuguese for fennel-field, because the +first discoverers of the island found this plant in great +abundance.</p></div> + +<p>The Portuguese Government has done nothing to compensate for +the shortcomings of nature with regard to safe +landing-places in this island, otherwise so highly favoured. +Though the rocky condition of the Funchal roads, (the only +anchorage for larger ships which the island possesses,) +offers sufficient means for the construction of a harbour +for boats and small vessels, yet the Government has hitherto +done so little, that the landing of passengers can only be +effected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> by small, peculiarly-built boats, which, whilst +tossed by the waves, have to be drawn on shore by the +natives wading knee-deep in the water. If, therefore, the +ship remains any length of time at Funchal, the +communication with the land is attended with considerable +expense. We laid out, in payments to the boatmen, during a +stay of nine days, the sum of forty-five Spanish piastres<a name="Anchor-13" id="Anchor-13"></a><a href="#Footnote-13" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 13.">[13]</a> +(£9 15s. sterling), although they had not over-charged us.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-13" id="Footnote-13"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-13">[13]</a> Spanish piastre = 4s. 4d. at par.</p></div> + +<p>The formalities at the custom-house, which strangers—even +those belonging to a ship-of-war of a friendly Power—have +to go through, are extremely annoying, and entail a great +loss of time. Before landing, passengers' boats are boarded +in the open roads by officers, who are stationed a few cable +lengths from the shore. On landing, the stranger is obliged +to repair to the custom-house, where even small and open +packages are subjected to a second rigid examination. The +time lost during this process, unnecessarily minute, is +exceedingly unpleasant. The reason assigned for these +vexatious regulations is the extent to which, of late, +smuggling has been carried on in the island, and which, in +the opinion of the Governor, required these measures of +precaution. It seems, however, that this system rather +promotes contraband trading, by making it very lucrative. +The Austrian consul, Charles Bianchi, Esq., did all in his +power to diminish the frequency of the continual +examinations, and likewise, in all other respects, +endeavoured to promote the objects of the Expedition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span></p> + +<p>The greatest length of the island of Madeira, from Ponta +Furado in the east, to Ponta do Pargo, in the west, amounts +to 30 miles; its greatest breadth, from Ponta do Cruz in the +south, to Ponta do Saõ Jorge in the north, is 12½ miles, +and its area is about 240 square miles. This volcanic and +mountainous island is intersected by innumerable deep +ravines and defiles, and its whole surface is so much broken +and irregular, that the representation Columbus once gave to +Queen Isabella, of the Island of Jamaica, when she asked him +for a description of its configuration, might perfectly be +applied to the aspect of Madeira also. The great navigator, +after having crushed a sheet of paper in his hand, and +partly opened it again, placed it on the table, saying, he +could convey to Her Majesty no clearer idea of that island +than that crumpled piece of paper afforded.</p> + +<p>A large portion of the island is not susceptible of +cultivation; for the heathy region which constitutes nearly +one-third of its surface, and rises to a height of about +2500 feet above the level of the sea, is extremely steep, +and too much exposed to winds and rains in summer, to admit +of any kind of cultivation, even that of grain; whilst +another not less considerable tract is too rocky and +precipitous for that purpose. In the south of the island, +the highest limit of cultivation is estimated to be at a +height of 2500 feet, though in several places rye and barley +grow at 2800 feet. In the north of the island, where a +better system of irrigation prevails, the extreme boundary +of cultivation reaches a higher altitude,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> and on the +declivities of the Ribeiro Frio, it is met with at an +elevation of above 3000 feet.</p> + +<p>The earlier history of the island has had such a great +influence upon its present industrial and social condition, +that a few remarks on the most important features of its +history may find a place here.</p> + +<p>Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joaõ +Gonsalvo da Camara<a name="Anchor-14" id="Anchor-14"></a><a href="#Footnote-14" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 14.">[14]</a> and Tristaõ Teixeira, and, about 1421, +a colony of Europeans settled on the island. Camara +obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the south-eastern, +and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together +with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was +then the principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico +that of Teixeira's. These two recipients (<i>donatarios</i>) +enjoyed the exclusive privileges of erecting flour and saw +mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for public +baking (private baking being permitted to all); they, +moreover, had the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims +upon the tithes of the royal revenues, and were empowered to +grant portions of the land to settlers. Every settler was +required to erect within five years a house, a cottage, or +barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these +conditions, at the expiration of the fixed period, had not +been complied with, the donor had the right of granting the +land to some one else. These grants were hereditary, and +lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event +of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> +privileges and immunities were deemed necessary in order to +reconcile the holders with the dubious character of the +early settlers in the island; for, though in those times the +highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous +expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison +and convict hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had +much more the character of a place of banishment for +criminals than that of a colony of free emigrants.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-14" id="Footnote-14"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-14">[14]</a> Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.</p></div> + +<p>With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first +settlers are said to have set on fire so large a portion of +the primeval forests, that they were soon unable to check +the conflagration. According to old writers, the fire, +particularly in the south of the island, lasted several +years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that +many persons in order to escape from it, sought refuge on +board the ships in the roads of Funchal.<a name="Anchor-15" id="Anchor-15"></a><a href="#Footnote-15" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 15.">[15]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-15" id="Footnote-15"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-15">[15]</a> The name <i>Madeira</i>, signifying in Portuguese +"timber or wood," justifies the statement that the island +was at one time richly wooded.</p></div> + +<p>This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by +ancient and modern authors, is being avenged even at +present, though centuries have passed since the deed. The +cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no longer to be +found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old +houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show +the magnitude which this noble tree formerly attained in the +island. Of the dragon tree (<i>Dracæna Draco</i>), which was once +the ornament of the forests of Madeira, there are at +present, in the whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span> island, only six or seven specimens +in existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers. +The Til-tree (<i>Oreodaphne fœtens</i>), the Vinhatico +(<i>Persea indica</i>), and the Folhado (<i>Clethra arborea</i>), +formerly the most numerous representatives of the native +flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with, +and their places are occupied by plants and trees of the +temperate zone, particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit +of which furnishes the inhabitants with food, whilst the +tree itself has served hitherto in the north of the island +as a support to the vine. The destruction of the forests +has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the +modification of the climate in general, and to the +diminution of humidity in particular. At the date of the +discovery of the island, and a long time after, the Rio +Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to have +been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the +sea; at present this river is quite insignificant, and +almost dried up.</p> + +<p>The island remained for two centuries in the possession of +the direct heirs of the original owners, and when at last, +from want of legal successors, these privileges lapsed, the +crown granted them to other favourites; but with some +restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and saw mills was +then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other +privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the +first settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable +property in land, whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane, +now very generally adopted, the introduction of negro +slaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span> from Africa, and the foundation of large estates, +contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants. +The ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the +island are even now mute witnesses of the opulence of their +former occupants.</p> + +<p>This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the +beginning of the last century, materially affected by the +introduction of the so-called <i>vinculos</i> or entails, which, +introduced under the protection and in favour of the church, +were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich +proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in +order to have masses said for the repose of their souls, and +encumbered their lands with so many burdens, that only a +small remainder fell to their heirs. So long as these claims +were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases for +a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on +their lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a +<i>morgado</i> (entailed property). Under the severe but wise +administration of the Marquis of Pombal, a law was passed +which forbade the future creation of morgados (unless the +property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and +even then the special licence of the crown had to be +obtained), declaring the whole system of entails "as +contrary to the rights of property and the well-founded +claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom +Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe, +as it allowed at the same time the abolition of single +entails, the value of which was below 200 Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> piastres +annually, as well as that of every morgado, the annual value +of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As, +however, a great number of these entails exceed 200 +piastres, these oppressive restrictions still weigh upon +four-fifths of the land, notwithstanding the above-mentioned +laws. Among the creditors who still have claims, there are +three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar +institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital +of Funchal, and the Portuguese Government. The institution +of these vinculos and morgados produced a kind of feudal +dependency between the cultivator of the estates (<i>caseiro</i>) +and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the occasion +of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the +caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land +produced; when the landlord removed from the town into the +country, the caseiro carried his litter and luggage; in +conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as <i>meu amo</i> +(my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of +these usages, and in various ways altered the relation +between the caseiro and the landlord.</p> + +<p>Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the +system of parcelling ground into small allotments, which has +been continued up to the present time. The farms are in +general extremely small. In the richer and more fertile +parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent, +very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not +even the tenth part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span> +the proprietor of nearly one-third of the whole island, had +upwards of eight thousand tenants. Supposing that this mode +of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds, there would +be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or, +taking the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth +inhabitant would be a tenant farmer. This state of things is +not to be wondered at, considering that almost every +day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent of +which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large +garden bed, on which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs, +peaches, sugar-cane, and sometimes even grain.</p> + +<p>In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has +made more progress than in the south, rent is paid in money; +generally, however, the system of paying in kind is still in +existence, in which the harvest, (after deducting the +<i>tithe</i>, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and not to +the church,) is divided between the landlord and the +tenants. According to this principle the landlord receives +half of the produce of the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane, +wine, fruit or vegetables, which are brought for sale, and +not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes happens, +however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on +the ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in +agriculture. They are diminutive and singularly unsightly, +but of a very powerful breed, and furnish very good meat for +the table. They are generally fed in stalls, but in the +mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are +only a few badly-fed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> sheep on the island, so that the +mutton is almost unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are +in abundance, and the rearing of poultry is generally the +principal means of living possessed by the peasantry. What +is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and boars +to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few +rabbits we saw were perfectly identical with the European +species (<i>Lepus cuniculus</i>), and lead to the supposition +that rabbits as well as pigs, now found in a wild state here +and there on the island, are only the progeny of those which +have formerly been introduced from Europe.</p> + +<p>The numerous open and walled water conduits (<i>levadas</i>), +which are of considerable height, and lead to all parts of +the cultivated land, are of particular importance. Each +levada is placed under the superintendence of a committee, +selected mostly from the landowners, who have a direct +interest in them. Sometimes one person only, generally the +most considerable landowner of the district, under the title +of <i>juiz da levada</i>, is entrusted with the control of the +water, and receives for his services the use of the water +during twenty-four hours. The right of using these levadas +is very strictly guarded, and often leads to law +proceedings. Every piece of ground within a district through +which such a conduit runs, is entitled to the use of the +water by turns, during a certain number of hours (generally +not more than twenty-four). These turns are different, +according to the extent of the district, from fifteen to +forty days. The distribution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> of the water is entrusted to a +so-called <i>levadeiro</i>, who places himself at the upper end +of the land through which the water is to flow, and with an +hour-glass in his hand measures—a modern Saturn—the time +during which the owner is entitled to the use of the +beneficent element. After the expiration of the fixed +period, the water is made to pass on to the ground of +another proprietor. These conduits, so extremely important +to the farmer, were constructed partly at the expense of the +Government, and partly by the contributions of the landed +proprietors. Those who have no other title may obtain the +right to this privilege either by purchase or by government +grant. For every twenty-four hours' use of the levadas 400 +reis<a name="Anchor-16" id="Anchor-16"></a><a href="#Footnote-16" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 16.">[16]</a> are paid, which tax is employed to keep them in good +order.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-16" id="Footnote-16"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-16">[16]</a> 1000 reis or milreis=to one Spanish piastre, or +about 4s. 4d.</p></div> + +<p>The high roads of Madeira are, with but few exceptions, in a +deplorable condition. They are generally laid with small +pointed stones, and at numerous places they have an +inclination of from 23 to 27 degrees. Every adult male +native is obliged to pay annually one Spanish piastre, or to +give five days' labour for their repair. On account of the +bad condition of the roads in the interior of the island, +most of the natural produce is conveyed from one place to +another in boats, or, as is the case with wine, is carried +to the harbour in skins and casks, on the backs of the +inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 635px;"><a name="illu127" id="illu127"></a> +<img src="images/illu127.jpg" width="635" height="701" alt="Stonework bridge with houses and cobblestone streets." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BRIDGE OVER THE RIBEIRO SECO.</span> +</div> + +<p>The first attempt at cultivation in Madeira was the planting +of sugar-canes, introduced soon after the discovery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span> of the +island, through the instrumentality of Prince Henry of +Portugal (son of John I.), which grew so abundantly, that +for a considerable period the produce of the island sufficed +for the supply of the whole kingdom of Portugal. In +commemoration of this flourishing epoch, as regards the +cultivation of the sugar-cane, two sugar-loaves were +introduced into the arms of the island. In the year 1452 was +erected the first sugar factory, near Machica, and at the +end of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> the fifteenth century there existed as many as 120, +in which slaves chiefly were employed. The Jesuit, Antonio +Cordeyro, who wrote his <i>Historia Insulana Lusitana</i> at the +beginning of last century, makes mention of a considerable +number of sugar factories, which had been erected in almost +every part of the south coast. On the estate of the Genoese, +Juan Esmeralda, half a league from Ribeiro do Taboa, there +were annually manufactured 20,000 arrobas<a name="Anchor-17" id="Anchor-17"></a><a href="#Footnote-17" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 17.">[17]</a> of sugar. By +degrees, however, the culture of the cane fell, into decay, +whether through disease of the plant or its cheaper +production in the Brazils and West Indies is not known, so +that in the year 1840, only two sugar factories were at work +in the whole island; and even these only produce molasses +and rum, of which the latter, in the year 1856, amounted to +1500 pipes. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, however, has +increased since the vine disease has fallen so heavily on +the landowner. In the summer of 1857, there were eighteen +factories again in activity on the island, though so late as +1855, the importation of sugar, for the consumption of the +island, amounted to but 31,176 arrobas.<a name="Anchor-18" id="Anchor-18"></a><a href="#Footnote-18" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 18.">[18]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-17" id="Footnote-17"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-17">[17]</a> One arroba = 32 arrateles or pounds. One pipe = +108 gallons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-18" id="Footnote-18"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-18">[18]</a> From 64 lbs. of sugar-cane are obtained 4 +galls. of juice, and from 4 galls. of juice are made 8 +galls. of rum. The average price was 2200 reis per gal. of +sugar-juice. The rum of commerce (from 22 to 23 degrees) is +sold at one Spanish piastre the gallon.</p></div> + +<p>The greatest elevation at which, in the south of the island, +the sugar-cane can be grown, is, like that of the banana +tree, about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span> +north, the cultivation of the cane would be remunerative +only at those points where, as, for instance, at Fayal and +San Jorge, ground and temperature are most favourable for +it. To judge by the soil and climate, the cultivation of the +cane in Madeira might, with care, even at the present time, +prove advantageous. In the south-west part of Lousiana, +where, in 1796, this plant was introduced exclusively for +the manufacture of <i>Taffia</i>,<a name="Anchor-19" id="Anchor-19"></a><a href="#Footnote-19" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 19.">[19]</a> there exist at present as +many as 1500 sugar factories, producing annually, on an +average, 200,000 hogsheads of sugar. The planter of Madeira +is not, as in Lousiana, obliged by the frost to cut the cane +before it is ripe; there it ripens thoroughly, blooms in +January, and is harvested in March.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-19" id="Footnote-19"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-19">[19]</a> A beverage resembling brandy in taste, much +liked in the West Indies.</p></div> + +<p>The motive power of the sugar-mills is mostly water and +steam. There are also a dozen large distilleries at work, +possessing the most modern English improvements. An acre of +land, planted with sugar-cane, is said to yield from 100 to +120 Spanish piastres, a result for the landowner more +profitable than that arising from the cultivation of the +vine, even in its best days.</p> + +<p>As regards the culture of cotton, for which the climate and +soil are peculiarly suitable, no attempt has as yet been +made. The same remark applies to olive trees; though the +Government ordered the latter to be planted so long ago as +1768. The cultivation of tobacco, however, is prevented from +extending, being a government monopoly. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> for wheat, it is +not produced in sufficient quantity to meet one quarter of +the consumption of the inhabitants. In the year 1854, wheat, +to the amount of 216,918 bushels, was imported from the +north of Africa alone, a quantity nearly twice as great as +that which the island produces. Wheat and maize, or Indian +corn, are also imported from the Azores, and some ports of +the Mediterranean; an importation which is likely rather to +increase than decrease.</p> + +<p>The potato belongs to that small class of vegetables which +grow at considerable elevations, and, by proper irrigation +and dressing of the ground, three harvests may be obtained +in the course of the year.</p> + +<p>The Inhame [not the Yam (<i>Dioscorea alata</i>) of the West +Indies and South America, but a kind of grume (<i>Colocasia +esculenta</i>)] grows in large quantities near to rivers and +water conduits, where the ground is humid. It is much sought +for by the people, on account of its cheapness, though +rather a coarse kind of food, which, as Cordeyro naïvely +says, "picao algum tanto na garganta" (scratches the +throat).</p> + +<p>Sweet potatoes (<i>Convolvulus edulis</i>, Lin.), water-melons, +gourds, as well as all kinds of European garden vegetables, +are found throughout the year in the market, though not of a +particularly good quality. Oranges, lemons, bananas, guavas, +pine-apples, figs, apricots, and peaches, are abundant +during the summer season, and on higher ground even apple +and pear-trees are to be met with.</p> + +<p>On the "Desertas," three uninhabited little islands +south-east<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span> of Madeira, and belonging to it, there grows on +the rocks the orchilla (<i>Rocella tinctoria</i>), a species of +lichen, celebrated for yielding a fine purple colour, much +used in dyeing. Considering the great importance for +industrial purposes of this lichen, it might, with some +care, be advantageously grown in Madeira. Formerly there was +a small quantity brought to market, and sold for 14,000 reis +the quintal. At the present time the yield has entirely +ceased, though it is found in large quantities in the +neighbouring islands. It is considered not to be of such +good quality as that of the Azores, where, as is the case +with all lichens, that grow in more southern and warmer +climates, it is of a better quality, and more highly +esteemed.</p> + +<p>The product, however, which hitherto has yielded the largest +profit to the natives, and made the name of Madeira famous +and familiar, even to those who do not profess a particular +interest in the beauties of nature in this romantic island, +is its <i>wine</i>. Though this article of exportation has, +through the vine disease, entirely lost its former +importance, yet it may be of some interest to take a glance +at its history and culture, in order the better to +comprehend the magnitude of the calamities that have +overwhelmed the people of Madeira, in consequence of the bad +vintages of the last seven years.</p> + +<p>The vine was introduced from Cyprus, almost at the same time +with the sugar-cane, under the auspices of Prince Henry of +Portugal, in 1425, but its culture did not attain much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> +importance till the beginning of the sixteenth century. Some +authors even suppose that the wine of Madeira owes its +reputation chiefly to those plants which were, at a much +later date, imported by the Jesuits from Candia. This much +is certain, that the produce grown on the estates of the +Jesuits greatly surpassed in quality all others in the +island, and maintained a higher price in the market even +when those estates had changed hands. The grape ripens in +the north at an elevation of 2700 feet, but such as are +fitted for the manufacture of wine, grow only as high as the +Curral das Freiras (2080 feet).</p> + +<p>Hitherto four sorts of vines have been cultivated in the +island, namely, the <i>Bual</i> and <i>Tinta</i>, both of which were +brought from Burgundy, the <i>Sercial</i> from the Rhine, and the +<i>Malvasia</i> or <i>Malmsey</i> from Candia. There are four species +of the last-mentioned, (<i>candila</i>, <i>roxa</i>, <i>babosa</i>, and +<i>propea</i>); the delicious flavour of which by many people is +considered to have a great similarity with the Hungarian +<i>Tokayer</i>. The most esteemed sorts were grown west of +Funchal, near Cama de Lobos, and Estreita. Excellent +qualities were grown also at Santa Cruz, on the north side +of the island, and the valleys near Ponta da Cruz; in +general, however, the grape of the northern district proved +to be of inferior quality, and was therefore only used in +the manufacture of rum. In the north the vines were trained +on chestnut trees, but in the south, as in Lombardy and the +Tyrol, in festoons, supported by a kind of cane (<i>Arundo +sagittata</i>), and tied up by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> a species of willow (<i>Salex +rubra</i>), specially cultivated for that purpose.</p> + +<p>Though nearly a fifth of the cultivated portion of the +island was thus planted, yet the individual vineyards were +but small in extent, the largest of them not exceeding three +or four acres. In the wine-growing countries of Europe fresh +plants are set at least every twenty years; but in Madeira +they are allowed to remain in the ground so long as they +yield any fruit. The native growers do not relish +improvements; of all the agricultural implements which some +English landowners, settled near Funchal, wished to +introduce, the garden-rake alone was adopted by these +enemies of innovation. The vineyards of Madeira were usually +let out to farmers (<i>caseiros</i>), and rarely cultivated by +the proprietors themselves. The yield of an acre was +estimated at from one to three pipes. In 1848 the cost of +producing a pipe of Madeira amounted to from 12 to 40 +Spanish piastres. In the same year the total production of +the island amounted to 30,000 pipes, of which only 10,000 +were exported, as the inferior sorts, not keeping well, are +not suited for the foreign markets. Of the wines exported, +half went to Russia and the Baltic provinces, the other, +comprising the best kinds, were sent to England, the West +Indies, and the United States. Up to the year 1851, when the +last good vintage occurred, the price of a pipe varied from +12 to 14 Spanish piastres. So late as 1845, when the Danish +corvette <i>Galatea</i>, on her voyage round the world for +scientific purposes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> put in at this island, the inferior +sorts were so cheap that Captain Steen Bille considered it +more profitable to supply the crew with wine mixed with +water than beer. Since that time prices have become ten +times higher, and the best quality now sells for from £110 +to £150 a pipe, and will doubtless rise in proportion as the +older stores are exhausted.</p> + +<p>Though the yield of the vine had been decreasing, year after +year, for a considerable time, yet the actual vine disease +only made its appearance in 1852, when the leaves and fruit +were covered with a kind of fungus (<i>Oïdium Tuckeri</i>),<a name="Anchor-20" id="Anchor-20"></a><a href="#Footnote-20" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 20.">[20]</a> +like a white dust. The Portuguese Government sent a +commission for the purpose of investigating the causes of +the calamity. The report<a name="Anchor-21" id="Anchor-21"></a><a href="#Footnote-21" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 21.">[21]</a> is not decisive on the point, +whether the fungus is the real cause or only a symptom of +the disease, nor does it offer any advice as to how it may +be checked. Dr. Hermann Schacht,<a name="Anchor-22" id="Anchor-22"></a><a href="#Footnote-22" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 22.">[22]</a> who resided during a +period of 18 months in the island, and has published a +valuable treatise, states that the vine-disease appears +there in the same form as in Germany, even as regards the +season, which is soon after the blossom disappears. At first +the young leaf is covered with a whitish matter, chiefly on +its lower side; it then assumes a crumpled appearance, +becomes spotted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span> and at last decays. The young diseased +grape likewise becomes covered with a white dust, at first +partially, and then entirely, the green skin by degrees +assuming a brown colour, the grape increasing at same time +in size, until it as large as a currant, or a small cherry, +when it becomes black, and perishes together with its +diseased stock. In this decayed condition the grapes remain +on the vine till late in the autumn. Dr. Schacht was +successful in arresting the progress of the disease in its +earlier stages, by washing all parts of the plant with a +solution consisting of one part of glue to sixteen parts of +water; an operation which had been likewise performed with +good effect in the Royal hothouses of Sans-souci in Prussia. +He rubbed the leaves and grapes infected by the fungus with +this solution, and, where possible, dipped the grapes in it. +The solution very soon dried, and gave the grapes and leaves +a glossy appearance. All that had once been operated upon in +this way remained in a healthy condition, and even those +affected by the fungus recovered beneath the crust, the +operation thus seeming to afford a protection against the +fungus. The practice of strewing the plant over with +powdered sulphur, which was so much lauded, seems to be of +little use. At Teneriffe, Dr. Schacht found the fungus +widely spread, notwithstanding the application of sulphur. +Keeping the grape close upon the ground is also recommended +as a protection against the disease, having proved very +successful in the south.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-20" id="Footnote-20"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-20">[20]</a> Vide Botanical Gazette of 1852, page 9; of +1853, page 583; and of 1854, page 137;—Fulasne, "Sur le +Champignon, qui cause la Maladie de la Vigne."—<i>Comptes +Rendus</i>, vol. xxvii. 1853;—Dr. Schacht on Madeira, pages 52 +to 58.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-21" id="Footnote-21"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-21">[21]</a> Memoria primero sobre a mangra e doenza das +vinhas nas ilhas da Madeira e Porto Santo, por Joao de +Andrade Corvo. Lisbon. 1854.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-22" id="Footnote-22"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-22">[22]</a> Madeira und Teneriffa mit ihrer Vegetation, &c. +Von Dr. H. Schacht. Berlin. 1859.</p></div> + +<p>The pecuniary loss sustained since the first appearance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> of +the malady amounted in the autumn of 1852 to 1,137,990 +Spanish piastres, £190,000,<a name="Anchor-23" id="Anchor-23"></a><a href="#Footnote-23" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 23.">[23]</a> and after having waited in +vain a period of five years, for a better state of things, +the impoverished landowners entirely gave up cultivating the +vine. A traveller who chances now to visit Madeira can +scarcely believe that but a few years ago the greater +portion of the island was covered with the plant. The cause +of its disappearance must, however, not be ascribed entirely +to the disease, but partly also to the utter neglect of its +culture in favour of that of other products, so much so that +of late it was scarcely possible to procure a sufficient +quantity of grapes for invalids to whom they were +medicinally prescribed. Moreover, the sugar plantations, +which annually increase in extent, have contributed to the +destruction of the vines, as the former require irrigation, +which causes the roots of the latter to rot in the humid +ground.<a name="Anchor-24" id="Anchor-24"></a><a href="#Footnote-24" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 24.">[24]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-23" id="Footnote-23"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-23">[23]</a> The quantity of wine produced amounted, in the +year 1851, to 10,374 pipes; in the following year (1852), +only to 1413½ pipes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-24" id="Footnote-24"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-24">[24]</a> The vine disease seems, however, to have been +already prevalent in Madeira at a former period. In an old +lease, referring to land or property in the west of the +island, there is a clause to the effect that "In the event +of the young grape being covered with mildew (<i>mangra</i>), the +contract would be null and void." In Portugal also, the +disease is said to have existed more than fifty years ago, +though not to a great extent.</p></div> + +<p>The present situation of the people of Madeira claims alike +the sympathies of the philanthropist and the attention of +the political economist. We here behold a population of +upwards of a hundred thousand souls, deprived at once of a +product, which has been for more than three centuries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> the +principal means of obtaining their living, and by which many +an industrious grower made a considerable fortune.</p> + +<p>The farmer of Madeira, accustomed for generations to this +branch of industry, is now forced to apply his energies to +another, on the fortunate selection of which will depend his +welfare for the future, or at least for years to come.</p> + +<p>Some of the wealthier growers have not entirely abandoned +the culture of the vine, and have been assisted in their +endeavours by the Consul of the United States in Funchal, +the liberal-minded Mr. Marsh; experiments were made by +engrafting and setting fresh and healthy plants, brought +from the banks of the Ohio. They proceeded on the principle, +that it is most advisable, and likely to be productive of +the best success, to obtain young plants only from countries +where the disease has never appeared. The choice fell upon +the Isabella and Catawba grapes, which are indigenous to the +United States; and, whatever may be the final success, the +merit of transplanting, at a considerable expense, these two +North-American grapes to Madeira, is due to Mr. Marsh. It +is, however, a question, whether they will be able to +replace those hitherto cultivated, the conditions of climate +and soil being so different. As is well known, none of the +European vines succeed in North America; and the two +indigenous sorts, which are grown in great quantities on the +banks of the Ohio and the Missouri, cannot stand a +comparison with any of our finer kinds. The juice of the +American grapes is best suited for the manufacture of what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> +is called sparkling hock, which is very like the Austrian +Schaumwein.</p> + +<p>Some of the wealthier landowners formed an association for +the purpose of introducing the culture of cochineal, to +supply the place of that of the vine. Several plantations of +nopal, or cactus, were laid out, and the first harvest was +gathered in 1858. The nopal (<i>Opuntia cochinillifera</i>) is +the only kind of cactus on which the cochineal insect +breeds, and the south of the island, up to an elevation of +500 feet, the only part adapted for its cultivation. An +attempt was made to introduce the culture of cochineal in +the island by Señor Miguel de Carvalho, as far back as 1836. +But the indifference of the people, and their prejudices +against innovation, as well as the limited spirit of +enterprise possessed by the native merchants, rendered the +attempt, in that instance, abortive. In consequence, +however, of the vine disease, the idea of cultivating +cochineal was resumed, without considering, as it would +appear, the probable results in a mercantile point of view. +At the time of our visit there were about thirty acres of +land planted with cactus, and the "seed" of the cochineal +insect was expected from the Canary Islands. One cannot but +think the notion of substituting the cultivation of +cochineal for that of the vine was not a lucky one, the +large capital required, and the limited market for the +article, holding out small chance of success. The entire +consumption of cochineal in the whole world amounts to no +more than about 30,000 quintals, and towards this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> quantity, +Guatemala furnishes 15,000, the Canary Islands 6000, Mexico +8000, Java and the Philippine Islands together 1000 +quintals. There is little prospect, therefore, that the +cochineal culture of Madeira will ever become an important +source of gain, or advantageously compensate for the loss of +the vine. Few landowners in the island seem to possess +sufficient means to withstand the chances and fluctuations +to which its culture is subject. To illustrate this, it may +be mentioned, that during our visit to the highlands of +Guatemala, in 1854, when the cochineal harvest was bad, the +tercio (150 lbs.) of cochineal cost 140 Spanish piastres. In +the following year, when it was unusually productive, the +price declined to 80 piastres. A tercio of dried cochineal +costs the grower, or nopalero, about 50 piastres; a nopal +plantation must lie fallow every third year, being +consequently only productive during two years. Have the +landowners of Madeira considered all these disadvantages, +and will they be able to bear all the drawbacks peculiar to +the culture of cochineal? The climate and soil seem to hold +out far greater advantages for the cultivation of the +sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, and tobacco.</p> + +<p>There are few spots on the earth's surface which possess a +climate so delightful, and so little subject to extremes as +Madeira, the mean annual temperature being 64 degrees +Fahrenheit, or only 5 degrees higher than in the most +southern parts of Europe. The lowest temperature during five +years' observation was 50 degrees, the highest, 74. An +invalid residing at Funchal, within his own doors, may +always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> have a temperature not lower than 64, nor higher +than 74 degrees. Violent siroccos occur in the course of the +summer, which drive the thermometer up to 90 degrees in the +shade; these storms, however, occur only twice or thrice a +year, and rarely last longer than a couple of days. Dr. +Renton, who lived in Madeira from 1825 to 1831, only once +during all that time saw the thermometer marking 90 degrees, +two hours after sunset. The rainy season, marked by west and +south-west winds, begins at the end of September or the +beginning of October. In November the weather clears up, and +generally keeps fine till the end of December. At this +period snow falls on the mountains, and rain at Funchal, +accompanied by north-westerly winds, lasting till about the +end of February, during which time the weather is wet. The +remainder of the year is comparatively dry, the annual fall +of rain at Madeira amounting, according to Sir James +Clark,<a name="Anchor-25" id="Anchor-25"></a><a href="#Footnote-25" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 25.">[25]</a> to 36 inches, there being in all about 73 wet +days,<a name="Anchor-26" id="Anchor-26"></a><a href="#Footnote-26" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 26.">[26]</a> whilst at Rome, for instance, it rains, on an +average, during 117 days, though the amount of rain-fall is +only 29 inches.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-25" id="Footnote-25"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-25">[25]</a> On the Sanative Influence of the Climate of +Madeira. By Sir James Clark. London. 1841.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-26" id="Footnote-26"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-26">[26]</a> The fall of rain, according to Dr. Hoberdon's +observations, is, on a seven years' average, 30·62 inches +per annum. Dr. Mittermayr, from Heidelberg, states, on a +three years' average, the rainy days to be 95 per year. +Johnston, in his Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, states +the fall of rain on an average to be 29·82 inches, and the +number of rainy days 100 per annum, viz. 48 in the winter, +17 in the spring, 4 in the summer, and 31 in the autumn.</p></div> + +<p>In some respects the winter is warmer at Madeira than the +summer, owing to the north-westerly winds and the regular +sea-breezes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> of that season, which keep the atmosphere +continually at an even temperature; and hence the island is +the favourite resort of consumptive patients during the +winter season. England, which seems to possess the very +unenviable privilege of furnishing to the annual mortality +in Europe the most numerous contingent of phthisical +patients, provides this island likewise with the greatest +number of this, the most to be pitied of all classes of +patients. The climate of Madeira will, however, be of little +benefit in advanced and decided cases; although it seems to +have a curative effect on young people in the first stage of +the malady, as well as in cases where, being hereditary, its +presence is merely apprehended.</p> + +<p>The number of strangers who annually, during the winter, +resort to Madeira for the benefit of their health, amounts +to from 400 to 500, and the money thereby circulated in the +island reaches the sum of about £30,000. The number of +English alone in the year 1855 was 285. But in the winter of +1856-57, the English invalids who came to Madeira scarcely +reached 100. The reason of this was another calamity, the +cholera, which suddenly made its appearance in Funchal on +the 4th of July, 1856. Until this epoch, the island had been +spared this devastating scourge of our time. The epidemic is +said to have been introduced by a detachment of Portuguese +troops, which shortly before had arrived from Lisbon, where +cholera was then raging. The circumstances under which this +epidemic appeared in Madeira leave little doubt of the +correctness of this supposition, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span> seem to confirm the +view of Professor Pettenkofer,<a name="Anchor-27" id="Anchor-27"></a><a href="#Footnote-27" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 27.">[27]</a> relative to the +importation of the disease by ships, and its propagation by +human excrements, a theory advanced by this learned German +physician in his famous work, with as much soundness as +sagacity.</p> + +<p>The first individuals attacked were four soldiers of the 1st +battalion of infantry, and the first who fell a victim to +the epidemic was a boatman, who had landed some of the +soldiers from the steamer. He was attacked on the 7th of +July, at 1 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, and nine hours afterwards was a corpse. A +few weeks later the scourge had spread over the whole +island, raging with fatal severity, in consequence of the +poverty, distress, and helplessness of the inhabitants. We +cannot forbear mentioning a phenomenon observed at the time +of the first appearance of the pestilence by Major Dom Pedro +de Azevedo, one of the most distinguished men in Funchal. +According to the observations regularly made by him, during +two years, with reference to the quantity of ozone<a name="Anchor-28" id="Anchor-28"></a><a href="#Footnote-28" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 28.">[28]</a> +contained in the atmosphere, he found that, as long as the +pestilence was raging, it scarcely amounted to 2, whilst, +under normal circumstances, the quantity, according to the +ozonometer of Schönbein, is said to reach 6 to 7.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-27" id="Footnote-27"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-27">[27]</a> Dr. Pettenkofer's Investigations and +Observations on the Spread of Cholera. Munich. 1855.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-28" id="Footnote-28"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-28">[28]</a> Ozone, or oxygen in an allotropic condition, is +found in more perceptible quantity in pure localities than +in those where great quantities of putrescent substances are +accumulated, as the ozone disappears by oxidation. +Observations on the quantity of ozone contained in the air +during an epidemic are, therefore, of great interest, +because they may throw a light on the influences of the +atmosphere in the propagation of certain diseases.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span></p></div> + +<p>In the beginning of October the malady gradually began to +decrease, the last case which happened on the island +occurring at Funchal, on the 16th December, 1856. It +appears, from official reports, that out of a population of +102,837 souls, 7041 fell victims to the epidemic; other +statements, that seem not less reliable, even raise the +number of fatal cases to a much larger figure. A variety of +local circumstances tended to heighten the fearful violence +of the epidemic: the great distress among the people, +arising from the deficiency of the vintages during several +years; the potato disease, which occurred in the summer of +1856, and deprived the population, whilst suffering from +other calamities, of one of their most important means of +sustenance; and finally, to bring misfortunes to a climax, +even that source of gain was dried up which the people +derived from the temporary residence of numerous wealthy +families. Terrified by the reports which were in circulation +as to the ravages caused by the cholera at Madeira, hundreds +altered their original plan of passing the winter there, and +even resident strangers, horror-stricken, left the island, +which had been so suddenly converted from a paradise into a +burial-ground. The loss arising from the latter cause is +estimated at £20,000, an immense sum at a time when +pestilence and famine were raging so fiercely. The British +Government, as well as English philanthropists in general, +deserve the highest praise for the liberality with which +they promptly and generously hastened to the assistance of +the sufferers. Soon as intelligence of the great distress +arrived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> in London, two steamers of war, the <i>Salamander</i> +and <i>Hesper</i>, with provisions, medicine, clothing, bedding, +and money, were despatched to Funchal, where the former +arrived on the 18th and the latter on the 31st of October, +1856. This assistance essentially contributed to the rapid +extinction of the epidemic, as it sufficed to relieve the +more pressing wants.<a name="Anchor-29" id="Anchor-29"></a><a href="#Footnote-29" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 29.">[29]</a> Considerable contributions arrived +also from the United States; and, according to public +statements, the relief that came from foreign countries +amounted to £8895.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-29" id="Footnote-29"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-29">[29]</a> Old chronicles report that Madeira has been +visited by a pestilential disease, that raged within the +years 1521 to 1535. But the cholera was never in the island +before the year 1856. The yellow fever is altogether +unknown.</p></div> + +<p>The commerce of the island was, as a matter of course, +seriously affected by such a train of calamities. The +principal exports had hitherto consisted of wine, cattle, +fruit, and wicker-work; the first and most important of +these articles—wine—had, as already stated, all but +entirely disappeared from the list for several years, the +small quantities still exported being merely the remnants of +old stocks.</p> + +<p>According to custom-house registers, the entire value of the +produce exported in 1851 amounted to £164,960, of which +£96,950 were shipped in English, £26,500 in American, and +£16,650 in Portuguese vessels. The exports of 1855 were only +£95,470, and in 1855, when the wine export had entirely +ceased, the value did not exceed £2400!</p> + +<p>The imports were of a more numerous and varied description; +calico, cotton and woollen goods, hardware, spices and +provisions from England; timber, salt meat, and other +articles from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> United States; grain from the +Mediterranean and the Black Sea; and sugar, coffee, oil, +rice, and other colonial produce from Lisbon and the +Portuguese settlements. The commerce is almost entirely in +the hands of the English,<a name="Anchor-30" id="Anchor-30"></a><a href="#Footnote-30" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 30.">[30]</a> whose liberality during the +cholera epidemic has much raised them in the estimation of +the inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-30" id="Footnote-30"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-30">[30]</a> Three-fifths of the 50,000 tons annually +imported are <i>English</i> manufactures.</p></div> + +<p>The absence of a regular banking establishment is much felt +by the trading community, particularly in times of temporary +distress. Singularly enough there are few Portuguese coins +to be met with, and even these are not liked by the +inhabitants. The moneys chiefly in circulation are English +and American gold and silver coins, French five-franc +pieces, and Spanish dollars. The sailing vessels in the +roads of Funchal are mostly under English and American +flags. The steamers which keep up the intercourse between +Europe and the Brazils call regularly at Funchal for mails +and passengers,<a name="Anchor-31" id="Anchor-31"></a><a href="#Footnote-31" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 31.">[31]</a> and a steam-packet arrives regularly +every fortnight on its way from Europe to South America.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-31" id="Footnote-31"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-31">[31]</a> An English coal depôt has been established in +Funchal since 1848.</p></div> + +<p>The trade carried on under ordinary circumstances is, as we +have seen, by no means inconsiderable, and by proper +management might enable the people to extricate themselves +from their present depressed position; but though not +exactly lazy, they are entirely deficient in the energy +requisite for effectively improving their condition. +Whenever they have enough of yams and potatoes, they no +longer think of exerting themselves or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> of acquiring a more +comfortable or independent mode of existence. Neither in +Ireland, nor in the Silesian mountains, nor even amongst the +Indians in North or South America, have we witnessed such a +degree of poverty and wretchedness as we beheld among the +labouring classes in the mountainous districts of this +island. On entering a village, shoals of haggard-looking +beggars covered with rags were seen, whose features +indicated their unhealthy way of living, and an utter lack +of the most common necessaries of life. The calamities of +the last five years have certainly contributed to this +excess of misery, and a traveller who visited Madeira twenty +years ago, may have carried away with him quite a different +impression of its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>The race inhabiting the island, notwithstanding some +favourable exceptions, is rather unprepossessing and +decrepit, owing to the elements of which it is composed. The +first settlers, as already stated, belonged by no means to +the better classes of Portugal, but consisted of a motley +assemblage of ruffians, who came to the newly-discovered +island merely in search of adventure. The admixture which +afterwards took place with the black race imported from +Africa, materially contributed to deteriorate the people +both physically and morally. Though there is not one single +pure negro in the whole island, yet the features of a +considerable proportion of the inhabitants denote their +African descent. In the population of Punta da Sol, a +village on the west side of the island, the negro type is +said to be exhibited in its strongest character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span></p> + +<p>The dress of the native is extremely simple; a pair of white +trowsers, a shirt, and linen jacket, constitute the entire +toilette; with a few rare exceptions we never saw shoes: but +even the poorest of the poor wears a curiously-shaped small +cloth cap (<i>carapuça</i>) of a blue colour, with red lining, +terminating in an erect pointed tail, six inches long. This +seems to be a remnant of a turbaned head-dress, worn +formerly by the inhabitants of the African coast, with whom +the first settlers, allured by the slave-trade, once carried +on an active intercourse.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 219px;"><a name="illu147" id="illu147"></a> +<img src="images/illu147.jpg" width="219" height="288" alt="Man in cap with cloth spike-like appendage." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CARAPUÇA, OR CAP WORN BY THE NATIVES OF +MADEIRA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Many of the inhabitants of Funchal obtain their livelihood +by acting as guides to strangers. The roads being very +steep, and formed of pointed stones, horses of an excellent +breed are used in going even short distances; however fast +the visitors may gallop, the guide follows the horses on +foot, to which the natives are habituated from their +earliest years. This practice is undoubtedly one of the +principal causes of consumptive complaints, which are more +frequently met with here than might have been expected +considering the climate, though bad nourishment and +unhealthy dwellings may have their part in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> causing the +prevalence of the malady. The common people are mostly +lodged in small low cabins of wood or timber, thatched with +straw, the only opening being the door, through which air +and light are admitted. Their sleeping-places are wooden +benches, covered with straw, raised only one or two feet +from a ground which, during nine months of the year, is +damp.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary to state that the wealthier classes +offer a more pleasing aspect. They are extremely obliging, +kind, and attentive towards strangers, and evidently +endeavour to impress the visitor with favourable ideas of +themselves and the island. To the hospitality of the +Austrian Consul, as well as to Major P. A. de Azevedo and +Don Juan Muniz, so deservedly celebrated for his knowledge +of the flora of Madeira, the members of the <i>Novara</i> +expedition are indebted for many a happy and delightful +hour.</p> + +<p>The population is perceptibly on the decrease. The causes +are emigration to the British West Indies, and devastation +by the cholera. The number of inhabitants in the two +islands, in 1836, amounted to 115,446; in 1854, to 103,296; +and in 1855, to only 102,183. The emigrants during the last +twenty-five years (1835 to 1860) are said to have amounted +to 40,000, many of whom depart secretly, in order to avoid +the heavy emigration tax.</p> + +<p>Numerous benevolent institutions indicate the charitable +disposition of the inhabitants. The hospital, or Santa Casa +de Misericordia, standing in a beautiful square, planted +with planes and magnolias, can receive 104 patients, and is +exceedingly well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> managed. It appears, however, rather +singular that the surgical are separated from the medical +cases, whilst no separation exists amongst the patients who +may happen to be labouring under contagious diseases. The +most frequently recurring diseases are cutaneous, a +circumstance which need excite no surprise in a country +where the natives pay so little attention to the cleanliness +of their bodies, and where Government itself favours as it +were this carelessness by levying a considerable tax upon +the importation of soap! Dysentery prevails throughout the +year; intermittent fever and inflammatory diseases occur +more rarely; but apoplectic cases are at times very +numerous. The nominal amount of the funds of the hospital is +estimated at £40,000; the annual income being about £1800 +sterling.</p> + +<p>The hospital for lepers is fitted up for the reception of +about forty patients, most of whom come from places in which +the black has least mixed with the white race.</p> + +<p>The workhouse, for 230 paupers, was founded in 1847 by +public subscription, and has an annual income of from 3000 +to 4000 piastres.</p> + +<p>The nunnery of St. Isabel, for the reception of female +orphans, was erected as early as 1726. Great care is taken +of the education of the inmates, who are not permitted to +leave the establishment, except in case of getting married +or respectably employed.</p> + +<p>Foundlings, of whom, in one single year, 839 were maintained +by the commune of Funchal, are given out to nurse;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> and +there has been a most singular expedient adopted, in order +to prevent abuse as regards obtaining the board money, which +amounts to about one piastre a month, for each. A piece of +tape is put round the infant's neck, the two ends of which +are fastened with a lead seal, and stamped, so that, in the +event of death, it cannot be taken off and put on another +child's neck. The witnessing of the process of fastening and +stamping this necklace is most unpleasant, although no real +pain is inflicted on the child.</p> + +<p>In the year 1855 there existed in the entire island twelve +elementary schools, attended by about 200 scholars, and +likewise forty-nine Sunday schools, having about 2400 +pupils. Funchal also possesses a college, with six +professors and 120 students, an ecclesiastical seminary for +twenty-four pupils, and a medical school, with four +professors, which, however, during the year of our visit, +had only seven students. Though the Government is very rigid +in exacting the attendance of the children at school, yet +only about a seventh part of the whole number living in the +island really avail themselves of the benefit.</p> + +<p>A hospital for the consumptive is now in course of erection, +at the expense of the Empress dowager of the Brazils, as a +memorial of her daughter, who, in 1853, died of this disease +on the island.</p> + +<p>There exist several public libraries and book societies at +Funchal; and in several of the clubs a great many of the +leading English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and German +journals, are to be found. Four weekly papers, in the +Portuguese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> language, are published at Funchal. The first +newspaper ever published there was the <i>Patriota +Funchalense</i>, the first number of which appeared on the 2nd +of June, 1821.</p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; +width: 535px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu151.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu151" id="illu151"></a> +CATHEDRAL OF<br />MADEIRA.</div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 535px; height: 578px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 235px; height: 117px;"></div> + +<p>The public buildings offer little to attract notice; the +churches are insignificant, and even the cathedral, a +building in the Basilica style, is in no way remarkable +otherwise than by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> innumerable garlands and nosegays, +offerings of pious devotees, which as it were transform its +interior into a fragrant temple of flowers.</p> + +<p>That which was once a Jesuit monastery, has been now +converted into a barrack, in which the whole garrison of the +island, amounting to 400 men, are lodged. The daily pay of +these soldiers amounts to 20 reis, or about one penny!</p> + +<p>An ordinary dwelling-house has lately been converted into a +town gaol, in which the prisoners are very humanely treated. +Passers-by may have an undisturbed talk with them through +the lattice-work; and once we even observed a man who had +thrust his foot through the iron bars, in order to have his +measure taken by one of the inmates for a pair of shoes!</p> + +<p>The charms of beautiful walks, and a most enchanting +neighbourhood, enhance the pleasantness of the climate of +Funchal so much resorted to by invalids. In the interior of +the town, not far from the sea-shore, splendid avenues of +magnificent planes, large-flowered magnolias, and massive +oaks, form delightful promenades, and afford repose and +shade on numerous seats under the dense foliage of their +wide-spreading branches.</p> + +<p>Seated on a gently-ambling steed, one may reach most +pleasantly the summits of those lofty mountains, which rise +close to Funchal, where a balmy fragrance perfumes the air, +and the eye roams with delight in all directions over +scenery of the most striking description.</p> + +<p>One of the favourite points from which such a view may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span> be +obtained in all its beauty, is the terrace in front of the +church of Nossa Senhora de Monte, situated 1965 feet above +the level of the sea, on a ridge of the Arrebantao mountain, +reached in less than an hour by one or other of the existing +conveyances; these are either horses, or hammocks and +sedan-chairs, or sledges, covered with tasteful canopies, +and drawn by a couple of small oxen.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 514px;"><a name="illu153" id="illu153"></a> +<img src="images/illu153.jpg" width="514" height="358" alt="Instead of a carriage on wheels, a +carriage on wooden runners drawn by oxen over the snow-less cobblestone streets." title="" /> +<span class="caption">SLEIGH PARTY IN MADEIRA.</span> +</div> + +<p>Though a vehicle, reminding one so strongly of a northern +winter, appears rather odd in a climate such as that of +Madeira, yet its practicability and convenience is very soon +perceived, when comfortably sliding away over the smooth +stones of Funchal. Wheel carriages, such as used in Europe, +are unknown here.</p> + +<p>But he who has bodily strength and health enough to be able +to wander through the interior of the island, will find +spots which command landscapes by far more grand and sublime +than that seen from Nossa Senhora de Monte. Cape<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> San +Lorenzo, with its petrified fauna;—the awe-inspiring +Entroza pass, that wonderful sculpture of nature which bears +so powerful a witness to the corroding action of water;—the +lovely and solitary cascade of Rabacal;—the Pic Arrieiro, +with its craggy rocks, offering to the geologist such a +remarkable peep into the geognostical history of the +island;—the numerous gigantic rocky skeletons of volcanic +cones, on which the geologist is able to make the most +interesting studies and investigations, just in the same +manner as the anatomist on a corpse;—all these wonders of +nature are calculated to awaken the reflection and excite +the admiration of the beholder.</p> + +<p>The most delightful event during our stay in the island was +an excursion of several days, made to the romantic +localities of the northern coast. A stately cavalcade of +twenty-two horsemen set out, early on a fine June morning, +from Funchal to Nossa Senhora, and from thence over the Pic +Poizo, through the glens of Metade to St. Anna. After a ride +of two hours, the Casa de Abrigo was reached, a small house, +situated about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, erected +by the Government some years ago for the shelter of +travellers. From this point the path runs through a hilly +country covered with heath, from which the majestic Pico +Ruivo, with the fantastic forms of its rugged volcanic walls +bathed in gold by the rays of the rising sun, presents a +most imposing sight. On the whole route only one small +miserable village, called Fayal, was passed, consisting of a +few straw thatched huts, exhibiting a picture of poverty and +wretchedness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span> which can scarcely be paralleled in any part +of the habitable globe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 674px;"><a name="illu155" id="illu155"></a> +<img src="images/illu155.jpg" width="674" height="546" alt="Rural farmers' +thatched-roof stonework homes among the fields." title="" /> +<span class="caption">VILLAGE OF FAYAL.</span> +</div> + +<p>At last, after a ride of eight hours, we reached St. Anna, +an extensive village, with a large church and some brick +buildings prettily situated in flower-gardens, the most +stately of which was—the inn. The good cheer and repose +found here for a few hours of the night, compensated in some +degree for the fatigues of the past day, and prepared us for +those to be encountered on the morrow.</p> + +<p>The frequent fogs prevalent in Madeira during the month of +June, render it indispensable to start early in the morning, +if the traveller wishes to enjoy the beauties of the +scenery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> At 2 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, therefore, our cavalcade set out, +followed by a host of boys and porters carrying provisions +and instruments for observations. Nature was still buried in +sleep, the air quiet and motionless; the full moon, shedding +her pallid light over sea and mountain, feebly shadowed +forth the outlines of the hedges and bushes of roses, +fuchsias, and hortensias, that lined the narrow path, and +brought out dimly in faint relief the ghost-like white +figures which, standing at the doors of their poor cabins, +looked inquisitively at the riders, that were already so +early on their way. The path led up to the mountains in +steep and numerous windings, sometimes on soft ground +through ravines, sometimes on solid basalt, or over the +uneven surface of indurated lava. And when at last, emerging +from deep glens, steep precipices, and rocky walls, all yet +buried in the shades of night, the blue star-spangled sky +burst upon us in all its beauty and grandeur, the effect was +almost overpowering. A faint glimmer of light appeared on +the distant horizon, masses of vapour moved over the ocean, +and rising mists gathering into clouds, undulated like the +surface of an agitated sea. It was only along the ridges of +mountains and through the ravines, that one might glance +between mist and land down to the calm boundless expanse of +water at our feet.</p> + +<p>At 4 o'clock a halt was made near a solitary hut, called +Choupana, at a height of 4400 feet, when the horsemen +dismounted, and left their horses behind, preferring to +reach on foot the termination of their journey.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 346px;"><a name="illu157" id="illu157"></a> +<img src="images/illu157.jpg" width="346" height="505" alt="A rock formation." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EL HOMEM EM PÉ.</span> +</div> + +<p>We had just climbed up some steep basalt rock and reached an +open spot, when the first rays of the sun tinged the eastern +sky. Beaming in all his majesty on the sharply-defined +clouds that hovered beneath, they sparkled like so many +ice-capped peaks of Alpine glaciers; and when the great +luminary ascended higher, distributing mingled light and +shade in such gradations of tint as only Nature's cunning +hand can mingle, the chaotic masses of vapour assumed the +appearance of gigantic islands and lofty towering mountains, +whilst a chorus of feathered songsters rung cheerfully out +from the depths of the wooded valleys. The path wound along +a precipitous declivity, grown over with tangled Til-trees, +past a group of basaltic columns, which rose isolated to a +height of 40 feet above the beautiful grassy carpet that +clothes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> the ground, and in the crevices of which an old +laurel, the last of its genus at this height, had taken +root. The natives call this singularly-shaped group <i>Homem +em pé</i>, or the man standing erect.</p> + +<p>Arrived at an open space of meadow ground, the Barreiro, or +Encumiada Caixa, a gigantic rocky ridge, suddenly rises to a +prodigious height, from a frightful abyss of almost +fathomless depth. We now hastened across a plain covered +with lava, to the rough basaltic summit of the Encumiada +Alta. Safe on an eminence<a name="Anchor-32" id="Anchor-32"></a><a href="#Footnote-32" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 32.">[32]</a> above yawning gulfs, beneath a +deep blue sky, in the brilliancy of a lovely morning sun, we +abandoned ourselves to the thrilling impressions of the +magnificent picture which nature here brought forth of +earth, rock, and manifold vegetation. Towards the south an +immense mountain ridge, with serried peaks (called Torres +and Torinhas), rises to a height of 6000 feet, declining +almost imperceptibly on the left hand, whilst on the right +it descends abruptly in terraces, with perpendicular walls +of rocks 1000 feet in height, connected by an inaccessible +ridge with the imposing, stupendous, cupola-shaped summit of +the Pico Ruivo. All this is disclosed to the eye within a +radius of little more than two miles. Deep clefts and +ravines run from the rocky crevices, and unite in a gloomy +and profound abyss of 3000 feet, which forms the mouth of +the ravine of Ribeiro Secco. Similiar chasms open to the +right and to the left, and when they are too distant to be +distinguished by the eye,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> dark shadows rising on the rocky +walls indicate the deep crater-like basin of the Curral, and +the gulfs of the Metade river, and the Ribeiro Frio. It +would seem as if the whole island has, in a series of +fearful convulsions, burst from a single central point in +all directions; as if entire mountains had sunk into the +deep, or had, by the action of torrents permeating their +crevices, been converted into rubble, and carried as sand +and fragments into the ocean.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-32" id="Footnote-32"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-32">[32]</a> 5883 feet, according to the geologist's +barometrical measurements.</p></div> + +<p>The summits of the Torres and Torrinhas are nothing but +barren naked rocks,—not a blade of grass, not a shrub, not +a trace of vegetation is to be seen. At the highest points, +strata nearly horizontal extend in remarkably regular +layers, chiefly distinguished by the most manifold variety +of colours and tints.<a name="Anchor-33" id="Anchor-33"></a><a href="#Footnote-33" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 33.">[33]</a> A dark grey schistus of volcanic +ashes alternates with strongly-marked red, yellow, and +violet layers of tufa, dross, and scoriæ, together with +brown and grey conglomerates. Just as red predominates on +the upper part of these <i>Torres</i>, green prevails on the +lower. From the spot where the springs first issue out of +the crevices of the basalt, everything seems covered with a +dense green carpet. These are the celebrated "clefts" of +Madeira, in which, even on rocks of 1000 feet high, not an +inch is to be discovered bare; they afford a rich harvest to +the botanist, whilst they fill the spectator with delight +and admiration.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-33" id="Footnote-33"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-33">[33]</a> The celebrated American geologist, Mr. Dana, +mentions that these wild contorted masses of mountain +reminded him of the crater-walls of the Kilauea at the +Sandwich Islands.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 546px;"><a name="illu160" id="illu160"></a> +<img src="images/illu160.jpg" width="546" height="537" alt="Erica trees." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ERICA TREES.</span> +</div> + +<p>Generally speaking, the scenery of Madeira does not owe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> its +character to the grandeur or magnitude of its trees; the +peculiar charm of the landscape arises more from grasses, +ferns, shrubs, and different kinds of moss, all of which +grow so rank and luxuriant, that the rocks, chasms, and +abysses overgrown with them, appear like so many swelling +cushions, or as if laid with soft velvet carpets in all +directions. The different shades of green indicate the +characteristics of successive zones of vegetation. Through +the lower parts of the valleys run the beds of those +mountain waters which, though nearly dried up in the summer, +swell in the winter into torrents. Along these are scattered +the straw-thatched huts of the natives, surrounded by +vineyards and fields planted with rye, barley, potatoes, +yams, and in the lower parts with single bananas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> These +cultivated lands rise to a height of 2000 feet, and in many +places even to 3000. Wherever on the steep declivities there +is the smallest shelf to be found, even if only a square +yard in size, it is turned to account. Next to this region, +in ascending, is that of the brush and laurel woods. +<i>Vaccinias</i> (blackberries), and different kinds of heath, +often attaining a growth of five or six feet, occupy the +whole of the ground, and in the month of June, when the +broom is in full flower, a bright golden-coloured belt girts +Madeira, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet. We beheld +this golden girdle in its richest splendour, set off by the +dark masses of evergreens in the clefts. Higher up is the +true region of the <i>Erica arborea</i>, which, with its +light-green and <i>paille</i> tint, contrasted with the deeper +colour of the laurel, represents the underwood of our +secondary mountain ranges. The <i>Erica arborea</i> attains here +the height of a large tree, and, on some spots, 30 to 40 +feet of its gnarled stems stretch along the ground. Thus it +may be traced, in company with other heaths, to the summit +of the Pico Ruivo.</p> + +<p>After having made some physical observations, and enjoyed a +most delightful prospect, we re-packed our instruments, +filled our boxes and pouches with plants and geological +specimens, and prepared for our departure. The guides, +despite their heavy burdens, marched steadily on, humming in +plaintive cadence their native songs. We soon reached our +horses, and, penetrating through layers of clouds, rapidly +descended the steep mountain sides to St. Anna.</p> + +<p>A walk on the same evening towards Porto Santo Jorge was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> +not less charming than instructive, especially as we gazed +on those hardened streams of lava, so interesting as regards +the geological history of the island, out of the numerous +crevices of which grew luxuriant magnificent rosettes of +<i>Sempervivum</i>. Fuchsias and heliotropes were gathered from +the bushes, and each took a share, now with the geological +hammer, now with the botanical box, or the +butterfly-catcher, in the harvest of objects of natural +history. We passed in this neighbourhood several houses +delightfully situated, surrounded by hedgerows of luxuriant +shrubs and splendid native flowers.</p> + +<p>In the fine garden of the inn, amidst myrtles, bignonias, +euphorbias, and fuchsias, was a handsome <i>Camellia +japonica</i>, which had attained the imposing height of 15 +feet, with a diameter of 9 inches, the top spreading +fan-like in numberless branches.</p> + +<p>The following morning we returned to Funchal, accompanied by +a troop of ragged and diseased natives, pertinaciously +appealing to our charity. Plenteous alms were given them, +for where Nature is so prodigal of her gifts, the human mind +becomes more sensitive and liberal. At noon, we again +reached the beautiful terrace of Nossa Senhora de Monte, and +here the excursion was wound up by a diversion of quite a +peculiar character; for, instead of returning to Funchal on +horseback, we slid down a mountain 1500 feet high, right +into the town, on small double-seated wooden sledges, thus +travelling down what is probably the grandest natural +<i>Montagne Russe</i> in the world. A train of more than a dozen +sledges started at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> same time. These singular vehicles +are guided on either side with admirable adroitness by two +natives, who avoid slipping by moistening their shoes; and, +notwithstanding the velocity of these conveyances, even +slight accidents are unheard of. Sledge parties of this +kind, being cheap, constitute the most favourite amusement +of the people of Funchal.</p> + +<p>The whole company met together once more at a convivial +dinner in the hotel, where, agreeably to the custom of the +country, not only the room and table, but even every single +dish served up, was adorned with garlands of fragrant +flowers.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"><a name="plate177t" id="plate177t"></a> +<img src="images/plate177t.jpg" width="193" height="350" alt="Novara's track." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE II.—TRACK FROM MADEIRA TO RIO DI JANEIRO.</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate177.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>On the 17th June we again weighed anchor. The intention had +originally been to steer direct for Rio de Janeiro; but as +we learned, two days before our departure, that the yellow +fever, though on the decrease, had not yet entirely ceased, +we were in no hurry to arrive at the capital of Brazil, and +therefore determined to employ the time so gained, in +investigating the nature of the winds and currents prevalent +in these latitudes. For though the proper course of ships +between England and North America has been admirably laid +down, for nearly every month of the year, by the +long-continued ingenious labours of Commander Maury, of the +Washington Observatory, yet there still exists great +difficulty in steering sailing vessels from Gibraltar or +Madeira to South America, by the directions hitherto +existing; the more so, as the seafarer in these latitudes, +close to the limits of the north-east trade-wind, generally +falls in with variable breezes and frequent calms, caused +partly by the African coast and partly by the cluster of +isles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> from the Azores to the Cape Verde Islands, and which +are of still more frequent occurrence in the summer of the +northern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>We kept Madeira, or rather the clouds which, during the +summer, gather daily round the mountains, a long time in +view; and on the 19th, at a distance of 120 miles from the +island, some persons on board thought they could still +distinguish them.</p> + +<p>We steered at first in a south-westerly direction, with +light breezes and fine weather. Advancing, however, towards +the limits of the trade-winds, showers became frequent, and +the wind chopped about much oftener; a more southerly course +was therefore taken, in order to come as soon as possible +under the influence of the north-easterly trade-winds.</p> + +<p>There was now an opportunity of directing attention to the +formation of the clouds, which, in these latitudes, assume +at times very curious appearances. The <i>cirri</i> disappeared +by degrees, and the <i>cumuli</i> towered up on the horizon in +colossal masses. These latter are formed under the influence +of the sun, when most powerful, and are therefore seen +chiefly during the afternoon. As soon as they rise they +vanish by absorption, just as fast as they are formed by +evaporation from the sea. Rain very rarely proceeds from +them. The alternation of their shades, tints, and colours, +is beautiful in the extreme, particularly at sunset, when +their outlines, as they stand out in bold relief on the +clear blue sky, vary in hue from the deepest grey to the +most brilliant golden yellow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span></p> + +<p>The nearer the tropics are approached the more does ocean +teem with animated orgasms. A net cast into it was +immediately filled with an immense number of little living +creatures. Pretty-looking blue cockles, sea-nettles, and +various other inhabitants of the deep, all of the most +minute size, lay rolled up in one lump with small sea-weeds +of beautiful forms and tints, from which those tiny things +endeavoured, with great exertion, to extricate themselves. +The microscope discloses to the observer an entirely new +world in the economy of nature, as displayed in the animal +life of the surface of the sea. The entire oceanic creation, +from the smallest infusoria to the huge whale, are all +specially adapted to the element in which they exist, and +organized to contribute to the preservation, as well as the +further development, of the whole globe.</p> + +<p>This is beautifully illustrated by the operations of the +zoophytes; the water of rivers dissolves the chalky +substances of the land and carries them down to the +ocean,—immense numbers of these form, for themselves, +habitations from this matter;—by successive accumulation, +produced through the action or the dead bodies of these +creatures, the ground is raised gradually into the reefs, +banks, and rocks, so dangerous to navigation; or into +islands inhabited by man, who, in the development of his +moral and physical powers, performs his mission in his high +position, just as definitely as the imperceptible animalcuæ +do in their narrow sphere.</p> + +<p>Exceedingly beautiful in the tropic seas are those small +<i>physali</i>, a species of <i>Acalephæ</i>, known to sailors as +"Portuguese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> men-of-war." They sail along by means of their +large air-bags, exposed to the wind, whilst their numerous +long, dark-blue tentacles, like fibres or roots, reach deep +into the water, extending or contracting in order to secure +their food. The fringes of these air-bags are of a violet +colour, and resemble, when in sunshine, a splendid flower, +floating about the sea in all directions.</p> + +<p>Approaching the zone of the trade-winds, the aspect of the +sea is animated by flying-fish. It has been long a matter of +doubt whether this fish really moves through the air by +flying, or whether, being pursued by enemies, it merely +darts from fear out of the water, and sustains itself in the +air by means of its long pectoral fins, though the long +distances it moves are out of all proportion to its size and +probable muscular power. This doubt seems to have originated +with those who never have had an opportunity of personally +observing flying-fish; or who have merely seen these +creatures in the Mediterranean, where they are so small as +to render it rather difficult to decide in what the movement +really consists.</p> + +<p>But in the tropics all doubt vanishes, for the fish here +attains a length of from 6 to 8 inches, and its pectoral +fins are so much developed that they may perfectly well be +used as wings. By closely observing them, it is seen that +these fins, or wings, have an oscillating or vibratory +motion, like that of the grasshopper, by which they assist +the oblique spring from the water, produced by muscular +power; they move at a height of from two to three feet above +the surface of the sea, to a distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> of from 50 to 100 +yards, and at the same time change the direction of their +flight in exactly the same way as grasshoppers.</p> + +<p>It seems, however, to be neither pleasure nor want of food +that drives these creatures from their own element. They +have numerous enemies, of which the principal is the bonita +(<i>Scomber Palamy</i>); whenever flying-fish were seen the +bonitas likewise made their appearance; we often saw the +latter darting out of the water and snapping at a +flying-fish, when, if they did not succeed, they were +perceived hastening under water in the same direction that +their prey was taking. But the flying-fish is quite aware of +the movement of the enemy, and, therefore, sometimes turns +back abruptly, evidently with a view of dodging his pursuer. +The advantage of the wings is, however, more apparent than +real, for whilst they escape by these means from the +bonitas, dorados, and dolphins, they fall a sacrifice to the +seagulls and man-of-war birds (<i>Tachypetes aquilus</i>), which +reach them like arrows shot from a bow, before they are able +to conceal themselves again in the ocean. Those which were +seen on the north of the equator, were invariably of the +smaller kind (<i>Exocætus volitans</i>); whilst in the south, +also, the larger species (<i>Exocætus exulans</i>) made their +appearance. They often drop during the night on the decks of +small vessels with low bows, but on the <i>Novara</i>, which rose +about 20 feet over the surface of the water, this was not +possible; however, some fell upon the chains, which were +caught and preserved in alcohol by the zoologists.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span></p> + +<p>On the 27th June, at midday, we had arrived in 27° 2′ N. +Lat., and 24° 7′ W. Long., and lay in a perfect calm, the +mirror-like aspect of the sea allowing us to take a deep-sea +sounding with what is called Brooke's apparatus. This +consists of a tube, which runs through a thirty-pound shot, +fastened to a thin line. As the shot, however, cannot easily +be drawn up after the sounding, there is an ingenious +mechanism, by means of which, on touching the ground, it is +detached from the tube, which may then be drawn up, the shot +remaining in the sea. The tube has a funnel-shaped opening +at its lower extremity, by which a portion of the ground may +likewise be brought up for scientific examination.</p> + +<p>In the afternoon a boat provided with everything requisite +for the sounding, was launched, and the operation began. +Unfortunately there were only 4050 fathoms of line, as we +did not find at Gibraltar the quality required for the +purpose. The whole stock ran entirely out without reaching +ground; we could therefore do nothing more than make the +attempt to heave the tube without the shot. In this, +however, we succeeded only in so far as regarded the first +2000 fathoms; then the line broke, and the remainder was +lost. One of the causes of this accident was the sudden rise +of the trade-wind which increased so much as to engross +nearly our entire attention.</p> + +<p>To convey an idea of the time a ball of this kind takes to +descend through the different strata of water, which +increases in density in proportion to the depth attained, we +annex the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> length of the different periods required in +paying out the line during the experiment:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">Minutes.</td><td align="center">Seconds.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">The first 1000</td><td align="center">fathoms occupied</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">8</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">From</td><td align="center">1000 to 2000</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">3</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2000 to 3000</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">40</td><td align="center">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3000 to 4000</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">76</td><td align="center">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4000 to 4050</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"> </td><td align="center">_______</td><td align="center">_______</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center"> </td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">Total time in running out<br />the entire length</td><td align="center">2h 39m</td><td align="center">28s</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>As the winding up of the tube requires at least the same +period, it may easily be conceived how great is the +expenditure of time necessary for such an experiment, and on +what chances the success of the whole operation depends. +Though this trial was partially unsuccessful, yet so much is +certain, that at this point, 24,300 feet of line were run +off without reaching the ground. There is always, however, +to be taken into consideration the under-current, which +draws the line out of the perpendicular, and renders the +result of the operation rather doubtful.</p> + +<p>We now sailed with a fresh and steady trade-wind towards the +thirtieth degree of W. Long., and thence along that meridian +to the southward.</p> + +<p>In the night, between the 29th to the 30th, we crossed the +parallel of the sun's declination, upon which the direction +of our shadows, already for several days scarcely +perceptible, was of course changed from north to south.</p> + +<p>We soon crossed the belt of the north-eastern trade-wind, as +we made daily from 180 to 200 miles. On the 3rd of July the +wind became very unsteady, and on the 5th, in 8° 30′ N.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> +Lat. and 29° 30′ W. Long., it entirely left us. The sky +often became dark and threatening; indeed, its aspect +changed at times with surprising rapidity, without any +particular disturbance in the direction or strength of the +wind; nor had we to complain of as much rain as might have +been expected in these regions.</p> + +<p>The calms in the so-called "belt of calms" were fortunately +not of long duration, for in 6° 43′ N., and 28° 49′ W., a +fresh south-east wind sprang up. When we came within the +influence of the south-east trade-wind, we endeavoured to +approach the coast of South America, for the purpose of +observing the currents in that latitude, this being one of +the investigations suggested by the letter of instructions +drawn up by Alexander v. Humboldt. The great oceanic stream, +which, on leaving the western coast of Africa takes a +westerly direction, is divided by the projecting American +Continent into two branches, of which the stronger turns +N.W. towards the Caribean Sea, while the weaker moves +south-west along the coast of Brazil.</p> + +<p>We had already felt its influence whilst in the zone of +calms, and it became still more perceptible the more the +equator was approached. The continuance of the +south-easterly trade forced us to cross the Line at a more +westerly point than usual. This, however, causes no +disadvantage to a good sailing ship; nay, Commander Maury +has proved indisputably that ships make extremely short +passages, which reach the Equator so far to the west that +they run a risk of hugging the coast too closely. Those on +the other hand, which, from over-anxiety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> to avoid the +current, keep too far to the east, lose much time, being +compelled to pass weeks in the zone of calms, which +increases in breadth towards the east, whereas the others +come very little in contact with it, and avail themselves of +the changes of wind near the shore, to double the Cape of +St. Roque on the American coast, so much dreaded by the +former. We cannot here forbear expressing our high +admiration of the great merits of Mr. Maury, whose classical +work on the physical geography of the sea, as well as his +inestimable wind and current charts, deserve the especial +attention of all who navigate these seas.</p> + +<p>The nearer we approached the Line, the more striking became +the aspect of the southern constellations. The light of the +northern polar star grew fainter and fainter, its altitude +diminished, and it at length entirely disappeared. But, on +the other hand, the Southern Cross, the Magellan clouds, the +ship Argo on the "coal-bags," or starless, dark spots of the +southern hemisphere, became more elevated in proportion as +the northern sky moved away, and for a moment we felt some +difficulty in recognizing our old acquaintances of the +northern hemisphere in their relation to the new stars.</p> + +<p>On the 15th, at 3 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, we crossed the Line in 33° 50′ W.L. +This event, which with all sailors forms a marked epoch in +their seafaring life, had in this case the additional +feature of being actually the first occasion of an Austrian +man-of-war entering the southern hemisphere, and our crew, +who had long before enjoyed, in anticipation, the merriment +to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> it would give occasion, had commenced the ceremony +the preceding evening. Neptune, accompanied by an +appropriate retinue of mermaids, tritons, and nereids, +appeared at sunset, to announce with the utmost gravity to +the Commodore, in a set speech, the astounding news that the +vessel was entering his dominions, demonstrating the fact +mathematically by an immense sextant, a chart, and pair of +compasses a yard long, all manufactured by the ship's +carpenter, and claiming his right to see the act of shaving +and baptizing properly performed on all those who for the +first time came into his kingdom. Amidst streams of water +from the masts and fire-engines he made his exit down the +rope ladder in a blaze of blue fire, followed by an ignited +tar-barrel, which floated along like a globe of fire on the +mirror-like surface of the sea.</p> + +<p>The real farce, however, took place the next afternoon, when +Neptune re-appeared, accompanied this time by his good lady +and a hopeful youth, all decked out in real sea-god-like +attire, in a car drawn by six tritons, still accompanied by +his farcical retinue blowing a flourish on their bugles, +when, after a second set speech to the Commodore, the great +ruler of the waves declared that the ceremony was now to +begin.</p> + +<p>Every sailor was obliged, whether he would or no, to undergo +a lathering with a nasty mixture of tar and grease, and +submit to be scraped by an immense tin razor; which +operation being performed, the unfortunate sufferer was +thrown into a sail suspended by its four corners, and there +deluged from head to foot from pails, pumps, hose, pots, +dishes, and everything else<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> that would hold water. The +officers and other gentlemen escaped the ordeal by a +contribution in money or wine towards the festivities.</p> + +<p>When the greater part of the sailors had undergone this +process, and the scene, amidst formidable gushes of water, +rioting, uproar, and excitement, had reached its highest +point, behold! a voice thundered from the quarter-deck the +words "two o'clock," and everything resumed its wonted +aspect.</p> + +<p>Though the Line had been crossed at a more westerly point +than usual, we were able, in the night from the 18th to the +19th of July, to pass easterly between the rocks Las Roccas +and the island of Fernando da Noronha.<a name="Anchor-34" id="Anchor-34"></a><a href="#Footnote-34" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 34.">[34]</a> On the 20th July +we were carried again by unfavourable winds to a distance of +100 miles from the Brazilian coast, where we parted from our +faithful companion, the <i>Caroline</i>. She sailed for +Pernambuco, whilst we kept out to sea in order to continue +the observations on the westerly currents, and be able +freely to double Cape St. Augustin. Bad weather, showers, +and heavy swells prevented complete success in our task; it +was, however, ascertained that the current close to the land +is not so strong as at some distance from it, and that the +extreme point of divergence is, at this particular season of +the year, somewhat east of the south point of Fernando de +Noronha. In the angle formed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> direction of the two +currents between the point of division and the land, partial +currents (according to circumstances and the strength of the +wind), run towards one or the other side, of which the +stronger tends towards the north-west.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-34" id="Footnote-34"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-34">[34]</a> This island, situated 300 miles from +Pernambuco, which supplies it with provisions, is at present +used by the Brazilian Government as a penal settlement. It +is extremely beautiful and fertile, but very little +cultivated, and admirably suited for a coal depôt, and a +place for ships obtaining stores, particularly when +epidemics are prevalent in Rio de Janeiro.</p></div> + +<p>On the 23rd July the weather cleared up; we approached the +coast and came in sight of Cape St. Augustin, the first land +descried since leaving Madeira. On the 1st of August a rock +was announced ahead; as nothing of the kind was indicated in +the charts, we were curious to know what this could be. A +boat was manned, and we were soon made aware, by our +olfactory organs, of the real nature of the object, which +turned out to be the carcase of a dead whale in a state of +putrefaction, over which a number of birds were hovering, +whilst a troop of sharks feasted on the putrid mass, boring +themselves into the body. This incident shows how many rocks +marked in charts as doubtful may owe their origin to similar +circumstances; for, had we not been convinced of the real +nature of the object, we should have believed this carcase +to be a rock, and thus augmented the number of "doubtfuls" +and interrogations in the charts of the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd August we made Cape Frio, and after a rough and +stormy night reached at last, on the morning of the 5th, the +numerous small islands situated in front of the harbour of +Rio. The <i>Sugar Loaf</i>, that remarkable black basaltic rock +at its entrance, stood grandly forth, as we ran in. +Unfortunately the gloomy state of the atmosphere prevented +the enjoyment of the exquisite beauty of this so often +described charming bay.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span></p> + +<p>Here we found an English, a French, and an American frigate, +as also a dirty old Brazilian sloop of war. Besides these +ships of war, a Spanish frigate and galliot lay in the +mercantile dock for repair; they had shortly before their +arrival lost their masts in a <i>pampero</i>,<a name="Anchor-35" id="Anchor-35"></a><a href="#Footnote-35" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 35.">[35]</a> which, however, +had borne all the characteristic marks of a cyclone.<a name="Anchor-36" id="Anchor-36"></a><a href="#Footnote-36" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 36.">[36]</a> The +occurrence of tornadoes in the South Atlantic has been so +often and so decidedly denied, that the mariner does not +readily believe the violent storms of those latitudes to be +hurricanes. This Spanish frigate had accordingly sailed +heedlessly into the storm, and, with only such precautions +taken as referred to mast and sail, had without further +concern proceeded on her course. She thus had got into the +very heart of the cyclone, and escaped entire destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> +only by a fortunate chance. Now, had her commander +considered this storm to have been a real hurricane he would +have undoubtedly steered a different course, and probably in +that case would have reached the harbour in safety. But the +notion of the non-existence of hurricanes in these waters is +so pertinaciously maintained that it was no wonder the +careful and able Spanish commander had also been misled. Our +own opinion is, that any storm in the ocean may assume a +revolving motion, and it is therefore highly advisable +always to bear in mind the well-founded theory of cyclones, +in order to act upon it, as circumstances may require. Were +this always done, how many valuable lives and property might +be saved from destruction!</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-35" id="Footnote-35"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-35">[35]</a> A squall of wind of the South American Pampas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-36" id="Footnote-36"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-36">[36]</a> The following succinct statement of the +characteristics and general laws of cyclones will be found +useful by way of reference:—</p> + +<p>1. It has been fully ascertained that in both hemispheres +the air in the cyclone rotates in a direction <i>contrary</i> to +that of the sun. Thus, in the N. hemisphere, the course of +the sun being from E. to S., W., and N., the course of the +hurricane is from N. by W., S., and E.; and in the S. +hemisphere, the sun's course being from E. by N., W., and +S., the hurricane runs from N. by E., S., and W.</p> + +<p>2. They originate in the space between the equator and the +tropics, near the equatorial limit of the trade winds.</p> + +<p>3. There is no instance on record of a hurricane having been +encountered on the equator, nor of any one having crossed +the Line, although two have been known to be raging at the +same time in the same meridian, but on opposite sides of the +equator, and only 10° to 12° apart!</p> + +<p>4. Their movement, which is always oblique from the equator +to the poles, is usually from E. to W. at first, and towards +the end W. to E., which is but a development of the gyratory +motion that forms their most essential characteristic.</p> + +<p>5. The "motion of translation" varies from so low as 9 miles +an hour to 43 miles an hour. There is no precise estimate of +the velocity of the gyratory motion.</p> + +<p>6. They are liable to dilate and contract in area, the +contraction always implying a great accession of violence.<br /> +(See <i>post</i>, p. 183.)</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 653px;"><a name="illu176" id="illu176"></a> +<img src="images/illu176.jpg" width="653" height="325" alt="View of the cape from offshore." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CAPE FRIO.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; margin-left: -350px; +width: 700px; height: 566px; background-image: url('images/illu178.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu178" id="illu178"></a><a name="V" id="V"></a> +<span style="position: relative; top:-0em;">THE QUAY<br />AT RIO.</span> +</div> +<div style="width: 700px; height: 278px; margin: auto;"></div> +<div style="height: 288px; float: left; padding-right: 50%; margin-right: -120px; clear: left;"> </div> +<div style="height: 235px; float: right; padding-left: 50%; margin-left: -160px; clear: right;"> </div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">V.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Rio de Janeiro.</div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +Brazil the land of contrasts.—Appearance of the city of Rio +and its environs.—Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and +the Tejuca Waterfalls.—Germans in Rio.—Brazilian literary +men.—Assacú (<i>Hura Brasiliensis</i>).—Snake-bite as an +antidote against leprosy.—Public Institutions.—Negroes of +the Mozambique coast.—The House of Misericordia.—Lunatic +Asylum.—Botanical Garden.—Public +instruction.—Historico-Geographical institution.—<i>Palæstra +Scientifica.</i>—Military Academy.—Library.—Conservatory of +Music.—Sanitary Police.—Yellow Fever and Cholera.—Water +Party on the bay.—Chamber of +Deputies.—Petropolis.—Condition of the Slave +population.—Prospects of German emigration.—Suitability of +Brazil as a market for German commerce.—Natural products, +and exchange of manufactures.—Audience of the Emperor and +Empress.—Extravagant waste of powder for salvoes.—Songs of +the sailors.—Departure from Rio.—Retrospect.—South-east +Trades.—Cape Pigeons.—Albatrosses.—Cape Tormentoso.—A +Storm at the Cape.—Various Methods of measuring the height +of waves.—Arrival in Simon's Bay. +</div> + +<p>Brazil—situated on the ocean-highway to the South Seas and +the shores of India, endowed by nature, over the greater +portion of her territory, with a salubrious climate, and a +soil of tropical fertility, very nearly as large as Europe, +and ten times the size of France, and yet containing not +above 8,000,000 souls—has, far beyond all other States of +South America, concentrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> on herself, during more than +half a century, the interest of the naturalist, as well as +of the political economist—of the merchant as well as of +the emigrant. Indeed, we may say that there are few +countries, beyond the limits of Europe, which in certain +parts have already been more thoroughly explored than the +Brazilian Empire, while at the same time it can boast the +possession of a rich and valuable stock of literature, +treating of its history, since its discovery by the +Portuguese Admiral, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, on the 22nd of +April, 1500, down to the present time.</p> + +<p>After so brief a sojourn as ours, we can hardly offer more +to the reader than a short sketch of our own few +experiences, and some remarks regarding the alterations +which took place in the appearance of the city and in its +social and political condition, since the period when +Martius and Spix, Rugendas, Prince Neuwied, Helmreichen, +Natterer, Pohl, d'Orbigny, Wilkes, Castelnau, Burmeister, +and others visited Brazil, and so accurately delineated it +both by pen and pencil.<a name="Anchor-37" id="Anchor-37"></a><a href="#Footnote-37" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 37.">[37]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-37" id="Footnote-37"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-37">[37]</a> Before we left Europe, the wish was repeatedly +expressed to us that, during our stay in Rio, more accurate +information should be obtained as to the fate of numerous +scientific works and collections, by several German +naturalists who died in Brazil in recent times, such as +Frederick Sello, Dr. Müller (a companion of Castelnau), Dr. +Engler, and others. Unfortunately, we can only give the +little consolatory intelligence that, with the exception of +the scientific memoranda left behind by Dr. Engler, chiefly +relating to Itù in the province of St. Paul, there was +nothing further to be hoped for. The collections have all +been dispersed through want of care, and the manuscripts +nearly all destroyed through ignorance of their value.</p></div> + +<p>The magnificent scenery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro still +continues to possess the same absorbing interest for the new +comer, wherever it has not suffered by the expansion of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> +rapidly-increasing city, or the axe of the emigrant settler; +it is but little one can add to or alter in the picturesque +description which travellers, alive to its natural beauties, +had already given, half a century ago, of the wonderful +haven of the Brazilian metropolis! Very different, however, +is the impression, when the stranger, on disembarking, sets +foot on the new world, and has to make his way through +narrow, steep, filthy streets, greeted by yelling crowds of +blacks and whites, poor negro slaves, and wealthy planters, +into the interior of this bustling port. An entirely altered +state of affairs has sprung up since the separation of +Brazil from Portugal, and he who has not seen Rio within the +last ten years would hardly recognize the capital of the +Brazilian empire. Along with the most conspicuous +deficiencies, in numerous particulars, one finds such +institutions as are not to be met with, in a similarly +flourishing condition, in any other State of South America, +or among the republics of the Isthmus. But Brazil is +emphatically "The Land of Contrasts."</p> + +<p>When the traveller, stepping on shore from the anchorage for +ships of war, (which is a little to the south of that for +merchant vessels), has forced his way through the swarms of +human beings at the landing stage, and in front of the hotel +Pharoux, he finds himself on the Largo do Paço, or Palace +Square. Here on his left rises the singular-looking Imperial +Residence, and on his right, close to the shore, the Market +Hall. A dense bustling crowd throngs the streets, while +numerous vehicles, some drawn by horses, others by mules, as +also omnibuses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> of all colours and dimensions, and crammed +within and without, dash swiftly about, emulating the din +and confusion of European capitals. Turning now to the +right, into the Rua Direita, and thence a little further +into the Rua do Ouvidor, the two most elegant but none the +less most-neglected streets of Rio, there dazzles the eye, +in the splendid, richly-decorated shops and arcades, the +same profuse luxury as in Regent Street, or on the +Boulevards. But how disagreeable the contrast with those +cities, presented by the pools of stagnant water, which +occur even in the most-frequented streets!</p> + +<p>The city proper presents the figure of a square of about one +mile and three quarters each way, between the sea beach and +the Campo da Santa Anna, and is divided with tolerable +regularity by narrow streets built at right angles to each +other. Except the most important public buildings, such as +the National Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Military +Academy, the Naval Arsenal, the Custom House, the Market +Hall, the Imperial Palace, the Chamber of Deputies, and +several of the churches, only shops and mercantile +counting-houses are to be met with.</p> + +<p>From the city stretch the suburbs like long tentacles in +every direction, on one side along the beach as far as St. +Christoph, the winter palace of the emperor, and, in the +opposite direction, as far as the charming Cove of Botafogo, +while backwards they extend to the valleys leading to the +Corcovado, to the suburbs of Larangeiras, Catumbý Grande, +and in the direction of the Tejuca mountains, as far as +Engenho Velho,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> and Andarahý. Elegant little villas, +frequently built in the strangest and most <i>bizarre</i> style +of architecture, alternate in these suburbs with ordinary +dwelling-houses, all having most beautifully laid-out +gardens. The merchant, the manufacturer, in fact every +individual in easy circumstances, remain in the city only +long enough to transact daily business. Each has his +residence in the suburbs, where his family lives, to whose +quiet circle he returns every evening. Among these suburbs, +those of Caminho Novo and Catete, along the road leading to +the charming cove of Botafogo, are more specially the +diplomatic quarter, and the residence of the moneyed +aristocracy of the capital.</p> + +<p>Amid so much that calls for censure in Rio Janeiro, and of +which the æsthetic perceptions of the visitor will apprize +him in the course of a stroll in any part of the city, there +are two improvements which deserve grateful acknowledgment. +The first of these consists in the lighting of the city by +gas (prepared from English coal), which had been introduced +shortly before our arrival, and is now extended to the +extreme outskirts of the suburbs; the second is the +magnificent aqueduct, which provides every quarter of Rio +with a lavish supply of excellent drinking-water. However +ugly Rio may look in the daytime, the gas at night gives it +a magnificent and splendid appearance, particularly from the +harbour. When, the evening after our arrival, we gazed out +upon the brilliantly-illuminated city that lay before us, we +could not help thinking there must be some festive occasion +for such a flood of light, ignorant as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> we then were of what +we learned afterwards, that Rio is as fairy-looking by night +as it appears gloomy by day.</p> + +<p>Not less surprising, and forming a strong contrast with the +deficiencies and requirements in other particulars, are the +stately fountains that adorn the squares. Close by the +corner of each street, gushes out through metal cocks, a +stream of clear, fresh spring-water, which has been conveyed +by the great aqueduct a distance of 10 or 12 English miles +from the slopes of the neighbouring Carioca or Tejuca +mountain-chains. The water supply has been in existence for +120 years, but the present immense reservoir and various +improvements in it have been introduced by the Brazilian +Government. With the exception of the Croton aqueduct, near +New York, which supplies that city with 40,000,000 gallons +daily, we do not remember to have seen in any part of the +world a similar work of such magnitude.</p> + +<p>The dreary, uncomfortable feeling left by the city, gives +way to most enjoyable impressions so soon as one emerges +from the suburbs of Rio, and seeks compensation for the +absence of the appliances of European civilization in the +eternal grace and majesty of Nature. Walks may be taken in +every direction, each opening up a fresh point of view, +while, if the visitor take horse or mule, he may in the +course of an hour or two transport himself into the very +midst of the most extraordinary features of tropical +vegetation.</p> + +<p>Among the most charming of these is a ride to the rocky peak +called Corcovado, 2300 feet high, the road to which runs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> +through magnificent shady forests. On the highest pinnacle +of this rocky cone, which rises rather abruptly on the side +of the valleys of Clementi and Broca, a parapet has been +erected within these few years, so that the traveller can +gaze over the delightful panorama below with as much, or +even more, comfort and security, than from the Righi or the +great Winterberg in the Saxon Switzerland. In the south and +south-east rise the two stern-looking mountains, Gavia and +Dos Irmaos, both of considerable height, and encircled by +the mirror-like lagoon, Rodrigo das Freitas, near which +stands out, clothed in the most luxuriant verdure, a part of +the botanical garden; thereafter follows the beautiful +valley of Clementi and Broca, with the splendid Lunatic +Asylum and the fort of Praya Vermelha; beyond which is the +smiling cove of Botafogo, and the singular Sugar Loaf, which +forms such a characteristic feature of the entrance of Rio +harbour; close beside the latter is the fort of San Juan; +and lastly, facing the entrance of the bay, that of Santa +Cruz, the strongest in the empire. At our feet lay stretched +out the city itself, with the beautiful valleys of +Larangeiras, Engenho Velho, and Catumbý Grande. On the other +side of the bay, just opposite Rio, is Praya Grande, the +capital of the province, and in the background the lofty, +spectre-like mountain-chain of the Organos—so called from +the rocky peaks projecting like so many organ-pipes. What a +wondrous prospect! It is scarcely possible to have, from a +single point of view, a grander or more varied natural +picture. We lingered here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> more than an hour, and tore +ourselves away with reluctance from all those glories which +Nature has shed with so profuse a hand over this enchanting +landscape.</p> + +<p>One of our companions was the veteran Brazilian naturalist, +the venerable Dom Antonio Ildefonso Gomez, who passed +several years in Europe when a young man, and had, together +with Humboldt, once attended the lectures of Cuvier at +Paris. M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, during his visit to Rio, +spent several months at Dom Ildefonso's hospitable abode. +Although now a septuagenarian, the old physician is +uncommonly hale in person, full of his pristine enthusiasm, +indefatigable in the pursuit of knowledge, and able to pass +an entire day on the back of his mule, so that he can ride +to the most distant consultations without betraying any +symptoms of exhaustion. He had brought with him a number of +large oranges, some cheese and bread, and a bottle of +excellent port wine, so that there was no want of +wherewithal to recruit our strength; and there, on the +summit of the Corcovado, our hearts swelling with rapture as +the eye ranged over the marvellous landscape that lay +unrolled at our feet, we drank to the prosperity of Brazil. +Dom Ildefonso, a warm friend to all foreigners, remarked +that within forty years Brazil will probably be more German +than Brazilian or Portuguese, and expressed a hope it might +be so, as only by that means, so far as his observation +went, could his beloved native land hope for a prosperous +future.</p> + +<p>We returned through most charming forest scenery by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> way of +Larangeiras and Andarahý. Throughout the entire distance we +rode amidst the most exquisite specimens of tropical +vegetation, palms, ebony trees, bignonias, plantains, +mangoes, papayas, and bread-fruit trees, mingling with which +we could discern the various trees and shrubs of the +Northern Hemisphere, and occasionally strange plants from +China, Japan, and Australia, which had been planted here by +the enterprising hand of foreign settlers.</p> + +<p>Not less charming is the excursion to the Falls of the +Tejuca, to which a broad road leads through blooming +flower-gardens, and past delicious country seats, extending +far into the mountains, and surrounded and overshadowed by a +wall as it were of verdure, consisting of the flowers of +<i>Bignonia bella</i>, intermingling with the shining leaves of +the gigantic <i>Bougainvillea</i>. The coral tree (<i>Erythrina +coralliflora</i>), the indigenous magnolia, the fan-shaped +<i>urania</i>, numerous species of palms, and lofty, +carefully-tended screw-pines, plantains with gigantic +fruits, bread-fruit trees, eugenias, casuarinas, and melon +trees—such are the blooming odoriferous attractions that +here adorn garden and field. Ever threading his way among +such charming plantations, the traveller finally reaches the +path which, hemmed in between two mountain ridges of +moderate height, leads direct to the Tejuca mountains, while +to the right branch off numerous narrow paths conducting to +the various adjoining eminences, from which a view can be +obtained of the small cascade. The tropical richness and +profusion of vegetation, has here crowded together upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> a +few square feet of soil hundreds of plants of all kinds. +They strike into the soil, or struggle upwards to the light, +or give out roots from the stems or branches, and all twine +and tangle with each other to such an extent that often in +these tufts and thickets one sees the top of a fern, without +being able to distinguish any part of its stem, or a +passion-flower without any visible stalk or leaves, all +suspended in mid-air, like so many elegant festoons.</p> + +<p>A short distance from this singular, thoroughly tropical +landscape, is the second, known as the Great Cascade, which, +however, owes its special attractions rather to the +character of the surrounding vegetation than to the volume +of water. The trees here grow on a sort of amphitheatre of +rocks, all of colossal size, and the most widely different +forms, no two of the same species adjoining each other, +their stems and branches adorned with the most beautiful +parasites and the blood-red leaves of innumerable creepers, +which in their lavish luxuriance now stretch like garlands +from tree to tree, now hang perpendicularly down from the +very highest branch of the tree like a network of green +lace, till they sweep along the ground.</p> + +<p>The water welling out from the granite rock, rushes into the +abyss below after traversing a rocky declivity, somewhat +resembling a sloping terrace of about twenty fathoms wide. +Its track is indicated by the irregularly-shaped blocks +piled upon each other, some of which at a little distance +below, their huge wide ridges enclosed by retaining walls, +serve as spots in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> which to dry in the sun the ripe berries +of the coffee plant, which in many parts hereabout forms an +almost impervious forest.</p> + +<p>As we prosecute our wanderings further, we finally emerge +upon the green hills of the vicinity, and obtain a charming +glimpse of the ocean; we have now arrived in front of the +gigantic outline of the Gavia, and directly facing us lies +the salt-marsh, known as Tejuca-Lake, in the midst of which +rises an island, thickly overgrown with mango-trees, +standing on their distorted hundredfold roots; +melancholy-looking examples of the inactivity and absence of +all attention of the Brazilian authorities, who permit such +a hot-bed of poisonous miasma to remain in the immediate +vicinity of the city, and leave these plants unchecked to +carry on their pestiferous vital processes!</p> + +<p>Returning from such a delightful excursion to Rio de +Janeiro, the stranger feels doubly uncomfortable and lonely +in the dreary and sombre city. The Brazilians are in general +neither very social nor hospitable, and only, after many +years' acquaintance, is a familiar intercourse formed with +strangers.</p> + +<p>In this respect they bear a strong resemblance to the +Spanish-Americans, whom they also greatly resemble in many +of their habits of life. Foreigners settled in Rio spend +their evenings generally at their country seats, some +distance from the town, so that the occasional visitor is +deprived of the social intercourse that might otherwise be +so accessible. We met with a most hospitable reception at +the houses of the Austrian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> Minister, Chevalier de +Sonnleithner, and our Consul-General, as well as from some +German families, and also from the "Germania," a Club +founded by twelve Germans as far back as 1821. This Society +numbers now about 200 members, and is well supplied with +German newspapers and periodicals, besides possessing a +well-selected library of several thousand volumes, and a +reading-room, with <i>restaurant</i>, smoking, billiard, and +dancing-rooms attached. Of the various nationalities +represented at Rio, the Germans are the most respected by +the Brazilians. They are about 3000 in number, and as the +majority are Protestants they have their own church, founded +by three Germans in 1827, which now numbers 600 members, and +has an annual income of 5000 milreis.<a name="Anchor-38" id="Anchor-38"></a><a href="#Footnote-38" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 38.">[38]</a> The community is +under the protection of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council +in Berlin, and accordingly, as often as public worship is +joined in, prayers are offered up for the King of Prussia, +as head of the church. Despite its existence for more than +thirty years, the position occupied by the Evangelical +church with reference to the State, has never been +accurately defined, so that differences are constantly +occurring. In connection with the congregation are a school, +and a society for aiding distressed Germans, which numbers +200 associates, and has an annual income of from 6000 to +7000 milreis (£600 to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> £700). The objects of the association +are the advance of money, pensions, payment of passage-money +for transport, assistance to unemployed or sick German +workmen, education of orphan children, and so forth. The +German choral union had given a concert in aid of this +humane society, which alone had realized 3100 milreis (above +£300)!</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-38" id="Footnote-38"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-38">[38]</a> One milreis = 1000 reis = about 2<i>s.</i> English. +The Brazilian milreis is of this small value as compared +with that of the Portuguese (3 to 7), in consequence of its +being represented by paper-money of fluctuating value, which +gradually became so depreciated that Government, when +regulating the value in 1846, were not in a position to +restore it to its par value of 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> sterling.</p></div> + +<p>It is not alone, however, as merchants, engineers, and +artisans, that the Germans in Rio occupy a conspicuous +position; they likewise contribute their mite to the +advancement of art and science. For example, the most +important literary enterprise in the empire is in German +hands, viz. the printing and bookselling business of the +brothers Laemmert. Their publications embrace two hundred +and fifty works, chiefly of Portuguese (not Brazilian) +authors, original or translated, treating of Brazilian +legislation, history, medicine, public instruction, poetry, +popular literature, works on religion, novels, romances, +kalendars, and theatrical pieces. One publication due to the +founder of the firm, Mr. C. Laemmert, a Bavarian by birth, +has already proved of immense utility, the "<i>Almanak +administrativo, mercantil, e industrial</i>," compiled by +himself, first published in the year 1843. From a most +defective little pamphlet at its start, this periodical +publication has, in the course of time, become developed +into an elegant, simply-classified octavo volume, 1400 pages +thick, which, compiled carefully and kept constantly +corrected to the latest moment, despite the most +disheartening material difficulties, gives a very +interesting insight into the entire internal organization of +the empire, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> at the same time supplies the most +authentic information as to the scientific, commercial, and +industrial activity of the city and province of Rio. Even +more important as a medium for the diffusion of useful +knowledge among the masses is a sort of popular kalendar, +which is published in duodecimo form, under the title of +"<i>Folinhas</i>" (Leaves), and for 320 reis (about 7½<i>d.</i> +English), gives upon 360 pages an immense amount of useful +information. Of this publication 80,000 copies were sold +throughout the empire in the year 1857. There are very few +works of importance written by native authors, as they +devote their energies chiefly to periodical literature. Of +daily and monthly publications there are abundance, both in +Rio and in the provinces, but they have only an ephemeral +existence. The press enjoys the most unbounded freedom, and +probably in very few continental cities would such language +be tolerated as that of the <i>Courier du Brésil</i>, edited by a +French refugee. If the influence of journalism in Brazil is +as yet insignificant, it is in consequence of the prevailing +ignorance, as four-fifths of the population are unable to +read or write, and the papers published are consequently +only in the hands of the upper classes.</p> + +<p>While we found but few opportunities of intercourse with +Brazilian families, the public authorities received and +treated us in the most obliging and distinguished manner. In +this respect, we were particularly indebted to Dr. de Lagos, +Dr. Schüch de Capanema, Dr. F. de Paulo Candido, and Dom M. +de Portoalegre.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span></p> + +<p>These gentlemen took especial pains to make our stay in Rio +as instructive as useful, and likewise gave us in reply to +various scientific queries the most valuable information and +practical hints. Thus, for example, we were favoured by Dr. +de Lagos with the following particulars respecting the +alleged efficacy of the milky sap of the assacú tree (<i>Hura +Brasiliensis</i>), and of the bite of the rattlesnake as +antidotes in cases of <i>Elephantiasis</i>, as also regarding the +"Curaré," that celebrated poison with which the Indians of +Brazil tip their arrows.</p> + +<p>The assacú had long been employed as a remedy for the +frightful malady known as <i>Elephantiasis Græcorum</i>, and its +use was occasionally followed by the happiest results, +without any attempt having been made thoroughly to +investigate the specific action of the juice, although, like +that of so many other Brazilian plants, it would probably +surrender, if scientifically analyzed, the therapeutical +energies which enable it to overcome occasionally the most +obstinate cases of disease. The assacú is a tree growing in +the northern provinces of Pará, on making an incision into +which there exudes a resinous sap, of a brownish or +reddish-white colour, which coagulates, and gradually +hardens. This inspissated substance is of a dark brown, +rather resembling gum than resin, and readily soluble in +water. When dissolved, it regains the colour and odour of +the sap as it first trickles from the tree. A committee of +physicians of Pará long ago presented to the Brazilian +Government a memorandum as to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> practical efficacy and +peculiarities of the assacú in cases of the above malady, +according to which it appears, that the symptoms of the +patient improve in the most marvellous manner from the very +first day on which the remedy is used; the illness seems to +be suddenly arrested, or, at all events to make but very +slight progress. The milky sap is exhibited internally, in +the form of pills, and a decoction of the bark is also +administered by way of a beverage for the +patient,—externally an infusion of the bark is used for +bathing purposes. Some of those affected, to whom this +remedy was applied, felt a sensation as of formication, +immediately on taking it, while others experienced a feeling +as though they had been submitted to a series of shocks of +electricity, only weaker and more equable.</p> + +<p>It is a well-established fact that in many parts of South +America, a popular belief prevails that the bite of the +deadly <i>Cobra de cascavel</i>, or rattlesnake, heals +<i>Elephantiasis</i>, or pustular leprosy, in which disease, as +is well known, the legs and feet of those attacked are +covered with a scurf resembling the cuticle of the elephant. +However, instances of the practical application of so +terrible a remedy, which seems to be almost more dreadful +than the disease it professes to cure, are in all +probability of rare occurrence, and are therefore doubly +important when, as in the case detailed to us, they occurred +under the very eyes of a man of science, and are related by +the observer himself.</p> + +<p>A native, named Marianno José Machado, from Rio Pardo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> in +the province of southern Rio Grande, fifty years of age, had +long been afflicted with morphea (<i>Elephantiasis Græcorum</i>), +and had already passed four years in the Lazarus Hospital at +Rio, when one day, worn out with his loathsome malady, he +resolved as a last chance of being delivered from his dread +disease, to submit to the bite of a rattlesnake. All the +warnings and representations of the physicians, who +entertained well-founded doubts as to the remedial efficacy +of so dangerous a remedy, were disregarded. Marianno betook +himself to a house in the Rua da Imperatriz, the occupant of +which possessed a living rattlesnake, and there in the +presence of numerous witnesses declared, signing at the same +time a document to the same effect, that what he was about +to do he did of his own free will, without any influence on +the part of strangers, and that he assumed to himself the +entire responsibility of his own deed. Marianno was of +middling stature and athletic build; his entire skin was +covered with rugosities, but without any appearance of +ulceration, while his face was frightfully disfigured. The +points of his fingers, moreover, had entirely lost their +form, the skin readily peeling off from them.</p> + +<p>The daring sufferer opened the box in which lay the deadly +reptile, and roughly seized it; but it at first attempted to +escape, as though it too was disgusted at the horrible +object before it. When, however, it felt itself once more +squeezed, the snake turned round in self-defence, and bit +the man on the finger. Marianno was sensible neither of the +puncture of the teeth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> nor of the instantaneous activity of +the injected poison, but it became ere long apparent that he +had been bitten, from the blood making its appearance, +coupled with a slight swelling of the hand. Several +physicians watched by the bedside of the sufferer; almost +every half-hour the observed results were circumstantially +reported. When, however, the symptoms rapidly became worse, +antidotes were applied, and every effort made to save the +patient. Nevertheless, the result of the experiment was as +anticipated—within twenty-four hours after the bite of the +rattlesnake Marianno was a corpse.</p> + +<p>Several members of the medical society of Vienna laid great +stress on our procuring a considerable quantity of the +celebrated poison, "<i>curaré</i>," used in South America for +tipping arrows, with the view of instituting fresh +experiments—similar to those already made, so as to +elucidate its chemical and physiological properties. As the +curaré is not to be procured in Rio, but comes thither from +the northern province of Pará, where the natives procure it +from the sap of the <i>Strychnos toxifera</i>, Dr. de Lagos +promised he would take care to procure some, so as to +transmit samples direct to the Vienna <i>savans</i>, and at the +same time gave us much information as to the latest +researches touching this substance, with whose remarkable +properties Alexander v. Humboldt had made the scientific +world acquainted, more than half-a-century previously, in +his classic "Travels through the Equatorial Countries."</p> + +<p>One special peculiarity of the curaré consists in the fact +that, like most other organic poisons, it is only active +when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> absorbed into the circulating system, and proves +entirely innoxious, nay in some cases even beneficial, when +introduced into the body by other means.</p> + +<p>The more the faculty became acquainted with the terrific +activity, and invariably fatal results of this poison, the +more zealously did science bestir itself to discover some +means of neutralizing the operation of the curaré. Quite +recently the preparations of iodine-natron, when +administered in certain proportions, have been recognized as +antidotes; dissolved with the curaré they seem entirely to +obviate its evil effects. Careful observation and a gradual +acquaintance with the properties of the curaré, have further +led to the conclusion that it may be regarded as a remedy in +certain cases, and it has actually been administered with +good results to animals affected with tetanic convulsions. +May it be reserved to the physicians of our native country, +to elicit from the quantity of this subtle and singular +poison, which they may expect to receive through the +kindness of Dr. de Lagos, such results as shall make its +remedial properties available for man, instead of leaving +its baleful energies as at present solely directed to the +destruction of organic life!</p> + +<p>In the company of our Brazilian friends, already mentioned, +we also visited the most interesting of the public charities +and educational institutions of Rio.</p> + +<p>On the occasion of a visit we paid to the in part +newly-erected Casa de Correçâo, which is managed on what is +known as the Auburn system, we were shown three Mozambique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> +negroes, who, in 1852, had been smuggled in a "slaver" from +the east coast of Africa into Brazil, there to be sold as +slaves, despite the interdicts against the introduction of +slaves, then actually in force. The vessel was, however, +captured by the Brazilian cruisers, and the negroes +forthwith restored to liberty, when, in their own interest, +and with the view of preventing their being a second time +sold into bondage, they were removed to a quarter of the +prison away from the rest, and specially set apart for what +are called "free Africans," where they had been carefully +educated and instructed in various handicrafts, all at the +expense of the State. As a vocabulary of the idioms spoken +by the Mozambique negroes, was an especial desideratum of +the class of philosophic history in our Imperial Academy of +Sciences, and there seemed to be but little prospect of our +expedition visiting the eastern coast of Africa, we gladly +availed ourselves of this unexpected opportunity to compile +the wished-for vocabulary, in which Professor Portoalegre, +Director of the Academy of Fine Arts, materially assisted +us. Two of these negroes, Camillo and Ventura, were born in +Quillimani, and belonged to the Mananpi race; the third, +Jeremias, was born about sixty days' journey from the coast, +of the Maqua race, and spoke a dialect of the Mozambique +idiom. Ventura, a youth of, at the outside, seventeen years +of age, related that he could perfectly remember having been +stolen one night from his parents in Quillimani, when he was +brought to a slave-dealer named Jones, after which he was +shipped off in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> wretched leaky vessel to the coast of +Brazil. On our asking these three swarthy fellow-labourers, +hearty of aspect and neatly clothed, who had been so +carefully tended by the State, and earned, one as a +house-servant, the other two as stonemasons, thirty milreis +(£3 3s.) a month, whether they did not feel themselves +better off in Rio than in their own home,—they, with one +accord, answered that they longed to return to Quillimani, +where it is hardly requisite to work above six months, and +the rest of the year may be consumed in a genuine "<i>dolce +far niente</i>" existence, instead of being compelled, as in +Rio, to work the whole year round!</p> + +<p>In spite of long-continued efforts, the vocabulary turned +out much less complete than we wished, in consequence of the +limited capacity of these negroes. We did not content +ourselves, however, with merely transcribing the answers to +our questions, but also endeavoured to obtain a more +accurate idea of the precise meaning attached to each, by +repeating each of the words of the Mozambique language, and +translating into it from the questions put in Portuguese. +This method seemed to be the most effectual for ensuring the +correctness of the pronunciation, so as to permit of its +being afterwards reduced to writing. In the arrangement of +the vocabulary, we availed ourselves of what is known as +Gallatin's method, as it appeared to us more complete and +comprehensive than that sent to our academy by the +celebrated naturalist and traveller, Dr. Martius, of Munich, +with a request that it should have his list of Latin words +translated into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span> various languages hitherto unknown, or +such idioms as have been as yet but little examined and +investigated.</p> + +<p>The race, to which these three negroes belonged, seems to +have been already converted to Christianity. At least, they +all had Christian names, but could give us no information +either as to certain heathenish rites in their own country, +or concerning an idol of carved ivory which we showed them, +brought from the east coast of Africa, and the method of +worshipping it.</p> + +<p>Two of the most elegant edifices of Rio Janeiro, worthy +indeed of being placed side by side with the largest +charitable establishments in Europe, are the immense +palace-like Hospital of the Santa Casa da Misericordia, in +which between 8000 and 9000 patients are received and +treated annually, and the really splendid Lunatic Asylum +(<i>Asylo dos Alienados</i>), in the cove of Botafogo. The latter +institution, founded in 1841, which, whether as regards the +tastefulness of its architecture or its munificent +endowment, can hardly be rivalled anywhere, owes its +existence to one of the most estimable benefactors of his +native country, Don José Clemente Pereira, Minister of the +Interior at the time of its erection. This genial, +benevolent soul, deeply acquainted with the human heart and +its weaknesses, hit, as we were told, upon the following +eminently original and ingenious method of raising the sums +required. All grades of the various Brazilian orders, as +well as the titles of Baron, Count, and Marquis, were put up +for sale at fixed prices, the proceeds resulting from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> which +purposes were applied to the erection and endowment of the +asylum! And thus arose, at the south end of the cove of +Botafogo, a splendid palatial edifice—a monument less of +humanity and love of our afflicted neighbours, than of the +vanity and frailty of poor human nature, the tributes to +which erected it. Unfortunately, in this establishment, mere +succour is all in all, and the cure seems entirely lost +sight of, the sanative treatment of the patients lagging far +behind their careful supervision; in short, it being rather +a place for the safe confinement than the recovery of those +deprived of their reason.</p> + +<p>One of the most instructive examples of how little the +inhabitants of Rio make use of the natural capabilities of +the site of their capital, is incontestably furnished by a +piece of ground immediately adjoining the Lunatic Asylum, +which has been dignified with the name of the Botanic +Garden. With the exception of a very fine alley of hundreds +of graceful king-palms (<i>Oreodoxa regia</i>), which present a +magnificent spectacle, growing as they do with such +admirable regularity as to appear rather artificial columns +than planted trees, the eye encounters nothing but +uncultivated land, abounding with the commonest vegetation, +alternating with badly-selected nursery plantations, +although both in the climate and the soil every facility is +at hand for enabling this garden to be made a means of +representing the vegetation of every zone of the globe. Even +a large tea plantation, for the cultivation of which 10,000 +Chinese were imported at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> the cost of Government, and from +which, if the experiment had proved successful, the most +important results might have been anticipated, stood there +uncared-for and untended, a melancholy witness of how things +are inaugurated in Brazil, and then suffered to fall +through. When we enquired how long the garden had been laid +out, our guide, a witty Portuguese, replied with a sarcastic +smile; "Since the beginning of the world!" In that part of +the garden which adjoins the Lagune, called Rodrigo das +Freitas, stands a common mud hovel, with broken windows, and +doors hanging by the hinges. This was pointed out to us by a +labourer as the spot at which the Emperor alights and +reposes when he visits the Botanical Garden.</p> + +<p>Singular to say, Brazil possesses no regular university! The +jealousy with which any one city invested with certain +privileges and prerogatives is regarded by the rest, is the +reason that induced the Government to separate the medical +and juridical classes, so that each of the four chief cities +of the Empire benefits by the presence of a certain portion +of the students. Thus the medical schools are in Rio Janeiro +and Bahia, while those of jurisprudence are held in St. Paul +and Pernambuco. The entire number of students attending +these establishments amounted of late years, on an average, +to upwards of a thousand. Great prominence has been assigned +by Government, especially of late, to the extension of +public instruction. In March, 1857, there were throughout +Brazil, 2452 schools, (765 private, and 1687 public,) in +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span> instruction was given to 82,243 children of both +sexes.<a name="Anchor-39" id="Anchor-39"></a><a href="#Footnote-39" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 39.">[39]</a> A school of industry, having for its object the +instruction of able-bodied persons, was opened in 1856, and +classes for teaching natural philosophy and political +administrative science, are in process of being introduced. +Amongst the scientific establishments of the country, the +Historico-Geographical Institute occupies the first place, +the meetings of which are generally attended by the Emperor +as honorary president. This institution, which occupies in +Brazil about the same position as the Academy of Sciences in +Vienna, directs its special attention to the publication of +old documents and manuscripts relating to the history of +Brazil and the aboriginal population; but investigations +relating to natural history are also included in its domain +of enquiry. The sittings are held every alternate Friday. +The naturalists of the <i>Novara</i> attended one of these +meetings, which took place in one of the wings of the +palace. At half-past 6 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, the Emperor entered the hall, +in plain clothes, attended by two chamberlains. All the +gentlemen present approached one after the other and +respectfully kissed the hand of their sovereign. On this +occasion we remarked that even ladies, when presented to the +head of the State, were accustomed to kiss his hand. The +Imperial Honorary President, whose simple apparel was +relieved only by the star of some order worn on the breast, +took his seat at the upper end of a long, wide table, +covered with green<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> cloth. The associates, with the +exception of the Vice-President and Secretaries, seemed to +have no fixed seats, but sat in the order of their arrival. +During the sitting there was the most marked absence of +ceremony, and the business was transacted in the freest and +easiest manner.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-39" id="Footnote-39"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-39">[39]</a> Among the higher class of educational +institutions, the College of Pedro Segundo ranks foremost, +and is at present attended by about 900 students.</p></div> + +<p>The proceedings were uninteresting, the greatest portion of +the time being occupied in reading over the minutes of the +last sitting, and replying to certain strictures upon the +incapacity of land-surveyors in Brazil. Sir Robert +Schomburgk had, in one of his works published in 1843, upon +the subject of New Guinea, made some disparaging +observations as to the method of admeasurement pursued in +Brazil, and one member of the society, Dr. Schüch de +Capanema, seemed to consider it his duty in his double +capacity as a Brazilian and an engineer, to +protest—somewhat tardily it must be owned!—against these, +according to his opinion, unjust remarks. After the +discussion was over, a manuscript was next brought forward +concerning some of the native tribes; His Majesty expressed +a wish to have this treatise read. The secretary accordingly +made the attempt, but the writing was so illegible, that he +was obliged to abandon the task. At the conclusion of the +meeting, which lasted upwards of three hours, His Majesty +conversed very affably with the Austrian gentlemen, and +presented each with a copy of a national poem, "Conferaçao +dos Tamoyos," by a native poet, Gonçalves de Magalhaes, and +recently printed at His Majesty's expense, which relates the +wars of the Tamoyos with the Portuguese residents of San<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> +Vincente—the last struggle of that heroic Indian race, the +founding of Rio, and the subjugation of the entire force, +under Nictheroy, by the Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The <i>Palæstra Scientifica</i> is a branch of this institution, +the members being chiefly naturalists. The gentlemen of the +<i>Novara</i> Expedition were invited to one of the meetings, +which was inaugurated by the secretary reading aloud an +ancient manuscript upon the natural resources of various +provinces in Brazil, according to explorations, which had +been undertaken in 1798, by the directions and at the cost +of the then Portuguese Government. There was also read a +memoir upon the culture of linseed, formerly carried on in +the province of St. Catharina, which, however, is now +entirely discontinued. Dr. Schüch presented to the Society +vocabularies of the Croado and Puris languages, compiled by +M. R. F. de Senestes, a retired Belgian ship captain, now +resident at Minas, who had long traded with these two Indian +races. Dr. Schüch also exhibited a pigment, or dye-stuff, +extracted from the wood of the Ipé-tree, a species of +bignonia, extensively used in the manufacture of axles. +State Councillor and Senator Candido Baptista de Oliveira, +[formerly Minister and Ambassador at St. Petersburg, and at +that time publisher and editor of the <i>Rivista Brasileira</i> +(Brazilian Review)], brought forward some meteorological +tables, and explained his new method for measuring +altitudes. The proceedings are usually conducted in the +Portuguese language; but out of courtesy to the foreigners, +French was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> principally spoken, and the President kindly +proposed that Dr. Schüch de Capanema, who is thoroughly +versed in German, should translate into that idiom the +proceedings as carried on in Portuguese. At the close of the +sitting, the commander of our Expedition and the various +members of the scientific commission were named associates +of the <i>Palæstra Scientifica</i>.</p> + +<p>This society had projected an expedition to explore the +western provinces of the empire, and some of their members +were appointed to draw up the plan for carrying it out. The +arrangements for the enterprise were on the grandest scale. +The requisite books and scientific apparatus were ordered +from London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. Every branch of +science had its representative,—an astronomer, botanist, +zoologist, ethnologist, &c., were to accompany the +Expedition; each section had a number of assistants, the +astronomical as many even as nine. When we arrived in Rio, +the printed instructions for the use of the members were +just being distributed; and it was asserted that nothing but +the non-arrival of the instruments from Europe prevented the +departure of the Expedition. In short, the preparations +which were made in the year 1857, justified the hope that a +most brilliant success would be the result of an undertaking +got up on so expensive a scale. The only pity is, that up +till now—more than three years later—the Expedition has +had but little result, and, according to the latest +intelligence from Rio, some of the members in the north-east +of the province of Cearà cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> proceed any further for +want of money (<i>por falta de dinhero</i>), and expect new funds +in order to continue their explorations and their efforts in +search of the wild tribes (<i>em busca das tribus +selvaticas!</i>) in the interior of Maranhao.</p> + +<p>There is, generally speaking, in Brazil, as in all other +South-American States peopled by the Roman race, much of +good-will, and still more vanity, to follow in the wake of +northern European civilization in everything pertaining to +progress and investigation; but there is wanting that +energy, that perseverance so characteristic of the +Anglo-Saxon race, which are essential conditions in +successfully carrying out any undertaking, however zealously +entered upon. This probably is the reason why in Brazil so +many things in science and social life are begun and never +brought to a conclusion; there is nowhere more talk about +<i>what is to be done</i>, than at Rio de Janeiro. Thus, for +example, the Museum of Natural History at the Campo Santa +Anna, is an elegant building, with magnificent apartments, +and large elegantly fitted cases—which, however, contain as +yet but few objects of natural history, even those being +most unsystematically arranged.</p> + +<p>Another educational institution—the Military +Academy—founded under John VI., in 1810, for the +instruction of the engineers and officers of the various +scientific corps, has, since then, undergone nine reforms, +and was just about to undergo another one! In this +establishment the highly objectionable practice still +exists, of making every pupil acquainted with the chapter +and verse of the subjects of examination twenty-four hours +before it takes place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span></p> + +<p>The Public Library, though little more than begun at the +period of our visit, already comprised 86,000 volumes, and +is annually increased by an addition of five or six hundred. +This institution was, in 1856, visited by 3407 readers, who +perused 7717 volumes, mostly in Portuguese and French, +consisting of 238 on theology, 1046 on political economy, +2879 on natural science, 153 on the fine arts, 1083 on +history, and 2318 on belles-lettres, which furnishes a very +fair criterion for estimating the education of those +availing themselves of these advantages.</p> + +<p>Another institution, which is an evidence of the efforts now +making by the Brazilians to gratify their national vanity, +is the <i>Conservatorio da Musica</i>, a newly-established +institution for the promotion of the <i>opera lyrica +nacional</i>, the number of pupils attending which averages +100. A custom has lately prevailed of sending one or two of +the most gifted of these annually to Europe to complete +their musical studies. During a four years' residence there, +each pupil has a stipend from the Imperial exchequer of 3000 +francs per annum; and in the event of obtaining a prize +abroad, he receives a gratuity of 1000 francs; his +compositions, however, in that case become the property of +the parent institution. By this means the Brazilians hope to +render themselves entirely independent of foreign musical +talent. "Why should we annually pay hundreds of thousands of +francs to foreign singers and concert-givers?" said a +Brazilian to us one day in all earnestness. "We shall soon +have our own artists—Brazilian Thalbergs, Grisis, and +Lablaches!" Confessedly the inhabitants of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> United +States have been vain enough in all conscience; but when we +consider the wonderful advances made by that active, +energetic people, and contemplate their surpassing +qualities, such a national foible is readily overlooked. In +Brazil, on the contrary, the contempt affected for +everything foreign, the fretful impatience to become +emancipated from the smallest resemblance to European +customs, is exceedingly childish and even ludicrous in a +country which can hardly yet be said to be able to stand +alone, since the pressure of circumstances is daily making +them more and more dependent on other countries, and where +it is necessary to import from abroad not merely the +evidences of high culture, but the very first necessaries of +life, even to obtaining supplies of foreign labour. This +overweening self-esteem has rather increased, since it has +become the fashion of young Brazilians, of the better +classes, to visit Europe for the completion of their +studies, as will, perhaps, be best illustrated by the +following laughable anecdote:—A young Brazilian, the son of +a German father and a native lady, who had but recently +returned from Europe, overheard one of his friends asking +another if he could tell of what country he thought the +fresh arrival to be, at the same time indicating the youth, +who just came from the academy of Freiberg. "There can be no +doubt on that point," was the reply; "the blue eyes, light +hair, and fair complexion, distinctly indicate that the +gentleman is a German." "God forbid!" (<i>Deu m'en guarda!</i>) +exclaimed the young gentleman, who seemed as it were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> +ashamed of his foreign descent, and to feel even more +indignation than a full-blood Brazilian at such a mortifying +imputation.</p> + +<p>Among the various institutions recently established in Rio, +the introduction of which is intended to be made available +in promoting the physical well-being of the people, the +foremost place must indisputably be assigned to the Board of +Health (<i>Junta Central de Hygiena Publica</i>). It owes its +origin to the appearance of the yellow fever and the +cholera, which had never been known before in the country. +The former broke out on the 29th December, 1850, having been +introduced by vessels that had cleared from Bahia, at which +port it had been raging for some weeks. The ravages of this +pestilence were fearful in Rio; out of a population of +250,000 souls, as many as 120,000 were attacked, and upwards +of 5000 fell a sacrifice to the disease.</p> + +<p>The first case of cholera occurred a few years later, on the +15th of July, 1855; and during the months in which it +prevailed, nearly the same number (to be more precise, 4826) +of the inhabitants of the capital were carried off. The +fatal cases throughout the empire from this epidemic during +the eighteen months between May, 1855, and December, 1856, +are said to have amounted to the enormous number of 107,093! +Dr. Francisco de Paulo Candido, one of the most eminent +physicians of Rio, and the principal member of the Board of +Health, states, in a report to the Government, relative to +the statistics of the cholera throughout the empire, that he +had observed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> during the prevalence of the epidemic, three +phenomena, which seemed to stand in a certain relation to +its appearance, increase, and decrease, viz., the almost +entire disappearance of the ozon in July and following +months, when the disease was on the <i>increase</i>; the gradual +increase of that atmospheric agent, in proportion to the +decrease of the disorder; and lastly, the influence +exercised by humidity and sudden changes in temperature on +the intensity of the disease. Dr. Candido has added to his +highly instructive report some meteorological tables and a +graphical representation of the presence and absence of ozon +in the atmosphere, which will be published, in its proper +place, in the medical section of the present work.</p> + +<p>The consequence of the ravages of these two scourges was, +that a variety of other measures for securing the public +health were inaugurated by the newly-established Board of +Health. Among others, a hospital was set on foot in a +charming part of the Cove of Jurujuba,<a name="Anchor-40" id="Anchor-40"></a><a href="#Footnote-40" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 40.">[40]</a> at the eastern +extremity of the Bay of Rio, expressly for the reception of +patients afflicted with yellow fever or cholera. Every +morning since that attack, (and during the unhealthy season +several times a day), a small Government steamer, fitted up +for the purpose, plies round the bay, to take up any cases +that may happen to occur on board the ships arriving, and +convey them hither free of charge. Two medical men on board +the steamer commence the treatment, by applying the +necessary remedies, during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> passage from the ship to the +hospital. Any vessel at anchor in the bay with an epidemic +on board, has, according to arrangement, simply to hoist a +flag on the mainmast, whereupon the Government steamer +immediately embarks the sick persons. In order more +effectually to keep from all contact with the population of +the town, such shipboard patients as are labouring under +infectious complaints, another hospital has been established +on the Island of Marica, situated beyond the bar.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-40" id="Footnote-40"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-40">[40]</a> Pronounced Shooru-shooba.</p></div> + +<p>In consequence of these recent epidemic attacks, much +greater attention than formerly has of late been paid to the +cleanliness of the capital of the Brazilian empire, though a +great deal has yet to be done in this respect. Rio used to +be, without exception, the dirtiest city in the world. As +there were neither gutters nor sewers, all impurities +accumulated during the twenty-four hours used, towards +evening, to be carried by negroes on their heads, in pails +and casks, to the bay, and, singularly enough, emptied in +the immediate vicinity of the Imperial palace, whereby +several quarters of the city, particularly in the hot +season, were rendered entirely uninhabitable. The execution +of proper drainage and sewerage works in a city such as Rio, +which lies on a flat and is densely built near the water, +must be at all times attended with a very large expenditure +of money. But who would boggle at any amount for an object +which concerns the bodily health, not merely of the present, +but of all succeeding generations? At the period of our +visit, the Government had entered into a contract with +Messrs. Joaquim Pereira de Lima and J. F. Russell, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span> +which, in consideration of a lease for ninety years of +certain taxes specially levied, the two contractors have +undertaken to introduce into the capital of Brazil a system +of harbour and street purification, similar to that which +has long been in general use throughout England. There had +also been lately started a <i>Companhia Reformadora</i>, having +for object the widening and beautifying of certain streets, +and the improvement of the paving. One must have lived in +Rio, where each street and open square is a hotbed of fever +and sickness, to be able aright to estimate the importance +of the two last-named associations.</p> + +<p>A war steamer was, by the command of H.M. the Emperor of +Brazil, placed at our disposal, to afford us an opportunity +of viewing more closely the most beautiful points in the +magnificent bay of Rio. There were on board with us the +Captain of the Port, Dom Francisco de Perura Pinto, the +captains of the Brazilian men-of-war lying in the harbour, +as also several members of the Historico-Geographical +Institute. A military band enlivened the party by playing +national airs during the day. We first visited the +south-east part of the bay at the villages of San Domingo +and Ponta da Armacao, opposite to Ponta da Aréa, whence +steamers, for navigating the bay and adjoining coast, are +run by an English company, which employs 667 hands, (of whom +298 are foreigners, 207 natives, and 162 negro slaves). +Except a part of the funds advanced by native capitalists, +the whole undertaking is carried out by foreigners. England +furnishes the engineers and machinery,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> whilst the requisite +timber is brought from Norway and North America. The value +of the labour employed during 1856 amounted to nearly +£90,000.—We proceeded hence past the islands of Salinas and +Honorio, and between the island of Baretto and the eastern +shore of the bay, as far as the luxuriant island of Paquetá, +on the lovely shores of which we landed. It has a +circumference of five miles, and is inhabited by 16,000 +persons, who convert shells into chalk; nearly all the +houses on shore are chalk-kilns. During the dry season this +island is the favourite Sunday resort of the <i>fluminenses</i>, +as the Rio de Janeirians delight to call themselves. From +this sweet spot the steamer carried us to the north side of +the bay. In the back-ground, the Organos mountains now +appeared in all the majesty of their imposing outline, +whilst on one of the projecting ridges, the church San +Francisco de Croara forms an extremely picturesque object.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 660px;"><a name="illu213" id="illu213"></a> +<img src="images/illu213.jpg" width="660" height="271" alt="View of countryside." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ISLAND OF PAQUITÀ, BAY OF RIO.</span> +</div> + +<p>The more the northern portion of the bay is approached, the +more romantic becomes the panorama of the mountains: from +this point stand out in their full grandeur the Serra da<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span> +Estrella, the Serra da Tinguá (which is currently believed +to be the highest mountain, not merely on the bay, but in +Brazil), then the deep valley of Santa Cruz, next to which +the mountain-chains of Suaratyba, and the Serra de Iguassoú, +rise majestically, melting away into the charming Tejuca +chain, the Gavia, and the world-renowned Corcovado, whilst +the Sugar Loaf, that gigantic guardian at the entrance of +the harbour, splendidly terminates this magnificent +amphitheatre.</p> + +<p>We passed the largest of the islands in the bay, the Ilha do +Governador, which has a circumference of upwards of seven +miles, and is inhabited by about a hundred persons chiefly +employed in the chalk-kilns, sail-cloth and soap +manufactories; and touched at some wild spots that promised +a harvest for our naturalists. Here and there, from the deep +blue waters, sprang up islands of the most luxuriant +vegetation, like tropical idylls of rock and forest, such as +the eye marvels to rest upon, but the pen refuses to +describe. Indelibly impressed on our minds remains in this +respect the lovely islet of Catalán, with its beautiful +flowers and palms.</p> + +<p>On approaching the capital, towards the east of the bay, +passing the island Bom Jesus, with a magnificent Franciscan +monastery, and the Ponta do Cajù, with charming country +seats, a forest of masts, strikes the eye in bold contrast +with the Sugar Loaf in the east, and the Morro de Viracao +and the fort Pico in the west, which covers the position of +Santa Cruz. Unfortunately we went down, just at this point, +to a splendid banquet, etiquette requiring that we should +exchange the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> quarter-deck for the state-room; for in Brazil +also, upon such occasions, meals and speechifying play an +important part, and greatly prejudice the special object of +travel—the enjoyment of nature.</p> + +<p>We were not yet done, however, with our excursion. Again we +turned towards the beautiful Cove of Jurujuba, where on the +shore lay pretty little cottages embowered in the richest +foliage, while, through a deep depression, appeared the +masts of ships which were still on the bosom of the ocean +outside, on the point of entering the harbour. As the vessel +steamed in, the scenery changed character at every moment, +like a fairy landscape, full of the loveliest, most +enchanting glimpses of the surrounding country. At Jurujuba, +we landed to visit the <i>Hospital Maritimo de S. Isabel</i>, +erected in 1853, for the reception of sailors in ill-health +of all nations and creeds. It proved of immense utility +during the prevalence of epidemics. In the five years of its +existence at the period of our visit, there had been +admitted nearly 6000 cases of yellow fever.<a name="Anchor-41" id="Anchor-41"></a><a href="#Footnote-41" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 41.">[41]</a> For the +excellent management of this fine hospital the utmost credit +is due to the physicians in charge, Dr. Bento Maria da +Costa, and Dr. José Teixeira da Souza.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-41" id="Footnote-41"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-41">[41]</a> In the year 1856, 2452 patients were received +into the hospital at Jurujuba Cove, of whom 175 died, 2195 +were dismissed cured, and 82 remained under treatment. By +comparison with former years, the number of sick seemed to +have fallen off 13 per cent., while the expenses of +management had increased 9 per cent.</p></div> + +<p>The ground immediately surrounding the hospital has been +reclaimed by the hand of man, and transformed into a +garden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> in which flourish, in solitary majesty, the shady +<i>Aleurites triloba</i> and the <i>Anda Gomesii</i>, growing in +avenues or other regular groups, after all wild vegetation +had been cut down. But at the first step beyond, the foot of +the wanderer through these solitudes strikes into paths +leading through the richest, densest forest scenery +Casuarinas (<i>Anacardium occidentale</i>), with its luscious +pear-shaped fruits, the Indian mango-tree, the various +species of Eugenia, so rich in ethereal oil, the Figuera +Branca (<i>ficus doliaria</i>), the canoe-tree, a gigantic +species of <i>Bombax</i>, protected by sharp spines, and other +lofty forest-children, reach to the very buildings; while, +amid the dense underwood that grows unchecked, and a few +paces distant only from the dwellings of man, lurk +dangerously poisonous snakes, who find here a secure haunt. +Within our own experience, as one of the botanists of the +Expedition was placing a ladder against a primæval forest +tree, the progenitor of numberless scions, he stumbled upon +a poisonous Jacaraca, ready to defend from intrusion his +accustomed resting-place.</p> + +<p>At the north-west entrance of Jurujuba Cove, rises a lofty +island, with the appropriate name of Bom Viajem ("a happy +voyage"), with its church of the Virgin of the same name, +situate on the extreme summit, 400 feet in height. As, +during our visit to the hospital, the twilight had crept +stealthily on, we returned without further stoppage to Rio; +when the company, landing at the usual landing-place of the +arsenal, separated, full of the most pleasing impressions, +arising from the beautiful scenery enjoyed during the day, +and a deep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> sense of gratitude for the noble hospitality +shown us by our amiable hosts.</p> + +<p>Another favour was conferred by Drs. de Lagos and Schüch, +who formed a fishing-party on a grand scale, which was +greatly enjoyed by all, though the gun proved more +profitable to our naturalists than rod, line, or net.</p> + +<p>As the number of days at our disposal in Rio Janeiro began +to diminish, we applied ourselves to seeing the utmost +possible with the smallest sacrifice of time. The morning +after our excursion on board the Santa Cruz, we attended a +sitting of the Chamber of Deputies. The hall, oval in shape, +is plainly, but comfortably fitted up. The members sit on +benches in a semicircle. Opposite the president stand tables +for the ministers of state; at the upper and lower end of +the hall are galleries for the public, and one is specially +assigned to the diplomatic body. Each member speaks from his +place. Their language is very free and their behaviour still +more so,—they sometimes carry this so far as not to allow a +speaker to proceed; and in screaming, brawling, and +violence, they excel even certain members of the late French +Chamber of Deputies. There are said to be some very able +speakers amongst the Brazilians. The subject of debate was a +petition presented to the House for an inquiry into the +conduct of a late minister of justice, who was accused of +having tyrannically dismissed a government officer in the +province of Maranhao. The subject had created great interest +in the public mind, and the galleries were crowded to +suffocation; we did not remain till the conclusion of the +debate, but the minister<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> is said to have justified the +proceeding by proving that the officer had allowed himself +to be bribed.</p> + +<p>On the same day we made an excursion to the Serra da +Estrella and Petropolis, a place which has of late excited +so much attention in the public journals, since the question +of German emigration to Brazil, with its accompaniments of +agitations by the Brazilian recruiting agents, began to +assume its present remarkable proportions. Though the +distance from Rio to Petropolis may be accomplished in four +hours, yet three different vehicles are required:—in the +first place, a steamer from Rio to the railway-station on +the opposite side of the bay, then the railway to Fragosa, +and lastly, a carriage to the final destination over an +excellent road which runs through the mountains to +Petropolis.</p> + +<p>This fine work, which was opened in 1848, is unfortunately +the only one of its kind in the whole empire,<a name="Anchor-42" id="Anchor-42"></a><a href="#Footnote-42" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 42.">[42]</a> as are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> +likewise the five miles of railway between Mauá and Fragosa; +and yet how highly important would railway communication +prove from the metropolis to the northern provinces, by +means of which the excessive cost of carriage by mules might +be so considerably reduced, benefiting alike the landowner +and the merchant! As an illustration, the fact may be +mentioned, that the cost of transit for an arroba (32 lbs.) +of coffee from the coffee district of Vassouras to Rio, a +distance of about 50 miles, amounts to from 700 to 800 reis +(about 1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>). The trouble and expense connected with +this miserable mode of conveyance, so much enhance the price +of some kinds of natural produce, that it does not pay to +transport them to the harbour of the capital. Several +companies have latterly been projected, and money subscribed +for constructing railways in the various provinces of the +empire, and a few of these are already under weigh, as, for +example, that of Dom Pedro Segundo, which will put the +richest provinces in direct communication with Rio, and for +which the amount of money required has been entirely +subscribed. But in this, as in all other Brazilian +enterprises, energy is wanting to make these good intentions +bear fruit; and so long as there is not a greater admixture +of foreign go-a-head-ativeness in the country, much must +remain confined to the mere expression of patriotic wishes. +And in this connection, foreign immigration, of which we +shall treat further on, will prove of immense importance.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-42" id="Footnote-42"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-42">[42]</a> This road is to be continued from Petropolis as +far as Parahyba; and in various other directions also the +building of roads for commercial traffic is being fostered +by Government. The Brazilian Government are at the same time +turning their attention to improving the existing means of +transport by importing dromedaries for use. As it withstands +variation of temperature, and thrives on almost any kind of +nourishment, the dromedary is certain to do well, especially +in the northern provinces, and will prove exceedingly +serviceable in the transport of the products of that section +of the country. The great heat and drought which prevail in +Maranhao, Piauhy, Matto Grosso, and that direction +generally, is eminently suitable to the dromedary, which +does not thrive in hot <i>damp</i> weather. It is calculated that +a dromedary, which can carry an average weight of 700 +pounds, (being six times what a horse, and four times what a +mule will carry on his back), costs, in his own country, +from £12 to £16; and after paying cost of transport to +Brazil, will be worth £48. With the introduction of the +"ship of the desert," that of the date-palm must go hand in +hand, as that fruit constitutes the chief food of the +dromedary, and will probably simultaneously effect a great +change in the articles of consumption by the lower orders.</p></div> + +<p>The journey by carriage through the Sierra from Fragosa to +Petropolis is extremely beautiful. He who is not fortunate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span> +enough to enter deeper into the interior, at least obtains +here an idea of what constitutes a primæval Brazilian +forest. The wonders of tropical vegetation, as manifested +not only by vastness of form but also by gorgeous and rank +luxuriance, strike the eye at first-sight almost the same +way as an overpowering chorus affects the ear. It requires +time to collect the thoughts, so as to be able to appreciate +and enjoy thoroughly the extraordinary beauties that impress +the wondering mind.</p> + +<p>If the eye of the astonished traveller has been but in the +most cursory manner directed to the vegetable phenomena that +surround him, it must have rested on a climbing plant, which +constitutes one of the chief marvels of the native woods. +This singular creeper is the <i>Cipo matador</i>, a climbing +plant of a very peculiar aspect, at once the most powerful +and most destructive of all the Cipo tribe. It twines round +the stems of lofty trees, which its flattened coils +gradually constrict with almost life-like cruelty! Its +aërial roots run out from all parts and embrace the tree +like artificial clamps, forming in some places complete +rings, and in others growing into the very bark. The tree, +in consequence of this parasitic embrace, dies away by +degrees, whilst its destroyer continues to grow gaily on the +corpse of its victim, and spreads its leafy crown until it +falls and perishes simultaneously with the support that had +hitherto upheld it. To what profound reflections does the +contemplation of this spectacle give rise! Involuntarily our +thoughts fly from the wild Brazilian forest to the plains of +civilization,—to the modern society where, likewise, many a +noble human nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> is slowly undermined by a treacherous +Cipo matador of flesh and blood, till too surely he falls +prone on the ground!</p> + +<p>Petropolis is, on account of its more temperate and healthy +climate, a favourite residence of the wealthy Rio de +Janeirians, and during the hot season, when the sultriness +of the air, if not something worse, renders life almost +unendurable, Petropolis is said to have the appearance of a +European spa. It is at the same time the summer residence of +the Emperor, and the only place in Brazil where an electric +telegraph—uniting it with Rio de Janeiro—has been +established. The town contains about 7000 inhabitants; the +streets, when completed, will be broad and handsome,—but +only one has as yet been finished, the others being merely +marked out, while even among the clean and neat houses +already erected, there are frequent and wide gaps.</p> + +<p>The German colony, planned by a German engineer, Julius +Friedr. Köhler, is at a little distance from Petropolis. The +first colonists who arrived on the 30th of July, 1845, came +mostly from Baden and the Rhenish provinces. The Government +granted to each family a cottage, with a slice of forest +near it, a cow, a dozen of chickens, and about £5 in money. +Such at least was the information given us at Petropolis. +Köhler soon afterwards met with a sad end at a newly-formed +shooting ground. Many an emigrant family perished in misery; +others, however, overcame the difficulties that beset them +at the commencement; more emigrants arrived, and now one may +walk, within a few hours, through the Rhine and Mosel +valleys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> Nassau, Darmstadt, Ingelheim, Bingen, the +Palatinate and Switzerland, as the emigrants, in fond +commemoration of their native homes, call their small +settlements, which run some distance through the mountain +valleys. The German origin of these settlements displays +itself distinctly in the cleanliness and neatness of their +log cabins, the affability of the people, the heartiness of +their greeting, the fair hair, curly heads, and beautiful +blue eyes of the children, as well as the language and music +which is now and then heard.</p> + +<p>Petropolis is, however, not an agricultural colony in the +real sense of the word, the majority of the 2500 Germans +settled there obtaining a livelihood as artizans and +labourers. The Government has done much to promote the +growth of the colony, by making roads, and establishing +schools. Still the people never become agriculturists, on +account of the sterility of the soil; but as the road to the +province of Minas Geraes runs through the place, the +settlement will always retain some importance. For the +cargoes of coffee which are conveyed by mules from the +interior to the harbour, Petropolis is the last station, and +will remain so for a long time yet, for the large outlay +required renders it unlikely that the projected railway will +soon be completed.</p> + +<p>Several attempts have been made to establish similar German +colonies in various provinces of the empire, but, +unfortunately, with as yet even less success than in the +Serra da Estrella. However, the activity of the Brazilian +emigration agents has much increased in different German +ports; for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> the remarkable words of the Emperor, with which +he opened the Chambers in May, 1854, at Rio,—"The necessity +of a settled industrious population becomes more and more +urgent,"—have become since then even more significant; in +fact, the result of the endeavours on the part of the +Government to increase the amount of labour by immigration, +is now a question of life or death for the empire. Every +disinterested person feels that, without an increase of +labour, productive activity is impossible; nay, some even +apprehend a considerable decrease in the producing +capabilities of the country, in consequence of the effect to +be anticipated in Brazil from the abolition of the +slave-trade by the interference of England. Up to the year +1851, the importation of negro slaves continued +undiminished, notwithstanding the treaty with England of +1826, in which the abolition of the slave-trade forms one of +the conditions on which the recognition of the Brazilian +crown by the Government of Her Britannic Majesty was made +specially contingent. According to a statement of the +Foreign Office, there were from 1842 to 1851 (despite the +treaty) 325,615 negroes sold as slaves in Brazil, so that +the amount of the slave population is now upwards of +2,000,000 souls.</p> + +<p>The condition of the black population in this country is +materially different from that of the United States and the +West Indies. The colour of the skin, which renders the life +of even free and prosperous negroes almost intolerable in +the northern states of America, where they are subject to so +many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> humiliations, makes in Brazil no difference whatever. +The question here is not whether white or black, but whether +free or a slave. Free negroes may here occupy the highest +places in the State, and even exercise a certain influence +on the destiny of the white inhabitants. Slaves also are +treated here with more humanity and less prejudice than in +any other country visited by me, on which the curse of +slavery yet rests; yet it must be confessed, without +hesitation, that slavery, as beheld in Brazil, seems even a +greater misfortune to the white population than to the +black; for neither agriculture nor industry can thrive in a +country where labour is not considered, as in free States, +an honourable occupation—but rather as a disgrace—in +consequence of its being performed by slaves. Not merely the +blacks, who have no interest in being industrious, but their +masters also are lazy, and approaching ruin becomes more and +more certain. Free labour alone, by obtaining the upper hand +in the country, can remedy these things. Slave labour cannot +long compete with it. The intelligence, activity, and +perseverance of 100,000 free white labourers will promote +the prosperity and the happiness of Brazil, much more than +the compulsory labour of two millions of negroes in bondage.</p> + +<p>In consequence of repeated and energetic remonstrances on +the part of the British Government, the slave-trade has now +ceased in Brazil, and "one of the grandest monuments of our +century," as the celebrated declaration by the Congress of +Vienna termed the entire suppression of the slave-trade,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span><a name="Anchor-43" id="Anchor-43"></a><a href="#Footnote-43" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 43.">[43]</a> +may be considered by this circumstance approaching its +termination.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-43" id="Footnote-43"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-43">[43]</a> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Déclaration des puissances sur l'abolition de +la traite des nègres, du 8 Février, 1815. L. Neumann, +Recueil des traités et conventions conclus par l'Autriche +(Leipzig, 1856. Vol. II., p. 502).</span></p></div> + +<p>As the Government became convinced that there was not the +least hope of reaping any advantage from civilizing the +aboriginal tribes, it had recourse to free immigration, and +promoted it in every way.<a name="Anchor-44" id="Anchor-44"></a><a href="#Footnote-44" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 44.">[44]</a> It endeavoured, particularly in +the warmer northern provinces, to replace the deficiency of +negroes by Chinese Coolies, who were imported from different +parts of China; but they could not stand the climate, and +were not found capable of advantageously replacing the negro +in his various and often very heavy labour. This partially +arose from the indiscriminate selection of the immigrants, +as the agents, when they could not obtain able-bodied men, +did not scruple to make up their cargo with whatever came to +hand.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-44" id="Footnote-44"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-44">[44]</a> It may be useful, however, on many accounts to +observe, that the Brazilian Government take considerable +pains to adapt this doomed race for a civilized mode of +existence. A law of 19th September, 1855, assigned an annual +sum of £6000 for the proper execution of this humane +project. In order to remedy the very marked deficiency of +suitable missionaries, the Government, through its +representative in Paris, invited a number of Catholic +priests from France—men, whose rearing and zeal for their +faith had effected such marvels among the Indians of Canada. +But the aborigines of Brazil seem hopelessly degraded, and +are destined, after having filled their appointed place in +the history of nations, to make room for a more +energetically endowed race.</p></div> + +<p>The Government pays, therefore, the utmost attention to +European immigration; it has agents in Portugal, France, +Italy, Belgium, and especially in Germany; and endeavours +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> organize associations that have for their object the +settlement of industrious labourers in the country, and to +support colonies already in existence, till they are in a +position to maintain themselves. In Brazil, the conviction +is pretty general, that only an emigration <i>en masse</i> of +white labour can save this splendid country from ruin, +though there are individuals who entertain a different +opinion, and think—perhaps not altogether without +reason—that the energy and industry of European settlers +might eventually—considering the indolent and careless +disposition of their countrymen—prove destructive to the +national element!</p> + +<p>The most striking proof of how thoroughly in earnest the +leading members of the Brazilian Government are in their +efforts to procure an immigration of foreign labour, may be +found in the report of the Commission upon the new tariff, +in which the following passage occurs, illustrative of the +advantages which may be expected to be reaped from European +emigration on a large scale:—"'These foreign labourers +arrive here poor, and depart from the country laden with our +gold and silver, and, like blood-suckers, absorb our natural +riches!' is the remark of those who are ignorant of the true +interests of Brazil. For to whom are we indebted for our +capital, for the industry and commerce which we have? To +whom belong those manufactories which the people want to +protect, and in whose favour so much is said? Why, to +foreigners! Foreign hands and foreign capital cultivate our +soil, expand our trade and commerce, and promote the arts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> +The <i>results</i> of their labour remain, though they may +themselves quit the country! Foreigners man our ships, build +our manufactories, and supply them with hands; foreigners +buy our produce and carry it to distant markets; foreigners +render our forests and rivers productive; they work our +mines, uncover the metallic wealth of our country, and +educate our children! Capital, practical science, +instruments, and machines, with which we perform our +labours, belong mostly to foreigners; and, consequently, +these blood-suckers are just the very men who render our +land productive, preserving, instead of, as some erroneously +imagine, depriving us of our vitality. The money which they +take back to their homes is amply replaced by the treasures +they leave behind in the product of their labour, and in the +branches of industry which they have introduced or +improved."<a name="Anchor-45" id="Anchor-45"></a><a href="#Footnote-45" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 45.">[45]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-45" id="Footnote-45"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-45">[45]</a> Of the sixty-four manufactories and workshops, +twenty-eight belong to foreigners; and there is not a single +industrial establishment in which foreigners are not +employed, either as managers, engineers, or labourers.</p></div> + +<p>More explicitly and discerningly it was hardly possible for +Government to speak, and to enumerate the glorious results +which the country may expect from the introduction of +foreign industry and foreign activity, although such an +official avowal could not fail to wound the national pride +of the Brazilians.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this strong language of the Government, and +all the enticements and zealous activity of the Brazilian +agents in the various ports of Europe, the emigration to +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> country, in 1856, amounted to only 13,800 souls.<a name="Anchor-46" id="Anchor-46"></a><a href="#Footnote-46" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 46.">[46]</a> +Among this number there were but 628 agriculturists, all the +others coming merely with the view of obtaining a livelihood +in the capital as artizans and labourers. There are probably +in all the Brazilian agricultural colonies, at this moment, +not more than 40,000 emigrants settled, that is to say, +about as many as emigrate in the course of three months to +the United States!</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-46" id="Footnote-46"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-46">[46]</a> Namely: 9159 Portuguese, 1822 Germans, and 2819 +of other nations.</p></div> + +<p>The number of Germans emigrating to Brazil is strikingly +small, when compared with the total annual emigration from +that country. Of 61,413 individuals, who, in 1856, embarked +from Hamburg and Bremen, only 1822 went to Brazil. The cause +of this may be that, simultaneously with the large promises +held out by the agents, warning voices were heard depicting +in the most gloomy colours the terrible trials that await +the unfortunate immigrant on his touching Brazilian soil.<a name="Anchor-47" id="Anchor-47"></a><a href="#Footnote-47" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 47.">[47]</a> +Of late such excellent works have been published concerning +Brazil, that we may advise all who take a special interest +in the condition of that empire to study these works, the +more so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> as the views therein expressed exactly coincide +with our own impressions.<a name="Anchor-48" id="Anchor-48"></a><a href="#Footnote-48" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 48.">[48]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-47" id="Footnote-47"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-47">[47]</a> Among these, the opposition of the late +Consul-General for Brazil at Dresden, Mr. John Sturz, +deserves special mention, as, despite the threats of losing +his appointment, that gentleman was incessantly occupied in +exposing the iniquities of the Parceria system (see <i>post</i>), +and recommending the immigrant, so long as such a slavish +system continued, to refrain from turning his steps towards +Brazil. Mr. Sturz had recently the enviable misfortune of +being sacrificed to his own strong sense of justice, and +dismissed from all employment by the Brazilian +administration, though not without carrying with him the +respect and admiration of every friend of humanity. An +excellent and circumstantial description of the present +condition of the German colonies in southern Brazil will be +found in Dr. Avé Lallemant's attractive "Travels through +Southern Brazil in 1858." (Leipzig, 1859.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-48" id="Footnote-48"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-48">[48]</a> H. Handelmann's "History of Brazil" (Berlin, +1860), a remarkably profound and instructive work, devotes a +special section (p. 933) to the subject of German +emigration, and gives a very copious and complete insight +into the various missions and works since 1819 to the +present day, which treat of German emigration and +colonization.</p></div> + +<p>So long as the unoccupied lands are not surveyed, laid out +in lots, and sold at a small rate to the settler, as, for +instance, in the United States; so long as the immigrant is +unable to improve for himself his own plot of ground, but +must remain a mere field-labourer, working for some foreign +master, according to the iniquitous <i>Parceria</i>, or +half-profits system;<a name="Anchor-49" id="Anchor-49"></a><a href="#Footnote-49" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 49.">[49]</a> so long as the expense of transport +of the emigrant is to be worked off by future payments out +of his labour, so long must every friend of humanity +strongly dissuade the emigrant from proceeding to the great +South American Empire.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-49" id="Footnote-49"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-49">[49]</a> The modern Brazilian system of <i>Parceria</i> may +be shortly stated as that by which a planter engages in +Europe such of the poorer classes as are desirous of +emigrating, and has them transported at his own cost to +Brazil, where they are engaged as farmers, with half +profits, upon the coffee and sugar plantations, and +contracting to reimburse him, by their personal services and +labour, for the outlay he has been at for their transport, +maintenance, instruction, &c. Until all these have been +repaid by the improvement in the rent or productive powers +of the land, they must remain, as working out their +emancipation from the lord of the soil, veritable +"<i>adscripti glebæ</i>." After that has been attained they are +free people, and may leave if they please, or may sink into +the rank of "unattached labourers," which implies their +assigning half of the net produce of the land to the ground +landlord, the remaining half being their remuneration for +labour. Proprietorship in the soil is never attainable by +these farmers on half profits, inasmuch as the Parceria +system can only exist where the soil is already exclusively +vested in a planting aristocracy. (See Handelmann, etc., p. +568).</p></div> + +<p>For Brazil, beautiful, fertile, and abounding in undeveloped +natural wealth, two alternatives are alone open at +present—either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> ruin to the producing power of the +population through deficiency of industrial power, or the +throwing open the land to foreign emigration by means of the +most extensive concessions. The longer this is deferred, the +more oppressively will the want of manual labour manifest +itself; and the more advantages will foreign emigration +secure.</p> + +<p>Once, however, these important stipulations are conceded, +the German emigrants may forthwith bend their steps to the +coasts of Brazil, where the glorious dawn of a magnificent +future is surely breaking for them. While, in the United +States, the problem to be solved by the German emigrants +seems to be, to mingle German industry, German capacity, and +German knowledge, with the keen spirit of enterprise and +restless energy of the Anglo-Saxon race, and gradually to +assimilate with it,—on the other hand, in the South +American continent, it appears as though the German element +were about gradually to gain the upperhand of the Latin +stock, and permanently to conquer for German industry and +German commerce, one of the fairest countries on the globe +with the weapons of peace—the spade and plough.</p> + +<p>Brazil is, however, of great interest to Germany not merely +on account of the prospects she holds out for its +overflowing population. A market, teeming with the most +important colonial products, with an area<a name="Anchor-50" id="Anchor-50"></a><a href="#Footnote-50" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 50.">[50]</a> of 3,956,800 +English square miles, and an annual consumption of nearly +£10,000,000, must in the highest degree attract the +attention and excite the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> favourable anticipations of a +country such as Germany, the majority of whose inhabitants +are engaged in manufactures.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-50" id="Footnote-50"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-50">[50]</a> According to the computation of the +Historico-Geographical Institute of Brazil.</p></div> + +<p>The chief article of Brazilian trade at present is coffee, +the production of which, in consequence of the great profit +of late years derived from it, has increased so much, that +it has superseded the cultivation of all other produce; +thus, notwithstanding the fertility and capability of the +ground, even the commonest necessaries of life, as, for +instance, potatoes, must be imported from abroad, the +majority of the rural population being engaged in labour for +the foreign market, and only very few for home consumption. +This is the principal cause of the enormous prices which, +even the most indispensable necessaries have reached in Rio +de Janeiro.</p> + +<p>Brazil grows annually, in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and +Santa Catharina, 5,190,000 quintals of coffee, consequently +more than three-fifths of the entire amount produced on the +whole earth, and of this the province of Rio de Janeiro +alone yields two-thirds.</p> + +<p>The most important objects of export, besides coffee, are +sugar, rice, cotton, hides, and dried meat, together with +dye and cabinet woods. The progressive decrease of late +years in these articles may probably be ascribed to the want +of sufficient labour, as well as to the great extent to +which the culture of coffee has been carried.</p> + +<p>Although the trade carried on between Brazil and Europe, and +its great importance, will form the object of a special +work, we cannot help noticing in this place as a very +interesting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> fact, that among the importations, that of +wheat-flour holds a very conspicuous place, above 300,000 +barrels of 200 lbs. each being annually consumed, of which +seventeen twentieths are supplied by the United States, two +twentieths from Trieste and Fiume, and the remaining one +twentieth from Lisbon and Valparaiso. The flour from +Trieste, by reason of its whiteness and superior quality, +commands a high price, so as to necessitate its being mixed +in baking with that from Baltimore. We were told it +occasionally happens, that the best quality of the +much-appreciated Trieste or Fontana flour reaches the price, +altogether unapproachable by the finest American flour, of +64 to 66 shillings the barrel.</p> + +<p>As in the interior of the country the flour chiefly used is +that called Mandioca, prepared from the root of <i>Jatropha +Manihot</i>, it follows that the chief consumer of wheaten +flour is Rio itself, the monthly consumption amounting to +upwards of 16,500 barrels. The reason for the small sale of +the Austrian manufactures in Brazil must be sought for, not +so much in the deficient supplies of the articles required, +as in the circumstance that the Austrian manufacturers have +not hitherto found it much their interest to study the +Brazilian market, so as to make the requisite alterations in +the method of producing their fabrics, and thus render them +suitable for that purpose. What little of our Austrian +manufactures is at present exported for Brazilian +consumption, seems at present to follow the, to all +appearance, much less natural route northwards, and instead +of proceeding from Trieste direct, is exported from Bremen +or Hamburg as fabrics of Northern Germany.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span></p> + +<p>During our stay at Rio, Commodore Wüllerstorf, accompanied +by Captain Pöck, and one of the members of the scientific +commission, had the honour of being presented to the Emperor +and Empress of Brazil, at a private audience. The reception +took place at the winter residence of St. Christoph. It is +an old unsightly building, and still unfinished, the central +part especially having been for some years in a ruinous +condition. The Emperor seems not to be partial to display, +and a very characteristic anecdote in this respect, which +does him great credit, is very generally reported. On the +occasion of a visit to the splendid lunatic asylum of +Botafogo, one of the ministers remarked to His Majesty that +the inmates of the establishment were better and more +elegantly lodged than himself. "It will always afford me +great pleasure," was the reply, "to know that these +unfortunate people are better provided for than I am."</p> + +<p>At the entrance of the palace at St. Christoph, the +gentlemen of the Expedition were received by an +ecclesiastic, who led them into an exceedingly plain +ante-chamber, the furniture of which seemed to belong to +bygone centuries. Several of the ministers of state, whose +servants carried large portfolios, exchanged compliments +with the Austrian minister, and entered the contiguous +apartments. Chamberlains and domestics of the court looked +stealthily at the strangers, and disappeared as rapidly as +they had come. It seemed as though these presentations were +of infrequent occurrence. At last, about half-past 6 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> +the door opened, when His Majesty and the ministers walked +through the room into the hall of audience,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> into which the +gentlemen of the Expedition were soon afterwards conducted +by a chamberlain. The Austrian minister presented each +separately to His Majesty Dom Pedro II., who is the son of +an Austrian Archduchess, and received the gentlemen in the +uniform of an admiral, surrounded by all his ministers. He +is a fine-looking man, of some 30 years of age, of stately +appearance, but with a voice somewhat too thin for so robust +a person. The portrait on the Brazilian coinage is +remarkably like. The conversation was carried on in French; +it is said, however, that the Emperor speaks German +fluently. He conversed very affably and graciously with +every one, and had something agreeable to say to each, +expressing much interest in the <i>Novara</i> Expedition. After +several questions, the Emperor wished us success on our +future voyage, and retired, upon which the audience was at +an end.</p> + +<p>After the members of the Expedition had remained a short +space in a corner of the audience chamber, they were +conducted through a narrow boarded passage to the apartments +of the Empress. In the ante-chamber we again encountered the +Emperor, who had exchanged his admiral's uniform for plain +clothes, and now stood before us in the undress black frock +he usually wears.</p> + +<p>We were now ushered into the small and very plainly +furnished reception-room of the Empress, in which there was +nothing to attract attention except a couple of +highly-finished portraits. Her Majesty, a sister of the late +King Ferdinand II. of Naples, and of Queen Maria Christina +of Spain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> was in mourning owing to a death in the family. +She was only attended by one lady in waiting, and received +us with infinite grace. She is rather short in stature, and +although still young, looks aged; in conversation she +becomes however very animated, and thereby gains in +gracefulness; her favourite theme was Italy, on which she +dwelt with childlike fondness. Speaking of Naples, its +charming bay, of the Vesuvius, and the lovely walk of Santa +Lucia, near the sea, the tone of her voice became +involuntarily more lively. Notwithstanding the tropical +splendour, and an Imperial throne, the Princess seems to +have a great longing for her native land. Alas! even an +imperial crown is no protection against the yearning for +home!</p> + +<p>During our stay here, the anniversary came round of the +birth of our gracious Emperor, which was celebrated in the +most festive manner. From early dawn the frigate appeared +decked out in her gayest flags, which was similarly +responded to by the English and French ships of war in the +harbour. At 8 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, with the customary salutes of the +ensign, a salute of twenty-one guns was fired, as also at +mid-day and sunset. At 11 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, the crew were paraded and +divine service was performed, to which our resident envoy +and his family were invited, together with the acting +Consul-General, the captain of an Austrian vessel, and a few +Austrians who happened to be at that time in Rio. After +service, the foreign guests and several officers of the +staff were entertained by the commodore at breakfast. In the +evening there was a banquet at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span> hotel of the envoy, at +which were present several notabilities of the empire of +Brazil, among others, Viscount Maranguapè, minister of +foreign affairs, and the Senator Viscount de Uruguay. In the +garden of the club the frigate's band of music played +chiefly German and Austrian pieces, which awoke in the +bosoms of many the most tender recollections.</p> + +<p>The frequent arrival of men of war in the bay of Rio gives +rise to an almost continual firing; each vessel entering +fires a royal salute, which is answered by the fortress and +the other ships of war in the harbour. During our stay we +discharged not less than 432 salvos, while all the men of +war together fired at least 1500 salvos, thus making, within +three weeks, about 5250 rounds of gunpowder, used merely in +salutes.</p> + +<p>The 31st of August had been fixed as the date of our +departure. During the latter days of our stay, there had +been frequent collations on board to make some return to +those who had shown us attention. Several of the sick, one +midshipman and two sailors, had to be left behind in +hospital, where they received the most careful treatment, +while Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant, who, by the kind +recommendation of Humboldt, had been permitted by the +Archduke to accompany the Expedition with the rank of +surgeon of corvette, for the purpose of prosecuting his +studies of yellow fever, was, at his own request, put ashore +at Rio, whence he afterwards undertook the journey through +Southern Brazil already alluded to.</p> + +<p>The night previous, three sailors had deserted from a boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span> +sent on shore to bring back some officers. The system of +kidnapping, as is well known, flourishes in Rio, and many a +ship is said to have lost, in this way, from thirty to forty +men. The crimps, who make their living by this traffic in +man, entice young and robust sailors to desert by means of +all imaginable allurements and promises, making advances in +money, and leading them into a dissolute life, in order +that, when afterwards they find themselves in a desperate +state, and without resources, they may be sold by the +scoundrels to the captains of vessels, as sailors, or, what +is worse, as white slaves, to the planters in the interior. +This abominable trade is said to be carried on, on a great +scale, by an Italian, in Catumbý Grande, and though the +Brazilian police is perfectly cognizant of the haunts of the +fellow, yet it seems not to be powerful enough to put a stop +to the nuisance.</p> + +<p>These incidents did not, however, interfere with our +departure at the specified hour, when we were towed out by +the tug steamer <i>Perseverancia</i>, which we had hired for +<i>£25</i>. Almost every large ship on leaving Rio is towed clear +of the bay, so as to avoid having to tack between the +islands, or perhaps have to anchor, so that the tug, which +belongs to a private individual, and accompanied us eastward +as far as the island of Razza, must be a source of +considerable profit.</p> + +<p>On 31st August, at six <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, we bade farewell to the +splendid harbour of Rio. We had fortunately reached Rio +after the visit of the yellow fever, but the almost +continual rainy weather had spoiled many an excursion, and +deprived us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> of the opportunity of more closely examining +the environs of the city. Nor were we more successful in +making ourselves at home here, notwithstanding the kind +reception with which we were favoured by the Government and +some private individuals. There is, in short, a great want +of sociability, and we may add, almost utter indifference to +scientific pursuits, which indeed appeal in vain to the +great majority of the Brazilian population. Of course there +are numerous and agreeable exceptions; but slavery, the +mixture of races, the egotism and indolence of the wealthier +classes, are all reasons why a European, just arrived, +cannot feel himself comfortable. The white Brazilians bear, +in some respects, a strong resemblance to the Italians, but +they are deficient in their pleasing, insinuating demeanour, +in their cheerful humour, quickness of perception, and +lively imagination. They occupy a lower scale in social +culture, without depth of thought or feeling, and seem +almost incapable of persevering activity. This perceptible +deficiency of hearty, energetic temperament, in addition to +the confused intermingling of other foreign nations, which +seem to regard the country as booty, to be abandoned so soon +as success has crowned their labours, imparts to each new +arrival a feeling of depression, which, so far from being +weakened, is yet more keenly felt by those who have lived +some time in the country, so that not merely among +foreigners recently arrived, but with those also who have +spent years at Rio, the desire to leave these shores becomes +rather increased than diminished by a longer acquaintance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate254t" id="plate254t"></a> +<img src="images/plate254t.jpg" width="350" height="177" alt="Track of Novara." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE III.—FROM RIO DI JANEIRO TO THE CAPE +OF GOOD HOPE.</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate254.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>At nine <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, we cast off from the tug, not far from the +little island of Razza, with its lighthouse, and spread our +sails to the breeze, which gradually freshened, but blew +from the N.E., which was foul for our course. However, we +could still derive some advantage from even this as it was +our intention to steer southerly from Rio, so as to be able +to make almost exclusively a great circle course to the Cape +of Good Hope, after we should have got further south than +the Antarctic limit of the S.E. trades.</p> + +<p>The near termination of the winter quarter in this southern +hemisphere, the approximation of the sun towards the south +pole, and the consequent tendency of the zones of wind and +currents of air to pursue the same direction, gave us reason +to hope, that when approaching the limits of the trades, we +should find a change of wind, which should shorten the +voyage, or at all events keep us clear of storms.</p> + +<p>In the open ocean, where there are no hills or extraordinary +conformations of land to break the uniformity of the earth's +surface, and where the expanse of water is unbroken by any +extensive group of islands, the disturbances in the +atmospheric belt must necessarily be much less strongly +marked than where continents are interposed, or in the +narrow seas. The winds themselves, under such circumstances, +display even in their shifts a certain amount of regularity, +which is usually dependent upon the universal laws of +nature.</p> + +<p>Once any one is so fortunate as to comprehend the latter in +all their extent, so as to be cognisant of their results, it +becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> a mere question of the study of local conditions in +order to be able to declare how these universal laws +operate, and to elucidate by the most simple explanations +many of the phenomena of nature that have till now baffled +science. Thus, when a wind hitherto steady shifts its +direction, there must necessarily be, certain active causes +for its doing so; if these causes perpetually recur in +well-marked periodical intervals, the change of the wind +must follow a definite law. Under certain circumstances the +direction of the wind is well-defined; as, for instance, at +certain seasons in the open ocean it remains always the +same, or changes with a certain regularity, whence it +becomes apparent that the causes must remain unchanging, and +the recurrence of the phenomenon must accordingly admit of +explanation.</p> + +<p>We know, for example, that in the case of hurricanes—those +most terrific exemplifications of the tendency of the +atmosphere to move in circles—the wind does not blow in +straight lines, but rather in curves described round a +central point, which again is not immovable, but has a +regular progression along a definite curve. In that curved +plane, however, which has been termed a <i>cyclone</i>, the wind +always blows in one and the same direction, and in the +Northern Hemisphere runs counter to the motion of a +watch-hand, while in the Southern Hemisphere it, on the +contrary, follows that motion.</p> + +<p>These facts once granted as accounting for such phenomena, +it follows as a natural consequence of the general +principles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> laid down, that they hold good in minor cases, +and must remain of the same efficacy, whether it be a +hurricane or a dust-whirl which may be under consideration.</p> + +<p>So, too, in conformity with those laws, light winds may be +found subject to a variation in direction of a similar +nature, such as may not perhaps be fully exemplified in +every case, but simply serve to indicate the tendency of the +wind to follow the same general direction as the hurricanes +themselves.</p> + +<p>The importance of ascertaining such curvilinearity in the +direction of the winds will be especially manifest at the +limits within which the regular winds prevail, and when they +must necessarily become intermingled with other regular +currents of the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, as we neared the limit of the S.E. Trades, +which always extend somewhat further south, as the sun's +southern declination increases, we had to traverse regions +where necessarily we encountered variable winds, owing to +the increased area of the Trades. There are also found +occasional spots at which a more rarefied atmosphere seems +to fill the surrounding space, when there is seen a similar +process to that in the case of hurricanes, first visible +perhaps in the higher strata, but afterwards extending to +those which are lower.</p> + +<p>The winds, then, shifted with much regularity, and with them +the atmospheric pressure, just as in the case of cyclones, +except that neither the wind nor the sea ever presented the +characteristics of a tempest. The wind, which began to blow +from the North-East, drew gradually to North, thence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span> West +and South, and returned to S.E., after short intervals of +calm. We could thus perceive, on referring to the ship's +log, that the entire cycle was completed in five or six +days; so that it became quite possible, by examining the +central direction of the daily variation, to foretell the +wind which must be blowing twelve hours later, when, upon +taking into consideration the path described by such central +direction from day to day, it appeared that the wind +described very nearly a parabolic curve.</p> + +<p>Even the aspect of the heavens, and the state of the +weather, were only one degree less regular in their +alternations than the hurricanes. With the S.E. wind, the +sky was bright, but as soon as it began to veer round, +towards afternoon, a few white belts of cirrhous clouds +began to appear in the western heavens, constituting a +well-marked division of the vault of the sky from one side +quite to the other. As it drew still further round, and +neared the line of centres, the weather grew foul, a driving +scud covered the heavens, and a succession of splendid +rainbows were seen, till the ship had reached the nearest +spot to the storm-centre when there were sharp squalls of +wind, accompanied by heavy showers of rain. The lower strata +of clouds, mere vapour, drove before the wind, while those +above moved in a directly contrary direction, generally that +of the forthcoming wind. The atmospheric pressure, which at +first would be considerable, gradually decreased as we +approached the central line; as we drew away from that +centre the barometer rose again,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> the weather improved, and +the sky under the influence of southerly winds once more +cleared.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately it is not practicable with a single ship to +ascertain whether the veering of the wind follows an exact +curve, as we can only say what is the direction at the spot +where the observation has been made, and it is impossible to +determine what it may be at other points. But it is at all +events certain that the shifts of wind are amenable to the +same general laws as hurricanes. A number of ships sent out +for the special purpose of this branch of investigation, +could render immense services to science and navigation, and +achieve most interesting results.</p> + +<p>We availed ourselves of these general laws to traverse the +ocean as speedily as possible, in order to reach early our +next anchorage, and in so doing we experienced altogether +three well-marked cycles of wind at short intervals. We +cannot afford space to prosecute all the interesting +consequences that result from these phenomena of nature, +such investigations being more properly reserved for the +meteorological section of the scientific portion of this +work. Here, however, the facilities for observation of a +sea-faring life have been directed towards an object of +inquiry, which must prove of immense utility in navigation +and commerce. And, perhaps, even landsmen may not find it +uninteresting, that even that proverbially fickle element, +air, obeys certain fixed laws, a more accurate acquaintance +with which must be of the utmost importance to the denizen +of <i>terra firma</i>, as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> those "that go down to the sea +in ships, that do business in great waters."</p> + +<p>On this passage from the American to the African coasts, we +were continually accompanied by our winged friends, the +sea-birds, which, notwithstanding the unkind treatment they +received at the hands of the zoological sportsmen, followed +us with the utmost pertinacity, probably attracted by the +numerous fragments of provisions thrown overboard.</p> + +<p>The Cape pigeons (<i>Procellaria sp.</i>), those prettily-marked +sea-birds, about the size of doves, the albatrosses, +(<i>Diomedea sp.</i>) the largest of the ocean feathered tribe, +with their quiet majestic flight, stormy petrels of all +sorts and sizes, from the smallest swallow to the largest of +its kind; all these winged inhabitants of the sea's surface +followed the frigate in motley groups, and seemed never to +weary in their active search for food.</p> + +<p>Sometimes they alighted, rested on the surface of the water, +and were left far behind; but they collected again with +great rapidity as soon as anything eatable appeared, and +overtook the frigate in a swift flight from the remotest +point of the horizon. This singular attachment to ships very +probably arises from their being accustomed to follow +whalers, from which such a large quantity of garbage is +thrown overboard, very much affected by these aërial +parasites, whence they learn to expect from all vessels +their favourite food.</p> + +<p>They possess a remarkable capacity for remembering the exact +time when they are likely to receive a large quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> +eatables from on board. Every day, about noon, the vicinity +of the ship became animated, and towards one o'clock, after +the crew had finished dinner, these lively creatures were +close behind, and even fought for the pieces of tow with +which the coppers had been cleansed. The boldest amongst +them was the Cape pigeon, which pounced, with the utmost +avidity, upon the dainty morsels thrown overboard, raising a +loud scream, swimming round its prey, diving for sinking +fragments, or snatching from each other those they had +secured. Then came the black and brown-spotted and white +albatrosses. As soon as one of these colossal birds appeared +on the scene of strife, the uproar of the screaming pigeons +at once became still; they kept themselves at a respectful +distance from the voracious albatross, which quietly +consumed its lion's share. In a few moments, yet greater +numbers of these assembled, of which the black ones +(<i>Phœbetria fuliginosa</i>), like the large petrels, are +extremely shy, and rarely approach the ship within gun-shot. +The other large-sized petrels acted similarly, the brown +spectacled-petrel, so named from two singular-looking black +rings round the eyes, being the most numerous. Along with +these were several small Mother Carey's Chickens, and +flights of other winged creatures swarming over the sea. The +darker the sky, the more agitated the sea, the more actively +do the Cape pigeons tumble and toss behind the ship; it +appears that in rough stormy weather they see less +distinctly and find food with difficulty, in consequence of +which they are in a famished state. Only under these +circumstances,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> and when the ship is moving slowly, can they +be caught with a line. To angle for birds may appear rather +odd to the reader, and yet it is common enough in the +Southern Ocean, amusing the sailor, and providing the +zoologist with means of obtaining these birds alive. For +this purpose, however, circumstances must be comparatively +favourable; that is to say, the weather must be rough, the +sea agitated, and the ship making but little headway. When +the sky is serene, and the sea calm, even the Cape pigeons +do not think it worth their while to throw a glance at the +bait; and if the ship is moving fast, they have not speed +enough to catch it, because they only swim, and the ship +outspeeds them. The line, moreover, must be of tolerable +length, so as, in the event of any bird evincing a desire to +snap, to allow as much to be paid out as is necessary to +leave the bait precisely in the same spot, without towing it +through the water. It sometimes also occurs, particularly +after sunset, that these birds, continually following in the +wake of the ship, do not see the line, strike against it, +and entangle themselves so that they may be easily drawn on +board. The scream of the storm-pigeon when caught, makes it +betray its fate even before those on board have an idea that +it has been captured.</p> + +<p>For the albatross, it is of course necessary to use a +stronger hook, which it is best to attach to a copper wire, +because this being thinner than line, is not so readily +perceived. In order that the whole apparatus may swim on the +surface of the water, a few cork floats are also made fast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span></p> + +<p>When an albatross has hooked itself, the full strength of a +man is requisite to draw it on board, for the bird, in its +despair, dives and keeps its wings spread under water, so +that the resistance is very considerable, and frequently +even the strongest lines are broken. This cannot be wondered +at when their size is considered, as they measure from 10 to +14 feet across the extended wings, while their weight +amounts to from 10 to 18 lbs.</p> + +<p>Arrived on deck, none of these sea-birds are able to fly +away; they move very clumsily on their webbed feet, and can +only rise after a slanting spring, which, however, they +cannot accomplish on firm ground; if in the water these +birds want to rise into the air whilst swimming, they +flutter their outspread wings for a little, and use their +webbed feet in a kind of rowing motion, in order to acquire +the requisite impetus. The albatross defends itself with its +bill, which is often four to five inches long, and care must +be taken to avoid being wounded in catching them. We also +remarked that the Cape pigeons, in their rage at being +captured, vomited up a slimy greasy substance.</p> + +<p>The latter bird was of course new to us, and afforded us +much amusement. Many were knocked over with the +fowling-piece, especially when, in their inquisitiveness, +they came too near the boats, which, as often as our rate of +progress admitted, were launched with the view of adding to +our collection of objects of natural history.</p> + +<p>In shooting an albatross large shot must be used, as, at a +distance of 15 or 20 feet, small shot do not penetrate the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> +feathers and the down of the bird. What is most remarkable +as regards these birds is the numerous parasites that live +upon their bodies. It is most extraordinary how certain of +these birds (as for instance, the <i>Puffins</i> and +<i>Procellariæ</i>) are infested by insects, their plumage +sometimes swarming with small specimens of <i>Crustaceæ</i>.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of September, the famous Table Mountain of the +Cape was visible, after we had, the evening previous, at a +distance of fourteen miles, sighted the lighthouse of Table +Bay.</p> + +<p>The twenty-six days of our voyage hither had flown quickly +past, and we were still able vividly to recall the +impressions made by Brazil, and the scenes we had gone +through in mid-ocean, as the southernmost point of Africa +came in sight with its characteristic hills, and our eyes +and our thoughts were directed to another quarter of the +globe. On the one hand, excited with the prospect of new +scenery, and on the other, anxious to complete our elaborate +observations upon Brazil, so as to be able to send them home +from the Cape, we found ourselves in a frame of mind which +kept us alternately hard at the desk, or drove us on deck to +admire the remarkable outline of Cape Colony. We did not, at +the present season, think it advisable to run right into the +bay, so as to anchor near Cape Town, but resolved to double +the Cape, and proceed to Simon's Bay, the usual anchorage +for ships-of-war. We were, however, sadly disappointed in +the hope of soon reaching it, as the south-east wind +freshened so much that on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> 27th it had become a gale, +which forced us out to sea again. The world-known swell off +the Cape began under the ever-increasing wind to run high, +and we were soon involved in one of those famous Cape storms +which justified the Portuguese in calling the promontory of +South Africa, "Cabo Tormentoso," or the Cape of Storm.<a name="Anchor-51" id="Anchor-51"></a><a href="#Footnote-51" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 51.">[51]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote-51" id="Footnote-51"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-51">[51]</a> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Through such mad seas the daring Gama fought,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Incessant toiling round the stormy Cape."<br /></span> +<span class="i20">(<i>Lord Strangford's Camoens.</i>)<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>The wind and spray roared and lashed through the rigging: +higher and higher rose the huge mountains of water, with +their white crests, that tossed the ship like a plaything +from side to side. The waves foamed in through the +port-holes on the gun-deck, while masts, cordage, timbers, +every part of the ship groaned and creaked, a perfect medley +of sights and sounds, including woful destruction of +crockery, and the heavy rolling of erratic cannon-shot that +had broken loose from the rack, and were rushing about the +deck—above all which was heard the shrill whistle of the +pipe of the boatswain's mate. The scene fairly baffled all +powers of description, and must have been eminently +impressive for those who for the first time experienced what +is meant by "a gale at sea," especially at night, when the +moon, struggling through the flying vapours, lit up the +appalling scene with a livid supernatural tint.</p> + +<p>On the afternoon of the 28th the gale reached its highest +point, and raged fearfully for some hours. The frigate +proved herself, in this turbulence of the waters, to be +thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> seaworthy. At the same time the sun shone +brilliantly, the sky was clear and beautiful, and only here +and there some feathery clouds were to be seen. There was a +curious sense of dualism in this serenity of the sky, in +contrast with the fury and agitation of the waves. Gradually +the wind chopped round towards the east, which gave some +hope that the gale would abate, but, nevertheless, the ship +was tossed about worse than ever.</p> + +<p>The waves, like gigantic ridges, mounted, according to +measurement, to the height of from 30 to 35 feet above the +mean level of the sea, and occasioned that terrible rolling +of the ship, and those fearful lurches, which, once +experienced, are not readily forgotten.</p> + +<p>Hitherto the altitude of a wave has been generally measured +merely by the eye, so that the result depended too much on +the accuracy of individual observation to admit of its being +exactly ascertained; and it is for this reason that the +statements relative to the maximum height of the ocean wave +are so various that they cannot be considered reliable, for +whilst some observers estimate them to be from 60 to 70 +feet, others reckon them only at from 30 to 40 feet.</p> + +<p>On board the <i>Novara</i> the following method of admeasurement +was adopted: we first determined, by a chronometer, the time +that a wave takes to pass from one end of the ship to the +other, whereby the velocity of the progressive motion of the +wave could be calculated in relation to the ship's course +and speed, regard being had to the direction and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> velocity +of the ship against it. With this velocity ascertained, we +were in a position to determine and fix the average distance +between two consecutive waves. Lastly, the height of the +wave was ascertained from the angle at which the frigate +rose and fell in the line of its keel, by the influence of +each successive wave and by means of the ascertained +distance from the trough of the sea to the crest of the +wave. Though this method, likewise, has many difficulties +and deficiencies, yet it appears well suited to make correct +comparisons between the different waves; and, under certain +favourable conditions, it yields so accurate a result, that +at any rate it is to be preferred to mere guess-work, +besides that the experiment itself is susceptible of many +improvements. It seems safe to assume that waves scarcely +ever attain an elevation of more than 40 or 45 feet.</p> + +<p>The gale had driven us a long distance out, and only after +great trouble did we again near the land. On the 1st of +October the Cape came once more in sight; we tacked, in +order to get into the wide gulf termed False Bay, by which +in some respects the peninsula of the Cape is formed, being +separated only by a low sandy plain from the Atlantic. +Whittle's rock renders tacking in its neighbourhood in so +far more difficult, as the existing charts of the bay are +not sufficiently exact to be implicitly relied on. Buoys +have often been fixed in that quarter, but every new gale +carried them away again; so that the position of the rock is +not indicated. An English pilot now came on board, who +brought papers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> and intelligence that a number of letters +were waiting for us. Our impatience became stronger when +towards evening the light breeze entirely ceased, and we +thereby were forced to bring up at a distance of a mile and +a half from the actual anchorage. About the same time an +officer arrived from the British line-of-battle-ship +<i>Boscawen</i>, under the flag of Rear-Admiral Grey, in order to +serve as a guide should no pilot have boarded us.</p> + +<p>On the 2nd of October, at 7 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, the anchor was let go in +Simon's Bay, a spacious but gloomy-looking sheet of water. +Here ships ride much more secure than in Table Bay, from +which, in a stiff westerly or north-westerly breeze, vessels +are often forced to run out to sea to avoid being driven on +shore. The communication with the land is thus sometimes +interrupted for days. From Simon's Bay to Table Bay, round +the Cape the distance is forty miles, whilst by land the +journey to the capital of the colony is, with good horses, +performed in three hours.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"><a name="illu252" id="illu252"></a> +<img src="images/illu252.jpg" width="479" height="195" alt="Big waves and storm clouds." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CABO TORMENTOSO.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; +width: 586px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu253.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu253" id="illu253"></a><a name="VI" id="VI"></a> +<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">CAPE<br />TOWN.</span></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 586px; height: 345px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 197px; height: 352px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">VI.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Cape of Good Hope.</div> + +<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Stay from 2nd to 26th October, 1857.</span></div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +Contrasts of scenery and seasons at Cape Colony. Ramble +through Simon's Town.—Malay Population.—The Toad-fish, or +Sea-devil.—Rondebosch and its delightful scenery.—Cape +Town.—Influence of the English element.—Scientific and +other Institutions.—Botanical Gardens.—Useful +plants.—Foreign Emigration.—A Caffre prophet and the +consequences of his prophecies.—Caffre prisoners in the +Armstrong Battery.—Five young Caffres take service as +sailors on board the <i>Novara</i>.—Trip into the +interior.—Stellenbosch.—Paarl.—Worcester.—Brandvalley.—The +Mission of Moravian Brethren at Genaadendal.—Masticatories +and intoxicating substances used by the +Hottentots.—Caledon.—Somerset West.—Zandvliet.—Tomb of a +Malay Prophet.—Horse Sickness.—Tsetse-fly.—Vineyards of +Constantia.—<i>Féte champêtre</i> in honour of the +<i>Novara</i>.—Excursion to the actual Cape of Good +Hope.—Departure.—A life saved.—Experiments with Brook's +deep-sea sounding apparatus.—Arrival at the Island of St. +Paul in the South Indian Ocean. +</div> + +<p>There can scarcely be a landscape more gloomy and desolate +than the sterile, rocky mountains, and white sandy plains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span> +which, like snow-fields, inclose Simon's Bay. Coming from +the charming coast of Brazil, with its luxuriant verdure, +the contrast becomes doubly unpleasing. A narrow green strip +of land, running along from a small fort, forms a refreshing +sight and a resting point for the eye fatigued with looking +at these grim masses of stone. The traveller who merely +touches at Simon's Bay without pushing into the interior, or +who visits the Cape in the winter of the southern hemisphere +(from April to September), can scarcely form an idea of the +voluptuous loveliness which reigns during spring and summer +in the interior of the colony, and will regard as fictitious +those brilliant descriptions of its natural beauties, +related by travellers who have been fortunate enough to +visit this point of South Africa at those genial seasons.</p> + +<p>Had we left the Cape without seeing anything else than the +melancholy neighbourhood of False Bay and the dull little +settlement of Simon's Town, on its left bank, we should have +carried away very different impressions and ideas to those +entertained after having during spring passed some weeks in +the delightful interior, and obtained at the same time an +insight into the social condition of the colony.</p> + +<p>On the very day that we cast anchor in the bay, we took a +stroll (our first footfall upon the soil of Africa) through +Simon's Town, which consists of a single street of about +forty clean, neat, and tidy-looking houses, straggling along +the shore. The principal buildings are the Arsenal, the +residence of the admiral of the station, five churches (one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +of which belongs to Roman Catholics), and two tolerably +large hotels.</p> + +<p>It is hardly possible to conceive any town occupying a more +dreary dismal site, with the exception, perhaps, of some of +the Peruvian settlements on the west coast of South America. +While the eye, below this row of houses, beholds nothing but +granite rocks thickly strewn with shells, the main street is +overhung by steep sandstone rocks, which, despite the +marvellous richness of the blooming flowers, that well repay +the researches of the naturalist, have a naked gloomy +aspect, viewed from a distance, and are environed right and +left by waste patches of white sand.</p> + +<p>The favourite walks of this small place seem to be along the +shore, or on the road to Cape Town, into the soft sand of +which the foot of the traveller is continually sinking. A +number of ladies and gentlemen whom we met walking appeared +to be somewhat surprised at the unusual appearance of an +Austrian man-of-war, the flag of which was gaily fluttering +in the gloomy bay. The residents in Simon's Town, amounting +to about 800 souls, are mostly Malays, descendants of those +numerous compulsory emigrants, who, during the period of +Dutch ascendency at the Cape, had been transported from Java +and other islands of the Indian Archipelago, owing to the +want of labour or for political causes. For the Dutch used +to send to the Cape Colony, as a place of banishment, many +wealthy and influential Malay families, by whom the first +germs of Mohammedanism were introduced into South Africa. It +would even seem that the religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> opinions of the Malay +population exercise some influence on the habits of the +Christian settlers of Simon's Town, as no butcher, for +instance, would venture to kill and sell pigs for fear of +giving offence to his Mohammedan customers.</p> + +<p>On a fine spring morning we started in a handsome vehicle +from Simon's Bay to Cape Town. The road runs close along the +seashore, which, seen from a distance, apparently consists +of nothing but sand and rock, but, on more near +acquaintance, exhibits at various points delightful nooks +decked with most beautiful flowers. Everything indicated, by +its glorious blooming garment, the bursting forth of spring.</p> + +<p>One hour's ride led us to a neat little fishing hamlet where +an immense number of fish were hanging up to dry in the sun. +The bones of whales are used by the inhabitants for all +sorts of purposes; they fence their fields and gardens with +the ribs, build walls with the vertebræ, make steps and +stairs of the shoulder bones, and use the large jaw-bones as +arches at the entrances of their huts. One of the owners of +this fishing station was kind enough to offer us, as a +particular dainty, a piece of flesh cut from the jaw of a +whale and boiled in fat; but we were not exactly of the same +opinion after having, from curiosity, tasted a few +mouthfuls. The bay is very rich in the snook-fish +(<i>Thyrsites Atun</i>), of which several hundred tons are +pickled here annually and sent to the Mauritius.</p> + +<p>Another fish caught here is said to be extremely injurious +to health, and even to endanger life—the small toadfish +(<i>Tetraodon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> Honkenyi</i>), which exists in shoals, and may +easily be caught with a line. One of the harbour regulations +consists of a special paragraph warning seamen against using +this poisonous "sea-devil." Foreign sailors who have eaten +of it have died a few minutes after.</p> + +<p>On leaving this fishing station the road, leaving the coast, +proceeds in a straight line over the plain which unites the +Cape with the continent. The mountains recede, and the eye +of the traveller gazes, charmed and surprised, on the +mountain range of the peninsula, the celebrated Table and +Devil's Mountains. The plain, which, during the dry season, +is nothing but an arid desert, was now seen in its fullest +beauty, like a flowery carpet, on which innumerable blossoms +of varied hues and forms were interwoven. On the left lie +the renowned vineyards of Constantia, and to the right +stands what is called Halfway-house, the property of a +native of Würtemberg who, some twenty years before, came to +the Cape a poor emigrant, and is now a wealthy and respected +man, known far and wide, holding several official +appointments, and showing himself a warm patron of his +German countrymen. Being a zealous sportsman, and intimately +acquainted with the locality, Mr. Rathfelder was of great +service to our zoologists, who took up their residence at +this place.</p> + +<p>From the Halfway-house to Cape Town the character of the +landscape completely changes. The road leads through a +park-like country; charming wood plantations, pines and +oaks, stretch on either hand to the extreme limits of an +undulating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span> plain, intersected by long shady paths, the +vistas terminating with elegant villas built in the Dutch or +English style. Here are Cape waggons, drawn by ten to twenty +oxen, side by side with elegant two or four-horse carriages +and densely-packed omnibuses, such as one may see in +Cheapside. We have now arrived in the charming Rondebosch, a +village that might well aspire to the dignity of a town, +chiefly inhabited as a summer residence by the wealthier +inhabitants of Cape Town. The impression made by this +beautiful road will never be obliterated from the memory of +any one who has ever ridden over it in the spring. We were +as much delighted by the sight of this smiling and verdant +landscape as we had been depressed by the sandy plains of +Simon's Bay. There, extended in charming variety before the +fascinated eye, lay Table Bay with its ships, Cape Town, and +the gigantic rocky wall of the Table Mountain resting on its +granite base, and rising nearly perpendicular to an altitude +of 3500 feet, together with the Lion's Head and the Devil's +Peak. The distant background on the other side of the plain +is bounded by the precipitous face of high, rugged, and +broken mountain walls, the summits of which were covered +with snow.</p> + +<p>Convenient and comfortable quarters were found in the +Freemasons' Hotel, situated in the Parade, a large square +planted with pines. Here, to our surprise, we met an +Austrian, attending as waiter, who had been driven by the +wild waves of the late revolution into the wide world, until +he met with a peaceful existence at the Cape of Storms!<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span></p> + +<p>Favoured by introductions to the most eminent men of +science, who received us in the most friendly way, we +succeeded, in the course of a few weeks, in acquiring rich +and valuable scientific collections, and forming important +connections for the future supply of our museums. A most +cordial reception was accorded us by Mr. Julius Mosenthal, +the Austrian Consul, and the head of one of the leading +mercantile firms of the colony. In his hospitable house, +German music and German song made us entirely forget that we +were sojourning thousands of miles from home at the +southernmost point of Africa.</p> + +<p>Cape Town is oblong in plan, with long wide streets, +intersecting at right angles. It is destitute of imposing +buildings; a commercial place, with pretty dwelling-houses, +built in the English style and comfortably furnished, all of +a light brown hue, owing to the dust, which, in south-east +or north-west winds, envelopes the town in whirling clouds, +and may indeed be considered the only plague of this healthy +delightful climate. The English element, which, with the +stereotyped customs of its life and its equitable laws, +possesses, wherever it obtains a footing, so powerful an +influence, has almost entirely superseded the Dutch, which +continues to exist only in the lonely farmhouses far in the +interior. There is scarcely anything remaining to indicate +that Cape Town was founded by the Dutch; and were it not for +the yellow Malay faces, with their gaudy head-coverings or +umbrella-shaped straw hats, and the tawny mestizoes, who +remind us of the aboriginal inhabitants, and give a +completely foreign colouring, one might easily fancy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span> one's +self to be in an old English provincial town. Generally +speaking, any one arriving here with preconceived notions of +finding himself amongst Hottentots and Bushmen, or in a +state of society differing materially from that of Europe, +will soon discover that he has been entirely mistaken. The +aborigines whom Jan van Riebeck found, when, with three +Dutch ships, he landed in 1652 at Table Bay, and in the name +of the Dutch East India Company established a settlement, +have now almost entirely disappeared from the capital. If +any one desires to see a veritable Hottentot or Bushman, he +must undertake a troublesome journey, of weeks' duration, +into the inhospitable interior. In Cape Town this singular +race is only now and then to be met with in prisons or +hospitals, and even then of a mixed breed.</p> + +<p>The colony has now a population of 280,000 white and +coloured inhabitants, of whom about 30,000 live in Cape +Town; half of these are whites, and probably not more than +1000 form the higher and influential class. There can be no +doubt that when, in 1815, the English took possession of the +Cape, a firm foundation had been laid already by the Dutch +150 years before; but the real progress of the country, and +the development of its natural resources, date only from the +commencement of British rule, by which those shackles were +thrown off with which the narrow-minded colonial policy of +the Dutch had fettered this settlement, like all others that +owned their sway.</p> + +<p>The Cape Colony since 1850 has possessed a Legislative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> +Council of 15 members, and a House of Assembly of 40 +deputies. The executive power rests in the hands of the +Governor-General, appointed by the British Government. All +bills passed by this parliament require the royal assent +before they become law.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to speak in too high and eulogistic terms +of Sir George Grey, whom we had the happiness at the time of +our stay to find in the important position of +Governor-General of the colony. Owing to the wisdom with +which Sir George governed this important colony, he gained +for himself the love and admiration of the people to such an +extent that, after the expiration of the regularly fixed +period of his office as Governor, they petitioned the Queen +of England for his re-appointment. Sir George is not only an +able statesman, but also a sound scholar, possessing a most +complete collection of books and manuscripts on the +Australian, Polynesian and African languages, and he is a +most zealous patron of the numerous scientific institutions +of the colony.</p> + +<p>The astronomical observatory, under the superintendence of +Mr. Maclear, has preserved the celebrity which it attained +by the great work on the constellations of the southern +hemisphere, the materials for which were collected by Sir +John Herschel during his residence here some twenty years +since. There is now a transit instrument, which in accuracy +excels even that of the Observatory at Greenwich, and which +is said to have cost upwards of <i>£</i>2000.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span></p> + +<p>The South African Museum, containing collections of natural +history, is now under the superintendence of Mr. L. Layard +(brother of the celebrated investigator of Nineveh). This +institution, as well as the South African public library, +the literary, scientific, and mechanics' institutions, +besides nearly fifty other establishments and societies for +religious, benevolent and industrial purposes, owe their +foundation and flourishing condition to the public spirit +and the charitable disposition of the inhabitants of the +colony. In 69 schools scattered over its surface, upwards of +18,000 pupils are educated according to a system introduced +in 1841 by Sir John Herschel.</p> + +<p>The Botanical Gardens, likewise founded and kept up by +private subscription, are not only a most agreeable resort, +but also afford much instruction, arising from the many +interesting and useful plants gathered here from all +quarters of the world. To those which are adapted for +cultivation in the sandy plains of the Cape, great attention +is devoted. Some of them have been found available in +forming as it were vegetable walls of protection against the +inroads of the sand, so destructive to all cultivation. As +particularly serviceable for this purpose, were mentioned to +us <i>Fabricia variegata</i>, a sea-shore shrub of from 6 to 10 +feet high; <i>Protea myrtifera</i>; the so-called Hottentot fig: +<i>Mesembryanthemum edulis</i>; and the Cape wax-myrtle +<i>Myricacordifolia</i>;—all these are found to thrive in the +sand without cultivation, put a stop to its ravages, and in +some respects may be considered as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> pioneers of all +other plants, which do not thrive before the sandy soil has +been prepared for them. Nay, singularly enough, some of +these (as for instance the Hottentot fig), become extinct as +soon as others make their appearance, just in the same way +as the pioneer of civilization, the backwoodsman in the west +of the United States, leaves his lonely blockhouse and +hurries on as soon as overtaken by the peaceful settler. The +wax-berry shrub is also otherwise useful to the inhabitants; +from its berries a substance is prepared well suited for +making candles. According to a treatise on its culture two +workmen are able to realize with a defecator daily 100 lbs. +of white wax from the berries gathered by six persons. The +expense of labour, &c., does not exceed 18<i>s.</i> per 100 lbs., +or about 2<i>d.</i> per pound. A large quantity of this vegetable +substance has lately been sent to London, where it is said +to have met with a profitable market. In the Botanical +Garden of Cape Town we first met the two celebrated grasses +known as <i>Holcus Caffrorum</i> and <i>Holcus saccharatum</i>, which, +by their usefulness in domestic life, have more extensively, +and perhaps quickly, than any other plant, spread over the +world. We are indebted to the Secretary of the Board of +Public Roads, W. De Smidt, Esq., for some seeds of these and +other plants, as also to Mr. McGibbon, manager of the +Botanical Gardens, for similar favours.</p> + +<p>Considering the deficiency of labour, and the large sections +of fertile land as yet uncultivated in the colony, Sir +George Grey has directed great attention to the immigration +of German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> emigrants of respectable characters, of all +trades, as well as those attached to agricultural pursuits. +The plan adopted is an excellent and thoroughly honest one. +Every emigrant, if single, obtains from the Government +thirty acres of good land, and, if married, fifty; five for +each child above one, and ten for every one exceeding ten +years of age. The rate of the land is to be fixed by +Government at a fair and reasonable sum, and, together with +the passage-money, to be paid four years after the location +of the emigrant, in five annual instalments. From the moment +the colonist steps on African ground he is an independent +owner of land, although not entitled to sell his property +until his obligations to the Government are liquidated. The +local parliament has granted a sum of <i>£</i>50,000 to promote +emigration. The Cape probably offers to an industrious +emigrant a more advantageous field for active energy than +any other country in the world. Some of the German +colonists, the remnant of the British Legion engaged in the +Crimean war, who, under General Stuttersheim, have settled +in British Caffraria, are thriving prosperously. They are +the first pioneers of the German element in South Africa, +and, under the protection of a liberal and free government, +are increasing in number annually in consequence of the +favourable reports which they transmit to their native +country.</p> + +<p>An emigration of a peculiar kind has unexpectedly taken +place. An impostor amongst the Caffres, who had assumed the +character of a prophet, pronounced the end of the world as +imminent, in consequence of which large numbers of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span> +slaughtered their cattle and left their fields uncultivated. +Being thus, in a short time, reduced to a state of perfect +destitution, not less than 19,000 of starving Caffres sought +help and an asylum in the British territory during the year +1857, and before its close the number had increased to +30,000. The colonial Government, out of consideration to the +welfare of the colonists, admitted only those Caffres who +bound themselves to act as servants, for at least one year, +at reasonable wages, and in order to prevent any danger +arising from being congregated in too large numbers, they +were located by the Government officers in various detached +parts of the colony.</p> + +<p>A very active society of philanthropists exists here, under +the title of "The Committee of Emigration from Holland." Its +object is to bring over orphans and children of the poor +from the overpopulated Dutch provinces. These useful +emigrants are partly located as apprentices to farmers, and +remain until they are of age under the care of the +Committee. During our stay a party of seventy boys and girls +just arrived from Holland assembled, with their conductors, +in one of the large avenues of the Botanical Garden, to be +inspected by the Governor-General. They all looked healthy +and cheerful, and seemed to have but little suffered from +the fatigues of a long voyage. When Sir George Grey made his +appearance the children sang the English National Anthem, +translated into Dutch, and afterwards the sweet, +affectionate song, "When the swallows homewards fly." Some +young emigrants, who, two years ago, had come under similar +circumstances from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> Holland, had already obtained good +situations, and greeted their little compatriots most +heartily. Being asked if they wished to return to Holland, +they replied, without the slightest hesitation, in the +negative, declaring that they felt very happy where they +were,—an announcement of course peculiarly agreeable to the +new-comers.</p> + +<p>An interesting opportunity was afforded to us of seeing a +large number of Caffres, of both sexes, who had been brought +in as prisoners in consequence of having made predatory +incursions into the British territory. They all arrived in a +state of nudity, and in most wretched plight, but were +immediately provided with European clothes—blue striped +shirts, sheepskin trousers, shoes, a Scotch cap, and a +blanket which served during the day as a cloak, and at night +as a covering. Their food was tolerably good, but their +abode during night, in the damp casemates of the fort, +seemed not to agree with them, and many were visibly in a +diseased state of health. Nearly all were muscular, and some +were really specimens of manly beauty. Not one of them knew +his age. Their only mode of calculating is by certain +important events, as by the death of a chieftain, or the +various wars with the English. The superintendent, Mr. +Walsh, a very obliging Irishman, had the kindness to cause +them to perform some of their national dances, wild +exercises which served the purpose of exciting their warlike +spirit. The first dance they performed they called +"Ukutenga." Six handsomely-built dancers advanced, whilst +about thirty men closed in a circle around them, and, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> +their howlings and clapping of hands, formed as it were a +musical accompaniment to this singular performance. The +dancers sighed, groaned, hissed, and made the most +extravagant grimaces and contortions, in order to arouse in +themselves an artificial excitement. One, a lad twelve years +of age, engaged so earnestly in the sports, that he +perspired from his whole body. There is another dance, +called "Tklombo," performed in the presence of diseased +persons whilst the quack doctor practises his deceptive +remedies; and a third, called "Umduta," which is only +practised at weddings and other festive occasions. This last +seemed to be the most characteristic. The semi-nude, slender +men hopped, their arms clung together, in ranks of six, +hissing with scorn, occasionally uttering a cry, then +suddenly separating and marching one after the other in slow +time, in a circle, uttering the most singular sounds. Now +they bent forward the whole upper part of the body, and then +back again, each of them making the same violent gestures as +in the former dance, and pronouncing some words to excite +their companions, such as, "Be active!" "Be alert!" until +they all trembled and became fearfully and feverishly +excited. The surrounding Caffres, who were at first mere +spectators, by degrees were seized with this singular +dancing mania, till at last the entire number, as if stung +by a tarantula, lashed themselves into a wild and apparently +ungovernable frenzy. The great difference in the colour of +the skin of these Caffres was particularly striking, as they +evidently belong to one and the same race. From the +blackness of coal to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span> bronze, all tints and shades were +observed, and one of them, called "Ngduba" (Sea-shell), +appeared to be even of a reddish yellow. He belonged to the +tribe of the Fingoes, and said that both his parents were of +the same colour.</p> + +<p>The governor permitted five young Caffres to be engaged on +board the <i>Novara</i>, with their own consent, as apprentices, +and although they were prisoners sentenced for several +years, yet the Government took every care to secure their +welfare. An agreement was signed to provide that their +return, should they desire it, might be facilitated in every +possible way. Faithful subjects could not be cared for with +more anxiety than were these legally-sentenced Caffre +prisoners by the colonial Government. Two of them went one +day on shore, during our stay at Auckland, in New Zealand, +and never came back; the other three made the whole voyage +with the <i>Novara</i>, and are now sailors on board the imperial +yacht <i>Fancy</i>. They, of course, understood, at their +embarkation, only their own singular mother-tongue; yet the +chaplain of the expedition, the Rev. E. Marochini, after +having made himself acquainted with their idiom, succeeded +in instructing these black youths, by means of their own +language, in the doctrines of Christianity, and, by degrees, +imparted some knowledge of the Italian and German languages, +the happy results of these endeavours being a complete +vocabulary and a small catechism in the Caffre language, +which the reverend gentlemen composed during the voyage; and +such progress did his three pupils make, that, on our return +to Trieste, they were so far prepared as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> to be fit for +reception, by baptism, into the Christian community.</p> + +<p>In the house of correction there were a number of female +Caffres who had been made prisoners at the same time with +their brothers and husbands, some belonging to the family of +chiefs. One, the sister of the chieftain Sandilli, was a +handsome, tall and slender woman, with mild features and +piercing small black eyes; another, by the name of +Mnovenkeli, the sister of the chieftain Mkoseni, was an +imposing and earnest-looking figure. Several of these women +bore a long stripe tattooed on their breasts as an ornament. +Several were deficient of a little finger of the left hand: +this mutilation is the effect of superstition, as it often +occurs that, in case of the severe illness of the child, the +distressed mother causes a finger of her offspring to be cut +off and sacrificed to the evil spirit, in order that the +rest of the body may be saved and permitted by the evil +spirit to recover.</p> + +<p>One of these young Caffre women had her child wrapped up in +a piece of linen tied to her back, and endeavoured to lull +it to sleep by continually moving the left elbow, by which +the baby was kept in a swinging motion, and an effect was +produced like that of a cradle. Various questions were put, +through an interpreter, to several of these females, who, +after their timidity was overcome, answered with great +readiness. Polygamy is said to prevail amongst them. Many +women have from ten to twelve children. The children are +suckled sometimes from two to three years. A numerous +progeny is the pride of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span> family. As a proof of the +legitimacy of a child, there is said to exist a kind of milk +trial. Notwithstanding considerable trouble in endeavouring +to procure information, we were unable to obtain a very +lucid idea of this singular experiment: it consists in the +father giving the infant, in the bottom of his hand, +directly after its birth, some cow's milk to drink, and if +the child refuses the draught it is considered illegitimate. +Caffre women very rarely salute their husbands with a kiss, +except after a long separation, and even then only on the +cheek—never on the lips.</p> + +<p>In the ethnographical part a detailed description will be +presented of this most peculiar race, of whom the Bushmen +are evidently only a decrepid branch. Here it will suffice +to observe that a girl, only sixteen years of age, was +noticed, whose father was a degenerate Hottentot, and whose +mother was a Bushwoman. The girl measured 4 feet 6 ½ +inches, and weighed 75lbs. Another Bushwoman, thirty years +of age, measured 4 feet 9 inches. All the individuals we saw +of this race were remarkable for their exceedingly small +hands and feet.</p> + +<p>One week of our stay at the Cape was devoted to an excursion +into the interior. On the 1st October, early in the morning, +we left Cape Town in a light two-wheeled vehicle, drawn by +four horses—a turn-out which certainly seemed better suited +for a drive in Hyde Park than a journey, however short, in +South Africa: for who would suppose that the principal roads +on the southernmost point of the most unknown quarter of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> globe, are, in consequence of English civilization and +the geognostic nature of the ground, in a better condition +than most bye-roads in the civilized states of Europe? For a +country where labour is so deficient and expensive, such +enormous works could only be executed by means of compulsory +labour: in this respect the high-roads and mountain passes +of the Cape afford the most evident proofs of how much more +beneficially and usefully convicts may be employed in +colonial works than in allowing them to rot within prison +walls, alike a burden to themselves and to society.</p> + +<p>Only ten years ago the streets of Cape Town looked at least +highly dangerous, and the steep rugged old roads, which +sometimes run parallel with the new ones, evince very +clearly the great difference between bygone days and the +present, as regards the internal communications of the +colony. The uncultivated state of the country formerly, +which indeed, in some parts, continues even yet to exist, is +the cause of the ancient custom having been retained of +placing before every vehicle, however lightly laden, sixteen +to twenty powerful oxen, even on perfectly level roads. All +longer journeys into the interior are undertaken in heavy +waggon-like vehicles, exclusively drawn by oxen. As a family +is sometimes compelled to take up abode in such waggons for +weeks together, they are completely covered and provided +with all possible conveniences; indeed, it is a sort of +locomotive house. The waggon, which much resembles the +goods-trucks used on European railways, is at least 18 feet +long, and the entire length of the set-out, including the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span> +oxen, embraces not less than from 120 to 180 feet. It may +readily be imagined how such a custom impedes speedy +intercourse, and how much more usefully a great part of the +animal power might be employed. On the excursion from Cape +Town to Stellenbosch, a small place only ten miles distant, +we met more than 100 waggons, of which not one had less than +ten, and many double that number of oxen, so that at least +1500 heads of cattle were employed in a work which might +easily have been performed by a third part of the number.</p> + +<p>The coachman was a Malay, and wore that singular +screen-formed straw hat, which so peculiarly distinguishes +the male population of his race. These men have the +reputation of being particularly skilful drivers, and thus +form a considerable portion of the coachmen of the place. +The Malay driver had an assistant by his side, who seemed, +however, chiefly to serve as ballast, in order that our +two-wheeled vehicle might not lose its equilibrium; for the +disconsolate condition of the horses rendered the fear of +their running away quite superfluous. Our charioteer drove +his horses, which now and then were rather restive, with so +much adroitness, that we arrived as early as nine o'clock in +that charming settlement Stellenbosch, which Wilkes, the +American Commodore, even in 1839, designated as the +loveliest and most beautiful in the whole colony. It has +completely preserved the aspect of a little Dutch town; the +streets are straight and wide, adorned with avenues of oaks, +many centuries old; the houses are extremely tidy and clean, +and are built in the genuine Dutch style. There is no trace +of English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> influence perceptible. Its 4000 inhabitants +mostly speak Dutch, and cultivate the vine, grain, and +fruit. No country town seen in the whole course of our long +voyage made a deeper impression, or left more pleasing +recollections, than Stellenbosch. The occasion of our visit +was certainly of an uncommonly cheerful and festive +character. On the day of our arrival the Governor was about +to review a corps of volunteers, raised in Cape Town and its +neighbourhood, to supply the place of the regular troops +about to be dispatched to the Indian battle-fields. +Extraordinary enthusiasm and interest was manifested +everywhere in the military movements. Thousands of visitors +had assembled even from great distances to witness this +novel national spectacle. The Governor had proclaimed the +day as a general holiday; all shops were closed; the streets +presented an extremely animated appearance, and in front of +every house was a crowd. The Austrian Consul had been kind +enough to favour us with a letter of introduction to one of +the first families in the place; but, taking into +consideration the general bustle and continual arrival of +strangers, we were much afraid of being, at this moment, +very unwelcome guests, as every nook and corner would +already be occupied; for in this colony visitors do not +come, as with us, for a short time, and without encumbrance, +but with waggons, horses, servants, household and all, +regularly to settle down for an indefinite period.</p> + +<p>Our own party consisted of five persons provided with four +horses, and we were now, for want of other lodgings, about +to claim the hospitality of Mynheer Van Schultze. A pretty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span> +youthful, rosy-cheeked lady, who appeared at the door, +took—not without some embarrassment—our letter of +introduction, and disappeared with it into the interior of +the stately house. We were requested to enter, and were +shown into a suite of very neat rooms, and were received, +not merely with great politeness, but with the heartiest +welcome.</p> + +<p>At ten o'clock we drove out with our hospitable friend, +Mynheer Van Schultze, to the review, which took place on the +common in the neighbourhood of the village. The number of +spectators was probably twenty times greater than that of +the volunteers; they had surrounded the ground with a wall +of carriages, on the tops of which women and children were +grouped in every picturesque attitude. The rifle volunteers +marched, with the Governor, Sir George Grey, at their head, +and preceded by a band, to the ground. There might have been +about 300 cavalry and 200 infantry, with several pieces of +artillery. They all looked very well; their uniform was +plain and remarkably suitable for the purpose, consisting of +tunics and trousers of black cloth with metal buttons, and a +common cap with a silver ornament. They went through the +usual manœuvres, whilst a good deal of gunpowder was +expended. The evolutions of the cavalry were executed with +wonderful precision, a result due chiefly to the +circumstance that, at the Cape, every inhabitant is a good +equestrian, and is trained from childhood to manage a horse.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 686px;"><a name="illu276" id="illu276"></a> +<img src="images/illu276.jpg" width="686" height="301" alt="Wealthy matrons among soldiers in large crowd outside the mansion." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RIFLE VOLUNTEER FÊTE AT STELLENBOSCH.</span> +</div> + +<p>The review finished, a breakfast was served at the Drosdy, +or Municipality, on long tables, in a magnificent avenue of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span> +oak trees; nearly 600 volunteers and many other guests sat +down, whilst in the back-ground a large number of ladies and +gentlemen were present as spectators. The presence of some +members of the Novara Expedition at the festival led the +Burgomaster, after the toast of the Queen was given, to +propose the health of the Emperor of Austria, prefacing it +with various laudatory remarks on the Expedition. The toast +was most heartily received, the whole company raising their +glasses, whilst the band performed the Austrian national +anthem. The officer to whose lot it fell to return thanks, +said:—"That he felt deeply gratified with the honour done +to his country and nation by the enthusiasm with which the +health of his sovereign had been received by so +distinguished an assembly, and that he could not forbear +expressing his admiration and delight in observing the +prosperous condition of this fine country, which, like all +others where the Anglo-Saxon race was predominant, was +blessed with freedom, with the spirit of progress, and the +blessings of Christianity;" and he concluded by proposing +"Old England for ever."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span></p> + +<p>On the day after the review the journey was pursued early in +the morning to the village of Paarl (Pearl), about four +hours distant. We had come as strangers to the hospitable +Stellenbosch, and left as old friends, the entire family +accompanying us to the carriage, and the worthy old mother +of our amiable host, a thoroughly genuine Dutch matron, was +visibly touched on taking leave of those whom, in all +probability, she would never see more.</p> + +<p>On the route to Paarl several immensely large ant-hills were +met with, some of which measured from two to two-and-a-half +feet in diameter, by about three feet high. The insects were +partly black and partly of a greyish-brown colour, and must +be very troublesome to the farmers.</p> + +<p>Paarl, an extremely neat village, consists of a single long +street, and contains nearly 4000 inhabitants, chiefly +occupied in the growth of the vine. They are the descendants +of those French Protestants who, at the close of the 17th +century, left their native country in consequence of +religious persecution. All the detached farm-yards were +extremely neat, and bore evidence of the wealth of their +owners. Nothing reminds one of Africa and the neighbourhood +of Hottentots, Bushmen, or Caffres. The landscape becomes +grander the more the mountains, 4000 to 5000 feet high, are +approached. Among them lies the little town of Wellington, +charmingly situated; though but a few years in existence, +and numbering only 2000 inhabitants, it has already a +joint-stock bank with a capital of £45,000, several schools, +and some neat places of worship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> While taking an evening +stroll, we passed a well-lighted Reformed Dutch Church, from +the interior of which the devotional tones of a pious +Christian congregation floating through the night air, died +away among the mountains.</p> + +<p>Singular to say, the small, and, one would think, +essentially prosaic and practical little town of Wellington +boasts a quack doctor, named Brabna, whom the common people, +far and near, come to consult, more, one would imagine, to +be relieved of their money than their ailments.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;"><a name="illu278" id="illu278"></a> +<img src="images/illu278.jpg" width="507" height="581" alt="Under the whip, oxen drag a wagon up a steep hill." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT WAS.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 508px;"><a name="illu279" id="illu279"></a> +<img src="images/illu279.jpg" width="508" height="569" alt="Slope moderated as result of major earth-moving." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT IS.</span> +</div> + +<p>The route to Worcester, whither we set out the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> +morning, leads at first through the wide, highly-cultivated +Waggonmakers' Valley, adorned with numbers of rich +farm-steads (so named from a number of artisans of this +handicraft having settled here in former times), after which +it passes over the difficult pass called Paine's Kloef, 4000 +feet high, which frequently recalled the well-known road +over the Sömmering Alp, or that at Optschina. This +mountain-pass, first completed in 1853, by the engineer, Mr. +Paine, greatly facilitates the traffic between Cape Town and +this fertile district, which previously was quite +inaccessible, and whose immense natural resources are only +now beginning to be developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span></p> + +<p>When we reached the highest point of the pass we found a +strong south-east wind blowing. The thermometer marked 55° +F., and when plunged in a spring that issued from the +mountain close at hand, 48°. South-east winds are especially +prevalent here, particularly in summer, when they frequently +cause serious damage; hence all the upper branches of the +trees incline to the north-west.</p> + +<p>We now came to the finest bridge in the country, named +Darling Bridge, after a late governor, which is thrown +across the broad stream called by the Dutch, Breede River, +and by the English, Broad River, a frequent source of error. +The English colonists are bent upon driving out the Dutch +names of rivers and localities, and supplying them with new +names of English origin. The Dutch, however, hold on +obstinately to the names they have been accustomed to, and +continue to use the ancient nomenclature.</p> + +<p>In the neighbourhood of Darling Bridge is a farm where the +traveller can be comfortably accommodated, and from which, +being a post-station, letters can be forwarded to all parts +of the country. It has regular communication with the rest +of the colony three times a week. The vehicle, however, in +which the letters and packets are forwarded, in consequence +of the wretched roads in the interior, and with the view of +expediting the transmission of mail matter, is simply a +light, open, eminently uncomfortable, two-wheel waggon, in +which but one passenger can be taken each trip. Day and +night, up hill and down dale, it continues its journey, +changing driver and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> horses every two hours, only the +unfortunate passenger being condemned to remain glued to the +jolting uncomfortable car, until he has attained the end of +his journey. We were told of an English captain, who once +travelled on urgent business 400 miles in fifty hours in +this fashion, and arrived at his destination in such a +pitiable plight, that he had to be lifted from the car and +put to bed forthwith, which he kept for several weeks, +before he was able to get about again. Unfortunately, we +were not told whether this unlucky passenger returned to +Cape Town by a similar conveyance.</p> + +<p>In the dining-room of the farm we made acquaintance with +several families from Graaf Reinet, in the north of the +colony, who were <i>en route</i> for Cape Town, and had been +already three weeks on the road, during which they must have +passed every night in their unwieldy waggon, or under tents. +There was also among the assembled travellers a Quaker +Missionary, of Worcester, who was on his way to the opening +of the Spiritual Synod at Cape Town, and who was so kind as +to furnish us, on the spot, with some introductions to his +friends in Worcester, a lovely little town, which we reached +towards the evening. There are places which charm at the +first glance, just as there are many men who take us by +storm as it were. Worcester is one of these; so neat, so +clean, with a pretty garden in front of each little house, +every wall of which was entwined with roses, and in the +back-ground all around, bare, but picturesque groups of +lofty hills of a blueish-grey tint, which imparted to the +entire landscape a peculiar and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> almost magical colouring. +Worcester, a creation of yesterday, has about 4500 +inhabitants, chiefly employed in vine growing and sheep +pasture. There are some of the peasantry here who own flocks +of 3000 to 4000 sheep! The rich vegetation of the valley has +an eminently northern character. Alongside of oaks, pines, +poplars, willows, will appear a tree of Australian origin, +of the order of Myrtaceæ, the blue gum-tree (<i>Eucalyptus +Globulus</i>), which, on account of its rapid growth, is +planted before each door for the purpose of shade. One of +these trees was shown to us of but four years' growth, the +stem of which was already twenty feet high! The leaves have +a highly aromatic odour, and must be especially suitable for +the extraction of oil, as the rind is full of camphor; as +yet, however, the tree is not used by the colonists for any +other purpose than to supply shade to their gardens.</p> + +<p>It is surprising what comfort the traveller encounters among +these new settlements, from which, even already, all traces +have been eradicated of the difficulties that originally +beset the colonist; so that at every turn one meets with +evidences of the highest European civilization. Whenever, +indeed, he finds himself at a settlement, he will remark +that it is not merely provided with the necessaries of life, +or the mere products of the soil, but that it sparkles with +numerous objects of luxury and refined taste; such as +handsome furniture, pianos, and other musical instruments, +engravings, English classics, besides telescopes, +barometers, thermometers, and other similar evidences of +high cultivation. At the hotel at Worcester, we met<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> with a +degree of comfort such as is found only in the chief cities +of Europe. Several of the inhabitants, among others Dr. +Esselin, a missionary of the Moravian brotherhood, and Dr. +Meynard, of the Episcopal Church, laid us under particular +obligations by their participation in the objects of our +inquiry. The latter gentleman sought us out at our hotel, +and, after a hearty welcome, remarked that he possessed, in +his collection, several highly interesting petrifactions +from Beaufort, about 400 miles north-west of Worcester. We +satisfied ourselves, however, by a visit which we paid to +Dr. Meynard at his own house, that his collection was far +from possessing the interest he claimed for it. In all +probability, however, judging by what we heard, Beaufort +must be a classic soil for the palæontologist, as there are +numberless fossils in that district, especially of reptiles. +In like manner, the stalactite grottoes, known as "The Congo +Caves," 300 miles from Worcester, have never yet been +scientifically examined or described.</p> + +<p>Dr. Esselin, who is a native of Hesse, was so kind as to +accompany the naturalists of the Novara Expedition to the +hot springs of Brand Vley the following morning. The road +thither, which lies through a valley partly overflowed +towards the end of the rainy season, was exceedingly trying +to the horses, and, but for the kind offices of Dr. Esselin, +who was acquainted with the difficulties of the route, and +undertook the guidance of the waggon through the constantly +recurring swamps and morasses, we should in all probability +have had to retrace our steps halfway, or even have stuck +fast, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> would have been a still more serious matter. +Only after unspeakable exertions did we succeed in threading +the valley of Worcester as far as the shores of Breede (or +Broad) River. Several times we were compelled, in order to +lighten the waggon, to dismount, and wade up to our knees in +water. Once the quag was so deep, that to avoid sinking in +it we had to be carried, one by one, on the back of our +Malay driver.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 683px;"><a name="illu284" id="illu284"></a> +<img src="images/illu284.jpg" width="683" height="301" alt="Trying to right a wagon capsized at a river crossing." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CROSSING THE BREEDE RIVER.</span> +</div> + +<p>On the bank is the cottage, (<i>boeren plaats</i>), of a peasant +who avails himself of his proximity to convert the stream +into a source of profit, by ferrying travellers, who have +occasion to pass here during the floods, across the river in +a small skiff, the waggon and horses being swum across +afterwards. In summer, on the contrary, the stream is +readily forded on horseback, and is indeed dry at several +points. At the period of our visit (in October, 1857), +towards the end of the rainy season, this Breede River was +about 150 feet wide, and about 28 feet deep, and we +accordingly found ourselves compelled to call in the +assistance of the ferryman. Under his superintendence the +work was gone about quite systematically. First of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> the +four horses were swum across, by a halter round the neck; +after which the luggage was transported to the opposite bank +in a small boat. Last of all came the waggon, with the +travellers therein. It was thought that the upper portion of +the waggon might be towed across, swimming on the surface of +the water, by fastening an empty water-tight cask between +the wheels; the cask, however, proved unequal to the weight. +As the waggon left the shore it sank deeper and deeper in +the water, till about mid-current it fairly capsized, hardly +a spoke of the left wheel reaching the opposite bank.</p> + +<p>Amidst our perplexities, a violent shower of rain came on, +making the waggon leak in every corner, just as we +succeeded, after great trouble, in getting it to land, and +were busy repairing it. Fortunately, every requisite +precaution had been taken to remedy any such disaster +occurring at this dangerous spot; so that the whole affair, +though sufficiently uncomfortable at the time, left only the +recollection of a pleasant adventure.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 682px;"><a name="illu285" id="illu285"></a> +<img src="images/illu285.jpg" width="682" height="269" alt="Springs with a dam; almost a river." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOT SPRINGS OF BRAND VLEY.</span> +</div> + +<p>At last, towards noon, we reached the hot springs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> Brand +Vley, or Brand Valley. This hot spring, which is quite +exposed, like a pond or tank, and even at the least +accessible points is adorned with rich vegetation, is about +100 feet in circumference, and is of a triangular shape, +rounded off at the corners. Among bananas, ferns, and cacti +of all sorts, spring up numerous specimens of <i>Calla +Ethioptica</i>, silver poplars, pines, reeds, and canes, in +wild profusion. Many fruits even, such as pine-apples, +mangoes, rose apples, &c., which as a rule do not flourish +at this elevation, grew all round the edges of the basin. +Some twigs of a rose tree, which, growing luxuriantly in the +warmth and moisture, spread across the spring, like a green +canopy, must have been a second growth of the same year. We +in fact enjoyed the unusual spectacle of seeing one portion +of the tree in the flush of its utmost beauty, while the +upper and more distant branches had not as yet put forth +their leaves. The water at the hottest point reached 145° +F., while the temperature of the air was 75° F. It is +remarkably clear, has not the slightest taste, and in many +particulars greatly resembles the springs of Wildbad +Gastein. The number of patients during the season (October +to April) does not exceed from 100 to 150, the waters being +chiefly used in chronic maladies, rheumatic affections, +scrofula, erysipelas, cutaneous eruptions, and similar +complaints. Immediately adjoining is a small brook, with a +temperature of 68° F., which rises at the foot of a +neighbouring eminence, and has water enough during the +entire year to keep a mill in constant work.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span></p> + +<p>The only animal inhabiting the spring is the larva of a +<i>Tipularia</i>, which frequents one quarter of the pool where +the temperature of the water does not exceed 113°.</p> + +<p>On the 14th of August, 1857, two shocks of an earthquake +were felt in rapid succession in Brand Valley, of such +violence as to arouse the inhabitants out of their sleep, +when several of the smaller houses were found to have rents +and fissures in their walls. The proprietor of the bath +alleged that the shocks in Brand Valley were much more +severe than at Worcester, although that town is but six +miles distant.</p> + +<p>At Brand Valley we took leave of our hospitable companion, +Dr. Esselin, who presented us with several books on leaving, +and set out on an excursion to the mission of the Moravian +Brethren in Genaaden Dal, in the district of Caledon. <i>En +route</i> we encountered several families, who came from far in +the interior of Cape Colony, driving before them enormous +herds of oxen, some of which were yoked to the waggons that +formed the caravan, these being fitted up something like +dwelling-houses on wheels. As night fell, a halt would be +called at some selected spot, when the draught oxen were +unharnessed, a fire lit in the open air, and the evening +repast prepared. Horses are very rarely used on long +journeys, although these are in consequence seriously +lengthened thereby, especially as it is the custom all over +the country to unyoke every two or three hours, so as to +allow the beasts to enjoy a roll on the ground, if only for +a few minutes at a time.</p> + +<p>As neither of our drivers was acquainted with the road we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span> +were now to pursue, we hired a black guide from Brand +Valley, who accompanied us on horseback as far as the next +farm-house, where we were to pass the night. Just as one +requires a pilot to take a ship into an insecure or unknown +harbour, so we now had to avail ourselves of the services of +this limber young negro, who was an excellent rider, in +piloting us through the endless morasses and pools of water. +Renden was the name of the solitary farm (the property of +Mr. Pretorius, a landed proprietor, to whom we had letters +of introduction), where we were to pass the night.</p> + +<p>As we approached, we were saluted with the loud barking of a +hound that had been unchained, and who seemed ready to rush +upon his unexpected prey, so that we hardly dared to advance +one step. At last a man made his appearance at the door of +the house, with a lantern in his hand, speedily followed by +the whole family, anxious to learn who could be in the +neighbourhood at so late an hour. We handed him the letter, +which we begged him to read, and requested to know whether +we could be received for the night. We were at once +admitted, and speedily found a most cordial welcome. We were +shown into apartments very plainly furnished, but neat, and +scrupulously clean, after which we were invited to join the +household at supper. It was a very numerous family. The +father and mother, genuine Dutch figures, sat at the head of +a long table; next to whom sat the son-in-law, who had +married the eldest daughter, and then commingled with each +other, the sons and daughters that were as yet unmarried. +They all seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> hearty and healthy, and their indurated +hands were the best diploma of their industry. The youngest +son said a short prayer; after which venison, potatoes, +mutton, vegetables, bread, butter, and cheese were set down +in huge dishes, besides which two bottles of Cape wine, of +their own manufacture, went the round of the table. Although +this place had been only settled four years previously, an +immense deal had been already accomplished by this stirring, +cheerful family to make the soil thoroughly productive, and +render the house habitable. Even a small garden had been +laid out in front of the dwelling-house.</p> + +<p>The chief article of cultivation in the valley is the grape, +for wine manufacture, which must in this place return a very +handsome profit.</p> + +<p>From Renden to Genaaden Dal is a four-hours' journey. The +road passes by Donker's Hoek, a tolerably high mountain, to +ascend the summit of which cost our horses some strenuous +exertion, although we marched a considerable distance on +foot. A wide belt of sandstone formation presented a +marvellous display of flowers, and gave us in little an idea +of the South African Karroos, a series of terraced +clay-patches, estimated at from 3000 to 4000 feet high, +which, hard and steppe-like in the dry season, are speedily +transformed in the rainy season into smiling, +flower-bespangled plains, quite sponge-like under foot, and +rich in alkaline products.<a name="Anchor-52" id="Anchor-52"></a><a href="#Footnote-52" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 52.">[52]</a> We advanced some six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> hours +before reaching another farm-house. This was known as Kleene +Islea Plaats (Little Island Farm), near which flows the +Zonderend River (River Without End), the property of a kind +and hospitable family of French extraction, whose parents +emigrated hither from France during the revolution in 1793. +As it was Sunday, the servants had gone to church, so they +could only offer us cold mutton, syrup, butter, and bread. +Before and after our repast, the devout old lady of the +house put up a short petition.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-52" id="Footnote-52"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-52">[52]</a> The English appellation "Karroo" seems to be +derived from <i>Karusa</i>, signifying "hard" in the Hottentot +language, and to refer to a quality appertaining to the +clayey substance of which these terraces are composed, by +virtue of which the red clay, strongly impregnated with +iron, and mixed with sand, becomes in the dry season as hard +as burnt clay.</p></div> + +<p>Here, too, we remarked that those born in the country of +European parents are called Africans: only the English form +an exception to this rule, and remain with persistent +patriotic obstinacy, "Englishmen."</p> + +<p>The journey from Kleene Islea Plaats to Genaaden Dal is +extremely picturesque. One first catches sight of this +retired Moravian settlement only when actually entering the +place itself, embowered as it is among lofty trees. What a +surprise, when, still fancying one's self at a considerable +distance from the village, on reaching the end of a +beautiful valley at the entrance to Bavian's Kloef, one +sweeps by a circuit into the very heart of the settlement. +We alighted at what is called "The Lodgment," a house set +apart for visitors, and conducted by a brother, in +conformity with the laws of the community.</p> + +<p>The dwellings of the Hottentots lie scattered among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span> +rising grounds in the neighbourhood, and with their +poverty-stricken aspect impart a somewhat melancholy +impression. These are built of loam, low in the roof, as +though intended for a stunted race of men, and rarely have +windows, so that the door is, generally speaking, the +largest aperture in the entire building. Our Malay driver +laughed at them, and called them <i>oete kripp</i> (oxen stalls).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"><a name="illu291" id="illu291"></a> +<img src="images/illu291.jpg" width="399" height="280" alt="Thatched huts with plastered walls." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOTTENTOT HUTS AT GENAADENDAL.</span> +</div> + +<p>There seem to be three distinct kinds of these dwellings, +which apparently indicate so many grades of social and +pecuniary consideration among the resident Hottentot +families. The first sort, which consists simply of a single +apartment, serving at once for kitchen, work-shop, and +sleeping place, and receiving air and light through a +narrow, low-pitched door-way, is that most usually met with, +and may not unaptly be compared to a bee-hive. The next +class is of a better description, and may at once and +definitely be distinguished from the first-mentioned, in so +far as it possesses a second room, which, if dark and +windowless, is at any rate partitioned off, and serves as a +sleeping apartment. Finally, the third kind, which can only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> +be said to be the least poor-looking, consists of one large, +almost empty chamber, for occupation during the day, with +wings on either side, one of which is used as a kitchen, the +other as a bed-room. The wretched ventilation, and damp, +moist location of these habitations, combined with the bad +quality of food, may be regarded as the main causes of the +unfavourable state of health of the coloured portion of the +inhabitants of Genaaden Dal, among whom, especially as +regards the female portion, pulmonary complaints are rife.</p> + +<p>We were provided with letters of introduction to the +Superintendent of the Community, Dr. Köbling, as also to the +Physician and Pharmaceutist, Dr. Roser, a Würtemberger by +birth, and experienced a most cordial reception. We availed +ourselves of the last hours of declining day to make an +excursion to the hills, in the country immediately adjacent, +so as to command at a glance the entire colony. The +principal buildings, the Church, the school, the workshops, +the warehouses, and the dwellings of the missionaries, are +assembled in a quadrangular open place, to which a number of +lofty, massive, leafy, venerable oaks impart a sombre, but +poetical, appearance, eminently characteristic of the +community. All the buildings are of a uniform dingy-grey +tint. Close in the rear of these buildings is a large +garden, which reaches as far as what is called "Bavian's +Kloef" (defile), in which, even at present, apes, antelopes, +and zebras, abound. Near the kitchen-garden is the cemetery +of the community, which seems to be used by meditative +brethren as a favourite resort and promenade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span></p> + +<p>This settlement, situated at the entrance of a mountain +defile, at the foot of an immense sandstone range, of from +3000 to 4000 feet high, was founded in the year 1787, by a +brother of the persuasion, named George Schmidt, from +Moravia, who settled fifty-five miles east of Cape Town, +near Sargent's River, with a number of Hottentots, whom he +began to convert to Christianity, and called the station +"Bavian's Kloef." From the year 1806, the settlement assumed +the beautiful name of "Genaaden Dal" (Vale of Benevolence), +so exquisitely correspondent with the benevolent exertions +of the brotherhood. It at present numbers 3100 souls, mostly +a race crossed between Hottentots and Mozambique negroes, of +the latter of whom a considerable number have settled here +since the Slave Emancipation Act of 1826. The settlers are +partly proprietors of the land, partly artisans, cutlers, +waggon-makers, tanners, carpenters, millers, &c. In the +workshops the most exemplary cleanliness and neatness are +imperatively insisted on. At the Great Exhibition, held in +London in 1851, the wood-work of the Hottentot carpenters of +Genaaden Dal received "Honourable Mention," and this elegant +testimonial in recognition of their efforts now hangs, +framed and glazed, in the library hall of the community. It +somewhat surprised us that the cutlers did not receive, in +their section, a similar distinction, since, in that +department of industry, the Hottentots produce articles, +which, so far as concerns quality and cheapness, are really +astounding. The workpeople receive a fixed weekly payment, +which they may expend as they please. The net proceeds, +however, of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span> various articles manufactured belong to the +community, and are expended in defraying the expenses of, +and supporting, the mission. The inhabitants of Genaaden Dal +are closely connected, by religious ties, with the +community; and only those who profess the principles of the +Moravian brotherhood are permitted to settle among them.</p> + +<p>The field-labourers, who hire themselves out to labour +elsewhere, are frequently absent from the settlement for +months at a time, and return to Genaaden Dal immediately +after the completion of seed-time or harvest. It is +significant that these labourers regard this period of +emancipation, as a sort of relaxation from the severe +discipline and rules to which they are subjected in the +religious community.</p> + +<p>The principal articles of food of the inhabitants consist of +maize, beans, pumpkins, rice, fruits, tea, coffee, and +occasionally mutton. Wine is strictly prohibited throughout +the settlement, and when a member of the <i>Novara</i> +Expedition, never imagining that this interdict extended to +strangers as well, desired the attendant at the house we +were occupying to fetch a bottle of sherry, that individual +regarded him with as horror-stricken an air as though he had +asked him to participate in some crime.</p> + +<p>Although the first settlers in Genaaden Dal were pure +Hottentots, not more than five or six at present speak the +idiom of their fathers, the rest knowing only the Dutch +tongue. The Superintendent had the kindness to allow an old +blind man, of the name of Sebastian Hendrik, to be presented +to us, born in the colony in 1775, of Hottentot parents, +"<i>een opregt Hottentot</i>"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span> (an out-and-out Hottentot), as he +called himself, and who still could speak a number of +phrases in his mother tongue, with its extraordinary +"clicking" sounds; but, on the other hand, no longer had the +slightest recollection of the customs, usages, or proverbs +of that nation to which he belonged by birth. In the library +of the community, where this conversation took place, there +were also shown to us numerous sketches by Hottentot and +Caffre lads, which gave great hope of future excellence. It +is an especially gratifying indication of intellectual +progress, that several works of natural history are to be +found on the shelves of the library.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 688px;"><a name="illu295" id="illu295"></a> +<img src="images/illu295.jpg" width="688" height="425" alt="Well-built buildings amid trees." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CHURCH AND MISSION HOUSES OF THE MORAVIAN +SETTLEMENT AT GENAADENDAL.</span> +</div> + +<p>We also found time to listen to the singing in the church, +quite a plain wooden building, erected in 1800, with +white-washed walls, a spacious gallery, and an elegant +organ, the gift of a benevolent lady of Hamburg, who spent +some months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> of the year 1843 at Cape Town in search of +health, and took an opportunity of visiting the Moravian +brethren at Genaaden Dal. One of the missionaries sat in the +middle of the chapel at a table covered with green cloth, +and gave out, verse by verse, a hymn in the Dutch language, +which was afterwards sung, with accompaniment by the organ, +by the entire community assemble in the edifice. The men and +women sat apart from each other, on smooth wooden benches, +the former on the left, the latter on the right of the +officiating minister. The chapel was only illuminated with a +few tallow candles; but the devotional feeling of the +community seemed to gain by this simple unostentatious +ritual, and the mysterious solemn obscurity of their place +of congregational worship.</p> + +<p>Next morning, 12th October, some of the brethren paid us the +attention of examining in our presence the scholars of the +Seminary for Teachers, so that we might personally satisfy +ourselves of their progress in the various branches of +education. This academy for the education of suitable +instructors, was originally established in 1838, through the +generous assistance of a Saxon nobleman, Count Schönburg, +and year by year since, has been so liberally assisted by +that benevolent nobleman, that its future prosperity seems +fairly established. At present there are in the seminary 14 +pupils (Hottentots, Caffres, and half-breeds). Since the +year of its establishment, 50 young persons in all have been +sent out hence; of whom, however, only one half proved to be +available for the duties of teachers. Up to the year 1856,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> +twenty-two pupils were already at work in the service of the +community, fourteen had been rejected as unsuitable, and +fourteen were still in the institute. They entered at from +ten to fifteen years of age, remained within its walls six +years for instruction, when they were clothed and +maintained, and thereafter, without further obligations to +the society which had educated them, were dispatched into +the most remote districts of the colony as teachers and +apostles of Christianity. The examination of the pupils of +the seminary took place at the Library Hall, which boasts a +portrait of a highly meritorious brother, the venerable C. +J. Latrobe, who, in the year 1815-16, visited South Africa +as a missionary, and, two years later published, in London, +his very remarkable book of travels. The examination +commenced with a performance on the piano by a Mestizo lad +of about sixteen, son of a Mulatto father by a Hottentot +mother. This youth displayed a decided talent for music, +coupled with truly admirable execution; and besides the +piano, played the organ, the violin, and the violoncello. +Next, a variety of questions in geography and history were +put to the pupils present. These consisted chiefly of easy +intelligible questions, principally relating to England. +Those examined were surprisingly well acquainted with the +history of Liverpool, London, Manchester, Dublin, &c., and +could enumerate many particulars about the Thames and +Westminster Abbey. What proved most disagreeable, was the +singular custom that prevailed, of all the pupils answering +at once, each hoping, by out-clamouring his fellow, to prove +his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span> intimate acquaintance with the subject under +discussion. The examiner, for example, put a question to a +scholar, whereupon all the pupils yelled out the reply in +chorus. But it was, on the whole, astonishing, and indeed +eminently suggestive, to hear Hottentots, Caffres, and +negroes, at the extreme southernmost part of Africa, +speaking of England, and her influence over the destinies of +humanity, as a commercial, maritime, and industrial power. +Already the youth of the settlement are thoroughly +interpenetrated with esteem and affection for the mother +country and its mighty people. As a <i>finale</i>, the assembled +pupils sang a Dutch <i>Bergmann's Gruss</i>, "The Miner's +Welcome," and one of Mendelssohn's delightful songs.</p> + +<p>Before we quitted Genaaden Dal we breakfasted with the +missionaries. They are all married, and manage their +households in common, and accordingly partake of their +various meals together, each with his family, all seated at +one table, one of their wives attending to change dishes and +wait at the table. Nowhere are any particular qualifications +to be remarked, and it is difficult to conceive more +thorough harmony than exists among the unpretending, yet +zealously religious missionaries of Genaaden Dal.</p> + +<p>As we were preparing for our departure, Dr. Roser +unexpectedly packed up a number of objects of natural +history and scientific interest, which he kindly presented +to the Imperial expedition as a <i>souvenir</i> of Genaaden Dal. +Besides these, there were also given to us two valuable +little books,—one a small work upon the Nicobar Islands, +written about the beginning of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> this century by a Moravian +brother of the name of Gottfried Hensel; the other a +treatise composed by the excellent Dr. Roser himself, upon +the pharmaceutics and natural history of Genaaden Dal. With +respect to the various substances chewed as stimulants, or +intoxicants, by the Hottentots, in order to deprive +themselves of sensation, or rouse themselves to a state of +high excitability, we found the following particulars in +this interesting essay. That most in use is composed of the +bruised leaves of the "<i>Leonotis Leonurus</i>." This plant, +which grows in great quantity in and beyond the Genaaden +Dal, is called by the natives "Dagga," as also frequently, +"Tacha or Takka," and this variation in pronunciation is +very probably the reason that we find in Berghaus's "<i>Völker +des Erdballs</i>" (Races of the Globe), this celebrated +smoke-weed, marked as "Donha." What the same author says of +certain stimulating properties of the plant may well be +considered as an exaggeration. It is curious how the +properties of this plant seem to be inextricably mingled +with the destinies of the Hottentots. In many places it has +been extirpated, in order more readily to wean the +aborigines from the practice of chewing: at other places +again, "<i>Leonotis Leonurus</i>" is expressly planted in order +to attract the Hottentots, and so supply any deficiency in +hands for labour, reckless of the moral consequences. +Another narcotic, and the most widely prevalent, is the wild +hemp (<i>Canabis Sativa</i>), the dried leaves of which are +smoked by the natives. Dr. Juritz, one of the most +respectable apothecaries in Cape Town, assured us he had +been compelled, during a previous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> residence at +Stellenbosch, where he was engaged in his business, to keep +always on hand in his store a large quantity of wild hemp +for sale to the natives.</p> + +<p>The poison with which the Bushmen tip their arrows, +rendering them such dangerous and terrible weapons, is +extracted from the "<i>Cestrum venenatum</i>."<a name="Anchor-53" id="Anchor-53"></a><a href="#Footnote-53" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 53.">[53]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-53" id="Footnote-53"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-53">[53]</a> The Dyaks of Borneo poison their arrows with +the juice of <i>Strychnos Tieuté</i> and <i>Antiaris Toxicaria</i> +(Upas).</p></div> + +<p>Among the animal products of Genaaden Dal of importance in a +scientific point of view is Hyrazeuma, a substance obtained +from the urine of the Cape Marmot (<i>Hyrax Capensis</i>). It is +of a dark-brown colour, somewhat tenacious, and nearly hard, +of a very penetrating odour, and is found in cavities +resembling a molehill. This article is made use of with much +effect in hysterical complaints by the Hottentots. Dr. Roser +is of opinion, that this Cape Marmot is in all probability +the same animal which Martin Luther, in Leviticus, c. xi, v. +5, and Proverbs, c. xxx, v. 26, has translated by the word +"<i>kaninchen</i>" (conies).</p> + +<p>On our way from Genaaden Dal to Caledon, to which there is +an excellent level road, we perceived a large number of +silver poplars, with pendent nests of finches. On a single +tree we counted more than forty such pendent nests, +constructed in a very singular manner.</p> + +<p>Caledon is a cheerful, ambitious little town, important as +the centre of the wool trade, as also for the thermal +springs in the neighbourhood. These, situated about two +English miles outside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span> the town, on a rising ground, in a +romantic and highly attractive neighbourhood, are +impregnated with iron, and of a considerable temperature. +Even in the bath-house, distant about a mile from the source +of the spring, a thermometer held in a stone trough, filled +to overflowing, marked from 100°·4 to 104° Fahr. At their +respective sources the one spring has a temperature of +116°·6 Fahr. and the other 114°·8 Fahr. The colour of the +water is ochre yellow. From the terrace of the bath-house a +rather extensive landscape opens to the view, backed by a +splendid range of mountains, including the Tower of Babel, +as the inhabitants have christened the highest peak in this +vicinity.</p> + +<p>Caledon has 600 inhabitants. About twenty years ago there +were not more than ten bales of wool grown in the entire +district. At present about 800,000 lbs. are shipped +annually. One Merino sheep supplies from 1 lb. to 1½ lb. +of wool, worth from 1<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> sterling per +pound. Besides Caledon, the principal wool districts of Cape +Colony are Swellendam, Beaufort, and Graaf-Reinet. All these +districts united produce yearly about 15,000,000 lbs. of +wool, worth about <i>£</i>1,000,000 sterling. Within two years +the wool produce of the entire colony has increased 30 per +cent., and during last year a strenuous and very costly +experiment has been made to introduce the Angora breed, with +the intention of increasing the wool-producing powers of the +less fleecy race by a judicious cross with the native +species.</p> + +<p>The road to Somerset-West leads over the high and +picturesque<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> Hauw-Hoek Pass and Sir Lowry's Pass; the latter +is very steep, and parts of it are hardly, if at all, +inferior in extent and variety of landscape to those +presented by the Styrian Alps. At the culminating point of +the latter pass, which surpasses even Paine's Kloef in +height and width, one stands as upon the ruins of a lofty +tower, from which the eye can range at will over the entire +country beneath. South-east and eastward towers the +Hauw-Hoek Pass, while southwards and westwards the charming +Lowry's Vale, and far in the distance the smiling settlement +of Somerset-West come into view, while all around, farther +than the eye can reach, are luxuriant pasturages, that only +wait to be settled and cultivated in order to produce +magnificent returns.</p> + +<p>Somerset-West, a prettily-built, and very charmingly +situated settlement, already supports so considerable a +traffic with the capital that a daily omnibus has proved a +remunerative speculation to the promoters.</p> + +<p>We now proceeded to Zandvliet, the property of one of the +oldest and most highly considered families in the colony, +named Cloete, where we spent the night. With these genial +kindly people we soon felt ourselves as entirely at home as +if with our own families; we sang, laughed, and frolicked, +till far into the night.</p> + +<p>The following morning we drove to a hill, about a mile and a +half distant from Zandvliet, known as Macassar Downs, on +which is the spot of interment, (Krammat or Brammat), of a +Malay prophet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"><a name="illu303" id="illu303"></a> +<img src="images/illu303.jpg" width="502" height="585" alt="A long stairway up to a big tomb on the hilltop." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TOMB OF A MALAY PROPHET AT ZANDVLIET.</span> +</div> + +<p>This individual, so honoured in death, was, if we are to +believe the Malays, a direct descendant of Mahomet, named +Sheikh Joseph, who, expelled from Batavia by the Dutch +Government for political reasons, settled in the colony +about a century and a half ago, and died and was buried in +the neighbourhood of Zandvliet. An especial deputation came +over from Malacca to Cape Colony to fetch away the corpse of +the defunct prophet, for conveyance to the land of his +birth; but at the disinterment it happened that the little +finger of the prophet, in spite of the most persevering +research, could nowhere be found. This circumstance appeared +to those simple believers sufficient reason for erecting a +monument<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> over the spot in which the finger of a Malay +prophet lay hid from view. Even to this day the Malays from +time to time perform a pilgrimage to the Colony and +celebrate their religious ceremonies at the Mausoleum. Four +followers of the prophet are buried with him, two of them +Mahometan priests, who are regarded with much veneration by +the Malays. An extensive flight of stone steps leads to the +tomb, the exterior of which is very insignificant, and, but +for a small pointed turret, hardly differs from an ordinary +dwelling-house. On entering, a low-roofed vault is visible, +a sort of front outhouse, which rather disfigures the +façade, and much more resembles a cellar than the portal of +a Mausoleum. Above the arch of this vault an Arabic +inscription has been engraved with a stylus; but this is so +painted over in brick colour that it has already become +almost illegible. Judging by the few words that have been +deciphered, it seems to consist of the first propositions of +the Koran.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"><a name="illu305" id="illu305"></a> +<img src="images/illu305.jpg" width="352" height="280" alt="Interior of the mausoleum." title="" /> +<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM.</span> +</div> + +<p>The inner room, provided on two sides with modern glazed +windows at irregular intervals, is about the size of an +ordinary room of 12 feet long, 9 wide, and 7 high. In the +middle rises the monument, to which access is had by some +more brick steps. Immense quantities of unwashed white linen +cloth are heaped upon it, which seem occasionally sprinkled +with a brown odoriferous liquid (<i>dupa</i>). As at the head of +Sheikh Joseph, so at his feet several figures, resembling +those in enamel used to ornament tarts, are drawn upon the +linen cloth with the overflowings of the unguent. These have +undoubtedly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span> been formed accidentally, and it appears wrong +and unfair to attribute to them any more recondite +significance. The monument rests upon four wooden pillars, +with pyramidal pinnacles or ornaments, and is richly +decorated with fine white muslin, which gives to the whole +very much the appearance of an old-fashioned English +"fourposter," with its costly drapery and curtains. While +the curtains are spread out all around, several small green +and white bannerets stand at the upper and lower end of the +sarcophagus. The whole interior is, as it were, impregnated +with the incense which devout Malay pilgrims from time to +time burn here, especially after the forty days' fast +(Ramadan), or leave behind upon the steps of the tomb in +flasks or in paper-boxes. On such occasions, they always +bring wax-candles and linen cloth as an offering, with the +latter of which they deck the tomb afresh, so that a perfect +mountain of white linen rises above the stone floor. During +their devotions they unceasingly kiss this white mass of +stuff, and as they are continually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> chewing tobacco, this +filthy habit produces disgustingly loathsome stains.</p> + +<p>On the same hill which boasts the tomb of Sheikh Joseph, +there are also, in ground that is common property, nine +other graves of eminent Malays, enclosed with +carefully-selected stones, and likewise covered over with +large broad strips of bleached linen cloth, protected by +stones from any injury by weather or violence. At the head +and foot of each individual interred, is a single stone of +larger size. Formerly the black inhabitants of the +neighbourhood made use of this store of linen cloth to make +shirts for themselves, without further thought upon the +propriety of the matter. Latterly, however, a shrewd Malay +priest spread a report that one of these ebony linen +stealers had lost all the fingers off one hand, since which +the graves of those departed worthies remain inviolate and +unprofaned.</p> + +<p>At the foot of the hill are some small half-fallen-in +buildings, near a large hall, painted white, red, and +yellow, consisting of a small apartment and a kitchen, the +whole in a most dirty, neglected, and desolate condition. At +this point the Moslems must have accomplished certain +prayers, before they can climb the hill and proceed to visit +the tomb. Over the door of this singular house of prayer +some words are likewise engraved in the Arabic character, +which, however, are now entirely illegible.</p> + +<p>On quitting the Malay Krammat, we next undertook a tolerably +difficult walk to the Downs or sand-dunes, which at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span> +point extend along the entire coast line, on which the +wax-berry shrub, as already mentioned, grows wild in vast +quantities, and visibly prevents the further encroachments +of the moving sand. The Eerst Rivier (First River) may be +regarded as the limit of demarcation between the sand-dunes +and the soil adapted for vegetation.</p> + +<p>The same evening the naturalists of the Expedition left +hospitable Zandvliet, though not till after they had been +presented by Herr Cloete with a splendid collection of +fruits indigenous to Port Natal. Having been everywhere +received with distinction, and enjoyed every sort of +assistance in our researches, we set out on our return so +richly freighted with objects of natural history, that the +waggon, as we drove through the wide streets of Cape Town, +presented such a various and substantial assortment of each +as spoke volumes for the success of our journey. Every +available corner was called into requisition to dispose of +our prizes—even between the open windows hung suspended the +bottle-shaped nests of the finch, and the slender sticks +that supported the tilt were entwined with gigantic festoons +of flowers. In a word, the whole waggon, with its variegated +contents, resembled a holiday-van on its return from a +country excursion, so gaily and cheerfully was it decorated.</p> + +<p>During our residence in the Cape colony, severe depression +existed among the agricultural inhabitants of the Western +and Eastern districts, in consequence of an epidemic which, +within two years, had carried off 64,850 horses (draught +horses,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> mares, and foals), of the value of £525,000 +sterling.<a name="Anchor-54" id="Anchor-54"></a><a href="#Footnote-54" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 54.">[54]</a> Many landowners in consequence entirely gave up +rearing horses, and turned their attention almost +exclusively to the breeding of sheep. The visitations of +this malady are by no means of late introduction, but +hitherto they had made their appearance at such long +intervals, that but little attention was paid to them and +people regarded their return without much alarm. This +disease of the horse, usually endemic in Cape Colony, +assumed every twenty years, owing to some inexplicable +causes, an epidemic character, and on those occasions +extended over an extensive area, as happened with +extraordinary regularity in the years 1780, 1801, 1819, +1839, and 1854. Hitherto no further precaution was taken, +than, so soon as the disease appeared, to drive the horses +from the grass pastures to their stables or covered sheds, +and there supply them with fodder, the night dew being +considered a main cause of the complaint. A resident in +Stellenbosch, indeed, maintained that the dew which was +deposited during the continuance of the disease tasted quite +bitter, and was of an unusual brownish tinge. Singular to +say, not the slightest symptoms of illness manifested +themselves in the swine, dogs, and birds of prey which +devoured the carcases of horses that died of the disease,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> +while the consumption, whether boiled or roasted, of mutton +which was ever so slightly tainted with the mere germ of +this malady, never failed to produce the most mischievous +consequences on the human species. According to Dr. +Livingstone the same malignant ulcerous imposthumes were +produced, if even sound portions were used of the carcase of +an animal that had died of this complaint. These +observations, founded on innumerable examples, run counter +to the opinion of the French physicians and physiologists, +that the malignity of the poison in such cases becomes +neutralized by the process of cooking. Considering the +importance of the subject to a land-holding colony, it could +hardly fail that numerous individuals should devote +themselves to elucidating the causes of this devastating +epidemic; but it must ever remain a striking and significant +fact, illustrative of the high standard of cultivation in +Cape Colony, that within a very few years 112 different +authors published treatises respecting this complaint among +the horses. The result of these numerous researches was, +that the malady is epidemic, but not contagious; that horses +driven into the stable before sunset, and not permitted to +go out to pasture till the dew has evaporated off the grass, +are as a rule exempted from attack; that those horses which +are kept at night in open pounds, or in places where there +are heaps of dung, take the disease in a milder form than if +suffered to roam at large day and night; lastly, that horses +for which no covered shelter can be provided, may with great +advantage be sent to hilly localities and dry runs of land. +The practical remedy which was most resorted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> to, consisted +in immediate and prolonged bleeding, pushed to actual +exhaustion of the animal, in the first stage of the malady, +as also the exhibition of 1 drachm of tartar emetic and 2 +drachms of calomel, or, at a later stage, of 30 grains of +tartar emetic twice a day.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-54" id="Footnote-54"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-54">[54]</a> At the same time 92,793 head of cattle (draught +oxen, cows, and calves) fell a sacrifice to a disease of the +lungs, and we were assured that the original cause of this +terribly fatal malady (<i>Pleuropneumonia</i>) is attributable to +a bull having been imported from Holland, in the year 1854, +in a diseased state. The English public will remember the +severe panic under which Continental graziers, and others +connected with the cattle trade, laboured during the years +1854-55 and the commencement of 1856.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 335px;"><a name="illu310" id="illu310"></a> +<img src="images/illu310.jpg" width="335" height="280" alt="Overhead drawing of specimen." title="" /> +<span class="caption">TSETSE FLY.</span> +</div> + +<p>Another appalling scourge of the settlers in the south-west +district of Cape Colony is a minute, almost imperceptible +insect, of terrible omen, the <i>tsetse-fly</i> (<i>Glossina +morsitans</i>), a puncture from which produces such terrible +destruction among horses and cattle, that several runs of +land are uninhabitable—nay, even the mere passing through +districts which they frequent, proves fatal to the draught +beasts of the caravans. This insect is principally +encountered in copses and brushwood, very seldom in the open +country, and is about the size of a common house fly, but +with wings a little longer. In colour it resembles the honey +bee. The tsetse is uncommonly active, and usually escapes +all attempts to catch it with the hand; but in the cool of +the morning or evening it is less active and quick in its +movements. The poison which it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> carries is so powerful that +the bite of three or four individuals is sufficient to kill +the most powerful ox. Many animals, especially such as +appear perfectly sound or in the best condition, die +speedily after being bitten, but the majority are ill for an +entire week, and usually become blind before death. One +remarkable circumstance is that the bite of these insects is +fatal to dogs, even when fed with milk, while calves and +other young animals, so long as they are sucking, remain +perfectly exempt from the malefic powers of the tsetse. It +is especially noticed that the danger seems to be confined +to domesticated animals, while such as are wild or only half +reclaimed, such as buffaloes, zebras, jackals, oxen, horses, +and wild dogs, have not the slightest occasion to dread this +insect; nay more, it attacks man himself without the least +ill consequences. The sensation which their bite produces on +the hand, or other portion of the human frame, would be +confounded by any one travelling in the tsetse district, +with that of another minute and most troublesome, though by +no means dangerous insect, the flea. Fortunately the +tsetse-fly has an appointed circuit to range in, in the +south-west of the Cape Colony, which it never changes or +extends. The landowner may erect his cattle-pound on one +side of the stream in perfect security, although the +opposite bank may resound with the hum of swarms of these +insects. When the natives, who are acquainted with the +localities in which the tsetse-fly abides, are compelled, as +they constantly are, to shift their ground, and, in changing +their pastures, to transgress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> upon the district of the +tsetse, they usually select the moonlight nights of winter, +when the insect, during the quiet hours of the cold season, +is not likely to molest their charge.</p> + +<p>Many travellers whose draught oxen and horses have been +killed by the ravages of this insect, are annually not +merely frustrated in their journey, but, it appears, have +their personal safety seriously imperilled by being deprived +of all means of locomotion. Anderson, in his admirable work +upon "Lake Ngami," relates that some twenty aborigines of +the Griqua race, who had been elephant-hunting in the +north-west of that lake, and were provided with three large +waggons and numerous oxen and horses, found, on their return +to their encampment, that they had lost the whole of their +cattle-team by the bite of the tsetse. So, too, Dr. +Livingstone, during a short journey over a district +frequented by the tsetse, lost forty-three strong and useful +oxen, although by dint of great vigilance scarcely twenty +flies had been able to settle among the entire herd. We have +dwelt at length on the description of the ravages caused by +this so much dreaded insect, with the view of pointing out +the numerous and amazing difficulties which present +themselves to the traveller or settler in certain +localities, and how often not only wild and rapacious +animals, but even small, hardly perceptible insects endanger +the life of the wanderer, and render large tracts of lands +valueless for settlement.<a name="Anchor-55" id="Anchor-55"></a><a href="#Footnote-55" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 55.">[55]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-55" id="Footnote-55"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-55">[55]</a> Most valuable comprehensive details, as to the +natural history of the tsetse-fly, its ravages, and its +migration into the districts which it frequents, are to be +found in the "Transactions of the Royal Society," Volume +XX., page 148; "Proceedings of the London Geological +Society," page 217; Charles John Anderson's "Lake Ngami; or, +Explorations and Discoveries during Four Years' Wanderings +in the Wilds of Western Africa," London, 1856; Dr. +Livingstone's "Missionary Travels and Researches in South +Africa," London, 1857. The agent of the London Missionary +Society at the Cape of Good Hope, the estimable, highly +respected Dr. Thompson, gave us a small piece of a root +called <i>fly-root</i>, which is considered to grow from a +parasite, and a decoction of which is reckoned by the +aborigines an antidote to the bite of the tsetse-fly. +Unfortunately the requisite material was not in sufficient +quantity to admit of determining the plant itself, or of +instituting further researches with it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span></p></div> + +<p>No stranger can well leave Cape Town without having visited +Constantia, the chief seat of the wine cultivation of the +country. Accordingly we had a day of exceedingly pleasant +relaxation while visiting High Constantia. Mr. James +Mosenthal, the very hospitable Austrian Consul, had +carefully selected the most beautiful spot in the immediate +vicinity of Cape Town, the charming residence of his friend +Mynheer Van Reenen, at which to get up a splendid <i>fête +champêtre</i> on an extensive scale, in honour of the visit of +this the first man-of-war that had borne the flag of our +country into these remote seas. The entire staff of our +frigate was invited, and over a hundred guests, comprising +the flower of the fair sex of Cape Town, took part in the +festivities. Immense four-horse coaches conveyed the company +in the forenoon to the hill of Constantia. The company +wandered at leisure under the gigantic oak trees, or in the +beautifully laid-out garden of this extensive domain, and +after a sumptuous <i>déjeuner</i>, the majority set to dancing. A +small orchestra of stringed instruments played alternately +with the ship's band in the garden, and in the tastefully +decorated apartment. Those who did not care to dance, or +whom a burning afternoon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> sun prevented from walking in the +open air, might escape into cool and most elegant cellars, +where our hospitable entertainer had stored large quantities +of "spiritual treasures." The costly nectar which the Cape, +and especially High Constantia, produces, finds its way but +seldom to European tables, because the quantity produced is +very much below the demand; for although the first +cultivation of the grape for wine dates in Cape Colony so +far back as 1668, the wine manufacture has only of late +years expanded in a marked degree,—viz., 45 per cent. from +1855 to 1856, and 70 per cent. from 1856 to 1857, so that at +present the entire quantity produced of red and white Cape +wine (Pontac and Frontignac) may be stated at 24,000 pipes, +worth £380,000 sterling.</p> + +<p>At the conclusion of the <i>fête</i> we sat down to a splendid +banquet in the open air, in a shady avenue, so as to admit +of all the guests sitting at one long table. At the upper +end, under the umbrageous boughs of some venerable oaks, +that towered like a canopy overhead, fluttered the flags of +England and Austria. The mayor of Cape Town occupied the +chair; the toasts customary on such occasions were given and +responded to, allusion being made to the pleasure felt at +the arrival of an Austrian man-of-war, as also to the +gratitude of the members of the Expedition for the hearty +welcome prepared for them, and expressing an earnest hope +that both Governments may ever continue faithfully allied, +as both nations are, by descent, sympathy, and intellectual +pursuits. A few days after this splendid entertainment, we +returned to Simon's Bay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> whence the <i>Novara</i> was already +preparing to sail. The several weeks' stay of the frigate at +the little settlement of Simon's Bay, together with a +certain quantity of repairs, had called forth a most +unwonted briskness of business. Amid so circumscribed a +population, the sudden influx of more than three hundred +additional consumers, with their varying wants, speedily +made itself perceptible in every class of the community, the +more so as most of the heavy stores for the voyage were +bought here, so that the sum set in circulation during these +few weeks amounted to some £2,000. At the same time the +Expedition were readily permitted to contribute a mite +towards building the Catholic Church in Simon's Town, and to +present some priests' garments, altar cloths, and church +fittings, which had been intended by the Austrian Government +for distribution among four Catholic Missionaries in the +various quarters of the globe visited.</p> + +<p>Some members of the Expedition also set out on an excursion +some thirty nautical miles, to where the peninsula of the +Cape stretches out to the real Cape of Good Hope itself—a +longer, more difficult, but also more interesting +expedition, which gave fresher impressions, and conveyed a +pretty accurate and more just idea of the physical features +of the Peninsula of the Cape, its vegetation, zoology, and +geological structure, than could be obtained by a cursory +examination, of the natural features of a large portion of +South Africa. For whoever has clambered up the torn, broken, +rocky masses of Table Mountain, worn out and eaten away by +the atmosphere, and has scrambled among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> its wild hollows, +with its forests of the greyish green <i>Pratea Gargentea</i> at +his feet, amid its far extending rocky plateaux, full of +stagnant water-pools; whoever has strayed thence among the +wine-producing terraced hills of Constantia, with their rich +vegetation; over the sandy table-lands backed by rocky +ridges, over streams of copper-coloured water, and the boggy +tracts that extend to the extreme south-west point, as far +as the Sandstone rocks, 800 feet high, which, descending +sheer into the tempest-tossed, fearsome, boiling ocean, +constitutes the actual Cape of Good Hope—obtains a +tolerably just and correct idea of the appearance of +Southern Africa for one hundred miles into the interior, and +along the coast line, 400 English miles in length, which +stretches from St. Helena Bay as far as the River Samtoos, +west of Algoa Bay. All is sandstone or clay-slate, with +occasional granitic knobs cropping out; no trees, but such +as are planted in clumps around the sparsely scattered +farms, conspicuous from an immense distance; while, on the +other hand, in spring, an indescribable flush of blossoms +and flowers, and instead of trees, millions of ant-hills, +with their regularly shaped cones from three to four feet +high, impart a peculiar character to the landscape of South +Africa. But on the so-called Lowlands of Algoa Bay, beyond +the River Samtoos, Nature assumes an entirely different +character in her forest vegetation. Unfortunately, the +original designs of the geologists of the Expedition, of +Examining the petrified treasures of this renowned district, +fell through, which was all the more to be regretted as this +geological Eldorado promised a great accession to our +collection.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span></p> + +<p>During our stay at Simon's Town, we also experimented with +our astronomical instruments, which, at our next station, +St. Paul's Island, were to be brought fully into requisition +for the first time. On this occasion, as on many others, the +unfailing courtesy and kindness of the renowned astronomer +and director of the Observatory of Cape Town, Mr. Thomas +Maclear, assisted us most materially in the observations for +comparison with our own physical instruments.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate325t" id="plate325t"></a> +<img src="images/plate325t.jpg" width="350" height="179" alt="Novara's track." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE IV.—FROM THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE TO ST. +PAUL'S ISLAND.</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate325.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>On the morning of the 26th October it fell calm, changing to +variable breezes and light puffs of wind, that made it +doubtful whether we could sail that day, as we needed a +catspaw from the West in order to weigh anchor. From the +English line of battle-ship <i>Boscawen</i>, there floated across +the bay as we worked out, the Austrian National Anthem, +played as a farewell—a graceful mark of recognition—which +was replied to by our band performing the sister hymn, "God +Save the Queen."</p> + +<p>We steered between Noah's Ark and Roman Rock, coasting along +till we made Whittle Rock, but the wind shifting, we were, +ere long, compelled to tack. Had we not seized the +favourable moment to get away, it would, a couple of hours +later, have been impossible to put to sea, as the wind +sprang up from the S.E. and blew fresh. Towards sundown, the +sky cleared up, and we once more caught sight of the +serrated outline of the southernmost point, with its +desolate, worn, hollowed-out, rocky masses, which, however, +with the <i>souvenirs</i> of the hearty reception that had been +accorded us in Cape Town<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> seemed on this occasion much more +home-like and habitable. All of us, indeed, carried with us +in our breasts the most cordial and agreeable reminiscences +of the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>In spite of many drawbacks and deficiencies of physical +requisites, which oppose the rapid development of its +natural resources, Cape Colony possesses in its healthy +climate its valuable indigenous products, and its free +political institutions, a guarantee for its perhaps gradual, +but on that account more substantial, progress. It is a +favourable specimen of a prosperous agricultural colony able +to maintain itself, whose inhabitants, seeking in the +peaceable cultivation of the soil their sole reward, are +exposed to none of those ruinous reverses of fortune, which +make life in those lands that are rich only in a metallic +currency so stormy and uncomfortable, and render their +future so problematical.</p> + +<p>A colony, which already employs annually, in its commerce +all over the world, a thousand ships, which has a trade +valued at nearly £2,000,000 sterling, and before long will +be in a position to export 30,000,000 lbs. of wool a year, +besides an unlimited quantity of wines already in great +demand, whose soil, owing to its prolific nature, returns, +under human cultivation, crops of one hundred-fold, while in +its unexplored districts as many additional vegetable and +mineral treasures lie unavailable as yet—such a colony +carries in itself the germs of a splendid development into a +great and most enviable future. Provided with laws of a most +liberal scope, and institutions corresponding to the spirit +of our times, which leave each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span> colonist entirely at liberty +to develope his powers and capabilities in whatever +direction he pleases, Cape Colony must, ere long, stand +forth as the pattern colony for all others in the different +countries beyond sea,—a majestic monument of the reward so +justly due to the English nation for its policy in promoting +the moral and material progress of mankind in the most +remote corners of the earth.</p> + +<p>We lay a southerly course in order to strike the regular +Westerly winds, which we might hope to fall in with in the +neighbourhood of 40° S., and already we again saw our old +friends, the albatross, the cape pigeon, and the stormy +petrel, in innumerable quantities.</p> + +<p>By the evening of the 28th we had attained our limit in the +South-west, but the West winds had not yet made their +appearance, so that we had to contend till 1st November with +baffling light winds alternating with calms. At length in +37° 30′ S. and 18° 4′ E., we encountered Westerly breezes, +which, ere long, freshened, veered to the southward, and +compelled us to shorten sail. We were at this time not quite +as yet in the zone of West winds, but had to do with +variable winds; which, however, as the prevailing winds must +be west or south, could generally be made available to +enable us to lay our course for St. Paul. Although in the +month corresponding to May in the southern hemisphere, we +found ourselves shivering with cold, the thermometer barely +reached 18° Cent. (64°·4 Fah.) during the day in the open +air, and our bodies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> accustomed of late to a milder +temperature, felt as though it were twice more rigorous than +it actually was, in consequence of the wind coming from the +ice-bound antarctic regions.</p> + +<p>On the afternoon of 4th November, a great excitement arose +on board; a violent shower filled the lifeboats with water, +and a large black object was observed swimming in the sea. +Fortunately, it was not a man, though it proved to be a +great favourite that had fallen overboard. Bessy, an ape, +had got loose from her chain, and while being chased, fell +in her eagerness into the sea, which fortunately was +tolerably smooth. The droll little brute had quickly made +itself such a favourite with the crew from its comical +attractive ways, that its sudden fall overboard awoke +universal sympathy. A boat was lowered, and Bessy rescued, +who speedily recovered from her fright, and although +dripping wet, proceeded to consume an orange that was handed +her with an expression of entire satisfaction.</p> + +<p>On reaching 40° S., 31° E., the West winds became more +steady, with a perceptible increase of motion, giving an +average of 33 feet as the height of the waves, while the +frigate rolled heavily. Sometimes several "Rollers" would +follow one after the other, which made the ship heel over +from 20° to 25° on either side. At each roll, streams of +water poured in upon the gun-deck. The cannon-shot kept up a +deafening dance from one side to the other, while stools, +tables, chests, and in short everything that could move, +were unmistakably "lively." The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> temperature of the air +during the night fell to 41° Fahrenheit, and was felt yet +more keenly in squalls accompanied by rain, which made our +life on board anything but agreeable, although the certainty +that we were proceeding favourably with the so-called +"<i>Fair</i>" Westerly winds indemnified us in some degree for +the discomfort.</p> + +<p>On 14th November, in 40° 44′ S., 60° 8′ E., we availed +ourselves of a dead calm and smooth sea to try a cast of +Brooke's Patent Deep-sea Lead.</p> + +<p>While at Rio, we had been supplied, through the kindness of +Don José de Barnabé, Commander of the Royal Spanish Frigate +<i>Bilbao</i>, with a large quantity of lead-line, after an +unsuccessful attempt to purchase it there. Unfortunately, +however, the line had become somewhat decomposed by +moisture, and gave way at 6,170 fathoms (37,020 English +feet) while still running out, so that on this occasion +also, we could only tell that bottom had <i>not</i> been reached +with the portion of the line paid out.</p> + +<p>The times occupied by the line in running out were as +follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td>1st</td><td>1000</td><td>fathoms</td><td>15</td><td>minutes</td><td>36</td><td>seconds.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2nd</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>26</td><td>"</td><td>59</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>3rd</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>34</td><td>"</td><td>20</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>4th</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>43</td><td>"</td><td>25</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>5th</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>61</td><td>"</td><td>5</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>6th</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>75</td><td>"</td><td>55</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td>And the last</td><td>170</td><td>"</td><td>11</td><td>"</td><td>40</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>____</td><td> </td><td>______</td><td> </td><td>______</td></tr> +<tr><td>Total</td><td>6,170</td><td>"</td><td>4 hours</td><td> </td><td>29 minutes.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span></p> + +<p>To the apparatus two 30-lbs. shot were attached, and the +first 100 fathoms of line were doubled. By this observation +we satisfied ourselves that such soundings are only +successful when none but the best materials are employed, +and, moreover, that the line becomes deteriorated in an +extraordinary degree by long stowage on boardship, so that +it is better in long voyages not to take such large supplies +of line, but to adopt most stringent measures to prevent its +being weakened by damp. Very probably a light coating of tar +over the line would tend to keep it in good preservation, +and it also seems advisable proportionately to strengthen +the first 500 or 1000 fathoms.</p> + +<p>On the 18th November the look-out man descried from the main +topgallant mast-head the Island of St. Paul, the goal of our +wishes, the object which had so long occupied our thoughts, +and on which our scientific capabilities were to be called +into enviable activity. The necessary arrangements were +completed for facilitating astronomical observations, the +instruments and other necessaries taken out and got in +readiness to be conveyed to the island, and the various +stations and duties of the different members specified, so +as to admit of the observations being completed in the +shortest possible time.</p> + +<p>On the 19th November, at daybreak, we found ourselves close +in with St. Paul's Island, while on our port-side the +outline of New Amsterdam was visible in the shape of two +lofty peaks on the horizon. As the wind blew from the N.W., +we kept the ship's course past the north promontory of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> +island, and ranged along the eastern side to the selected +anchoring ground. As we doubled the northernmost point, the +conical-shaped Nine-Pin Rock came into view, while the high +and precipitous margin of the island in the N.E. with the +entrance into the crater became visible. How great, however, +was our astonishment, when we observed some neatly laid-out +terraces, of a fresher green hue than were observed in the +upper table-lands of the island! These were evidently spots +cultivated by former or present residents in the island. But +no traces of habitation were seen, whether of mankind or of +the seal. Only flights of albatrosses, bryons, ospreys, and +sea-swallows, with now and then the protracted screams (like +human groans) of immense flights of penguins, those +singular-looking sea-birds, which awaken so deep an interest +alike for their striking appearance as by their mode of +life.</p> + +<p>An examination of the rock of the island showed layers of +black lava, alternating with yellow and red tufa, which +seemed stratified regularly from the rim of the crater to +the extreme circumference of the island. "Thirty fathoms, +and no bottom," sung the wearied leadsman; and presently, +"Thirty fathoms,"—and a few minutes before 9 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> the +anchor rattled out, on the 24th day after we left Simon's +Bay, after retracing our steps Eastward some 3000 miles. Our +anchorage, as we afterwards became aware, was not the best +possible, as we ought to have lain closer in to the island. +But when one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span> anchors nearer the land in a less depth of +water, one is by no means more protected from storms +sweeping in from seawards, to which the entire eastern half +of the island lies exposed. Only on the west side does the +island, with the steep margin of the crater some 700 or 800 +feet high, afford any protection against the west winds, +which, however, seldom blow here.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 690px;"><a name="illu324" id="illu324"></a> +<img src="images/illu324.jpg" width="690" height="381" alt="Harbor view." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ARRIVAL AT ST. PAUL.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; +width: 582px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu326.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu326" id="illu326"></a> +<a name="VII" id="VII"></a> +<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">VIEW OF<br />ST. PAUL.</span></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 582px; height: 351px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 185px; height: 349px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">VII.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">The Islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam,</div> + +<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">In The South Indian Ocean.</span></div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +Former History.—Importance of the situation of St. +Paul.—Present inhabitants.—Preliminary observations.—To +whom does the Island belong?—Fisheries.—Hot +springs.—Singular +experiment.—Penguins.—Disembarkation.—Inclement +weather.—Remarks on the climate of the Island.—Cultivation +of European vegetables.—Animal life.—Library in a +Fisherman's hut.—Narrative of old +Viot.—Re-embarkation.—An official document left +behind.—Some results obtained during the stay of the +Expedition.—Visit to the Island of +Amsterdam.—Whalers.—Search for a Landing-place.—Remarks +on the Natural History of the Island.—A +Conflagration.—Comparison of the two islands.—A +<i>rencontre</i> at sea.—Trade-wind.—Christmas at sea.—"A man +overboard."—Cingalese canoe.—Arrival at Pont de Galle, in +Ceylon. +</div> + +<p>The visit of the Austrian frigate <i>Novara</i> to the Islands of +Amsterdam and St. Paul, so long confounded with one +another,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> was one of the cherished objects of interest to +the immortal Alexander von Humboldt.</p> + +<p>Although St. Paul has been in very recent times visited and +surveyed by illustrious English navigators,<a name="Anchor-56" id="Anchor-56"></a><a href="#Footnote-56" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 56.">[56]</a> and although +the doubt hitherto existent as to the precise discoverer, +and the correct application of the names of the two islands, +has been set at rest by the discovery of the original log of +Antonio Van Diemen, kept on his voyage from the Texel to +Batavia (16th December, 1632, to 21st July, 1633), by which +it is made plain, beyond possibility of contradiction, that +that renowned navigator passed for certain on 17th July, +1633, between both islands, and conferred on the northern +the name of New Amsterdam, and on the southern that of St. +Paul;<a name="Anchor-57" id="Anchor-57"></a><a href="#Footnote-57" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 57.">[57]</a> yet the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> two islands still continue to present +points of great interest on closer examination and +observation. Of the various ships which, since the discovery +of those islands, have visited them for scientific purposes, +hardly any have remained long enough to be in a position to +acquire a thorough acquaintance with the various objects of +natural history and scientific interest that present +themselves. Even the visit paid by the naturalist attached +to the expedition on board the English ship <i>Lion</i> and +<i>Hindostan</i> which, on the 2nd of February, 1793, touched at +St. Paul, <i>en route</i> to China, and to whom we are indebted +for the first detailed account of this island, erroneously +spoken of as Amsterdam (following the example of former +English navigators), did not come within the original design +of that Ambassadorial expedition. It was the result rather +of accident that, as the <i>Lion</i> and <i>Hindostan</i> were passing +close in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> with St. Paul, two human beings were descried on +the shore, waving in the air a piece of canvas fastened on +poles, who apparently were anxious to convey to the +expedition their desire to communicate with their ships. It +was supposed these were shipwrecked mariners, stranded on +this dangerous coast, who regarded the arrival of the <i>Lion</i> +as an unexpected means of rescue. To save these +fellow-creatures from so desperate a position, the Captain +of the <i>Lion</i> declared to be a pleasing duty assigned by +Providence, and rejoiced to have been selected as the +instrument of their deliverance. When, however, the boat of +the British man-of-war, which was despatched to take off the +castaways and bring them on board ship, had landed on the +island, the crew speedily discovered the singular delusion +which all had laboured under. The men, whom motives of +humanity had intended to rescue from this inhospitable +place, turned out to be anything but involuntary residents +on the island, being seal-hunters, who for five months had +dwelt here, and purposed remaining ten months longer, with +the intention of completing a cargo of 25,000 seal-skins, +for which at that time there was a very considerable and +lucrative demand in the Chinese markets,<a name="Anchor-58" id="Anchor-58"></a><a href="#Footnote-58" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 58.">[58]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> the signals +which had first attracted their attention, it now appeared +were for no other object than to enable them to feel +themselves once more, after such an interval, in the company +of their fellowmen.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-56" id="Footnote-56"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-56">[56]</a> Captain C. P. Blackwood, of H.M.S. <i>Fly</i>, 1842, +and Captain Denham, C.B., of H.M. Surveying Ship <i>Herald</i>, +1853. M. Tinot "<i>capitaine du long cours</i>," who visited St. +Paul in the summer of 1844, published likewise some +interesting memoranda relating to that island, in the +"<i>Nouvelle Annales de la Marine et des Colonies</i>," for +November, 1853.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-57" id="Footnote-57"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-57">[57]</a> Previous to the resuscitation, after +considerable difficulty, of this important, indeed decisive +document, by Mons. L. C. D. Van Dyk, among the archives of +the East and West India Company of Amsterdam, of which he +was Librarian, the utmost uncertainty prevailed as to the +discovery, name, and geographical position of the two +islands. Now, William Van Flaming, a Dutch navigator, was +supposed to be the discoverer,—now, the hardy Van Diemen. +Atlases, charts, and books of travels, spoke of the name St. +Paul belonging, here to the northern island, there to the +southern. This long-continued confusion of names had +naturally left ample space for the most contradictory +statements as to the position, conformation, and geological +conditions of both islands. One traveller, for instance, +describes Amsterdam as an island with good anchorage on the +North side, and an extinct crater, into which ran a fissure, +forming a natural link with the ocean; while, on the other +hand, he described St. Paul as a desert island, with steeply +sloping shores, which make it matter of difficulty, if not +utterly impracticable, to effect a landing; while other +voyagers, again, give directly contrary accounts of both +islands. Compare the following:—"An authentic account of an +Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of +China, together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on +the occasion by H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>, and the ship <i>Hindostan</i>, +E.I.C.N., to the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pekin, as well as of +their return to Europe, taken chiefly from the papers of +H.E. the Earl of Macartney, &c., by Sir George Staunton, +Bart. (London, 1797), vol. I., pp. 205-27."—"Rélation du +Voyage à la recherche de <i>La Pérous</i> fait par l'ordre de +l'Assemblée constituante pendant les années 1791-92, et +pendant la 1<sup>re</sup> et la 2<sup>de</sup> année de la République +Française. Par le citoyen La Billardière, Correspondent de +l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Au VIII. de le République +Française. Tome I. pp. 120-123."—"Johnston, A.K., General +Gazetteer of the World (London, 1855)."—"Hamburgh, James, +India Directory; or, Directions for Sailing to or from the +East Indies, China, Australia, and the adjacent parts of +Africa and South America (London, 1855). 7th Edition, vol. +I., p. 101."—"Voyage to the South Pole, and Round the +World, by Captain Jas. Cook, R.N. (London, 1777)." An +interesting and tolerably circumstantial treatise on these +islands is also to be found among the transactions of the +Imperial-Royal Geographical Society of Vienna for the year +1857, second division, pp. 145-56, by Mr. A. C. Zhishman, +Professor of Geography and History, in the I. R. Nautical +Academy at Trieste.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-58" id="Footnote-58"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-58">[58]</a> "It seems," says Lord Macartney, "that the +Chinese possess remarkable skill in the dressing of +seal-skins, by which they remove the long coarse hair, so as +to leave merely the soft tender skin, and simultaneously +manage to render the hide thin and pliant. Only the prospect +of some such enormous profit could at any time induce human +beings to pass fifteen months at a stretch on so ungenial a +spot, which, moreover, their occupation must render yet more +loathsome. They killed the seals as they basked in the sun +on the rocks along the shore, and around the broad natural +rock basins. As only the skins were of any value to them, +they left the flayed carcases exposed to rot on the ground, +and these lie heaped together here in such masses that it +was difficult to avoid treading on them, when one reached +the shore of the island. At every step some disgusting +spectacle presented itself, while an unutterably nauseous +smell of decaying matter poisoned the surrounding +atmosphere. In the summer months the seals flock hither, all +at the same period, in herds sometimes numbering 800 to +1000, of which usually only about one hundred are killed at +a time. This is the utmost number that five men can skin in +the course of a single day, it being necessary to peg them +together on the spot, on account of the drying up of the +skin. For want of the requisite vessels only an +inconsiderable quantity of the train-oil, which these +animals contain, is collected. A portion of the best of the +blubber is melted, and serves these people in lieu of +butter. The seal which frequents these islands is the +Southern or Falkland seal (<i>Arctocephalus Falclandicus</i> of +Gray—<i>Phoca fusilla</i> of Schreber). The female weighs +ordinarily from seventy to one hundred and twenty pounds, +and is from three to five feet long, the male usually +considerably larger. In their natural state these animals +are not particularly timid; sometimes, indeed, they plunge +all together into the water when any one approaches them; +but quite as often they remain sitting quietly on the rocks, +or raise themselves erect with a menacing growl. A sharp +blow on the snout with a stick seems sufficient to kill +them. Most of those that approach the shore are females, the +proportion they bear to the males being about thirty to one. +This apparent disproportion between the sexes, according to +observation hitherto, is explained as follows:—The Southern +seal at certain periods often undertakes distant wanderings +from one tract to another; and certain of these tracts, such +as the Cape of Good Hope and the islands of St. Paul and +Amsterdam, are only frequented by the females when about to +bring forth, and by the younger males of the school. In +winter the huge snouted seal, or Sea Elephant +(<i>Macrorhinus</i>, "long snout," <i>elephantinus</i> of Gray—<i>Phoca +leonina</i> of Schreber), which sometimes attains a length of +twenty-five or even thirty feet, comes in great numbers to +these islands, where they herd together like sheep in the +natural coves which the coast is broken into, in which the +males announce the presence of a herd by a vehement +growling, deepening into a loud roar."</p></div> + +<p>Owing to the important situation of St. Paul, midway between +the southernmost point of Africa and the Australian +continent (from each of which it is about 3150 miles +distant),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span> a complete, accurate survey of the island seemed +of great importance, not merely to the scientific world, but +also in the interests of navigation; as most of the ships +bound for China, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as the +East India liners, pass pretty close to these islands, +especially during the winter season. Many captains trading +in the Indian ocean see in St. Paul an advantageous haven +for recruiting the strength of their scurvy-stricken crews, +while the ships of others, shattered almost to the point of +foundering in the storms of a tract of ocean where for +thousands of miles there is no other land, can find here +their only prospect of preservation.</p> + +<p>For the voyagers on board the <i>Novara</i>, an interest of an +entirely personal sort attached to their visit to the +island. Among the unfortunates, who on the 24th August, +1853, suffered shipwreck on the shores of New Amsterdam, in +the British ship <i>Meridian</i>, was a native of Brienz, in +Switzerland, named Pfau. This person, together with the +captain, Richard Hernamann, and a Frenchman had disappeared, +leaving no trace, when, on the following morning, the +surviving passengers of the wrecked ship were rescued by a +whaler that happened to be cruising in the neighbourhood. It +was supposed that the three unfortunate men had endeavoured +to reach the adjacent island of St. Paul in a small boat, +and probably were still living there. The father of the +Swiss made application, through an indirect channel, to the +chief of the Expedition, earnestly requesting him on his +visit to the island to institute some enquiries with the +view of finding some trace of his ill-starred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span> son, still +unwilling to renounce all hope that he might yet be found +living at St. Paul.</p> + +<p>We hove to about one mile and a half distant from the great +crater-basin, in whose eastern buttress a natural +communication has been opened with the sea through a breach +in its side. When the Dutch captain, William Van Flaming, +cast anchor before the island in 1697, the wearing action of +the waves had not yet completed this breach, there existing +at that period a dam of some five feet high between the sea +and the cavity of the crater. At present small boats can, at +any hour of the day, pass into the crater-basin, protected +from the swell of the ocean by two natural barriers, which +leave between them a passage of about 300 feet wide. Our +last admeasurement gave a length of 600 feet for the +southern barrier, and 1002 feet for that in the north; while +the intervening water passage measured 306 feet in breadth, +with a depth of 9.6 feet at high water, and from 2 to 3 feet +at ebb tide. On the north side of the entrance to the +straits stands a lofty pyramidal rock, called Nine-Pin Rock, +round which circle innumerable sea-fowl, which to all +appearance brood among the chinks and crannies of the rock, +while in the water below crowds of sharks lash the water +into foam. It must be highly dangerous hereabouts to be +capsized in a boat, as there would be little possibility of +any one being rescued, no matter how speedily assistance +might be rendered.</p> + +<p>Scarcely were we anchored, ere we in the ship perceived a +boat approaching from the island, which rapidly neared the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> +frigate, with three men who had taken up their abode in even +this desolate wilderness. Our imagination deluded us with +the pleasing idea that these three forlorn, forsaken figures +might be the long lost men wrecked in the <i>Meridian</i>, whom +pitying billows might have wafted to this solitary island.</p> + +<p>Presently there stepped on deck by the side-ropes a grizzly +figure, with deeply-furrowed features and long, grey beard, +clothed in a blue blouse and coarse linen trowsers, that +seemed to have weathered many a winter's storm. This +primitive-looking old man proved to be a Frenchman named +Viot, who had lived here for a considerable time as overseer +of a fishing establishment on the island. Our first question +had reference to the missing men from the <i>Meridian</i>. But +how sore was our disappointment when the old sailor in the +blouse told us he knew all the particulars of the +catastrophe of the ship, but that he had never come across +the slightest trace of the three unfortunates whom we had +enquired about. Viot had visited the island regularly every +year since 1841, except that in which the <i>Meridian</i> had +been lost. The fate of these three shipwrecked men must +therefore remain for ever undetermined, although, +considering the tempestuous weather which usually prevails +in the Indian Ocean in the month of August, it is highly +improbable that a boat of such small dimensions as that to +which the captain and his two unhappy fellow-travellers +committed themselves, could reach St. Paul, which was +distant 42 miles from the spot at which the ship was +wrecked.</p> + +<p>About 11.30 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> the naturalists, accompanied by the +officers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> appointed to assist in the scientific operations, +proceeded in two boats to the shore, for the purpose of +making some preliminary observations. When we reached the +bar there opened to our view, covered with luxurious grass +growing in tufts, the walls of a majestic crater, the +exquisite regularity of the cavity of which left the exact +impression of an enormous natural amphitheatre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 688px;"><a name="illu334" id="illu334"></a> +<img src="images/illu334.jpg" width="688" height="314" alt="Distant view of crater-basin of St. Paul." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DISTANT VIEW OF CRATER-BASIN OF ST. PAUL.</span> +</div> + +<p>On either side the ground rises nearly perpendicularly to a +height of about 800 feet, which probably is likewise the +average height of the walls of the crater. On the north side +of the basin, a kind of terrace was seen low down, with huts +thatched with straw, while on the shingle of the bar was +planted a not very perpendicular flagstaff, on which, in +honour of the arrival of a ship of war, old Viot had run up +the French ensign. As the <i>Novara's</i> boat swept into the +crater-basin, he saluted with the proverbial courtesy of his +nation, which not even the rough occupation of a +whale-fisher had been able to rub out of him. Viot had last +come hither in the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span> March, with a mulatto and a +negro on board of a fishing craft, named the <i>Alliance</i>, of +45 tons, in which he had sailed from St. Denis, on the +Island of Bourbon, anew to take charge of the little fishing +station here, which is at present the property of M. +Ottovan, a French gentleman domiciliated in St. Denis.</p> + +<p>While at Cape Town we were informed, in reply to our +enquiries, by the first authority in the country, that the +Island of St. Paul belonged to England, and was a dependency +of the Mauritius; here, to our astonishment, we on the other +hand learned from the inhabitants that St. Paul at present +was under the protection of the French Government, and, in +fact, was an appendage of the Island of Bourbon, the +governor of which long previously had ordered the French +flag to be hoisted, with all the naval formalities, by a +detachment of French soldiers who had been landed from a +French ship of war. According to Viot—who is to all +appearance a thoroughly trustworthy man, but on whom, +however, we throw the responsibility of the correctness of +the following information,—the island seems, in fact, to +have been, some twenty years since, the property of a French +merchant of St. Denis, named Camin, who somewhat later +entered into partnership with a person named Adam, a Pole by +birth, to whom he ultimately resigned the entire island.<a name="Anchor-59" id="Anchor-59"></a><a href="#Footnote-59" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 59.">[59]</a> +Adam, who was described to us as a man of exceedingly fierce +and determined character, did wonders for the cultivation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span> +of the island. He left a number of Mozambique negroes, whom +he compelled to work through the entire year, exposed to the +severest privations, and employed in hewing stone from the +rocks, with which huts were erected, in preparing a +landing-quay on the north side of the basin, and in sowing a +number of plots of ground along the lower margin of the +crater with European vegetables.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-59" id="Footnote-59"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-59">[59]</a> According to Captain Denham, who visited this +island in 1853, the present proprietor called this fishing +station, Marie Heurtevent, and said he had bought it about +five years previously for 6000 dollars from a Polish +merchant of St. Denis, where he himself also resided. +(<i>Nautical Magazine</i>, pp. 68, 75).</p></div> + +<p>About eight or ten years since, Adam (who afterwards, in the +course of a voyage from Bourbon to New Zealand, met a +disgraceful death, having been thrown overboard for his +cruelty by the black crew of a small vessel, whom he had +driven to desperation) sold the islands to their present +possessor, M. Ottovan, a ship-chandler of St. Denis, who +since then has twice each year, during the fine season, +despatched a small craft of some 30 to 45 tons, manned by +from 15 to 18 fishermen, from St. Denis to St. Paul Island, +so as to turn to advantage the unusual abundance of this +fishing-ground. This vessel leaves St. Denis regularly every +November on its voyage of from 24 to 30 days to St. Paul. +The return voyage to St. Denis takes place during the +prevalence of the South-East Trades, and occupies a much +shorter time, rarely exceeding 14 to 16 days. The fishing +sloop, during its stay at the island, anchors inside the +basin of the crater, so as to discharge her provisions for +the fishermen, and to facilitate the freighting for the +homeward voyage with the fish that have been caught, as also +to guard her against sudden changes of weather, which in +these latitudes, as we ourselves experienced, is, even +during the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span> season, very stormy and dangerous. The +fishermen use the excellent whaleboats (or <i>baleinières</i>), +so admirably suited to the heavy swell of the Indian Ocean, +in which they go out in the morning, returning to the shore +at nightfall. The species of fish which is found in greatest +numbers, and is caught exclusively by the hook, is usually +called by the fishermen, "Indian Cod:" it is by no means, +however, of the <i>genus</i> Haddock, and very slightly, if at +all, resembles the codfish of northern waters, or common +stock-fish, but seems to belong to the class of finger fish +(<i>cheilo-dactylus-fasciatus</i>), which is usually classed +among the crow fish (<i>sciænæ</i>). These are salted, dried in +the open air, packed in casks, and dispatched in large +quantities to the markets of St. Denis. It is calculated +that the number thus sent off in the course of each year +amounts to about 40,000. which are sold in the market of St. +Denis by the hundred, for from 40 to 60 francs (£1 12s. to +£2 8s.—total £640 to £960). The expenses of maintaining the +settlement is very small.—Viot has 57 francs a month (£2 +6s.); his two companions 40 francs and 25 francs +respectively (£1 12s. and £1); the men engaged in the +fishery receive 25 to 30 francs a month, besides provisions. +The second voyage of the vessel ordinarily takes place in +January or February, so as to return in April or May, with a +similar cargo. It often happens that the owner of the vessel +finds some more profitable employment for it, when it only +returns during the second year, and their provisions, as +meal, rice, biscuit, tobacco, &c., get rather short. The +settlers, however, employ what leisure time remains after +their work is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span> done, in cultivating a number of plots of +ground with cereals and vegetables, potatoes especially +returning from time to time an excellent yield. Of these +useful tubers, which grow with remarkable luxuriance in the +turf-soil of the island, they raise from 60 to 80 cwt. +annually. Fresh vegetables being articles in great request +are more particularly made available by the inhabitants of +St. Paul, by way of barter, when trafficking with the +whalers, from 20 to 30 of which touch here in the year, to +exchange their salt fish, rice, tobacco, cheese, brandy, +&c., for the fresh provisions grown on the island. The +number of vessels that pass within sight of St. Paul in the +course of a year may be reckoned at from 100 to 150, of +which, however, only a very few, except the whalers, visit +the island.<a name="Anchor-60" id="Anchor-60"></a><a href="#Footnote-60" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 60.">[60]</a> In the year 1857, for example, it occurred +only twice (one case being an English man-of-war), that +passing ships sent boats to the island, five months of the +year having elapsed in the first instance, and two in the +second.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-60" id="Footnote-60"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-60">[60]</a> All the Dutch Indiamen on the home voyage from +Batavia, during the months of October till May, have been +for many years in the habit of running south till they +sighted St. Paul, so as to catch the S. E. Trades. But it +has never been the policy of the Dutch to attract attention +to the eastern seas, and accordingly no information found +its way to Europe respecting these interesting islands, till +the period mentioned in the text.</p></div> + +<p>When the take of fish in the immediate vicinity of the +island does not seem sufficiently remunerative, the +fishermen occasionally launch out to greater distances. They +then bring out from the basin of the crater the barque that +brought them from Bourbon to St. Paul, and remain at sea for +several days,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span> or make for the adjoining island of +Amsterdam, the shores of which are even more frequented by +the fish than those of St. Paul.</p> + +<p>As already remarked, our first movements were directed +solely towards an examination of its physical features. We +were accompanied on this tour of inspection by Ferdinand, an +active, intelligent Mulatto, with thoroughly French manners. +The French stock has this peculiarity as compared with the +German, that it remains unmistakably French, even when mixed +with two-thirds African blood. Ferdinand was for the first +time in St. Paul, having been conveyed hither in the +<i>Alliance</i> in the previous March, to work for M. Ottovan. +Family troubles had been the cause of his banishment to this +dismal island. Although only 24 years of age, he was already +the father of two children, whom, he informed us, he had +placed at school in St. Denis; and in sheer despair at the +worthless conduct of their mother, had hired himself hither +as a labourer at 40 francs a month, paid by the owner of the +island. He proposed returning to St. Denis in the next ship +that left St. Paul, in the hope that peace might be by that +time restored in his family.</p> + +<p>At various spots in the lower rim of the crater-basin, +within which Ferdinand acted as guide, we perceived heavy +volumes of smoke emerging from the shallow parts of the +water, which obviously implied the existence of hot springs. +The two most active and largest in circumference were on the +north side of the crater-basin, and were known, the one as +the Bath, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> other as the Drinking Fountain. Moreover, at +several points on the north bar, hot water bubbles up from +the soil, of such a temperature that the same person who, +with a hook and line had caught a fish in the cold water +basin, might, with the same motion of his hand, let them +drop into the hot adjoining spring, where, in fact, it is +boiled within a few minutes and fit for eating! We have +ourselves made this experiment, which is also mentioned by +Lord Macartney, and found the fish thus prepared exceedingly +palatable.</p> + +<p>At high water the whole of the hot springs become mingled +with the brine of the ocean, and thus indicate a temperature +which is barely perceptibly higher than that of the latter. +Adjoining the landing-place, several late visitors to the +island have endeavoured to perpetuate the record of their +fleeting presence on some compact granite blocks of rock, +which are scattered in the path to the hot springs. Thus, on +one of those stones, fast becoming obliterated by the +weather, may be read:—"Savouret, 1841"—"J. D. Rogers, +1855, Mars."—On a second huge block:—"Hte. Rogers, 1852 to +1857;" and lastly, these names, with difficulty +decipherable, "Pallefournier-Emile, Mazarni-Denoyarez, +Grenoble, Canton de Sassenage, Département de l'Isère, +1844." In general we found none of the inscriptions on the +island that can be recognized.</p> + +<p>On reaching the plateau above, which is reached by a narrow, +steep, and in many places rather fatiguing path, from the +settlers' huts on the north side of the basin of the crater, +we came to a breeding-place of the yellow-tufted "Crested or +Hopping-Penguin"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span><a name="Anchor-61" id="Anchor-61"></a><a href="#Footnote-61" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 61.">[61]</a> (<i>apterodytes chrysocome</i>) in which we +found at the lowest estimate from 500 to 600 of these +singular creatures, which are adorned with grey-yellow tufts +of feathers arranged in a semicircle above the eyes, and +which, as was well remarked by the naturalist attached to +the <i>Lion</i>, with the peculiar plumage and the almost scaly +covering of their fin-like wings, suggest a remote +resemblance to the form of a fish. Living part of the year +in the water, and passing most of the remainder on land, +Nature has, in a manner, adapted them for these widely +differing modes of life. The dirty greyish-brown attire of +the young contrasts so strongly with the gay plumage of the +old penguin, that at the first glance they hardly seem to +belong to the same species. The females lay only one or two +eggs, usually in October, so that at the time of our visit, +the young were only about a month-and-a-half or so old. +These penguins, so graceful and nimble in the water, as if +it were their proper element, are very awkward on land, so +as to be easily caught, or knocked down with a stick. Only +in so doing it is necessary to be on one's guard against a +blow from their long sharp bills, with which they can +inflict on their pursuer a by no means trifling wound. In +the course of centuries, during which they have paid +undisturbed visits to this island, they have trodden a +well-marked path from their breeding-place to the edge of +the sea; and it is a proof of the wonderful instinct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span> of +this creature, that this place is almost the only point on +the entire island, at which it would be possible for it to +reach the sea. A flock of these hopping penguins presents an +odd and peculiar appearance, as, after leisurely bathing in +the sea, and providing a sufficient supply of food for their +young, their elegant heads emerge from the water, when +carefully calculating the effect of the breakers, they ride +their crest and allow themselves to be deposited on the +beach; or, after hopping from stone to stone, the plumes on +their heads nodding to and fro, suddenly plunge headforemost +into the sea, like so many somersault-throwers! Not less +diverting are the movements of these animals when, returned +from their laborious wanderings, which they undertake two or +three times a day in search of food for their young, they +bend their tottering steps back to the roosting-place, +waddling in their walk like ducks. One always leads the way +as guide and forager-in-chief, and the rest, usually from +ten to fifteen in number, follow him in a column; on +reaching the roosting-place, a piece of level winding +ground, they give a shrill cry, and comport themselves +anything but peaceably towards their neighbours, especially +if these have possessed themselves of their accustomed +seats. Continual squabbling and disputing go on, and their +croaking and screaming are prolonged far into the silence of +night. They show much tenderness for their young, shelter +them with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> great care, and defend them with extraordinary +courage and pertinacity against the southern hawk gull<a name="Anchor-62" id="Anchor-62"></a><a href="#Footnote-62" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 62.">[62]</a> +(<i>stercorarius antarcticus</i>), which frequently swoops upon +the breeding-ground, and even ventures within reach of man, +from whom it defends itself by violently striking and biting +with its beak. Always at war under ordinary circumstances, +they are nevertheless the most faithful of allies in moments +of common danger or necessity. The flesh of the old penguin +has so rank a smell that it is only used by those +frequenting the island in case of the most extraordinary +necessity; that of the young, on the other hand, has a far +more agreeable flavour.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-61" id="Footnote-61"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-61">[61]</a> Called also the "<i>Jumping Jack</i>" by the English +sailors, from its custom of jumping quite out of the water, +like a porpoise, on its encountering the slightest +obstacle.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-62" id="Footnote-62"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-62">[62]</a> Called by the English sailors "Port Egmont +Hens" from their frequenting Port Egmont in the Falkland +Isles. They seem to be identical in species with the "skua," +or "bonxie" of the Shetlands.</p></div> + +<p>The breeding-place of the penguin is about 300 feet above +the level of the water in the basin of the crater.<a name="Anchor-63" id="Anchor-63"></a><a href="#Footnote-63" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 63.">[63]</a> Four +hundred feet more of laborious, steep scrambling, brings the +adventurer to the plateau at last, from the highest peaks of +which he readily obtains a view of the greater part of the +island, which is utterly treeless. At many places we found +the ground quite warm, and at one slimy tract, about 600 +feet wide, which was noticed by the naturalists on board the +<i>Lion</i>, there was positive danger of sinking several feet +into the hot, yielding soil, if we did not advance with +great care. On the other hand, the fierce tongues of flame, +which Lord Macartney alleged were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> visible at night from the +deck of the ship, and which greatly resembled the celebrated +nocturnal fires of Pietra Mala, in the mountains between +Florence and Bologna, were nowhere visible, at least during +the time we were on the island.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-63" id="Footnote-63"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-63">[63]</a> A second breeding-place, somewhat larger, but +much more inaccessible than that described, occurs on the +north-west side of the island. There among rugged +fantastically broken masses of rock, these extraordinary +creatures can sun themselves undisturbed, and have hardly +anything to dread from the destroying hand of man, who could +only get thither with much difficulty, and not without peril +to life, by clambering along the face of a precipitous wall +of rock.</p></div> + +<p>On the north-west side of the islands, facing the sea, two +lofty pinnacles of scoriæ, with truncated summits, rise in +cones of such exquisite regularity of form as speedily +attracted the attention of our geologist, and became +somewhat later the chief scene of his activity. In the +immediate vicinity, many traces of lava-streams are visible, +which plainly show the direction in which their currents had +flowed. From the upper edge of the great basin of the crater +the ground slopes gradually to the sea, ending abruptly in a +precipice, descending sheer 150 or 200 feet into the sea.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid retracing our steps by the same path, we +directed our guide, the ever active Ferdinand, to conduct us +back to the shore by some other track than that by which we +had clambered up to this point; whereupon he stopped at a +point of the upper rim of the crater, where the ground fell +suddenly away quite perpendicular, grasped the rich +luxuriant grass hand over hand, and having proceeded a few +steps, invited us to follow. At the first glance we +involuntarily recoiled at the bare idea of descending into +the abyss by such a route, but presently we found our +advance less dangerous and appalling than had at first +appeared, when it was found we might, without any misgiving, +let ourselves down by the long tough grass, the strong +stalks of which supplied a safe means of descent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span></p> + +<p>In less than three-quarters of an hour we had descended from +the upper margin of the crater to the settlement, and at +once proceeded on our return to the frigate. A pretty fresh +N.W. breeze had sprung up in the meantime, which rendered +our re-embarkation in our small short boats, totally +unsuited to the tremendous swell of the Indian Ocean, +exceedingly uncomfortable. Arrived at the ship's side, the +sea ran so high, and had so increased the difficulty of +laying the boats alongside, that we at first endeavoured to +reach the deck by the Jacob's ladders suspended at the poop. +When, however, one of the sailors (who confessedly have much +greater readiness in clambering than ordinary mortals), +while holding on to one of the ladders, was reached by a +tremendous wave, and half his body being in the water, ran a +risk of being carried off by a shark, the scientific +gentlemen in the boats preferred making for the starboard +side of the ship, whence they reached their haven of refuge +by the man-ropes.</p> + +<p>Although this accident sufficiently manifested the +impracticability of our original plan of returning every +evening on board, and of being able to remain beside the +ship during the carrying out of the objects of our visit, no +man supposed as yet that, at this season, the summer of St. +Paul's, the weather might suddenly become so stormy and +generally unfavourable, as thus early to necessitate our +re-embarkation, and that the ship would be compelled, with +all speed, to leave her anchorage, and put to sea for a week +under most uncomfortable circumstances.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p> + +<p>On 20th November, about 6 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, the officers and +naturalists, together with a portion of the crew, 32 in all, +left the frigate with a large quantity of instruments, +scientific apparatus, and baggage. This little expedition +was supplied with provisions and water for six days, there +being no springs of fresh water on the island, the +frequenters of which are compelled to depend for their whole +supply of drinking-water, partly on the rain-fall, partly +during long-continued dry seasons on the water of one of the +hot brackish springs which occur on the north side of the +lower circuit of the crater. Long accustomed to these fluids +and to their peculiar taste, the inhabitants feel no evil +results from their employment, which very probably would not +be the case with those persons who visit the island for the +first time, and whose arduous exertions necessitate their +drinking daily large quantities of water.</p> + +<p>On a small eminence, about 150 feet high, above the +fisherman's huts on the north side of the crater-basin, a +small wooden cottage was erected for the protection of the +astronomers; and at a distance of about 40 feet, a second +for the magnetic instruments, both of which, with their +contents, were entrusted to Lieutenant Robert Müller. +Lieutenants Batlogg and Eugen Kronowetter, were respectively +entrusted with the observations by theodolite, and with the +surveying board. To the last-mentioned gentleman were also +confided the observations with the meteorological +instruments, the researches with the tide-gauge, the +instruments for measuring the velocity of currents, as also +the soundings in the basin, and on either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span> side of the +bar,—to assist him in the execution of which Cadet Count +Borelli and Head Quartermaster Cian were detached. We +quartered ourselves as well as we could in the wretched +filthy huts which, in summer, serve the fishermen from St. +Denis as a shelter. In one of these hung several +pictures—one representing Napoleon I. riding the inevitable +white horse, the majority consisting of female portraits and +scenes of Parisian life, so that the whole place had quite a +Frenchified appearance.</p> + +<p>Hardly had the instruments, apparatus, men, and baggage been +placed under shelter, when once more a strong north wind +came on, which, during the night between the 20th and 21st, +increased to such a height, that it blew down the two huts +intended for the observations, which had not been quite +finished, and in which, fortunately, the instruments had not +yet been placed—exposing the work already begun to very +considerable interruption.</p> + +<p>Early in the morning, a whaler approached the island, and +sent one of her boats off for fresh provisions. She proved +to be the <i>Herald</i>, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, U. S., out +27 months, and expecting to require to remain out 11 months +longer, in order to complete her lading of oil and +whalebone. She was last from St. Augustin's Bay +(Madagascar), which place she had left two months +previously. When the captain, who chanced to be in the boat, +saw the activity of the scientific corps, the results of +which were already beginning to be visible in the hitherto +deserted island, he said that one of his crew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> had fallen +from the mast a few days previously, and severely injured +himself, and forthwith asked whether we could render him any +surgical assistance. Considering the precarious +circumstances under which we ourselves were on the island, +we judged it more advisable to receive the unfortunate +whaler on board the frigate, where we could give him all +necessary assistance. As we afterwards learned, the surgeon +of the frigate, Dr. Ruschitztha, notwithstanding the +inclemency of the weather, was ordered from the frigate, and +had the satisfaction of rendering valuable assistance to the +invalid.</p> + +<p>The foul weather continued all day, and during the night of +the 21st, it became so tempestuous that the frigate was at +last compelled to put to sea. About 3.30 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> she began to +labour heavily with an unusually high sea and frequent +shifts of wind, accompanied by showers of rain, after a +heavy blow from the N.W., so that at first it was thought on +board that one of these furious gusts, which for several +hours past had followed each other at regular intervals, had +sprung the cable, and that the anchor would be lost. The jib +accordingly was hoisted, and the fore-topsail set with four +reefs in it, and an attempt made to weigh anchor. This +operation, at all times laborious, was now especially so, +and seemed as though it would never have an end. Although +the capstan was manned, as already said, at 3.30, it was not +till past seven, or four hours later that the anchor hove in +sight. It was the port anchor that had been weighed, and it +was now perceived that one of the flukes had given way, and +was entirely broken off. In such stormy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> weather it seemed +very uncertain whether the anchor could be brought on board, +as it struck with much force against the ship-side, in +consequence of her severe rolling, and it was only secured +at great risk to the life of the men employed. The cable was +unbent, and the anchor slipped, so as to relieve the ship +(for which the anchor still on board was sufficient in the +meantime), from the vehement thumping. The frigate now had +to encounter a regular North-wester, and only after three +days of the most furious rolling or pitching, was she able, +aided by northerly breezes, again to reach her former +anchorage. The members of the Expedition, left at St. Paul +to prosecute their scientific labours, occasionally +experienced a somewhat peculiar feeling when the frigate, +owing to the severity of the weather, remained invisible +during these three long days; and fancy involuntarily +depicted themselves in the position of men whom the stormy +waves of destiny had cast away on this lonely island in the +Indian Ocean, there perhaps to languish for weary months out +of reach of assistance or means of rescue.</p> + +<p>Old Viot, who had come for the sixth time to the island, +alleged that such rainy tempestuous weather at this season +of the year was quite an unusual phenomenon,—an opinion +which somewhat later was confirmed by the reports of several +North American whalers. Ordinarily the fine season commences +at the beginning of November, at which period the South wind +is the most prevalent, the sky often remaining clear and hot +for weeks together. The hottest month of the year is +January,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> the coldest June. From May to October it is +exceedingly difficult to land with boats on the island, and +cases not unfrequently occur during the continuance of the +stormy season resembling that which is instanced by the +historiographer of Lord Macartney's embassy to China, in +which, during September, 1792, a ship anchored on the east +side of the island, was only able twice, during the lapse of +eight weeks, to send a boat to the island with provisions. +On this station the fishery is confined to the fine season +(from November to April), while for the rest of the year the +various huts of the fishermen are entirely abandoned, being +only inhabited by a couple of men, in whose charge are left +the few but by no means valueless implements and apparatus +of the island. These men lead a very monotonous life, though +not one of privation, for the crater-basin supplies the +whole year round the most delicious fish, and craw-fish of +the finest kind.</p> + +<p>Our sailors used to hang a basket with bait close to the +edge of the crater-basin, sunk a few feet in the water, +which they would draw out every time full of lobsters. In a +few hours they frequently caught from eighty to one hundred +pounds' weight of these large and extremely delicate species +of shell-fish. An excursion which was got up one morning to +the South side of the island, in a fisherman's boat, was +rewarded in a few hours with some fifty different sorts of +denizens of the deep, some of which weighed twenty to +twenty-five pounds each.</p> + +<p>According to Viot's account, snow does not fall often in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> +winter, and in consequence of the heat inherent in the +volcanic soil, never lies long on it. On the other hand, +hail is a tolerably frequent visitant. Rain is of constant +occurrence, and sometimes falls in immense quantities. Viot +was never weary of expressing his astonishment at the +enormous size of the drops of rain which for many a year he +had seen fall at St. Paul. The cold is often pretty severe; +while the almost entire want of firing on the island (for +the dung of animals is not obtainable in sufficient +quantities to make its storing worth the requisite labour), +deprives the poor residents of the comfort of a fireside. +"If the last storm had not blown down our hut, we should for +long have had to do without fuel," was the naïve remark on +one occasion of the old Frenchman, as he lay stretched out +on a dirty bed, carefully rolled up in his rough woollen +blanket. Winter begins in May and ends in September. During +this period the Northerly winds are often very strong. On +27th June, 1857, there blew for six or eight hours here so +terrific a tempest that the inhabitants of St. Paul did not +venture outside of their huts for fear of being rapt away by +the wind. These storms of winter occasionally rage to such a +degree that they drive before them into the basin of the +crater huge masses of water, which they whirl in wild +confusion to an enormous height, showing that the tract in +the Southern Ocean traversed by the hurricanes which +occasionally do such damage about Mauritius and Rodriguez, +occasionally embraces the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam. +In November, at the commencement of the fine season, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span> +winds are rather variable, and so continue to the end of +March, when the N. and N.W. winds begin once more to blow +regularly; these bring heavy rains and foul weather, after +which, except that it is cold when the wind changes to West +with a Southerly tendency, a warmer and drier climate is +experienced. During our stay we frequently had an +opportunity of verifying by observation the steady return of +certain winds in regular succession. For instance, after the +N.E. wind had prevailed for some days, it veered to N.N.W. +whence it invariably went to W. by S., where it usually +stayed some little time, after which it once more went to +N.E.—a phenomenon which went through its phases every six +days with surprising regularity.</p> + +<p>There are heavy mists during autumn, but thunder on the +other hand is far from frequent, nor is it particularly +violent when it occurs. During a residence of eighteen days +we never saw the centigrade thermometer stand higher than +66°·2 Fahr., or lower than 53°·6 Fahr. Lord Macartney gave +62° Fahr. as the average of the thermometer during his visit +in February, 1793.</p> + +<p>As for earthquakes, a phenomenon whose occurrence at St. +Paul would possess an uncommon interest, Viot averred that +during sixteen years that he had visited the island, off and +on, he neither himself had perceived any indications of one, +nor had he at any time heard of any such having been +observed.</p> + +<p>On the contrary, Ferdinand (who, nevertheless, had lived but +eight months on the island) affirmed that his predecessor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> +Rosemond, had told him of shocks, comparatively slight it is +true, which he (Rosemond) had felt during his several years' +abode here. Considering the small circumference of the +island, and the violent surf on its shores, slight +oscillations may not improbably be felt, which are caused by +other than volcanic agencies. Moreover, on the outer margin +of the crater-basin, the island presents at those numerous +points, from which at ebb-tide roll volumes of smoke and +steam, so many natural vents for the escape of the confined +subterraneous gases, that in their ordinary state, and so +long as they continue open, in future, there is no especial +reason to suppose there will be any upheavings of the +earth's crust in consequence of volcanic agencies. The +earthquake of 14th August, 1857, which was pretty severely +felt in Cape Town and the vicinity, does not seem to have +included St. Paul within the circle of its influence. The +present inhabitants of St. Paul, at all events, unanimously +assert that they cannot recall having perceived, either on +the 14th August, or at any time about that period, any +shocks of earthquake whatever, or to have observed any +unusual appearances either in the surface of the earth or in +the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>We purposely say "at any time about that period," because +the inhabitants of the island do not avail themselves of +that assistance so universal now-a-days of a printed +calendar, but trust to memory for keeping a reckoning of the +flight of time. That mistakes should frequently occur with +such a method of computing time is rendered the more +probable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> that not one of the three denizens of the island +can write. For instance, we once remarked to our worthy Viot +that by his own reckoning he had marked one day more than he +had actually lived. "We always get into a mess with these +confounded months of thirty-one days!" was the good-humoured +reply of the ancient wanderer from Nantes.</p> + +<p>Although the volcanic soil of St. Paul is everywhere +especially adapted for scientific study, it nevertheless +presents few objects with which to enrich collections of +natural history. An island, on which not a single tree or +bush is to be found, and on whose tufa soil, though well +adapted for fruit, only a few grasses, ferns, and mosses +thrive, must, so far as regards the value of his researches, +prove as little interesting to the botanist as the +zoologist, who, as we shall see more circumstantially +further on, came across but few representatives here of the +animated kingdom.</p> + +<p>At several places, the practical gardener who accompanied +the frigate was ordered to plant a number of European +vegetables and anti-scorbutic plants, such as cabbage, +horse-radish, turnips, of various assorted species, celery, +garden-cress, and spoonwort,<a name="Anchor-64" id="Anchor-64"></a><a href="#Footnote-64" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 64.">[64]</a> it is to be hoped with +favourable results. At all events, we had the satisfaction +during our stay, of seeing the tender shoots of some of the +vegetables already sprouting through the surface of the +earth. At that time there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> not above a dozen or so +cultivated spots on the Island; if, however, these are +carefully cultivated, they can always furnish enough +excellent nourishing provision for from 80 to 100 men. A +quantity of potatoes, from 6 to 8 sacks, planted in June, +yield, in January or February, a crop of from 60 to 80 casks +of 100 lbs. each, or between 3 and 4 tons.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-64" id="Footnote-64"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-64">[64]</a> The vegetables planted were as +follows:—<i>Brassica rapa</i> (rape); <i>Brassica oleracea +capitata</i> (sea kail); <i>Brassica rapa alba</i> (white turnip); +<i>Brassica rapa flava</i> (yellow turnip); <i>Raphanus sativus</i> +(radish); <i>Lepidium sativum</i> (dittandu); <i>Cochleæia +officinalis</i> (scurvy grass).</p></div> + +<p>Wheat, maize, and barley, also thrive at St. Paul, and their +cultivation has only been discontinued, in consequence of +their conversion into bread requiring a much larger amount +of fuel than is at the command of the residents. On the +other hand, all attempts to cultivate beans and peas have +utterly failed hitherto. All kinds of nutritive plants give +but one crop in the year. So also several kinds of trees, +which promised to grow well, considering the resemblance +between the climate here and that to which they were +indigenous—such as <i>Pinus maritima</i>, various kinds of +<i>Protea</i>, &c., and the successful rearing of which would +ultimately prove an extraordinary benefit to all who +frequent the island, in consequence of the great scarcity of +firewood—were planted as seedlings by the gardener attached +to the Expedition, in the vicinity of the two huts used for +the observations. Assuredly it will not be one of the least +important benefits of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition, which it will +have conferred on St. Paul, if the growth of the seedlings, +planted in its soil with such a noble purpose in view, +should result in the gradual and at all events partial +clothing of the island in the forest.</p> + +<p>As to the Fauna of St. Paul, there appears to be one kind +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> sea-swallow (<i>storna</i>) not hitherto described, the bill +and feet of which are of a coral-red colour, and delicate +silver-grey plumage, undoubtedly the most beautiful of the +feathered inhabitants, as the penguin is the most +extraordinary and peculiar creature on the island. Besides +these there is also a pretty grey diver (<i>Prion Vittatus</i>), +which builds its nest among the rocks; also a brown gull +(<i>Stercorarius antarcticus</i>), as also three kinds of +albatrosses (<i>Diomedea exulans</i>, <i>D. fuliginosa</i>, <i>D. +chlororhinchos</i>).</p> + +<p>The Crater-basin was somewhat less unproductive than the dry +land. The depth is from 100 to 175 feet. Close to the edge, +the sounding line gave a depth of 10 fathoms (60 feet). +Experiments with the dredging-net, although frequently made, +gave by no means satisfactory results. On the other hand, +the rod and line brought up many an interesting addition to +our collection, and frequent strolls at ebb-tide along the +barely uncovered masses of rock that skirted the basin of +the crater were rewarded with numerous discoveries of +specimens of conchology. In the centre of the basin we came +upon slimy ground at a depth of 204 feet; near the hot +springs (about 100 feet distant), 19 fathoms (114 feet); and +at a third point, on the south side, 23 fathoms (138 feet). +Viot said, that after repeated soundings at different +points, he had found the depth of the basin varied from 10 +to 35 fathoms (60 to 210 feet). The seals (<i>Arctocephalus +Falclandicus</i>) of which, according to Macartney, at the end +of last century, thousands daily came to the coast of the +island to bask in the sun, have almost entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> +disappeared, so that these animals are very rarely seen or +captured by the inhabitants. Even of the skeletons of these +marine mammals, which, when the naturalists of the <i>Lion</i> +were roaming through the island, used to lie about in such +numbers that one could almost walk upon bones all round the +crater, not a vestige is left, and one can hardly realize +that formerly hundreds of thousands of these animals were +slaughtered at this island.</p> + +<p>Almost all the quadrupeds of the island are domestic animals +that have been brought hither from Europe and the French +colonies—such as swine, goats, cats, rabbits—which at +present live here in a wild state. The goats, which were +first introduced in 1844, are most numerous on the N.W. of +the island; the swine, on the contrary, are not so +frequently met with. During our residence, a boar and a wild +cat were killed; a few days after, the five young of the cat +were found, having been compelled to emerge from their lair +in search of food. A female hare, which we had brought from +Cape Town, was also set free on the island, and it was +fortunate for the propagation of these useful animals that +there was already a male hare on the island. A pair of geese +was also presented to the colonists, which perhaps have +continued to breed there.</p> + +<p>As we thought the island was uninhabited, it was originally +our intention to leave several kinds of domestic animals of +different sexes with a view to propagation; and with that +object, when at Cape Town had made various purchases of +useful animals; but, under the circumstances, we +relinquished this intention, as there seemed but little +chance of their being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> left undisturbed sufficiently long to +secure the desired object. Occasionally cows would be landed +from the whalers for the sake of the fresh fodder, and taken +away again after the lapse of a month or two.</p> + +<p>The projected scientific operations of the Expedition might +easily have been carried out within eight days, had we not +been so obstinately persecuted with unfavourable weather. +Violent north winds, which rendered it impossible to make +any use of the surveying-board in the open air, alternated +in an extraordinary manner with rainbows. Our astronomical +observations were as yet nothing to speak of. Observations +with the barometer, thermometer, current-measurer, and +tide-guage, could alone be prosecuted, the last of which +especially gave the following interesting result, that the +hour of high water, both at full moon and new moon, is not +11 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, as given by Horsburgh (7th edition, Vol. I. p. +102), but at 1.10 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span><a name="Anchor-65" id="Anchor-65"></a><a href="#Footnote-65" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 65.">[65]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-65" id="Footnote-65"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-65">[65]</a> According to Lord Macartney, the tide rises at +full and new moon, between 8 and 9 feet perpendicular. A +northerly wind always causes the highest tide, the current +of which is from S.E. by S. to N.W. by N., and has a +velocity of about 3 miles an hour.</p></div> + +<p>The proper carrying out of the objects of the geognostic +enquiries was hampered by unforeseen obstacles and +difficulties. One day the rain would be so heavy, that the +slight covering of our apartments would be insufficient to +protect us any longer from the beating of the rain which +fell in bucketsfull, and began to leak through innumerable +seams and cracks on to the beds, tables, and floor. Did any +one think to shelter himself in the hut of a neighbour?—ere +long there commenced a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span> regular emigration, which very +speedily came to a conclusion, by each and all having the +melancholy satisfaction of perceiving that Fortune had set +to work with rigorous impartiality, and had resolved to let +each one of us feel the weight of her displeasure. And so we +passed the long dreary hours in our comfortless huts, that +gave free entrance to wind and rain, with umbrellas +outspread or wrapped in our India-rubber cloaks, gazing +moodily at the numerous cases full of valuable instruments, +which, instead of being serviceable to science, were, by the +loss of so many splendid opportunities, doomed to +inactivity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 699px;"><a name="illu359" id="illu359"></a> +<img src="images/illu359.jpg" width="699" height="498" alt="Occupants under roof and umbrella." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RAINY DAY AT ST. PAUL.</span> +</div> + +<p>Fortunately, all showed themselves animated by the utmost +zeal for the undertaking and its successful issue; and, in a +word,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> each fresh avalanche of difficulties, which sought to +thwart our exertions and impair our forces, served only to +reawaken the energies and reanimate the confidence of each +and all amid all our calamities.</p> + +<p>So soon as the hovel we inhabited, which had enabled us to +make observations upon the direction and strength of the +wind rather than secured us any accommodation for sleep, had +been in some degree restored to its original condition, we +availed ourselves of the slight improvement in the weather, +to examine a tolerably numerous collection of very +beautifully bound books, which were found stowed away in one +of the recesses for books running into the four partitions, +and had in all probability much to dread from the rain-water +trickling through the covering of the roof. These had been +brought hither by a former proprietor of the island, and +when it was sold were transferred with the rest of the stock +of tools, &c., to M. Ottovan, who occasionally resided at +St. Paul for a month or two, but seemed, so far as the +condition of the books went, rarely to meddle with them. It +was curious enough, however, to encounter in a lone desert +island, so many evidences of the most refined civilization, +so we shall cite in a note some of the most interesting of +this library of about 150 different works, which deserved a +better fate than to moulder away undisturbed till they fell +into dust.<a name="Anchor-66" id="Anchor-66"></a><a href="#Footnote-66" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 66.">[66]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-66" id="Footnote-66"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-66">[66]</a> Among these were the works on Natural History, +by Charles Bonnel (Neufchâtel, 1783); J. S. Laharpe's +"Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale des Voyages, Paris, 1816;" +Dacier's "Translation of Horace into French, with Notes and +Critical Remarks. Paris, 1816;" "De la Félicité Publique; +ou, Considérations sur le sort des Hommes dans les +Différentes époques de l'Histoire: A. Bouillon: from the +Printing Establishment of the Typographical Society, Paris, +1776;" "Essay on the Life of the Great Condé, by Louis +Joseph, Prince de Condé, at present in England, London, 1st +May, 1807;" "Précis des Journées 15, 16, 17, and 18 Juin, +1815, ou Fin de la Vie Politique de Napoleon Buonaparte, par +M. Giraud, auteur de la "Campagne de Paris en 1814;" Paris, +1815, 1st vol. 8; "Histoire des Guerres des Gaulois et des +Français en Italie, avec le tableau des évènemens civils et +mílitaires qui les accompagnèrent et leur influence sur la +civilisation et les progrès de l'esprit humain." "Depuis +Bellevise jusqu'à la mort de Louis XII., par lex +Adjutant-Général Auguste Jubé, tribun." "Depuis Louis XII., +jusqu'àu Traité d'Amiens, par Joseph Servan, Général de +Division. Dediées à S. M. l'Empereur. Paris, an. XIII. +(1805)." "Manuel des habitans de St. Dominique, contenant un +précis de l'histoire de cette isle depuis sa découverte, +etc., par S. J. Ducœurjoly, ancien habitant de St. +Dominique; Paris, 1800, an. X, 2 vols.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span></p></div> + +<p>Less fortunate were we in our researches for any document +which could in any way throw any light, direct or indirect, +upon the former history of St. Paul. The only piece of +writing which we found that had reference to the island, was +a licence drawn up during the reign of Louis Philippe, dated +20th February, 1846, to M. Adam, of St. Denis (in the Island +of Bourbon), to proceed to carry out a certain undertaking +in the schooner "<i>La Mouche</i>," 30 tons' burthen, under the +protection of the French flag. "<i>La Mouche</i>," is the same +boat in which Viot had made so many voyages to and fro +between St. Denis and St. Paul. This document, which the +poor old Frenchman drew out one evening from a drawer +thickly strewn with dust, insensibly led the conversation to +the quondam owners of St. Paul, and thence naturally to an +enquiry, on our part, as to the number of graves which +dotted this romantic offshoot of Père la Chaise. "The +climate is far too healthy, and the island far too little +frequented, to admit of there being many graves in St. +Paul," replied Viot. Of the blacks, whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> M. Adam had once +worked so unmercifully on the island, very many perished +here owing to the severity of their treatment, but no one +knows where their bodies lie;—very possibly their bones lie +scattered about the island, like the remains of the much +persecuted petrel (<i>prion turton</i>), which the predatory gull +throws carelessly from him after he has stripped off the +flesh, and gorged himself on the most delicate morsels. Only +two graves are known to the present residents,—one is the +resting-place of an Englishwoman, who died on board a +merchant-ship which happened to be near the island, and +whose grave was dug in the earth on the north side of the +crater-basin; the second covers the body of a ship captain, +who was accidentally drowned in the basin by the upsetting +of a small boat, as he was approaching the bar in heavy +weather. His grave is at a short distance behind the huts of +the colonists, and bears traces to this day of the solemn +feelings with which it was erected; an enclosure of large +stones neatly arranged, make the site and its object at once +recognisable.</p> + +<p>Shipwrecks are unheard of at St. Paul; at least, none such +have been known to occur since it has been occupied by man. +On the other hand, they are of more frequent occurrence at +the sister island, as has very lately been evidenced by the +catastrophe of the <i>Meridian</i>. However, the elements are not +always to blame for such lamentable occurrences. Ships are +sometimes dashed to pieces on the shores of Amsterdam in the +finest weather, so that one is almost induced to believe +that these misfortunes are occasionally resorted to +intentionally, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> as to realize some high insurance on a +vessel which has probably already become half unseaworthy—a +not very conscientious method of doing business, of which, +however, some of the natives of Greece and the borders +thereof are not unfrequently guilty. In February, 1855, a +North American whaler struck upon the north-east side of +Amsterdam in a calm, and with a clear sky overhead, so that +the entire crew, 30 in number, were able to secure the +provisions and their kits. The captain, with one of the +ship's small boats, made for the Island of St. Paul, 42 +miles distant, in the hope, probably, of getting assistance +thence. A lucky destiny so willed it, that (the accident +having occurred in the finest season of the year), a vessel +of M. Ottovan's, which by a strange coincidence was named +<i>L'Ange Gardien</i> (the Guardian Angel), lay at anchor inside +the crater-basin, loading with fish. The shipwrecked crew +were indebted to his circumstance that, within 14 days more, +they found themselves at Mauritius. A report circulated +among the residents of St. Paul that the captain of the +stranded ship had landed with some of his companions in a +boat on the N.E. of Amsterdam, with the intention of +searching for a sum of several thousand dollars which a +previous visitant to this island was said to have buried +there for some mysterious reasons. While the captain was on +shore, vainly searching for a considerable time after the +buried treasure, the shipmaster left in charge in his +absence came too near the island, whereupon the vessel had +been lost upon one of the numerous reefs which lie off the +shore. A part, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> was added, of the buried money had, in +fact, been recovered. According to Viot, the captain had dug +up 1000 dollars (above £200), and one of his companions 300 +dollars.</p> + +<p>At last, on the morning of 3rd December—the fifteenth of +our stay at the island—the sky shone so brightly that one +could, with more probability than hitherto, cherish the hope +that the various operations we had been compelled to lay +aside might finally be brought uninterrupted to a successful +conclusion. However, the very wet day was again exceedingly +unfavourable for open-air observations, especially +astronomical, inasmuch as a pretty strong North-east wind +incessantly drove over the island clouds of rain, the very +heaviest of which, attracted by the mass of the island, +broke right over our heads. Fortunately this spell of bad +weather did not last as long as the first; and when, on 6th +December, the <i>Novara</i> once more made her appearance at the +island, and enquired by signals as to the progress made in +our appointed work, we were so fortunate as to be able to +reply by the same means, that the most important portion had +been completed, and that the officers and naturalists were +ready to re-embark.</p> + +<p>About 9 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, the frigate anchored in 25 fathoms, close to +the spot where the English ship <i>Fly</i>, Captain Blackwood, +lay in 1842. It was the third time that the <i>Novara</i> +anchored off St. Paul. Twice before had she experienced +unusually tempestuous weather, which compelled her to sheer +off from such a perilous coast, and expose herself to be +lashed for days together by the raging giant waves of the +infuriated element.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span></p> + +<p>One of the boats sent by the frigate to take us off to the +ship, brought at the same time some presents, in memory of +the Expedition, for the residents of the island, who had +been so hospitable and obliging during our stay. The +presents consisted of ship biscuit, salted meat, and various +other edibles, wine, a musket, woollen blankets, clothes, +shoes, tools, medicines, vinegar, oil, &c. The simple, +modest fellows were immensely pleased with these unexpected +presents, and Viot especially seemed overjoyed on seeing a +number of tools, for want of which many of the repairs +necessary in the interior of their anything but air-tight +wooden habitations, were daily becoming more apparent.</p> + +<p>We left a book on the Island of St. Paul, in which the +principal memoranda of what we had achieved were set forth +in three languages (German, English, and French), with the +view of supplying to future scientific visitors, data for +further researches and observations, and at same time incite +them to prosecute these we had ourselves made.</p> + +<p>We insert here this document, which will yet give witness, +probably, of the scientific activity of the Austrian +Expedition at the Island of St. Paul in the Indian Ocean, at +a period when those engaged in it will long since have +voyaged to</p> + +<div class="poem" style="padding-left: 50%; margin-left: -6em;"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"That undiscovered country from whose bourne<br /></span> +<span class="i0">No traveller returns."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>"The Imperial Austrian Frigate, <i>Novara</i>, 44, under the +command of Commodore the Chevalier von Wüllerstorf-Urbair, +engaged in a voyage round the globe for scientific +purposes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> anchored at nine in the morning of 19th November, +1857, on the Eastern side of St. Paul, with the purpose of +prosecuting astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, and +geodesical observations and measurements, and at same time +examine thoroughly the natural history of the island. +Extremely unfavourable weather in great measure delayed the +expedition; and, after having successfully carried out a +series of observations and researches, the results of which +will in due time be published, the officers and naturalists +in charge of the various departments, on the 6th December of +the same year, quitted St. Paul, each bearing with him the +most pleasing reminiscences of that interesting island, and +of its three poor, but eminently kind inhabitants.</p> + +<p>"For the guidance of future observers the following +memoranda may prove useful:—</p> + +<p>"I. That the spot at which observations were taken was on a +small eminence, north of the huts of the colonists, and +which may be recognized by a small pyramid of stones, on +which the Austrian Expedition marked the observed latitude +38° 42′ 55″ S., and the longitude 77° 31′ 18″ E. of +Greenwich.<a name="Anchor-67" id="Anchor-67"></a><a href="#Footnote-67" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 67.">[67]</a> Further that:—</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-67" id="Footnote-67"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-67">[67]</a> The time, which we took from the Cape +Observatory by four excellent chronometers, gave, on our +voyage between the Cape and St. Paul, a period of forty-six +days, a difference of 3 h. 56 min. 11 sec., which the island +was E. of the Cape, so that adding the Longitude of the +latter East of Greenwich (by nautical almanack), 1 h. 13 +min. 55 s., we have the Longitude of St. Paul 5 h. 10 min. 6 +s. East of Greenwich (77° 31′ 30″ E.) Between Madras and +St. Paul, during a long passage of sixty-seven days, and +with six chronometers somewhat less accurately set than the +preceding, St. Paul was found by observation to be 0 h. 10 +min. 51.8 sec. West of Madras (2° 42′ 55″ W.) By the +longitude of the Observatory of Madras, 5 h. 20 min. 57 sec. +East of Greenwich (80° 14′ 15″ E.), as furnished by the +Director of the Observatory, Major Jacobs (whereas the +nautical almanack gave 5 h. 21 m. 3.77 sec. = 80° 16′ +0½″). The longitude of St. Paul would be 5 h. 10 m. 5.2 +s. East of Greenwich (77° 31′ 23″ E.) The average of the +two measurements gives as the average 5 h. 10 m. 5.6 sec., +or 77° 31′ 26″ E. to be assumed as the final longitude of +St. Paul, while the latitude was taken from the various +means of the height of the sun at the meridian on an average +of days. An additional computation in which allowances were +made for the various corrections, gave, as the latitude, 38° +42′ 47″ S.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span></p></div> + +<p>"II. That the direction of the true meridian line drawn from +this point to the nearest opposite shore of the South side +of the crater-basin was marked by an oblique (St. Andrew's) +cross.</p> + +<p>"III. That the tidal-gauge was situated on a rock near the +landing-place, and that the rise of the tide above the mean +level of the water (3 feet 5 inches), was marked on a slab +of rock smoothed for the purpose.</p> + +<p>"IV. Lastly. The magnetic observations were taken in a hut +erected for that express purpose on the little plateau +behind the settlers' huts, where at the same time various +sorts of useful trees were planted by the Expedition.</p> + +<p>"The names of the officers and naturalists who, under the +superintendence of the commander of the Imperial Expedition, +took part in the various scientific operations were:—for +Astronomy and Terrestrial Magnetism, Lieutenant Robert +Müllar; Botany, Dr. Edward Schwarz and M. Jellinck; Geodesy +and Meteorology, Lieutenant Eugen Kronowetter; for the +Trigonometrical Measurement of the Crater-basin, Lieutenant +Gustavus Battlogg; for Geology, Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter; +Ethnology and Physical Geography, Dr. Karl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span> Scherzer; +Zoology, G. Frauenfeld and J. Zelebor; Draughtsman and +Artist, Joseph Sellemy."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"><a name="plate404t" id="plate404t"></a> +<img src="images/plate404t.jpg" width="193" height="350" alt="Novara's track." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE V.—TRACK FROM ST. PAUL TO POINT DE GALLE. +(CEYLON).</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate404.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>Towards 5 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> the last boat came off with the measuring and +levelling instruments, and various articles of baggage.<a name="Anchor-68" id="Anchor-68"></a><a href="#Footnote-68" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 68.">[68]</a> +The embarkation was finally completed. Half-an-hour later +the <i>Novara</i> weighed anchor, and we steered, favoured with +most splendid weather and full of pleasing anticipations, +for the adjacent island of New Amsterdam. Not without sundry +twitches of sadness did we remark the sharp crater of St. +Paul gradually fade away like a vision in the gloom of +approaching night; and many undying memories must attach to +our residence on that lonely, world-forsaken island.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-68" id="Footnote-68"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-68">[68]</a> Remembering how many bottles and glass tubes +were shattered, we have not thought it beyond our province +to recommend future scientific travellers to bring with them +a good supply of duplicates of all instruments liable to +breakage, as it is very difficult to get such insignificant +articles replaced out of Europe, and we frequently found on +this occasion the want of some such little instrument +interposed an obstacle to the further usefulness of the +instruments.</p></div> + +<p>And now, at the moment of our departure from the island, be +it permitted us to cast a retrospective glance at the +various results obtained by the Expedition of the <i>Novara</i> +during her stay at St. Paul.</p> + +<p>Never hitherto on this island, so important by its +geographical position for ships trading with China, the East +Indies, Australia, and New Zealand, have astronomical and +magnetic observations and geodesical measurements been so +thoroughly ascertained as by the <i>Novara</i> expedition. Upon a +carefully measured base-line, various points of the upper +and lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span> margin of the crater were accurately laid down by +means of the Theodolite, and the whole island submitted to a +geometric network of angles. At the same time the geologist, +with the aid of the compass and the patent levels, prepared +a chart originally intended for geological purposes only, +while the draughtsman of the expedition added to its value, +by skilfully sketching in from these given points the +configuration of the coast-line of the island. By their +united efforts there has been published a chart of St. Paul, +which gives even to the minutest details an entirely correct +and accurate representation of the form and surface of the +island. This minute chart, or plan, was prepared on a scale +of 132 Vienna fathoms to one Vienna inch, or <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>9504</sub> of the +natural size. Moreover, it is intended preparing, from this +map and from the various outlines and views taken on the +spot, a plastic model of the island after Nature, which, +moulded in gypsum, will give scientific inquirers the most +accurate conception of its singular structure. Not less +interesting for navigators in the Indian Ocean will be the +publication of the various observations which, during our +stay of 18 days, were made with the barometer, thermometer, +tide-gauge, and gauge of the velocity of currents, taken at +certain fixed hours, day and night, as also the soundings in +the crater-basin, and on both sides of the bar. Although the +complete publication of these <i>data</i> must await the +appearance of the nautical portion of the present work, we +shall give here the most important of these results. The +extreme length of the island from N.W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span> to S.E., is three +nautical miles; the superficial area is 1,600,000 Vienna +square klafter—1 Vienna klafter = 1 fathom = 6 English +feet—100 English square feet = 92 <sup>986</sup>⁄<sub>1000</sub> Vienna square +feet. The highest point of the crater-basin is 846 feet; the +greatest diameter of the upper rim of the crater is 5490 +feet; the least 4590 feet; the greatest diameter of the +basin at the level of the sea is 3984 feet, and the least +3444 Vienna feet.</p> + +<p>The observations on the state of the weather, taken with +much difficulty, are not intended to include the regular +observations on the exterior of the island, and in like +manner some of those taken in the harbour, or basin of the +crater, must be accepted with a certain limitation. For +similar reasons, we were unable to fix the rate of the +current setting from the sea into the basin, although we +secured most extraordinary results considering the +circumstances. The amount of specimens of natural history +which was procured, was very limited, but on that account +was the more valuable. To the geologist, it must be of the +very highest interest to find that St. Paul has been +classified, with scientific precision, and by dint of +personal examination and research, in one of the four main +divisions in which, according to the scheme of Alexander Von +Humboldt, the volcanic formations of the earth may be +divided. Measured by the latest distribution of the volcanic +strata by the description of stone found, as laid down by +the greatest of German naturalists, St. Paul belongs to the +same class as Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Teneriffe, &c.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> in +a word, to what is known as the Chimborazo formation. A +section of the east-side, taken in profile, lays bare its +entire geological history, and forms one of the most +instructive means of coming to direct conclusions as to its +geological structure.</p> + +<p>The birth of this island from the bosom of the deep, +combined with eruptions of lava and scoriæ, was the last +effort of the subterranean forces. Since that period it has +been subject wholly and solely to the various terrestrial +influences, although the lapse of centuries has not been +able to extirpate the last traces of the volcanic fire which +once poured forth its currents of molten lava. A large +proportion of the level ground is hot, and at the lower edge +of the rim of the crater appear several hot springs, the +temperature of which, as already remarked, is so high that +fish, eggs, potatoes, &c., can be cooked on them in a few +minutes. The highest point of St. Paul rises 870 feet above +the basin of the crater. Its walls rise abruptly at an angle +of about 85°, while the upper surface of the island (with +the single exception of a small plateau of about 400 feet on +the north side) stretches, at first level from the periphery +of the upper margin of the crater, gradually falling away +towards the sea-coast, at an angle of about 13°. On its +North-west coast, where it is from 100 to 200 feet in +perpendicular height, the island presents several small +pyramids of pumice, like parasitic warts on the principal +mass.</p> + +<p>Like the geologist, the botanist also found in this wild +spot an unusual opportunity of acquiring accurate +information as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> the occurrence and propagation of certain +kinds of plants in a primitive soil. Six grasses and one +reed (<i>cyperaceæ</i>) form the vegetation of the island, one +rush and three or four of the grasses forming the majority. +The botanist having ascended to the plateau found there two +grasses, both of which grew to a certain height only, and at +certain places; the one (in the immediate vicinity of the +settler's huts,) the oat, or <i>avena</i>; the second a +<i>digitaria</i>, in the neighbourhood of the terraced fields, +directly opposite the entrance to the crater, in warm +positions, which, so soon as the earth is a little +disturbed, emit jets of steam. It is still uncertain whether +the other kinds of grass, <i>Poa</i> and <i>Setaria Holcus</i>, belong +exclusively to St. Paul, or are to be included in the more +general group of geographical plants known as that of the +islands of Edward's Island, Kerguelen's Island, and St. +Paul.</p> + +<p>Among the grasses there spring up here and there, but on the +whole very sparsely, some wild vegetables which have been +planted by previous chance visitors.<a name="Anchor-69" id="Anchor-69"></a><a href="#Footnote-69" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 69.">[69]</a> In the crater there +are also <i>Sonchus arvensis</i> and one <i>Plantago</i> (Plantain). +On the south margin of the crater are <i>Cerastium</i> (maize-ear +chickweed), and <i>Stellaria media</i> (chickweed); both grow on +a small piece of ground, and are far from thriving. Of +<i>Cryptogamia</i> the botanist found four sorts. Two +<i>Parmelias</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> one <i>Evernia</i>, and one <i>Cladonia</i>, the +first-named overrunning the blocks on the edge of the crater +with great luxuriance.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-69" id="Footnote-69"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-69">[69]</a> Such as <i>Rumex acetosella</i>, <i>Cynara Scolcymus</i> +(artichoke); <i>Solanum tuberosum</i> (species of nightshade); +<i>Daucus carotta</i> (carrot); <i>Petroselinum sativum</i> (parsley); +<i>Brassica oleracea</i> (sea-kail); <i>Raphanus sativus</i> +(horse-radish).</p></div> + +<p>Of <i>Algæ</i> there were found 33 species. The stones rolled +backwards and forwards by the action of the waves, as also +those surfaces which remained covered at lowest tide, were +entirely covered with <i>Dicurella flabellata</i>. Most numerous +was <i>Gigartina radula</i>, just in a state of fructification. +Every movement of the water calls up slender, delicate +<i>confervæ</i>, and pale and coloured <i>luminariæ</i>. The breakers +have crowned the stones with festoons of the <i>Macrocystis +pyrifera</i>. Of Liverworts there were found <i>Marchantia</i> and +<i>Jungermania</i>; of foliaceous mosses, <i>Sphagnum</i> (bog-moss), +and two kinds of <i>Bruym</i>. Two ferns, just beginning to bear +fruit, were found on the plateau, and one <i>Lycopodium</i> +(club-moss), which thrives pretty well, and frequently grows +on the <i>Sphagnum</i>. On the whole, the botanist of the +expedition found on the island, 11 <i>Phanerogamia</i>, 4 +<i>Lichens</i>, 33 <i>Algæ</i>, 2 ferns, 2 Liverworts, 3 foliaceous +mosses, 1 <i>Lycopodium</i>. In this enumeration are included the +European vegetables cultivated by the residents, as also +some untended plants, which apparently have been introduced +with the vegetables, or have been brought hither by previous +visitors. The stony substratum of this island is barely +covered with a plastic vegetable substance, which fills the +cracks. The walls of the crater, as also the entire plateau, +present to view a plain, unrelieved expanse of grass; not, +however, like fields clothed with sward, but single tufts +pressing one upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> other, which seem like the +grave-mounds of a hundred bygone generations of plants. +Frequently, at the foot of a block of pumice, all overrun +with grasses of all sorts, one comes upon a moss or a stem +of fern on one of the pieces of lava that has been washed +up, or perceives with amazement in some out-of-the-way +place, and utterly neglected, good old acquaintances from +Europe, such as carrots, parsley, potatoes, &c., which +apparently have been begun to be cultivated on some of the +terraces, whence they have propagated themselves in a wild +state all over the island. But not a tree, or bush, is to be +met with throughout the island.</p> + +<p>In like manner, although the zoologist seemed to have but a +poor prospect at St. Paul, it presented materials for most +satisfactory speculation to the attentive naturalist. Only +one of the grasses is infested by an insect, which appears +in great numbers, a very tiny <i>cicada</i> (cricket), the +<i>Delphis hemiptera</i>, of which, according to the zoologist of +the expedition, it is hard to say whether it became +indigenous to St. Paul before, or contemporaneous with the +arrival of man. Among other insects that have certainly been +introduced here, the zoologist found the common +bluebottle-fly, a gnat, the universally found cockroach, the +book-tick (<i>acarus eruditus</i>), one kind of earwig, and the +flea; besides the <i>Isopodis</i>, our common barrel-worm,<a name="Anchor-70" id="Anchor-70"></a><a href="#Footnote-70" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 70.">[70]</a> in +almost fabulous quantities. These animals invariably follow +man wherever he plants his foot, living upon garbage or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> +decaying organic matter. With the exception of the +clothes-moth, which has probably been introduced among the +wool-stuffs, there are in the island no butterflies, none of +the been tribe, no <i>Neuroptera</i>. Mites also need scarcely be +reckoned, since the only representative, the common +cheese-mite, is more apt to become extinct than to thrive; +on the other hand, there are two kinds of spiders, for which +the enormous number of flies furnish sufficient food.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-70" id="Footnote-70"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-70">[70]</a> These loathsome animals cover the island in +such quantities that one of the naturalists reckoned them at +6,000,000,000, counting 100 as the minimum to each square +foot of the island.</p></div> + +<p>The species belonging to the sea are somewhat more +plentifully represented, although, with few exceptions, very +small and insignificant. The largest shell fish, a +<i>Tritonium</i>, only attains a length of 3 inches; <i>Patella</i>, +which is very plentiful all round the island, is only 1 inch +long; several sorts of snails (such as <i>Buccinum</i>, +<i>Defrancia</i>, <i>Mangelia</i>, <i>Paludinella</i>, <i>Adeorbis</i>, +<i>Janthina</i>, <i>Fissurella</i>, <i>Scutellina</i>, <i>Lepidopleurus</i>, +<i>Bulla</i>, <i>Asteronotus</i>, <i>Doto</i>), are barely a few lines in +length, or even less.</p> + +<p>The <i>Brachiopoda</i> are represented by a very inferior member, +the <i>Terebratulina</i>, only two lines long, which, however, is +a giant compared with one of the two only kinds of mussel, +<i>Kellia</i> and <i>Lima</i>, which are occasionally met with here, +and are only half-a-line in length.</p> + +<p>Among the <i>Vertebratæ</i>, the fishery of which is the +principal object of the visits annually paid to the island, +one, the <i>Cheilodactylus</i>, a spinous-finned fish, which is +extraordinarily abundant all round the island, supports an +important fishery, while <i>Thyrsites Atun</i> were frequently +caught with rod and line from the frigate.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span></p> + +<p>Of <i>Amphibiæ</i>, there is not a vestige to be found on the +island; the birds belong for the most part to the +powerful-winged web-footed birds that frequent the open +ocean, as, for example, the <i>Diomedea exulans</i> (great +albatross or man-of-war bird), <i>D. chlororhynchus</i> +(yellow-billed albatross), <i>D. fuliginosa</i> (a new one not +determined), <i>Lestris catarractes</i>, <i>Storna sp: Prion +Vittatus</i>, of which the four last-named, at the time of our +visit, had both eggs and young. Of birds with fin-shaped +wings, there was the golden-crested penguin (<i>Apterodytes +chrysocoma S.</i>), living in two distinct colonies among the +precipitous overhanging cliffs, with innumerable young, +already of a pretty good size.<a name="Anchor-71" id="Anchor-71"></a><a href="#Footnote-71" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 71.">[71]</a> We also remarked several +other winged denizens of the deep, which had alighted on our +ship during the last few days immediately preceding our +arrival at St. Paul. According to the fishery-people, the +other birds of the island quit it altogether so soon as +their young have grown sufficiently, and only return when +the next breeding season comes round.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-71" id="Footnote-71"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-71">[71]</a> One of the zoologists, Mr. Zelebor, endeavoured +to kill two penguins that had been caught alive in the +island, the one with arsenic, the other with chloroform. Of +the latter, a quantity was administered enough to have +killed a man, but which scarcely affected the penguin, who, +in a quarter of an hour after, seemed quite restored to +himself. The second, which had swallowed two tea-spoonsful +of arsenic, died eight hours later.</p></div> + +<p>In contradistinction to the sea-birds, M. Frauenfeld +remarked but one single land-bird, a swallow, whose +movements seemed to indicate that he was watching a breeding +female. A stray bird on this lonely spot of earth, nearly +3000 miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> away from the main land! Hundreds of questions +suggested themselves on thus unexpectedly coming upon so +well-known a wanderer. What could have condemned him to this +self-imposed exile? Was he a straggler? Was it the first +time he had selected this island for a home? Had it been his +own cradle? And would he at some future period find +companions to visit with him, and ultimately share these +solitary desolate abodes?</p> + +<p>There were no seals visible,—they have retreated before the +attacks and stratagems of their insatiate pursuer the +seal-hunter, and for a long period have ceased to frequent +the island. Indeed, St. Paul furnishes not a single specimen +of mammal peculiar to itself; for all the members of this +great natural division at present on it,—such as goats, +swine, cats, &c.,—having become wild, must necessarily be +classed, however unusual, with rats, mice, and the like. In +other respects, all these have not varied in the slightest +from the type of the domesticated animal (although they have +probably lived wild for a hundred years past), except that +they are very shy and avoid the presence of man.</p> + +<p>While upon these various points, the stay of the Imperial +Expedition at St. Paul gave many splendid results by means +of observations and scientific collections, it was also +productive of a number of important practical benefits for +seafaring people. The geodesical results, for instance, +obtained by the Expedition, demonstrate that there is formed +by the basin of the crater at St. Paul's, despite the small +extent of its coast-line, a secure natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> haven which +would afford substantial facilities for ships, to which, on +their voyage to China, Australia, or anywhere in the East +Indies, any accident has happened, necessitating complete +and speedy repair, or which might require fresh provisions +for their crews, stricken with scurvy after a long voyage. +For, although the depth of the basin of the crater in the +centre is very considerable, and although the squalls of +wind from the N.W. are often very violent, the ship can +always make fast to the land, and so ensure the requisite +security. How far the assistance so cheerfully rendered by +science may have been called for, or how far the route at +present traversed by sailing vessels makes that assistance +desirable, must be left to the judgment of those nations, +such as the English, French, and Dutch, which, as having +possessions washed by the Indian Ocean, have a direct +interest in the future condition of such a harbour of +refuge, situate equidistant from Asia, Africa, and +Australia.</p> + +<p>The morning after our departure from St. Paul, that is to +say, on 7th Dec., we found ourselves not more than ten miles +distant from Amsterdam. The first view of the island greatly +resembles that of St. Paul, and the hypothesis gained +constantly in probability that the geological formation of +Amsterdam is nearly identical with that of St. Paul.</p> + +<p>A whaler was cruising in the neighbourhood of the island, +while one of his slim whaleboats was pursuing a school of +sperm whales, which sported about in great numbers.</p> + +<p>Towards 7 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, a boat approached from the whaler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span> +<i>Esmeralda</i>, Captain Pierce, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, +to ask for surgical assistance for a sailor who, while +engaged a few days previously in hauling a captured fish +alongside, had had his left hand so severely injured by one +of the lines, that amputation had seemed the sole remedy. +The Captain had, in genuine Yankee fashion, assumed the +duties of surgeon, and performed the operation himself. Now +that it was over, and when neither praise nor censure could +benefit the patient, he was anxious to know whether he had +done right or wrong. While one of the ship's surgeons was +getting ready, as requested by the captain, to proceed to +the bedside of his patient, the whaler informed us he had +already been absent from his family in the States five +months, and would proceed hence to the Sandwich Islands and +the Northern grounds, and finally return home round Cape +Horn. If the take of fish proved good, he hoped to complete +the voyage within two years. Whale-fishing, in truth, is not +only a very dangerous and laborious, but also a most +precarious pursuit. Occasionally a ship gets loaded within a +brief space with oil and whalebone, by which, of course, the +owner or charterer makes a splendid profit, and the entire +crew obtain a handsome share. But frequently does it happen +that, after a voyage of fifteen months and more, there is +not a single fish taken, in which case the hardy sailors, +who are entirely dependent for their pay upon a share of the +spoil, have had all their labour and undergone all their +privations in vain, while the freighter is poorer by a good +round sum. The bare chance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> however, of a rich haul is +sufficient to raise to 8000, the number (probably on the +increase) of the ships of varying tonnage and nationality, +which at present encounter the anxieties, dangers, and +hardships attaching to the whale-fishery. It is calculated +that, were it possible to anchor them within signalling +distance of each other, they would form a complete girdle +round the earth at the Equator. In other respects, the +incessant activity of the whaler is not without its +advantages for science, since the observations and +communications of many of the captains connected with the +whaling business have essentially contributed to extend our +acquaintance with atmospheric phenomena, especially in high +latitudes, on both sides of the Equator.</p> + +<p>The loquacious captain, an uncommon quality in a Yankee, +could not conceal his astonishment at encountering an +Austrian man-of-war in such a latitude in mid-ocean, and +adverted to this unexpected phenomenon. Captain Pierce +further complained bitterly of the weather, and said that, +as long as he had sailed the Indian Ocean, he had never at +this season experienced such tempestuous weather as during +the last week; which was further confirmed by several other +whalers, regular visitors to these waters. Respecting +Amsterdam, Captain Pierce, unfortunately, could give us but +very little information. He had never set foot on the +island, nor did he know whether it was accessible at all. +But he spoke highly of the availability of the coasts for +valuable fish. Nowhere in the Indian Ocean, the Captain +remarked, was there such an abundance of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span> fish of all +descriptions as at the Southernmost point of this +little-known island. Consequently most whalers, on their +course Southwards, approach this island, and send out boats +to bring in supplies of fish suitable for the table. Usually +the boat is filled in a few hours with delicious food caught +with the rod and line, when the fish are forthwith salted, +in sufficient quantities to supply the crew for several +weeks.</p> + +<p>Is Amsterdam really a sister-island of St. Paul? Is it, too, +of volcanic origin, upheaved by the same subterranean +energy, and does it still show similar traces of +long-continued activity? These questions pressed on us for +solution all the more vividly as we neared this inaccessible +island, when we recalled to mind the mysterious phenomena +which D'Entrecasteaux had observed here in March, 1792, and +which have remained unexplained to this day.<a name="Anchor-72" id="Anchor-72"></a><a href="#Footnote-72" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 72.">[72]</a> The French +Expedition saw, it is true, clouds of smoke emerging +alternately from a subterranean opening close to the shore, +but without being able to satisfy themselves whether the +vegetation had been set on fire by the hand of man or by +volcanic action, the wind which blew direct from the island +making it impossible to land, unless one was prepared to run +the risk of being suffocated by the rolling masses of smoke. +There was, therefore, to be solved, at Amsterdam, the +mystery as to whether the pillars of smoke, which were +observed by the naturalists of the French Expedition of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span> +1792, issuing from the soil adjoining the sea, were produced +by an actual eruption, or were caused by subterranean fires +in activity.<a name="Anchor-73" id="Anchor-73"></a><a href="#Footnote-73" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 73.">[73]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-72" id="Footnote-72"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-72">[72]</a> La Billardière, Rélation du voyage à la +recherche de la Peyrouse, fait par ordre de l'Assemblée +Constituante pendant les années 1791-94, Paris, 1800. (Vol. +I., pp. 112, 113.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-73" id="Footnote-73"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-73">[73]</a> Vide Alexander v. Humboldt's "Kosmos," Vol. +IV., pp. 412 and 585; also Physical and Geognostic Remarks, +by the same author, prefixed to this volume.</p></div> + +<p>About 11 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, the two jolly-boats of the <i>Novara</i> were +lowered to look for a landing-place on Amsterdam, while the +frigate stood off and on, under easy sail, at an offing of +five or six miles. Our whaling informant had told us the +most abundant fishing-station was at the south point of the +island, while the best place for disembarking was on the +N.W. shore. As, however, upon consideration, it was deemed +advisable, looking to the probability of a N.E. gale +springing up, to get to windward of the ship, so as to be +able to fetch her more speedily on our return, the S.E. side +was selected, and our course laid for it accordingly. Along +the acclivities of the coast pyramids of loose stones were +visible, resembling those on St. Paul, but more numerous and +of larger dimensions, the entire island seeming altogether +on a much larger scale, and more lofty. On the West side we +observed rocky precipices of from 1000 to 2000 feet in +height, fissured with deep clefts and rents, whereas on the +South and S.E., these presented a more gradual slope.</p> + +<p>For above an hour we steered along the shore, which rose +sheer out of the water, without being able to detect a +single point at which it was at all practicable to +disembark, so as to scramble up to the high ground. The +entire Eastern side is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span> hemmed around with steep abrupt +precipices of 150 to 200 feet high, not unlike +skilfully-erected bastions, and clothed with long thick +grass.</p> + +<p>As we drew near, we could plainly discern in the +water-courses that descend upon the upper slope—radiating, +as it were, from all sides of the highest peak, which was +enveloped in clouds—numerous streams of water, each pouring +through a rift like a thread of silver, after which, +precipitating itself over the steep precipices on the shore, +it washed like a small torrent over terraces and banks of +lava, till it was lost in the sea. If these streams are +swollen by the heavy rain in winter, they may form +waterfalls, as mentioned by early navigators, which must +impart a far less pleasing character to the landscape. Two +small patches of dazzling white, like fresh fallen snow, +which were visible high above the slope, we could not make +out with the utmost power of our glasses. The green colour +which enveloped the entire island seemed to indicate the +existence of grass vegetation resembling that of St. Paul.</p> + +<p>At last, when we had got within two cables' length of the +shore, we encountered enormous green flakes of floating +sea-weed, which, becoming entangled with the rudder, made +further progress possible only by dint of most strenuous +exertions. This proved to be the same gigantic sea-tangle of +the Southern hemispheres (<i>Macrocystis Pyrifera</i>), which +likewise constitutes a barrier of <i>fucus</i> on the East side +of St. Paul. The sea-calves mentioned by older describers +were nowhere to be seen; but on the other hand we had an +opportunity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span> satisfying ourselves as to the immense +abundance of fish which frequent the coast of the island in +a truly astonishing degree, although the American whaler had +prepared us by his remarks. From bow and stern of the boat +hooks and lines were hung out, and several of the crew were +at once kept busy hauling in the lines, at the end of each +of which there usually struggled a fish of some two or three +feet long. These were chiefly umber fish, which are also +very plentiful about St. Paul, where, from their delicacy, +they formed a favourite dish at our otherwise very frugal +repasts.</p> + +<p>We had now got so near, that we could distinctly perceive +grass and the stems of ferns growing among the clefts of the +rocks. However, although there was a dead calm, and the sea +outside was as smooth as glass, the long ground-swell of the +ocean, with its broad flat billows, caused such a heavy surf +on the rock-bound stony beach, that the attempt to pass it +was not to be thought of. The further we advanced along the +coast in a northernly direction, the more distant we got +from the ship, and unluckily in an equal degree our hopes +were disappointed of finding a spot at which we could land, +and scramble from the strand up the steep bank to the level +ground above. The south-easternmost point, which at a +distance presented the appearance of a low headland jutting +out into the sea, behind which we had hoped to find a good +landing-place, now that we had got close to it, proved to be +a small detached rock; while the shore, as far as the eye +could reach, rose like a wall to a height of from 150 to 200 +feet. There now hove in sight five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span> whalers, who seemed +hunting that most valuable of all the inhabitants of the +deep, of the spots frequented by which Maury's renowned +Whale Charts have lately supplied so interesting and useful +a code of instruction. These charts, which are based on a +vast number of observations, of the tracts of ocean and +seasons of the year at which whales are most frequently +seen, will at the same time greatly tend to a solution of +the question as to the migration of these enormous mammals; +for it has never yet been settled, whether these animals +flee from the pursuit of man to remote seas, thus +continually constraining their pursuers to seek their prey +in new waters, or whether, (as is the most prevalent +opinion), they are always entirely extirpated from one +locality, and accordingly are only to be met with in any +numbers in some different area, in which man has as yet only +rarely, if ever, disturbed them.<a name="Anchor-74" id="Anchor-74"></a><a href="#Footnote-74" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 74.">[74]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-74" id="Footnote-74"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-74">[74]</a> Some very valuable and detailed particulars of +the Whale fishery are to be found in Maury's incomparable +work, "The Physical Geography of the Ocean," and in Dr. +Hartwigs' "Popular Treatise on Animated Nature in the Ocean. +(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.)"</p></div> + +<p>After an hour-and-a-half of continuous rowing, and when, in +our very unsuitable boat, we had got about 7 nautical miles +distant from the frigate, we at last found a smooth spot +between two reefs, which projected above the level of the +sea like a breakwater, and at once let go the boat's anchor. +A regular landing-place, however, was not to be hoped for at +this point. It was necessary first to make a spring to a +block of rock, and thence, picking one's way among stones +rendered slippery by being covered at flood-tide, endeavour +to reach the beach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span> This we all succeeded in accomplishing +over the rough rocks, without any mischance, and at last we +stood on the firm soil of the Island of Amsterdam, at a spot +which assuredly had never before been trodden by human feet, +unless by some castaway. For only in consequence of the sea +being perfectly calm, which at this season was quite +unusual, were we able to reach the shore at this point.</p> + +<p>What a scene of wildest desolation, and inaccessible +solitude now met our gaze! Around us nothing but huge blocks +of basalt, some rolled about by the breakers, and so +slippery with half-dry <i>algæ</i>, that one was in danger of +falling at every stride; others with their angles and +indentations as sharp, as when first violently torn from +their original bed; and behind these gigantic blocks, a +perpendicular wall of rock rising 200 feet sheer, composed +of a schistus of basaltic lava lying regularly and +horizontally one over the other, intermixed with red or +brown slag, and yellow tufa. Immense holes and cavities in +the rocky wall, as also the empty spaces between the broken +blocks that had fallen down, and the vast air-holes scooped +out in the lava beds, furnished an undisturbed +nestling-place for flocks of a beautiful sea-swallow, with +glossy black head, silver-grey body, and bill and feet of +carmine red—the most elegant and attractive contrast of +colours that can well be imagined upon any bird. These +pretty creatures afforded great amusement to the sportsmen +of our little party, while the geologist acquired a better +idea and more information as to the mineralogy and geognosis +of the island beneath the steep wall of rock, than he could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span> +have obtained above, where all seemed to be covered with +thick green grass. But the botanist and zoologist found but +little to repay their search on the beach. The same <i>Algæ</i>, +the same grasses, the same <i>patellæ</i> (limpets), as at St. +Paul, even to the same caterpillars swarming upon every tuft +of grass in numberless quantities. At several points, fresh, +perfectly good, sweet spring-water trickled down from the +heights, and we could thus confirm the relations of former +explorers, that the island contains fresh water; but whether +it can be got at, still remains a very uncertain question. +As we were convinced, after several examinations and much +exertion, that to ascend the precipice from this spot was +impossible, it was resolved, after the men had rested, and a +few observations had been made with the sextant, to +re-embark and endeavour to find a more suitable spot for +disembarking.</p> + +<p>We quitted this first spot about 2 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, and continued to +steer along the coast in a N.E. direction. The character of +the scenery remained almost unaltered. The steep shore wall +indeed dipped somewhat occasionally, but it was never less +than 100 feet above the level of the sea. At various points +there appeared, as at St. Paul, between the tufa strata, +black veins of basalt, and fragments of scoriæ, lying upon +reddish-brown slag. Our curiosity, however, was especially +excited by the appearance of small trees and low bushes. At +first, while we were yet at some distance, we could barely +distinguish a few dark, clear, green spots amid the +universal dull olive appearance of the vegetation that +covered the island; now that we were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span> keeping closer in, we +plainly saw small trees, which seemed most to resemble +forests of pine, as also what appeared to be thick close +brushwood of a light green colour, with which large patches +of the middle and lower slopes of the island were covered. +In vain did we watch for some spot in this singular island +at which we might land and climb; at length, after steering +several miles further along the coast, and passing several +promontories advancing from the island, and numerous +isolated rocks, we came, towards 3.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, upon a number of +lava-blocks that had fallen from above, and, forming a sort +of dam or bulwark between the sea and the shore, seemed to +render disembarkation possible. The boat's anchor was again +dropped, and we proceeded to make for the shore by dint of +jumping, as before, from rock to rock; a method of reaching +land more agreeable and better suited to penguins than +decorous philosophers!</p> + +<p>Among the rocks on the strand lie fragments of shipwrecked +vessels—pieces of masts and yards—dumb witnesses of human +disaster, and suffering, and death! At this point the shore +was not very steep. The masses of rock piled here on each +other in wild confusion, made our ascent more practicable +than at our former landing-place, though perhaps they +necessitated greater circumspection. Dr. Hochstetter and M. +Zelebor, as also Lieutenant Kronowetter, and a sailor, +started for the height. A ridge, grown over with grass and +rushes, and forming a line of communication between the +upper and lower portions of the island, seemed the most +accessible point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span> at which to mount to the high ground +above. At first the path led over the colossal rampart of +broken rocks and through the surf, after which came clumps +of rushes and clods, in which the former grew, and thence +upwards over masses of slag. It was a regular Sisyphean +task. On the loose rolling <i>débris</i> beneath the feet, for +every five feet forwards, one slipped four backward, so that +to climb this height of little over 100 feet, took nearly a +whole hour. At last the adventurous scramblers stood on the +top of the island, on a small bare cone of scoriæ, whence +they were able to overlook a portion of the ground. Dense +rush-like grass, as high as a man, thickly covered the +entire surface—half-withered, half of a lively green; here +broken short off by wind and rain, there still standing +erect. Further progress was not to be thought of, not even +as far as the green clump of bushes which had already been +observed from the boat, although it was scarcely a hundred +paces distant, on the surface of the declivity, and although +a closer examination promised to afford many interesting +details as to the vegetation on the island. It would have +been necessary to make one's way either through heaps of +withered rushes, requiring to be broken down at every +moment, or across thick, matted, fresh, slippery grass, in +order to get anywhere near the copse that resembled the +pinewood. Moreover, owing to the short allowance of daylight +that remained, both were for the present inaccessible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span><a name="Anchor-75" id="Anchor-75"></a><a href="#Footnote-75" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 75.">[75]</a> +Evening was coming on, and it was necessary to think of our +return, as we were at a distance of at least eight miles +from the frigate. With the help of pocket-handkerchiefs, +which they had tied to the reeds, the explorers readily +found again the place at which they had ascended, and now +speedily returned to the improvised landing-place, where, +meanwhile, the naturalists that had remained behind had +occupied themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span> with collecting specimens on the beach, +and amid the surrounding rocks. A singular spectacle now +presented itself to the astonished view. A couple of lucifer +matches that had been thrown aside without further thought, +had burst into flames amid the parched rush beds, and dense +volumes of black smoke forthwith rose upon the surface of +the island. The fire speedily spreading among the thick dry +grass, soon assumed a formidable breadth, and ere long a +considerable portion of the east coast of the island was in +a light flame. There was now presented to the members of the +<i>Novara</i> expedition, the same spectacle as that witnessed by +the naturalists of the <i>Recherche</i>, when D'Entrecasteaux +passed here some sixty years before. It may safely be +assumed that the fire, and the thick wreaths of smoke then +visible were like those of to-day, the result of man's +hands, and not of subterranean forces—in fact, kindled in +all probability by fishermen, who were clearing this +uninhabitable island of the close impervious brushwood that +so greatly impedes locomotion, and were rendering it capable +of being traversed, as well as susceptible of cultivation. +During the night of 7th and 8th December, 1857, the sky was +clear and cloudless, and the flames crackled and leaped high +above the beach, in an elliptical area, which must have +measured a couple of miles in its major axis. A dense, +copper-coloured, luminous cloud of smoke rose straight into +the air, where it spread out horizontally, till at last a +long trail of smoke stretched in a S.E. direction to the +farthest horizon, entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span> covering the upper part of the +island. About 2 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, according to the report of the officer +of the watch, the spectacle was still more grand and +imposing. The conflagration at that time extended over an +immense surface, so that the imagination might naturally +enough be disposed to regard this as the bursting forth of +the pent-up flames of a volcano, with the usual +accompaniments of red-hot streams of lava, clouds of +floating ashes, and pillars of flame mounting to heaven.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-75" id="Footnote-75"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-75">[75]</a> One of the shipwrecked crew of the <i>Meridian</i>, +in an article in the <i>Nautical Magazine</i>, for 1854, p. 75, +describes at some length the difficulties of access to this +island. We quote it here as a supplement to our own +experiences:—"After we had clambered up to the top by means +of ropes, and after much exertion and considerable danger, +we found the island for a space of two or three miles +thickly covered with reeds, from 5 to 8 feet high; behind +rose a lofty hill, also clothed with reeds. Fortunately, +during our stay on the island, there was a sufficiency of +fresh water, although in summer, in all probability, there +is a great scarcity. So long as we remained, constant rain +fell upon the summit of the mountain, and kept the numerous +little brooks full of water. In order to signal our +situation to any ship that might be passing, we set the +reeds on fire; but the flames spread more furiously than we +had anticipated, so that our lives were endangered. A +considerable quantity of young birds were picked up, which +had fallen victims to the flames. On the 29th August, to our +great joy, a ship, the <i>Monmouth</i>, hove in sight, and +observed our signal; but the surf was at this time so +violent that no boat could reach us. At last, on 31st +August, a boat came near enough to the shore to make us a +signal to proceed eastward over the rocks. We set off at +once, but found the path very rugged, and owing to the +immense masses of rock lying around, excessively difficult. +Besides reeds and brushwood, there were no other plants but +parsley and endive (<i>cichorium intybus</i>). During the first +half of the following day we found no water, but we found +the hail very grateful, which day and night fell +incessantly, alternating with rain. At the first +watering-place we came upon an English sailor, whom the +captain of the <i>Monmouth</i> had despatched to assist us. He +informed us we must make for the north side of the island, +as no boat could reach the shore at the spot where we had +gone ashore. The south-coast is the worst part of the +island; there the surf breaks continually against the +iron-bound coast; there is nothing resembling a beach—only +here and there enormous blocks of a hard species of stone, +that have fallen from time to time from the cliffs above. On +2nd September, we had neither provisions nor water. The +following day, however, we found water, and a few +cabbage-stalks, which several years before had been sown by +some whalers, and fortunately had thrived. On 5th September, +we reached what is called the Cabbage Garden, and the same +evening arrived at the place where the boat was awaiting +us."</p></div> + +<p>Fortunately, this gigantic conflagration must have done far +more good than harm to this desolate island, covered as it +was for the most part with reeds, since, without destroying +any of the vegetation that could be of service to man, it +will greatly facilitate examination by future voyagers, and +adapt it for settlement by fishers and others, who at +present seem to leave it utterly abandoned.</p> + +<p>Towards 6 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, as it was already getting dark, our two +boats set out on their return to the frigate, from which in +the course of the day they had been distant about fifteen +miles. However a fresh Northerly breeze having sprung up we +were able to make sail, and at 7.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> once more reached +the frigate, when we were received with a storm of +questions, principally turning upon the mysterious +far-visible conflagration,—which had been kindled by a +couple of humble Vienna lucifers! During our visit to the +island a variety of observations were also made on board the +frigate, to obtain the position of Amsterdam, as also to +determine the elevation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span> the most prominent peaks of the +island, and the outline of the shore. The results of these +gave the following: latitude 37° 58′ 30″ S.; longitude, 77° +34,' 44″ E. of Greenwich; elevation of the highest summit +(nearly corresponding with previous observations), 2891 +English feet; of the second highest, 2651 feet; the length +of the South coast, as measured from the frigate, 32,359 +feet; of the Western shore, 5507 feet.</p> + +<p>There was still some faint hope that we might visit the +island next day. However, during the night the wind sprung +up, the weather became variable, and we saw ourselves +compelled to renounce our cherished desire to investigate +the island thoroughly, the rather that, owing to the +unpropitious weather during the last few weeks, the stay of +the <i>Novara</i> in these latitudes had been prolonged so +considerably beyond the period fixed, that no more time +could be spared, if it were desirous to avoid sacrificing +the objects of the Expedition with reference to other and +more important departments of scientific enquiry, by +engaging in them at a season in all probability highly +unfavourable for the purpose.</p> + +<p>Consequently our observations in Amsterdam remained most +imperfect; although the geologist of the expedition was +enabled to clear up the uncertainty hitherto prevailing as +to the geological structure of the island, and to determine +upon scientific data, that Amsterdam is an extinct volcanic +cone, of precisely the same character, and belonging to the +same order of volcanic formation as the sister island of St. +Paul; that it probably contains on itself all the usual +indications of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span> volcanic origin, and that its upheaval +probably took place at the same period. On the other hand, +the naturalist regretted to see slip the opportunity so +rarely vouchsafed, of instituting a comparison between the +respective vegetations of these islands, and of making +evident how, simultaneously with the advance of a more +luxuriant, and more multiform vegetable organization, there +also appears an entirely new race of animals, and how +closely allied in the economy of nature is the existence of +individual specimens with certain fixed pre-existent types. +In any case St. Paul, which we enjoyed an opportunity of +examining in the utmost detail, is, of the two islands, the +most important to the commerce of the world, not merely as a +finger-post on the most frequented deep-sea route in the +Indian Ocean, but also as a haven of refuge for ships and +crews. Already the crater-basin of St. Paul has served in +case of need as a desirable asylum for ships that are half +unseaworthy. Not many years since an English man-of-war +steamer came to St. Paul, after a severe storm in the Indian +Ocean, during which her engine broke down, and her rudder +was knocked away, after which she, for twelve days, was +steered by a temporary rudder. The vessel, after discharging +the heaviest part of her equipment, was easily brought into +the interior of the crater-basin, and was there hove down +for several months on the Northern barrier, undergoing +repairs.</p> + +<p>On the 8th December, about 4 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, only a dark cloud of +smoke in the distant cloudless horizon indicated the +position of Amsterdam. The island itself, properly speaking, +was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span> actually out of sight, for a fresh N.W. breeze had +driven us merrily along during the night. The last hope was +now dissipated of being able to obtain a view of the North +side of Amsterdam. We were now rapidly approaching the +region of the S.E. Trades. The breeze freshened and crept +gradually to the West, thence to the South, and finally to +the Eastward. This veering of the wind proved to be a +fore-runner of the Trades, which we got into on 14th +December, in S. latitude 28° 1′, E. longitude 85°.</p> + +<p>On that day a merchantman hove in sight, which, with +favouring breezes and all sail set, soon bore down on us. +She came down without any flag, and stood right across our +bows at so short a distance that we could plainly read her +name—the <i>Bunker's Hill</i>, of Boston—on her stern. +Thereupon we ran up our flag; and, as it is as gross a +breach of the code of maritime politeness for a ship to pass +across the bows of another in the open ocean without +saluting, as for a man on land to brush quickly across +another's path without apologizing, a blank shot was fired +at this unmannerly American. To this manifestation etiquette +lays it down that, as the hoisting of her flag by a +man-of-war is a direct challenge for any merchantman that +may be in sight to hoist its flag, any neglect of these +universally recognized rules must involuntarily give rise to +suspicions. After we had fired the blank shot, the American, +by a telegraph of flag-signals, enquired the latitude and +longitude, which in merchant ships in the open sea is pretty +frequently resorted to, in order to know where precisely +they are, as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span> are not able to make such frequent +observations as ships of war. Before anything else, however, +it was necessary to settle the question of saluting; and +this the obstinate Yankee, in spite of the warning signal, +seemed resolved not to notice, although he well knew the +seriousness of his position, as was abundantly evident in +the celerity with which several ladies and gentlemen, whom +we could discern on deck, flew to seek shelter below! A +second report, accompanied by a ball over his stern, at last +brought this pertinacious captain to his senses, and the +whistling of the shot had the desired effect. The "Stars and +Stripes" were run up, upon which we signalled the required +latitude and longitude. Probably it was but a petulant +explosion of a silly national vanity, as also the +consciousness of commanding a handsome crack "clipper," that +could speedily run out of gun-shot, which led to this +premeditated and persistent violation of one of the most +ordinary rules of politeness. Indeed, even the vessels of +the North American navy itself are frequently compelled in +the open sea to treat their fellow-countrymen in a similar +manner; and the captain of the war-steamer <i>Minnesota</i>, +looking after the North American interests in China, was +obliged, as we learned afterwards at Shanghai, to enforce a +compliance with established sea usages on one of his +seafaring compatriots, by dint of cannon-shot, in accordance +with the undoubted practice of all maritime nations.</p> + +<p>The south-east Trade, which we had hoped would drive us on +our destined course, was not so strong or so steady as we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span> +had expected, chiefly perhaps in consequence of the +influence exercised by the Australian continent, the +temperature of which during this, the summer season of the +Southern Hemisphere, is raised to an extraordinary degree by +its sandy surface, that when the air has become thus warmed, +it ascends and becomes more rarefied in its lower strata, in +consequence of which its elasticity becomes so great as to +drive back the surrounding colder atmosphere, and only admit +it to contact with the heated air at its most remote limits. +This occurs the more readily, that the heated air, after it +has risen to the more rarefied tracts, expands on all sides, +and at a certain distance from the lower level, begins to +add to the pressure of the atmosphere. In this self-acting +zone of increased atmospheric pressure, the winds, however, +are naturally more faint, and, to observers who happen to be +on the exterior of this zone, always appear to take their +rise from the further side. For this reason, probably, we +fell in with easterly breezes, so long as we had the +Northern portion of Australia to the eastward of us.</p> + +<p>At any rate, the equilibrium of the air seemed to be +disturbed, as we could plainly perceive from the weather and +the confused sea. At last on 18th December, the heavens +seemed somewhat more propitious, though the wind still +continued easterly; indeed occasionally blew from the north, +and frequent squalls of rain poured pitilessly down upon us. +The more, however, we increased our distance from the +Australian continent, that is, from all land to the +eastward, the more steadily blew the south east Trade. And +so we kept standing steadily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span> forwards, till at last, on the +24th December, in 6° 4′ S. Lat., and 82° 34′ E. Long., we +reached the eastern boundaries of the Trades and got into +that of calms.</p> + +<p>The heat, which thus far had spared us, began now to be most +oppressive, and was felt all the more owing to the air being +extraordinarily damp and dense. Frequently in the afternoon +a passing shower of rain, which would sometimes completely +flood the deck, would cool the air for a few fleeting +moments. Occasionally indeed we had westerly and more rarely +north-westerly breezes, but these were never of long +duration, and were incessantly broken by rains and squalls.</p> + +<p>And at this same season, at which in our distant Fatherland, +palace and hut are decked out with unwonted attention, when +golden fruits and elegant presents glitter from the green +fir-branches of the Christmas Tree, all lit up with the neat +little wax-tapers, when man's heart seems to overflow with +cheerfulness and love of his fellow-creatures,—at this +season we were languishing far from our dear ones, tormented +with the intense heat, scarcely able to realize to +ourselves, that at home it must now be snow and frost, while +keen Boreas is whirling the snowflakes aloft, and howling a +grim accompaniment the while! However, we promised ourselves +the satisfaction of enjoying these pleasures at our own +firesides, whereupon our recollections of home and dear +friends imparted to our minds a wholesome stimulus, arising +from the soul-inspiring conviction, that we too were present +in their minds and hearts at this hallowed season. Nay, +several of the officers of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition were +surprised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span> when far at sea, in the very midst of the Indian +Ocean, with Christmas gifts, which thoughtful friends had +many months before entrusted to the care of discreet +fellow-voyagers.</p> + +<p>After constantly struggling against calms and contrary +winds, exactly at the first stroke of the New Year, at +midnight of 31st December-1st January, we reached the +Equator, which we were now crossing for the second time, and +began the year 1858 in the Northern Hemisphere.</p> + +<p>On this New Year's Day we had nearly had a great disaster. A +lad who was coming down the shrouds fell overboard. The sea +was perfectly calm and smooth, but already on the morning of +this very day we had seen many sharks, those dreaded foes of +man in the domain of ocean, so that the life of the +unfortunate youth seemed seriously imperilled. The same +instant in which the youth fell, saw a life-buoy thrown +over, a boat prepared for lowering, and all usual appliances +for a rescue made available. But although an excellent +swimmer, he seemed to lose all presence of mind, probably +through fear, and must undoubtedly have been drowned, had +not the boatswain's mate, and two other sailors, leaped into +the water and made all haste to his assistance. Meanwhile +the boat had been got into the water, by which rescued and +rescuers were got safe on board again.</p> + +<p>A few months later, the boatswain's mate, for his gallant +conduct on this occasion, received, by the express orders of +His Majesty, the silver cross of merit, while the sailors +were advanced one grade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p> + +<p>The current, which runs northward along the coast of +Australia, but turns off to the westward about the tenth +degree of South latitude, so as to pass southward of Ceylon, +directly along the Equator to the Coast of Africa, carried +us far to the westward, in consequence of which we had +overcast, uncertain weather, with, for the most part, calms +or light breezes. As we found ourselves approaching the +fourth degree of Northern latitude, a rather fresh N.E. wind +sprung up, probably the trade wind of the Northern +Hemisphere, which, however, as we neared Ceylon, again died +away to a calm.</p> + +<p>At the same time, in lat. 5° 32′ N., 79° 5′ E., we fell in +with a current running more than two miles an hour. We had, +as it turned out, got to the westward of the roadstead of +Point de Galle, in Ceylon, and found some little difficulty +in making headway against the current. On 7th January, +toward 3.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, land was made to the eastward, and an hour +later, a Cingalese canoe was perceived making for the +frigate under sail. It was the pilot boat, whose crew, +having been informed by a Hamburg brig that a large ship was +in sight, had put to sea to meet us.</p> + +<p>At the first sight of this little canoe, it was hardly +possible to refrain from amazement at the courage and +hardihood with which the half-naked Cingalese boatmen could +put off some 30 or 40 miles to sea in such a tiny, narrow +boat, that barely gives them room to sit lengthwise. Two +cross-bars, or outriggers, projecting on one side, where +they are fastened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span> externally to a rather massive beam, +which swims parallel with the boat, gave this canoe, +apparently so fragile, such stability and seaworthiness, +that it is at all times not less safe than a boat of +European construction.<a name="Anchor-76" id="Anchor-76"></a><a href="#Footnote-76" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 76.">[76]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-76" id="Footnote-76"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-76">[76]</a> These canoes resemble very closely the "proas," +of the Polynesian Islands, carrying a beam on one side, +which is quite straight, and always kept on the lee of the +wind and sea, the change of course being effected by simply +shifting the sail, and steering with the paddle from the +opposite end.</p></div> + +<p>The natives steer with short paddles, and continue an +incredibly long time at this most exhausting work, as we +must conceive it to be. And yet they are to appearance a +feeble race, except that the muscular system of the upper +part of the body is remarkably developed.</p> + +<p>The dress of these people is remarkably simple, and usually +consists only of a piece of coloured linen cloth or calico, +which, worn short like a woman's petticoat, is thrown +single-fold round the loins.</p> + +<p>The pilot, though he could only make himself intelligible in +broken English, speedily came to a good understanding, and +offered to sell us bananas, pine-apples, and cocoa-nuts, as +also Ceylon jewels, the latter of which he carried on his +person, secured in a parti-coloured cotton belt. This +reminded us that we were nearing the shores of the country +in which costly stones are found, but precisely on that +account, as was natural, our speculative pilot found but a +poor market for his wares.</p> + +<p>Off the coast we caught a shark 7 feet long, and 135 lbs. +weight—a rather juvenile specimen—whose teeth, which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span> +examined, were already strong and sharp enough to seize a +man, and strip the flesh off him. Also a number of large +dolphins and other fish, sported in the dead water under the +frigate's stern, and provided plentiful employment for the +harpoon and the rod. Presently we found ourselves within six +miles of the land, when a large number of pirogues forthwith +came swarming about us, all of a construction similar to the +pilot boat, and each manned by four half-naked bronze +natives. These offered fruits for sale, especially +magnificent, gigantic clusters of banana. On one such +cluster we counted, arranged in five rows, one over the +other, not less than 175 bananas.</p> + +<p>On the 8th January, we anchored in the unpicturesque haven +of Point de Galle, surrounded by groves of cocoa-nut palms, +directly opposite the lighthouse tower, and in a fine quartz +sand bottom of 16½ fathoms (103 feet English). All large +ships, that only intend remaining a short time, anchor in +the open roadstead, the entrance into the inner harbour +being rather difficult, owing to numerous coral reefs. In +the roads also lay the English frigate <i>Shannon</i>, from +which, in the absence of her captain, the first lieutenant +immediately came on board the <i>Novara</i>, and in the +handsomest manner put his services at our disposal.</p> + +<p>As the only Austrian Consul on the island was resident in +Colombo, M. Sonnenkalb, the Consul for Hamburg, had the +courtesy to receive us with the most hospitable of welcomes, +and proceeded to do us the honours of the place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span></p> + +<p>On the 10th we hauled the frigate into the small inner +harbour, in order to facilitate the shipping of stores. The +entrance is rather winding, owing to the numerous shoals, +and it is with some little difficulty that one can find a +comfortable, commodious berth among such a crowd of +shipping. We only saluted the flag of the dominant +nationality—a customary courtesy—and were replied to by +the batteries on shore. An officer of the frigate was then +dispatched to announce our arrival to the governor of the +station—a major in the English army. This gentleman seemed +not to think it incumbent on him to put himself in the least +out of his way for us. Indeed, we even experienced some +little difficulty in procuring a sufficient supply of +drinking water for shipment as stores; but we must at the +same time add, in justice to the representatives of England +in distant countries, that during our entire voyage this was +the one solitary instance in which English military official +men did not display that universal readiness to oblige, +which, to their credit, is so conspicuously and so kindly +displayed by them in their intercourse with foreign nations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;"><a name="illu403" id="illu403"></a> +<img src="images/illu403.jpg" width="464" height="192" alt="Cingalese canoe under way." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CINGALESE CANOE.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; +width: 611px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu405.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu405" id="illu405"></a> +<a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a> +<span style="position: relative; top:-2em;">VIEW OF ADAM'S<br />PEAK FROM COLOMBO.</span></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 611px; height: 365px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 192px; height: 334px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">VIII.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Ceylon.</div> + +<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Stay from 8th to 16th Jan., 1858.</span></div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English +Government.—Better Prospects for the Future.—The +Cingalese, their Language and Customs.—Buddhism and its +Ordinances.—Visit to a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of +Galle.—The sacred Bo-tree.—Other Aborigines of +Ceylon.—The Weddàhs.—Traditions as to their Origin.—Galle +as a City and Harbour.—Snake-charmers.—Departure for +Colombo.—Cultivation of the Cocoa-nut Palm, a benevolent, +Buddha-pleasing work.—Polyandria; or, Community of +Husbands.—Supposed Origin.—Annual Exportation of +Cocoa-nuts.—Rest-houses for Travellers.—Curry, the +National Dish.—A Misfortune and its Consequences.—The +Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makun, and Father +Miliani.—Annoying Delays with restive Horses.—Colombo.—A +Stroll through the "<i>Pettah</i>" or Black Town.—Ice Trade of +the Americans with Tropical Countries.—Cinnamon Gardens and +Cinnamon Cultivation.—Consequences of the Monopoly of +Cinnamon.—Rise and Expansion of the Coffee Culture in +Ceylon.—Pearl-fishery.—Latest Examination of the Ceylon +Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its +Results.—Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.—The +Divers.—Pearl-lime, a Chewing Substance of wealthy +Malays;—Annual Profit of the Pearl-fishery.—Origin of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"> </a></span> the +Pearl.—Poetry and Natural Science.—Artificial Production +of the Pearl.—The Chank-shell—The Wealth of Ceylon in +Precious Stones.—Visit to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.—The +Cowry-shell, a Promoter of the Slave Trade.—Discovery of +valuable Cingalese MSS. on Palm-leaves.—The heroic Poem of +"Mahawwanso," and Turner's English Translation of +it.—Hospitality of English Officials in Colombo.—A second +Visit to Father Miliani.—Agreeable Reception.—The +Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous Snakes.—Adventures +on the Journey back to Galle.—Ascent of Adam's Peak by two +Members of the Expedition.—The sacred +Footprint.—Descent.—The "Bullock-bandy," or Native +Waggon.—Departure from Galle for Madras.—The Bassos +(shallows).—A Berlin Rope-dancer among the +Passengers.—Nyctalopia; or, Night Blindness.—Fire on +board.—Arrival in Madras Roads. +</div> + +<p>The inquirer who becomes acquainted by personal examination +with the important geographical position of the Island of +Ceylon (called also Seilan or Singhala), her commodious +harbours, her productiveness, and her marvellous climate, +involuntarily wonders at the stepmother's part that England +has hitherto played with respect to this renowned island of +palms and spices, the Malta of the Indian Ocean, which of +all the British possessions in distant parts of the earth, +has, till recently, received the least care or attention.</p> + +<p>It must be borne in mind, however, that Ceylon is an +appanage of the British Crown, and it is not an independent, +self-supporting colony. Those shortcomings of +administration, for which the mother country is exclusively +responsible, have been hitherto a complete drag upon her +development. But the English people have this advantage over +all other nations, that once anything has been recognized to +be useful and imperatively required, they proceed to apply +it with such energy, that they are enabled to make up for +any neglect with giant strides. During late years many +fetters have been knocked off which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span> formerly impeded the +more active development of agriculture and commerce. The +harbour of Point de Galle (also called only Galle for +shortness) has become a central station for the steam-boat +trade with the East Indies, the Burmese Archipelago, China, +and Australia. A telegraphic wire will ere long stretch from +Ceylon to England, such as even now unites the island with +the Coromandel Coast and India; a railway is in course of +construction between the most important commercial centres +of the island, and so obvious are the fundamental benefits +it must confer, that ere long the classical and incomparably +beautiful island of Ceylon is destined to shine a star of +the first magnitude in the azure of the Indian Ocean, one of +the most prosperous, wealthy, and blest of islands!</p> + +<p>The scientific researches of all kinds, which have in modern +days been instituted in Ceylon, have been attended with the +most important results, bearing upon its history and its +various tribes, as well as on its natural wealth; and the +masterly and marvellous work Sir Emerson Tennent lately +published on the isle of Ceylon, seems intended to +compensate for many instances of neglect which Ceylon and +its inhabitants have experienced from the English since they +seized on it.</p> + +<p>Embracing all the three kingdoms of nature, and following up +with learned accuracy the history of the inhabitants, from +the obscure traditions attending their earliest settlement +down to the present day, Sir Emerson Tennent's work is a +perfect pattern of a monography, although upon this subject +the German inquirer will involuntarily, and not without an +emotion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span> of pride, recall to mind Carl Ritter's admirable, +well-digested publication upon Ceylon, in his classical work +on Eastern Asia, doubly meritorious by the very fact that +the German scholar never set foot in the country itself. +There are, however, indeed few spots on earth which present +such inexhaustible subjects for the study of the historian +as well as the inquirer into physical science, of the poet +and the political economist, as this romantically-beautiful +island, which we have been taught to regard as the Garden of +the World, as indeed the special site of the Garden of Eden, +the first abode of the progenitors of the human race.</p> + +<p>We have not to do here, as in most of the islands of +southern seas, with a savage people, that have only, since +the first appearance of Europeans, emerged from a state of +barbarism, and been raised one step towards civilization, +but rather find, as in the East Indies and China, a peculiar +type of civilization, which, although widely differing from +that of Europe, yet seems not less valuable and +extraordinary. The whites (scarce 7000 in number, of whom +2482 are females), who live scattered over an area of 24,700 +English square miles, have hitherto been too few in number +to exercise any marked influence on the customs or mode of +life of a native coloured population of 1,726,640 souls, and +hence it is that Ceylon exhibits a more romantic and +characteristic air than any other British settlement in +distant parts of the globe.</p> + +<p>A people like the Cingalese, of such ardent imaginativeness, +with a splendid history, and a religion professed in the +various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span> realms of the East by more than 300 millions of +people, gains in interest the more we become acquainted with +them, and the more we make their traditions, their mode of +life, and their customs, the object of special inquiry.</p> + +<p>The Cingalese, or indigenous natives (so named to +distinguish them from the other inhabitants of the island, +belonging to other stocks and amalgamated races, who at +various periods had settled here, and who call themselves +Ceylonese), were entirely the offspring of Hindoo emigrants, +who, about five centuries before the birth of Christ, came +from Hindostan to Ceylon, and imported their own mode of +government, and system of caste, as also their arts, +language, and religion, from the continent into the island.</p> + +<p>They constitute the germ of the present population, and +early divided themselves into four leading castes:—1st, +that of the royal family;—2nd, the Brahmins;—3rd, the +merchants, peasants, and shepherds;—and 4th, the sixty +inferior common castes. At present there exist in Ceylon +only the two latter. The most numerous is that of the +peasants, who, however, meddle but little with the +cultivation of the soil, but have arrogated to themselves +the exclusive and hereditary possession of all employments, +lay or ecclesiastical. The dress of the Cingalese usually +consists of a cloth wound turban-fashion round their head, +and long white drapery. On festive occasions they wear +richly-adorned tight-fitting jackets of velvet or wool, and +on such occasions rank and power assert themselves by the +number of garments, to such an extent that frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span> a +wealthy man makes his appearance in several of these +habiliments, worn one above the other. The Cingalese are +shorter in stature than the Europeans, their average stature +being 5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 5 inches, English. Their +<i>physique</i>, though graceful and delicate, is powerful and +muscular, with a brawny breast, broad shoulders, the muscles +of the thigh strongly developed, but with disproportionately +small hands and feet. Their colour is commonly a +light-brown, their hair black and quite straight. The women +are beautifully formed, but even when they can, like +Asokamalla of historic fame, boast all the forty and six +marks of the Cingalese ideal,<a name="Anchor-77" id="Anchor-77"></a><a href="#Footnote-77" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 77.">[77]</a> they must fall far short of +the European standard of female beauty, with their bodies +anointed with oil, and their mouths stained with the +betel-nut. As the Cingalese girls usually marry so early as +12 years of age, they speedily lose the bloom of youth, and +frequently have the appearance of crones at 20. Another +especially loathsome habit of the Cingalese is the chewing +the betel-nut, a custom so universally prevalent among all +Indian races, that not merely the men and women, but the +very children exhibit an extraordinary predilection for it. +The ingredients of this masticatory consist of the green +tender leaves of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span> the Betel-pepper-shrub (<i>Piper betle</i>), +the nut of the areca-palm (<i>Areca catechu</i>, or +cabbage-tree), some lime made of calcined shells, and +tobacco, which, according to the rank of the individual, +they keep ready prepared by their side, in silver or brass +boxes, resembling snuff-boxes. These corrosive substances at +the same time stain the saliva so deep a red, that, after +long use, the lips and teeth seem as though smeared with +blood.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-77" id="Footnote-77"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-77">[77]</a> Of these forty-six perfections of womanly +beauty we extract the following by way of example, from a +Cingalese author:—hair, glossy as the tail of a peacock, +and hanging in ringlets to the knee, eye-brows like the +rainbow, eyes like sapphire, and the leaves of the manilla +flower, a hawk nose, lips lustrous and red as coral, teeth +small and regular, like the buds of the jasmine, neck thick +and round, haunches broad, breast firm, and conical like the +cocoa-nut, the figure slight, capable of being spanned by +the hand, the limbs spindle-shaped, the sole of the foot +without any hollow, the skin free from any prominence of the +bones, sweeping in rounded curves, soft and tender.</p></div> + +<p>The language is an offshoot of the Sanscrit, copious, +harmonious, and full of expression, with threefold grammar, +and as many vocabularies, viz. for the royal tongue, the +official or court tongue, and that of society at large. To +these there must be added the Pali, the learned, but +obsolete written language of the priestly caste, which the +Cingalese have in common with the kingdoms of Siam and Ava, +in the further Indies. In this language, itself but a +dialect of the Sanscrit, all their sacred books, traditions, +and poetry are written. In many parts of the island the +knowledge of language and written lore are held in such high +honour, that grammar and literature form the entire study of +the inhabitants. Reading and writing are as common among the +Cingalese as in England, except that in Ceylon the women +take no part therein. They do not write as we do, with quill +or steel pen upon paper, but engrave the characters with a +fine-pointed iron graver, or <i>stylus</i>, upon the leaves of +the Talipot palm-tree (<i>Corypha umbraculifera</i>), from which +they slice a broad strip for the purpose about 2 feet long, +and several inches broad. These require no further +preparation than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span> they must be well smoothed +beforehand, and all inequalities removed. In order to render +the writing more clear and legible, the Cingalese rub it +with a mixture of cocoa-nut oil and fine pulverized +wood-ashes, which imparts to it durability and prevents +obliteration. Great numbers, however, use the leaves of +another species of palm for writing upon, viz. the Palmyra +palm (<i>Borassus flabelliformis</i>), but those of the Talipot +are preferred to all others for their closeness of texture, +and are alone used in important records and other documents.</p> + +<p>The religion of the Cingalese is Buddhism, which in Ceylon +still flourishes in these times in all its pristine vigour. +Buddha is not the name of the founder of this belief, who is +called Gautama, or Sakja-Muni, but is only one of the +numerous titles of honour invented by that personage, who in +the Sanscrit figures so conspicuously as a sage. Gautama was +born in the province of Maghada (now known as Reha), in +Northern Hindostan, <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> 624. His parents were Suddhodana, +King of Magadha, and his consort Maja. Contemplating the +degeneracy and misery of man, sunk in deepest woe, Gautama +attacked the doctrine of Brahma, rejected the Vedas, or holy +books, and founded the new faith, which consists of the +following fundamental propositions:—The Creator and Ruler +of the world is a supreme, invisible, purely spiritual (and +for that reason obviously impossible to be figured) Being, +almighty, wise, just, beneficent, and merciful. Man most +fitly recognizes and honours the Deity by silent +contemplation: by the practice of chastity, temperance, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span> +virtue he attains to happiness. The complete fulfilment of +all his duties confers on him here on earth the dignity of a +Buddha, or sage, and after death consigns him to the +beatific repose of <i>non-existence</i><a name="Anchor-78" id="Anchor-78"></a><a href="#Footnote-78" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 78.">[78]</a> (<i>Nirwana</i>). Condemned +souls are born again in the forms of wild animals. According +to Gautama's teaching a fresh Buddha always appears at +certain epochs, whose existence is manifested by his +extraordinary spiritual powers, by his deeds, and by his +prophecies, selected by destiny for the purpose of +enlightening the world as to the decrees of the Supreme +Being, and to restore religion to her pristine purity. The +death of a Buddha is also the commencement of a new +reckoning of time. Gautama, who died about <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> 542, or some +2400 years since, was the forty-fifth and last Buddha that +appeared to the Cingalese; his doctrine must continue to +operate for 5000 years, when, according to the Cingalese +traditions, the next Buddha, or Purifier, will appear. +Gautama's belief, bequeathed by him to his disciple, the +Brahmin Mahakaja, was immediately translated into Sanscrit, +and speedily spread. Several hundred temples and monuments +dedicated to him are scattered in various parts of the +island, and remain to this day an evidence of the extent and +influence of Buddhism.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-78" id="Footnote-78"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-78">[78]</a> The ten precepts of the moral code of Buddhism +are as follows:—Kill no living creature—do not +steal—follow no unclean occupation—tell no lies or +untruths—drink no fermented liquors—live exclusively on +vegetables—anoint neither the head nor the body—go to no +singing parties or spectacles—do not sleep on a raised nor +on a wide bed—eat but once a day, and before noon.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 670px;"><a name="illu414" id="illu414"></a> +<img src="images/illu414.jpg" width="670" height="488" alt="Temple among the palm trees." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BUDDHA TEMPLE NEAR GALLE.</span> +</div> + +<p>On the day of our arrival we at once set off to visit one +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">354</a></span> these Buddhist temples, in the vicinity of Galle. The +edifice is small and insignificant, only the carved woodwork +of the door presenting any object of interest as a work of +art. In the interior is a gigantic figure of Buddha, carved +in wood, and in a reclining position; it is 20 feet long, +and painted yellow and red, with long flaps to the ears, and +a lotus flower on the head; while on the walls around, +richly decorated with scrollwork, dragons and lions, part +painted, part sculptured, various interesting episodes are +represented in the history of Buddhism. Right in front of +the figure are placed a number of offerings of the most +miscellaneous description, beneath which are flowers and +fruits; a small tin box is also particularly conspicuous, +into which every stranger is expected to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span> drop a piece of +silver by way of present. Adjoining such a temple are always +to be found the <i>wiharas</i>, or residences of the priests +(<i>hamaduruhs</i>), and the spot where preaching and teaching +are carried on. The priests wear long wide vestures, yellow +or white according to their rank, or else only a single +yellow outer garment, which falls in the form of graceful +drapery over the naked shoulders; their heads are shaved, +and they walk about quite barefoot, with a parasol of +Talipot palm in their hand, and observe with strangers a +reserved, distrustful demeanour.</p> + +<p>We were conducted all round by a young priest, of about 20 +years of age, who spoke a little English, which is not a +very common accomplishment, since the Buddhists have a great +dislike for all that is foreign. Only at the conclusion of +our visit did the old, grey, half-blind superior priest make +his appearance, saluted us, but immediately left us to +snatch from a boy a shaddock (<i>Citrus decumana</i>), which is +especially prized by the Cingalese on account of the +refreshing qualities of its juice.</p> + +<p>The priestly office, however, does not deter a native from +indulging the disgusting habit of chewing the betel-nut, and +this aged <i>hamaduruh</i> became much more sociable on receiving +some.</p> + +<p>Adjoining the temple, which stands in a charming cocoa-nut +grove, we first got an idea of the extraordinary luxuriance +of the vegetation of this island. In a single enclosure, not +much larger than an ordinary house-garden, we saw +coffee-trees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span> cinnamon-bushes, clove-trees, nutmeg-trees, +(<i>Areca catechu</i>), oranges, lemons, pine-apples, and +bread-fruit trees (<i>Arctocarpus incisa</i>), flourishing in +wildest profusion.</p> + +<p>A second temple, which we also visited, was the Dadále +Panzela, the largest in the province, and the seat of the +high-priest of the Buddhists. This worthy personage, a +septuagenary, is named Nanalangara Seresumana +Mahdamaradjigurù Ganatchari-Naikunangi, and is surrounded by +a staff of priests of the temple who are reputed holy, and +who apparently venerate him as a superior being. This temple +did not differ much in construction and arrangement from the +first; but the place set apart for instruction, where, at +the time of our visit, some youths were busily engaged in +copying the sacred books upon palm leaves, as also the +residences of the priests, made a much more imposing +impression, and spoke of a certain degree of opulence. In +the midst of a piece of ground laid out like a garden was +planted the sacred Bo-tree, which is looked upon as holy by +the Buddhists, because, according to an ancient tradition, +Buddha was in the habit of reposing under the shadow of its +branches, as often as he visited the earth. Towering above +everything wherever a Buddhist temple is raised, there a +Bo-tree is planted; but the particular sacred tree, the +original plant from which the legend took its rise, grows at +Anaradnapura, in the northern part of the former kingdom of +Kandi, whither it had been suddenly translated from a +far-distant land, and spontaneously took root in the spot +where it at present stands, in order to serve as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span> a +protection and shelter for Buddha.<a name="Anchor-79" id="Anchor-79"></a><a href="#Footnote-79" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 79.">[79]</a> Ninety Cingalese +monarchs are interred around it, all of whom, by the temples +and statues they erected to Buddha, are deemed worthy of +this pre-eminent mark of distinction.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-79" id="Footnote-79"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-79">[79]</a> The sacred Bo-tree (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>) of the +Buddhists is frequently confounded with the Banyan Tree +(<i>Ficus Indica</i>), held in such honour by the Brahmins, from +which latter it differs in this, that it does not throw out +from its branches numberless twigs which take root again in +the earth. The incessant waving and rustling of the leaves +and branches, which is common to both species of <i>Ficus</i>, is +regarded by the faithful Buddhists as the effect of a +fear-instilling scene of which the sage was once witness +under the Bo-tree; just as the Syrian Christians deduce, +from the fact that the Holy Cross was manufactured out of +aspen-wood, that this tree is trembling, even in our days, +with anguish and terror. Singular, what an important part +the fig-tree seems to play in all religions, including the +Christian and the Mahometan!</p></div> + +<p>The grey-headed high-priest permitted the library of the +temple to be shown to us, which consists of a large number +of Pali manuscripts, inscribed on Talipot leaves, each of +which was enclosed between two elegant boards made of +calamander wood (<i>Diopyrus hirsuta</i>), fastened with strings, +and enveloped in numerous folds of cloth, the whole guarded +with singular reverence, in lofty, broad, wooden cupboards, +richly carved. When we returned, the chief priest requested +us to give him our names, and that of the country we came +from, upon which a young priest carefully wrote down with a +goose quill on a sheet of paper, in Cingalese language, +apparently with the view of showing us civility, some +superficial remarks respecting the <i>Novara</i> Expedition.</p> + +<p>Besides the pure Cingalese, the island is also inhabited by +Hindoos from the Malabar coast, Moors (the descendants of +wandering Arabs and Mahometans from northern India, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span> at +present carry on the greater part of the trade of the +island), Malays, Javanese; then Portuguese, Dutch, British +of the various nationalities comprised under that title; +and, lastly, Negroes from Mozambique and Madagascar, who +have formed alliances with the Cingalese, and are rearing a +numerous mixed race.<a name="Anchor-80" id="Anchor-80"></a><a href="#Footnote-80" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 80.">[80]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-80" id="Footnote-80"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-80">[80]</a> What is related by various writers of the +practice of "running a muck" (a custom that seems to recall +the frightful blood-feuds of the Corsicans), long supposed +to be peculiar to Ceylon, in which a Malay thirsting for +revenge, and armed with a naked "<i>kreese</i>," or dagger, +rushes through the streets like a madman, yelling "<i>Amock, +Amock</i>" (kill, kill), and runs the fearful weapon through +the body of the very first person he meets,—seems to be +founded on a mistake. No one could give us any particulars +on the subject from personal observation. Sir Emerson +Tennant too, in his work on Ceylon, passes over this custom +of "running a muck," without a syllable of mention. +Evidently the custom is not naturalized in this island. It +now prevails among the Malays of the Sunda archipelago, +while in Ceylon no instance has occurred within the memory +of man. That this tendency to murder is caused by the use of +opium likewise appears improbable. Crawford, in his most +excellent descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands, +speaking of "running a muck," pretends it results frequently +from a monomania taking this particular form, and +originating in disorders of the digestive organs.</p></div> + +<p>Deep in the interior of the island, in the province of +Bintang, N.E. from Kandi, and towards Trincomalee and +Batacalva, in holes in the earth, or under the palm-leaves, +reside the tribe of the Weddàhs or Veddàhs, the most savage +race in the island, traditionally said to be the aborigines +proper, who go about naked, with the exception of a girdle +round the loins, and use only bows and javelins, which +however they manufacture and handle with great dexterity.</p> + +<p>According to one of the various Cingalese traditions, these +Weddàhs are the descendants of a very bloodthirsty, cannibal +monarch, who, deposed by his people, was only permitted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span> +alternative of death, or of withdrawing with the ministers +of his cruelty to roam for ever amid the solitudes of the +forest. The dethroned king chose the latter alternative, and +thus became the little-to-be-envied progenitor of this rude +savage race. At any rate it seems worthy of note, that these +Weddàhs, destitute though they are of the remotest traces of +civilization, are still regarded as belonging to the +privileged caste.</p> + +<p>Owing to the shortness of our stay, we unfortunately had no +opportunity of visiting the interior of the island, or of +seeing these Weddàhs. With difficulty did we tear ourselves +from the zone of the cocoa-nut growth, and therefore only +got acquainted with two places on the island, Galle and +Colombo, the latter the seat of government.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 683px;"><a name="illu420" id="illu420"></a> +<img src="images/illu420.jpg" width="683" height="462" alt="Large columned porch." title="" /> +<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT GALLE.</span> +</div> + +<p>Galle is, from its position, as also from its configuration, +indisputably the best and most important harbour in the +south and west of the island, as Colombo can only be +regarded as an open, insecure roadstead. Founded in the +sixteenth century by the Portuguese, conquered at a later +period by the Dutch, and finally, at the peace of Amiens, +transferred to the English, Galle displays singularly few +traces of its different masters. The streets are narrow, but +cleanly; the houses are for the most part constructed of +earth, with verandahs, or airy colonnades towards the +street, and rooms within, plastered to imitate stone, of +spacious dimensions, as is desirable, considering the heat +of the climate. As one enters from the roadway at once into +the sitting apartment, and as the door stands wide open all +day to admit a free current of air, a sort<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span> of open +screen-work is usually put up before the entrance, to +prevent a too minute inspection of the interior, by the +prying eyes of inquisitive passers-by. At Galle we, for the +first time, saw the "Punkah," a sort of fan peculiar to +India, which stretches from one end of the roof of the room +to the other, and being swung to and fro by a servant +produces a refreshing coolness. Here, too, we first became +acquainted with the "Gecko" (<i>Hemidactylus maculatus</i>), an +elegant little house-lizard, which, with graceful agility, +runs to and fro upon the walls, windows, and roofs, and +speedily becomes as familiar with man as a pet-dog or +kitten. They usually make their appearance towards evening, +when, without the slightest symptoms of timidity, they begin +their surprising evolutions, during which they catch gnats +with astonishing dexterity, and although they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span> are +disagreeable objects to all new comers, one speedily becomes +accustomed to these harmless, innocuous, playful little +animals, of which the Ceylonese are in the habit of relating +many interesting and amusing anecdotes.</p> + +<p>Of late years, during which Galle has risen into +considerable importance, as the converging point of the +lines of steamers to Eastern India, China, and Australia, +the number of substantial houses has greatly increased, and +several large hotels are found here replete with every +comfort. Like most European settlements in India, the Cape, +and China, Galle possesses a fort in which, at an earlier +period, the European colonists dwelt with their wives and +families apart from the natives, and has also a "Pettah," or +Black Town, a sort of Cingalese Ghetto, exclusively +inhabited by the black population. At present this +separation is not so strenuously enforced as in earlier +times, but whoever would seek to form a more accurate idea +of the various races of this population, its mode of life +and its demeanour, must leave the so-called "Fort," and +wander through the native or Cingalese quarter. Here are the +fruit and vegetable markets; here all was devoted to buying +and selling, which seemed to excite the otherwise listless +little covetous disposition of the Cingalese; here jugglers +and snake-charmers exhibit, who excite interest rather by +the horrible nature and the foolhardiness of the +performances, than by their executing any surprising feats. +A belief is prevalent among the people that this singular +class of men, greatly resembling our own gipsies, possess +the art of depriving a poisonous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span> serpent of its venom, and +rendering it innocuous. And, in fact, one does see them +produce from a white cloth the dreaded Cobra di Capello, 4 +or 5 feet long, and exquisitely marked, irritate it +violently, and go through all manner of unpleasant +performances with it on their naked bodies. Frequently the +serpent, weary of being constantly brought out for +exhibition, endeavours to escape from its tormentor, +whereupon a general scramble for escape takes place among +the spectators. Every one hurries off to a safe distance, +and the unfortunate charmer is left alone on the scene with +his eminently intractable pupil, and has, into the bargain, +given his exhibition in vain. As, however, it not +unfrequently happens that the bite of the Cobra di Capello +is followed by fatal consequences to the snake-charmer +himself, it is highly probable that the whole mystery +resolves itself into courage, and the shrewdness with which, +availing themselves of the uncommon dread and aversion with +which this animal is regarded, they are able at once to +prevent him from making use of his deadly poison fang, and +to put forth their own sleight of hand. This explanation +seems also to account for the very remarkable fact that men +have ventured to domesticate this dangerous reptile in more +places than Ceylon. Indeed, within the experience of Major +Skinner, a thoroughly trustworthy personage, who has resided +for many years on the island, and to whom the naturalists of +the Expedition are indebted for many acts of kindness, an +instance actually occurred in the neighbourhood of Negombo, +in which a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">363</a></span> wealthy man, who keeps large sums of specie in +his house, bethought him of the singular precaution of +having several deadly cobras to watch the treasure in lieu +of dogs. Day and night they glide about, a terror to +thieves, while they are quite harmless to the inmates who +feed them and attend to them!</p> + +<p>In former times snake worship (<i>Nagas</i>) was universal +throughout Ceylon, and, as in India, the cobra received +divine honours from the natives, because it was supposed to +be a metamorphosed king. This serpent, however, is so +singularly and wonderfully endowed by nature, its appearance +and motions are so peculiar, that an imaginative people like +the Cingalese may well be excused for associating the idea +of metempsychosis with its aspect of mystery.</p> + +<p>From Galle, an excellent road, following the coast-line the +entire distance, leads to Colombo, the seat of government, +75 English miles distant. Every morning there starts from +Galle for that destination, the "Royal Mail" coach, an +uncomfortable, somewhat dangerous, mode of conveyance, in +which this distance is traversed in from 8 to 10 hours. In +order to travel more at our ease, we engaged an extra +waggon. In Ceylon people usually employ, on long excursions, +but one horse, which is changed at distances varying from 6 +to 10 miles. We had some difficulty in reconciling this +custom with our predilection for travelling at our leisure. +The first few hours of our journey passed away very +pleasantly; the road was excellent, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span> country +magnificent and charming. We seemed as though driving +through a park inhabited by thousands of men, and planted +with cocoa-nut palms—amidst which occasionally the white +dome of a Buddhist temple, or the minarets of a Mahometan +mosque, shooting up above the summits of the palms, imparted +an aspect of life to the landscape—while in the gay bazaars +that fringed the road, the few necessaries of life required +by the exceedingly frugal natives were exposed for sale, +temptingly arranged on palm or plantain leaves. The whole +south-western coast district is so populous that the huts of +the natives were continually in sight, right and left, under +the forest shade, and the scenery in consequence seemed as +full of life and careless enjoyment as though the people had +nothing else to do but walk about under palm-trees. This +impression was the more strengthened, that we rarely +perceived a man with anything else in his hand than a +Talipot leaf, or a Chinese parasol, to protect himself +against the burning rays of the sun, which shone almost +directly overhead. Of the women, on whom for the most part +fall all the troubles and hardships of life among the +Cingalese, we only saw a few carrying to the city heavy +baskets balanced on their heads.</p> + +<p>The luxuriant, widely-extending cocoa-nut forests, which on +the south and west sides of the island stretch down to the +sea-shore (whereas on the eastern coast they are altogether +absent), seem independently of the necessity of paying all +due care to the maintenance of one of the necessaries of +life,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">365</a></span> to be specially indebted for their existence to the +circumstance that additional planting of this tree, as also +its careful cultivation, is one of the religious observances +and duties of the servants of Buddha. Whoever plants a +cocoa-nut, palm, or bread-fruit tree, performs a work +agreeable to Buddha. At the birth of a son, or on any +similar festive occasion, it is customary to plant a few +cocoa-nut shoots in the earth. Cocoa-nut palms form a very +important part of the property of a family. The father +divides them as heritable property into equal portions for +bequest to his children. Not one single palm but has an +owner, though instances occasionally occur in which several +families are supported by the produce of a single palm!</p> + +<p>This peculiar phenomenon has been followed by most +remarkable results bearing upon the social condition of the +native population. Increasing poverty, and the ever present +grinding necessity of preventing any further subdivision of +the joint property, have impelled the natives to resort to +the unnatural remedy of the brothers of a family having but +one wife among them! The fact that there are in Ceylon fully +one-tenth more men than women, was the cause of the rapid +spread of this custom, and upheld Polyandria, or plurality +of husbands, as a desirable invention for remedying the +deficient supply of females. Many a female has three, four, +or even seven husbands, and all children that are born of +such a wedlock have equal rights, and are (differing in this +respect from the law of Hindostan, by which only the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span> +children of the eldest brothers are registered, as the +entire property belongs to him, while all the younger +brothers serve him as vassals, and can be driven by him out +of the house), the <i>lawful</i>, recognized heirs of the +different fathers. In order to guard against the rise of +law-suits respecting birth and heritage among the Cingalese, +in consequence of their local customs, the British courts of +justice, singular to say, find themselves constrained to +recognize this disgraceful custom, and to interpret the law +with reference to it. Although in the maritime provinces +plurality of husbands has been signally on the decrease, +owing to foreign influences, it still prevails to a great +extent in the interior of the island. The submissiveness of +the Cingalese to their superiors and their monarchs is +assigned as the origin of this in other respects very +ancient custom, which seems to have been universally in use +among the various races of the mainland of India from time +immemorial. Constrained to apply their own manual labour in +cultivating the land of their tyrants, and frequently to +accompany them on distant journeys, they thought they could, +during their absence, most surely protect their own fields +and crops against utter ruin, by apportioning wife and +chattels among brothers and nearest relatives, and thence +the family tie was gradually converted into a socialist +community.</p> + +<p>The almost endless cocoa forests, which we were traversing +by splendid, broad, level roads, not alone provide the +native with, to him, the most important necessary for +supporting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">367</a></span> existence, but the fruit itself forms at the +same time so important and valuable an article of produce, +that the cultivation of the cocoa-nut has been regularly and +systematically carried on by European enterprise since +1841—at present covering an area of 23,000 English +acres—while the proportion of native land on which this, +the most useful growth of the tropics, is cultivated, +amounts to about 100,000 acres. Formerly, the nuts were +shipped to foreign parts for the extraction of their oil; +but for this purpose there are now on the island itself, +especially in Colombo and Galle, a considerable number of +manufactories, at which the oil already expressed from the +nuts is usually at once put into casks for exportation. The +quantity of oil thus exported annually is estimated at from +1,000,000 to 1,500,000 gallons, worth from £100,000 to +£150,000. Besides this, the elastic fibre of the outer husk +of the cocoa-nut is used in the manufacture of ropes, +door-mats, &c., and, under the name of Coir, forms an +important article of export, the annual consumption +averaging between 30,000 and 40,000 quintals (centner +weight), worth from £20,000 to £25,000.</p> + +<p>The first station on leaving Galle for Colombo is Bentotte, +where, as is the custom all through the country, there is a +"resting-house" open to all travellers, similar to the +"Choultries" in India, the "Caravanserais," or lodgings for +pilgrims, in Eastern countries, or the "Pasangrahans," of +Java. These resting-houses, which all through the interior +of the island are found on the highways and forest roads,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span> +are among the oldest institutions of the country, and were +formerly maintained at the expense of private individuals. +The resting-houses, which have been erected under the +English rule on the main roads of the island, are in all +respects of a far higher class, and strongly resemble the +waiting-rooms of our own (German) railroads. One is not +merely provided in these with shelter, but also with food +and drink, at a fixed tariff. A special committee (the +Provincial Road Committee) is appointed to superintend the +management of these resting-houses.</p> + +<p>Here we partook of a luxurious "tiffin," as the customary +meal between breakfast and dinner is called in Ceylon, as +well as throughout India; and in so doing, made acquaintance +for the first time with the renowned Indian dish "Curry," +which consists of flesh or fish prepared with a powder +compounded of spices. It tastes so hot that the European +palate only gets accustomed to it by degrees; but in these +countries it is looked on as the favourite dish, which must +never be absent from any meal, because the cayenne pepper +plentifully sprinkled over it, stimulates the stomach and +promotes digestion. Hence the curry-powder is in immense +request, and is largely exported. The assertion that this +dish was first invented by the Portuguese is quite +erroneous, as the chronicles of the country establish that +it was in request in Ceylon in the second century before +Christ.<a name="Anchor-81" id="Anchor-81"></a><a href="#Footnote-81" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 81.">[81]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-81" id="Footnote-81"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-81">[81]</a> According to Professor Wilson, "Curry" is but a +corruption of the Carnatic term <i>Májkki-Kari</i>, a dish +composed of rice, sour milk, spices, and red pepper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span></p></div> + +<p>As we mounted into our vehicle again, after a short halt at +Bentotte, in order to resume our journey to Colombo with a +fresh horse, we perceived that our driver, a negro, had been +too free of his visits to the brandy-bottle, and +occasionally took to rolling on the box. In the hope that he +might become sober by the way, we ventured to proceed, but +ere long he lost his balance, and fell to the ground, +compelling us, to avoid further mishap, to retrace our steps +on foot to the nearest village—thus reversing the order of +matters, and, so to speak, escorting our horse, coach, and +driver. This occurrence, unimportant and hardly worth +mentioning in itself, was the occasion of an interesting +adventure. As it was only with much difficulty that we could +make ourselves intelligible to the natives, we resolved to +apply to the authorities in the very first place we came to. +It turned out that we were in the vicinity of the Catholic +mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn, whose superior was a +Benedictine from Rome. The church is situated amid the rich +vegetation of the primeval forests, the gigantic trunks of +whose trees, supporting a huge diadem of luxuriant foliage, +are arched into a natural dome of the most graceful +proportions. With curiosity whetted to the uttermost, we +advanced along a beautiful path, beneath cocoa-palms, +cabbage trees, bread-fruit trees, screw pines, tree-like +ferns, and broad-leaved bananas, till we reached the +dwelling-house of the Mission, and introduced ourselves to +the missionary. Forthwith the latter, a tall, stately +figure, with handsome features and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span> cultivated manners, and +dressed in a woollen robe, ushered us into a darkened +chamber opposite, and received us most cordially. This +worthy priest, by the name of Miliani, was not less +surprised at being visited at this solitary mission by +Austrian travellers, and with the most lively satisfaction +and the utmost readiness to oblige, offered us all the +assistance in his power. In spite of our hurry, we had to +take a cup of coffee <i>à la Romagna</i>, with our hospitable +missionary, and to promise to visit him on our return +journey. Father Miliani has already lived many years in this +country, and ministers to a Christian community of more than +1000 souls. Altogether there are in Ceylon about 50 Catholic +missionaries under a Bishop whose residence is in Colombo. +Our priestly host was greatly respected by the Cingalese, +but he evidently was overjoyed at being able once more to +express his thoughts and feelings in his native Italian.</p> + +<p>It was evening ere, with many a hearty shake of the hand, we +tore ourselves away from the cordial hospitality of St. +Sebastian de Makùn. Horse and driver this time gave hope of +faster progress. But we were doomed once more to experience +a severe disappointment, and although we were only about 10 +or 12 miles distant from Colombo, which was our destination, +it took us five long hours to get over the ground. The night +was very dark, but the road was continually illuminated with +torches of palm, carried by the homeward plodding natives, +which emitted a gloomy light alternating with showers of +sparks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span></p> + +<p>When at last we got to Colombo about midnight, pretty well +knocked-up, we comforted ourselves with the reflection that +the inconveniences attending personal transport between +Galle and the seat of government, can by no means be classed +among events of rare occurrence; since, in consequence of +the inveterate obstinacy of the native horse, one must have +recourse to the most incredible expedients to get the +carriage under weigh. For instance, at every station the +ears of the post-horse were twisted together and then +suddenly relaxed in order to set the vehicle in motion; and, +when this torture failed, a pole, or thick stick, was +inserted under the tail of the recalcitrant, and rubbed up +and down till the poor animal, smarting under this painful +operation, took to the collar. Once the carriage is started +in this extraordinary fashion, the coachman swings to and +fro at the peril of his life, and endeavours by continually +"pitching into" the horse, to keep him at the gallop. Thus +between whooping and whipping the next station is reached, +where the same trial of patience awaits the traveller, and a +similar martyrdom for the next horse.</p> + +<p>Our first business the following morning was to take a walk +through Colombo, which, like Galle, consists of "The Fort," +or White City, and the "Pettah," or Black Quarter, in the +latter of which are situated the houses and shops of the +natives, and where the chief traffic and the greatest +activity are combined. Here one rarely encounters a white +man, for even the soldiers and police belong to the brown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span> +and black races. The natives, however, manifest, outwardly +at least, a great respect for the whites, and everywhere +draw aside reverentially when one makes his appearance.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the main street are some Buddhist temples. +We were not, however, permitted to enter, unless we +consented to take off our shoes. At several of the natives' +houses the entrance porch and windows were gaily adorned +with plantain leaves. On inquiring of our Cingalese +attendant what was the occasion of this manifestation, he +replied in broken English that the inmates were celebrating +"Christmas," wishing probably to express that the natives +celebrated a feast analogous to our Christmas.</p> + +<p>The filth and unsavoury odours which prevail in the Black +Quarter, and the noise and yelling of the natives, speedily +drive visitors back to the European portion of the city, +which altogether, with its gloomy, decayed aspect, makes +anything but a favourable impression. The public buildings, +the houses of the mercantile community, the warehouses, and +fortifications, all bear the impress of the Portuguese +settlement of bygone centuries; and as its commerce is +attracted more and more every year to Galle,<a name="Anchor-82" id="Anchor-82"></a><a href="#Footnote-82" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 82.">[82]</a> there +remains but faint hope that this quaint type will not ere +long be effaced by a new style of building, albeit the +inhabitants of the capital promise themselves a restored +reign of activity and energy, as the result of railway +communication with Galle.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-82" id="Footnote-82"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-82">[82]</a> The value of the produce exported annually from +the island (chiefly cocoa-nuts, coir, cinnamon, and coffee), +is above £2,000,000, and the imports of European +manufactures are about the same amount.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">373</a></span></p></div> + +<p>During our random promenade through the streets of what is +called the Fort, we perceived at a sugar-baker's in Chatham +Street—the most select quarter of Colombo, and containing +the most important warehouses, which, however, are far from +elegant in their appearance—some rough ice offered for +sale, which had a curious effect in a town so near the +Equator, and presenting such few evidences of luxury in +other respects. This ice is brought round the Cape of Good +Hope from the United States, and is chiefly shipped from +Boston. The daily consumption of iced-water, ices, and so +forth, is estimated at about 1000 lbs., costing about one +shilling the 8 lbs. It is impossible to repress a feeling of +astonishment at these speculative Yankees who, despite all +obstacles interposed by temperature, transport in all +directions and over thousands of miles an article so +perishable, so easily destructible as ice, and are able to +drive a profitable business in it in the hottest and most +diverse regions of the globe—in the West Indies and South +America, in Asia, and in Africa.</p> + +<p>The traveller who visits Colombo will hardly fail to make an +excursion to the Cinnamon Garden, in order to inhale the +fragrant and peculiar aroma, and enjoy tasting the tender +rind of this remarkable shrub, which plays so conspicuous a +part in the history of Ceylon. During the palmy days of +cinnamon culture, the five principal cinnamon plantations of +the southern half of the island extended some 15 or 20 +miles. For this one lucrative product of the soil all +others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span> on the island were abandoned, with most deplorable +consequences. The cinnamon culture, a monopoly of the +various governments which one after another conquered +Ceylon, and domineered over its inhabitants, was carried on, +especially by the Dutch East India Company, with terrible +severity. The slightest embezzlement of cinnamon, or wilful +damage to the plant, was visited with death. The +unintentional breaking off of a twig of the cinnamon bush +was punished with amputation of the offending member. Every +cinnamon bush, even to those growing in the gardens of +private individuals, was the property of the Government, and +the cinnamon collector, or even cinnamon-peeler alone, had +the right to strip off the rind when ripe. To destroy such a +plant, or even to dispose of it to any one, was regarded as +a crime affecting life. The labourers, who were employed in +the cutting off, peeling, and preparation of the rind, +belonged to the caste of Chalias, and constituted the lowest +grade of that class. In like manner, under the English rule, +the monopoly of cinnamon was at first continued, with such +disastrous consequences to the trade that it was finally +abandoned in 1832, and the merchants of Colombo and Galle +were left to divide among themselves the exportation of this +important article, under an exporting duty of 3<i>s.</i> per lb. +These duties, however, were found much too high, as the +highest price obtainable in Europe was from 6<i>s.</i> to 7<i>s.</i>; +and this advance in the price to the trade of the genuine +article, was the cause of foreign merchants turning their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span> +attention to the supply of various species of +cinnamon-bearing laurels and cassias, growing in +Cochin-China and Java.</p> + +<p>When Government, recovering at last from its delusion of +treating cinnamons, which at first had seemed indigenous to +the island of Ceylon alone on the earth,<a name="Anchor-83" id="Anchor-83"></a><a href="#Footnote-83" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 83.">[83]</a> as a national +monopoly, reduced the export duty to one shilling, and +ultimately repealed it altogether, the various substitutes +had already found their level in Europe, as affording a +larger supply at a much more moderate rate, and the +cultivation of the finer kinds became less and less each +year. Prices fell, and the consumption was diminished. Only +the coarser sorts repaid exportation. Nay, it even led to +the interesting and curious result, that just as, previous +to the high price under monopoly, the low-priced cassia +displaced the finer sort of genuine cinnamon, at the present +day the coarser sorts of cinnamon are beginning to oust the +cassia from the English market, whence all the world are +supplied. At present there are from 14,000 to 15,000 acres +planted with cinnamon, chiefly in private hands, and +producing annually from 800,000 to 900,000 lbs. of cinnamon, +worth from £40,000 to £50,000 sterling.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-83" id="Footnote-83"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-83">[83]</a> Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work (vol. i. p. +599), challenges the assertion that Ceylon is the native +country of the cinnamon-tree. In no European or Asiatic +chronicles is any mention made of cinnamon as a product or +article of commerce in Ceylon up to the end of the +thirteenth century. Although it was from the earliest times +imported into Europe from Africa through Arabia, the natives +trading with Ceylon first knew of the existence on the +island of this important shrub about the twelfth or +thirteenth century. Hence Sir Emerson looks upon Africa as +the native country of the cinnamon-tree.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span></p></div> + +<p>The chalias, moreover, are no longer, as formerly under the +Portuguese and Dutch, <i>adscripti glebæ</i> for life, or slaves +that could be purchased with the soil, but free labourers, +who are entitled to demand proportionate pay for the +lightest services rendered.</p> + +<p>The Cinnamon Gardens in the neighbourhood of Colombo, +although for the most part gone to decay, nevertheless +impart to the whole scene a singularly cheerful, agreeable +aspect. The bushes, from 4 to 6 feet in height, with their +smooth, beautiful, light green leaves, resembling those of +the bay-tree, and their pale, yellow flower-stamens shoot up +doubly fresh and succulent, from the snow-white quartz soil +in which they best thrive. The flowering season of the +cinnamon is in January, and the fruit ripens in April, when +the sap is richest in the shrub. In May the boughs are begun +to be "barked," which process continues till October. The +pruning and gathering of the yearling shoots, which are +about the thickness of a man's thumb, is very laborious, and +employs many hands. Each labourer cuts off as many as he can +conveniently carry in a bundle, then, with the point of a +crooked knife, made for the express purpose, strips the +entire rind from the wood, carefully scrapes off the +exterior corticle and innermost layer, and lays the +stripped-off cinnamon rind, now reduced to the thickness of +parchment, in the sun, where it dries and curls together. +All round the hut, in which the peeling of the rind is +carried on, is diffused a most exquisite aroma, caused by +the breaking of the leaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span> or twigs. What is related, +however, by various travellers of the fragrance of the +cinnamon forests, which they have scented at a great +distance seaward, would seem to indicate that this delicious +odour emanates from various other aromatic plants in which +Ceylon is so rich, rather than the cinnamon groves, the +aroma of which, indeed, is not perceptible beyond the +immediate vicinity. The best description of cinnamon is not +so thick as stout paper, and is fine-grained, flexible, +light brown, or golden yellow, sweet and pungent; the +coarser qualities are thick-skinned, dark brown, acrid, +stinging, and leaves a bitter after-taste. In the +warehouses, the cinnamon rinds and canes sorted for shipping +are piled upon each other, packed in bales of about 90 lbs. +weight each, and carefully sewed. In all cavities and spaces +between each layer an immense quantity of pepper is strewn, +to preserve the cinnamon during its sea-voyage, by which +both spices are benefited, the black pepper absorbing all +the superfluous moisture, and gaining by the fragrance of +the cinnamon.</p> + +<p>Consequent on the diminution of cinnamon cultivation, which +undoubtedly has resulted in great measure from the altered +taste of mankind and the consequent extraordinary falling +off in the demand for this once highly-prized spice, the +cultivation of coffee in Ceylon has, during the last 20 +years, increased tenfold; and it is solely owing to the +dearth of available labour that this branch of produce, +considering the splendid profits it returns, is not even +more extensively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span> carried on. In 27 districts there are 404 +coffee plantations, covering a surface of 80,950 acres, of +which, however, only 63,771 acres are really productive. +These produced last year, 347,100 cwt., or 5½ centners +per acre. To this must be added the quantity under +cultivation by the natives, who possess about 36,000 acres +of coffee plantations, and in the year 1859 alone, exported +180,000 cwt. We may safely assume, therefore, that the +cultivation of coffee is on the eve of transforming this +island of Ceylon, from a mere military station of England, +into one of the most flourishing colonies of the British +Empire. Twenty years ago there were exported barely 60,000 +centners, worth £180,000. In September, 1858, the export +exceeded 600,000 cwt., which represented on the spot a value +of £1,500,000 sterling. "When capital and labour shall have +become more plentiful," remarked to us a by no means +over-sanguine resident, "Ceylon will have in its mountain +districts 240,000 acres planted with coffee trees, yielding +at the lowest estimate, 1,680,000 cwt. of coffee annually." +Here, as among the high table-lands of Guatemala and Costa +Rica, we have the reassuring evidence how one of the most +important plants for the civilized man can be profitably +cultivated, without having recourse to the blighting +influences of slave-labour, at the same time making the +lands in which it is produced both rich and prosperous.<a name="Anchor-84" id="Anchor-84"></a><a href="#Footnote-84" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 84.">[84]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-84" id="Footnote-84"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-84">[84]</a> The coffee-tree frequently suffers, especially +in Ceylon, from an insect called the coffee-bug (<i>Lecanium +Coffeæ</i>); as, however, this troublesome insect has only +infested the coffee plantations since 1848, and this branch +of cultivation has nevertheless increased so surprisingly +since then, there seems no reason to dread that the coffee +plant will suffer by these bugs, in the same manner or to +the same extent as the vine by the ravages of the +<i>fungus</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span></p></div> + +<p>While the cultivation of the coffee-plant has been followed +by such splendid results, the repeated attempts to introduce +the sugar-cane have been on the contrary as uniformly +failures—so that of the numerous plantations established by +Europeans, there are at present no more than five remaining. +In all those localities where the temperature seemed adapted +to the growth of the sugar-cane, the nature of the soil, and +the too great humidity have prevented its thriving.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the island possesses two natural products +in which but few spots on the globe are qualified to enter +the lists with her, and which may be expected to increase in +value and importance in proportion as science assumes her +share in their exploration. These products are <span class="smcap">pearls</span> and +<span class="smcap">precious stones</span>.</p> + +<p>The most productive pearl banks lie on the west coast of +Ceylon, between the 8th and 9th degrees of North latitude, +near the level, dreary beach of Condatchy, Aripo, and +Manaar. The pearl fisheries are a monopoly, and, therefore, +under the inspection of the Government. Former governors had +counted too much on the abundance of this natural treasure, +and in their blind haste to fill the coffers of the State, +had so exhausted the banks, that suddenly, from a source of +revenue they became an item of considerable deficiency, and, +from 1838 to 1854, could no longer be dredged. From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span> a net +annual return of £120,000 sterling, the yearly return had +sunk to £10,000, of which nearly one-half was consumed in +the attendant expenses. Now-a-days the work is gone about +more circumspectly, a scientific examination having been +made by a native naturalist, Dr. Kelaart, of all the oyster +banks on the west coast. We had the pleasure, while at +Colombo, of becoming personally acquainted with this very +able, unassuming gentleman, who presented us with several +memoirs of his own, touching upon the latest facts that had +been ascertained with reference to the pearl oyster. One +special result of his various researches has been the +demonstration of two facts of the utmost importance to the +pearl fishery, and which hitherto had not been fully +ascertained—that this mollusc possesses locomotive powers; +that its occasional disappearance is perfectly natural; and +that, moreover, the pearl oyster may, without any injury, be +transplanted from one locality to another—nay, even from +salt to brackish water. The first-named observation explains +the occasional disappearance of the pearl oyster from +certain beds,<a name="Anchor-85" id="Anchor-85"></a><a href="#Footnote-85" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 85.">[85]</a> even when they have not been inordinately +thinned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span> by too keen a quest after gain; the latter +opens up the pleasing anticipation of the pearl oyster being +susceptible of very extensive propagation, by a process +similar to that of pisciculture, or artificial breeding of +fish (such as the colonies of edible oysters which are met +with in the South of France), by transplanting them to such +places as seem best suited to the conditions necessary to +their highest development. What a splendid conception it +were to plant the sea-coasts of Ceylon with pearls, and thus +throw the wealth of the island in precious stones into the +shade, by the treasures she would possess in the depths of +the sea!</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-85" id="Footnote-85"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-85">[85]</a> This singular property of the oyster, in virtue +of which it can be fed to as confirmed obesity as a +prize-ox, and admits of nearly as much dexterity in +"crossing," if we are to trust the palates of "gourmets," as +the Southdown and Leicester breeds of sheep, has received +its most extraordinary development in the vicinity of New +York, where the amount of capital sunk in the oyster trade +considerably exceeds £1,000,000! The finest of these are +transferred as spawn from the beds in the East River, or +Long Island Sound, to the "nurseries," which are situated in +the brackish water near the head of the tide-way, just below +the "Highlands of the Hudson." Here they are carefully +tended for some months, till, their education being +completed, they are re-transferred to their native beds, and +fed there with oatmeal daily; while, by some mystery of the +craft, the spawning season is postponed, except in the case +of those that are selected for propagating the race.</p></div> + +<p>Exactly at the period of our arrival at Colombo, the +preparations were being resumed at Aripo for the take of the +oysters, which commences at the beginning of February each +year, and lasts about three weeks. It is, in fact, a sort of +jubilee time for the people, at which the Governor and +numbers of the wealthier classes mingle with the populace. +Ordinarily this spot becomes at that season a rendezvous for +the poor and the wretched, and a rallying point for all +manner of abominable odours, filth, troublesome flies, and +intolerable heat, despite which drawbacks the fishery is +visited by thousands of boats, and hundreds of thousands of +men, who flock hither with the alluring prospect of speedy +and abundant wealth, or have been attracted from all parts +of the Indian Continent by the singularity of the spectacle. +Suddenly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span> as though evoked by the wand of a magician, a +regular town starts into existence, of tents, or even neat +huts, with bamboo and cabbage-tree palings, roofed over with +palm-leaves, rice-straw, or coarse thick woollen cloth; +booths for the sale of merchandise "rise like an exhalation" +during the night to supply necessaries of all sorts to the +converging multitudes from the interior, as well as the +fleets of visitors from seaward; and last, not least, the +divers themselves. Swindlers and mountebanks throng hither, +adroit thieves creep stealthily about, all Indian customs +and fashions are represented, all castes jostle each other. +Priests, and the subordinate hangers-on of the various +sects, hurry about, and jugglers and Nautch girls vie with +each other in amusing the noisy multitudes.</p> + +<p>The result of numerous experiments has proved that no diving +apparatus can replace the human machine, the cost of which, +moreover, is a fixed definite quantity, viz., the fourth +part of the pearls brought up, which is the diver's share. +In each boat, or "Dhonie," are ten divers, each having an +assistant. Before the divers proceed to descend, a number of +quaint ceremonies are gone through, and incantations +murmured, as well in the boats as on shore, by the so-called +"shark-charmers;" indeed, the superstition of the divers, +who for the most part come from the Coromandel coast, is so +great, that not one of their number, Christian or idolator, +would continue in this employment without the countenance of +the sorcerer; and the Government finds itself compelled to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span> +pay the impostors.<a name="Anchor-86" id="Anchor-86"></a><a href="#Footnote-86" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 86.">[86]</a> They levy a tribute of ten oysters +upon each boat.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-86" id="Footnote-86"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-86">[86]</a> In 1857, the chief shark-charmer was a Roman +Catholic!</p></div> + +<p>Accidents with sharks are of rare occurrence: the noise of +1000 divers on the water at once seeming to scare the +animals. Moreover, the dark colour of the skin of their +bodies, acts as a considerable protection to the divers, so +that there are numbers who blacken their legs, in order +still more to alarm the monster.<a name="Anchor-87" id="Anchor-87"></a><a href="#Footnote-87" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 87.">[87]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-87" id="Footnote-87"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-87">[87]</a> An encounter in the water between a shark and +an expert swimmer, armed only with a knife, is not so +unequal an affair as might at first be supposed. The pearl +fishers of the Gulfs of Panama and Nicoya only use a short +stick, with which, if the sharks get <i>above</i> them, they stir +up the mud, under cover of which they swim along the bottom +for a little distance, and then shoot up to the surface. Of +the equality in which a good swimmer armed with a knife +feels himself in encountering a shark, there are numerous +instances. Many years ago, when shipping was more plentiful +in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, than at the present day, +vessels had occasionally to put up with somewhat awkward +berths, when they used regularly to "foul their anchors," +whereupon it became necessary, of course, to send some one +down to free the cable. For this purpose, negro divers were +employed, and one man attained a wide reputation from having +himself, unscathed, slain in fair combat at different times, +no less than five sharks! Ultimately the sharks steered +clear of any black man who had a knife suspended round his +neck.</p></div> + +<p>After these preliminaries, the divers go down into the +water, each carrying a basket-shaped net, in which to bring +up the oysters, when selected—a stone of from 15lbs. to +25lbs. weight being fastened round the body, so as more +readily to enable him to sink to the bottom. When at a depth +of some 5 or 6 fathoms, the diver unfastens the stone, which +is forthwith hauled up. He now throws himself forward on his +face, and keeps himself as close as he can to the ground, +while he rapidly rakes up and collects together all that is +within his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span> reach, so as to fill his landing net. He crawls +along in this manner during the minute of his submersion, +over a space of from 40 to 50 feet; and so soon as he pulls +the cord attached to his plaited basket-edge, it is +immediately hauled up, and he himself speedily follows it to +the surface.<a name="Anchor-88" id="Anchor-88"></a><a href="#Footnote-88" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 88.">[88]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-88" id="Footnote-88"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-88">[88]</a> The divers are mostly old men, vigorous and +healthy in appearance, thus dispelling the general notion +that deep-sea diving weakens the body and shortens life. We +were told of one diver, employed during the year 1856, in +the pearl fishery, who was so stout and fat, that in +addition to the ordinary diver's stone, he had to make fast +a considerable weight to his body, in order to sink himself +in the water.</p></div> + +<p>The utmost depth at which the diver can safely remain seems +to be about 40 feet, beyond which blood is apt to issue from +the nose and ears. They seldom remain above 50 or 60 seconds +under water, although cases occasionally occur in which the +stay under water is protracted to 80 seconds. The diving is +carried on for 5 or 6 hours without intermission, so that +each of the ten divers can, in the course of a day, bring up +from 1000 to 4000 oysters. By dint of good fortune, and +close packing, about 150 oysters are brought up in each +basket-net, while occasionally an unprolific bed does not +give more than five or ten oysters. So soon as the oysters +have been dragged to land, they are sorted in shares, of +which one goes to the oyster fisher as his remuneration, and +the remainder are sold in lots of 1000 each to the highest +bidder. Now begins speculation. Chance presides here, quite +as capriciously as at a lottery or another game of hazard. +It often happens that a single oyster contains thirty or +forty pearls, of which some may be worth a sovereign on the +spot;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span> but it more frequently occurs that several hundred +oysters do not yield a single pearl. The small, valueless +pearls, called also "seed pearls," are burnt down, and sold +as pearl-lime to the wealthy Malays, by whom it is used as a +luxurious addition to the betel and cabbage nuts, as +masticatories. The Ceylonese mix the lustreless pearls with +other grains, with which they feed the poultry, in whose +croops the pearls regain their former brilliancy after a few +minutes' grinding. The croop is then slit up, and the +glittering stones extracted, white as the most beautiful +pearl-muscular tissue.<a name="Anchor-89" id="Anchor-89"></a><a href="#Footnote-89" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 89.">[89]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-89" id="Footnote-89"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-89">[89]</a> This method of procedure, which is adopted by +the rest of the Indian races, and in which the lustreless +pearls are swallowed by hens, pigeons, and ducks, so as to +be polished up, after being subjected to the preliminary +digestion of these birds, has been proved to be anything but +beneficial to the pearls as regards loss by attrition. +Careful observation has established, for example, that four +pearls, weighing twelve grains, have lost four grains by +undergoing this process during twelve hours, while eight +others, weighing thirty grains, were reduced to twenty +grains after a sojourn of two days in the gizzard of a +duck.</p></div> + +<p>The pearl oysters caught on the coast of Ceylon are all of +the same species (<i>Meleagrina Margaritifera</i>), uniformly +oval in shape, and about 9½ inches in circumference. The +number taken in Ceylon annually must be numbered by +millions. In the year of our arrival to Ceylon (1858), the +pearl fishery yielded £24,120. According to the last +returns, before us as we write, there were in the year 1859, +1352 boats engaged during eighteen days in the pearl +fishery, the gross take of which amounted to 9,534,951 +oysters, sold for £48,216. The divers' shares amounted +together to 2,126,749 oysters.</p> + +<p>The wide-spread popular delusion, that the pearl in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span> +oyster is but a produce of disease in the animal, has long +been refuted by scientific research, and although the great +German poet, Henry Heine, in his "Romanzero," sings,</p> + +<div class="poem" style="padding-left: 50%; margin-left: -6em;"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Those world-famed pearls,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They are but the wan mucus<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Of a sad oyster,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Dimly sickening in the depth of the sea!"<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>it is rather a poetic fancy than a scientific fact. We have +latterly been especially indebted to the German naturalist, +Theodore von Hessling, for a very circumstantial and +thoroughly exhaustive memoir on the natural history of the +pearl oysters and their pearls,<a name="Anchor-90" id="Anchor-90"></a><a href="#Footnote-90" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 90.">[90]</a> in which the learned +author seeks to establish that the enveloping matter of the +germ of the pearl is identical with the covering of the +animal, and that in the process of growth two influences are +at work, an external and an internal. The first is called +into play by the property peculiar to the hinge system that +unites the double shell, of gaping wide open, in consequence +of which extraneous substances rush in with the current of +water, such as minute fragments of quartz, molecules of +plants, &c., which, being detained either circling in the +cavity, or eddying round the hinges, are seized on in the +course of their revolutions, and entangled in the parenchyma +of the various organs, which is specially secreted from the +mantle, till it becomes enveloped by layers of solid shell. +On the other hand, the internal development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">387</a></span> is closely +allied to the conditions of deposition and subsequent growth +of the shell-matter. Molecules, either a single grain or +congeries of grains, varying from 9.01 to 0.05 of a line +(¾ of an inch down to the <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>240</sub>th of an inch), enclosed in +the <i>epidermis</i> of the shell, constitute usually the +<i>nuclei</i> of the pearls, which, to a certain extent, may be +considered as nothing but a portion of the <i>epidermis</i> not +applied to the formation of shell. The pearls also are +simply independent concretions growing in the creature, and +consisting of the substance of the shell, which are with +difficulty discriminated from the various descriptions of +growths which constitute the inner surface of the shell.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-90" id="Footnote-90"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-90">[90]</a> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Die Perlen-Muschel, und ihre Perlen, +Naturwissenschaftlich und Geschichtlich mit Berücksichtigung +der Perlen-gewässer Bayerns, beschrieben von Theodor von +Hessling, Leipzig, 1859.</span></p></div> + +<p>The great importance of the pearl as an article of luxury +and commerce, has naturally led to numerous attempts to +manufacture them by artificial means, in the course of which +extraneous bodies have been introduced between the mouth and +shell of the animal, sometimes with, sometimes without +injury to it. The Chinese especially are adepts at placing +certain small bodies, specially prepared, in the shells of +the pearl oyster, which, after a short time, becomes coated +with mother-of-pearl, or nacre. This manufacture of +artificial pearls is carried on on a large scale in the +neighbourhood of Hong-Chow-Foo. During our stay at Hong-Kong +and Shanghai respectively, we ourselves saw several +mussel-shells, in which a mother-of-pearl covering had +formed over small neatly carved figures, mostly sitting +figures of Buddha,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span><a name="Anchor-91" id="Anchor-91"></a><a href="#Footnote-91" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 91.">[91]</a> the singular appearance of which +would, at the first glance tend to make the observer suspect +that the pearl had been fastened to the mussel by some +adhesive substance. But we had so frequently an opportunity +of satisfying ourselves by actually witnessing the entire +process, that we could no longer doubt that the carved +figures are with the utmost care introduced into the animal, +and, after remaining a few days in the water, become +attached to the mussel by a distinct membrane. This, their +membrane, afterwards becomes interpermeated by the +calcareous matter, till, finally, layers of mother-of-pearl +are deposited all around the nucleus, the whole formation +corresponding with the chalk-like concretions occurring in +other creatures.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-91" id="Footnote-91"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-91">[91]</a> The antiquity of this experiment is proved by +the fact that the <i>Topographia</i> of Ischikiang speaks of a +pearl, which had been sent to the Imperial Palace at Pekin, +490 <span class="smcap">b. c.</span>, which resembled Buddha, and apparently must have +been produced by this same method; although likewise the +priests of Buddha, at that early epoch, might not have +objected, in the interests of their religion, to make +capital out of such a specimen of artistic skill.</p></div> + +<p>Besides the pearl-shells, the northern shores of Ceylon, +especially between the Island of Manaar and Karativoe, are +especially rich in beds of a volute mussel (<i>Turbinella +rapa</i>, or <i>soluta gravis</i>), which are exported in great +numbers to India, where the Hindoo women saw them into rings +of all sizes, to be worn as ornaments on the arms, legs, +fingers and toes. The chank-shell is likewise a chief +instrument of the Buddhists, who, amongst other devout +customs, blow three times a day on this sacred shell, to +summon believers to worship.<a name="Anchor-92" id="Anchor-92"></a><a href="#Footnote-92" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 92.">[92]</a> It is also used as a festive +ornament of the Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span> temples, as well as a donation to +the dead, which, inspired by a religious feeling, the +survivors place in the grave alongside of the corpse of +their illustrious departed.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-92" id="Footnote-92"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-92">[92]</a> According to the most ancient annals of the +Cingalese, the chank-shell is sounded in one of the superior +heavens of the demigods (similar to the conk-blowing Tritons +of Grecian mythology), in honour of Buddha, as often as the +latter wanders abroad on the earth.</p></div> + +<p>The gems found on the island are distinguished, less for +their intrinsic value than for the great variety of precious +stones which are present. They are, with few exceptions, +found to have been disengaged from the primitive rocks, and +washed into the alluvial soil, especially in the outskirts +of the mountainous districts, where they are rolled along +the beds of the streams together with other pebbles, or are +washed out of the alluvial deposits. Hitherto, they have +only been searched for for purposes of trade, and then only +in the most desultory and thriftless way, no one having as +yet examined the rocks themselves, by the disintegration of +which the valuable stones are disengaged. There was, indeed, +no detailed information as to the wealth in precious stones +of the island, until the researches of the English +mineralogist, Dr. Gygax, who has very lately published on +this subject many interesting observations and remarks. The +locality in which precious stones are most abundant is, so +far as present experience goes, the district of Saffragam, +the capital of which in consequence takes the name of +Ratnapoora, or Anarhadnaporra, "the city of rubies." They +are also found at various other parts of the island; in the +plains on the West coast, between Adams' Peak and the sea, +at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">390</a></span> Nuwera Ellia, Kandy, Matelle, and Ruanwelli, near +Colombo, as also in Matura, and the river courses on the +eastern side, towards the ancient Mahagam. The geologist of +the Expedition visited some mines of precious stones near +Ratnapoora. These are situated on the Kaluga-Sella, a small +tributary of the Kalu-Gunga, and lie, some in the very bed +of the river, some on the steep bank. They are about thirty +feet deep, but having been some time disused, they are full +of water. The uppermost stratum of these pits or mines is a +rich fertile yellow loam, exactly resembling our diluvial +loams. This is succeeded, according to the report of the +proprietor of the mines, by a slimy black clay, and clayey +sand, beneath which again is a bituminous clay, holding +numerous organic remains, such as leaves, trunks of trees +converted into a substance resembling lignite, and not +infrequently elephants' tusks and bones of animals; +thereafter sand, and lastly a bank of rolled gravel, forming +a species of conglomerate with red, yellow, and occasionally +blue clay—being, in fact, what is known as stone-gravel. +This bank of pebbles is the layer in which the precious +stones occur, and these are most commonly found between the +larger masses of agglutinated matter, that are always found +especially to abound in gems, whenever they are superposed +upon what is called malave, which appears to be a sort of +greenish-coloured talc-like half-decomposed mica. The most +valuable stones that are obtained from these mines are +rubies and sapphires. In the Kalu-Gunga, also, precious +stones are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">391</a></span> occasionally washed down, and as the +geologist of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition was descending the +river in a boat, from Ratnapoora to Caltura, he perceived at +several places, more particularly at the various rapids, men +standing in the water, provided with flat pan-shaped +baskets, in which they sifted the sand and pebbles.</p> + +<p>The gems found on the island are rubies, sapphires topazes, +amethysts, garnets, cinnamon-stone, and tourmaline. On the +other hand, all the diamonds, emeralds, carnelians, agates, +opals, and turquoises, which the natives offer for sale, are +imported from India. One precious stone, on which the +Cingalese set an exceedingly high value, because they +erroneously believe that it is peculiar to the island of +Ceylon, whereas it is also found on the southern shores of +Hindostan, is the "Cat's-eye," a greenish transparent +quartz, which, when polished in its natural shape, or "<i>en +cabochon</i>," exhibits in its interior a varying reflected +light, undoubtedly arising from the presence of fibres of +asbestos, and which, in fact, bears some resemblance to the +eye of a cat. The natives, as a rule, estimate the value and +symmetry of this stone by the brilliancy and tenuity of the +beam which it emits, and the clear olive-coloured ground +upon which it shines in relief.</p> + +<p>A vast number of men give themselves up to the exciting but +most uncertain occupation of searching for precious stones, +and barter what they have found, chiefly to Mahometan +merchants, for clothes and salt. As, however, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">392</a></span> natives +themselves set a high value on jewels, in consequence of +their small bulk admitting of their being readily concealed +and easily carried about, the finer descriptions are readily +disposed of at a good price, and, singular to say, it has +frequently happened, as we ourselves found by personal +experience, that precious stones are dearer in Colombo and +Galle than in the European markets! The explanation of this +paradox is probably that the steady copious influx into the +London and Paris markets of precious stones from all parts +of the earth where jewels are found, admits of by no means +such excessive fluctuations in value as at Ceylon, where the +supply actually on hand is so varying, and where the value +of the article almost always depends upon the rank and +wealth of the Indian purchaser. The foreign traveller very +often cannot restrain a feeling of surprise at seeing the +fingers of the stately Mahometan jewellers adorned with +rings of costly gems, which are only offered for sale to +himself at an exorbitant sum.</p> + +<p>The value of the precious stones of all sorts found in +Ceylon in the course of a year is estimated by Sir Emerson +Tennent at about £10,000, one-fourth, at least, of the +entire quantity finding a market on the island, a full half +being sent to the jewel-polishers of India, so that only the +remaining fourth is exported to Europe.</p> + +<p>The scant time allotted to us at Colombo was zealously +occupied in seeing the utmost that we could of the many +interesting objects that invited attention. Among others, +we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">393</a></span> visited one of the largest industrial enterprises in +Ceylon, known as Hultsdorf Mill, a cocoa-nut-oil factory, +the proprietorship consisting in shares, of which the +largest holder is David Wilson, Esq., the Austrian Consular +Agent. Here are carried on all the various processes +connected with the manufacture, the preparation of the +oil-cake from the cocoa-nut, the expressure of the oil, &c., +which are carried on by apparatus, partly sent out from +England, partly put up in this country, all set in motion by +steam-engines. The task assigned in these factories to the +natives, of whom above a thousand are employed in the +various departments, is, nevertheless, not the less +important and significant, that, while machinery is used in +those processes where it is necessary to use an agency far +transcending the powers of mere human labour, all collateral +products, such as soap, candles, perfumery, as also the +implements and tools required for the works, and even the +barrels and chests required for the transport of the +manufactures, are prepared and used by handicraft labour.</p> + +<p>To the thoughtful visitor it is a scene of no ordinary +interest to behold several hundreds of Cingalese, Hindoos, +and Mozambique negroes, all thoroughly conversant with the +management of the most magnificent invention of the +nineteenth century. Here are a number of artisans employed +at the hydraulic presses and iron turning-lathes; in another +apartment the various parts of the different machines are +being constructed or put together, which regulate the +pressure of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">394</a></span> the steam supplied to the apparatus when in +activity; in a third, persons are busy examining and testing +the resulting products with scrupulous precision. With all +its development, European industry has, in this quarter, +exercised but an obscure influence; and, thus far, has been +productive of but small results as a civilizing element +among this population, which has hitherto shown itself so +little disposed to accept the Christian form of +civilization.</p> + +<p>In the large warehouse belonging to Mr. Wilson, we also saw +huge heaps of "Kauris," or Cowries, (<i>cypræa moneta</i>), the +renowned, or rather ill-reputed, species of mussel, which +comes from the Maldive Islands, and plays so important a +part in the commerce with the coast of Malabar and the +interior of Africa; while here, it constitutes the sole +medium of exchange, which is used by way of barter for +almost all sorts of agricultural produce, chiefly among the +blacks.<a name="Anchor-93" id="Anchor-93"></a><a href="#Footnote-93" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 93.">[93]</a> These mussels are sent from Ceylon to London, and +thence back to the Eastern Coast of Africa, and thus +indirectly uphold the slave-trade, as, the native merchants +of that region barter these shells, so greatly sought after +by all African tribes, as ornament, for negroes and +negresses, who are in turn sold to the "speculators in human +flesh." A ton of these shells, of which the smaller +description are most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span> in request, and therefore the most +valuable, costs in Ceylon about £70 to £75.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-93" id="Footnote-93"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-93">[93]</a> The Malay name for this mussel is "beya," +implying duty, toll, tax, thus leaving it open to conjecture +that that nation, in their commerce with the Asiatic and +African continents, have for untold ages employed the same +principles of currency and expressions of value as +ourselves.</p></div> + +<p>To the kindness and active interest in our objects of Mr. +Wilson, in whose agreeable villa at Mootwall—the plan and +method of construction of which reminded us of the beautiful +planters' houses on the sugar estates of Louisiana—we spent +the last night of our stay at Colombo, we are also indebted +for a copy, with which he presented us, of the most ancient +annals of Ceylon, inscribed with an iron graver upon Talipot +palm-leaves in the highly-esteemed Pali language, and +preserved between richly-carved boards of the costly wood of +the Kalamander tree (<i>Diospyrus Hirsuta</i>). This +carefully-preserved MS. includes, among others, the +celebrated epic poem "Mahawanso," (an abbreviation +"Mahantaman Wanso," "Genealogy of mighty men,") which +recites under 100 heads, and in 9175 verses, the most +important events connected with the interior constitution +and history of the island, as also of all the battles fought +by the inhabitants in foreign countries from <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> 543 to the +year 1758, <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> Of these, the most renowned historic relics +of the Cingalese, 38 chapters, of 262 pages 4to, were +translated into English by George Tumour, Esq., an eminent +Pali scholar, and printed at Ceylon, in the year 1837. +Unfortunately, his earnest desire to publish the rest of +this highly-interesting work was destined not to be +gratified. The grave closed over him ere he could realize +his wish. At present, however, there is a prospect of the +translation of the "Mahawanso" being completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span> by Mr. James +de Alwis, a worthy follower in the footsteps of Mr. Turnour, +chiefly through the munificence of Government and of the +Scientific Institutes, which were invoked to supply the +requisite assistance for the prosecution of an undertaking +likely to prove so unremunerative.</p> + +<p>In addition to the copy of the "Mahawanso," we also procured +a number of other important Cingalese MSS. on Talipot palms, +which were made use of by Tumour, partly in his translation +of the "Mahawanso," partly in his other works upon Ceylon, +and which embrace numerous valuable historical details not +comprised in the "Mahawanso." This complete collection of +the most antique annals of the Island of Ceylon, in the +purchase of which we were kindly favoured with the advice +and assistance of Mr. Wilson at Colombo, together with a +variety of other Cingalese MSS. on palm leaves, collected at +a subsequent date, now form part of the collection of +valuable books in the Imperial Royal Library at Vienna.</p> + +<p>Besides Mr. Wilson, our very best thanks are due to the +Colonial Secretary, Sir C. J. McCarthy, who had the kindness +to provide several of the members of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition +with the requisite letters of introduction to the +authorities in the interior of the Island: also to Mr. John +Selby, the very obliging proprietor of the <i>Examiner</i>; to +Dr. Kelaart, physician and naturalist; to Charles P. Layard, +Esq., the Government Agent for the Western Provinces; and to +Captain Gosset, Surveyor-General, for their numerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span> +attentions. The last-mentioned gentleman very kindly +provided us with a pair of level-tubes which we urgently +needed for one of our levelling instruments, and which, in +this quarter of the globe, were more rare and difficult to +be met with than pearls or precious stones.</p> + +<p>Our return from Colombo to Galle, was not less marked by +misadventures than our journey thither. As far as Caltura, +where our amiable Father Miliani was in waiting for us with +his neat single-horse equipage, to convey us to the +beautiful parsonage of St. Sebastian Makùn, all went +tolerably smoothly with us. We arrived, as had been +concerted, to breakfast with this hospitable shepherd of +souls. On our way to the parsonage, we noticed that great +respect was paid to the worthy Father, by such of the +Cingalese as met us. Their usual salutation was to bend +themselves to the earth, veiling their eyes at the same +time, and bending forward the outstretched head as though to +implore a blessing. Father Miliani, who held the reins in +his left hand, while his right hand flourished a long heavy +whip, slightly inclined his body upon the cabriolet, and so +dismissed in peace the poor folk that besought his +benediction. When we had now got pretty near the parsonage, +we were suddenly brought to a halt by a couple of natives, +of whom one implored the spiritual ministration of the +Father for his wife, then lying almost <i>in articulo mortis</i>, +while the other had brought with him, from the sacristy of +Makùn, the Communion-plate required for the purpose. The +priest, to whom this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">398</a></span> interruption seemed to come as a +matter of course, stopped, apologized for the unexpected +delay, threw the reins to one of the party, sprang from the +waggon, and disappeared in the gloom of the forest. It was +not for long, as it proved; for the stately, handsome figure +of the priest of Makùn presently appeared between the +cocoa-palms. He had found the woman much less dangerously +ill than he had been led to expect by the report of the +husband, the native converts to Christianity being very much +given to requesting the administration of the rites of the +Church, upon being attacked by the slightest indisposition, +because they anticipate much more benefit from spiritual +treatment than from the medicines of their body-curers. And +now we proceeded on our way to the parsonage at a smart +gallop, which, however, did not prevent a zealous, +much-believing Cingalese from keeping up with the mettled +horse, stride for stride, for the entire distance, keeping +close to the waggon as he ran alongside. We were not then +aware, indeed, whether this violent bodily exercise was +undertaken as a matter of choice or as a penance, but it +seemed to us, in any case, an act far less meritorious than +prejudicial to health.</p> + +<p>In St. Sebastian de Makùn, the entire community were +awaiting our arrival, and escorted us by a romantic hill, +and through a delicious palm-forest, to the priest's abode. +Here we found the porch of the house gaily adorned, and +metamorphosed with tropical fruits and flowers into a +smiling fragrant bower, with the feathery leaf of the +cocoa-palm cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span> into thin strips. The inventive ingenuity of +the Cingalese had endeavoured to represent the various birds +found in tropical forests, which were suspended in +ornamental baskets of green leaves among the festoons. Over +the entrance to this bower, improvised out of materials +supplied by the primeval forest, was placed a picture +painted by the good Father himself, representing a large +anchor, with the superscription in Italian "La speranza non +confunde!" (Hope never disappoints!) This was evidently a +delicate allusion of our kind-souled entertainer to the hope +which he had expressed during our previous visit, that he +should see us on our return from Colombo, "which had not +been disappointed."</p> + +<p>In the interior of the arbour appeared an elegantly +appointed table, that seemed ready to give way under the +weight of good things spread upon it, around which were +placed a number of arm-chairs, worked in tapestry, while the +plastered floor was strewed with the glistening green leaves +of the <i>Ficus religiosa</i>. As soon as we had taken our seats, +the members of the community, consisting of more than a +hundred tawny, half-naked Cingalese (principally men and +children), arranged themselves in a circle, and some +half-dozen dancers began to execute a very ordinary-looking +dance to the sound of a drum. The entire figure consisted in +their simply approaching each other from opposite sides, +during which they struck the hollow-sounding instrument +pretty sharply, holding it in their hand the while, after +which they drew away from each other, and wound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span> up by +dancing round in a circle in couples. A boy of eight, in +glittering costume, next performed a dance, in which he was +accompanied by a grown-up Cingalese who sung, occasionally +accompanied by drum and fife. Frequently we enquired what +was the meaning of the vocal accompaniment to the dance, but +could get no information upon the subject. But we have +always had occasion to remark among the various primitive +races, that they are rarely able to give any connected +account of the history of their dances or even their songs, +but simply go through a set of mechanical figures which they +have learned, or rehearse a set of words by rote, without +being able to assign any signification to either. Over and +over again have we put the question, only to receive the +same stereotyped answer from Hindoos, Negroes, Chinese, +Malays, and Polynesians, that they could tell us nothing +more than that these songs and dances took their origin in +the "olden times." Breakfast was served in the arbour by +Cingalese boys. As often as the hospitable Father turned to +apologize for his scanty means, which prevented him from +ministering to our entertainment as he could wish, some new +dish would be forthcoming, or some fresh kind of wine would +be produced, till one knew not which most to admire, the +variety of the entertainment, or its cost in preparation.</p> + +<p>On inquiring of Father Miliani, in the course of +conversation, whether he had any acquaintance with the +plants to which the natives ascribe healing properties, he +sent for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span> phial containing an oily substance, which; +according to the Cingalese herbalists, is composed of 57 +different roots and as many flowers, and has already been +wonderfully efficacious in cases of persons bitten by +poisonous serpents. It is called by the natives, +<i>Visanili-Katail</i> (oil against poison); and the priest of +Makùn remarked to us, he had himself had an opportunity of +satisfying himself as to the marvellous curative qualities +of this vegetable substance, in the case of persons who had +been bitten by the most venomous snake in the whole island, +the <i>Cobra di Capello</i>, who had entirely recovered by the +copious use of this antidote. The application is very +simple. The mouth is rinsed out with it, and the patient +further takes from 15 to 20 drops of the oil internally. +Unfortunately, we were not able to inquire more particularly +as to the ingredients from which the Visanili-Katail is +compounded, of which we eventually got a small quantity to +carry away with us, after much entreaty; but by way of +compensation, Father Miliani was able to give us much +valuable information as to the manners, customs, and +traditions of his flock. He regretted, however, that they +were all of a highly impassioned strain, and that they +constantly passed from one extreme to the other. The +following trait, which was pointed out to us by the Father +in the course of conversation, may serve to indicate the +modes of thought and observation of the natives. When the +Cingalese perceived how eagerly and with what warmth of +friendship the Father received us, they inquired of him +whether he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span> been previously an acquaintance of ours, as +they were unable to conceive the existence of such hearty +good-will between persons who were utter strangers to each +other. The priest, readily appreciating the results which +must flow from the reply he should give, in confirming the +devout souls of his children, replied that the reputation of +his name had long since penetrated to us, and we were +unwilling to ride by without turning aside to salute him, to +which he had readily expressed his assent, and had also long +since been apprized of the important mission of the Austrian +ship of war, whose commander was termed by the natives, with +the bombast of their native tongue, "King of the Sea." At +our departure, the kind Father presented us with several +interesting articles, as <i>souvenirs</i> of Makùn, while we, on +our part, left with him a donation in money to defray the +expenses of erecting his church.</p> + +<p>Father Miliani, the band of musicians, consisting of ten or +twelve wild-looking fellows, with all manner of barbarous +musical instruments, of which they made not less barbarous +use, together with a laughing, yelling, gesticulating crowd +of half-naked Cingalese, with long raven locks floating over +their shoulders, accompanied us to our travelling chariot. +Here we took leave of the hospitable Father, the vehicle set +out on its route, and the whole brown retinue at once +dispersed.</p> + +<p>Hardly had we left the Mission of St. Sebastian Makùn behind +us, ere our troubles began afresh. At almost the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span> very first +station we came to, we had to hire a horse from a resident +at an exorbitant rate—the animal belonging to the station, +and which had been engaged for us, being utterly useless. +This gave occasion for fresh delays. The party letting the +horses was what is called a native doctor, who assumed the +title of "native vaccinator," and bitterly complained, that +for his attendance four days in every week, as required by +the law, for the purpose of inoculation, he only received +from Government a monthly salary of £2 5<i>s.</i> sterling. +Whatever deficiency existed in his salary, he seemed +determined to make up for in the hire of his horse, which he +charged for at the rate of ten shillings for six miles! On +the cash being forthcoming, our "native vaccinator" did not +disdain himself to take the reins, and, with his own hands, +apply the whip to his mare between the shafts of our +vehicle. But this mark of distinction was destined, ere +long, to cost us dear. Hardly had we proceeded a couple of +miles under his care, when the hind-wheels of the vehicle +sunk into a rut, whence our Æsculapian steed lacked the +strength to extricate us. To complete the sum of our +misfortunes, at the very moment we were using our utmost +endeavours to replace the waggon on the regular track, it +came on to rain heavily, and we were, in a twinkling, wet to +the skin. Some thirty young Cingalese, in the full dress of +Adam before the Fall, who were standing open-mouthed round +the waggon, could only be roused by threats from their +passive attitude; and when, finally, they lent a hand to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span> +assist, they, in their ill-timed zeal, came near oversetting +the waggon into the ditch on the opposite side. Next, we +exchanged this stubborn brute for one that was blind. For a +brief space we hoped the latter might probably be the more +easily driven in consequence of his not seeing what was +going on around him; but these anticipations were speedily +dispelled, and in a rather unpleasant manner. The short +distance that now separated us from our destination seemed +as though it would never have an end; and, in a word, it was +already verging on midnight ere we reached Galle, where we +had been expected to dinner five hours before, by our +hospitable friend, the Consul for Hamburg. Some of the +invited guests had already left this agreeable house, while +others were still seated at the whist-table, as, wearied and +exhausted, we entered the drawing-room. The circumstances +that had so seriously delayed our arrival were explained by +way of apology, and proved the subject of some goodnatured +quizzing on our misfortunes by the guests present; and in +such agreeable society, and over a sumptuous supper, we +speedily forgot the trifling annoyances of our latest +experiences.</p> + +<p>In the course of a desultory agreeable conversation about +the natural beauties of the island, many were the plans of +more distant excursions which we projected this +evening—which, however, upon more mature consideration, all +proved impracticable, owing to the scanty time at our +disposal. Thus we found ourselves, much against our wishes, +compelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span> to forego a visit to Kandy, and its beautiful +environs, in which is situated the renowned temple that +enshrines the tooth of Buddha, the occupation of which by +the English was, in the eyes of the Cingalese, the most +manifest indication of their being the legitimate conquerors +of the kingdom.<a name="Anchor-94" id="Anchor-94"></a><a href="#Footnote-94" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 94.">[94]</a> Neither were we able to take part in an +elephant hunt, although these animals are found in the +island in such quantities, that it is related, with every +appearance of accuracy, of a single elephant hunter, the +late Major Rodgers, who was struck dead by a flash of +lightning a few years since in the midst of the forest, that +he had, in the course of his life of active exercise, laid +low fifteen hundred elephants with his own hand! But +permission was granted by the commander of the Expedition to +the geologist and one of the zoologists to remain in Ceylon, +and rejoin the frigate at Madras by the steamer which runs +fortnightly, so as to enable them to ascend the world-famous +Adam's Peak, 7000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span> feet high, one of the loftiest peaks in +Ceylon, where, according to tradition, the founder of the +Buddhist doctrine, when last he visited the earth, in answer +to the supplications of a priest, left behind the print of +his footstep (<i>Sri-pada</i>), as a visible sign of his +presence.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-94" id="Footnote-94"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-94">[94]</a> The legend relating to these relics, about +which so many wars were waged, goes back as far as the third +century of the Christian era, when Mahasana, a true +believer, having become King of Ceylon, purchased these +teeth for numerous valuable presents, of one of his kindred, +a Calinga king in Bengal, who sent them over by his princes. +The tooth Dahata Wahansa immediately achieved a miracle—it +illumined the entire island, and supplanted all heretical +teaching. It was forthwith enveloped in a hundred cloths, +and a temple erected to enshrine it, since which it has been +regarded as the Palladium of Ceylon. When, in 1560, this +tooth was transferred to the temple at Manaar by the +Portuguese under Constantin de Braganza, the king offered +the Portuguese bigots 600,000 pieces of gold by way of +ransom. Braganza judged it more advisable to destroy the +tooth. But he little knew the adroitness and subtlety of the +Buddhist priesthood. The very next morning the tooth, that +had been supposed to be destroyed was marvellously found in +a Lotos leaf in the temple, where it had been deposited by +Buddha himself!</p></div> + +<p>We cite, in the following extract, the most prominent +features of this venture, as supplied by the two members of +the Expedition who undertook it, so as to complete the +description of the <i>Novara's</i> visit to Ceylon:—</p> + +<p>"On 13th January, 1858, we proceeded from Colombo to +Ratnapoora, <i>en route</i>, to visit Adam's Peak, a tolerably +long and tedious journey. On the margin of a river we +encountered an elephant, who was engaged in assisting the +labourers on the public roads in that vicinity. While our +car and the baggage were being embarked here, and again put +in order, this animal went through a number of tricks, such +as swaying to and fro, lying down, raising his trunk, and +trumpeting, the latter of which, at a sign from his driver, +he did with a vengeance, and for so doing was rewarded with +a few plantains. These exercises seem to constitute the +first steps in taming, as they were gone through in a +similar manner by all the elephants we afterwards saw, +whether employed like this one in task-work, or maintained +for show, or made use of in the Temple service.</p> + +<p>At mid-day we reached Ratnapoora, and as we were anxious to +shorten as much as possible our next day's journey, we +decided on pushing forward in the course of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span> the afternoon, +as far as the little village of Gilli-Mali, seven miles +further on. We had been provided by C. W. Layard, Esq., the +Government Agent in Colombo, with letters of introduction to +his deputy, Mr. Mooyart, at Ratnapoora, who, however, we +unfortunately found was absent from home. Next day, however, +we had unmistakable evidence that our letters had, very +shortly after our departure, reached the hands they were +intended for, by a variety of precautions which the +hospitable gentleman must have at once arranged with a view +to our greater comfort. While yet on the second-half of our +road to Gilli-Mali, night overtook us, and we prosecuted our +march by torch-light through the dense jungle. Our guides +and porters had shown some reluctance to enter this jungle, +partly on account of the swarms of land-leeches (<i>litchies</i>, +as they are termed here, doubtless by a corruption of the +English name), which are especially active during the night, +partly from other causes of anxiety. Accordingly, they kept +reciting Cingalese ditties, alternated with shrill yells, or +shouted, so as to be heard at a distance; whether to drive +away evil spirits, or to frighten the <i>chetah</i> or leopard, +we could not ascertain. No long time elapsed ere we +ourselves began to perceive traces of having been victimized +by that most uncomfortable of guests, the land-leech. The +naked Hindoos were incessantly occupied with pulling off +these painful blood-suckers, and we had to call a halt from +time to time, in order to loosen and carefully fling them +away, as they had succeeded in reaching the skin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span> through +the trousers immediately above the boot. They are found up +to an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea on the mountains, +chiefly in damp or wet localities, and are most active +during the evening and night in the selection of a victim.</p> + +<p>At Gilli-Mali, we fell in with Mr. Braybrooke, an English +engineer, who most hospitably invited us to his bungalow, +and with whom we conversed upon topics relating to Ceylon, +till far into the night.</p> + +<p>Next day we had to ascend the Peak itself; which is in so +far a difficult undertaking on the side from which we +approached it, that one has gained no vantage-ground at +Gilli-Malli, our last night's resting-place, towards +reaching the summit, so that one sees it in its entire +colossal height of above 7000 feet directly in front; +whereas, in ascending from Kandy, one has already, at +Neuwera Ellia, attained an elevation of 4000 feet, which can +be performed in a carriage. We set out at 7 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, and after +an hour-and-a-half's march, gained the last village, +Balahab-a-Dullu, in the Buddhist temple of which is kept a +flat metal dish, adorned with silver <i>rosettes</i>, with which +the imprint of the holy footstep is covered over at the +season of the annual pilgrimage. On the table, before a +colossal figure of Buddha, were strewn, as usual, a quantity +of flowers presented by the faithful; these were the +flower-shrubs of the <i>Areca palm</i>, <i>Hibiscus</i>, <i>Alamanda</i>, +<i>Tagetes</i>; also, close to the wooden statue, are placed +several small figures of silver or wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span> 3 or 4 inches +long. The priest also showed us a magnificent manuscript of +at least 1000 palm leaves, closely and beautifully engraved +on both sides with Cingalese characters, which belonged to +the temple, and was guarded with great care.</p> + +<p>At a solitary house on the road, we left our guides and +porters to discuss their modest repast, which, in +consequence of the strict ordinances of the Buddhist faith, +consists of vegetable substances only. Reclining on a mat +spread on the ground, each took a piece of green plantain +leaf, scattered upon it a little rice which they had just +brought with them, and some chili (red Spanish pepper), and +thence conveyed their simple food to their mouth with the +hand. This frugal meal was speedily concluded, and we once +more pushed forward. From this point we had the dense covert +of the high forest trees, the lofty foliage of which +afforded a most agreeable shade, and kept us comparatively +cool. The path, which consists simply of ravines, formed by +the rush of torrents during the rainy season, is so steep +that it seems like one uninterrupted flight of stairs, the +steps of which seem partly constructed by Nature, partly by +the hand of man. Frequently they are artistically chiselled +in the solid rock; at one stupendous precipice a Cingalese +monarch has had four flights, of 250 steps in all, hewn out +of the living rock. Here and there, also, ladders have been +contrived, the rounds of which are composed of pieces of +bamboo bound together, by which one clambers up. The whole +route bears marks of being much used, and is considerably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span> +worn, the stones being rubbed quite smooth. Under the damp +shade of the forest are found a vast quantity of the most +beautiful ferns and <i>Lycopodium</i> (Club-moss; or Wolf's-claw, +as it is called in Sweden, whence the Linnæan name); from +the delicate beauty of the <i>Jungermania</i> (Star-tip), to the +tree-like fern, <i>Filius Phyllophisidos</i>, which vies with the +giants of the forest. The more deeply shaded spots are +adorned here with beautiful balsams, a genus of plants +which, besides being unusually luxuriant and beautiful in +this district, exhibits certain peculiarities of form not +usually met with.</p> + +<p>At one place, called Nihilabellagalla, there was pointed out +to us, at a few paces to the side of the road, near a rugged +projecting rock with a steep declivity in front, a narrow +valley which seemed to be closed in by perpendicular walls +of rock on the opposite side. This <i>cul de sac</i>, we were +informed, was a favourite resort of numerous wild elephants. +A shot fired at this point, with the gun directed towards +the rocks opposite, returned a thundering echo.</p> + +<p>By 4 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> the last halt, or resting-place, was reached, +above which the singular-looking cone towers sheer overhead, +some 500 or 600 feet high. The vapours which, during the +entire day, had been playing about the summit, from time to +time lifted like a veil, as though to indulge us with an +opportunity of beholding this sublime mountain-peak under +the magical effect of twilight. Our native retinue, which +had gathered fresh accessions of strength at every place we +passed, and now consisted of from 24 to 30 persons, showed +no inclination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span> to proceed farther, but appeared desirous of +passing the night at the last halting-place, which was +nothing but a sort of hovel. It was only by a resolute +expression of our determination to reach the summit the same +evening that they gave in. Their reluctance arose from an +idea that no one could with impunity pass the night on the +highest point of the mountain—which, indeed, is natural +enough, since the sharp night-air at such an elevation may +well be prejudicial to the health of those who are not +sufficiently protected against its attacks.</p> + +<p>The last portion of the ascent is so steep, and so +difficult, that all superfluous baggage was left behind, and +we took with us only what was absolutely indispensable. Thus +far we had seen occasional traces of elephants, sometimes so +fresh, that they could not have been more than an hour old. +According to a report of Major Skinner, the unmistakable +marks of one of these animals was remarked in the year 1840 +quite close to the rock which bears the sacred footprint! At +the steepest points, iron ladders have been made fast, by +which the visitor has to scramble up. There were, also, +innumerable chains fastened to the rock, of every +description and variety of link, which swung to and fro by +dozens on either hand, some eaten away with age and rust, +some forged quite lately, it being considered a meritorious +work to provide such as a protection against the occurrence +of accidents. By 6 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, we at last reached the summit, and +were rewarded with a panoramic view of indescribable +magnificence. The mists were almost entirely dispersed, and +in the clear, calm, evening light, the eye wandered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span> at +pleasure over the vast, almost limitless, panorama at our +feet, as far as the sea, barely visible in the grey +distance. Bounding our view from north-west to east, the +mountain ranges rose by three distinct terraces of hills, +each behind the other, and in regular gradations, till they +culminated in the highest peak on the island, the +Pedro-talla-galla, which overtops Adam's peak by nearly 1000 +feet,<a name="Anchor-95" id="Anchor-95"></a><a href="#Footnote-95" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 95.">[95]</a> but presents no pre-eminent peak, similar to that +on which we now stood. The remainder of the horizon was +filled with low mountains, which gradually became more and +more flat as they approached the coast. The followers of +three religions,—Buddhists, Brahmins, and Mahometans, stand +face to face with each other on this space of barely a few +steps, in order to bow before these visible emblems, in +sincere devotion to the invisible Deity. The highest +surface, which is nearly level, is of an irregular oval +form, and is about 60 or 70 feet in length, by from 36 to 40 +feet in breadth, and is inclosed within a wall 5 feet in +height, with two entrances on the west and south, while the +north-east corner is shut out by an artificially rounded +rock, easily surmounted, however, by any one who ascends it. +In the middle of this enclosure stands a block of rock some +10 or 11 feet high, which, on the extreme top, has a +depression, the divine <i>Sri-pada</i>, or Holy Footstep. The +adoration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span> consists chiefly of offerings of flowers which +are brought up hither, and presented with innumerable +genuflections, invocations, and exclamations of "<i>Sadoo</i>," +which corresponds to the Christian Amen. The impressed +foot-print is ascribed by the Buddhists to the last +incarnation of Buddha, the gentle hermit Gautama; while it +is regarded by the Brahmins as the footstep of Siva, and by +the Mahometans as that of Adam, as being the spot on which +the progenitor of the human race stood so long, doing +penance after his expulsion from Paradise, until the +Almighty pardoned him.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-95" id="Footnote-95"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-95">[95]</a> The precise relative elevations of the two +mountains are, Pedro-talla-galla 8280 feet, Adam's Peak 7420 +feet. Two other peaks of the main range are also higher than +Adam's Peak, viz. Totapella 7720 feet, and Kirrigal-potta +7810 feet, while the plains, or table-lands, of Welinani and +Neuwera Ellia are, respectively, no less than 6990 feet and +6210 feet above the level of the sea.</p></div> + +<p>This depression, in which only the most unbridled +imagination can see any resemblance to the human foot, is +about 5 feet in length by 2½ in breadth, and is set, as +it were, in a level stratum of mortar, several inches in +height, by six in breadth, shaped to resemble the outline of +the human foot. At its anterior extremity, it presents a +straight line, on which the five toes are artificially +formed by several tolerably thick, narrow crevices, filled +with mortar, and about 8 or 9 inches in length, which jut +inwards, the great toe being on the right or east side, and +thus indicating that it is a representation of the left +foot. At the heel end the setting of mortar is somewhat +narrowed and rounded off. Over the whole affair a wooden +temple with balustrades open on all sides, has been erected, +which is fastened by iron chains to the rock, and to beams +of rhododendron fastened on the N.W. side, outside the wall, +to prevent its being swept away by the storms which, on this +lofty, exposed peak, occasionally rage with great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span> +vehemence. These cables, as also several of the poles by +which the temple was supported, were thickly hung with +carved figures of Buddha enveloped in linen cloth, which, +originally the votive offerings of pilgrims, and bleached by +long exposure, fluttered in the breeze. On the front of the +temple is erected a penthouse roof, shading a bench beneath, +on which several of our porters, who regarded our impious +presence, and still more impious admeasurements of the holy +footprint, with a horror which they flattered themselves was +unobserved, deposited their offerings of flowers, and humbly +bent the knee. On the west side, under two small distinct +roofs, were two bells, and quite apart, on the rock itself, +and somewhat in the background, a smaller temple. Between +the block of rock and the inner half of the enclosure, a +small house has been erected, 12 feet long by 6 feet broad, +which is used as a shelter at night by the priests who are +on duty during the pilgrimage season,<a name="Anchor-96" id="Anchor-96"></a><a href="#Footnote-96" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 96.">[96]</a> in which we too +took up our quarters. Suddenly, from the depths below there +arose, through the unbroken silence of the night, a confused +murmur, in which the sounds of human voices were plainly +recognizable. The singularity of such a phenomenon produced +a certain degree of excitement among our superstitious +spectre-dreading followers, inasmuch as it had never +happened that strangers undertook the ascent of the peak at +night, seeing it gives trouble enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span> to reach the summit +by daylight. By degrees we perceived a number of torches +borne by natives, who, with loud and long-continued cheers, +set about slowly ascending the ladders. To the inquiries of +our followers they made no reply; and we had, in a word, to +wait a considerable interval, until, indeed, the leading +torch-bearer had reached the summit, ere we were enlightened +as to the object of this mysterious nocturnal visit. How +great, and let us add, agreeable was our surprise at finding +ourselves suddenly surrounded by a choice array of wines, +with food of various sorts, which the overflowing +hospitality of Mr. Mooyart had dispatched after us to the +summit of Adam's Peak, together with his card, the whole +being conveyed in huge baskets by the supposed spectres! A +cheerful fire speedily blazed up, at which our tea and +provisions were cooked, and, as may well be supposed, while, +enjoying our delicate fare, we thankfully toasted the kind +and thoughtful donor.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-96" id="Footnote-96"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-96">[96]</a> The dry season, occurring in the south-west +side of the island from January to April, is likewise the +chief season of pilgrimage, at the end of which the entire +amount of the offerings, annually averaging from £250 to +£300 sterling, is handed over to the High-Priest of Buddha.</p></div> + +<p>Deep silence once more fell on all around, no cry of any +wild beast reached us at this elevation, no hum of insect +broke upon the awful stillness. Our coolies lay cowering +together around the drooping blaze, seeking some shelter +against the night air. One division stowed themselves away +in a second sleeping-house for priests, which had been run +up some twenty paces distant, in which we also were in the +end fain to seek shelter from the ever-increasing keenness +of the air, the temperature of which fell to 54°.5 Fahr., +where, with our wrappers drawn close around us, and +stretched at full length on the bare rock, we awaited the +approach of morning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span></p> + +<p>The first faint glimmer of dawn invited us once more to the +open air, in order to contemplate the wonderful aspect of +Nature at this elevation. We had, after leaving Ratnapoora, +taken barometrical and thermometrical observations, with the +view of determining the elevation at nine different +stations, which had been, wherever practicable, selected in +such manner, that by means of them the various limits of +certain classes of vegetation were indicated, which in many +instances are marked out with extraordinary distinctness +upon the perpendicular side of the peak. These series of +observations, which were at the same time supplemented by +investigations as to the temperature of the soil and of +various springs, will be compared with the results of +previous scientific visitors to the summit of Adam's Peak, +and published in another form. The geology of the isolated +pinnacle of Adam's Peak, so far as the dense covering of +primeval forests permitted us to observe, is uncommonly +simple and uniform. The chief directions of the lofty chain +of mountains in Southern Ceylon, separated from each other +by level plateau-like depressions, is from S.S.E. to N.N.W., +corresponding likewise with the chief directions of the +strata of gneiss, of which these mountains are composed. The +gneiss is uniformly of a species not often met with, studded +with garnets, and between its strata are inserted single +beds of hornblende-gneiss and splinters of pure hornblende, +as also granulite-gneiss and pure granulite. The steep, +final cone of the rock consists of a granulitic gneiss of +varying texture from coarse to fine, and abounding in +garnets. Everywhere,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span> even up to the highest summit, the +gneiss is decomposed on the surface into laterit-like +products. The huge blocks of brown ironstone, however, which +are found near the summit, in the hollow path by which it is +customary to ascend, owe their origin to the decomposition +of the hornblende.</p> + +<p>After these interesting observations, admeasurements, and +investigations, made at the summit of the most remarkable +peak in the world, had been brought to a conclusion, we set +out on our return to Gilli-Mali, which we reached late at +night. Here we found, at the abode of our hospitable +entertainer, Mr. Braybrooke, a fresh guest, who likewise +intended to ascend Adam's Peak the following day. This was +the well-known Count Medem, a Russian gentleman, who has +frequently traversed both the old and new worlds, and was +now about making a second visit to China.<a name="Anchor-97" id="Anchor-97"></a><a href="#Footnote-97" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 97.">[97]</a> The next day +saw us at Ratnapoora, from which point we continued our +return journey on the waters of the Kalu-Gunga, or Black +River, as far as Caltura.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-97" id="Footnote-97"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-97">[97]</a> Count Medem died the same year at Shanghai.</p></div> + +<p>Our boat consisted of two trunks of trees hollowed out and +fastened together, upon which was erected a semicircular +tilt, covered with the leaves of the Fan Palm (<i>Borassus +Flabelliformis</i>), under which one might sit or lie at +pleasure, sheltered from the sun. As the mail-car that runs +daily from Colombo to Caltura was already full, we were +compelled, in order to pursue our journey to Galle, to make +use of the native waggon, or bullock-bandy. This is a +two-wheeled cart drawn by oxen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span> and covered with a +semicircular tilt of palm-leaves, beneath which there was +room for two persons to lie at full-length packed closely +together. The oxen, of a breed that have humps and erect +horns, are small, and walk with a quick, short tramp, while +their entire bodies are tattooed with Cingalese characters +and ornaments. The horns are usually adorned with metal +tips, and frequently are dyed, the one red, the other green. +The cross-piece of the pole is fastened to the neck instead +of the customary yoke, and the cord for guiding the animal +passes through the nose. The driver either strides along +between the two oxen, or sits with his back to them on the +pole. The rate of progression by this national conveyance is +so slow, that the mail-car which left Colombo the day after +overtook us long ere we reached our destination, and it was +with some difficulty we reached Galle in time for the +overland steamer which was to bring us to Madras."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"><a name="plate485t" id="plate485t"></a> +<img src="images/plate485t.jpg" width="199" height="350" alt="Track of Novara." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE VI.—TRACK FROM POINT DE GALLE TO MADRAS.</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate485.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>At 6 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> of the 16th January, the <i>Novara</i> set sail from +the roads of Point de Galle with light breezes off the land, +and steered southerly in order to avoid the Basses or Baxos, +a much-dreaded rocky shoal, traditionally alleged to be the +remains of the island of Giri, swallowed up by the sea, and +which, owing to the very strong current, require the utmost +care to be observed, in order to avoid drifting right upon +them.<a name="Anchor-98" id="Anchor-98"></a><a href="#Footnote-98" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 98.">[98]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-98" id="Footnote-98"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-98">[98]</a> A late survey, instituted with the intention of +erecting a lighthouse on the "Basses," proved a failure, in +consequence of the ground having sunk in while an +examination was being made by the diver, and left nothing +but holes filled with water, in which, according to the +report of the fishermen, besides fish and molluscs, +sea-snakes are occasionally seen, of a light-gray colour, +and about 4 or 5 feet in length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span></p></div> + +<p>The evening before our departure, the Consul for Hamburg had +requested from the Commander of the Expedition the favour of +a free passage to Madras, on board our frigate, for a native +of Berlin, named Neupert. This man had come to Ceylon a long +time previously with a company of rope-dancers, and had at +first made a good deal of money as an acrobat and juggler, +despite the dangerous competition of the Indian +practitioners, but had afterwards lost his all, and had been +for some weeks in a pitiable plight. The request was at once +acceded to, and Neupert came on board during the night. His +luggage did not encumber him much. However, although the +greatest part of his effects had disappeared in Galle, he +fortunately had kept his various apparatus; and, by way of +showing his gratitude for the free passage that had been +accorded to him, professed his willingness, in the course of +the voyage, to give us some specimens of his skill on deck. +Accordingly, one fine afternoon, he gave us an entertainment +out on the open ocean, which not alone hugely pleased the +sturdy tars grouped together on the forecastle, but +ultimately, in consequence of a collection set on foot for +the unfortunate Berlin acrobat, procured him enough ready +money to enable him to pass the first week after his arrival +at Madras free from anxiety, besides supplying him with a +fresh outfit.</p> + +<p>Within a few days after our departure from Galle, several +severe cases occurred of hemeralopia, chiefly among members +of the ship's band. Every evening, as darkness set in, these +men lost all power of distinguishing objects, and had to be +led<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span> about like blind men. In Vienna, we had been advised by +various physicians there, with a view to the confirmation or +refutation of the popular belief, to try the use of boiled +ox-liver;<a name="Anchor-99" id="Anchor-99"></a><a href="#Footnote-99" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 99.">[99]</a> and, as one of the oxen shipped at Ceylon had +been slaughtered, we were in a position to make the desired +experiment, which, it must be confessed, proved eminently +successful. This time, moreover, several of those thus +afflicted were treated with cooked pig's-liver, which was +given them to eat, while the steam rising from the dish was +applied to their eyes. But we had, on our return voyage, the +most convincing proof of the efficacy of the liver of +animals of the ox tribe in cases of night-blindness, when +above twenty of those afflicted, after frequent relapses +during the voyage from Valparaiso to Gibraltar, were treated +in the last-named port with ox-liver, and dismissed +permanently cured.<a name="Anchor-100" id="Anchor-100"></a><a href="#Footnote-100" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 100.">[100]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-99" id="Footnote-99"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-99">[99]</a> This cure is likewise very much resorted to, +even of late years, among the Highlands of Scotland!</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-100" id="Footnote-100"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-100">[100]</a> During the entire voyage round the globe, there +occurred 75 cases of <i>Hemeralopia</i>; the largest number of +which, 60, occurred between Cape Horn and Gibraltar. The +remainder were isolated cases, occurring at Rio, Ceylon, the +Nicobar Islands, and on the voyage from China to Sydney.</p></div> + +<p>The voyage from Ceylon to Madras was, on the whole, +monotonous and void of interest, with the exception of one +single event, which no one on board is likely to forget for +the remainder of his life. About 3.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> of the 2nd +January, 1858, there suddenly resounded from the hold, the +astounding cry of "Fire! fire!" Everyone rushed, in the +utmost excitement, on deck. It turned out that a by no +means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span> insignificant quantity of pure alcohol, which was +stowed away in the hold for the preservation of specimens of +natural history, had, from some unknown cause, caught fire. +Forthwith the pumps were manned, the sails clewed up, all +the portholes closed, so as to cut off the slightest +draught, and all the hammocks of the crew trundled, +<i>pêle-mêle</i> on deck anyhow, out of the quarter-nettings, in +which they are stowed away during the day, there to be +dipped in sea-water, and in that wringing-wet condition +applied, partly in extinguishing the flames, partly in +preventing the fire from spreading. In less than a quarter +of an hour the worst danger was over, and our wonted quiet +restored, despite the first terrible excitement. On a more +searching investigation, several of the tin carboys in the +hold, filled with spirits of wine, and kept between layers +of sand in iron chests, were found to have been corroded +till the liquor had oozed through, while the air, having +free access to the sand, had become strongly impregnated +with gas. This atmosphere, impregnated as it was with +alcoholic fumes, took fire on one of the sailors carelessly +entering the hold with a badly-fastened lantern, and in a +moment the light flames which speedily enveloped the man in +such a confined space, at once gave the alarm. The full +carboys remained uninjured by the fire. Had such a +catastrophe happened, and the whole quantity of spirit +(about 40 gallons) taken fire, considering the immense +quantities of combustible matter we had on board, among the +rest a ton-and-a-half of gunpowder, the upshot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span> must have +been of a far less agreeable nature. The extraordinary +lightning-like activity displayed by the entire ship's +company on this occasion was something wonderful. Each man +seemed to have got wings. There was the most laudable +emulation displayed by all hands in seeking to save the +lives of themselves and others from such a terrible doom.</p> + +<p>On the 30th January, at 7.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, we anchored in Madras +Roads, so dreaded for their insecurity, about three nautical +miles from the shore, and in 9 fathoms (56 feet English). +Even in the calmest weather there is a tremendous surf on +this coast, and from October to December, in which strong +gales blow from the N.E., it is all but unapproachable. For +this reason, so soon as the wind increases so as to endanger +the ships in the roads, a flag is hoisted on a staff at the +Master Attendant's office, that they may put to sea at once. +On the second signal, all ships must quit the Roads for fear +of being dashed through the surf upon the beach.</p> + +<p>From the city we heard a running fire of musketry and some +salutes with cannon, which, considering the prevalence of +warlike rumours and movements in the then circumstances of +India, made us conjecture that the natives of the Coromandel +coast were also in insurrection against the English. +However, we learned afterwards that the musketry and salvoes +proceeded from the troops stationed near the +drilling-ground, who were receiving their general on his +return from parade with a salute. The following day (Sunday, +the 31st January, 1858)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span> the European community of Madras +fell into a precisely similar error in consequence of our +salute, which they, being at that hour assembled at worship, +mistook for a much less peaceful and agreeable intimation, +so that the majority, dreading an outbreak, hurried to their +houses in deep anxiety.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"><a name="illu483" id="illu483"></a> +<img src="images/illu483.jpg" width="463" height="189" alt="Boat with four oarsmen, one helmsman and passenger 'tent'." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MASULI BOAT AT MADRAS.</span> +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">424</a></span></p> + +<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%; +width: 550px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu484.png'); +background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu484" id="illu484"></a> +<a name="IX" id="IX"></a> +<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">VIEW OF MADRAS (AND PROPOSED PIER).</span></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 550px; height: 344px;"></div> +<div class="ilbl" style="width: 179px; height: 353px;"></div> + +<h2 style="clear: none;">IX.</h2> + +<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Madras.</div> + +<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Duration of Stay from 30th January to 10th February, 1858.</span></div> + +<div class="ChapDescr"> +"Catamarans" and "Massuli" boats.—Difficulty of +disembarkation, and plans for remedying +it.—History.—Brahminism.—Festival in honour of +Vishnu.—Employment of Heathens under a Christian +Government.—Politics and Religion.—Laws of Brahminic +faith.—The Observatory.—Museum of Natural History and +Zoological Garden.—Academy of Fine Arts.—Medical +School.—Infirmary.—Orphan Asylum.—Dr. Bell.—Lancastrian +Method of Teaching Children first applied in +Madras.—Colonel Mackenzie's Collection of Indian +Inscriptions and Manuscripts.—The Palace of the former +Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.—Journey by rail to +Vellore.—<i>Fête</i> given by the Governor in Guindy +Park.—Visit to the Monolithic Monuments of +Mahamalaipuram.—Excursion to Pulicat Lake.—Madras +Club.—<i>Fête</i> in honour of the members of the <i>Novara</i> +Expedition.—"Tiffin" and dance on board.—Departure from +Madras.—Zodiacal light.—Shrove Tuesday in the +tropics.—Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar. +</div> + +<p>The morning after our arrival in Madras Roads, a native boat +came alongside, of the sort known as "Catamarans,"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">425</a></span> having +on board two natives, who brought off from the authorities +of the port the customary papers to be filled up. This +extraordinary and very primitive boat consists of merely two +or three trunks of trees bound together raft-fashion, on +which these daring boatmen kneel. As a great part of their +body is necessarily under water, they carry the papers and +letters entrusted to them for transmission to the ships in +the Roads, in turban-like wrappings which envelope their +heads. Ordinarily, these men are excellent swimmers, a most +requisite accomplishment to enable them to regain their +boats, in the event of being swept off by the waves, or to +save themselves and others from the innumerable sharks, +which frequent the entire Coromandel coast, and render it +eminently dangerous. About noon, a larger boat approached +us, manned by from 15 to 20 natives, who offered their +services as caterers, washers, agents, servants, in short as +"Dubashes" a sort of Hindoo <i>factotum</i>; while each +individual, shrieking and vociferating at the top of his +voice, held high in the air, with outstretched arm, a number +of written testimonials of ship-captains that had already +employed him. These boats, called "Massuli," or "Musli" +boats (from <i>Muchly</i>—fish), about 36 feet long by 5 or 6 in +width, and in which alone it is possible to bring passengers +and goods to land, are light, as flexible as if made of +leather, and are fastened together with the elastic fibres +of the cocoa-nut, being in every particular specially +adapted to yield to the tremendous blows of the heavy surf, +which a boat of ordinary construction could not possibly +live through. They are for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">426</a></span> most part pretty deep, and +are usually manned with from 12 to 15 naked natives, who +make use of an exceedingly smooth pallette-shaped paddle. In +one of these boats, the officers of the frigate on leave, +and the naturalists of the Expedition, were conveyed to land +in the midst of a fresh breeze from the N.E. The more we +approached the shore, the more formidable was the appearance +of the tumultuous tempest-driven waves. Amid frightful yells +and hurrahs, we passed in safety the first and second lines +of surf. But we had yet to encounter the third, and by far +the most furious. The boatmen spread a couple of cloths over +our heads, to prevent our getting a soaking; the boat made +several violent plunges forward, and was for an instant +apparently covered by the tremendous foaming billows, but +seemed to glide in a most extraordinary manner over these, +and finally was neatly laid alongside the beach on the crest +of the last breaker. This is the critical moment, and the +most disagreeable, because the boat is, by this +manipulation, thrown on its side, and one feels disposed to +rush out, ere the returning wave throws the boat high and +dry on the sand. The noisy shrieks of the boat's crew and +Coolies, or Lascars (Indian porters), with which the +disembarkation is accompanied, combine to render it still +more annoying and unpleasant. One feels a sensation of +satisfaction at having gone through this remarkable, and to +some extent wholly peculiar, experience; but no one was ever +known to encounter it voluntarily a second time. The glowing +picture, which numbers of travellers have drawn of the +landing at Madras, might impress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span> many readers with the idea +that their representations were most probably tinged +somewhat with a colouring of romance; but, in view of our +own experience at what is confessedly the pleasantest season +of the year, there can be at certain times no description, +however vividly sketched, but what must lag behind the +reality.</p> + +<p>There could hardly have been selected a more unsuitable site +for a city, than that of Madras, and it is only the +circumstance that the entire Coromandel coast presents no +more eligible haven, as also the importance of the place as +the chief city of the Carnatic, which alone has a population +of 5,000,000, that has enabled Madras to boast a population +of 700,000 inhabitants, and a commerce of such magnitude +that 6000 vessels, British and foreign, are annually<a name="Anchor-101" id="Anchor-101"></a><a href="#Footnote-101" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 101.">[101]</a> +cleared inwards and outwards, laden with upwards of 650,000 +tons of produce and goods of a total value of more than +£8,000,000 sterling.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-101" id="Footnote-101"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-101">[101]</a> In the year 1857, the number of trading vessels +was 6241, carrying 652,146 tons merchandise, of which 1438 +were square-sailed ships; and 4803 native boats and Chinese +junks. The imports of goods and metals amounted to Rs. +40,563,826 (about £4,050,000 in round numbers); the exports +to Rs. 40,060,656 (about £4,000,000 in round numbers). We +are indebted to the kindness of Dr. Balfour for a variety of +interesting statistical <i>data</i>, the information contained in +which must be transferred to the statistical portion of the +<i>Novara</i> publications.</p></div> + +<p>The spot at which vessels anchor can by no stretch of terms +be called a roadstead, being in fact nothing but an open +strip of coast running nearly due north and south, so that +during the N.E. monsoons, the sea that sets in is something +extraordinary, and produces a tremendous surf. At no season +of the year is it practicable to reach the shore by ordinary +ship-boats,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">428</a></span> because the beach, being utterly unprovided +with any artificial appliances, is left in its natural +state—that is to say, covered with fine sand, which lies so +level that the depth is only nine fathoms two miles out at +sea! Singular to say, no steps have to this day been taken +to carry out the proposition, made many long years ago, of +remedying this difficulty in reaching land, by the +construction of a mole or pier, although three or four plans +have already been presented by distinguished engineers. The +last and most feasible scheme, and the most likely to be put +in execution, consists in constructing a mole 1000 feet in +length and 60 feet in breadth, to be erected upon iron piles +driven into the sand, and with a cross-piece at the seaward +extremity—the mole construction resembling the letter <b>T</b>. On +either side of the mole, tramways will be laid down to +facilitate the transport of goods that have been discharged. +The entire cost of this undertaking would be about +£100,000—an entirely disproportionate, and, indeed, +insignificant amount, when one takes into consideration the +important consequences which must result to trade and +passenger traffic on the completion of this erection.</p> + +<p>The earliest British settlement was at Armegon, about 36 +miles north of Pulicat (or about 78 miles N. by W. of +Madras). The cession of a piece of land by the native Rajah +of Besnayor induced the president of the old factory at +Armegon, Mr. Francis Day, to abandon the latter, and in the +year 1639, the Fort of St. George was erected at the +newly-selected station, where formerly stood the little +Hindoo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">429</a></span> village of Ischinapatam. This fort formed the +nucleus, at a later period, of the city of Madras, which is +built on the flat alluvial soil along the coast, and at +present comprises an area of about 30 (English) square +miles. Its extent along the beach from north to south is +about 9 miles by an extreme width of 3¾ miles. Madras, +like all the rest, consists of a White town, exclusively +inhabited by Europeans, and a Black town, or <i>Pettah</i>, in +which the natives and all coloured residents carry on +business.</p> + +<p>The White town, which, however, presents none of the +carefully laid-out streets and compact blocks of houses +involuntarily suggested by the word "town," but rather +resembles a gigantic park, in which are situated a vast +number of comfortable ornamental villas, rises at its +highest point 20 feet above the sea; whereas the Black town, +at several points—for instance, Popham's Broadway—is +hardly 8 feet above the level of spring floods.</p> + +<p>While in Ceylon we had had an opportunity of becoming +acquainted with the influence exercised by Buddhism over the +political and social condition of the island; here we, for +the first time, found ourselves confronted with the +followers of Brahmah. At the moment of our arrival, the +principal festival of the year was being celebrated in +honour of Vishnù, one of the three godheads of the +Brahminical faith. It lasted fourteen days, and was +celebrated with much pomp. Temples were improvised, and some +dancing platforms erected for the female servants of the +temple and "<i>bayadères</i>." In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span> one of these dancing saloons, +adorned in the most marvellous manner, a sort of altar rose +in the background, richly hung with gold filagree work and +stained cut-glass, and fringed with singular representations +of the god. In the doorway stood, on the left hand side, a +copy of the statue of the Venus de' Medici; on the right, of +the Apollo Belvedere; on a small table were visible +butterflies, fire-flies, and conchs, in ornamental glass +cases. On the walls, of plain deal boards, were suspended on +one side, adjoining the portrait of Anthony da Padua, a +number of representations of voluptuous Oriental +"<i>odalisques</i>;" on the other, near an engraving in copper of +Carlo Barromeo, all sorts of obscene engravings, such as are +offered for sale only in the most abandoned quarters of +Paris and London, and then under the cover of night. For +that matter, we believe that the Hindoo priests, who +superintended the erection of this hall consecrated to the +worship of Vishnù, gave themselves less anxiety respecting +the subjects treated of in the pictures suspended round, +than that the walls should appear richly decorated with +engravings and pictures. Adjoining this half-open dancing +booth for the women in attendance on the temple, rises the +chief Hindoo temple in Madras, a stately edifice of blocks +of syenite, and surrounded by a lofty wall painted with the +usual white and red streaks; and on which a fleecy-coated +long-tailed baboon was performing his antics. Two gloomy +pyramidal towers shoot up from the wall of the temple, and a +beautiful colonnade leads to the entrance porch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">431</a></span> A huge +tank, almost resembling a pond, in which the Hindoos thrice +daily performed their ceremonies, and went through their +ablutions, lies in front of the temple, surrounded on its +remaining sides by buildings for various purposes, while a +stately elephant, specially consecrated to the service, is +kept on the side next the temple, which carries up a pitcher +of water every forenoon from the pool in front of the +pagoda, one of the servants attached to the temple sitting +on his back holding it, while a second, seated behind him, +keeps waving a fan in either hand. The elephant is first +conducted round the temple and then inside, in order to +present the water to the god. This elephant (which animal it +seems is itself an incarnation of Vishnù) had the +distinguishing mark of the sect, as also several other +indications of a similar nature richly tatooed upon his huge +broad forehead. Every evening during the continuance of the +fourteen days' festival, the various temples and dancing +booths were brilliantly illuminated with wax tapers and oil +lamps, but admission was refused to the profane, and in the +eyes of Brahmah, unbelieving Europeans, a rule which was +everywhere enforced with much politeness but unvarying +firmness. Moreover, everything that the hand of a European +has touched is unclean to the Hindoo. Only the <i>Pariah</i>, or +"outcaste," the very lowest class of the people, eats any +food that has been prepared in the kitchen of a Christian.</p> + +<p>The most substantial part of the festival, however, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">432</a></span> +fortunately not confined to the interior of the temple, but +took place in the streets, through which, during the period +the festival lasted, immense processions of Hindoos, +praying, singing, and dancing, used to pass every evening +about 11 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span> on their way from one temple to another, so +that we were in no want of picturesque objects. First, a +band of musicians would lead the way, with the peculiar +little drum or tom-tom, whining pipes, and blaring +clarinets. It was more like the noise of a lot of children's +instruments than music. Next came a Hindoo riding on a +gaily-bedizened ox, after whom appeared a number of girls +and "<i>Bayadères</i>," dressed in white clothes, their hair +richly dressed, and with rings through their nostrils, while +the flaps of their ears were adorned with richly-gemmed +ear-rings hanging down to the neck, and moving both hands +and feet as they danced before the sacred figure, which was +drawn along by 24 sturdy believers in Vishnù. The image was +placed on a daïs thickly overspread with flowers, filagree +work, and small mirrors, approached by steps, and with a +parasol outspread overhead; in a vehicle in front was a sort +of figure dressed up in flowers. On either side a multitude +of torch-bearers strode along, with sulphurous lights and +other means of illumination, or iron frames, on which were +disposed in pyramidal form or like a bow, from 7 to 13 +fireballs, which, let off at intervals alternately with +Bengal lights and rockets, formed a veritable ocean of +light. A tub filled with cocoa-nut oil was dragged behind, +from which the cotton wicks were kept constantly +replenished, so that the flames continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span> unintermittently. +Wherever the procession passed the by-standers stood with +hands reverentially folded. Many had the thresholds of their +houses gaily adorned with flags and illuminated with paper +lamps, others let off sky-rockets. From time to time, the +procession halted for a moment, the female dancers formed +two rows, and some of their number went through a sort of +dance, in which they performed a set of stereotyped motions +with their hands, and chanted the praises of the god in a +most monotonous chorus. Thousands upon thousands of Hindoos +joined the procession, so that we could hardly make way +through the crowds. The yelling, heat, odour of oil, and +stink of sulphur were absolutely intolerable. As often as +the procession paused, the noise was redoubled, the +confusion became tenfold. Itinerant confectioners, who +offered for sale all sorts of sweetmeats, prepared either +from the kernel or milk of the cocoa-nut, drew back +reluctantly when the eye of a stranger was directed towards +their piled-up delicacies, through dread lest a mere glance +from him should blight their stock in trade. On the other +hand, we remarked some of these vendors pressing forward +with eagerness to satisfy the curiosity of strangers by +offering small samples of their eatables, so as the more +easily to propitiate and get rid of these dangerous guests, +and leave the poor Hindoo in peace and unharmed! As +Christianity makes but slow progress among the Hindoos, and +as the tendencies of the English residents in India do not +point, as of yore among the Spaniards in America, towards +the violent conversion of the heathen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">434</a></span> natives with the +alternative of annihilation, but rather towards political +and commercial influences, we find the British Government +regarding with placid indifference the abominations of +Hindoo worship, which, even to this hour, take the form of +laceration of the flesh and self-immolation, rather than, by +ruling with the strong hand, fan the religious fanaticism of +the multitude, without the possibility of Christianity +becoming a gainer. Among the thousands upon thousands who +were celebrating the festival of Vishnù in such a heathenish +fashion, there undoubtedly were many who are in the employ +of Government, which has no scruples about appointing +Hindoos of all sorts to the various posts in the public +service. The English State Church which held that such +appointments tended, not very indirectly, to support +heathenism,<a name="Anchor-102" id="Anchor-102"></a><a href="#Footnote-102" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 102.">[102]</a> earnestly remonstrated against the practice, +but the Government becoming daily more convinced that the +doctrines and homilies of the Christian faith continued to +be entirely a dead letter among the Hindoos, seems to hold +fast to a policy of seeking gradually to introduce +Christianity and European civilization among the Indian +races, by means of equality of rights and assimilation of +laws, by a system of well-organized national, trade, and +industrial education, and, above all, by the influence of +personal example. This, to be sure, is a very slow and +arduous method of conversion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span> inasmuch as a life of +religious observances is more deeply intertwined with the +very foundations of the social system in India than in any +other country of the globe, and fairly blocks the way +against the expansiveness of European civilization. For as +simple as the Hindoo religion appears in its primitive +principles, the proper observance of its various rites is +proportionately difficult, and full of subtle distinctions +for the sincere Hindoo believer.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-102" id="Footnote-102"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-102">[102]</a> The East India Company even undertook the +maintenance of the Hindoo temples, and defrayed the receipts +of the annual festival in honour of Vishnù out of the +revenues. There exist in the Presidency of Madras alone 8292 +Hindoo temples, with an annual revenue of about £100,000, +all under the protection and control of the Company. (See +"India, Ancient and Modern," by David O. Allen, Boston, +1856.)</p></div> + +<p>The worship of Brahma, according to the doctrines enunciated +by Brahma's own lips in the Vedas, or holy books, took its +rise in the adoration paid to the powers of nature, regarded +as so many divinities, especially in the exalted +transcendentalism of their ideas respecting the sun, the +moon, the stars, and the firmament. Thence was readily +developed the belief in a sole, eternal, Almighty Creator +and Ruler of the world, Brahma, represented as having four +faces looking to the four quarters of the globe, and +reposing on a swan. This simple monotheistic belief was +gradually developed into the divine manifestation of Brahma +as a Triune divinity, namely, as the Creating power +(Brahma), the preserving power (Vishnù), and the destroying, +and at the same time renewing, energy of nature (Siva).</p> + +<p>Although the revelation of Brahma has long since been +completed, while Vishnù and Siva are still active agencies +in the world as Supporter and Augmenter respectively, Brahma +is assigned a very inferior rank in the worship of the +masses, although, according to the lawgiver Menù, the Moses +of India,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">436</a></span> he created the Brahmins out of the substance of +his head, to guide and instruct man; from his arms the +Chetriyas, to protect and defend him; from his trunk the +Veisigas, to nourish and support him; and, lastly, from his +feet the Sadras, to serve and be the property of all the +other castes.</p> + +<p>To Brahma, the fulness of whose existence no earthly notions +can embrace, there are no temples dedicated, these being +rather erected in honour of Vishnù, the Intercessor and +Supporter, who manifests himself in the atmosphere and in +water, and Siva the destroyer and regenerator of the various +races, as also to the other divinities whom the Hindoo +religion numbers by millions, although the majority of these +have several names, and the lower classes are simply +Avatars, that is incarnations or manifestations, of the +superior deities. This peculiarity of the Hindoo religion +makes it impossible correctly to classify or define Indian +mythology. The god Rama, for example, is frequently named +for Krishna, and the latter again for Vishnù. Vishnù, on his +part, sometimes figures as Rama, when he is to destroy +Ravana, the tyrant of Ceylon, or as Buddha, in order to +found Buddhism. Like the Proteus of Grecian fable, the +Hindoo mythology assumes a thousand different shapes,—it +is, in short, Pantheism in its most perfect development.</p> + +<p>A zealous Hindoo requires about four hours of each day to +get through his religious ceremonies, these being performed +at different periods, as he must bathe in the morning, at +noon, and again at night, in a tank or pool before the +temple, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span> recite certain prayers. For purposes of +recognition, the two chief castes wear special marks, the +worshippers of Vishnù having a trident painted on the +forehead in either white or yellow, while those of Siva, on +the other hand, sport three horizontal stripes, or one round +spot marked with the ash of burnt sandal-wood. Many Hindoos +write on their foreheads the distinguishing insignia of both +Vishnù and Siva, and look thus the more strange and +peculiar.</p> + +<p>After every ablution these marks are painted afresh, and +with much care upon the forehead, so that paint and +rouge-boxes play an important part in a native household. No +Hindoo can partake of his exclusively vegetable nutriment, +if cooked in a European kitchen, such being entirely +contrary to the principles of his faith. Every servant, +therefore, leaves his master regularly at noon, in order to +partake of his simple meal of rice and vegetables, either +with his family or in one of the numerous Hindoo cook-shops. +The frequent holidays of the Hindoos, of which there are +twenty-one within two months, seriously interfere with trade +among the natives, and still more with the instruction of +the young.</p> + +<p>Hindooism, however, appears to have lost much of its +originality by constant contact with Europeans, and by the +various political revolutions, and although many of these +ceremonies are still kept up, and the bodies of their dead +are still burned on pyres, yet the modern Hindoo has so far +relaxed from his ascetic austerity, as to admit of his being +employed in the various pursuits of active life. And it is +not a little surprising<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span> to see these handsome, tall, brown +figures, with their insignia of Vishnù or Siva marked on +their foreheads, and dressed in their sweeping plaited togas +of pure white, employed on the telegraph, the railway, the +arsenal, and even the observatory, all which employments +demand the utmost exactness and punctuality, and thus afford +the most gratifying evidence of the adaptability of the +Hindoo race to be impressed and to benefit by European +civilization. With the exception of Major Jacob, the +director of the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the +whole of the <i>employés</i> are natives, who are not indeed +employed in making the actual observations, but are found +perfectly competent to compute the various calculations, and +make the requisite reductions. The institution itself is at +present of but little importance as a place of scientific +observation, in consequence of the small support it +receives, but it is to be provided with a meridian circle, +similar to that in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good +Hope, when it must become an important station. Strange to +say, here, as at the Cape, there are no observations made on +the Sundays, which in the course of a year gives rise to +lamentable deficiencies, especially when some natural +phenomenon of rare occurrence happens to fall upon a Sunday.</p> + +<p>We were greatly surprised at the flourishing condition of +the Central Museum, with which is united a Zoological +Garden, both set on foot in 1851. In the spacious rooms of +this stately edifice are ranged costly Indian antiquities +and sculptures, inscriptions in Sanscrit, in stone, or +marble slabs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">439</a></span> antique fragments of Indian monuments,<a name="Anchor-103" id="Anchor-103"></a><a href="#Footnote-103" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 103.">[103]</a> as +also an instructive collection of technical and +ethnographical subjects, models of fortresses, ships, +agricultural implements, instruments, tools, machines, and +native forts. The geological department of the Museum is the +weakest and poorest department; and as spirits of wine and +glass jars are expensive articles in India, the greatest +number of the animals, even the fish and snakes, are simply +stuffed. In the garden which surrounds the museum buildings +are a considerable number of cages inclosing living animals, +such as monkeys, panthers, bears, giraffes, stags, gazelles, +cobras, Indian hens, pigeons, marsh-birds, and +singing-birds. In addition there were <i>Aquaria</i> with fishes +arranged in groups at various spots all round the garden. Of +objects of special interest there was a powerful baboon +(<i>Pithecus Satyrus</i>), above 5 feet high, fastened to a chain +in a large monkey-house, around whom were gambolling a +number of smaller species, as also a number of cobras in a +large box with glass sides, so that one could examine them +at leisure on every side. Here we witnessed the +uncomfortable spectacle of a native engaged in cleaning the +panes inside the cage and directly beneath these formidable +animals, which thronged around him in such numbers that he +was continually compelled with one hand to resist their +importunate caresses. Anyone not aware of the fact that +these animals have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span> rendered harmless by the extraction +of their poison-fangs, must experience a feeling of terror +and astonishment at the sight of this brood of malign, +stealthy-moving, hissing serpents, with a naked Hindoo in +their midst!</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-103" id="Footnote-103"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-103">[103]</a> These important inscriptions are explained and +described in the Selections from the Records of the Madras +Government, Report on the Elliot Marbles (p. 191) by R. W. +Taylor, Madras, 1857.</p></div> + +<p>Most astonishing and gratifying is the immense number of +casual visitors that frequent this institution for advancing +education. The book for inscribing names lying in the +Museum, showed for a single month no less than 36,522 +visitors, mostly natives, and this it seems has been about +the average number since the foundation of the Museum. There +is also a small, valuable library, which, by means of +purchases, gifts, and exchanges, is being visibly added to +with each year, and is accessible to visitors of all +classes, the custodian and inspectors being all natives.</p> + +<p>The Madras Literary Society, an offshoot of the Royal +Asiatic Society in London, and now reckoning but a small +number of associates, publishes from time to time the most +valuable information as to the latest achievements of +science in India, and serves in a measure as a medium by +which to compare the intellectual progress of Asia and +Europe. To the members of this society the naturalists of +the <i>Novara</i> Expedition are specially beholden for their +great attention during their stay in Madras, as also for +their hearty participation in the objects of the Imperial +Expedition as evidenced by their sending copies of their own +various and useful publications.</p> + +<p>There are in Madras numerous institutes devoted to the +diffusion of useful knowledge among the masses, part +founded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">441</a></span> and maintained by Government, part by private +enterprise, and this liberality is the more praiseworthy +that the European community of Madras does not comprise much +more than 1600 persons, of whom only a very few settle any +length of time. The Europeans resident here are chiefly +military men and merchants, who leave the country after +remaining five or ten years, as almost every one regards his +stay in this hot, sandy capital of the desert Coromandel +coast, as purely provisional, and views it as a +stepping-stone towards attaining some better post, or +becoming suddenly wealthy by some favourable conjuncture of +circumstances. That the majority of these institutions have +more practical objects in view admits of ready proof, and is +but one instance the more of the moulding power of +surrounding circumstances. In the school of arts for +instance, under Dr. Hunter's superintendence, there are 20 +pupils, mostly Hindoos, who are receiving instruction in +drawing, sculpture, lithography, woodcutting, etching, and +photography. But in order to reduce, as far as possible, the +expenses of this institution, there is also included a +manufacture of earthenware, the proceeds arising from the +sale of which are applied to the support of the school.</p> + +<p>Another eminently useful institution, the Medical College, +which, as well as most of the other professional +foundations, we visited in the company with our hospitable +and influential friend, Dr. Kelly, possesses one division, +in which such of the natives as purpose to set up as +apothecaries, are at the same time so far educated as to be +able, in case of necessity, to perform a few of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">442</a></span> the minor +surgical operations. Of the hundred of an auditory who at +the period of our visit were attending a lecture on +chemistry, the majority were half-blooded Indians, dressed +in the European fashion, with a sprinkling of barely 9 or 10 +Hindoos in their white robes, and with the Vishnù or Siva +marks on their forehead. We frequently heard the professors, +among whom are several gentlemen of high scientific +attainments, such, for instance, as Messrs. Evans, Lorimer, +Mudge, Montgomery, Mayr, &c., express their regret at the +severe check which the development of science sustained by +the outbreak of the late revolt. Plans for a new university, +a hospital, and a medical school to correspond are all +ready, and but for that ruinous catastrophe would have been +by this time in working order.</p> + +<p>In other respects the present Infirmary is an ugly and +unsuitable building, making up about 100 beds for patients. +Several of these were occupied by soldiers, who had been +severely wounded under Havelock at the storming of Delhi. +The introduction of punkahs, or wind-fans, into the wards +has proved so salutary, that there is an intention to have +them worked without intermission day and night, by means of +water power, instead of by manual labour as hitherto. In +order to be able to estimate the boon conferred by such an +improvement upon the condition of the poor invalids, we must +call to mind that the average annual temperature of Madras +is about 94° Fahr., which is slightly in excess of the +average temperature at the equator, although Madras is 10 +degrees north of the line.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span> Under such climatic conditions, +it is no wonder that the invigorating wholesome breeze is +known at Madras as "The Doctor."</p> + +<p>Among the benevolent institutions visited by us, we found +the twin asylums for male and female orphans of soldiers +well worthy of notice in many particulars. These are for the +most part the offspring of European soldiers married to +native women, and are known as "half-castes," or +"Mestizoes." In the Military Female Asylum, there were at +this time 216 girls, who were brought up to all manner of +female work, as well as taught reading, writing, and +arithmetic, and remained in the institution until suitably +provided for in marriage. The marriage outfit, as also a +small wedding present of Rs. 50 (£5), for each girl is +provided by Government, and the entire working expenses, +which amount to about Rs. 30,000 (£3000) annually, are +defrayed by a Government grant of Rs. 1000 (£100) a month, +together with the interest of the funded capital, upon which +Government pays 8 per cent. interest.</p> + +<p>The Military Male Orphan Asylum was founded in 1788 by means +of voluntary contributions, supplemented by a Government +Subvention, and possesses a special historical interest from +the circumstance that it was here that Dr. Bell, who held +the post of Head-Master in the establishment, first +projected and put into execution the method of imparting +elementary instruction, afterwards so widely renowned as the +Lancastrian method of teaching, which since that period has +traversed the globe, and has been introduced into every +capital in Europe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">444</a></span> The course of instruction of the +institution includes writing, reading, arithmetic, grammar, +geography, history, English, Tamil, and music. The capital +of the institution is vested by Government in the 4 per +cent. stocks, paying 8 per cent. interest, which, with the +large amount realized within the establishment itself, is +sufficient to defray all expenses without any further +assistance. The number of boys is about 242. The head +teacher, who obligingly conducted us over the whole +establishment, which is very handsome, called a dozen boys +forward just as we were leaving, who played a few simple +pieces on wind instruments, on which they performed a +variety of national airs with great precision. The music +master was a German.</p> + +<p>Among its casual attractions, Madras has occasionally flower +shows, and exhibitions of industry, and it is exceedingly +gratifying to observe how European science is even here +called in to elicit the treasures of nature, and administer +to the necessities of mankind. The catalogue of the +industrial exhibition of 1857 shows, <i>inter alia</i>, 17 sorts +of spices, 20 varieties of resin, 64 plants suitable for the +distillation of oil, and 41 different drugs, and Dr. +Kirkpatrick, a physician in Mysore, has taken the trouble to +enumerate, by their botanical and Indian names, 240 native +drugs, which had been sent to the Madras exhibition, as also +their market value, and at the same time has subjoined the +modes in which the natives use them.</p> + +<p>Among the most remarkable private museums which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">445</a></span> have been +formed at Madras for the illustration of the history and +monuments of the southern provinces of the Deccan, must +undoubtedly be included the collection of native +inscriptions and manuscripts of the well-known Colonel +Mackenzie, which first attracted the attention of all +friends of Oriental science, as also the British Government, +through a memoir<a name="Anchor-104" id="Anchor-104"></a><a href="#Footnote-104" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 104.">[104]</a> of Alexander Johnston, Esq. It is a +magnificent testimony to the conservative spirit of the +British resident among heathen nations, as compared with the +barbarous spirit of destruction that characterized the +Spanish colonists. From an erroneous idea that they were in +so doing promoting the interests of Christianity, these +Romanist conquerors destroyed all sculptures and monuments +of the pagan Indian races, and, by this fanatical Vandalism, +at the same time prevented the hand of science from +unfolding, as it might have done from these important +vestiges, the history of these very remarkable races from +the most remote ages.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-104" id="Footnote-104"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-104">[104]</a> On Colonel Mackenzie's Collection, in the +Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain. +London, 1835, p. 4, vol. ii.</p></div> + +<p>In the immense old palace, surrounded by adjacent edifices +and gardens, once occupied by the King of the Coromandel +coast, the renowned nabob of the Carnatic, the offices of +the English Government <i>employés</i> are at present located. +The last of these sovereigns died a few years since, and his +former minister receives from the British Government a +pension of Rs. 1300 (£130) a month. Great men who have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span> +fallen do not ordinarily like to be sought out or gazed at. +There is, however, on the contrary, no difficulty in +obtaining access to the last minister of the last monarch of +the Coromandel coast, who seems to feel flattered by a visit +from strangers. On our entering, the venerable old gentleman +rose from a rich thick carpet, on which he was sitting +cross-legged, held out his hand in the most affable manner, +and did us the honour of accompanying us through the palace. +He had a long white beard, and wore a white turban on his +head, while his person was enveloped in white linen. A +splendid staircase conducted to a council-room, adorned with +a portrait of the late nabob, life-size, executed in London. +A second room has a likeness of George Augustus Frederick, +Prince of Wales, dedicated to his friend, Omadal-Omrah, +nabob of the Carnatic, 1st January, 1797, and of Lord +Cornwallis, arm in arm with a nabob, the former represented +as walking among pines, the latter among palms. In the +harness-room and coach-house adjoining, our obliging +attendant revealed to us an endless array of golden howdah +trappings, gilt with cunning hand, which seemed to have +formerly borne the mighty nabob, when riding on his +elephant. As we emerged from this lumber room, filled with +dust and mud, we perceived in the square before us an +immense dust-cloud, which approached nearer and nearer in +its gyrations, and gradually assumed the shape of an +elephant. It was a gigantic and magnificent specimen, and +proved to be the favourite elephant of the last nabob, +which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span> like the minister himself, was reduced to eat the +bread of charity. His enormous tusks were sawn half off, for +which his attendant assigned the singular reason that the +tusks of an elephant must be cut, just as we pair our nails! +This pensioner-elephant, however, seemed to find himself in +very good quarters, and was a carefully-tended gentle +creature, who carried about his chain with his proboscis, +and knelt down at the word of command.</p> + +<p>Among the other spacious apartments of this deserted palace +was the banquetting hall, as it is called, which was +represented by various writers as one of the largest rooms +in the world, which, however, is a transparent fallacy. It +is hard to believe that above a thousand persons could find +room in it. At the period of our visit this apartment was +used as a barrack for the English troops, in consequence of +which the splendid full-length pictures already mentioned +were carefully covered. One of the soldiers, anxious to show +them to us, tore away the covering of one before we could +interfere, when we found it to be a splendid likeness, +painted in London, of Sir Thomas Monroe, a former governor +of Madras.</p> + +<p>In the first few days of our stay in Madras, we made an +excursion to the fort of Vellore, distant about 80 miles +(English) from Madras, formerly a renowned native fort, +which is now reached in a few hours by rail. This line +passes through a flat uninteresting country, which is barely +relieved here and there by a couple of solitary palms or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">448</a></span> a +Hindoo temple, and altogether presents a strongly African +character in its scenery. Only at those points, at which +there are tanks, or artificial basins, either excavated or +formed by damming the water, does there occur a luxuriant +green vegetation covering the parched, brown, dusty soil. +These tanks are filled in the rainy season, and during the +dry season, which continues for months, supply the +rice-fields with water for irrigation, the culture of that +plant requiring an unusually large supply of water.</p> + +<p>If English railroads are proverbially comfortable in the +mother-country, they certainly fall off lamentably in that +particular in the cars used in India. This deficiency is the +more provoking and remarkable, considering the various other +appliances for comfort which are to be found in this +country. The conductor, as well as the other servants of the +Company, was a Hindoo. On the entire line we saw but five or +six white men employed. The fares are pretty moderate, that +for the entire distance, 80 miles, being Rupees 7½ +(15<i>s.</i>), for first-class, and Rupees 3 (6<i>s.</i>), second +(about 2¼<i>d.</i> and 1<i>d.</i> per mile, respectively). The line +is to be extended from Bejapoor, so as to unite the eastern +and western coasts of the peninsula. There are also lines +projected from Madras to Bombay by Poonah and Bellary, and +from Madras to Calcutta. The Governor, who (the evening +previous to our departure, as we were being entertained at +his summer residence, Guindy Park,) had been apprized of our +intention to visit Vellore, was so attentive as to order the +commandant to be informed by telegraph of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">449</a></span> projected +excursion at a late hour of the evening, and when we reached +Vellore at 11 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, Captain Stevens was awaiting us at the +station, to greet the voyagers by the <i>Novara</i> in the name +of the commandant of the fort, and convey them to the fort, +three miles off, in a waggon drawn by oxen, as is the custom +of the country. The waggon was about as large as an ordinary +sized sitting-room, and contained several arm-chairs and +cane stools, the position of which could be altered at +pleasure.</p> + +<p>Vellore was once one of the strongest fortresses in India, +the wells of which were formerly rendered inaccessible by +numerous colonies of alligators. These Hindoo fortifications +have, however, lost their military importance for Europeans, +as they are on all sides "overcrowed," as Rittmeister Dugald +Dalgetty would say, by eminences, from which they could +easily be cannonaded. Within the fort itself are several +extraordinary buildings, once pagodas and houses of +entertainment for priests and pilgrims (<i>choultries</i>). The +former sanctuary, now used as an arsenal, is a +<i>chef-d'œuvre</i> of architectural skill, with splendid +<i>relievos</i> and figures sculptured in granite blocks. Most of +the divinities have four arms, symbolical of the +universality of their power. The various edifices seem to +have been once an abode of Brahmins, a sort of Hindoo +monastery in which, in addition to the pagoda, there were +ranged all round, a temple, colonnades, and halls for the +residence of the priests. In some of the smaller apartments +there still are openings for windows, with a finely carved +grating hewn out of the solid granite, the workmanship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">450</a></span> of +which even the stone-cutters of our own days might feel +proud of. Captain Mitchell, an English officer stationed at +Madras, had hit upon the idea of photographing the most +interesting of these monuments.</p> + +<p>The fortress of Vellore has been fortified for about 1000 +years! Captured by the English at the close of the last +century, the then Nabob, a Mussulman, was taken prisoner, +and his descendants have ever since inhabited the fort as +State prisoners, without ever being permitted to leave it. +We inquired of the officer who accompanied us, whether the +Nabob was permitted at least to make use of the space within +the fortress for exercise in the open air. "The Mussulmen," +replied the cautious Englishman, "do not care to show +themselves in public; they prefer taking their exercise in +the court in front of their residence, or in the garden." +Accordingly, the aged prince is rarely known even to take an +airing in a palanquin. The town of Vellore itself is, in a +great measure, another place altogether, whose inhabitants +are Mahometans, about 80,000 in number, chiefly engaged in +rice culture.</p> + +<p>We originally intended to return the same day to Madras, the +length of the journey, as well as the distance of the fort +from the railway station, having been represented to us as +much shorter than was actually the case. Accordingly, we +telegraphed to the Austrian Consul, M. Campbell, Esq., an +exceedingly courteous gentleman, that we should not return +till the following morning. How great was our astonishment +to find that the telegraph <i>employés</i> at Vellore, both in +the transcribing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">451</a></span> department, and in the management of the +apparatus, which was on Morse's system, were Hindoos, with +their curious marks upon their foreheads, and their +old-fashioned costume! They went, however, through the +duties connected with this modern invention with great +adroitness. The telegraph is already in operation to Bombay, +and in this direction has two separate lines. There are, +moreover, other lines in course of construction,—along the +coast to Calcutta,—along the coast to Pondicherry by Adam's +Bridge,<a name="Anchor-105" id="Anchor-105"></a><a href="#Footnote-105" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 105.">[105]</a> from Madras to Point de Galle, and from Madras to +Hyderabad, Bangalore, and Bellary.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-105" id="Footnote-105"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-105">[105]</a> Adam's Bridge—called by the Hindoos Rama's +Bridge,—is a bank extending between Ceylon and the mainland +of Hindostan, by the islands of Manaar and Ramisseram. It is +about 30 miles in length, running in a N.W. by W. direction, +about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and principally +composed of shelving sand, through which are three main +openings or channels, that admit the passage of boats of +very light draught.</p></div> + +<p>In proceeding from the fort to the town of Vellore, which is +charmingly situated and regularly laid out, and is inhabited +by numerous pensioners of the East India Company, we must +cross the river Palaar (or Peliar), which, during the rainy +season, is a headlong dangerous torrent, while in the dry +season its bed, 1000 feet wide, is but a bare expanse of +sand. It is only by dint of strenuous exertions that the +traveller is able to pass this sand waste in a waggon, as it +sinks at some points above the hubs of the wheels. We had +four buffalo oxen yoked, and even then had to be propelled +at certain points by the assistance of some 30 coolies or +Indian porters besides. This serious inconvenience was +shortly after our visit to be remedied by the erection of a +splendid bridge of solid masonry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">452</a></span> which was to span the +river by 42 arches, and will reduce the time of transit from +the station from 1¼ hour to 20 minutes. Hereabouts oxen +are usually employed for draught, which are of the same +humped species as those we had previously seen in Ceylon. +These animals trot with uncommon swiftness, so that the +rapidity of transport may stand comparison with that where +horses are employed.</p> + +<p>A few miles distant from Vellore, and visible from the hills +around, lies Arcot (Arucati), the residence of the nominal +nabob of the Carnatic, who has long been a pensioner of the +British. The population of Arcot are mostly Mahometans, who +speak a dialect of Hindustani, and drive a very active +trade.</p> + +<p>At Vellore we resided in the house of the hospitable +Lieut.-Colonel McCally, who, in the absence of the +Commandant, did the honours of the Fort to the members of +the <i>Novara</i> Expedition. Here we experienced a most cordial +reception, and passed a few most delightful hours in the +domestic circle of his amiable family. In the evening we +made out an excursion to an adjoining eminence, 1400 feet +above sea-level, 300 above Vellore, from which there is a +commanding view over the town and neighbourhood. Seen from +this point, the Fort looked charming, presenting itself to +us, surrounded as it is by moats and watercourses, like an +island in the foreground. On the top of this hill is the +bungalow or country-seat of the collector of revenue, W. A. +Sulivan, Esq., where we revelled in the enjoyment of the +exquisite natural scenery, and partook of refreshment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">453</a></span></p> + +<p>In the evening a number of officers, with their wives, met +us at dinner at Lieut.-Colonel McCally's house. The gaieties +were prolonged till far in the evening, music and songs +alternating with round games and dancing, so that we had +hardly composed ourselves to sleep ere we were awakened by +the servants, in order to avoid missing the train, which +leaves Vellore for Madras at 6.30 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> By 11 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, we were +once more in the chief city of the Carnatic.</p> + +<p>The same afternoon the officers of the <i>Novara</i>, and the +naturalists of the Expedition, were invited to an Indian +fête, which Lord Harris gave every year at this season in +his palace at Guindy Park, and to which it was customary to +invite the majority of the European residents at Madras, +together with their families,—military, civil service, and +mercantile community, all being honoured with cards. This +festival originated in a children's entertainment, which the +governor had been in the habit of giving on the birthday of +his son; the latter had long since gone to an English +University, but the custom had survived, and the day was +equally carefully observed this year also, having been +looked forward to for months before by the "white" young +folks of Madras. The entertainment still retains the +character of a children's party, inasmuch as on the present +occasion there were assembled above 250 children of both +sexes, varying from 5 to 12 years of age. The total number +of guests who, in addition to these, shared in the +festivities was probably more than a thousand. The fête +began with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">454</a></span> the performances of some 30 Indian jugglers and +acrobats, on a large lawn in the park. These, as may be +conceived, had been selected from among the most athletic +and skilful. They presented a singularly-picturesque +appearance, from the diversities of age, agile boys, +athletic young men, slender voluptuous-looking <i>Bayadères</i>, +old grey-headed men, and marvellous-looking old hags, with +streaming white hair, and dark, piercing, gleaming eyes, +recalling in their manners and appearance our own gipsies. +All played at once, and performed with the most astonishing +precision a succession of breakneck feats, that set the +spectator's hair on end. It was a spectacle entirely <i>sui +generis</i>, thoroughly Indian in short, to behold these +wild-looking brown figures, unawed by the presence they were +in, going through their various performances and feats of +agility. In front of us knelt an old man who played with a +dozen knives, which he kept circling around him with wild +yells, apparently without looking at them, till he finally +turned them in such a manner that it seemed as though the +sharp points of the knives had transfixed his hand. Next +youthful acrobats sprang through paper balloons set on +fire,—girls in boys' dresses climbed up bamboo poles 100 +feet high, in the midst of continual yells,—boys executed +on the damp meadow ground the most extraordinary feats of +agility and contortions of the limbs, while one old fellow, +to the intense astonishment of the assembled children, +swallowed swords, as also tow and other combustible matter, +whereupon flames<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span> presently seemed to issue from his month. +These, indeed, are feats of conjuring which have been +performed in Europe, <i>usque ad nauseam</i>, but here all was +done with such precision and dexterity (each man especially +playing entirely <i>con amore</i>, evidently not to impress the +spectators, but because he felt a pleasure in it himself), +that the whole exhibition left quite a different impression +from anything of the sort elsewhere.</p> + +<p>After this introductory amusement, the children invited were +regaled with a refection under an enormous tent. This was +for the grown-up guests another source of great amusement. +More than 300 children took their seats at a long +well-covered table, while their fathers, mothers, +governesses, &c., stood behind the benches, and took special +care to supply the little watering mouths with a sufficient +supply of the many delicacies before them.</p> + +<p>A distribution of souvenirs to the various children present +succeeded the repast, the various articles being fastened to +a gigantic tree under a tent. The tree was profusely hung +with elegant paper lamps, and although there were no +pine-branches, only palm leaves, the "<i>tout ensemble</i>," bore +a strong resemblance to a genuine Christmas tree. Fathers +and mothers expressed to us their own feelings of pleasure +at beholding the glee of their children, and, indeed, seemed +to think this the most entertaining part of the fête. The +distribution lasted a considerable time, and many of the +children affected to coquette disparagingly with the +presents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">456</a></span> of their neighbours, which these latter held fast +with both hands, till at length the whole joyous train were +dismissed homewards, thoroughly pleased with the day's +proceedings.</p> + +<p>After this interlude there were fireworks on the lawn for +the grown-up children, which seemed intended to serve merely +as a stop-gap to while away the time between the +distribution of the presents to the children and the supper, +which was laid out in the brilliantly-illuminated +dining-room of the palace. The fine band, which a few days +previously had so pleased us by its performances during +dinner at Guindy Park, drew up on the large lawn fronting +the ball-room, and during this interval played a few select +pieces with admirable precision. At last, supper was +announced by a flourish of trumpets. Despite the spacious +proportions of the apartment, the company was too numerous +to admit of all sitting down at once. We calculated the +number of guests still remaining at at least 500. The ladies +supped first, and afterwards the gentlemen—the Governor, +Lord Harris, doing the honours in person, in the most +courteous and kindly manner. After supper the party +proceeded in couples to a splendid ball-room, where dancing +speedily began, while over their heads an omnipresent +punkah, of rich tapestry-paper, and elegantly adorned with +beautiful arabesques, swung to and fro, and kept the +half-breathless dancers continually fanned by its currents +of air.<a name="Anchor-106" id="Anchor-106"></a><a href="#Footnote-106" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 106.">[106]</a> In spite, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">457</a></span> of this artificial +ventilating machine overhead, one must have had an +extraordinary love for the dance to find pleasure in a polka +or galop at a temperature of 86° of Fahrenheit.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-106" id="Footnote-106"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-106">[106]</a> In many English families in India there +prevails a sort of punkah mania, so that there is a regular +hurricane incessantly blowing over their heads. Undoubtedly +these artificial gales are particularly agreeable in +apartments where, a large number of persons being assembled, +the atmosphere becomes intolerable—as, for instance, courts +of justice, churches, hotels, and hospitals. Under such +circumstances, they are, indeed, a most valuable +contrivance. But their application is entirely overdone; and +there are persons who, even while they are sleeping, have a +Hindoo servant continually working the punkah, which, under +such circumstances, is usually worked from an adjoining room +by means of silken cords, so that the motive power is not +visible from the apartment, but only the effect felt. +Strangers at first find these artificial currents very apt +to superinduce headache, until continued residence makes him +regard the punkah as a most necessary article of furniture.</p></div> + +<p>Lord Harris had taken measures for ensuring our proceeding +direct from his residence in Guindy Park upon the favourite +excursion from Madras—that, namely, to the Seven Pagodas. +We had accordingly provided ourselves with only what was +indispensable in the way of luggage; and towards 1 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, we +left the ball-room, and proceeded on our way to the renowned +Hindoo Temples to the south of Madras. A waggon conveyed us +to the Adyar bridge, where a Government boat was in waiting +for us, together with some Hindoo servants of the Governor, +who were to be our guides to the Seven Pagodas. One of these +<i>peons</i>, as they are called in India, named Iritschapa, +presented us with a document, in which he was commissioned +to place himself at our disposal during the whole period we +were absent, and anticipate all our requirements without +further authorization, to the best of his ability, so as to +ensure our comfort and assist the objects we had in view.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span> +The Government boat was supplied with everything that could +minister to our comfort, a second boat following us +exclusively for the conveyance of our heavy baggage, +personal effects, tents, and provisions. Towards 2 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span>, we +embarked on the Eastern Coast Canal, which goes as far as +Sadras, and by which we reached the Seven Pagodas, called +also Mahamalaipuram, the city of the Great or Holy Mountain, +at 9 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 685px;"><a name="illu519" id="illu519"></a> +<img src="images/illu519.jpg" width="685" height="360" alt="The Holy Mountain." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE HOLY MOUNTAIN.</span> +</div> + +<p>These singular and majestic specimens of architecture are +about 3 miles from Sadras, being situated on the coast +northwards, and about 500 paces from the canal. They consist +of temples, grottoes, bas-reliefs, cisterns, stone-benches, +and thousands of sculptures in long ranges of bas-reliefs, +which afford an abundant store of antiquarian research. They +go by the name of the Seven Pagodas (from <i>Baghavati</i>—Holy +House, whence the European corruption, Pagoda), from the +circumstance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span> that there are, upon the very brink of the +ocean, seven temples hewn out of one piece of rock. The +Brahminical legends speak of an entire city having existed +here, of which only the fragments are now washed by the sea. +But, according to Babington's and Heber's minute researches +in this neighbourhood,<a name="Anchor-107" id="Anchor-107"></a><a href="#Footnote-107" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 107.">[107]</a> there seems no doubt that there +never existed any large city here, but that the whole was a +mere myth of the Brahmins, who procured a royal gift, an +Agrabaram in this neighbourhood, and with subtle forethought +left here a caste of stone-cutters, who from time to time, +under the guidance of their priests, executed these +sculptures for the adornment of their sanctuary, which are +justly the objects of wonder to their descendants. To this +day, even, there dwell here certain families of +stone-cutters, who work these singular rocks as granite +quarries, and make money by the trade. The Seven Pagodas, +specially so-called, are monolith temples, hewn on the spot +out of massive blocks of rock. The mountain itself, a huge +block of granite, to which the entire locality owes its +reputation as a site of works of art, is covered, behind as +well as in the front slope, with innumerable figures.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-107" id="Footnote-107"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-107">[107]</a> Benjamin Guy Babington. An Account of the +Sculptures and Inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, illustrated +by Plates I.-XVIII., in the Transactions of the Royal +Asiatic Society of Great Britain, London, 1819, p. 258. +Bishop Heber's Narrative, London, 1828, Vol. III., p. 216.</p></div> + +<p>After our arrival, we made a hasty circuit through the +place, so as first of all to be able to identify them, and +be in a position to recognize the various sculptures and +bas-reliefs cut out in the solid granite rock. The greater +number of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">460</a></span> sculptures represent either the one or the +other descriptions of the Avatars (the incarnations or +transfigurations) of Vishnù, to whom the larger proportion +of the temples is dedicated. In one of these temples, we +perceived the god Vishnù in the fifth, or Dwarf Incarnation, +in the course of which he had, under the guise of a +Brahminical dwarf, begged of King Balitscha-Kravathi—who, +by his piety, had acquired so much power over the gods, that +they had to transfer to him the dominion of sea and land, +and had in consequence waxed arrogant—as much soil as he +could traverse in three steps! The wealthy Rajah made no +objection to complying with the apparently moderate request +of the pigmy being before him. On the opposite wall of the +temple we now see, in a large admirably executed bas-relief, +how Vishnù, represented on this occasion with eight arms, at +once embraced heaven and earth with his left foot, and as +there was thus no more room left for the next step, Vishnù +released the haughty Rajah from his promise, on condition +that he should descend to the infernal regions. From this +feat, Vishnù bears the name of Triwikrama and Tripadas +(thrice-stepper).</p> + +<p>In the next rock grotto we came to, we beheld the Life of +Krishna, the shepherd-god, represented, first as tending his +sheep, surrounded by cows, goats frisking about, &c. Walter +Elliot names this representation "Krischna's Choultry," or +the abode of the priests. The temple has a frontage of 50 +feet, is from 30 to 40 feet in depth, and has about twenty +figures.</p> + +<p>From this spot, our guide, a Brahmin, brought us to what is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">461</a></span> +called the Ganeza Temple, a monolith Pagoda. When we +expressed a wish to touch the face of Ganeza (a son of +Siva), cut in stone and plentifully besmeared with oil and +lard, one of the Hindoo attendants hurried forwards to +prevent us from being guilty of insult to this much-beloved +divinity. The inscription to the right, in front of the +niche in which Ganeza, hewn out of a single block of +granite, is represented in a sitting posture, consists of +verses and prayers to Siva, written in Sanscrit.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 190px;"><a name="illu522" id="illu522"></a> +<img src="images/illu522.jpg" width="190" height="323" alt="The God Ganeza." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE GOD GANEZA.</span> +</div> + +<p>We also remarked, on our way to the village, an ellipsoidal +block of rock, 68 feet in circumference, by 25 in height, +which, from its very peculiar position, seems to shift every +moment, and presents a very extraordinary appearance.</p> + +<p>As we were proceeding to the beach, we came upon the Pagoda +of Kovulgobrom, which is at present in use (first +constructed in the days of Rajah Apatsch, 400 or 500 years +since), situated on a large oblong plot of ground, which is +surrounded by a wall from 6 to 8 feet high. We were not +permitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span> to cross the threshold of the pagoda, the door of +which always stands wide open, and the minor apartments of +which, so far as we could discern at a little distance away, +were quite empty. We could just descry a few sculptures on +the walls.</p> + +<p>The whole village contains at present about 400 +inhabitants,<a name="Anchor-108" id="Anchor-108"></a><a href="#Footnote-108" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 108.">[108]</a> who reside in eighty small dwellings. Of +these, three, built of bricks and with tiled roofs, belong +to the caste of Brahmins, thirty to the Pariahs, five to +families occupied in fishing, and two mere hovels of +palm-wood to the Willis, the lowest and most wretched caste +of all. The families of stone-cutters reside outside the +village. One remarks here that the walls of the houses are +hidden by heaps of cow and horse-dung, which the +inhabitants, as in Egypt, use for fuel, and which they pile +up to dry against those of the walls which are most exposed +to the sun. The <i>peon</i> of the settlement, by name +Randghajaneik, a sort of overseer, gave us a drawing of the +various groups of houses, their inhabitants, and also the +names of the various castes in Tamil, engraved as usual with +an iron tool upon palm-leaves, and very elegantly rolled up +in a small envelope. Among the customs and fashions of the +inhabitants which attracted our notice, we were informed +that they always burn their dead from four to five hours +after life has departed—usually four hours and forty +minutes—alleging that the released soul takes that length +of time to reach heaven! The bones are collected and thrown +into the sea. Widows are no longer required, on the death +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span> their husbands, to ascend the pyre with them. +Accordingly, the mortality upon this score is small enough +in Mahamalaipuram. All seem hale and hearty, although for +the most part they live upon rice and fruits, tasting flesh +but seldom, as it is never used by the Brahmin caste. The +Brahmins will not even eat eggs, because they are the +produce of hens; nor drink milk because it is procured from +cows! The girls generally marry at thirteen. They are, +however, usually betrothed from the time they are two or +three years of age, the bridegroom-elect taking the +bride-elect to reside with himself.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-108" id="Footnote-108"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-108">[108]</a> Of these inhabitants 50 belong to the Brahmin +caste, 250 to the Malabar, Sentù, and Siva castes, and 100 +are Pariahs.</p></div> + +<p>All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write, +but the Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite +unintelligible to them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telùgu, +and Malabar. The greater number had their foreheads painted +according to the caste they belonged to. Those worshipping +Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver +amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed. +The adherents of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no +distinguishing mark upon the forehead, except that those +that are married wear a five-ply cord (<i>panul</i>), tied +obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not, +however, attach too much faith to these varieties of +external markings, since many tattoo their foreheads with +red, or yellow, or ashen-gray punctures, which usually have +no special signification, but simply imply that on account +of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence, they +have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing +insignia of their caste properly designed. According<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">464</a></span> to the +natives, the yellow colour is procured from the crushed, +yellow-tinted root of the <i>Curcuma longa</i>, (a species of +spice), the red from the Cardomum (<i>Amomum repens</i>), +citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from +common chalk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 684px;"><a name="illu525" id="illu525"></a> +<img src="images/illu525.jpg" width="684" height="207" alt="Large and, separately, small tents arrayed near the beach." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BIVOUAC AT MAHAMALAIPURAN.</span> +</div> + +<p>Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most +admirable arrangements for our accommodation while at the +Seven Pagodas. When, after our first survey of the locality, +we came down to the beach, we found two large and two small +tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected round a +fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our +astonishment, on entering the first tent, to find it spread +with carpets, with an elegant sleeping-apartment with two +large commodious bedsteads, and fitted up with all the usual +necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage which +ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two +immense baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate +our exhausted frames! Ere we had recovered from our +surprise, we were advised of the voice of the Government +Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second +tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">465</a></span> reception +room, and was also furnished with every conceivable +appliance to promote our comfort. His lordship was even so +attentive as to send his own travelling canteen for our use +on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls, +with a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with +blue, by means of which the glare of the sun and of the +blinding white sand was rendered less painful and more +tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were employed in +sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained +sand, which produced a most refreshing coolness all around. +The Government Peon, as also the chief of police of the +district, wore their best uniforms of white, with bran new +bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red scarves, +with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate, +with the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number +of men and children ran hither and thither,—in a word, the +whole village seemed in an uproar to see the strange +gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of +receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, the +thermometer suspended within the tent marked 84° Fahr., +although a gentle breeze was blowing from seaward through +the fragrant luxuriant grass (<i>Kus-kus</i>, or <i>Vetiveyr</i>), +which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an +exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant <i>Kus-kus</i>, +(<i>Andropogon muricatum</i>) in the manufacture of mats, which +are intended to be suspended in the entrance-halls of +houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon the +penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine +damp texture,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">466</a></span> which thus at once tempers the heat, and +fills the air with perfume.</p> + +<p>Towards 5 <span class="smcap">p. m.</span>, the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled +to the Five Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our +encampment. The prevalent tree in this locality is the +<i>Palmyra</i> palm, which, though it does not boast the majestic +proportions of the <i>Oreodoxia Regia</i>, or the cocoa-nut palm, +presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance. +Generally speaking, however, the district is quite bare and +destitute of trees; and, in short, like all the rest of this +coast, has very much the appearance of the flat coasts of +Africa.</p> + +<p>Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the +brothers of Vishnù, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and +Sawadewen, the fifth being excavated in honour of Dubrotis, +the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend relates that the +four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality of +husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species +of Amazon. All these temples are tolerably sculptured, +which, indeed, constitutes their chief claim to attention; +but they are far from showing the artistic finish of the +bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy +Mount.</p> + +<p>Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not +the most important of these artificial grottoes. The +sculptures here are incontestably the most highly-finished. +The upper portion, to which access is obtained by some steps +cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite block, known +as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span> one +piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed +allegories.</p> + +<p>Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga, +Siva's wife, riding on a lion (according to the natives, on +a tiger), and bending her bow in conflict with Mahishasura, +a giant with the head of a buffalo, who brandishes a club. +According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this +represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and +heroine, Donga, the representative of active virtue, and the +bull-headed Mahishasura, the personification of brute +strength and animal passion. Over the head of either figure, +a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread, +giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"><a name="illu528" id="illu528"></a> +<img src="images/illu528.jpg" width="471" height="310" alt="Donga riding the lion in battle." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BAS-RELIEF ON ONE OF THE MONOLITH TEMPLES.</span> +</div> + +<p>The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnù +(Rhanganatha), 9½ feet high, apparently representing the +idea of the Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five +heads, encircles his head. At his feet one perceives two +rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in a praying +attitude, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">468</a></span> uplifted hands, only the bust being +represented. In one of the niches at Swami are two busts, +life-size, of Siva, and his wife Paravathi, the latter +holding an infant at the breast, his offspring Supramanión. +Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from +the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma, +on the left Vishnù, each with four arms, symbolical of their +power and dominion.</p> + +<p>The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of +platform of loose stones accurately fitted to each other +without mortar, so as to make an ornamental whole. The +interior is adorned with much more highly-finished specimens +of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing +penance, annually climb, with great difficulty, into this +part of the building, and make their way into the unfinished +interior apartments. While we were giving free scope to our +surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed in our +contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of +flowers, wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players +(<i>Pulanpolen</i>) who were passing, made their appearance to +give us a specimen of their musical skill. One old man, of +whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnù, neatly carved +in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there +was in the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a +manuscript, known as the <i>Istálam-purànam</i> which gave the +history of the Seven Pagodas, written in Tamil.</p> + +<p>The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter +Elliot, who formed an extensive collection of the various +valuable Hindoo manuscripts and inscriptions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">469</a></span> +Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a translation of +them,<a name="Anchor-109" id="Anchor-109"></a><a href="#Footnote-109" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 109.">[109]</a> told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil +Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give +one single reliable particular as to the history of the +Seven Pagodas.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-109" id="Footnote-109"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-109">[109]</a> Journal of the Madras Literary Society, 1846, +Nos. 30 and 31.</p></div> + +<p>In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and +surrounded by a modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on +the exterior of the Temple, an inscription in Tamil, which +is, however, utterly unintelligible to the natives. This +inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a +donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and +gives the most complete detail, together with signature of +the donor. The name Mahamalaipur,<a name="Anchor-110" id="Anchor-110"></a><a href="#Footnote-110" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 110.">[110]</a> the "City of the Sacred +Hill," occurs frequently in it.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-110" id="Footnote-110"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-110">[110]</a> Dr. Elliot writes Mamallaipuram; the natives +call the place Mahawalipuram, obviously a mere corruption of +the customary mode of spelling.</p></div> + +<p>In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo +followers, we remarked that they made no difference between +a "kovül" or praying-house, in which the divinities are +never produced, but are guarded under lock and key, and a +pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they +can be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it +is that a pagoda is more readily accessible than a kovül, +the sanctity of which it is forbidden him to violate.</p> + +<p>In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the +Brahmins, was permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (£3), to break +away the partition which divided the inscriptions into two +portions, in order to prepare three copies, and have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span> them +translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these translators +was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The +inscription contains the history of two donations, on the +enlargement and laying the foundation-stone of the temple, +accomplished by the "Kanattan" of the village, and, lastly, +a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin Paramesvara-Mahavara, +on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept constantly +burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073. +It results from this interpretation that the inscription was +put up towards the end of the 11th century, thus supplying +some clue to the age of this rock temple, which, according +to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed a thousand +years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 673px;"><a name="illu531" id="illu531"></a> +<img src="images/illu531.jpg" width="673" height="452" alt="Entrance to one of the temples." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ENTRANCE TO ONE OF THE TEMPLES.</span> +</div> + +<p>To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole +history, the natives wander regularly every morning, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span> +sometimes two or three times during the day, to offer +flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight of steps cut +in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is +an excellent view over these monumental edifices.</p> + +<p>That fancy has been called in to invest these unique +unfinished sculptures with the character of +pleasure-grottoes, baths, &c., &c., of historical +personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the +guide does not fail to point out to the stranger a sort of +stone cistern hewn out of the solid rock, traditionally +reported to have been once the plunge-bath of Dubrotis. This +colossal basin has about 2½ feet water during the rainy +season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use. +The water, tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves +a mark behind on the stone sides, which naturally becomes +very visible during the dry season. This the natives +maintain marks the height of the water as often as Dubrotis, +(Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another +similar block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch, +and is called Dharma Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which, +near the head, a tiger is crouched to guard it. This +gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as though +balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor +made to oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock +piled up above the grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so +forth. All these spots, however, have in reality not the +slightest historic significance; it is only the present +generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">472</a></span> +and interpretations, which assuredly never were in the +intention of the constructors.</p> + +<p>On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of +sculptures of remarkable beauty, representing the history of +Tapasa, or the deep penitence of Ardschuna. On the right +hand, close to the figure of the penitent Ardschuna, one +perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as large as +life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half +woman half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have +seen, is a huge sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in +height, comprising hundreds of figures, with an idol in the +centre, to which from all sides worshipping deities, men, +and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory attitudes; along +the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The +colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal, +tends still more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder +doubt whether he is looking upon sculptures or upon living +elephants. Elliot and others who have described these rock +temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a +comparatively small antiquity. They are representations +borrowed from the poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo +mythology. The five roundish temples to the south of the +village are beyond all question the oldest of these +monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed; +solid, and here and there showing marks of work, but only +adorned externally, the interiors being masses of unhewn +granite; each of these temples is 30 feet in length by 20 in +breadth and height. Thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">473</a></span> far, the inscriptions have been +ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are +as yet undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to +decipher them, or at all events to find the key by which to +decipher them. The most important has been copied and +interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the various +representations give the slightest historical clue as to the +object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to +establish the fact, that in the 17th century this district +was inhabited by the Corumbas, a half-civilized race of the +Dschaina religion. About this period, or a little later, in +the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals +were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced +to this neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however, +their nature, and the immense expense incurred, all point to +a long-continued influence of the Brahmins. Most of these +temples seem to have been first erected in the 17th century, +under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several +even a much later date.</p> + +<p>As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old +pyramidal pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the +sea, peering up from amid the furious foaming surf, it seems +to be altogether a myth, so that such enquirers as Ellis, +Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo +traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble +of searching for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of +seeking to recover the ruins of the submerged city. Several +writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea on the +Cormandel coast is retiring; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span> this appears to be a +mistake, for here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is +the case at Fort St. George, which 80 years ago was at some +distance from the sea-shore, whereas its walls are at +present washed by the tremendous surf.</p> + +<p>But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden +and extensive as to have swallowed up an entire city, +without leaving any traces. Not one of the natives to whom +we spoke in the place could say for certain, that the sea +had materially gained upon the land within the memory of +man. Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a +city. One can safely assert that there never existed such a +city at Mahamalaipuram, but that it has always been a mere +abode of priests, with temples, sanctuaries, &c., without +any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan, Quirigua, +or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more +artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of +the artist. The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at +Mahamalaipuram is too low, to admit of our supposing that +since their erection the greater part had been swallowed up +in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to +any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they +are all susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo +mythology, with the aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata, +all referring to Vishnù and his world of deities.</p> + +<p>While some of the <i>Novara</i> expedition were visiting +Mahamalaipuram, others made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake, +near the shore, northwards from Madras. About 40 or 50 +miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">475</a></span> on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or Blue +Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the +gray horizon to the N.W., the height of which may be about +1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow bulwark or quay of unequal +breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles, separates this +salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some +narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters. +The lake varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about +60 to 70 miles long. The level of its bed is so remarkably +regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5 feet, that when the +wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be pushed +along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked +inhabitants of the coast standing in the very middle of the +water, with their landing or drag-nets, or busily occupied +with rod and line! Being but a few hours distant from +Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial +canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets, +carefully faced with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining +land into lagoons, in which during the rainy seasons the +strongly brackish water enters, and is used to make +sea-salt.</p> + +<p>In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by +fishing-boats, as by those laden with wood and fruit, which +they convey to the city for disposal. Most especially +remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds, which +frequent its shores and all around it. At several places +where the shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere +swamps with barely a foot of water, they are literally +covered with myriads of curlews, which fly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">476</a></span> about in flights +of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long +rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the +earth, seeking their food in the mud; far as the eye can +reach, one saw whole ranks of these birds blending with +storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in the water +itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the +sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in +the air. As evening came on, the naturalists of the <i>Novara</i> +were sailing as though in a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish, +as they sprang out of the water, left a fiery wake behind +them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured ever-widening +circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again. +Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round +the boat, united with the singular melancholy cry of the +jackal, which resounded from the shore, while overhead +flights of birds flew restlessly about in the air, whirring +in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.</p> + +<p>From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the +artificial canals, which unite this basin of water at +various points and in different directions with the +surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta +Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a +sort of underwood or brush, which grows again within the +extraordinary short space of ten to twelve years. <i>Sisyphus +vulgaris</i> (<i>Rhamnea</i>), <i>Gardenia Ficus</i>, tamarinds, and +several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the +forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of +climbers. The wood is cut by the natives, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">477</a></span> have +constructed huts in the jungle, into pieces of about 2 feet +in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the shore, +whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.</p> + +<p>When the members of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition had returned, +greatly pleased, from their various excursions, the Madras +Club gave a grand banquet in honour of the captain and +staff, to which the <i>élite</i> of Madras society were invited. +Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the +club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific +members of the Expedition upon the free list of the club +during the ship's stay. The Madras Club-house, though not so +luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of London, fairly +surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in fact, +a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds +assembled all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable +mode of existence; parlours, with wide arm-chairs and +American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms, in which are all the +best journals and an excellent assortment of the best and +newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine +in either the English or French style; billiard-rooms, +shower and plunge-baths, and a large swimming-bath. Members +from the country, or strangers, can be accommodated with +lodging as well.</p> + +<p>At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at +which above 200 persons sat down, the chair was taken by the +Chief Justice Sir Christopher Rawlinson—next to the +Governor, the most influential person in the community. The +extremely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">478</a></span> friendly disposition manifested on that occasion +found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few, +but appropriate words, welcomed the foreign guests; while, +on the other side, they gave unmistakable evidence of the +admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by the <i>Novara</i> +carried away with them from the hospitable shores of +Madras.<a name="Anchor-111" id="Anchor-111"></a><a href="#Footnote-111" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 111.">[111]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-111" id="Footnote-111"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-111">[111]</a> After the customary official toasts had been +proposed by the chairman, and thanks returned by the +Commander-in-chief of the Expedition, the health was also +proposed of the scientific staff, on which occasion one of +the naturalists present expressed his thanks for this +honour, in his name and that of his colleagues, in the +following speech, which may be permitted to find a place +here, as best showing with what impression the members of +the Expedition left Madras.</p> + +<p>"Gentlemen,—It is not without some feeling of anxiety that +I am rising, for I have so many things to say, and yet it is +but the thousandth part of what I, of what my fellow +travellers all feel! Surely, it is always flattering to a +man to be distinguished by his fellow-men; but such a +distinction becomes the more honouring if those who concur +to distinguish him are—as this is the case with you—a most +estimable part of the <i>British</i> nation! Of a nation, which +has done more than any other on the globe for the +propagation of Christianity, the diffusion of knowledge, the +advancement of science, for the progress of civilization, +industry, and commerce. I do not intend, gentlemen, to +return with the shiny currency of flattery the many proofs +of attention and kindness which all the members of the +Expedition have witnessed during our short, but most +pleasant, ever-remembered stay in this city, the birth-place +of hospitality! What I say is but truth! Every page in +modern history certifies my words! Which nation has done +more for the propagation of Christianity among savage tribes +all over the world? Some years ago, when I was rambling in +British America, and along the north shores of Lake +Superior, I often found villages of 300 or 400 Indians, and +but one single white man amongst them. And who was that +white man, who voluntarily shared their misery, their wants, +and their privations? He was an <i>English missionary</i>!</p> + +<p>"And again! Which nation has made greater and more serious +efforts to suppress the slave trade, and to abolish slavery +in all countries where it still exists, a shame to the +nineteenth century?—Slavery! that hideous leprosy on the +limb of the gigantic body, called the United States! Who is +even now anxiously engaged to open, with the heartblood of +its noblest sons, a vast empire—the Chinese kingdom—to +civilization, to Christianity, to the traffic of all +seafaring nations of the globe!</p> + +<p>"And is not this very city, Madras, where we have been so +heartily welcomed, the best proof of the energy and +perseverance of the political and commercial greatness of +the British nation? Nothing but English steadiness and +English perseverance could succeed to build on this barren, +inhospitable, and even most perilous coast, a vast, +flourishing city, rivalling in size and the number of +inhabitants the largest capitals in Europe! And what is +still more pleasing and satisfactory, is the intellectual +and physical condition in which one finds the Indians, +especially if compared with the condition of the natives in +North and Central America, &c. There he meets a population, +rapidly dying away, in proportion as the axe of civilization +is resounding from the backwoods. One may almost determinate +the day when the last of the red men will have disappeared +from the North American Continent, the land of his +ancestors! Here in India, on the contrary, the traveller +meets with a thriving, industrious population. Who can see +Hindoos, Malabar, Sentus, &c., occupy most important +employments at the observatory, at the telegraph offices, at +the railroad, in any branch almost of the public service, +and still believe the Hindoo race like the Indians of North +America to be a <i>doomed</i> people—to be a people that has no +future? No, it <span class="smcap">has</span> a future, and, under the wise and humane +government of the British Crown, I am sure the coloured race +of India will even have a most <i>glorious</i> future!</p> + +<p>"These are the impressions and feelings, gentlemen, with +which we part from Madras, with which I and my scientific +colleagues bid you all a most sincere and heartfelt +farewell."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">479</a></span></p></div> + +<p>As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish, +notwithstanding the difficulties of getting out to, and back +from the roads, to visit our ship, the commodore invited +some forty guests, shortly before our departure, to a +"tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty +heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the +company of some twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After +"tiffin," which was served on the poop, under a tent +improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt +sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck, +our band of music being called into requisition for +quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes; and, indeed, our guests +paid so little attention to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">480</a></span> the approach of night, that +their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of +which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our +pleasant guests homewards with Bengal lights.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate542t" id="plate542t"></a> +<img src="images/plate542t.jpg" width="350" height="203" alt="Novara's track." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE VII.—TRACK FROM MADRAS TO THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.</span><br /> +<a href="images/plate542.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a> +</div> + +<p>At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set +sail. As the frigate was perceived, from Fort George to +weigh anchor, a thundering salute was fired of 21 guns—an +extraordinary honour and mark of attention, to which we +responded by a similar salute. In consequence of calms and +light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and +it was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our +voyage. For several evenings after, that magnificent, and as +yet unexplained, phenomenon, the Zodiacal light, which is +conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age, to be the +beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving +in the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was +visible with much regularity. What was afterwards observed, +however, of this remarkable zone of light, during the course +of our voyage, will be found detailed in the meteorological +portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather +accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar +Islands, our next station. But although, as was rendered +necessary by the climate so near the Equator, we were +clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was nothing to +remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our +sailors did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without +celebrating that day, to be marked with a white stone, by +masking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span> and dancing according to ancient custom. Jack has +an especially good memory for the return of such junketings, +and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of +the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near +the line also, not because he had any pleasure therein, but +because it has always been his custom to do so at +carnival-time!</p> + +<p>The state of health of the ship's company was excellent, +there being but eight on the sick list, of whom only two +were seriously ill.</p> + +<p>On the 22nd February towards 10 <span class="smcap">a. m.</span> the Island of +Kar-Nicobar hove in sight, and towards afternoon we found +ourselves but a few miles distant. The land seemed for the +most part level, only a low eminence thickly covered with +frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown +with cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three +Malay boats at anchor. On the beach were some huts of +beehive-like shape, in and out of which naked brown figures +were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous lights +glimmered from the shore.</p> + +<p>The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we +anchored off the N.W. side of the island, in 14½ fathoms +coral sand, about 2 miles distant from the shore, and just +between the two villages of Mosse and Sàui, each consisting +of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4 cable-lengths +of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay +bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies +covered in the most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European +clothes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">482</a></span> approached the frigate while she was being +secured, in small but elegant canoes, and called out +anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive +tone and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we +interpreted into an inquiry as to whether they had anything +to fear, and whether we were disposed to be friendly. When, +however, we did not immediately throw them a rope to make +fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our numerous +guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;"><a name="illu544" id="illu544"></a> +<img src="images/illu544.jpg" width="472" height="198" alt="An ocean view of a low mountain island." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ARRIVAL AT KAR-NICOBAR.</span> +</div> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 0.9em"> +END OF VOL. I. +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">483</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a>APPENDIX A.</h2> + +<div class="c3">LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE "NOVARA" EXPEDITION.</div> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col style="text-align: right" /><col style="text-align: left" /></colgroup> +<tr><td>Commodore—</td><td>B. v. Wüllerstorf-Urbair, Commander-in-Chief.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Captain—</td><td>Frederick Baron Pöck.</td></tr> +<tr><td>First Lieutenant—</td><td>Bela Saal de Gyula.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lieutenants—</td><td>Maurice Monfroni de Montfort.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Alexander Count Kielmansegge.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>William Lund.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Robert Müller.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Ernest Jacoby.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Eugen Kronowetter.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Gustavus Battlogg.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Purser—</td><td>Antonio Basso.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Principal Surgeon—</td><td>Dr. Francis Seligmann.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Assistant Surgeons—</td><td>Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Dr. Edward Schwarz.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Charles Ruziczka.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Chaplain—</td><td>Edward de Marocchini.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Midshipmen—</td><td>Henry Fayenz.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Joseph Natty.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Gustavus v. Semsey.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Richard Baron Walterskirchen.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Louis Meder.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Alexander Kalmar.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Augustus Baron Skribanek.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Andreas Count Borelli.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Francis Baron Cordon.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Frederick Baron Haan.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Edward Latzina.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Michal de Mariassi.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Eugen Prince Wrede.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Joseph Berthold.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Engineer—</td><td>Wenceslas Lehmann.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"><i>Naturalists.</i></div> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col style="text-align: right" /><col style="text-align: left" /></colgroup> +<tr><td>Geology—</td><td>Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Botany—</td><td>Dr. Edward Schwarz.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Mr. Anthony Tellinek, horticulturist.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Zoology—</td><td>Mr. George Frauenfeld.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Mr. John Zelebor.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ethnography—</td><td>Dr. Charles Scherzer.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Artist—</td><td>Mr. Joseph Selleny.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The entire crew, including sailors, marines, gunners, +servants, and the ship's band, amounted to 352 men.</p> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">484</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a>APPENDIX B.</h2> + +<div class="c5"><i>List of the various Provisions and Stores furnished to the Frigate "Novara" +before her departure from Trieste.</i></div> + +<div class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col style="text-align: left;" /> + <col span="3" style="text-align: center;" /> + <col span="1" style="text-align: left;" /></colgroup> +<tr><td colspan="5">Coals—23 tons (at 260 pounds daily consumption)</td><td>for</td><td>198</td><td>days</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Water—86 tons (the daily consumption was furnished by the distilling apparatus)</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Biscuit—50,965 pounds (Vienna weight)</td><td>"</td><td>145</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Wine—(light red Istrian wine), 8777 mass (= 3510 gallons)</td><td>"</td><td>50</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Rum—7913 mass (= 3165 gallons)</td><td>"</td><td>226</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>Salt Beef—17,800 pounds</td><td>for</td><td>105</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">days</td><td rowspan="3">Meat (boned)</td><td rowspan="3">"</td><td rowspan="3">264</td><td rowspan="3">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Preserved Meat (in tins)</td><td> </td><td>122</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pork—5760 pounds weight</td><td> </td><td>87</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>Rice—6850 pounds</td><td> </td><td>77</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">days</td><td rowspan="2">(for Soup)</td><td rowspan="2">"</td><td rowspan="2">135</td><td rowspan="2">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Essence—3184 pounds</td><td> </td><td>58</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>Mélanges d'Equipage, 40,000 rations</td><td> </td><td>114</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">days</td><td rowspan="4">Vegetables</td><td rowspan="4">"</td><td rowspan="4">298</td><td rowspan="4">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sour-crout, 16,000 rations</td><td> </td><td>46</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cabbage, 16,000 rations</td><td> </td><td>46</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr> +<tr><td>Potatoes, 32,000 rations</td><td> </td><td>92</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Cocoa—10,290 pounds (Vienna weight)</td><td>"</td><td>610</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Sugar—3494 pounds</td><td>"</td><td>156</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Salt—1000 pounds</td><td>"</td><td>100</td><td>"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5">Vinegar—831 mass (= 332 <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>5</sub> gallons)</td><td>"</td><td>95</td><td>"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">485</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a>APPENDIX C.</h2> + +<div class="c3">SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURE</div> + +<div class="c5">DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE "NOVARA."</div> + +<div style="width: 30em; margin: auto; text-align: left;"> +<ul style="list-style-type: none"> + <li> KEY:</li> + <li>A - Pay of Commodore, in Austrian currency.</li> + <li>B - Pay of Staff.</li> + <li>C - Pay of Naturalists, and incidental Expenses of this department.</li> + <li>D - Pay of Crew, including extras.</li> + <li>E - Victuals for Crew and Hospital (Sick).</li> + <li>F - For Sundries, Repairs, and Ship's Material.</li> + <li>G - Purchase of Books, Instruments, and Medicines.</li> + <li>H - Pilots and Tug Steamers.</li> + <li>I - Pay of Servants, including extras.</li> + <li>J - Boat-hire, Postages, Travelling Expenses of the Staff, &c.</li> + <li>K - Totals.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<colgroup><col style="text-align: right;" /><col style="text-align: left" /><col style="text-align: center" /><col span="22" style="text-align: right;" /></colgroup> +<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3" style="text-align: center">Period of Expenditure.</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">A</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">B</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">C</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">D</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">E</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">F</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">G</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">H</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">I</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">J</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">K</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td class="bl" style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">April to June,</td><td>1857</td><td class="bl">2,112</td><td class="br">..</td><td>5,413</td><td class="br">51</td><td>1,744</td><td class="br">53</td><td>7,522</td><td class="br">52</td><td>133</td><td class="br">55</td><td>146</td><td class="br">7</td><td>37</td><td class="br">10</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>811</td><td class="br">34</td><td>5,277</td><td class="br">59</td><td>23,200</td><td class="br">21</td></tr> +<tr><td>III.</td><td>Quarter</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">2,327</td><td class="br">10</td><td>8,214</td><td class="br">10</td><td>3,302</td><td class="br">40</td><td>10,562</td><td class="br">37</td><td>2,316</td><td class="br">40</td><td>362</td><td class="br">47</td><td>16</td><td class="br">28</td><td>28</td><td class="br">..</td><td>363</td><td class="br">53</td><td>186</td><td class="br">18</td><td>27,680</td><td class="br">43</td></tr> +<tr><td>IV.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,261</td><td class="br">20</td><td>9,604</td><td class="br">50</td><td>4,816</td><td class="br">57</td><td>10,560</td><td class="br">50</td><td>27,344</td><td class="br">29</td><td>2,839</td><td class="br">3</td><td>644</td><td class="br">49</td><td>356</td><td class="br">26</td><td>435</td><td class="br">9</td><td>2,027</td><td class="br">31</td><td>61,891</td><td class="br">24</td></tr> +<tr><td>I.</td><td>ditto</td><td>1858</td><td class="bl">3,118</td><td class="br">..</td><td>9,377</td><td class="br">..</td><td>4,073</td><td class="br">..</td><td>10,557</td><td class="br">49</td><td>2,099</td><td class="br">39</td><td>646</td><td class="br">10</td><td>36</td><td class="br">34</td><td>85</td><td class="br">53</td><td>397</td><td class="br">28</td><td>96</td><td class="br">22</td><td>30,487</td><td class="br">55</td></tr> +<tr><td>II.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,212</td><td class="br">..</td><td>10,542</td><td class="br">30</td><td>4,358</td><td class="br">5</td><td>10,755</td><td class="br">39</td><td>21,514</td><td class="br">37</td><td>2,170</td><td class="br">53</td><td>349</td><td class="br">54</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>1,144</td><td class="br">43</td><td>814</td><td class="br">25</td><td>54,764</td><td class="br">46</td></tr> +<tr><td>III.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">5,102</td><td class="br">30</td><td>9,638</td><td class="br">30</td><td>5,421</td><td class="br">17</td><td>10,245</td><td class="br">24</td><td>17,443</td><td class="br">32</td><td>5,925</td><td class="br">48</td><td>338</td><td class="br">14</td><td>645</td><td class="br">50</td><td>566</td><td class="br">8</td><td>1,351</td><td class="br">46</td><td>56,678</td><td class="br">59</td></tr> +<tr><td>IV.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">2,217</td><td class="br">10</td><td>6,931</td><td class="br">50</td><td>5,272</td><td class="br">56</td><td>10,020</td><td class="br">6</td><td>5,762</td><td class="br">30</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>212</td><td class="br">34</td><td>2,197</td><td class="br">55</td><td>29</td><td class="br">24</td><td>651</td><td class="br">59</td><td>33,296</td><td class="br">24</td></tr> +<tr><td>I.</td><td>ditto</td><td>1859</td><td class="bl">4,914</td><td class="br">20</td><td>16,958</td><td class="br">20</td><td>9,578</td><td class="br">23</td><td>10,840</td><td class="br">43</td><td>30,715</td><td class="br">17</td><td>18,185</td><td class="br">34</td><td>2,286</td><td class="br">40</td><td>647</td><td class="br">54</td><td>1,592</td><td class="br">30</td><td>1,258</td><td class="br">51</td><td>96,978</td><td class="br">32</td></tr> +<tr><td>II.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,227</td><td class="br">16</td><td>11,008</td><td class="br">..</td><td>4,090</td><td class="br">20</td><td>11,151</td><td class="br">56</td><td>3,179</td><td class="br">24</td><td>767</td><td class="br">4</td><td>23</td><td class="br">2</td><td>94</td><td class="br">23</td><td>200</td><td class="br">5</td><td>1,258</td><td class="br">32</td><td>35,000</td><td class="br">2</td></tr> +<tr><td>III.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,117</td><td class="br">7</td><td>10,911</td><td class="br">41</td><td>3,857</td><td class="br">14</td><td>11,009</td><td class="br">29</td><td>11,444</td><td class="br">..</td><td>7,551</td><td class="br">15</td><td>306</td><td class="br">24</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>1,910</td><td class="br">..</td><td>793</td><td class="br">..</td><td>50,900</td><td class="br">10</td></tr> +<tr><td>IV.</td><td>ditto</td><td>(not full)</td><td class="bl">984</td><td class="br">18</td><td>2,564</td><td class="br">5</td><td>1,990</td><td class="br">5</td><td>3,314</td><td class="br">16</td><td>2,163</td><td class="br">40</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>33</td><td class="br">30</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>269</td><td class="br">46</td><td>5</td><td class="br">..</td><td>11,324</td><td class="br">40</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td class="bl">——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td><td>——</td><td class="br">—</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Grand Total</td><td> </td><td class="bl">33,593</td><td class="br">11</td><td>101,164</td><td class="br">47</td><td>48,505</td><td class="br">50</td><td>106,541</td><td class="br">41</td><td>124,009</td><td class="br">43</td><td>38,594</td><td class="br">41</td><td>4,285</td><td class="br">19</td><td>4,056</td><td class="br">21</td><td>7,720</td><td class="br">40</td><td>13,721</td><td class="br">43</td><td>482,193</td><td class="br">56</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Thus the Expenditure, during the voyage, amounting to +483,193 florins 56 kreuzer, Austrian currency, which, +calculated at the rate of 10 florins to a pound sterling at +par, is equal to about £48,219 sterling. To this sum must be +added the outfit and armament of the frigate for the +purposes of the voyage, amounting to about £6000 sterling, +and the expenses for four months' provisions, taken in at +Trieste before our departure, and estimated at about £4500 +sterling, so that the entire Expenditure of the Expedition, +from the time of starting till its return, amounted to about +£58,000 sterling.</p> + +<div><a name="ADS" id="ADS"></a></div> +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 0.8em; line-height: 1.5em;"> +LONDON:<br /> +PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,<br /> +ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET. +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div style="text-align: right">66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, W.</div> + +<div class="center" style="line-height: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Messrs.</span> SAUNDERS, OTLEY, & Co.'s<br /> +LITERARY ANNOUNCEMENTS.</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE VOYAGE OF THE NOVARA ROUND THE WORLD. The +Circumnavigation of the Globe, by the Austrian Frigate +Novara. English Edition. Containing an Unpublished Letter +from Baron Humboldt. With numerous wood engravings. +Dedicated, by special permission, to Sir Roderick Murchison. +3 vols., 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE MARQUIS OF DALHOUSIE'S ADMINISTRATION of BRITISH INDIA. +By Edwin Arnold, M.A., of University College, Oxford. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE POLITICAL LIFE of the EARL of DERBY. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LIFE of the RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN DISRAELI, M.P. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES of the LORD BISHOP of OXFORD from +1841 to the Present Time. Edited by the Author. 1 vol., 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LIVES of the SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. By +William Nathaniel Massey, Esq., M.P., author of "The History +of England," and Chairman of Ways and Means. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LATITUDINARIANS. A Chapter of Church History, from the +Accession of Archbishop Tillotson in 1691, to the Death of +Archdeacon Blackburne, in 1787. By Edward Churton, M.A., +Archdeacon of Cleveland. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LIFE OF THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. 1 vol., +8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +ECCLESIA RESTITUTA. By F. C. Massingberd, M.A., Prebendary +of Lincoln and Rector of Ormsby. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +SEVEN ANSWERS to the 'ESSAYS and REVIEWS,' BY SEVEN WRITERS +IN SEVEN SEPARATE ESSAYS. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE HISTORY OF THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY, from the Defection of +Sir Robert Peel to the Present Time. 1 vol., 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, from the Death of +Elizabeth to the Present Time. By the Rev. Geo. G. Perry, +M.A., Rector of Waddington, late Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln +College, Oxford. 3 vols., 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CHURCH RATE A NATIONAL TRUST. By the Venerable Archdeacon +Denison. 1 vol., 8vo, 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST. By the Rev. George Williams, B.D., +Senior Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 1 vol., 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE AMERICAN CHURCH and the AMERICAN UNION. By Henry +Caswall, D.D., of Trinity College, Connecticut, and +Prebendary of Sarum. 1 v., post 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +PHILOSOPHY; or, THE SCIENCE of TRUTH, being a Treatise on +First Principles, Mental, Physical, and Verbal. By James +Haig, Esq., M.A., of Lincoln's Inn. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +RECOLLECTIONS OF GENERAL GARIBALDI; or, TRAVELS FROM ROME TO +LUCERNE, comprising a Visit to the Mediterranean Islands of +La Madalena and Caprera, and the Home of General Garibaldi. +1 vol. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF DR. WOLFF, the Bokhara +Missionary. 2d. edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +AN AUTUMN TOUR IN SPAIN. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">R. Roberts</span>, B.A., of +Trinity College, Cambridge, and Vicar of Milton Abbas. With +numerous Engravings. 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE SUCCESSORS OF ST. PATRICK AND +ARCHBISHOPS OF ARMAGH. By James Henthorne Todd, D.D., +F.S.A., President of the Royal Irish Academy, Treasurer of +St. Patrick's Cathedral, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the +University, and Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. 2 +vols., 8vo. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LIFE OF GEORGE FOX, The Founder of the Quakers. From +numerous original sources. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE PRIVATE JOURNAL OF THE MARQUESS OF HASTINGS, +Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in India. Edited by +his Daughter, <span class="smcap">Sophia</span>, the Marchioness of Bute. Second +Edition, 2 vols. post 8vo, with Map and Index. 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +NAPOLEON THE THIRD ON ENGLAND. Selections from his own +writings. Translated by <span class="smcap">J. H. Simpson</span>. 5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE HUNTING GROUNDS OF THE OLD WORLD. By H. A. L. (the Old +Shekarry). Second Edition. 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +HIGHLANDS AND HIGHLANDERS; As they were and as they are. By +<span class="smcap">William Grant Stewart</span>. First and Second series, price 5s. +each; extra bound, 6s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA. With numerous Woodcuts. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +LECTURES ON THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">R. J. +M'Ghee</span>. Second Edition. 2 vols, Reduced price, 15s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +PRE-ADAMITE MAN; or, THE STORY OF OUR OLD PLANET AND ITS +INHABITANTS, TOLD BY SCRIPTURE AND SCIENCE. Beautifully +Illustrated by Hervieu, Dalziel Brothers, &c. 1 vol, post +8vo, 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +LOUIS CHARLES DE BOURBON: THE "PRISONER OF THE TEMPLE." 3s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +A HANDY-BOOK FOR RIFLE VOLUNTEERS. With 14 Coloured Plates +and Diagrams. By Captain W. G. Hartley, author of "A New +System of Drill." 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +RECOLLECTIONS of a WINTER CAMPAIGN IN INDIA, in 1857-58. By +<span class="smcap">Captain Oliver J. Jones</span>, R.N. With numerous illustrations +drawn on stone by Day, from the Author's Sketches. In 1 vol. +royal 8vo, 16s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +TWO YEARS IN SYRIA. By <span class="smcap">T. Lewis Farley</span>, Esq., Late Chief +Accountant of the Ottoman Bank, Beyrout. 12s. Second +Edition. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +DIARY OF TRAVELS IN THREE QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. By an +<span class="smcap">Australian Settler</span>. 2 vols, post 8vo, 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +RECOLLECTIONS of the COURT of NAPLES in OUR OWN TIMES. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +MOUNT LEBANON AND ITS INHABITANTS: A Ten Years' Residence +from 1842 to 1852. By Colonel <span class="smcap">Churchill</span>, Staff Officer in +the British Expedition to Syria. Second Edition. 3 vols, +8vo, £1·5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +FROM SOUTHAMPTON TO CALCUTTA. Sketches of Anglo-Indian Life. +10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE TABLETTE BOOKE of LADYE MARY KEYES, OWNE SISTER TO THE +MISFORTUNATE LADYE JANE DUDLIE. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +TRAVEL and RECOLLECTIONS of TRAVEL. By Dr. <span class="smcap">John Shaw</span>. 1 vol, +post 8vo, 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +LETTERS ON INDIA. By <span class="smcap">Edward Sullivan</span>, Esq., Author of +'Rambles in North and South America;' 'The Bungalow and the +Tent;' 'From Boulogne to Babel Mandeb;' 'A Trip to the +Trenches;' &c. 1 vol. 7s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CAMPAIGNING IN KAFFIRLAND; or, SCENES AND ADVENTURES IN THE +KAFFIR WAR OF 1851-52. By Captain <span class="smcap">W. R. King</span>. Second +Edition. 1 vol. 8vo, 14s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE RELIGIOUS TENDENCIES OF THE AGE. 6s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A HORSE. By <span class="smcap">Sir +George Stephen</span>. With illustrations by Cruikshank. New and +cheaper Edition, 5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, Elegant Gift Book for the Season. +Beautifully bound in green watered silk, with coloured +plates. Containing the Art of Conveying Sentiments of Esteem +and Affection. Eleventh edition, dedicated, by permission, +to the late Duchess of Kent. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES; With a description of the "Ladies' +Safety Hive." By <span class="smcap">Samuel Bagster</span>, Jun. 1 vol., illustrated. +7s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE HANDBOOK OF TURNING, With numerous plates. A complete +and Practical Guide to the Beautiful Science of Turning in +all its Branches. 1 vol. 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +TEXTS FOR TALKERS. By <span class="smcap">Frank Fowler</span>. 3s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE SUMMER TOUR of an INVALID. 5s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +ARMY MISRULE: BARRACK THOUGHTS. By a <span class="smcap">Common Soldier</span>. 3s. +</div> + +<div class="c3">Fiction.</div> + +<div class="ads"> +WHY PAUL FERROLL KILLED HIS WIFE. By the Author of "Paul +Ferroll." Third Edition. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +OUR NEW RECTOR. Edited by the Author of 'Mr. Verdant Green.' +10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE RECTOR'S DAUGHTERS. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. A Novel. By <span class="smcap">Marguerite A. Power</span>. 3 +vols., 31s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +AN M.P. IN SEARCH OF A CREED. A Novel. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +ROTTEN ROW. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CRISPIN KEN. By the Author of 'Miriam May.' Dedicated, by +special permission, to the Right Hon. Sir E. B. Lytton, +Bart., M.P. 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +WHO SHALL BE DUCHESS? or, THE NEW LORD OF BURLEIGH. A Novel. +2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE LIGHTHOUSE. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE SKELETON IN THE CUPBOARD. By Lady Scott. 2 vols., 21s. +Cheaper Edition, 5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +TOO LATE! By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Dimsdale</span>. 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +HELEN. A Romance of Real Life. 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE CASTLE and the COTTAGE in SPAIN. By Lady Wallace, Author +of 'Clara; or, Slave Life in Europe.' 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CYRUS. By Lady Julia Lockwood. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +GERTRUDE MELTON; or, NATURE'S NOBLEMAN. A Tale. 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +RUTH BAYNARD'S STORY. 1 vol., 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +VANITY CHURCH. 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +MY WIFE'S PINMONEY. By <span class="smcap">E. E. Nelson</span>, a grand niece of the +great Lord Nelson. 5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE EMIGRANT'S DAUGHTER. Dedicated, by permission, to the +Empress of Russia. 5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +MIRIAM MAY. 4th Edition. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +WHISPERING VOICES OF THE YULE. Tales for Christmas. 5s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE SENIOR FELLOW. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +ALMACK'S. A Novel. Dedicated to the Ladies Patronesses of +the Balls at Almack's. New Edition, 1 vol, crown 8vo, 10s. +6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +NELLY CAREW. By <span class="smcap">Miss Power</span>. 2 vols, 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +MEMOIRS OF A LADY IN WAITING. By the Author of 'Adventures +of Mrs. Colonel Somerset in Caffraria.' 2 vols, 18s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +HULSE HOUSE. A Novel. By the Author of 'Anne Gray.' 2 vols, +post 8vo, 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE NEVILLES OF GARRETSTOWN. A Historical Tale. Edited, and +with a Preface by the Author of 'Emilia Wyndham.' 3 vols, +post 8vo, 31s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CORVODA ABBEY. A Tale. 1 vol, post 8vo, 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE VICAR OF LYSSEL. The Diary of a Clergyman in the 18th +century. 4s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +GOETHE IN STRASBOURG. A Dramatic Nouvelette. By H. Noel +Humphreys. 7s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +SQUIRES AND PARSONS. A Church Novel. 1 vol. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE DEAN; or, the POPULAR PREACHER. By <span class="smcap">Berkeley Aikin</span>, +Author of 'Anne Sherwood.' 3 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CHARLEY NUGENT; or, PASSAGES IN THE LIFE OF A SUB. A Novel, +3 vols, post 8vo. 31s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +PAUL FERROLL. By the Author of 'IX Poems by V.' Fourth +Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +LORD AUBREY; or, WHAT SHALL I DO? By the Author of 'Every +Day.' A Novel. 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE IRONSIDES. A Tale of the English Commonwealth. 3 vols., +31s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +AGNES HOME. A Novel. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +LA CAVA; or, RECOLLECTIONS OF THE NEAPOLITANS. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +ANSELMO. A Tale of Modern Italy. 2 vols., 21s. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +THE DALRYMPLES; or, LONG CREDIT AND LONG CLOTH. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +INSTINCT; or, REASON. By Lady <span class="smcap">Julia Lockwood</span>. 5s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +CARELADEN HOUSE. A Novel. 10s. 6d. +</div> + +<div class="c3">Poetry.</div> + +<div class="ads"> +Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton's Eva, AND OTHER POEMS. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +Sacred Poems. By the late Right Hon. Sir Robert Grant, with +a Notice by Lord Glenelg. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +Eustace; An Elegy. By the Right Hon. Charles Tennyson +D'Eyncourt. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +Oberon's Empire. A Mask. +</div> + +<div class="ads"> +The Shadow of the Yew, AND OTHER POEMS. By Norman B. Yonge. +</div> + +<hr class="ChapterTopRule" /> + +<div class="c3">MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.'S</div> + +<div class="c2">EAST INDIA ARMY AND COLONIAL +AGENCY.</div> + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, +London, W.</span></div> + +<div class="center">(<i>In the immediate vicinity of the New East India House and +the Oriental Club.</i>)</div> + +<p>Messrs. <span class="smcap">Saunders, Otley</span>, and Co. beg to invite the attention +of Regimental Messes, Officers, Members of the Civil +Service, and other Residents in India, Australia, and the +Colonies to their East India Army and Colonial Agency, and +to the advantages it offers.</p> + +<div class="c4">BANKING DEPARTMENT.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pay, Pensions, Fund Allowances, Dividends, &c.</span>, drawn and +remitted with regularity. <span class="smcap">Sales</span> of, and <span class="smcap">Investments</span> in, +Government Stock, Foreign Securities, &c., effected. Every +other description of <span class="smcap">Financial Business</span> transacted.</p> + +<div class="c4">SUPPLY DEPARTMENT.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Supplies of every description</span>, including +Provisions, Wines, Plate, Jewellery, Books, Guns, Band +Instruments, Clothing, &c., carefully selected and +despatched by Overland Route, or Sailing Ship, to Regiments +and Messes in India, Australia, and the Colonies.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Private Orders</span> from Officers, Members of the Civil Service, +and Residents in India, Australia, and the Colonies +generally, are executed with care, economy, efficiency, and +promptitude.</p> + +<p>All orders should be accompanied by full and detailed +directions.</p> + +<div class="c4">PERSONAL AGENCY DEPARTMENT.</div> + +<p>The Constituents of Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. may +depend upon receiving every attention to their requirements +and instructions. Every assistance will be afforded to their +Constituents and their Families on their arrival in England, +with the view to relieve them from every possible +inconvenience.</p> + +<p>Charge, when required, will be taken of children coming from +India and the Colonies, and arrangements will be made for +their education in England.</p> + +<p>To those going out to India, Australia, and the Colonies, +Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. offer their services to +secure passages Overland, or by Ship, and to afford them all +necessary information connected therewith.</p> + +<p>All Letters, Parcels, &c., will be received by Messrs. +Saunders, Otley, and Co., for their Constituents (whether in +England, India, or the Colonies), to whom they will be +forwarded regularly.</p> + +<div class="c4">TERMS.</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">No Commission charged</span> on the execution of Orders, whether +from Regimental Messes or Private Individuals, <span class="smcap">WHEN +ACCOMPANIED BY A REMITTANCE</span>, and a small Discount at all +times allowed.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="center"> +LITERARY AND POLITICAL NEWSPAPER FOR INDIA +AND THE COLONIES. +</div> + +<div class="c3">THE ORIENTAL BUDGET,</div> + +<div class="center" style="padding-bottom: 1em"><span class="smcap">Price One Shilling (Post Free).</span></div> + +<div class="center">Published on the First of every Month by Saunders, Otley, and Co., +66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London.</div> + +<hr style="width: 100%" /> + +<div><a name="Changes" id="Changes"></a></div> +<pre> + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: Blank pages have been deleted. The title page has been +rearranged to meet accessibility requirements. Illustrations may have been +moved. Tags at the beginning of the work going directly to the table of +contents etal were added to ameliorate the effects of an Internet Explorer +7 bug and for convenience of the reader. To the table of illustrations +have been added entries for the preceding illustrations. Discovered +publisher's punctuation errors have been corrected. The publisher's +corrections listed at the end of Volume III have been applied. In +addition, the following changes were made: + +xxvii: analagous[analogous] to the mountain chains +xv: Crossing the Breede Rivier[River]. +169: to be reaped from European emigation[emigration] +171: Namely: 9159 Portuguese[Two footnotes were improperly swapped] +191: we were still able vividly to recal[recall] +203: If any one desires [to] see a veritable +226: towards the end of the rainy reason[season], +252: their bite produces on the the[del 2nd the] hand +264: that such soundings are only succesful[successful] when +294: they cannot recal[recall] having perceived, +308: Terrestrial Magnetism, Liuteenant[Lieutenant] Robert Müllar; +320: of New Bedford, Massachussets[Massachusetts], +322: pendant les annés[années] 1791-94 +331: there there[del 2nd there] is nothing resembling a beach +358: custom that seems to recal[recall] the frightful +420: This time, morever,[moreover] +433: and chaunted[chanted] the praises +459: all to be able to indentify[identify] them, +462: thirty to the Parias[Pariahs], +Lit. Announcements: Ry[By] T. Lewis Farley, Esq., +Lit. Announcements: effected. Every other descripion[description] + +Also, the publisher on one occasion confused the degrees Réaumur and +Fahrenheit used in measuring temperature with degrees and minutes used to +determine lattitude and longitude: + +Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current, +the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as 24° +5′, (87° 12′ Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had +carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means +of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the +current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.); +between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72° 5′ to +74° 75′ Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39′ S.) and +Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13° 8′ to 10° 5′ (63°·05 to 5° 62′ +Fahr.); between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from +18° 8′ to 9° 2′ (74° 3′ to 52° 7′). + +The corrected paragraph is as follows: + +Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current, +the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as +24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had +carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means +of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the +current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.); +between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to +74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39′ S.) and +Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.); +between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to +9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).] + +</pre> + +<div><a href="#Start">Start of text.</a><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="fig" style="width:100%;"> +<a name="illu061"></a> <a href="#illuref061">back</a> +<img src="images/illu061.jpg" width="1200" height="373" alt="Illustration:" /> +<p class="caption">VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE NOVARA.<br /><br /></p> +<table summary="" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto"> +<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td align="left">Spare Spars.</td><td align="right">hh.</td><td align="left">Officers' Mess or Ward-room.</td><td align="right">n.</td><td align="left">Powder Magazine.</td><td align="left">v.</td><td align="left">Boatswain's Cabin.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td align="left">Captain's Cabin.</td><td align="right">h'.</td><td align="left">Commodore's Stores.</td><td align="right">o.</td><td align="left">Preserve fresh provisions in tins.</td><td align="left">w.</td><td align="left">Painters' Stores.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td align="left">Commodore's Apartment.</td><td align="right">iii.</td><td align="left">Officer's Cabins.</td><td align="right">p.</td><td align="left">Pantry.</td><td align="left">x.</td><td align="left">Coal-cellar.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">c'.</td><td align="left">Captain's Apartment.</td><td align="right">i'i'i'.</td><td align="left">Officers' Lockers.</td><td align="right">p'.</td><td align="left">Store-room for Rice, Cocoa, and Dried Vegetables.</td><td align="left">y.</td><td align="left">Tins of fresh provisions for the crew.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">d.</td><td align="left">Gun-room (also used as Reading-room.)</td><td align="right">j.</td><td align="left">Half-deck (for Crew.)</td><td align="right">q.</td><td align="left">Spirit Room.</td><td align="left">z.</td><td align="left">Iron Water-tanks.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">e.</td><td align="left">Cabins of Naturalists.</td><td align="right">k.</td><td align="left">Sergeants' Cabins.</td><td align="right">r.</td><td align="left">Salted Provisions.</td><td align="left">z'.</td><td align="left">Tank for the Distilling Apparatus(f').</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">f.</td><td align="left">Pumps.</td><td align="right">k'.</td><td align="left">"Sick bay."</td><td align="right">s.</td><td align="left">Buckets, Holystones, &c.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">f'.</td><td align="left">Kitchen, with Distilling Apparatus.</td><td align="right">l.</td><td align="left">Shot-hold.</td><td align="right">t.</td><td align="left">Sail-room.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">g.</td><td align="left">Side-board & Lockers of Officers.</td><td align="right">m.</td><td align="left">Bread-lockers.</td><td align="right">uu.</td><td align="left">Tool Room, &c.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of +the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I *** + +***** This file should be named 38456-h.htm or 38456-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38456/ + +Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net +(This file made from scans of public domain material at +Austrian Literature Online.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu000.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu000.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f1e2fe --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu000.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9900674 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu001.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1b8cb9 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu001.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu005.png b/38456-h/images/illu005.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..229261c --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu005.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu006.png b/38456-h/images/illu006.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84ee95e --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu006.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu020.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu020.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..92077b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu020.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..17be3f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu055.png b/38456-h/images/illu055.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a944a61 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu055.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu058.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu058.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..151b755 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu058.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu061.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu061.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..adc2a20 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu061.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..570c551 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu065.png b/38456-h/images/illu065.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e130e02 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu065.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu067.png b/38456-h/images/illu067.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7816e04 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu067.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu072.png b/38456-h/images/illu072.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed51274 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu072.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu077.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu077.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..65381e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu077.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu084.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu084.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df2c2c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu084.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu085.png b/38456-h/images/illu085.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bacca45 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu085.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu090.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu090.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1a6f7a --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu090.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu094.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu094.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e6a1db --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu094.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu104.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu104.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a326dc9 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu104.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu108.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu108.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad3ec69 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu108.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu113.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu113.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cae3261 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu113.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu114.png b/38456-h/images/illu114.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..115b211 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu114.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu127.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu127.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f19360 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu127.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu147.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu147.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..756556f --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu147.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu151.png b/38456-h/images/illu151.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..085f31a --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu151.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu153.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu153.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..383fafb --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu153.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu155.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu155.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..38509d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu155.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu157.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu157.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..11c97e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu157.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu160.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu160.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5c49a45 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu160.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu176.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu176.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3959f14 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu176.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu178.png b/38456-h/images/illu178.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..efbfa00 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu178.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu213.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu213.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..221bad8 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu213.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu252.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu252.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af82475 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu252.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu253.png b/38456-h/images/illu253.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b5b955 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu253.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu276.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu276.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6af3d56 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu276.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu278.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu278.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84cd6fe --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu278.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu279.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu279.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0a7d28 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu279.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu284.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu284.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e167771 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu284.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu285.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu285.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9b5b68 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu285.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu291.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu291.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2353f1b --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu291.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu295.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu295.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bf866b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu295.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu303.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu303.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f52af14 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu303.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu305.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu305.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c003728 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu305.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu310.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu310.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..409082a --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu310.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu324.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu324.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a7f2bda --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu324.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu326.png b/38456-h/images/illu326.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..035497f --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu326.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu334.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu334.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6bdfb2e --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu334.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu359.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu359.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df8084c --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu359.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu403.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu403.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..18550d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu403.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu405.png b/38456-h/images/illu405.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9355dfe --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu405.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu414.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu414.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78721a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu414.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu420.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu420.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4bb9b32 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu420.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu483.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu483.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..456a22a --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu483.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu484.png b/38456-h/images/illu484.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab76482 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu484.png diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu519.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu519.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..223743d --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu519.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu522.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu522.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..413ad5d --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu522.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu525.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu525.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c96d2f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu525.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu528.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu528.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2a4b661 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu528.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu531.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu531.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ebe7d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu531.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu544.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu544.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..06bb1a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/illu544.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate066.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate066.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a731485 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate066.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67e540b --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate177.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate177.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..78d9d0d --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate177.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..32d767a --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate254.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate254.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4afd5fd --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate254.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..745ebd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate325.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate325.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..51f4590 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate325.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..afb2853 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate404.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate404.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..657abbf --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate404.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb2f992 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate485.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate485.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bd09d3d --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate485.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..33829b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate542.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate542.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..56a74f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate542.jpg diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..afa8ebe --- /dev/null +++ b/38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg |
