initial commit of ebook 38456HEADmain

82 files changed, 61043 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/38456-0.txt b/38456-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..838b317
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,14412 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the
+Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I
+       (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order
+       of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859,
+       Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the
+       Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the
+       Austrian Navy.
+
+Author: Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+Commentator: Alexander von Humboldt
+
+Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38456]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been faithfully
+replicated except as listed near the end of this document under another
+Transcriber's Note. Italicized words are indicated _like this_. Bold words
+are indicated =like this=. Fractions are indicated like this:
+3-14159/100000. The oe ligature is indicated like this: man[oe]uvre.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: CHART OF THE TRACK OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE NOVARA
+ON HER VOYAGE ROUND THE GLOBE _In The Years 1857, 1858 & 1859._]
+
+
+
+
+                               NARRATIVE
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                     Circumnavigation of the Globe
+
+                        BY THE AUSTRIAN FRIGATE
+
+                                NOVARA,
+
+                 (COMMODORE B. VON WULLERSTORF-URBAIR,)
+
+             _Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government_,
+
+                     IN THE YEARS 1857, 1858, & 1859,
+
+           UNDER THE IMMEDIATE AUSPICES OF HIS I. AND R. HIGHNESS
+
+                   THE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND MAXIMILIAN,
+
+               COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+                          DR. KARL SCHERZER,
+
+                 MEMBER OF THE EXPEDITION, AUTHOR OF
+                 "TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA," ETC.
+
+                               VOL. I.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                               LONDON:
+
+                      _SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO._
+
+                   66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE.
+
+                                1861.
+
+                 [THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.]
+
+
+                               LONDON:
+                    PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
+                      ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+
+
+                                  TO
+
+                     SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON,
+
+      G.C.S.ST., M.A., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., G.S., L.S., F.R.G.S.,
+
+ DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
+
+                     TRUST. BRIT. MUS., ETC., ETC.,
+
+              THE GREAT PROMOTER OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE,
+
+                 These Pages are respectfully Inscribed,
+
+              IN RECOGNITION OF HIS VALUABLE EXERTIONS IN
+                   ADVANCING THE SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS
+                      OF THE AUSTRIAN EXPEDITION,
+
+                              AS WELL AS
+
+  IN GRATITUDE FOR THE HOSPITABLE RECEPTION SECURED TO THE NAVIGATORS
+
+                 THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES,
+
+           WHEREVER IT WAS THEIR GOOD FORTUNE TO CAST ANCHOR,
+
+                                  BY
+
+                 THE AUTHOR OF THE FOLLOWING NARRATIVE.
+
+
+[Illustration: LETTER.]
+
+[Illustration: LETTER CONTINUED.]
+
+
+
+
+                     PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+
+A member of the scientific corps attached to the Expedition, which, under
+the auspices of that enlightened friend of science and liberty, the
+Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, was despatched on a voyage round the globe,
+the high honour has been conferred upon me of having entrusted to my care
+the publication of the Narrative of our Cruise.
+
+In this not more difficult than enviable task, I have been most liberally
+assisted by my eminent fellow-labourers--the whole literary material
+collected during the voyage having been kindly placed at my disposal. The
+comprehensive journals and reports of the venerable Commander-in-Chief of
+the Expedition, Commodore Wullerstorff-Urbair, as well as the various
+memoranda of the other members of the Scientific Commission, contributed
+materially to the elucidation of my own general notes, as well as my
+observations upon special subjects, which latter chiefly referred to the
+Geography, Ethnography, and general Statistics of the various countries
+visited.
+
+While preparing the details of our voyage for publication in my own
+language, the idea perpetually presented itself that a translation of this
+narrative into English might prove not unacceptable to the British public.
+And although fully aware that a voyage round the globe, in the course of
+which little more than the coasts were visited of the various countries we
+touched at, could not pretend to offer much new information to the
+greatest of maritime nations, it seemed, nevertheless, that it might
+interest a people so eager in the pursuit of knowledge as the English, to
+know the impression which has been made upon travellers of education by
+the Colonies and Settlements of Britain throughout the world.
+
+The English language, moreover, being spoken more or less over the greater
+part of the earth's surface, geographically speaking, the author who
+addresses his readers in that tongue is sustained by the flattering
+conviction that he will be understood by the majority of the nations of
+the globe! For it is not alone the educated classes of all countries that
+seek to master a language which possesses such a grand--all but unrivalled
+literature! The political and commercial development which Great Britain
+enjoys under the benign influence of liberal institutions, has made
+English the medium of intercourse among almost all sea-faring nations;
+nay, even barbarous tribes find it their obvious interest to get a slight
+inkling at least of the language of a people whose civilizing and
+elevating energies they may not, it is true, understand, far less
+appreciate, but whose imposing power inspires them with awe, while they
+are more closely attached by the tie of material advantage.
+
+The following narrative describes the most important occurrences and most
+lasting impressions of a voyage during which we traversed 51,686 miles,
+visited twenty-five different places, and spent 551 days at sea, and 298
+at anchor or on shore.
+
+As the purely scientific results of the Expedition will be published
+separately under the supervision of Commodore Wullerstorf and the other
+members of the scientific corps, I shall, in this place, only attempt to
+place before the reader a general outline of the countries and races
+visited during our cruise in different regions of the world.
+
+In relating simply and concisely what was seen and experienced, I have
+endeavoured to avoid incurring the reproach, so frequently launched by
+English critics against German works of travel, of dryness and minute
+detail, such as render them distasteful to the English reader, and make it
+almost impossible to enlist his attention or evoke his sympathy.
+
+If, as is specially the case with respect to natural science, many a
+doubtful point still remains undecided--if the ingenious "Suggestions" of
+the immortal Alexander von Humboldt (for the translation of which I feel
+particularly indebted to that profound scholar, my learned and esteemed
+friend Mr. Haidinger, whose name will be familiar to the scientific world
+in Great Britain), could not be acted upon to the extent and in the
+effectual manner each of us could have wished, the reason for such
+deficiencies will be found in the peculiar mission of the Expedition, and
+in the arrangement of our route, which was specially laid out with
+reference to the numerous and widely different objects, which it was
+specially intended to keep in view throughout the voyage.
+
+Among the more prominent of these, may be specified the opportunity thus
+afforded for the practical instruction of our young and rapidly-increasing
+navy; the unfurling of the Imperial flag of Austria in those distant
+climes, where it had never before floated; the promulgation of commercial
+treaties; the aid afforded to science in exploration and investigation, as
+well as by the collection of those objects of Natural History, the
+acquisition of which is all but impossible to the solitary naturalist,
+owing to the expense and difficulty of transport,[1] and the establishment
+everywhere of friendly correspondence between our own scientific
+institutions and those in remote regions, I have considered it necessary
+to invite the attention of the British reading public to these
+circumstances, in order to make them more intimately cognisant of our
+various and manifold tasks, and thus make them the more readily disposed
+to overlook the deficiencies and discrepancies of this book, which I now
+respectfully commit to their perusal.
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding the short period at our disposal at each
+port, which concomitant necessity militates so much against the practical
+utility of a circumnavigation of the globe as compared with an expedition
+solely directed to one single centre of scientific observation, the
+collection of objects of Natural History made during the cruise are very
+extensive, and unusually rich in new or rare species. The zoological
+department alone embraces above 23,700 individuals of different kinds of
+animals: viz. 440 mammalia, 300 reptiles, 1500 birds, 1400 _Amphibiæ_,
+1330 fish, 9000 insects, 8900 Molluscs and _Crustaceæ_, 300 birds' eggs
+and nests, besides numerous skeletons. The botanical collection consists
+of _Herbaria_, seeds of useful plants, special regard being had to those
+best adapted for the various climates of the respective Austrian
+provinces, drugs, specimens of dye-woods, and timber, fruits preserved in
+alcohol, &c. The Geological and Palæontological Museums of our country
+have likewise been enriched with various rare and valuable specimens,
+particularly in consequence of Dr. Hochstetter, the geologist of the
+Expedition, having prolonged his stay in New Zealand, where, at the
+special request of the Colonial Government, he explored the province of
+Auckland. The Ethnographical and Anthropological collection consists of
+above 550 objects, among which are 100 skulls, representing the craniology
+of almost all the races of the globe.]
+
+Before concluding, I beg leave to express my hearty thanks to all those
+who have contributed in such various ways to aid my humble efforts--to
+specify some were invidious, as in so doing I must wrong others. To each
+and all I return the most heartfelt gratitude.
+
+May the indulgent reader peruse the following pages with an approving
+eye--may they afford him as much satisfaction and as much interest as I
+experienced in committing to paper the descriptions and impressions
+therein set forth, since in so doing, I, so to speak, made the delightful
+voyage for the second time, and in thought visited once more the different
+localities, from every one of which I, and my fellow-travellers, brought
+away none but the most friendly and agreeable recollections.
+
+It inspires a _German_ traveller with a peculiar and lofty feeling of
+pride and delight that he can look upon himself as belonging to a race, to
+whom seems to have been reserved the diffusion of a New Life over the
+earth--whose special mission it appears to be to make even the most
+primitive tribes in the remotest corner of the world acquainted with the
+blessings of Christian civilization, of political liberty, of intellectual
+culture, and, standing triumphant on the ruins of slavery and despotism,
+to proclaim to the great family of universal mankind, the advent of a new,
+a vernal era of Faith, Freedom, and Happiness!
+
+                                           DR. KARL SCHERZER.
+
+TRIESTE, _18th March, 1861_.
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                      PREPARATIONS FOR THE VOYAGE.
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+   Approval of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+     Voyage round the World.--Object of the Expedition.--
+     Appointment of a Scientific Commission.--Preparations.--
+     Fitting out the Frigate _Novara_ at Pola.--Departure for
+     Trieste.--Visit of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian on board.      1
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                      FROM TRIESTE TO GIBRALTAR.
+
+   Departure.--Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.--A Man lost and found
+     again.--Passage through the Straits of Messina.--The Steamer
+     _Sta. Lucia_ returns to Trieste.--Regulations and Instructions
+     for further Proceedings.--A Day on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Sunrise.--Cleaning the Ship.--Mental and Physical Occupation.--
+     Moonlight at Sea.                                                  11
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III.
+
+                              GIBRALTAR.
+
+   Political Significance of the Rock.--Courtesy of the British
+     Authorities.--Fortifications.--Signal Stations.--The only
+     Place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.--Calcareous Caves.--
+     Chief Entrances into the Town.--Shutting the Town Gates.--
+     Public Establishments.--Inhabitants.--Elliott's Gardens.--The
+     Isthmus, or Neutral Ground.--Algeziras.--Ceuta.--Commerce and
+     Navigation.--Excellent Regulation in the English Navy relative
+     to Officers' Outfit.--Small-pox appears on board the
+     _Caroline_.--Departure from Gibraltar.--A Fata Morgana.--The
+     _Novara_ passes the Straits.--Takes leave of Europe.--Voyage
+     to Madeira.--Floating Bottles to ascertain the Currents.--
+     Arrival in the Roads of Funchal.                                   29
+
+
+                             CHAPTER IV.
+
+                               MADEIRA.
+
+   First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the
+     Island.--History.--Unfavourable Political Circumstances
+     connected with the Cultivation of the Ground.--Aqueducts.--
+     First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its
+     Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a Compensation for its Loss.--
+     Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence
+     for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the
+     Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress
+     among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--
+     Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--
+     Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent
+     Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--
+     Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent
+     of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to
+     Funchal.--Departure.                                               58
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                           RIO DE JANEIRO.
+
+   Brazil the Land of Contrasts.--Appearance of the City of Rio and
+     its Environs.--Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and the
+     Tejuca Waterfalls.--Germans in Rio.--Brazilian Literary Men.--
+     Assacú (_Hura Brasiliensis_.)--Snake-bite as an Antidote
+     against Leprosy.--Public Institutions.--Negroes of the
+     Mozambique Coast.--The House of Misericordia.--Lunatic
+     Asylum.--Botanical Garden.--Public Instruction.--
+     Historico-Geographical Institution.--_Palæstra Scientifica._--
+     Military Academy.--Library.--Conservatory of Music.--Sanitary
+     Police.--Yellow Fever and Cholera.--Water Party on the Bay.--
+     Chamber of Deputies.--Petropolis.--Condition of the Slave
+     Population.--Prospects of German Emigration.--Suitability of
+     Brazil as a Market for German Commerce.--Natural Products, and
+     Exchange of Manufactures.--Audience of the Emperor and
+     Empress.--Extravagant Waste of Powder for Salvoes.--Songs of
+     the Sailors.--Departure from Rio.--Retrospect.--South-east
+     Trades.--Cape Pigeons.--Albatrosses--Cape Tormentoso.--A Storm
+     at the Cape.--Various Methods of Measuring the Height of
+     Waves.--Arrival in Simon's Bay.                                   121
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                          CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
+
+   Contrasts of Scenery and Seasons at Cape Colony.--Ramble through
+     Simon's Town.--Malay Population.--The Toad-fish, or
+     Sea-devil.--Rondebosch and its delightful Scenery.--Cape
+     Town.--Influence of the English Element.--Scientific and other
+     Institutions.--Botanical Gardens.--Useful Plants.--Foreign
+     Emigration.--A Caffre Prophet and the Consequences of his
+     Prophecies.--Caffre Prisoners in the Armstrong Battery.--Five
+     young Caffres take Service as Sailors on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Trip into the Interior.--Stellenbosch.--Paarl.--Worcester.--
+     Brand Vley.--The Mission of Moravian Brethren at Genaadendal.--
+     Masticatories and intoxicating Substances used by the
+     Hottentots.--Caledon.--Somerset West.--Zandvliet.--Tomb of a
+     Malay Prophet.--Horse Sickness.--Tsetse-fly.--Vineyards of
+     Constantia.--_Fête Champétre_ in Honour of the _Novara_.--
+     Excursion to the actual Cape of Good Hope.--Departure.--A Life
+     saved.--Experiments with Brook's Deep-sea Sounding Apparatus.--
+     Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South Indian Ocean.      196
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII.
+
+    THE ISLANDS OF ST. PAUL AND AMSTERDAM, IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN.
+
+   Former History.--Importance of the Situation of St. Paul.--
+     Present Inhabitants.--Preliminary Observations.--To whom do
+     the Islands belong?--Fisheries.--Hot springs.--Singular
+     Experiment.--Penguins.--Disembarkation.--Inclement Weather.--
+     Remarks on the Climate of the Island.--Cultivation of European
+     Vegetables.--Animal Life.--Library in a Fisherman's Hut.--
+     Narrative of old Viot.--Re-embarkation.--An official Document
+     left behind.--Some Results obtained during the Stay of the
+     Expedition.--Visit to the Island of Amsterdam.--Whalers.--
+     Search for a Landing-place.--Remarks on the Natural History of
+     the Islands.--A Conflagration.--Comparison of the Two
+     Islands.--A _Rencontre_ at Sea.--Trade-wind.--Christmas at
+     Sea.--"A man overboard!"--Cingalese Canoe.--Arrival at Point
+     de Galle, in Ceylon.                                              267
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                                CEYLON.
+
+   Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English Government.--
+     Better Prospects for the Future.--The Cingalese, their
+     Language and Customs.--Buddhism and its Ordinances.--Visit to
+     a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of Galle.--The sacred
+     Bo-tree.--Other Aborigines of Ceylon.--The Weddàhs.--
+     Traditions as to their Origin.--Galle as a City and Harbour.--
+     Snake-charmers.--Departure for Colombo.--Cultivation of the
+     Cocoa-nut Palm a benevolent, Buddha-pleasing work.--
+     Polyandria; or, Community of Husbands--Supposed Origin.--
+     Annual Exportation of Cocoa-nuts.--Rest-houses for
+     Travellers.--Curry the national Dish.--A Misfortune and its
+     Consequences.--The Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn,
+     and Father Miliani.--Annoying Delays with restive Horses.--
+     Colombo.--A Stroll through the "_Pettah_," or Black Town.--Ice
+     Trade of the Americans with Tropical Countries.--Cinnamon
+     Gardens and Cinnamon Cultivation.--Consequences of the
+     Monopoly of Cinnamon.--Rise and Expansion of the Coffee
+     Culture in Ceylon.--Pearl-fishery.--Latest Examination of the
+     Ceylon Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+     Results.--Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.--The Divers.--
+     Pearl-lime, a chewing Substance of wealthy Malays.--Annual
+     Profit of the Pearl-fishery.--Origin of the Pearl.--Poetry and
+     Natural Science.--Artificial Production of the Pearl.--The
+     Chank-shell.--The Wealth of Ceylon in Precious Stones.--Visit
+     to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.--The Cowry-shell, a Promoter
+     of the Slave Trade.--Discovery of valuable Cingalese MSS. on
+     Palm-leaves.--The heroic Poem of "Mahawanso," and Turnour's
+     English Translation of it.--Hospitality of English Officials
+     in Colombo.--A second Visit to Father Miliani.--Agreeable
+     Reception.--The Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous
+     Snakes.--Adventures on the Journey back to Galle.--Ascent of
+     Adam's Peak by two Members of the Expedition.--The Sacred
+     Footprint.--Descent.--The "Bullock-bandy," or Native Waggon.--
+     Departure from Galle for Madras.--The Bassos (Shallows).--A
+     Berlin Rope-dancer among the Passengers.--Nyctalopia; or,
+     Night Blindness.--Fire on Board.--Arrival in Madras Roads.        345
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX.
+
+                                  MADRAS.
+
+   "Catamarans" and "Masuli" Boats.--Difficulty of Disembarkation,
+     and Plans for remedying it.--History.--Brahminism.--Festival
+     in Honour of Vishnù.--Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+     Government.--Politics and Religion.--Laws of Brahminic Faith.--
+     The Observatory.--Museum of Natural History and Zoological
+     Garden.--Academy of Fine Arts.--Medical School.--Infirmary.--
+     Orphan Asylum.--Dr. Bell.--Lancastrian Method of Teaching
+     Children first Applied in Madras.--Colonel Mackenzie's
+     Collection of Indian Inscriptions and MSS.--The Palace of the
+     former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.--Journey by Rail to
+     Vellore.--_Féte_ given by the Governor in Guindy Park.--Visit
+     to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.--Excursion to
+     Pulicat Lake.--Madras Club.--_Féte_ in Honour of the Members
+     of the _Novara_ Expedition.--"Tiffin" and Dance on Board.--
+     Departure from Madras.--Zodiacal Light.--Shrove Tuesday in the
+     Tropics.--Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.                   424
+
+
+
+
+                       LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+                               VOL. I.
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+         The Track Of The Austrian Imperial Frigate
+           Novara.                            _frontispiece_
+
+         Letter.                                         iii
+
+         Letter Continued.                                iv
+
+         Notes.                                          xvi
+
+         Departure.                                        1
+
+         Gun-room of the _Novara_.                         4
+
+         Plate: Vertical Section of the Frigate
+           "Novara".                                       7
+
+         Geodetical and Astronomical Instruments.         10
+
+         Look-out Man.                                    11
+
+         Track from Triest To Madeira.                    11
+
+         "Palinurus".                                     16
+
+         Seamen off duty.                                 21
+
+         View of Gibraltar from Seaward.                  28
+
+         Rock of Gibraltar.                               29
+
+         Rock Cavern in Gibraltar.                        34
+
+         South Gate, Gibraltar.                           38
+
+         Inhabitant of Frangola.                          47
+
+         Cape Trafalgar.                                  52
+
+         Loo Rock (Madeira).                              57
+
+         Scene in Madeira.                                58
+
+         Bridge over the Ribeiro Seco.                    70
+
+         Carapuça, or Cap worn by the Natives of
+           Madeira.                                       91
+
+         Cathedral of Madeira.                            95
+
+         Sleigh party in Madeira.                         97
+
+         Village of Fayal.                                99
+
+         "El Homem em pié".                              101
+
+         Erica Trees.                                    103
+
+         Track From Madeira to Rio Di Janeiro.           107
+
+         Cape Frio.                                      120
+
+         The Quay at Rio.                                121
+
+         Island of Paquità, Bay of Rio.                  156
+
+         Track from Rio Di Janeiro to the Cape
+           Of Good Hope.                                 182
+
+         Cabo Tormentoso.                                195
+
+         Cape Town.                                      196
+
+         Rifle Volunteer _Fête_ at Stellenbosch.         217
+
+         Paine's Kloef as it was.                        220
+
+         Paine's Kloef as it is.                         220
+
+         Crossing the Breede River.                      226
+
+         Hot Springs of Brand Vley.                      227
+
+         Hottentot Huts at Genaadendal.                  233
+
+         Church and Mission Houses of the Moravian
+           Settlement at Genaadendal.                    237
+
+         Tomb of a Malay Prophet at Zandvliet.           245
+
+         Interior of the Mausoleum.                      246
+
+         Tsetse Fly.                                     252
+
+         Track from the Cape Of Good Hope to St. Paul's
+           Island.                                       259
+
+         Arrival at St. Paul.                            266
+
+         View of St. Paul.                               267
+
+         Distant view of Crater-Basin of St. Paul.       275
+
+         Rainy day at St. Paul.                          300
+
+         Track from St. Paul to Point De Galle (Ceylon). 309
+
+         Cingalese Canoe.                                344
+
+         View of Adam's Peak from Colombo.               345
+
+         Buddha Temple near Galle.                       353
+
+         Interior of a House at Galle.                   359
+
+         Track from Point De Galle To Madras.            418
+
+         Masuli Boat at Madras.                          423
+
+         View of Madras (and Proposed Pier).             424
+
+         The Holy Mountain.                              458
+
+         The god Ganeza.                                 461
+
+         Bivouac at Mahamalaipuran.                      464
+
+         Bas-relief on one of the Monolith Temples.      467
+
+         Entrance to One of the Temples.                 470
+
+         Track from Madras to the Nicobar Islands.       480
+
+         Arrival at Kar-Nicobar.                         482
+
+
+[Illustration: LETTER.]
+
+Transcriber's Note: The text of the letter above, along with supplemental
+address information, are in the first volume of the German edition:
+
+  Sr. Hochwohlgeboren
+  dem Herrn Oberst von Wüllerstorf,
+  kais. kön. Linienschiffs-Capitän,
+  Befehlshaber S. Maj. Fregatte Novara,
+  Ritter hoher Orden &c. &c. &c.
+  in
+  Triest.
+
+
+               Hochwohlgeborener Herr,
+
+             Hochzuverehrender Herr Oberst, k. k. Linien-Schiffs-Capitän.
+
+Ew. Hochwohlgeb. wollen, als Befehlshaber Sr. Maj. Fregatte Novara, die zu
+einem großen, edeln, das deutsche Vaterland und die Wissenschaft ehrenden
+Unternehmen durch kaiserliche Huld bestimmt ist, den Ausdruck meiner
+Verehrung nachsichtsvoll empfangen, indem ich, von der Zeit naher Abfahrt
+in halber Genesung bedrängt, es wage, Ihnen einige _physikalische_ und
+_geognostische Erinnerungen_ ganz gehorsamst vorzulegen, von denen Einiges
+vielleicht den ausgezeichneten Gelehrten, die die Expedition zu begleiten
+das Glück haben, von Nuzen sein kann. Ich würde dies Wenige nicht
+angeboten haben, wenn eine so genädige und liebenswürdige Aufforderung Sr.
+kaiserl. Hoheit des Herrn Erzherzogs Ferdinand Maximilian mich nicht dazu
+bestimmt hätte. Was ich Nautisches über Richtung und Temperatur der
+Meeresströhmungen, über die magnetischen Curven eingeflochten habe, muß
+ich besonders _Ihrer_ Nachsicht empfehlen. Wenn man erinnert, scheint man
+belehren zu wollen, und von dieser Anmaßung bin ich weit entfernt. Da kein
+Entwurf, keine Abschrift meiner, wenigstens fleißigen, mit Zahlen
+überladenen Arbeit existirt, so wäre es vielleicht vorsichtig, sie von
+Jemand, der der behandelten Gegenstände kundig ist, abschreiben zu lassen.
+Meine gelehrten und mir lieben Freunde Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter, Dr. Karl
+Scherzer und Dr. Robert Lallemant, der mich bei seiner letzten Durchreise
+durch Berlin, um mir sein wichtiges Werk über das Gelbe Fieber in der
+Tropenzone zu geben, verfehlt hat, wage ich dringend Ihrem besonderen
+Schuze und Wohlwollen zu empfehlen.
+
+Mit der innigsten Verehrung und den heißesten Wünschen für den Erfolg
+eines so schön vorbereiteten Unternehmens
+
+                              Ew. Hochwohlgeboren
+
+                                               gehorsamster
+                                               Al. Humboldt.
+
+Berlin, den 7. April 1857 Nachts.
+
+
+
+
+                 PHYSICAL AND GEOGNOSTIC SUGGESTIONS,
+
+                                 BY
+
+                       ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT.
+
+
+In compliance with the gracious invitation which H.I.H. the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian was pleased to address to me from Trieste (December
+12th, 1856), and as yet barely recovered from an indisposition, I jot down
+these hasty notes, without presuming to give definite instructions, such
+as those I drew up, conjointly with M. Arago, for the guidance of the
+French expeditions, or for Lord Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty,
+on the occasion of the Antarctic Voyage of Discovery of Sir James Ross
+(1840-43). The following pages consist simply of hints which may possibly
+prove serviceable to the distinguished and highly informed gentlemen, who
+have the good fortune to sail on board the Imperial Frigate, _Novara_,
+under the command of Commodore von Wüllerstorf. With two of these savans,
+Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter and Dr. Karl Scherzer, I have had the pleasure,
+here in Berlin, to agree verbally on various subjects.
+
+As I do not exactly know what course it is intended the _Novara_ shall
+follow in navigating the Atlantic, nor in what meridian it is proposed to
+cross the Equator, (in conformity with the sound and useful directions of
+my friend Lieut. Maury, of Washington), on her voyage to Rio de Janeiro,
+nor how near she shall keep to Cape San Roque and Fernando de Noronha, I
+must content myself with inviting the attention of the voyagers in a
+general way to the temperature of the sea, as also to the variations and
+aberrations of the magnetic curves, and their currents.
+
+A lower degree of temperature is usually observed W. of the Canaries, and
+Cape Verde Islands, commencing with the Salvages, the thermometer
+indicating as low as 72°·7 Fahr. This has been already ascertained by Mr.
+Charles Deville, in his chart of temperature on the voyage "aux Antilles,
+à Ténériffe et à Fogo." I consider this diminution of temperature results
+from the North Guinea current, bringing with it cold water from the north
+southwards as far as the Bight of Biafra and the River Gaboon, at which
+point it is encountered by an opposite current flowing northwards along
+the south-western coast of Africa from Loando and Congo.
+
+In 1825, Captain Duperrey had accurately laid down the point of
+intersection of the magnetic, with the terrestrial equator. In 1837, we
+learned from Sabine's investigations of magnetic inclination near the
+Island of St. Thomas (on the Equator, adjoining the above portion of the
+coast of Africa), that this point of intersection had already shifted
+four degrees to the westward. A period of twenty years having elapsed
+since Sabine's expedition for determining observations with the pendulum,
+it would be most desirable that fresh investigations should be made in
+that neighbourhood, for the purpose of verifying the secular changes of
+all magnetic curves, especially with regard to their variation. In 1840,
+the line of no declination in America began 9° 30' E. of South Georgia,
+whence it ran to the S.E. coast of Brazil, near Cape Frio, thus traversing
+the mainland of South America only between the latter point and the
+parallel of 0° 36' S., when it leaves the continent a little to the east
+of Gran Parà, near Cape Tigioca, cutting the terrestrial equator again,
+but in 50° 6' W. According to Bache's Map of Equal Magnetic Declination,
+it reaches the coast of North America near Cape Fear, to the south-west of
+Cape Lookout. This line, along which the magnetic declination is _nil_,
+extends to a point in Lake Erie, 2° 40' W. of Toronto, where the
+declination is already 1° 27' W.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Wherever, in this paper, it is not precisely expressed to the
+contrary, the scale of the Centigrade Thermometer, the longitude from the
+Meridian of Paris, the French foot (_pied du roi_=12·79 inches English),
+and the geographical mile, 15 to a degree of the Equator, measuring 3807
+"toises," are meant.]
+
+It is evident from the observations of Captains Beechey and Findley, and
+still more particularly from those of the French Captain Kerhallet, that
+the remarkable subdivision of the main equinoctial current, flowing from
+east to west into two branches, one directed to the N.W., the other to the
+S.S.W., commences at a considerable distance from the Capes of St. Roque
+and St. Augustin. This bifurcation has always, and with good reason, been
+ascribed to the protruding convexity of the South American continent at
+these two promontories. It would be an important step gained in verifying
+the theory of currents, could the precise distance be ascertained by
+chronometer. It is apparently like an "_actio in distans_," probably a
+phenomenon of what is known as "packing." As the frigate, on leaving Rio
+de Janeiro is to make for the Cape of Good Hope, the opportunity will
+present, should she steer sufficiently southerly, for many interesting
+observations with respect to the _connecting current_ W.N.W. and E.S.E.
+which encounters that from Madagascar and Mozambique, close to the Cape,
+more especially with regard to the temperature of the sea.
+
+If the frigate is intended to approach the small cluster of islands of
+Fernando de Noronha, E. of Pernambuco (Lat. 3° 50' S.), I would recommend
+to that excellent geognostic, Dr. Hochstetter, the hornblendic phonolithe
+rock found there, far from a volcanic crater, but with trachytic dykes and
+basaltic amygdaloid. The flat little island of St. Paul (Peñedo de San
+Pedro), 1° N. Lat., singular to say, is not volcanic at all, containing,
+like the Malouin or Falkland Islands, slaty green-stone passing into
+serpentine.
+
+Should the frigate alter her course and cross the Equator more to the
+eastward, without touching at Rio de Janeiro, she might possibly fall in
+with the Marine Volcanic region, (Lat. 0° 20' S., Long. 22° W.), which
+has quite lately become famous again by the U. S. Expedition of the Brig
+_Dolphin_ (1854), commanded by Lieutenant Lee. On 19th May, 1806, columns
+of black smoke were seen issuing from the sea by Krusenstern, and volcanic
+ashes were gathered, after a singular bubbling of the sea from 1748 to
+1836, according to careful investigations by Daussy.
+
+As the frigate is commissioned to visit Ceylon and the Nicobar Islands,
+she cannot sail direct from the Cape to Australia; and the hope must
+therefore be abandoned of her visiting the small basaltic islands, known
+as Prince Edward's (47° 2' S., 38° E.), and Possession (46° 28' S., 47°
+30' E.), belonging to the Crozet's Group, or the two islands, long
+confounded with each other, of Amsterdam (Lat. 37° 48' S.) and St. Paul
+(Lat. 38° 38' S.) The latter island, the more southerly of the two, (a
+very characteristic drawing of which was given by Willem de Vlaming so far
+back as 1696), is supposed to be volcanic, not only by its form, which
+will at once remind the geologist of Santorin, Barren Island, and
+Deception Island, (one of the New Shetland group), but also in consequence
+of the eruption of steam, and the flames occasionally observed there.
+
+As for Amsterdam, which consists of a single densely-wooded mountain, the
+puzzle remains for solution as to how, during the expedition of
+D'Entrecasteaux in 1792, the whole island seemed, during two entire days,
+enveloped in smoke; whereas, on landing there, the naturalists of that
+expedition were satisfied that the mountain was not an active volcano,
+and that the columns of steam issued out of the ground near the shore! As
+yet, the phenomenon remains entirely unexplained.
+
+If we examine any map of the Indian Ocean, we may trace the continuation
+of the Sunda group from Sumatra, N.W., through the Nicobar, and Great and
+Little Andaman Islands, and thence through the volcanoes of Barren Island,
+Narcondam and Cheduba, nearly parallel with the coasts of Malacca and
+Tenasserim, all on the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The minor
+volcanoes just enumerated will present valuable opportunities of
+geological enquiry.
+
+Along the coasts of Orissa and Coromandel, the western portion of the Bay
+of Bengal is quite free of islands, Ceylon, like Madagascar presenting
+rather the type of a continent.
+
+Off the W. coast of the peninsula of India, (that is opposite the
+Neilgherrie hills, and the coast of Canara and Malabar), there is a series
+of three archipelagoes, extending from 14° N. to 8° S., viz., the
+Laccadives, the Maldives, and the Chagos, which appears, as it were,
+continued through the banks of Sahia di Malha, and Cargados Carajos, to
+the volcanic group of the Mascarenhas and Madagascar. As the first-named
+archipelagoes, so far as is yet known, consist solely of coral, and are,
+consequently, true "atolls," or reef-lagoons, the bottom of the ocean
+should be examined over a large extent, adopting the ingenious hypothesis
+of Darwin, that it is to be considered _as an area of subsidence_, rather
+than an elevated region.
+
+It would also be a matter of great importance to get observations
+respecting terrestrial magnetism, particularly so as to define the
+position of a given segment of the magnetic equator. Capt. Elliott, as the
+result of his comprehensive studies, (1846-49), ascertained that the
+magnetic equator passes through the north end of Borneo, and thence nearly
+due W. to the northern extremity of Ceylon. In this region the curve of
+minimum intensity is nearly parallel to the magnetic equator, which
+intersects the Continent of Africa near Cape Guardafui--according to
+Rochet d'Héricourt, in lat. 10° 7' N., long. 38° 5'. E. Between this point
+and the Bight of Biafra nothing is known.
+
+The South Asiatic islands comprise Formosa, the Philippines, the Sunda
+group, and the Moluccas. The great and little Sunda Islands and the
+Moluccas embrace 109 volcanoes, with fiery eruptions, and 10 what are
+called mud-volcanoes. This is not a mere estimate, but is the result of an
+enumeration by Junghuhn, who, within the last year (1856), has returned to
+Java, and thoroughly equipped by M. Pahud, Governor-General of the Indian
+Netherlands, will be of great assistance to the Imperial Expedition.
+
+An exact mineralogical determination of the volcanic rocks (trachytes) is
+unfortunately wanting everywhere.
+
+The most active volcano of Sumatra is the Gunung Merapi (8980 feet), which
+must not be confounded with a volcano in Java, of the same name. That of
+Sumatra was ascended by Dr. L. Horner, and Dr. Korthals in 1834. We may
+pronounce Indrapura (11,500 feet, but this measurement is very uncertain),
+and Gunung Pasoman (9010 feet), the Ophir of our maps, to be utterly
+unknown geologically. The highest of the Java volcanoes is Gunung Semeru
+(11,480 feet), ascended by Junghuhn in 1844, 1220 feet higher than the
+Etna. The largest craters of the 45 which are disposed in a line along the
+shores of Java, are Gunung Tengger, and Gunung Raou. Dr. Junghuhn has
+recently given the outlines of each separate volcano in his splendid
+topographical and geological map of Java, in four sheets, published in
+1856, which does great credit to the Dutch Government.
+
+The following subjects are worthy of special attention while the frigate
+is at Java.
+
+1. The curious phenomenon of the ribbed surface. (_Vide_ Junghuhn, Java,
+Part II., p. 608.)
+
+2. The disposition, as yet unaccounted for, of a series of
+regularly-shaped hills, formed by the mud-streams ejected in the year 1822
+by the volcano of Gunung Galungung. (_Vide ut suprà_, pp. 127-731.)
+
+3. The ejection of water by the Gunung Idjen, on 21st January, 1817, (pp.
+707, and 717-121).
+
+4. The erroneousness of the assertion that the volcanoes of the Island of
+Java do not emit streams of real lava.
+
+It must be admitted that the mighty Javanese volcano, Gunung Merapi,
+already alluded to, has not, within the historic period, presented any
+coherent compact streams of lava, but mere fragments and boulders;
+although in 1837, lines of fire were seen running uninterruptedly from
+the top down the sides of the cones in eruption. But each of the three
+volcanoes, Tengger, Idjen, and Slamat, present examples of black lava
+currents, descending as far as the tertiary strata.
+
+Streams of stone-boulders, red-hot, similar to those of the Cotopaxi, but
+scarcely touching each other, flowed from Gunung Lamorgan on 6th July,
+1838.
+
+No active volcano is known in the island of Borneo. The highest mountain
+of the whole island, perhaps of the whole insular world of Southern Asia,
+is the Hina Baïlu (12,850 feet?) on the northern point of Borneo. It is as
+yet unexplored. According to Dr. Lewis Horner, son of the astronomer of
+the Krusenstern expedition, there occur among the syenite and serpentine
+mountain range of Rathus, on the S.E. of the island, deposits yielding
+gold (which has even been worked by diggings), diamonds, platinum,
+iridium, and osmium,--presenting, in fact, a similar association to those
+of the Ural mountains. No mention is made of palladium. Rajah (now Sir
+James) Brooke describes in the province of Sarawak in Borneo, a low hill,
+Gunung Api ("hill of fire" in Malay), the slags of which attest former
+volcanic activity. A visit to Borneo would be of very great service.
+
+There are eleven volcanoes in Celebes, and six in Flores, all active.
+
+It is still uncertain whether the conical mountain Wawari, or Atiti,
+which is more generally known as the volcano of the island of Amboyna,
+ever poured out anything except hot mud (1674), or whether it should be
+merely classed as a _solfatara_. The main group of the South Asiatic
+Islands is connected through the Moluccas and the Philippines with the
+Papua and Pellew islands, and the Caroline Archipelago of the South Sea.
+
+The most important geological fact to be remarked with reference to the
+island of Formosa, abounding in mineral coals, is the break in the line of
+direction of the open vents, when, instead of N.E. to S.W., the central
+line follows the meridian line, which it pursues nearly as far as 6° S.,
+passing through Formosa and the Philippine Islands (Luzon and Mindanao),
+respecting which deviation nothing certain is known, and in which region
+every mountain of conical shape, or outline is invariably set down as a
+volcano, even though there should be no indications of a crater. The
+Sooloo Archipelago forms the connecting link between the islands of Borneo
+and Mindanao, the long, narrow island of Palawan, constituting that
+between Borneo and Mindoro.
+
+The Island of Yesso, separated from that of Niphon by the Straits of
+Sangar, or Tsugar, and from the islands of Krafto (Saghalien) and Tschoka,
+or Tarakai, by the Straits of La Pérouse, connects, through its North
+Eastern Cape, with the archipelago of the Kuriles. From Broughton's
+Southern Vulcan Bay up to its northernmost point, Yesso is traversed by an
+uninterrupted range of volcanoes--a fact the more worthy of being
+recorded, as in the expedition of La Pérouse there were found red porous
+lavas, as well as wide areas, covered with slags, in the Baie des
+Castries, in the narrow island of Krafto (Saghalien), which is, as it
+were, merely a continuation of Yesso. In our own day these regions command
+a higher interest, from a political point of view, more especially since
+Russia, dissatisfied with the situation of Okhotsk, at the sanded mouth of
+the Amoor, was anxious, after the destruction of Petropaulowski, on the
+coast of Kamtschatka, to obtain, on the S.E. coast, a harbour suitable
+for a military station.
+
+Among the three islands which form the main portion of the Japanese
+Empire, six volcanoes are known to have had eruptions in the historic
+period. The volcano, Fusi Jama, in Niphon, province of Suruga (Lat. 35°
+18' N., Long. 136° 15' E., altitude 11,675 feet), is said to have risen
+out of the plain 286 years before the Christian era. Its last eruption was
+in 1707. The volcano, Asama Jama, in the district of Saku, between the
+meridians of the two capitals, Miaco and Jeddo, was last in eruption in
+1783. On the island of Kiusiu, adjoining the peninsula of Corea, four
+volcanoes are situated, from one of which, called Wanzen, there was a most
+destructive eruption in 1793.
+
+The beautiful work of Commodore Perry, U.S.N., detailing his mission to
+Japan, on the part of the United States Government, in 1852, containing
+excellent photographs of races, as also drawings by the Berlin artist,
+Wilhelm Heine, does not, as yet, comprise the scientific results of that
+expedition.
+
+Proceeding northwards, the volcanoes are more densely crowded, and are
+found arranged in series. Of the fifty-four which I enumerated as still in
+activity among the islands of Eastern Asia, there are thirty-four on the
+Aleutian, and ten on the Kurile Islands. The Peninsula of Kamtschatka
+contains nine volcanoes, which have been in activity within the historic
+period. Lying under the 54th and 60th degrees of northern latitude, we see
+a long strip of sea-bottom between two continents undergoing a perpetual
+process of destruction and re-arrangement.
+
+The South Sea, the superficial extent of which is one-sixth greater than
+that of the entire solid crust of our planet, actually presents a smaller
+number of active volcanoes, less vents for communication between the
+centre of the earth and its atmospheric envelope, than the single Island
+of Java! Out of 40 volcanic cones, including those which are extinct, only
+26 have been seen in eruption during the historic period. They are not
+scattered at random, but, on the contrary, as was pointed out by Mr. James
+Dana, the ingenious geologist of the great United States Exploring
+Expedition, under the command of Capt. Wilkes (1838-42), they have been
+thrown up, at widely extending clefts, communicating by submarine mountain
+systems. They are arranged in groups and distinct regions, analogous to
+the mountain chains of Central Asia and Armenia (in the district of the
+Caucasus), and belong to two quite distinct systems, one running S.E. to
+N.W., the other S.S.W. to N.N.E.
+
+In the Hawaiian Archipelago (or Sandwich Island group), we find Mauna Loa,
+according to Wilkes, 12,900 feet in height, which does not present any
+cone of volcanic scoriæ (resembling, in this particular, the volcanoes of
+the Eifel), but has emitted streams of lava. The lava basin of Killauea,
+13,000 feet in its greatest, by 4800 in its smallest diameter, is not a
+_solfatara_, but a true lateral vent on the flank of the powerful Mauna
+Loa itself, exactly resembling the less elevated sheet of lava of Arak.
+Mauna Kea is 180 feet higher than Mauna Loa, but is extinct. Tafoa and
+Amangura, in the Tonga group, are still in eruption, the last discharge of
+lava having occurred in July, 1847. The volcano of Tanna was in full
+eruption during Capt. Cook's Voyage of Discovery in 1774, as was also the
+volcano of Ambrym, west of Malicollo in the archipelago of the New
+Hebrides. At the south point of New Caledonia, lies Matthew's Rock, a
+small smoking rocky island. The volcano of Santa Cruz, N.N.W. of Tina
+Kora, with periodical eruptions occasionally occurring at intervals of 10
+minutes, had been already noticed as a volcano by Mendana, so far back as
+1595. In the Salomon Archipelago, there is found the volcano of Sesarga,
+while others are said to be in full activity in the Marianas or Ladrones,
+just like those of Guguan, Pagon, and El Volcan Grande de Asuncion, which
+appear to have broken forth along a line that follows the meridian. In New
+Britannia, three conical mountains were observed vomiting streams of lava,
+by Tasman, Carteret, and Labillardière. There are two volcanoes in full
+activity on the north-east coast of New Guinea, opposite Admiralty
+Islands, which themselves are so rich in obsidian. In New Zealand,
+numerous regions abound in basaltic and trachytic rocks. Of active
+volcanoes there are Puhia-i-Wakati (the volcano of White Island), and the
+lofty cone of Tongariro (5816 feet). To the absence of centres of volcanic
+agency in New Caledonia, where sedimentary formations and seams of coal
+have recently been discovered, is ascribed the vast development of coral
+reefs. Dana was the first to ascend the Peak of Tafua, in the Island of
+Upolu, one of the Samoa group, not to be confounded with the still active
+volcano of Tafoa, south of Amangura, in the Tonga Archipelago. Dana found
+in it a crater overgrown with thick forest. So, too, on the isolated Vaihu
+or Easter Island group, there is found a range of conical mountains with
+craters, but inactive.
+
+Of the volcanic groups of the South Sea, the most violent is the farthest
+east, adjoining the shores of the New World, viz., the archipelago of the
+Gallipagos, which consists of five considerable islands, very admirably
+described by Darwin. There are streams of lava down to the very shore of
+the sea, but no pumice. Some of the trachytic lavas are said to abound
+with crystals of albite. It is important to examine whether or not this
+is oligoclase, as on Teneriffe, Popocatepetl, and Chimborazo; or
+labradorite, as on Etna and Stromboli. Palagonite, exactly similar to that
+of Iceland or in Italy, was discovered by Bunsen in the specimens of tufa
+from Chatham Island, one of the Gallipagos.
+
+New Holland does not show any signs of recent volcanic activity, except at
+its most southern point (Australia Felix), at the foot of the Grampian
+Mountains. N.W. from Port Philip, as also towards the Murray River, there
+are numbers of volcanic cones and sheets or flows of lava.
+
+It would be of great interest and utility to observe the relative
+inclinations of the Magnetic and the Geographical Equators, by means of
+the dip of the magnetic needle, though this will be rendered more
+difficult, from the fact of the ship's course being easterly, that is,
+contrary, to the Equinoctial current. As regards the low temperature of
+the current, which I discovered in 1802, running up from 40° S. to the
+Gallipagos along the coast of South America, and then turning westward, it
+would be highly important to investigate whether in the eastern part of
+the South Sea in 7° N. and between 117° and 140° W., there really exists
+in every season a _counter current_ from west to east. But I need not
+enlarge upon this topic to such attentive navigators.
+
+The line of no inclination was crossed six times by Duperrey between 1822
+and 1825. When I first discovered, near Truxillo, the low temperature of
+the cold Peruvian current, it was 12°·8 Réaumur (60°·8 Fahr.). The
+temperature observed in the course of twenty years by Mr. Dirckinck von
+Holmfeld, in the neighbourhood of Callao, expressed in degrees of Réaumur,
+were as follows:--
+
+ September  1802     12°·8  (Fahr. 60°·8)  }  Thermometer in the air.
+ November    "       12°·4  (  "   59°·9)  }  13°·3 Réaumur.
+ December,  end of   16°·8  (  "   69°·8)  }  (61°·92 Fahr.)
+ January    1825     12°·7  (  "   60°·57)
+ February    "       15°·3  (  "   66°·42)
+ March       "       15°·7  (  "   67°·32)
+ April       "       14°·5  (  "   64°·62)
+
+The temperature of the sea I found to be 22° Réaumur (81°·5 Fah.) north of
+Cape Blanco, when on my way from Callao de Lima, at which point the cold
+current diverged towards the Gallipagos.
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to
+74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to
+9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).
+
+In sailing from the Sandwich Islands to the west coast of America, the
+Imperial Expedition will have to choose between the Ports of San Francisco
+or Acapulco. The first choice would be of great mineralogical advantage
+for those regions of the United States, lying North of the river Gila.[3]
+Parallel with the chain of the Rocky Mountains, which, according to
+Marcou, contains up to the present day several volcanoes in full activity
+in its northern part (Lat. 46° 12' N.), run single, and at certain points
+double ranges of coast chains from San Diego to Monterey, from 32° 15' N.
+to 46° 45' N. They begin with the coast range specially so-called, which
+is a continuation of the high ridge of the Peninsula of Lower or Old
+California; after which, farther to the North, there follow in succession,
+first the Sierra Nevada di Alta California, between 36° and 38° N. the
+lofty Shasty mountains, and the Cascade Range, nearly twenty six miles
+distant from the littoral, including many high and active volcanoes, and
+extending far beyond Fuca Straits. The following are still in
+eruption:--Mount St. Elias (46° 2' N.); Mount Regnier, or Rainier, (46°
+46'); and Mount Baker, (48° 48'.) These three active cones would be most
+conveniently visited by the geologist of the expedition from San
+Francisco, as would likewise the whole Cascade Range. We have as yet no
+certain intelligence as to the geology of the entire longitudinal
+auriferous valley of the Sacramento River, (where a trachytic crater, in
+a state of disintegration, is known as the Butt of Sacramento). Does the
+auriferous quartz occur in veins, and are these still _in situ_, or are
+they broken up? What description of rock is traversed by these veins? Does
+the wash-gold here contain occasionally, as in the Ural Mountains,
+fragments of vein-stones with isolated cavities, in which are found
+impressions of leaves and membranes, clearly proving that they have not
+been rolled, or transported by water, any great distance to the spot they
+now occupy? Have these been found, alongside of gold, diamonds, platinum,
+osmium, iridium, or mercury?
+
+[Footnote 3: The Gila falls into the Colorado about forty miles above the
+embouchure of the latter into the head of the Gulf of California.]
+
+Should the frigate steer for Acapulco, it may be assumed that there exists
+an intention to cross the Continent to Mexico and Vera Cruz, from the
+volcano of Colima (1877 toises) as it were, along the parallel of the
+range of volcanoes, and greatest heights rising in detached groups between
+the two seas, about the parallel of 19° N. New astronomical observations
+are greatly needed for determining the position of the volcanoes of Colima
+and Jorullo (667 toises). The volcano of Colima, with its twin peaks _de
+fuego_ and _de nieve_, should be carefully examined, as also the volcano
+of Jorullo, with the fragments of granite enclosed in its lava; the Nevado
+de Toluca (2372 toises), Popocatepetl (2772 toises), Itztaccihuatl (2456
+toises), Cofre de Perote (2098 toises), and the volcano of Tuxtla (18° 28'
+N.), on the eastern slope of the Sierra St. Martin, from which a column of
+flame shot up with great violence on 2nd March, 1793, a fair specimen of
+what the Spaniards term _Malpays_, the Sicilians _Sciarra viva_. The face
+of the country is covered over with boulders of lava, at San Nicolas de
+los Ranchos, at the foot of Popocatepetl, adjoining the city of Puebla de
+los Angeles, after which, on the road from Puebla to Vera Cruz, will be
+observed two narrow strips of boulders of cooled basaltic lava, rich in
+olivine. Similar examples will be found at Parage de Carros, near
+Tochtilacuaja and Loma de Tablas, between Cancas and the Casas de la Hoja.
+The mere ascension of volcanic cones is geologically of far less
+importance, than the bringing away numerous specimens, carefully selected,
+of various trachytic rocks, which, by their oryctognostical composition,
+are characteristic of each volcano. I would nevertheless recommend that
+the Pico del Fraile of the Toluca volcano (2372 toises) should be
+ascended, proper caution being used. From this very sharp peak, I brought
+away thin plates of trachyte perforated by lightning, and within the holes
+of a melted glassy surface, resembling those brought from Little Ararat.
+Both for the miner and geologist, an interesting and useful visit might be
+paid to the rich mines of Guanaxuato and the Mines de la Biscaina and
+Regla, on the road from Mexico to Real del Monte, so as to observe the
+close connection subsisting between the richer silver ores, occurring in
+trachytic porphyry without quartz, but with felspar, (glassy felspar?),
+and the thoroughly volcanic Cerro del Jakal, abounding in obsidian, and
+the Cerro de las Navajas (Razor Range), which remind one of the environs
+of Schemnitz, with the sole exception, that the trachytes "_porphyres
+meulières_" of Beudant, are wanting here.
+
+As it is highly desirable that considerable time should be devoted to the
+volcanoes of Quito, Peru, and Chili, it appears uncertain whether the
+course of the frigate, on leaving Acalpulco, will be shaped direct for
+Guayaquil, thus reversing the route taken by myself, or whether she will
+not touch at some of the central American ports--Realejo or Sonsonate. The
+crowded series of volcanoes in Central America, of which no less than
+eighteen, conical or dome-shaped, may be considered as still in active
+eruption, would yield a rich harvest of facts of all kinds in elucidation
+of the theory of volcanic action, such as have never hitherto been
+sufficiently taken advantage of. We are still in need of the mineralogical
+determination of the rocks, while the form and situation of the mountain
+masses have been well described by Squier, Oersted, and other modern
+travellers. The greater number, indeed, of the eruptions of scoriæ and
+slag were unaccompanied by streams of lava, as, for example, those of
+Mount Isalco, abounding in ammonia. But recently eye-witnesses have
+furnished us with quite different accounts regarding these eruptions, in
+the case of several volcanoes--as the Nindiri (a twin volcano with that
+called Massaya), on which Dr. Scherzer has lately shed much light; the
+Volcano el Nuevo, erroneously called Volcano de las Pilas, that of
+Coseguina, situated on the Great Bay of Fonseca, and that of San Miguel de
+Bosotlan, from which there flowed an extensive stream of lava in July
+1844. It would be most tempting to pass by land from Mexico southwards to
+Oaxaca, and thence to the Isthmus of Guasacualco or Tehuantepec, and
+Chiapas, so as to rejoin the frigate at Realejo or Sonsonate. Facts might
+be obtained, in such a journey, of great value in determining the
+dependence of geological phenomena on each other; but it is to be feared
+it would be attended with too much fatigue and loss of time. For similar
+reasons, it cannot be proposed that the scientific gentlemen attached to
+the Expedition, should leave the frigate for three or four months, when
+they reach Central America, in order to cross by rail the Isthmus of
+Panama, with the object of examining the Volcancitos of Turbaco and Gabra
+Zamba, both active, and thence ascend the Rio Magdalena from Carthagena de
+las Indias, as far as Honda, whence they could proceed by Bogotà and
+Popayan to Quitó.
+
+It will be also unavoidable to forego the examination of the sedimentary
+rocks, rich in fossils, between Honda, Bogotà and Ibagues, the Mastodon
+fields (_Campos del Gigante_), and the Salto de Tegumidama on the plateau
+of Bogotà, the wax palm (_Ceroxylon Andicola_), and the Azufrales of the
+Passo de Quindiu, the volcanoes of Tolima, measured by myself and ascended
+by Boussingault, and of Paramo de Ruiz (4° 15' N.), as also the two
+volcanoes of Popayan, the Puracé and the much more interesting but now
+extinct Sotará. As a middle course, I may suggest a disembarkation, not
+exactly at Guayaquil, but on the gold and platinum coast of the Choco,
+near San Buenaventura, so as to proceed thence to Popayan, and afterwards
+return to the volcanoes of the province of Pasto, which are highly
+important, and so on to Quitó, by way of Guachucal, Tulcan, and Villa de
+Ibarra, rejoining the frigate only at Guayaquil.
+
+I believe, however, it would be more advisable to select Quitó as the
+starting-point, whence to examine the important elevated volcanic region
+De los Pastos (between 2° 20' and 0° 56' N.), containing the volcano of
+the town of Pasto, the volcanoes of Tuguerres, Chiles and Cumbal, and the
+Azufral de Pasto, and not to land at any port of the Choco coast, not even
+from the Bahia de Cupica, which for half a century I have recommended in
+vain on account of its vicinity to the Rio Naipi, one of the tributaries
+of the Atrato. In drawing up a list of names of the volcanoes of the
+renowned lofty plateau of Quitó, I may include, Imbaburu, Cotocachi, Rucu,
+Pichincha, Antisana, the much-disputed question of the stony walls like
+streams of lava, on the east slope of Tana Volcan, and Reventazon de
+Ansango; Cotopaxi, with its strange inexplicable quarries of pumice, of
+Guapecho and Zumbalica, in the neighbourhood of Llactacunga and San
+Felipe, the pumice containing oligoclase, not glassy felspar, deposited in
+strata, like any rock _in situ_ for a considerable distance on all sides
+of Cotopaxi; Tunguragua (mica slate), studded with garnets, and beds of
+granite, which dip under the former, and have themselves been pierced by
+the trachytes of Tungurahua at Rio Puela and the Hacienda de Ganace; the
+hills of Moya, near the village of Pelilco, cast up in the celebrated
+earthquake of 7th February, 1797, and still in a state of activity; the
+Chimborazo, which M. Jules Rémy, accompanied by an Englishman named
+Princkley, was in the belief they had ascended, on the 3rd of November,
+1856, to the very summit, "_mais sans s'en douter_." Poggendorff, (Vol. X.
+p. 480), has clearly demonstrated that the boiling point given by Rémy for
+the summit, would not give 6544 mètres (little different from my own
+trigonometrical admeasurement of 6530 mètres), but fully 7328 mètres. As I
+distrust my own half-barometical measurements, I have vainly implored
+travellers, these fifty years past, to have a new series of
+trigonometrical observations made of the summit of Chimborazo. The merit,
+then, of settling this moot point, it also remains for the members of the
+_Novara_ Expedition to obtain.
+
+It would be important to examine the Sangay (16,068 feet)--which, like
+Stromboli, is in constant activity, yet without any traces of
+lava-streams--on account of the grains of quartz discovered by Wisse in
+the trachytic boulders ejected by the volcano, which is of such rare
+occurrence in the trachytes out of Hungary; and also on account of the
+close vicinity of beds of granite and gneiss, which are broken through by
+the Sangay trachyte, forming an island, as it were, of not hardly two
+miles in breadth. Still more deserving of attention is the extinct volcano
+El Altar de los Collanes (Capac Urcù) a sketch of which I presented in
+the atlas published in my "Kleine Schriften" (Plate V. p. 461), formerly
+higher than Chimborazo, and still (?) 16,380 feet. Not a single specimen
+of its trachyte has ever been deposited in a European museum. The Altar
+itself is readily accessible from Riobamba Nuevo. In its vicinity may also
+be seen mica slate and gneiss, cropping out at the Paramo del Hatillo near
+Guamote, and Teocaxas, which are so seldom fallen in with in the highlands
+of Quitó. Tradition relates that gold-mines were worked here during the
+days of the Incas, in the neighbourhood of volcanic trachytes. From the
+Altar the geologist might proceed, by way of San Luis, (Query, whether the
+primitive clay-slate found here be of the Silurian formation?) and
+Guamote, to Paramo del Assuay (2428 toises), and Cuenca, as far as Atausca
+(2° 13' S.), where an immense mass of sulphur, lying in a quartz seam is
+worked, forming a bed in the mica slate. Of what rock does the easily
+accessible Cayambe Urcù (18,170 feet) consist, crossing the Equator, S.E.
+of Otavalo? _En route_ from Quitó to Cayambe, the rich deposits of
+obsidian near Quinche should also be inspected, which furnished the large
+mirrors to the Incas, and farther to the north of which are the volcanoes
+of Los Pastos, which form a separate system by themselves.
+
+For examining the rocks and exploring the volcanoes of Southern Peru and
+Bolivia--respecting which see the last edition of Pentland's Maps, not
+those published between 1830 and 1848, in which the height of Sorata was
+indicated at 3949 toises (25,257 feet), and Illimani at 3753 toises
+(24,004), and accordingly both as much more lofty than Chimborazo, which
+is 3350 toises (21,426 feet)--the best starting-point would be the port of
+Arica, which may be reached, sailing the whole distance against the cold
+current, from Guayaquil, after a short stay at Callao de Lima. Of the
+volcanoes of Peru and Bolivia only three are now active.
+
+(_a._) The volcano of Arequipa, three miles N.E. of the town of the same
+name, which, according to Pentland and Rivero, is situated about 7366 feet
+above the level of the sea. The measurements of M. Dolley, of the French
+navy, which were published under my superintendence, give the summit of
+the volcano as 10,348 feet above the town of Arequipa, so that its total
+elevation above the sea would be 17,714 feet. In the table of heights for
+Mrs. Somerville's "Physical Geography," Mr. Pentland speaks of the summit
+as being 20,320 English feet in height, or 19,065 Paris feet, closely
+approximating to the old trigonometrical measurement (19,080 feet) given
+by Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian, who accompanied the expedition of
+Malaspina, in 1769. What a deplorable state for the science of hypsometry
+to be in! which the _Novara_ ought to put an end to. Samuel Anzon, a North
+American, in 1811, and Dr. Weddell, in 1847, have ascended the volcano of
+Arequipa.
+
+(_b._) Sahama (18° 7' S.), according to Pentland's new map of 1848, is 871
+feet higher than Chimborazo (which he gives as 20,970 feet), and is still
+active. The true heights of Illimani and Sorata, ascertained since 1848,
+are, instead of 3949 and 3753 respectively, only 3329 toises (21,266
+English feet), and 3307 toises (21,145 English feet).
+
+(_c._) Volcano Gualatieri, in the Bolivian province of Carangas (18° 25'
+S.), height 20,604 feet.
+
+The southern group of South American volcanoes, that, of Chili, presents
+the largest number of active fire-mountains--only second, indeed, to that
+of Central America, there being from eleven to thirteen. In order to
+increase the geological exploration of this region which has been so well
+prepared by the memorable expedition under Captain Fitzroy, in the ships
+_Adventure_ and _Beagle_, the excellent generalizing theories of Mr.
+Darwin, and the naval astronomical expedition of Mr. Gilliss, for 1849-51,
+the _Novara_ will probably land at Valparaiso. A great desideratum between
+Coquimbo and Valparaiso is an exact measurement of--
+
+_A_. The volcano of Aconcagua (32° 39' S.). Its height has been stated, in
+1835, by Captain Fitzroy, as 21,767 feet, Pentland's correction assigning
+22,431 feet; while Captain Kellet, of the frigate _Herald_, gives it as
+21,584 feet. Miers and Darwin are both of opinion that the Aconcagua is
+still in activity, which is denied by Pentland and Gilliss. The most
+recent measurement of Aconcagua--that by Pissis in 1854 (see Gilliss, Vol.
+I. p. 63)--makes the height 20,924 feet. M. Pissis has published, in the
+"Anales de la Universidad de Chili," for 1852, the geodetical elements of
+his survey, which is based upon eight triangles. Aconcagua being probably
+the highest mountain in the New World, a new measurement is eminently
+desirable. Neither Dhawalagiri, with his 4930 toises, nor Kintsinjunga,
+measured by Colonel Waugh, with his 4406 toises, are any longer considered
+the highest mountains in the Himalaya range, but the Deodunga (Mount
+Everest), which is 29,003 English feet, equal to 27,212 Paris feet, or
+4535 toises.
+
+_B._ The volcano Maipu (34° 17' S., height 16,572 feet), ascended by
+Meyen. The trachytic rock on the summit has broken through the Jurassic
+strata, in which Leopold von Buch has ascertained, from heights of 9000
+feet, the existence of _Exogyra couloni_, _Trigonia costata_, and
+_Ammonites biplex_. This volcano has no streams of lava, but only
+eruptions of volcanic slags. It would be most desirable that Dr.
+Hochstetter should examine this remarkable protrusion of dislocated
+strata.
+
+_C._ The volcano Antuco (37° 7' S.), the geology of which was described by
+Pöppig, is a lofty basaltic crater, having a trachytic cone rising up in
+its centre to an elevation of 8672 feet. It was observed in full activity
+by Domeyko in 1845. Gilliss gives an account of an eruption in 1853.
+According to Domeyko, a fresh-burning cone was thrown up on the 25th of
+November, 1847, which remained in activity for a whole year. Molina
+considers the Nevada Descabezado (35° 1' S.), ascended by Domeyko, to be
+the highest mountain in Chili; but its height is estimated by Gilliss at
+only 12,300 feet. The most southerly volcanoes are the still active
+Corcovado (43° 12' S.), 7046 feet; Yanteles (43° 29' S.), 7534 feet; and
+the Volcan de San Clemente, opposite the granite formation on the
+peninsula of Tres Montes. Still further south, in 51° 41' S., another, the
+Volcan de los Gigantes, is laid down on the old maps of South America, by
+La Cruz Olmedella, as opposite the archipelago of La Madre de Dios.
+
+Should the _Novara_ return to Europe through the Straits of Maghellanes,
+it would be very desirable the members of the Expedition should visit the
+locality from which Prince Paul of Würtemberg, after long zoological
+travels through North America, has, within the last year, brought back to
+Germany a very large collection of specimens.
+
+Altogether, I calculate the number of active volcanoes on the surface of
+the earth to be upwards of 225--one-third of which, or 75, are upon the
+various continents, and the remainder upon the insular world. The Western
+Continent has 53 active volcanoes--of which, North-Western America, north
+of the river Gila, has 5; Mexico, 4; Central America, 18; South America
+about 26. Viewing the globe as a whole, there presents itself an extensive
+oblique region in which volcanoes most abound, stretching from S.E. to
+N.W. in the more westerly part of the Pacific, between 75° W. and 125° E.
+of Paris, and between 47° S. and 66° N. In this region, the fused elements
+of the interior of our earth may be said to be most permanently in
+communication with the atmosphere.
+
+The greatest attention should be paid, with the view of improving them,
+to the sections and maps of Chili, contained in the work, "Buenos Ayres
+and the Provinces of Rio de la Plata," published in 1852 by Sir Woodbine
+Parish, and still more so, to that entitled "Map of the Republic of Chili,
+compiled from the Surveys of Gilliss, Pissis, Allen, Campbell, and Claude
+Gay, between 23° and 44° S., as contained in Gilliss' 'United States
+Astronomical Expedition, 1847-52 Washington, 1855.'"
+
+The chief object to be aimed at by the _Novara_, with respect to
+scientific enquiry, seems to me to be the formation of a collection in the
+Geological Institute of Vienna, in comparison to which all the collections
+which at present aspire to be considered rich in volcanic specimens, (such
+as those of Berlin, Paris and London), should appear to be insignificant.
+In all periods of history, travellers are only the representatives of the
+state of knowledge of their own time, and consequently, collections always
+present the readiest means of promulgating new discoveries by
+oryctognostical examination or chemical analysis. In order to set on foot
+a grand Volcanic Museum, it would be necessary to bring home from every
+one of the volcanoes visited, not less than 10 or 12, but still better 15
+or 18, specimens of the porphyritic trachytes, all carefully selected,
+well-shaped, containing crystals not disintegrated, and of sufficient size
+to admit of a fresh fracture being made. For such quantities, however,
+there cannot be provided on board ship, even with the kindest patronage of
+the commanding officer, sufficient space for the accumulations of two
+years' arduous efforts in forming a collection. The greatest part,
+therefore, should be sent by other conveyance to Trieste, the most secure
+channel being through the consuls of the Austrian Empire, or those of
+allied powers, or through the medium of British, Dutch or American
+mercantile establishments, or by the regular packets.
+
+Duplicates, say four or five specimens, from each volcano, should be taken
+on board the _Novara_ in boxes of about 3 feet long. It would be too
+disheartening to have any misgivings of the success of this glorious
+scheme for getting together a Museum of Volcanic Rocks in Vienna, of all
+the regions of the globe, arranged upon a regular geographical system,
+each labelled with its own name, so as to promote a general acquaintance
+with these branches of knowledge:
+
+   1. Europe.
+
+   2. Atlantic Islands.
+
+   3. Continent of Asia, South Coast of Arabia (Aden), Kamtschatka.
+
+   4. Islands of Eastern Asia and India.
+
+   5. The Indian Ocean.
+
+   6. The Pacific.
+
+   7. Continent of South America: Chili, Peru, Bolivia, Quitó and
+      New Grenada.
+
+   8. Central America.
+
+   9. Mexico, south of the river Gila.
+
+   10. North-Western America, north of the river Gila.
+
+   11. West Indies.
+
+Much of this work might be done on board the _Novara_. As to Nos. 3 and 4,
+Kamtschatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, the Red Sea, and the West
+Indies, it will not be difficult to procure specimens at some future
+period.
+
+Our piping times of peace are favourable to the execution of this project,
+which should be zealously kept in view throughout the Expedition.
+Travelling as I was, during the great wars, I did not dare shrink from the
+difficulty of having to carry along with me 44 large boxes, as I did on
+the road through Mexico from Acapulco to Vera Cruz, whence they were sent
+to Cuba, Philadelphia, and so to Bordeaux. The mechanical labour of having
+the collections carefully packed, keeping duplicates distinct, and sending
+away geological, botanical, zoological and ethnographical collections, is
+itself quite as important as the purely scientific work.
+
+The exhibition of comprehensive volcanic collections brings to light the
+strong analogy subsisting between the trachytes belonging to volcanoes,
+far distant from one another, while it indicates the existence of great
+differences in the mineralogical composition of volcanoes situated very
+near each other. My most excellent friend and fellow-traveller in Siberia,
+Professor Gustavus Rose, recently subjected the trachytes of the Berlin
+Museum, the greater number of which were collected by myself, to careful
+crystallographical and chemical investigation. He found oligoclase and
+pyroxene on the trachytes of Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Colima,
+Tunguragua, Puracé, Paramo de Ruiz, and the Peak of Teneriffe, which has
+recently been accurately examined by Mr. Charles Deville. The trachytes of
+Toluca, Orizaba, Gunung Barang, and Burung Agung, on the Island of Java,
+Argæus, in Asia Minor, Cuneguilla, south of Sta. Fé de Nuevo-Mexico, the
+Sièrra de San Francisco, west of the Rocky Mountains and Pueblo Zuni,
+consist of hornblende, oligoclase, and brown mica. The trachytes of
+Stromboli and Etna, those of the Siebengebirge (Drachenfels), and of Kara
+Hissar in Phrygia, consist of large crystals of glassy felspar, with
+numerous smaller crystals of oligoclase, some hornblende and mica.
+Oligoclase, having been mistaken for albite, led to the fantastic idea of
+a peculiar rock, the _Andesite_, prevailing in the Andes, and even led our
+great master, Leopold von Buch, to make some curious distinctions,
+(Déscription des Iles Canaries, 1836, pp. 186-87.)
+
+To ascertain the average height above the level of the sea, I propose that
+furrows should be cut in the rocks of the different regions along with
+inscriptions, which might carry information to unborn ages, as has been
+done, on my suggestion, now some 25 years ago, by the Academy of Science
+at St. Petersburg, on the Caspian Sea, while Sir James Ross, in his
+"Voyage of Discovery in the Southern and Antarctic Regions," 1839-43, Vol.
+II. p. 23, regrets not having done so, or, at least, of having only once
+adopted this plan.
+
+I would also, with all deference, suggest observations regarding the daily
+atmospheric variations or tides, so as to obtain tables of _maxima_ and
+_minima_. In order to obtain these, whenever the frigate is at anchor near
+any coast, but particularly within the tropics, hourly observations with
+the barometer and thermometer (the latter affixed to the barometer, and
+also freely suspended in the open air), should be made through several
+consecutive days and nights. During the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis
+(or Australis), attention should be paid to the perturbations of the
+magnetic variation, and the magnetic intensity of the horizontal needle.
+Boreal Auroras have been seen in the southern latitudes of the Peruvian
+Pacific, as low down as 12° 13' S.; but the occurrence of such phenomena
+there is of much less frequent occurrence than that of Austral Auroras in
+Scotland. It is important to keep an exact register of the intensity of
+blackness in the "coalbags," when the smallest stars surrounding them are
+still visible to the naked eye. The daily meteorological observations, as
+also those on the temperature of the sea, will probably be made on board
+ship, in conformity with the views of Lieutenant Maury, and the method
+agreed upon at the last nautical congress.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As I shall have long ceased to be numbered with the living, when the
+_Novara_ returns to Trieste, richly freighted with scientific treasures of
+all kinds, with fresh information relating to organic and inorganic
+nature, to the races of man, their habits and languages, I now pray to
+Almighty God that His blessing may rest upon this great and noble
+enterprise, to the honour of our common German Fatherland! And
+concluding, in this night, these oblique, illegible lines, I remember, not
+without emotion, and with very mingled feelings, that joyous period of my
+life when, fifty-eight years ago, in the beautiful gardens of Schönbrunn,
+preparing myself for a long journey, I was enjoying with grateful mind the
+friendly kindness of the venerable Jacquin and Peter Frank.
+
+                                                     A. v. HUMBOLDT.
+
+ Berlin, in the night of 7th April, 1857.
+
+[Illustration: DEPARTURE.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+                     Preparations for the Voyage.
+
+   Approbation of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+     Voyage round the World.--Object of the Expedition.--
+     Appointment of a Scientific Commission.--Preparations.--
+     Fitting out the Frigate _Novara_ at Pola.--Departure for
+     Trieste.--Visit of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian on board.
+
+
+In the autumn of 1856, His Majesty the Emperor was graciously pleased to
+approve of the proposal for a voyage round the world, as projected by his
+Imperial Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the head of the
+Austrian navy, and to commission the sailing frigate _Novara_ for that
+purpose, a vessel qualified to meet every requisite condition.
+
+The chief object of the Expedition--a circumstance which must not be lost
+sight of--was to afford the officers and cadets of the ship an opportunity
+of acquiring that practical acquaintance with naval affairs which, added
+to the theoretical knowledge previously attained, would render them
+thoroughly familiar with nautical routine, and thus materially contribute
+to the further development of the Austrian navy.
+
+This branch of the public service, placed since 1848 on an entirely new
+basis, has with difficulty worked its way through all those embarrassing
+circumstances inseparable from the organization of a new system; but the
+honest zeal and energy of the board appointed, supported by favour from
+the highest quarters, have succeeded in introducing many improvements, and
+in increasing by degrees the numerical strength of the men, thereby laying
+a secure foundation for the rising naval force, the importance of which,
+at this moment, every reflecting patriot will acknowledge.
+
+The intended Expedition offered, besides the advantages for the service,
+another not less important for the State, namely, the recognition of the
+Austrian flag in remote quarters of the globe, to which it had never
+hitherto penetrated; and by thus opening new channels for the outlet of
+our natural products and manufactured goods, to promote the industrial,
+commercial, and maritime interests of the empire.
+
+In order to satisfy the scientific requirements of the age, the
+illustrious head of the navy issued orders, that the officers on board
+should in every way assist in the researches to be made, connected with
+navigation and geography; and was, moreover, pleased to invite the
+Imperial Academy of Sciences to nominate two members, he himself naming a
+third, to accompany the Expedition for the purpose of observing and
+investigating phenomena pertaining to the different branches of physical
+science, as well as collecting rare specimens and interesting objects of
+natural history. To this commission were ultimately attached a botanist, a
+practical zoologist, an artist, and a flower-gardener.
+
+The Academy had, for the guidance of these gentlemen, drawn up
+instructions which, with a multitude of other papers containing useful
+hints and interesting queries, received from the Imp. Geographical,
+Geological, and Medical Societies, as well as from numerous foreign and
+native scientific men, formed a most valuable collection of materials for
+the purposes of the Expedition.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Of these instructions, "The physical and geognostical
+remarks," with which the Nestor of natural science honoured the voyagers
+of the _Novara_, being of a more general interest, are published at the
+end of this volume, together with the facsimile of an autograph letter of
+Baron von Humboldt to the commander of the Expedition.]
+
+Foremost amongst these _savans_ stood Alexander von Humboldt, that
+illustrious man, who up to the last moment of his existence was alive with
+youthful enthusiasm for every scientific enterprise. In England great
+interest in the success of the Expedition was evinced by Sir Roderic
+Murchison, Sir W. Hooker, Sir Charles Lyell, General Sabine, Admiral
+Smyth, Admiral Fitzroy, Professor Robert Owen, Professor Philips,
+Professor Bell, Professor W. A. Ramsay, Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh,
+W. J. Hamilton, Esq., Charles Darwin, Esq., L. Horner, Esq., James Yates,
+Esq., B. Davis, Esq., &c., &c. From the United States of North America, we
+received most valuable communications from Commander M. F. Maury, National
+Observatory, Washington, D. C.--Captain Rodgers, and others.
+
+Letters of introduction were received from Germany, and particularly from
+England, to influential parties and societies in a variety of places
+abroad, amongst which were many warm and friendly recommendations from the
+English Government and Admiralty, as well as the Directors of the then
+East India Company, to various administrative authorities in the British
+Colonies.
+
+[Illustration: GUN-ROOM OF THE _NOVARA_.]
+
+The frigate _Novara_ was laid up in the arsenal of Pola, where all
+requisite steps were taken to complete her outfit, and prepare her
+thoroughly for the voyage. The ventilation of the lower deck was improved,
+and the number of cabins increased in proportion to the number of
+individuals for whom accommodation was to be provided.
+
+The gun-room was, by command of the Archduke, converted into a
+reading-room, and provided with a well-selected library as well as with
+all the charts and maps necessary for the information of the officers, who
+here made their calculations and executed their drawings.
+
+The store-rooms for the sails and tackle were enlarged, so as to hold a
+double quantity.
+
+A distilling apparatus, the same as patented by M. Rocher, of Nantes, was
+fixed on the gun-deck, and being placed in connection with the ship's
+coppers, it was found that, during the few hours each day that the latter
+were used for cooking, enough sea-water was distilled to supply the entire
+ship's company with excellent water to drink. This distilled water, after
+having been kept in iron tanks for a month, was found pleasant to the
+taste, and agreed very well with the health. The excellent health enjoyed
+by all the crew throughout the voyage must, in a great measure, be
+ascribed to the circumstance, that scarcely any other but this distilled
+sea-water was used, so that the men were enabled entirely to forego
+drinking river or spring-water, which in the tropics are frequently found
+injurious.
+
+The use of such an apparatus permits a great diminution in the store of
+water usually carried by a vessel. The space gained by this diminished
+bulk of water, enabled us to take on board a larger cargo of coal and
+provisions, such as preserved beef and compressed vegetables. The sailors
+were not, however, particularly fond of the preserved beef, because in
+cooking it loses a great part of its flavour (though the broth is strong
+and good); nor does it seem as an article of diet to have had a
+particularly beneficial influence on the health, for the sanitary
+condition of the crew was equally satisfactory, and the number of
+scorbutic patients not materially increased when, towards the end of the
+voyage, the fresh stores were exhausted, and only salt and pickled rations
+were issued.
+
+Compressed dried vegetables were of great benefit to the health of our
+men, and cannot be sufficiently recommended. The so-called _melange
+d'équipage_ of Chollet, as well as _sauer kraut_, potatoes, and other
+vegetables, have an excellent taste, improve the soups when mixed with
+them, and are easily preserved, provided they be protected from the effect
+of damp. Hence it might be advisable to keep them enclosed in
+well-soldered tin boxes. The price of these vegetables is so moderate,
+that it is surprising they are not more generally employed.
+
+The long-continued satisfactory state of health of the crew must also
+partly be sought for in the constant use of shower-baths. For this
+purpose, apertures, three-quarters of an inch in diameter, were bored in
+the planks of both the deck and forecastle, under which a perforated disc
+could be screwed, and above which a pail of water was placed. By these
+simple means every one was enabled to enjoy the luxury of a bath; when,
+however, the desire for that refreshment became general, so that the
+arrangement above-mentioned was insufficient, a hand fire-engine was made
+use of, so as to accommodate as many at once as might present
+themselves--a process which found great favour with the jolly tars, as
+affording abundant opportunities for fun and merriment.
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE "NOVARA."]
+
+The frigate _Novara_ had been placed on the stocks in the arsenal of
+Venice in the month of February, 1845, and was launched in April, 1850.
+She was pierced for 42 guns, but during the voyage carried only thirty
+30-pounders,[5] and four of smaller calibre.
+
+[Footnote 5: The 30-pounder marine guns answer very nearly to the English
+32-pounders.]
+
+The principal dimensions of the frigate (Vienna measurement) are:--
+
+ Length between perpendiculars      165 feet  5-1/2 inches.[6]
+ Length of water line               156 "     5       "
+ Greatest breadth                    44 "     11-1/2  "
+ Greatest breadth on water line      43 "     2       "
+ Depth of hold                       19 "     3/4     "
+ Draught of water aft                18 "     9       "
+ Draught of water fore               17 "     5-2/3   "
+
+[Footnote 6: 96-423/1000 Austrian feet = 100 English.]
+
+The superficial area of the ship, or the load-water line, amounted to
+5685.35 square feet; quantity of water displaced 2107 Austrian, or 2630
+English tons. The superficial area of the principal sails amounted to
+18,291 square feet.
+
+The frigate proved herself to be an excellent sailer, as, of the various
+vessels which, throughout the voyage, sailed in company with us, only
+three clippers outstripped her.
+
+The question may here be asked, why, in the present state of navigation, a
+sailing-vessel was preferred to a steamer for this voyage? The principal
+consideration which decided this selection was the greater disposable area
+which a sailing-vessel offers in comparison with a steamer of the same
+dimensions, in which coal and machinery occupy so large a space. On the
+present occasion, it will be perceived that what was specially wanted was
+room for as great a number of officers, cadets, and men as possible, who
+were, as has been stated, to make this voyage for improvement in nautical
+affairs. Plenty of space was also required for the numerous instruments
+and bulky collections of objects of natural history; while in most parts
+of the ocean which we were to traverse, the winds blow so regularly, that,
+with very rare exceptions, sails form the best motive power. The expense
+of fuel requisite for a steamer, and the trouble of replacing it during
+the voyage, are thus saved; whilst, finally, the space occupied by the men
+employed in the management of the machinery, and that required for the
+stowage of special stores, would be withdrawn from more important objects.
+
+After the frigate had been properly fitted up in the arsenal of Pola, she
+sailed on the 15th March, 1857, for Trieste, where she cast anchor on the
+17th in the Bay of Muggia. H.I.M.'s corvette _Caroline_, likewise fitted
+out at Pola for a voyage to the coast of South America and Western
+Africa, followed in her wake, and it was now seen that the frigate was a
+better sailer than the corvette, a circumstance so much the more
+satisfactory, that the latter had hitherto been considered the swiftest
+ship in our navy.
+
+The unfavourable state of the weather interfered so much with the works
+which were to be finished at Trieste, that the embarkation of provisions,
+swinging the compasses, &c., &c., could only be proceeded with very
+slowly.
+
+At last, the members of the Commission arrived, and the vessel only waited
+for sailing orders.
+
+Before leaving on so interesting an enterprise, with which the most
+pleasing recollections of our lives will ever be associated, we had the
+gratification of being honoured by a visit on board from the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian. The commander of the Expedition introduced the
+officers and scientific gentlemen to his Imperial Highness, who addressed
+them in affecting terms, and concluded his remarks by expressing a hope
+that the frigate _Novara_ would, with God's help, return happily from her
+mission to her own honour and that of the country.
+
+The narrative of the voyage is now presented, and, probably, the results
+of the various scientific investigations will very shortly be offered to a
+discerning public, leaving it to them to judge how far we have succeeded
+in realizing the hopes of the illustrious Prince. But if we have not
+satisfied all the expectations entertained, it certainly was not from
+insufficiency of means; for everything was complete in that respect, and
+we owe it chiefly to the circumspection and kind care of the
+Commander-in-chief of our navy, that this enterprise had been so wisely
+planned, and its details brought in so short a time to such a degree of
+perfection that, during the whole voyage, it was not found necessary to
+make the slightest alteration in the original arrangements and
+regulations.
+
+[Illustration: GEODETICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.]
+
+[Illustration: LOOK-OUT MAN.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+                       From Trieste to Gibraltar.
+
+   Departure.--Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.--A Man lost and found
+     again.--Passage through the Straits of Messina.--The Steamer
+     _Sta. Lucia_ returns to Trieste.--Regulations and Instructions
+     for further Proceedings.--A Day on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Sunrise.--Cleaning the Ship.--Mental and physical occupation.--
+     Moonlight at sea.
+
+
+The departure of the frigate was fixed for the 30th April, 1857, and
+H.I.M.'s corvette _Caroline_, Captain Kohen, was ordered to accompany her
+as far as the coast of South America. H.I.M's steamer, _Sta. Lucia_,
+Captain von Littrow, received orders to tow both ships as far as the
+extremity of the Straits of Messina to avoid loss of time, such as
+frequently arises in the Adriatic during the spring, from calms and
+unfavourable winds.
+
+With the dawn of the day fixed for the departure of the ships, all was
+bustle on board; craft of all kinds hovered around, and relatives and
+friends had assembled in great numbers to take leave. The verdant and
+thickly-wooded slopes of the promenade to St. Andrea, near the shore, were
+thronged with spectators, and the fair and lovely picture of our native
+coast developed itself once more before our eyes, clad in all its charms
+of spring, as if to wish us a hearty farewell, an auspicious voyage, and a
+happy return!
+
+At 8 o'clock A.M. we weighed anchor, and the steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+approached the _Novara_ for the purpose of towing her from the Bay of
+Muggia into the roads of Trieste. She had all her colours displayed, and
+saluted the city of Trieste, Austria's chief and most important emporium,
+with 21 guns. The salute was answered from the castle, whilst the band on
+board struck up Haydn's beautiful hymn: "God preserve the Emperor!" The
+frigate moved out of the road-stead, accompanied by a great number of
+boats, and followed by the best wishes of the numerous crowds assembled on
+shore, and of all true patriots, who looked upon this Expedition as a
+cheering evidence that a new and energetic spirit of enterprise had arisen
+in their native country.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.--TRACK FROM TRIESTE TO MADEIRA.]
+
+The corvette _Caroline_, which was waiting outside the roads, was attached
+to the frigate, and soon Trieste appeared like a dim cloud on the distant
+horizon. The outlines of the Carinthian Alps became fainter, and the
+excitement of the parting scene was calmed by that busy activity required
+from every one embarking on a long voyage, if he desires to attain any
+degree of comfort, however little, in the cramped and limited space of a
+crowded ship.
+
+A perfect calm, a smooth sea, and a but-slightly-clouded sky,
+prognosticated fair weather, and promised leisure to complete those
+arrangements which had been left undone. The steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+performed her task of towing the two vessels most satisfactorily, and,
+favoured by the prevailing currents of wind and water, we made five miles
+an hour, and came, on the day of departure, in sight of the promontory of
+Pola.
+
+The passage down the Adriatic was on the whole most pleasant, with the
+exception of some showers of rain near the heights of Isola Grossa; which,
+however, on this occasion saluted us only with a slight puff of wind. The
+ship moved so gently and quietly on her way, that those occupying the
+lower cabins could scarcely have fancied themselves at sea, had they not
+been made aware of it by other impressions.
+
+On the 1st of May, the crew became highly excited by a man being missed,
+when the morning watch was called. Some thought he had, from fear of a
+slight punishment hanging over him, jumped overboard, but as nothing of
+the kind had been observed by the watch on deck, every corner was
+searched, but without success, upon which the man was given over as lost.
+When, however, the dinner hour arrived, and the tables and benches were
+being removed from the lower deck, how great was the surprise, when the
+culprit was discovered crouching among them! A peal of laughter roused the
+poor fellow, who this time was let off with the fright and the punishment
+of being made an object of ridicule by his comrades.
+
+On the 3rd of May, being clear of the Adriatic, the steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+was at midnight despatched to Corfu to complete her store of coal, whilst
+we sailed for Cape Spartivento, on the Calabrian coast, which had been
+assigned as our _rendezvous_. On the 5th, we sighted this the most
+southerly promontory of Italy, when, in consequence of a fresh breeze, the
+sea began to make itself rather disagreeably felt. The novices on board
+became somewhat alarmed. A feeble voice was even heard, which endeavoured
+to prove from this phenomenon that man is a creature made for _terra
+firma_, and not for the watery element; but this excellent idea came
+rather late; mankind are obliged to submit to existing circumstances, and
+this thought alone held out some hope, that a longer stay on board would
+prove the best cure for the evil. Such indeed was the case; though pale
+faces, want of appetite, and even worse effects, were produced, whenever
+the ship made a heavier roll than usual. But these slight inconveniences
+of sea life became rarer and rarer, till at last they appeared only in
+really stiff gales. On the 7th the steamer _Sta. Lucia_ returned and took
+us again in tow.
+
+The weather during our passage through the charming straits of Messina
+was delightful. The colossal Etna exhibited in all its glory its
+snow-capped summit, gilded by the rays of the rising sun, and Messina
+shone with all the attractions of its splendid situation. The coast of
+this part of Italy is mostly bare and rugged, the broken outlines of the
+mountains imparting to the landscape that characteristic peculiarity which
+makes so deep an impression on the mind. We passed the famous Charybdis,
+in which a multitude of dolphins were disporting themselves. The
+neighbouring coast formed a brilliant panorama, and we kept so close in
+shore as to be able to distinguish the movements of the people. The
+appearance of our three goodly ships seemed to have attracted the
+attention of the inhabitants, for they stood in groups in the streets and
+squares of Reggio and Villa San Giovanni, saluting us by waving their
+handkerchiefs. When towards the evening we had passed the straits, we
+could descry the Neapolitan coast as far as Monte Bulgario, in the Bay of
+Policastro, and distinguish the imposing Stromboli, with its volume of
+smoke, far on the Western horizon.
+
+The following morning found us in sight of the small island of Alicudi,
+situated on the north of Sicily. The estimable captain of the _Lucia_ came
+on board to take leave, on his return to Trieste. The steamer, being
+relieved of her burden, made her way briskly towards her destination; and,
+before an hour had elapsed, we could perceive nothing but a small streak
+of smoke in the haze of the horizon.
+
+With light breezes, we came, on the following day, in sight of the island
+of Ustica. Sea-gulls (_Thalassidroma pelagica_) enlivened the scene, as
+they, from time to time, flew after the garbage thrown from the ship, or
+sought for sea-nettles and other small inhabitants of the sea's surface.
+These birds much resemble our land swallows, and their movements are so
+graceful, that one cannot but admire them, especially when they lightly
+touch the agitated water with their little webbed feet, and directly, as
+if repelled, withdraw. The muscular power of these feathered creatures is
+truly wonderful; they follow the ship for entire days continually on the
+wing, ever on the watch to snatch at the little food which the sea seems
+but scantily to supply to them.
+
+[Illustration: "PALINURUS".]
+
+Whilst we were passing down the Mediterranean, a great deal of time was
+employed in drawing up regulations, and in digesting all those
+instructions which had reached the Commander of the Expedition from all
+sides, and by which we were to be guided in our future proceedings.
+
+The scientific gentlemen were the first who received certain rules for
+their guidance; for, life on board a ship, and especially of a man-of-war,
+is so entirely different from that on shore,--the etiquette and usages
+practised appear, to those unused to the sea, so vexatious and annoying,
+that it was absolutely necessary to inform them of the regulations which
+are essential in order to keep so singular an organization as that of a
+ship at sea in working order. Erelong every one perceived, that the
+matutinal annoyance of holystoning the decks, the daily cleaning of
+everything on board, &c., are measures of importance, which contribute
+materially to the preservation of the health of the crew, and that a
+strict observance of discipline is absolutely necessary to exercise their
+powers, and thus to fit them for all eventualities.
+
+For the better accommodation of the naturalists, a place on the lower
+gun-deck was fitted up for those operations which, on account of the
+limited space and noxious exhalations, could not well be performed in the
+cabins.
+
+We had a large quantity of alcohol on board, destined for the preservation
+of interesting objects of natural history. In order to prevent any
+calamity by fire arising therefrom, the whole quantity was put in a large
+iron tank placed in the hold, and covered over with sand. It will,
+however, be seen in the sequel, that even this precaution proved
+insufficient to protect the ship from the ignition of this
+highly-combustible substance.
+
+The meteorological observations, and those connected with the physical
+geography of the sea, were entrusted to four officers, who, like those
+attached to the watches, had alternately to be at their posts, and had, at
+prescribed hours, to observe the barometer, thermometer, and psychrometer,
+as well as the temperature of the surface of the sea, the state of the sky
+and the ocean, and to note down the obtained results. One of the junior
+officers was intrusted with the nautical observations on shipboard, as
+well as the astronomical and magnetical on shore.
+
+The midshipmen were at the same time trained by study and practice, so as
+to enable them to assist the officers in their duties. Besides the men on
+the look-out, one of the midshipmen was employed on the same service. In
+stormy nights, when the wind is howling, and rain or snow falling, this
+post is certainly not very pleasant, but is, as may readily be imagined,
+most important.
+
+Life in the limited space of a ship, completely cut off from the external
+world, is so peculiar and interesting to those unacquainted with the sea,
+that we will endeavour to describe a day passed on board the _Novara_,
+from the instant when at daybreak the bustle and activity begin, till the
+late hour when night reminds one of repose, those sweet moments which
+carry the voyager to his distant home on the wings of a dream.
+
+As the sonorous bell strikes the fifth hour of the morning, the crew are
+called on deck by the boatswain's whistle, the hammocks are slung up and
+stowed away, and the work begins.
+
+This is the busiest time of the day, and for the mere spectator the most
+uncomfortable. On all sides scouring, rubbing, sweeping are going on,
+floods of water are streaming along the decks, and he who is not as yet
+familiar with these cleaning processes, runs some risk of a ducking as
+soon as he makes his appearance outside his cabin. These morning ablutions
+are, however, indispensable evils on board ship, for cleanliness is a
+condition essential to the preservation of health, and even the quantity
+of humidity which penetrates the timber, and renders the air damp, appears
+to be less injurious than the omission of these daily scourings.
+
+When the cleaning of the various parts of the ship is finished, the
+idlers, and such of the officers as are off duty, appear on deck, whither
+people come to enjoy the fresh air, and to greet the opening day. It may,
+however, be permitted to observe, that a sunrise at sea, notwithstanding
+its various charms, is by far less imposing than the same scene on a lofty
+mountain, where the veil of night seems to vanish as if by magic, and
+luxuriant nature lies at our feet like a smiling infant awaking from a
+lovely dream. That wild majesty of scenery, that overpowering grandeur of
+gigantic mountain forms, such as one sees in the Swiss or Tyrolese Alps,
+is wanting at sea, where the rising sun pours his beams only over a
+boundless world of water.
+
+The sailors breakfast at 7, the officers at 8, and the Commander at 9. At
+the latter hour the bugle sounds the order to "clear the ship," when the
+cleaning of arms, guns, and all other articles of metal connected with the
+ship's armoury, begins. During this process the band plays cheerful airs,
+so that the work is done whilst keeping time with the music, which serves
+to lighten the labour. This duty requires to be completed within
+forty-five minutes, and terminates with an inspection of the men and their
+arms.
+
+This being over, officers and midshipmen off duty assemble together with
+the naturalists in the reading-room. Most of the books in the library
+referred to those countries likely to be visited by the Expedition, so
+that every one might previously obtain useful information relative to
+their physical, historical, and social conditions.
+
+The naturalists employ the greater part of the day in their cabins, noting
+down their observations, and preparing for those to be made in the course
+of the voyage. The crew are kept in activity by being drilled and
+otherwise occupied.
+
+The men dine at 12; the dinner of the officers is served up at 3, and that
+of the Commodore at half-past 3 o'clock P.M. The remainder of the
+afternoon is spent in prosecuting the labours begun in the morning. Thus
+steals on the evening, when a general assemblage takes place on deck, for
+air and exercise.
+
+[Illustration: SEAMEN OFF DUTY.]
+
+The occurrences of the day, the sunset, the curious formation of the
+clouds, or the bewitching beauty of a brilliant tropical sky at night,
+form interesting topics for lively discussion. It is, however, rather
+daring to institute a comparison between the splendour of the sky in the
+tropics and that of our higher latitudes. For, most men become more or
+less unjust towards the beauties of a new and foreign natural scenery, in
+consequence of their not being able to divest themselves of former
+impressions produced in them by phenomena of a similar nature. What
+impressions are, for instance, deeper in young and old, and excite more
+delightful recollections than the starry sky of home? And can it be
+disputed that the association of ideas has a most powerful effect upon
+the impressions made by those phenomena of nature which are so peculiarly
+attractive and so deeply fixed in the human mind?
+
+The conversation generally becomes more lively on those evenings when the
+moon, placid friend of the sailor, appears on the distant horizon,
+shedding her silvery beams over the unbroken expanse of water. The
+influence which she exercises on the state of the weather, even the
+prejudices and superstitions connected with our satellite, offer subjects
+of interesting debate; involuntarily the mariner looks with grateful
+feelings towards that heavenly luminary, the mild soothing light of which
+diminishes the number of his anxious nights, protects him in present,
+warns him of remote dangers, and influences so powerfully that vast
+element on which he passes the greater part of his life. Indeed he who has
+ever spent a dark and stormy night on the ocean, when the ship, lashed by
+the fury of the waves, and borne resistlessly along, stands in constant
+peril of coming in violent collision with a vessel similarly
+circumstanced, or of being dashed to pieces on some iron-bound coast of
+rugged rock, easily comprehends and will excuse the sailor who ascribes to
+the moonlight somewhat of a supernatural and mysterious power.
+
+In this manner, and notwithstanding the continued sameness, days and
+months glide away like hours, until we again cast anchor, and only the
+work accomplished gives an idea of the length of time which has been
+passed at sea.
+
+Sunday alone breaks the monotony of life on board, when, after the diurnal
+cleaning of the ship, and the inspection of the crew, the officers, and
+all the men who are not on duty, assemble for divine service on the lower
+gun-deck, where the chaplain says mass on a temporary altar, whilst the
+ship's band performs sacred music. In the afternoon the men off duty amuse
+themselves for a couple of hours with the "_tombola_," a game much liked
+by our sailors. Between 6 and 7 P.M. the band plays on deck, whilst the
+sailors are cutting grotesque figures to the music. The singular capers by
+which all evince their happiness; the good-humoured awkwardness with which
+each clings to the brawny arm of his companion; the mock graceful air
+those who enact the gentler sex assume in the dance, and, finally, the
+affected attitude with which the cavaliers bow to their partners as if
+they really were of the gentler sex--all this is most ludicrous and
+amusing. The playing the national dance "Monferina" always elicits a
+particularly hearty reception. There is a peculiar charm in national
+melodies, even though they awaken no political reminiscences like the
+Marseillaise, or the Rakoczy; they electrify alike the educated and the
+men of the people; a thousand pleasing recollections suddenly crowd into
+the memory, and when the well-known tunes strike the ear, the heart seems
+to live again in bygone times! As if touched by magic, the sailor from the
+Adriatic, as soon as the Monferina is struck up, seizes his neighbour by
+the arm with a noisy shout and hurls him about in wild hilarity; his
+thoughts seem as if flying towards his distant home, where, in the country
+inn, with a buxom lass on his shoulder, he has waltzed away many a happy
+hour. The whole village, with all its familiar faces, seems to revive in
+his memory during the playing of the melody,--now he fills his glass; now
+he clinks it merrily with that of his companion; now he presses his
+sweetheart more closely to his side: Lo! suddenly a shrill whistle pierces
+the air, the music ceases, the call is heard "to fall in," and the yet
+dance-stricken sailor, suddenly, as if awakening from a sweet reverie, is
+once more standing on the deck of the _Novara_!
+
+The frigate, in the Mediterranean also, maintained her superiority as a
+sailer. The corvette _Caroline_ was able to keep the prescribed distance
+from the _Novara_ only by the latter reefing some of her sails. As some
+magnetic observations were to be made at Gibraltar, and, as we had to
+ascertain the results of the various chronometers on board, on the 12th of
+May we signalled the corvette to take her own time and rejoin us at
+Gibraltar, as we were anxious to avoid unnecessary detention.
+
+The acquisitions of the naturalists had, as yet, been very scanty: to
+their great annoyance they could not even obtain any of the tortoises,
+which, from time to time, approached the ship, though they were repeatedly
+fired at, and on one occasion a boat was launched, in the hope of catching
+some of them. The specimens which we saw were from fifteen to twenty
+inches in diameter; they mostly floated quietly on the surface, and seemed
+sleeping or basking themselves in the sun.
+
+The night of the 16th May was exceedingly boisterous, and almost tangible
+darkness prevailed; thunder, lightning, and occasionally strong easterly
+squalls, raged furiously, and only subsided towards the morning, when it
+cleared up with fresh southerly breezes. Not being far from Cape de Gatt,
+on the Spanish coast, prudence required us to change course, and, during
+the continuance of stormy weather, to keep at a respectful distance from
+the shore. Here a merchantman, apparently an American, bore down so close
+upon us, that, in the darkness, an unpleasant collision seemed
+unavoidable. However, we tacked about, and thus, fortunately avoiding our
+dangerous neighbour, safely proceeded on our course.
+
+It is truly astonishing how often merchantmen, entirely forgetful of their
+own safety, from want of caution, or presumption, or it would occasionally
+seem, sheerly from acting upon peculiar and abnormal principles of
+navigation, wantonly expose ship, men, and cargo to many dangers, which
+might easily be avoided, particularly in cases where no tacking is
+required, and only a slight touch of the rudder would suffice to prevent a
+collision, which is always attended with danger to the smaller ship. In
+this respect the North Americans are very unpleasant neighbours on account
+of their national vanity, and the Dutch for their phlegmatic temperament
+and the indifference they evince on such occasions.
+
+On the 18th of May, the small rocky island of Alboran, in the narrow part
+of the sea between Africa and Spain, was observed; being flat and without
+vegetation, it is scarcely perceptible, and the land-fall during the night
+should be carefully avoided. The erection of a lighthouse on this island
+would certainly be regarded as a great boon by all who navigate the
+Mediterranean.
+
+On the 19th of May, the sea suddenly assumed a peculiar orange colour; a
+dust-like covering was observed on the surface of the water, and at some
+depth white points might be seen, mingling with each other in the wake of
+the ship. Clouds of this orange-like matter appeared spread upon the sea,
+which thereby lost its usual transparency. On closer examination this
+phenomenon appeared to arise from a mass consisting of myriads of minute
+animalculæ, which had a yellow opaque kernel, the gelatinous covering of
+which was transparent and colourless. A quantity of sea-water impregnated
+with this matter, having been brought into a dark room, gave out a light,
+and when agitated, such brightness proceeded from it, as justified the
+anticipation that, during the night, the whole sea would be illuminated.
+Accordingly the wake of the ship was illuminated by a wonderful stream of
+light, in the depths of which larger masses of luminous matter could be
+discerned, whilst on the surface there was a sparkling and glittering, as
+if all the stars of the firmament were reflected in the water.
+
+This phosphorescence of the sea, for the explanation of which we are
+chiefly indebted to Professor Ehrenberg, proceeds for the most part from
+the emanations of light from molluscæ of the genus _Medusa_, and other
+living phosphoric animalculæ; sometimes, however, as for instance in
+Venice, it arises from the putrescent fibres of decayed molluscæ, and
+other organisms in a state of decomposition.
+
+On the evening of the 20th the splendid Ceuta Light was seen, which, even
+at a distance of twenty miles, looks as if it were quite near. This
+lighthouse is of the utmost importance to ships emerging into the Atlantic
+from the Mediterranean, as the current is exceedingly powerful, and during
+the night is apt imperceptibly to carry a vessel out of her course. On the
+morning of the 21st, the ship lay in a calm before the rock of Gibraltar.
+Barren, gray, and gloomy rose now before our sight this rocky,
+gun-studded, colossal sentinel of that vigilantly-prudent, energetic, and
+jealous Power, which is so constantly seeking to extend her rule wherever
+her own interests are concerned, or where she thinks it advisable to make
+herself respected by other nations.
+
+A light breeze sprang up, and at half-past 3 P.M. the anchorage, eleven
+and a half fathoms in depth, was reached. The frigate now lay in front of
+the Alameda or public gardens of Gibraltar, situated near the town gate,
+called the Ragged Staff. This anchorage is tolerably safe at this season,
+but in autumn and winter, as well as generally in strong easterly winds,
+it is not to be recommended, it being preferable to haul further in
+towards the place where the merchant-vessels usually lie. We saluted the
+English flag on the fortress with twenty-one guns, which were immediately
+answered from the ramparts. There were no English men-of-war in the Roads,
+except the sloop _Curlew_, Capt. Horton. The following morning our
+consort, the _Caroline_, anchored in our vicinity.
+
+The first day of the arrival of a man-of-war in harbour is attended with
+much inconvenience, particularly if she carries the flag of the
+Commodore, or it happens that the mail packets are arriving or departing,
+or that there are many ships of war in the Roads. The latter was not now
+the case, but so many visitors, letters, and newspapers arrived at once,
+that neither the one nor the other could be thoroughly enjoyed.
+
+The local authorities, the governor, Sir James Fergusson, at their head,
+were extremely obliging and attentive; Mr. Falkland, an officer of the
+Engineers, was placed at our disposal; a specially-reserved site was
+assigned us for astronomical and magnetical observations; huts were
+erected by the workmen of the arsenal for the protection of the
+instruments, and in short everything, calculated to promote scientific
+labours, was provided. The Chancellor of the Austrian Consulate, Mr. John
+Frembly, himself a geologist, proved likewise to be of great service to
+our scientific men: and it was considered a fortunate omen to have found,
+at this our first anchorage, so much sympathy with the objects of the
+Expedition.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF GIBRALTAR FROM SEAWARD.]
+
+[Illustration: ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+                              Gibraltar.
+
+             STAY FROM THE 20TH TO THE 30TH MAY, 1857.
+
+   Political Significance of the Rock.--Courtesy of the British
+     Authorities.--Fortifications.--Signal Stations.--The only
+     place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.--Calcareous Caves.--
+     Chief Entrances into the Town.--Shutting the Town Gates.--
+     Public Establishments.--Inhabitants.--Elliott's Gardens.--The
+     Isthmus, or Neutral Ground.--Algeziras.--Ceuta.--Commerce and
+     Navigation.--Excellent regulation in the English Navy relative
+     to Officers' Outfit.--Small-pox appears on Board the
+     _Caroline_.--Departure from Gibraltar.--A Fata Morgana.--The
+     _Novara_ passes the Straits.--Take leave of Europe.--Voyage to
+     Madeira.--Floating Bottles to ascertain the Currents.--Arrival
+     in the Roads of Funchal.
+
+
+This remarkable promontory, which in our days has obtained so much
+political importance, the Calpe of the ancients, constituted of old, with
+the opposite Abyla,[7] the so-called pillars of Hercules, celebrated, at
+the same time, as the boundary of the then-known world. It derives its
+name from the corrupted Arabic _Gebel_ (mountain) and _Tarik_, the name of
+a Moorish conqueror, who had pitched his camp here (A.D. 711). Like a
+colossal giant, guarding the portal of Europe, and converted, by the
+energy and ingenuity of the British, into an almost impregnable outpost,
+this precipitous rock has, as regards the Mediterranean, the same high
+strategic importance for that great maritime people, as Heligoland for the
+German Ocean, Aden for the Red Sea, Ceylon and Singapore for the Indian
+Archipelago, Hongkong for the Chinese waters, or the Cape and St. Helena
+for the Atlantic Ocean.
+
+[Footnote 7: The present Apes Hill.]
+
+Gibraltar was already strongly fortified, when it belonged to the
+Andalusian kingdom, but its grandest fortifications date from the treaty
+of Utrecht (1713), when it became an appanage of the British crown.
+Stupendous and incomparable are the works which since that period have
+been executed on it, though the calcareous formation of the locality and
+its numerous caves may have considerably facilitated their construction.
+
+The English authorities, who so kindly assisted in the scientific
+researches, obligingly furnished each individual of the frigate's staff
+with a written permission to inspect the fortifications as often as they
+pleased, and thereby afforded them the particular gratification of being
+able to view and admire these vast structures in all their details.
+
+Excellent and well-kept roads lead to the principal fortifications, which
+only begin at an elevation of several hundred feet above the town. The
+galleries, hewn in the solid rock, forming a kind of casemates, are of
+such breadth and height that they may be conveniently traversed by a man
+on horseback with his hat on. They have been constructed at an immense
+expense of labour and money, and are designated by various names, as
+"Upper gallery," "Lower gallery," "Queen's gallery," "St. George's Hall,"
+and so on. Their extent is estimated at an English mile, but is probably
+much greater. Besides these galleries, passages run for miles in the
+interior of the rock, affording the garrison a thoroughly-protected
+connection with all points that may chance to be threatened.
+
+The grandest and most imposing of these marvellous excavations are the
+"Queen's gallery" and "St. George's Hall." According to carved
+inscriptions, most of them were begun and completed between the years 1783
+and 1789. At the period of our visit, there were mounted on the different
+fortifications 707 guns, about one hundred of which peeped out of the
+smaller embrasures. Since that date, however, the number is said to have
+been increased so as to amount now to about 1500.
+
+During the stay of the _Novara_, it fortunately happened that the birthday
+of Queen Victoria was celebrated, and thus an opportunity was offered of
+seeing the fiery mountain in full activity. Though the occasion was
+peaceable, yet the imposing spectacle gave a tolerable idea of the
+elements of destruction which Gibraltar could put in action if really
+attacked. The governor of the fortress, surrounded by a brilliant staff,
+in which the Spanish governor of Algeziras and his officers played but a
+sorry part, reviewed the garrison, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and
+artillery, to the number of from 5000 to 6000 men; and whilst the troops
+defiled in slow and quick step, lightnings and thunders issued from all
+the crevices and embrasures of the artificially-perforated rock; huge
+volumes of dense smoke followed, and a rolling subterraneous rumbling gave
+the mountain exactly the character of a volcano suddenly burst into
+action. The echo of these salvoes of rejoicing must have been heard, not
+only in the adjacent parts of Spain, but also on the more remote coast of
+Africa; and he who was ignorant of the real cause, might have supposed it
+a grand rehearsal of that fearful tragedy which the English seem
+determined to perform in the event of an attack. The supposition, however,
+that the guns of Gibraltar are able entirely to command the Straits is
+erroneous, for these, at their narrowest part, are 12-1/2 miles wide, and
+not even the Armstrong guns, with which the fortress has lately been
+furnished, have so extensive a range. The English are, however, able to
+command the Straits by a fleet, which would find in the Bay of Gibraltar a
+sufficiently safe and roomy anchorage.
+
+From the fortifications, a narrow and rather steep path leads to the
+telegraph station, at an elevation of 1300 feet above the level of the
+sea. Steamers and men-of-war, as soon as visible, are signalled from this
+point by means of immense balls and flags. It would be very difficult to
+signal merchantmen in the same way, as, during a prevailing westerly wind,
+multitudes of ships often appear to the eastward of the rock, anxiously
+waiting for a favourable easterly breeze to carry them through the
+Straits; in the same way the westerly horizon is sometimes crowded with
+ships, prevented by contrary winds from entering the Mediterranean.
+
+We found at the station an Aneroid-barometer, and a thermometer. The
+advantages for navigation and physical science of extensive meteorological
+observations, regularly made, are so evident, that it is astonishing to
+see how often opportunities are neglected for making them, such as are
+offered here.
+
+There was no opportunity for seeing any of those families of monkeys, the
+occasional appearance of which on the Rock of Gibraltar has given rise to
+tales found in books of travel of the existence of a submarine
+communication, through which this single representative of the genus in
+Europe has found its way to this rock from Africa. Sometimes, however,
+during easterly winds, single individuals are observed on the highest
+peaks on the eastern side of the rock, where it is completely
+inaccessible; probably the remnants of that species (_Inuus ecaudatus_),
+which at some former time, either by chance, or human agency, have found
+their way hither from the Moorish coast.
+
+The calcareous caves are very remarkable. That on the western side, called
+St. Michael's, situated at a height of 800 feet, is the most important. It
+contains beautiful stalactite formations, and seems to be of considerable
+extent; it has, however, not been closely examined hitherto, as only a
+small part is conveniently accessible. St. Martin's Cave, on the
+south-east, likewise about 800 feet above the level of the sea, is
+smaller, but its stalactites are of a purer whiteness. A third was
+discovered a few years since on the eastern side of the rock at a height
+of only 80 feet, the lower portion of which consists of accumulations of
+sand and recent shells. There have also been found bones and teeth of
+large herbivorous animals.
+
+[Illustration: ROCK CAVERN IN GIBRALTAR.]
+
+The characteristic vegetation of the mountain is Spanish broom (_Spartium
+junceum_), the yellow blossom of which strikes the eye pleasingly at a
+great distance. There is also one species of cactus, and one of the dwarf
+palm (_Opuntia vulgaris_, and _Chamærops humilis_), which grows in great
+abundance, and forms, on the south face of the rock, almost the only
+vegetation, whilst, on account of difference of temperature, it is
+altogether absent on the remaining sides.
+
+Gibraltar has little to attract strangers to settle; barracks, military
+store-houses, and fortifications, render the appearance of the place
+peculiarly monotonous, the more so that there are no elegant buildings, or
+fine shops, on the rock. There was nothing observed, however, to confirm
+the statement, in a celebrated geographical work, copied by all later
+compilers, that "most of the houses are painted black, to soften the glare
+of the sun, and prevent an attacking enemy having a distinct view of the
+place." The town, which is built in terraces on the side of the rock, is
+accessible only from three points. The greatest portion of the traffic
+passes through the so-called Old Mole at the north end, whilst the
+entrances on the south are generally used by men-of-war sailors only. All
+are opened at 5 in the morning, and, according to the season, shut between
+7 and 8 in the evening, precisely twenty-five minutes after the first
+signal-gun. This closing of the gate is attended with ceremonies verging
+on the comic. A broad-shouldered corporal, carrying in his hand a heavy
+bunch of immense keys, marches, visibly impressed with the importance of
+his mission, in measured steps, accompanied by a number of red jackets
+with fixed bayonets, towards the massive town-gate; the bridge is then,
+with much ado, drawn up, and the horribly-creaking gate, with great
+exertion, closed, bolted, and finally locked. After "gun fire" no one can
+leave the town by the Old Mole; at 10 P.M., however, and at midnight, a
+little postern is opened, through which those jolly stragglers, who have
+forgotten in merry company the measure of time, may slip out to return to
+their floating abodes. From this hour till morning all communication with
+the harbour is arrested, and the utter impossibility (except in
+extraordinary cases) of leaving the town _after_ this hour, has given rise
+amongst the people to the saying, "There is only _one_ thing more
+difficult than to get _out_ of the town after midnight, and that is to get
+_in_."
+
+There are in the city two Anglican churches, one Wesleyan, one
+Presbyterian, two Catholic chapels, and two synagogues. The garrison
+library, where likewise a great number of journals and magazines are kept,
+possesses 22,000 volumes, amongst them several very rare and costly works,
+especially of ancient Spanish literature. It was founded in 1793 by
+Captain Drinkwater, and has been hitherto kept up by private subscriptions
+and the profits arising from a printing-establishment attached to it.
+
+Gibraltar owes to the energy and public spirit of the governor, Sir James
+Fergusson, the foundation of several important establishments and
+undertakings. Since the beginning of his administration in 1856, the
+number of public schools has been considerably increased, the town
+supplied with gas, and well-arranged public baths established.
+
+The city does not possess a single well or spring; the water used is
+obtained from tanks, in which the rain is collected. The quantity of rain
+that fell during the twelve months of 1855 amounted to 78 inches; in 1856,
+it is said to have been only 24 inches. Nevertheless, there is at no time
+any scarcity of water. The Government have lately caused the erection of
+a distilling apparatus for making sea-water fit for domestic purposes,
+which, however, hitherto has not been used.
+
+The population of Gibraltar, including the garrison of 6000 men, amounts
+to about 20,000 souls, consisting of Spaniards, English, Italians (mostly
+Genoese), Portuguese, Moors, Turks, Greeks, and Jews; indeed, a mixture of
+races, customs, and manners such as scarcely can be found at any other
+place in Europe. The native residents call Gibraltar briefly _the rock_,
+and themselves, with a kind of pseudo-patriotism, _rock people_, though by
+the officers of the garrison and navy generally complimented with the name
+of "rock-scorpions."
+
+The permanent settling of foreigners, in consequence of its being a
+fortress, requires a number of formalities, which have the effect of
+limiting the population; and even the English portion must be considered
+migratory, as it consists chiefly of military and government officers,
+who, after the lapse of certain intervals, exchange in regular order.
+
+The only really beautiful walk in the place is Elliott's Gardens, situated
+at the south end of the town, laid out in a grand style, but disfigured by
+a tasteless bronze statue of General Elliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield),
+the heroic defender of Gibraltar in 1782. In the evenings, when one of the
+military bands is performing, the grounds are thronged by visitors on
+foot, horseback, and in carriages, whilst loving couples, of all races and
+grades, ramble in happy union through the shady avenues.
+
+Near the gardens, towards the south, is a second quarter of the city,
+which mostly consists of government buildings. On the lowest terrace,
+which juts furthest into the sea, stands the lighthouse, on the celebrated
+"Europa Point."
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH GATE, GIBRALTAR.]
+
+Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish continent by a sandy neck of land,
+called by the Spaniards _El Istmo_, and by the English "the neutral
+ground." It runs between the Mediterranean and the bay, one mile and a
+half in length and 2700 feet in breadth. This plain, which is not more
+than 10 feet above the water, owes its origin to the formation of a dune
+in the rocky bed of the ocean. Strong easterly gales seem by degrees to
+have accumulated the sand on this shallow run of the sea, which formerly
+separated Gibraltar from Spain.
+
+A similar sand formation, near Catalan Bay, has attained the enormous
+height of 1000 feet. The Government have caused a portion of the sand, at
+the point where the isthmus joins the rock, to be excavated, and the water
+of the bay to be let in, so that there only remains a narrow low dyke of
+firm ground, which probably in time of war may be completely submerged.
+The stagnant water of this cut must, however, during the hot season,
+considerably increase the amount of fever.
+
+From May till October the troops are encamped under tents on this isthmus,
+along which the neighbouring Spaniards come to market daily in crowds,
+with provisions of all kinds, displaying their rancour against the foreign
+intruders by endeavouring to make them pay the highest possible price for
+their produce.
+
+The adjacent Spanish settlements, Campamiento and St. Roque, are much
+resorted to by excursionists from Gibraltar, and, during the summer, are
+selected by numerous families for even a longer stay; for however little
+pleasure or interest a ride over this arid and sandy plain affords, once
+arrived at Campamiento, the rider enjoys a most charming prospect, while
+there is probably no other point from which the isolated rock appears more
+grand or picturesque than from this neat little village.
+
+In following the road that runs from Campamiento along the bay, the
+charming little town of Algeziras is reached. It lies on the western
+shore, exactly opposite Gibraltar, with which it is in regular
+correspondence by daily steamers.
+
+Algeziras, formerly a poor fishing-village, has greatly increased in
+extent and prosperity, through the smuggling trade. This clean and
+pretty-looking place has a population of 10,000 souls, and makes by
+contrast an extremely pleasant impression on coming from the dismal and
+gloomy fortress. Men and things here have quite an Andalusian appearance.
+The small but neat one-storied houses are mostly painted a bright white,
+and ornamented with green verandahs; at almost every window beautiful
+flowers are exhibited; and the public promenade, shaded by fine trees, is
+delightful. The principal square is likewise planted with trees, and the
+lower stories of its houses are occupied by apothecaries' shops,
+coffee-rooms, confectioners, and one by a bookseller even. The churches
+appear in every respect insignificant; the hospital of San Juan de Dios,
+however, is an ancient and noble structure, the management of which is
+admirable. One of the arrangements here was eminently characteristic of
+Spain: in the ward for male patients stands at the upper end, by the side
+of the beds for common patients, a large, broad, elegantly-polished
+bedstead, which, the porter told us, was intended for "_caballeros_."
+
+At a short distance from the town is the Amphitheatre Constantia, a large
+wooden booth, said to hold nearly 9000 spectators. It is chiefly used for
+bull-fights, which always attract a large audience. The aqueduct here,
+taken with the fine scenery around, forms an exceedingly picturesque
+object.
+
+The inhabitants of Gibraltar sometimes make excursions to the peninsula of
+Ceuta (the Sebta of the Moors), situated on the opposite coast of Africa.
+The lighthouse of this little promontory has been lately furnished with a
+Fresnel apparatus, throwing out a most intense light, which is visible at
+a greater distance than any other observed during our voyage. This place,
+which is used by the Spaniards as a penal settlement, numbers 6500
+inhabitants, and has a very indifferent harbour. The "rock people" also
+occasionally make excursions to Tangier, the most westerly town of the
+strait, and the most important as regards the commerce of Morocco.
+
+A great number of steamers on their various routes touch at Gibraltar, for
+discharging and embarking freight and passengers, and to coal. The
+quantity of the latter thus shipped is estimated at 30,000 tons annually,
+all imported from England. There is also a regular correspondence by
+sailing vessels with all the leading Italian ports, and those of the
+Levant, as well as with Constantinople, Corfu, and Trieste.
+
+Gibraltar being a free port, there are no customs' dues, except those on
+wines and spirits. All flags enjoy equal privileges, and in all disputes
+the English law decides. It is impossible to obtain a satisfactory
+statement of the amount of imports and exports, as no Custom-house exists,
+and the official reports merely give the number and nationality of the
+flags of the ships that arrive and depart. Smuggling is carried on to a
+great extent, and, being a lucrative trade, will continue to be so, as
+long as Spain retains her prohibitory duties on English goods.
+
+The principal items of commerce in Gibraltar are English cotton goods,
+which are exported to Barbary in considerable quantities. To compete
+successfully with the English in this branch of trade would be very
+difficult for any other nation; but there are a great number of other
+articles which might find a ready sale on the African coast, and which are
+produced cheaper in several States of the European continent than in
+England; a consideration of so much the more importance in trading with
+the Moors, that these people regard lowness of price rather than the
+quality of the goods.
+
+For this very reason, small but industrious Belgium has become a powerful
+competitor of mighty England. Thus, for instance, that country exports to
+Morocco, by way of Gibraltar, sugar, both in loaves and crushed,[8]
+hardware and cutlery, nails and screws, zinc, as well as all sorts of
+earthenware and glass. A portion of these articles goes into the
+neighbouring Spanish provinces.
+
+[Footnote 8: The superior quality and cheapness of Belgian sugars have of
+late in a great measure driven all others out of the market. It is also
+worthy of remark, that though Gibraltar is a British colony, all the
+accounts are kept in Spanish currency, and that there are more Spanish and
+French coins in circulation than English, which, when changed, even
+sustain a small loss. The Spanish measures and weights also are more in
+use than the English.]
+
+It is rather singular that the Belgian glass goods are in Gibraltar
+represented as of _German_ manufacture, and thereby obtain a readier sale.
+This seems to be a proof that German (_i. e._ Bohemian) glass articles
+have been patronized before the Belgian, and lost the market only through
+the importation of the latter.
+
+The intercourse between Gibraltar and Spain is carried on by coasting
+vessels, and by French as well as Spanish steamers, while the postal
+communication with Great Britain is conducted by the Peninsular and
+Oriental Steam Packet Company.
+
+Correspondence with Spain and other parts of the Continent is carried on
+overland, but is little to be relied upon, as, owing to the horrible
+condition of the Spanish roads, a delay of from six to eight days
+sometimes occurs in bad weather. Between Gibraltar and Cadiz, a distance
+of only sixty English miles, the letter-bag is said to have often been six
+days on its way.
+
+The narrative of our stay at Gibraltar would be defective if we omitted
+mention of the numerous proofs of hospitality we experienced on all sides.
+Invitations were repeatedly received from the Convent (Government House),
+as well as from private families, and everywhere we experienced the most
+cordial reception.
+
+We must in particular mention a visit paid to Captain Warden, the
+superintendent of the station and arsenal, as it afforded an opportunity
+of becoming acquainted with a feature in the English naval service, as
+practical as it is worthy of imitation. The superintendent of the arsenal
+inhabits a beautiful roomy house, belonging to the Government, situated in
+a large garden, well planted with splendid plane-trees, laurel, and
+orange-trees, and ornamented with most beautiful and odoriferous flowers.
+As a superintendent's income would not admit the outlay necessary properly
+to furnish so large an edifice, this is done by contractors, who let out
+the furniture at the rate of five per cent. annually on the value. This
+sum is deducted monthly from the pay. The same system is also adopted on
+board English men-of-war. The cabins of the officers are there furnished
+and provided with all the requisite comforts by contractors under the
+superintendence of the Admiralty. The value of each article is marked in a
+printed list deposited with the authorities. The captain pays a yearly
+rate of five per cent. on the valuation, and binds himself besides, in the
+event of the ship's being paid off, or of being appointed to another
+vessel, to return in good condition all the articles specified, and pay
+the value noted in the list for everything missing. This agreement is
+registered at the Admiralty, and the contractor receives the amount
+monthly. The advantage of such an arrangement to the commander of a ship
+will be more fully appreciated by those who, from personal experience, are
+aware of the expense attending an outfit, and the great loss which an
+officer transferred from one ship to another suffers through a sudden and
+forced sale of his property. The commander of a ship is moreover often not
+in a condition to spend for his personal outfit a sum of perhaps a
+thousand pounds sterling, but he can conveniently pay annually from £40 to
+£50 for the hire in monthly instalments; and it thus becomes easier for
+him to maintain the appearance due to his position.
+
+The commander and officers of the _Caroline_, which, after an absence
+since the 12th of May, had rejoined us on the 23rd, were, like ourselves,
+received in the kindest manner by all the authorities of Gibraltar.
+
+It had been arranged that we should make the voyage to Madeira in company
+with the _Caroline_, but an unexpected incident prevented it. The
+small-pox[9] made its appearance on board, and although in a mild form and
+in but a few cases, yet it was sufficiently alarming to interrupt, as a
+matter of precaution, all communication, and to postpone indefinitely her
+departure, as a great part of the crew might be overtaken with the disease
+whilst at sea, exposed to sudden changes of temperature, thereby causing
+the most serious consequences. Such is not the case with diseases which
+are in some degree localized, as cholera, yellow fever, dysentery, &c.,
+when it is even prudent to set sail, notwithstanding the presence of the
+malady, as a change of place and climate is frequently accompanied with
+beneficial results.
+
+[Footnote 9: As there has lately been some difference amongst the medical
+men of Europe as to the utility of vaccination, the following observations
+from the report of Dr. Wawra, the principal physician on board the
+_Caroline_, regarding the appearance and the course of this epidemic, may
+not be out of place:--"A day before our departure from Trieste a man
+complained of a slight fever and headache, and his skin was covered with
+spots which were judged at once to be indications of an approaching
+eruption of small-pox. The man was immediately sent on shore as a matter
+of precaution; but, nevertheless, eight days after our departure we had a
+second, and ten days after that a third case: the epidemic was on board,
+and though in a mild form, yet serious consequences were apprehended. The
+_re-vaccination_ of the men was therefore decided upon, and carried out,
+as far as the virus on board would admit. Only five individuals of the
+whole had not been vaccinated at all; some had undergone the operation in
+their childhood, a great part of them, however, had been vaccinated on
+board other vessels, from two to five years before. Only fourteen cases
+occurred. Most remarkable, and evidently in favour of those who advocate
+re-vaccination, is the fact, that amongst most of those who had been
+vaccinated in their childhood, the disorder was more severe than among
+those who had been re-vaccinated on board the ship. Among those who had
+_never_ undergone the operation before, the vaccination on board was most
+successful; not one of them caught the disorder. Among the _re-vaccinated_
+only four cases occurred, with slighter symptoms than among those who had
+been once only operated upon. We met with several instances of the kind at
+other places where we touched. At Buenos Ayres, where the vaccination laws
+are stricter than anywhere else, the small-pox is extremely rare. Among
+the Brazilians, who entertain an absolute prejudice against vaccination,
+the _variola_ is one of the most common and most frightful diseases. It
+prevails still worse amongst the negro slaves, among whom, from the
+ignorance and prejudice of their masters, vaccination is neglected. The
+white marks of the disease are particularly visible in the black skin, and
+are evident proofs how virulently it has raged amongst them."]
+
+After we had got through our duties at Gibraltar, an attempt was made,
+with the first favourable wind, to set sail and reach the Atlantic; the
+_Caroline_ remaining behind for the benefit of the sick on board. She was
+to follow only when the health of the crew no longer excited any
+apprehension.
+
+On the 30th May the wind changed to south, and as the current in the
+harbour was also favourable, we weighed anchor in the hope that in the
+Straits we might meet with an easterly wind. The _Novara_ passed the
+_Caroline_, which saluted with a round of cheers, when we tacked to clear
+the roads, after which all sail was hoisted to beat out against the
+western current in the Straits. The sea was covered with a mucous
+substance, which generally indicates that there is scarcely a chance of a
+fresh breeze; however, even the little we had, would have sufficed to
+carry us through the Straits, but towards 6 P.M. a perfect calm overtook
+us, and notwithstanding the press of sail, we were carried back towards
+the East, and about midnight found ourselves again in the Mediterranean,
+which did not seem disposed to part with us. There was no improvement next
+day, and at sunset we were exactly twenty-five miles east from the point
+we had occupied the preceding day. The clouds passed from West to East
+across the moon, and in the night from the 31st of May to the 1st of June
+the westerly wind became so fresh that we had even to reef the sails.
+
+Current, wind, sea, everything was against us; even tacking was of no
+service, as we lost ground visibly with each tack. When at last all hope
+of making the West had disappeared, we anchored, like many others of our
+companions in sorrow, on the 1st June, at 6 P.M., in the Bay of
+Frangerola, fifteen miles north of Malaga.
+
+Here were anchored nearly sixty merchantmen, all wind-bound. Behind the
+Punta Molinos, near Malaga, there must have been quite as many more. Fresh
+additions were constantly being made to the already considerable fleet,
+which had involuntarily collected together, whilst those merchantmen which
+with fruitless obstinacy kept on tacking about us, were getting more and
+more out of their course, as with every successive hour their position was
+changed for the worse.
+
+[Illustration: INHABITANT OF FRANGOLA.]
+
+In the hope of a favourable wind we were all a-taunto on the 2nd June,
+perfectly prepared for a start. Under these circumstances no one could go
+on shore, but an officer was despatched in a boat to make inquiries as to
+whether there were any sanitary board in the neighbouring village. A
+relative of the President of the Junta de la Sanidad came on board, and
+stated that, though as a rule only vessels clearing from Spanish harbours
+were permitted to have intercourse with the shore, an exception should be
+made in favour of ourselves. This Andalusian was very communicative, and
+amongst other things told us that the inhabitants were supported almost
+entirely by fishing. Many ships had now been waiting several weeks for a
+favourable wind to pass the Straits. Some had thrice attempted to sail
+towards the West, but in every case were driven back by wind and current.
+In 1847, a year of scarcity, Louis Philippe had caused several French
+steamers to be stationed in the Straits in order to take in tow ships
+coming from the Black Sea laden with grain, and thereby to facilitate
+their passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. In the afternoon
+we had a visit from about thirty inhabitants of Frangerola, who came on
+board in fishing-boats to view the ship. None of these people had ever
+seen so large a man-of-war, and they all therefore regarded the ship with
+great curiosity. The ship's band greatly delighted them, but the
+signal-gun at sunset seemed to terrify them and to hasten their departure.
+
+In the evening we felt from time to time some warm blasts of wind from the
+east, and enjoyed for nearly an hour the delightful spectacle of a "Fata
+Morgana." This phenomenon, as is well known, arises from two currents of
+air of a different density, separated by a distinctly-formed plane,
+generally produced when the temperature of the two currents happens to
+vary. When, for instance, as is frequently the case at sea, a considerably
+warmer current of air comes suddenly in contact with a colder current
+having a lower position, the plane of separation of the former becomes
+condensed, and forms a mirror for all those objects which are in the lower
+current, so that their image is inversely reflected. As this surface of
+separation is not level throughout, various contractions and distortions
+result, which impart to the whole a singular appearance. On land, as for
+instance in the deserts of Africa, where the warmer current of air is on
+the surface of the ground, the aërial mirror is formed beneath the eye of
+the observer, by which the same phenomenon is produced that results from
+the reflection of objects on the surface of the water.
+
+In the present case the temperature of the atmosphere was about ten
+degrees higher than that of the sea's surface at the point of
+observation. The surface of the current of warm air appeared like a light
+fog, inclining in the East towards the Spanish coast, and in the
+South-east to South towards the surface of the sea. Where it was highest
+it reached nearly five degrees above the horizon. The images of the ships
+at anchor near Malaga, and those at sea under sail, appeared reversed, and
+assumed curiously fantastic forms, particularly in those places where the
+reflecting surface became irregular, and inclined towards the horizon. The
+appearance of these distorted ships in the air, joining in the most
+singular way the real ones actually floating on the sea,--the warm vapour
+which is from time to time wafted on the face of the observer, as well as
+the perfect and almost death-like stillness which, under such
+circumstances, prevails both on the sea and in the atmosphere, may easily
+produce the belief in a mysterious power, among a people who are generally
+prone to ascribe to supernatural agencies every phenomenon they cannot
+understand or explain.
+
+This "Fata Morgana"[10] was not merely interesting in itself, but also gave
+reason to indulge in the hope of a favourable wind. A light easterly
+breeze accordingly sprang up towards midnight, the current became
+reversed, the anchor was weighed, and all sail made with this favourable
+wind towards Gibraltar, the rock of which was distinctly recognizable
+through the misty air, at a distance of nearly sixty miles.
+
+[Footnote 10: The name Morgana is of Breton origin, and signifies "sea
+woman," from _mor_, sea, and _gan_, a fine woman;--the fairy mermaid of
+English legendary tales.]
+
+A calm still prevailed near Europa Point, but as the day wore on, the
+easterly breeze blew strong through the Straits, and, in company with
+innumerable other ships, the Pillars of Hercules were at length passed.
+The wind freshened, and the frigate cracked merrily on down mid-channel;
+for, though the set of the current was dead against us, yet the wind
+proved more than a match for it, which in our case was the more apparent,
+that those merchantmen which sailed along the coast, not having the
+advantage of this wind, seemed as though left motionless in the rear.
+
+When towards noon the _Novara_ was off the place where the _Caroline_ had
+been anchored, that ship was no longer visible. She had probably set sail
+in the morning. We supposed her to be among the crowd of ships which were
+sailing in the fog, but did not discover her, even after we had overtaken
+and examined all of them. We now endeavoured to reach the Atlantic as
+speedily as possible, making from nine to ten knots an hour, and, with
+joyful sensations, sailed through those beautiful straits, on whose shores
+the ancient world unrolled its grand panorama, thanking Providence here,
+at the entrance of that vast ocean, which now shone so brilliantly, that
+we were permitted to carry the Austrian flag into distant regions.
+
+At 4 P.M., aided by the fresh evening breeze, we passed the most southerly
+point of Europe. We were just going to dinner when the last glimpse of the
+old world passed before the cabin windows, and we gazed once more with
+sorrowing eyes at the rapidly-disappearing coast, which, illuminated by
+the rays of the setting sun, seemed to wave us a last farewell in letters
+of fire. However beautiful, however inspiring the prospect of our task;
+however inviting the magnificent ocean that lay extended under our eyes,
+magically lit up by the silvery beams of the bright moon shining from a
+starry sky, yet the painful sensations of parting with that old world,
+with which so many pleasing associations--so many cherished recollections
+were bound up, had a powerful influence, and gave rise to melancholy
+impressions, of which we were only relieved by the comforting hope that we
+should one day return to all so dear to us.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE TRAFALGAR.]
+
+The night was delightful. Not a single cloud obscured the sky, and the
+ship, with all sails swelled by a fair wind, ploughed the dark waves,
+leaving a glittering track behind. We were now on the ocean! Below, blue,
+foam-crested billows; above, the sky studded with stars;--below, the wide
+desert of the sea; above, the infallible guides to lead us safely through
+it.
+
+We awoke to new activity on that great element, which conceals so many
+charms and so many hardships, where the continued alternations of hope and
+fear, of enjoyment and privation--where weariness and disappointment, and
+yet again the new strength imparted by returning success--so excitingly
+animate, and so gloriously manifest the innate power of the human mind.
+
+Life on board, the various excitements at sea, the different countries and
+people seen during a voyage, all tend to arouse feelings and sensations
+which are reserved for the mariner alone, and which render his life, if he
+knows how to use it properly, happy and most enviable. At sea the mental
+and physical eye gains strength, man there seeks to unravel Nature in all
+her phases, and to know and to admire more thoroughly her works. The
+seaman owes his energy, his straightforwardness, and his piety, to a life
+spent in the midst of nature, to his direct intercourse with creation.
+Between him and the Sovereign of the Universe there is, as it were, no
+mediator--he lives and labours uninterruptedly on the steps of the throne
+of his Creator and Preserver. In this great temple he directs to Him alone
+his complaints, his thanks, and his prayers. At sea he learns law and
+order from Nature herself in her constantly-recurring functions; here he
+admires the omnipotence and goodness of God in the sunrise after a stormy
+night, and in the brightness of the moon that lights up his path; here he
+learns by his actual experience the truth of that maxim of life, that "God
+only helps him who helps himself."
+
+The wind, hitherto easterly, chopped round to the North-east, which,
+according to Maury's excellent directions and charts, may be considered as
+a trade wind, and in this season might be called so. In fact, the trade
+winds are produced by a current of air, which is directed towards the
+Equator, and only in consequence of the earth's motion round its axis
+acquires a north-easterly direction to the north of the equator, and a
+south-easterly to the south of it. But the trade winds become perceptible
+at a certain distance from the equator, or rather from the hottest zone of
+the earth's surface; and it is clear, that when the zone assumes a greater
+breadth, the boundary of the trade winds is extended further towards the
+poles, as the position of this zone and its heat obtained from the sun are
+the causes of these phenomena.
+
+This is exactly the case in these waters; Africa, with its sandy deserts,
+presents a broader zone of the greatest heat than is possible on the sea,
+and the trade winds, accordingly, reach further towards the north. Its
+direction, however, cannot always be north-easterly, and depends
+necessarily on the direction of the northern boundaries of this zone of
+greatest heat. Accordingly, we at first had a more northerly wind, which
+in our progress towards Madeira became much more easterly. The weather
+continued on the whole beautiful, the sea was calm, and only the increased
+length of the waves showed the greater expanse of water we were now
+navigating.
+
+We overtook some other ships, which were sailing towards the west. As we
+saw nothing of the _Caroline_, we concluded that she was considerably
+ahead. The current, which near Gibraltar has a westerly direction, tending
+towards the Mediterranean, loses its power at a distance from the land,
+and half-way to Madeira it changes its direction in such a way that the
+ship is carried imperceptibly southwards, though only a few miles a-day.
+This current is a lateral branch of the great Gulf Stream, which from the
+Gulf of Mexico is directed towards England, but about the latitude of New
+York sends off a branch in a south-easterly direction, which passes round
+Madeira, and, near the Canaries, takes a parallel direction with the coast
+of Africa and forms the commencement of the Guinea current. The
+temperature of the sea water, which in the midst of this current is
+generally rather higher than that of the air, indicates to the mariner
+that he is in the Stream, and he must take care that his ship is not
+carried more to the south out of its course than he wishes. This shows
+clearly of what importance ocean-currents are to navigation; and it
+becomes evident that it is the duty of the scientific navigator not only
+to find out their direction and strength, but to use all means at his
+command, in order to ascertain their general movement in given districts
+of ocean.
+
+For this latter purpose, it is customary (as often as circumstances seem
+to render it advisable) to throw overboard, and commit to the mercy of
+these currents, a well-corked empty bottle, in which has been deposited a
+card with the name and position of the ship. The bottle thus prepared, and
+made conspicuous by a covering of white linen cloth, or some such
+material, wanders hither and thither with the current, until it is picked
+up by some other ship, or is stranded anywhere on _terra firma_. The fact
+of such a bottle having been picked up is usually published, together with
+the particulars enclosed, by means of which it is obvious that an estimate
+can be formed of the average strength and direction of the current.
+
+At 1 P.M. each afternoon, it was our custom to despatch one of these
+ocean-posts, under given conditions; but only rarely did we afterwards
+receive any information with respect to them. In each bottle was placed a
+card with the following particulars, written in German, English, French,
+Italian, and Spanish:--
+
+"H.I.M. frigate, _Novara_, such and such a day of the week and month, hour
+at which thrown overboard, Longitude from Greenwich, Latitude. Whoever
+finds this bottle, which is about being thrown overboard well-corked and
+in good order, is requested to forward for publication, to the nearest
+spot at which there is a newspaper, the day, hour, latitude and longitude,
+in which the bottle has been found, together with the particulars of a
+similar nature already enclosed."
+
+On the 7th June, towards evening, we were not more than 55 nautical miles
+distant from the E. point of Madeira, and as the wind was favourable and
+pretty fresh, it became necessary to shorten sail, so as to reach the
+anchorage by daybreak.
+
+About 2.30 A.M., a vessel was perceived, which, by its lights, was made
+out to be a man-of-war. We now burned a port fire which was not merely
+replied to, but accompanied by signalling the number of the _Caroline_.
+She was steering exactly our own course, and after having had to struggle
+with calms on nearing the coast, we cast anchor together, in the roads of
+Funchal, in 32 fathoms, sandy bottom, immediately South of the Loo Rock, a
+singular-looking, lofty, conical rock, which marks the best anchorage for
+large ships. The U. S. corvette, _Dale_, lay in our vicinity, and sent a
+boat on board with an officer to extend to us the usual greetings, after
+which she saluted the Commodore's standard with a salute of thirteen
+guns,[11] which, as is the etiquette, we returned, gun for gun. We now had
+the pleasure of hearing that the small-pox had entirely disappeared on
+board the corvette _Caroline_, those attacked being now in a fair way of
+convalescence, while on board the _Novara_, the health of the ship's
+company was eminently satisfactory.
+
+[Footnote 11: Commodores of other nations receive only eleven guns by way
+of salute.]
+
+[Illustration: LOO ROCK (MADEIRA).]
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN MADEIRA.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+                               Madeira.
+
+               FROM THE 8TH TO THE 17TH OF JUNE, 1857.
+
+   First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the
+     Island.--History.--Unfavourable political circumstances
+     connected with the cultivation of the ground.--Aqueducts.--
+     First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its
+     Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a compensation for its loss.--
+     Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence
+     for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the
+     Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress
+     among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--
+     Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--
+     Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent
+     Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--
+     Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent
+     of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to
+     Funchal.--Departure.
+
+
+Delightful and striking is the first impression of Funchal, its luxuriant
+gardens smiling with gorgeous flowers, and its mountain sides cultivated
+almost to their summits; and although the grander and more gigantic forms
+of true tropical vegetation are wanting, and the landscape displays rather
+the character of an island off the shores of Italy than of the torrid
+zone--still Nature exhibits herself here with such varied charms that
+imagination can scarcely conceive a sweeter or lovelier scene. The most
+beautiful plants of the temperate and sub-tropical zones meet here in
+their highest development, whilst some representatives of the tropics
+intermixed enhance the richness of the wonderful picture. Odoriferous
+magnolias, large flowering tulip trees, plane trees, laurels, myrtles,
+acacias, passion and trumpet flowers, tree-like fuchsias with immense
+blossoms, gaudy hortensias, sweet-smelling roses, blooming oleanders,
+aloes, 40 feet high, in full flower, imposing camellias with shining green
+foliage, covered with beautiful rose-like flowers, chestnut trees,
+Brazilian pines, cypresses--all delight the eye, together with
+pomegranates, tamarinds, bananas, sugar-canes, coffee-shrubs, gigantic
+dragon trees, pine-apples, mangroves, papayas, and aquacatés. Certainly,
+at a later date, we met in the primitive forests of the Nicobar islands,
+or in Java, Luzon, and the Caroline islands, with grander and more
+imposing scenery; but none that surpassed in fragrance, luxuriance, and
+loveliness the floral beauty of Madeira.
+
+The anchorage of Funchal[12] is merely an open, exceedingly unsafe
+roadstead, which affords so little protection to ships that often in
+southerly winds they are obliged to get under sail. This is especially the
+case in the winter, when the sea often rushes into the small unprotected
+bay with fearful violence. In October, 1842, five vessels were cast on
+shore within the space of a few hours, and another sank whilst at anchor;
+a similar violent gale from the south raged in December, 1848, when a like
+number of ships met with the same fate, and were dashed to pieces. The
+British sloop of war _Daphne_ only escaped by making the open sea in time.
+In order to run less risk of being surprised by such gales, sailing
+vessels generally cast anchor to the south of the Loo Rock, where there is
+tolerably safe anchorage at a depth of twenty-five to thirty fathoms. In
+that position they are clear of the rocky headlands, and can therefore
+more easily set sail before the sea rushes in with all its irresistible
+violence. Steamers, which are better able to resist the force of the waves
+than sailing vessels, generally cast anchor nearer the shore, so that
+passengers may be more easily landed, and coals shipped with greater
+facility.
+
+[Footnote 12: The Portuguese for fennel-field, because the first
+discoverers of the island found this plant in great abundance.]
+
+The Portuguese Government has done nothing to compensate for the
+shortcomings of nature with regard to safe landing-places in this island,
+otherwise so highly favoured. Though the rocky condition of the Funchal
+roads, (the only anchorage for larger ships which the island possesses,)
+offers sufficient means for the construction of a harbour for boats and
+small vessels, yet the Government has hitherto done so little, that the
+landing of passengers can only be effected by small, peculiarly-built
+boats, which, whilst tossed by the waves, have to be drawn on shore by the
+natives wading knee-deep in the water. If, therefore, the ship remains any
+length of time at Funchal, the communication with the land is attended
+with considerable expense. We laid out, in payments to the boatmen, during
+a stay of nine days, the sum of forty-five Spanish piastres[13] (£9 15s.
+sterling), although they had not over-charged us.
+
+[Footnote 13: Spanish piastre = 4s. 4d. at par.]
+
+The formalities at the custom-house, which strangers--even those belonging
+to a ship-of-war of a friendly Power--have to go through, are extremely
+annoying, and entail a great loss of time. Before landing, passengers'
+boats are boarded in the open roads by officers, who are stationed a few
+cable lengths from the shore. On landing, the stranger is obliged to
+repair to the custom-house, where even small and open packages are
+subjected to a second rigid examination. The time lost during this
+process, unnecessarily minute, is exceedingly unpleasant. The reason
+assigned for these vexatious regulations is the extent to which, of late,
+smuggling has been carried on in the island, and which, in the opinion of
+the Governor, required these measures of precaution. It seems, however,
+that this system rather promotes contraband trading, by making it very
+lucrative. The Austrian consul, Charles Bianchi, Esq., did all in his
+power to diminish the frequency of the continual examinations, and
+likewise, in all other respects, endeavoured to promote the objects of the
+Expedition.
+
+The greatest length of the island of Madeira, from Ponta Furado in the
+east, to Ponta do Pargo, in the west, amounts to 30 miles; its greatest
+breadth, from Ponta do Cruz in the south, to Ponta do Saõ Jorge in the
+north, is 12-1/2 miles, and its area is about 240 square miles. This
+volcanic and mountainous island is intersected by innumerable deep ravines
+and defiles, and its whole surface is so much broken and irregular, that
+the representation Columbus once gave to Queen Isabella, of the Island of
+Jamaica, when she asked him for a description of its configuration, might
+perfectly be applied to the aspect of Madeira also. The great navigator,
+after having crushed a sheet of paper in his hand, and partly opened it
+again, placed it on the table, saying, he could convey to Her Majesty no
+clearer idea of that island than that crumpled piece of paper afforded.
+
+A large portion of the island is not susceptible of cultivation; for the
+heathy region which constitutes nearly one-third of its surface, and rises
+to a height of about 2500 feet above the level of the sea, is extremely
+steep, and too much exposed to winds and rains in summer, to admit of any
+kind of cultivation, even that of grain; whilst another not less
+considerable tract is too rocky and precipitous for that purpose. In the
+south of the island, the highest limit of cultivation is estimated to be
+at a height of 2500 feet, though in several places rye and barley grow at
+2800 feet. In the north of the island, where a better system of irrigation
+prevails, the extreme boundary of cultivation reaches a higher altitude,
+and on the declivities of the Ribeiro Frio, it is met with at an elevation
+of above 3000 feet.
+
+The earlier history of the island has had such a great influence upon its
+present industrial and social condition, that a few remarks on the most
+important features of its history may find a place here.
+
+Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joaõ Gonsalvo da
+Camara[14] and Tristaõ Teixeira, and, about 1421, a colony of Europeans
+settled on the island. Camara obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the
+south-eastern, and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together
+with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was then the
+principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico that of Teixeira's.
+These two recipients (_donatarios_) enjoyed the exclusive privileges of
+erecting flour and saw mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for
+public baking (private baking being permitted to all); they, moreover, had
+the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims upon the tithes of the royal
+revenues, and were empowered to grant portions of the land to settlers.
+Every settler was required to erect within five years a house, a cottage,
+or barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these conditions, at
+the expiration of the fixed period, had not been complied with, the donor
+had the right of granting the land to some one else. These grants were
+hereditary, and lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event
+of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary privileges and
+immunities were deemed necessary in order to reconcile the holders with
+the dubious character of the early settlers in the island; for, though in
+those times the highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous
+expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison and convict
+hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had much more the character of
+a place of banishment for criminals than that of a colony of free
+emigrants.
+
+[Footnote 14: Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.]
+
+With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first settlers are
+said to have set on fire so large a portion of the primeval forests, that
+they were soon unable to check the conflagration. According to old
+writers, the fire, particularly in the south of the island, lasted several
+years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that many persons in
+order to escape from it, sought refuge on board the ships in the roads of
+Funchal.[15]
+
+[Footnote 15: The name _Madeira_, signifying in Portuguese "timber or
+wood," justifies the statement that the island was at one time richly
+wooded.]
+
+This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by ancient and
+modern authors, is being avenged even at present, though centuries have
+passed since the deed. The cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no
+longer to be found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old
+houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show the magnitude
+which this noble tree formerly attained in the island. Of the dragon tree
+(_Dracæna Draco_), which was once the ornament of the forests of Madeira,
+there are at present, in the whole island, only six or seven specimens in
+existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers. The Til-tree
+(_Oreodaphne f[oe]tens_), the Vinhatico (_Persea indica_), and the Folhado
+(_Clethra arborea_), formerly the most numerous representatives of the
+native flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with, and
+their places are occupied by plants and trees of the temperate zone,
+particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit of which furnishes the
+inhabitants with food, whilst the tree itself has served hitherto in the
+north of the island as a support to the vine. The destruction of the
+forests has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the
+modification of the climate in general, and to the diminution of humidity
+in particular. At the date of the discovery of the island, and a long time
+after, the Rio Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to
+have been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the sea; at
+present this river is quite insignificant, and almost dried up.
+
+The island remained for two centuries in the possession of the direct
+heirs of the original owners, and when at last, from want of legal
+successors, these privileges lapsed, the crown granted them to other
+favourites; but with some restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and
+saw mills was then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other
+privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the first
+settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable property in land,
+whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane, now very generally adopted, the
+introduction of negro slaves from Africa, and the foundation of large
+estates, contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants. The
+ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the island are even now
+mute witnesses of the opulence of their former occupants.
+
+This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the beginning of the
+last century, materially affected by the introduction of the so-called
+_vinculos_ or entails, which, introduced under the protection and in
+favour of the church, were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich
+proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in order to have
+masses said for the repose of their souls, and encumbered their lands with
+so many burdens, that only a small remainder fell to their heirs. So long
+as these claims were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases
+for a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on their
+lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a _morgado_ (entailed
+property). Under the severe but wise administration of the Marquis of
+Pombal, a law was passed which forbade the future creation of morgados
+(unless the property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and even
+then the special licence of the crown had to be obtained), declaring the
+whole system of entails "as contrary to the rights of property and the
+well-founded claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom
+Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe, as it allowed
+at the same time the abolition of single entails, the value of which was
+below 200 Spanish piastres annually, as well as that of every morgado,
+the annual value of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As,
+however, a great number of these entails exceed 200 piastres, these
+oppressive restrictions still weigh upon four-fifths of the land,
+notwithstanding the above-mentioned laws. Among the creditors who still
+have claims, there are three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar
+institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital of Funchal,
+and the Portuguese Government. The institution of these vinculos and
+morgados produced a kind of feudal dependency between the cultivator of
+the estates (_caseiro_) and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the
+occasion of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the
+caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land produced; when the
+landlord removed from the town into the country, the caseiro carried his
+litter and luggage; in conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as
+_meu amo_ (my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of these
+usages, and in various ways altered the relation between the caseiro and
+the landlord.
+
+Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the system of
+parcelling ground into small allotments, which has been continued up to
+the present time. The farms are in general extremely small. In the richer
+and more fertile parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent,
+very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not even the tenth
+part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho, the proprietor of nearly
+one-third of the whole island, had upwards of eight thousand tenants.
+Supposing that this mode of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds,
+there would be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or, taking
+the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth inhabitant would be a
+tenant farmer. This state of things is not to be wondered at, considering
+that almost every day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent
+of which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large garden bed, on
+which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs, peaches, sugar-cane, and
+sometimes even grain.
+
+In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has made more
+progress than in the south, rent is paid in money; generally, however, the
+system of paying in kind is still in existence, in which the harvest,
+(after deducting the _tithe_, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and
+not to the church,) is divided between the landlord and the tenants.
+According to this principle the landlord receives half of the produce of
+the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane, wine, fruit or vegetables, which are
+brought for sale, and not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes
+happens, however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on the
+ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in agriculture. They are
+diminutive and singularly unsightly, but of a very powerful breed, and
+furnish very good meat for the table. They are generally fed in stalls,
+but in the mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are
+only a few badly-fed sheep on the island, so that the mutton is almost
+unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are in abundance, and the rearing of
+poultry is generally the principal means of living possessed by the
+peasantry. What is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and
+boars to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few rabbits we
+saw were perfectly identical with the European species (_Lepus
+cuniculus_), and lead to the supposition that rabbits as well as pigs, now
+found in a wild state here and there on the island, are only the progeny
+of those which have formerly been introduced from Europe.
+
+The numerous open and walled water conduits (_levadas_), which are of
+considerable height, and lead to all parts of the cultivated land, are of
+particular importance. Each levada is placed under the superintendence of
+a committee, selected mostly from the landowners, who have a direct
+interest in them. Sometimes one person only, generally the most
+considerable landowner of the district, under the title of _juiz da
+levada_, is entrusted with the control of the water, and receives for his
+services the use of the water during twenty-four hours. The right of using
+these levadas is very strictly guarded, and often leads to law
+proceedings. Every piece of ground within a district through which such a
+conduit runs, is entitled to the use of the water by turns, during a
+certain number of hours (generally not more than twenty-four). These turns
+are different, according to the extent of the district, from fifteen to
+forty days. The distribution of the water is entrusted to a so-called
+_levadeiro_, who places himself at the upper end of the land through which
+the water is to flow, and with an hour-glass in his hand measures--a
+modern Saturn--the time during which the owner is entitled to the use of
+the beneficent element. After the expiration of the fixed period, the
+water is made to pass on to the ground of another proprietor. These
+conduits, so extremely important to the farmer, were constructed partly at
+the expense of the Government, and partly by the contributions of the
+landed proprietors. Those who have no other title may obtain the right to
+this privilege either by purchase or by government grant. For every
+twenty-four hours' use of the levadas 400 reis[16] are paid, which tax is
+employed to keep them in good order.
+
+[Footnote 16: 1000 reis or milreis=to one Spanish piastre, or about 4s.
+4d.]
+
+The high roads of Madeira are, with but few exceptions, in a deplorable
+condition. They are generally laid with small pointed stones, and at
+numerous places they have an inclination of from 23 to 27 degrees. Every
+adult male native is obliged to pay annually one Spanish piastre, or to
+give five days' labour for their repair. On account of the bad condition
+of the roads in the interior of the island, most of the natural produce is
+conveyed from one place to another in boats, or, as is the case with wine,
+is carried to the harbour in skins and casks, on the backs of the
+inhabitants.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE RIBEIRO SECO.]
+
+The first attempt at cultivation in Madeira was the planting of
+sugar-canes, introduced soon after the discovery of the island, through
+the instrumentality of Prince Henry of Portugal (son of John I.), which
+grew so abundantly, that for a considerable period the produce of the
+island sufficed for the supply of the whole kingdom of Portugal. In
+commemoration of this flourishing epoch, as regards the cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, two sugar-loaves were introduced into the arms of the island.
+In the year 1452 was erected the first sugar factory, near Machica, and at
+the end of the fifteenth century there existed as many as 120, in which
+slaves chiefly were employed. The Jesuit, Antonio Cordeyro, who wrote his
+_Historia Insulana Lusitana_ at the beginning of last century, makes
+mention of a considerable number of sugar factories, which had been
+erected in almost every part of the south coast. On the estate of the
+Genoese, Juan Esmeralda, half a league from Ribeiro do Taboa, there were
+annually manufactured 20,000 arrobas[17] of sugar. By degrees, however, the
+culture of the cane fell, into decay, whether through disease of the plant
+or its cheaper production in the Brazils and West Indies is not known, so
+that in the year 1840, only two sugar factories were at work in the whole
+island; and even these only produce molasses and rum, of which the latter,
+in the year 1856, amounted to 1500 pipes. The cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, however, has increased since the vine disease has fallen so
+heavily on the landowner. In the summer of 1857, there were eighteen
+factories again in activity on the island, though so late as 1855, the
+importation of sugar, for the consumption of the island, amounted to but
+31,176 arrobas.[18]
+
+[Footnote 17: One arroba = 32 arrateles or pounds. One pipe = 108 gallons.]
+
+[Footnote 18: From 64 lbs. of sugar-cane are obtained 4 galls. of juice,
+and from 4 galls. of juice are made 8 galls. of rum. The average price was
+2200 reis per gal. of sugar-juice. The rum of commerce (from 22 to 23
+degrees) is sold at one Spanish piastre the gallon.]
+
+The greatest elevation at which, in the south of the island, the
+sugar-cane can be grown, is, like that of the banana tree, about 1000 feet
+above the level of the sea. In the north, the cultivation of the cane
+would be remunerative only at those points where, as, for instance, at
+Fayal and San Jorge, ground and temperature are most favourable for it. To
+judge by the soil and climate, the cultivation of the cane in Madeira
+might, with care, even at the present time, prove advantageous. In the
+south-west part of Lousiana, where, in 1796, this plant was introduced
+exclusively for the manufacture of _Taffia_,[19] there exist at present as
+many as 1500 sugar factories, producing annually, on an average, 200,000
+hogsheads of sugar. The planter of Madeira is not, as in Lousiana, obliged
+by the frost to cut the cane before it is ripe; there it ripens
+thoroughly, blooms in January, and is harvested in March.
+
+[Footnote 19: A beverage resembling brandy in taste, much liked in the West
+Indies.]
+
+The motive power of the sugar-mills is mostly water and steam. There are
+also a dozen large distilleries at work, possessing the most modern
+English improvements. An acre of land, planted with sugar-cane, is said to
+yield from 100 to 120 Spanish piastres, a result for the landowner more
+profitable than that arising from the cultivation of the vine, even in its
+best days.
+
+As regards the culture of cotton, for which the climate and soil are
+peculiarly suitable, no attempt has as yet been made. The same remark
+applies to olive trees; though the Government ordered the latter to be
+planted so long ago as 1768. The cultivation of tobacco, however, is
+prevented from extending, being a government monopoly. As for wheat, it
+is not produced in sufficient quantity to meet one quarter of the
+consumption of the inhabitants. In the year 1854, wheat, to the amount of
+216,918 bushels, was imported from the north of Africa alone, a quantity
+nearly twice as great as that which the island produces. Wheat and maize,
+or Indian corn, are also imported from the Azores, and some ports of the
+Mediterranean; an importation which is likely rather to increase than
+decrease.
+
+The potato belongs to that small class of vegetables which grow at
+considerable elevations, and, by proper irrigation and dressing of the
+ground, three harvests may be obtained in the course of the year.
+
+The Inhame [not the Yam (_Dioscorea alata_) of the West Indies and South
+America, but a kind of grume (_Colocasia esculenta_)] grows in large
+quantities near to rivers and water conduits, where the ground is humid.
+It is much sought for by the people, on account of its cheapness, though
+rather a coarse kind of food, which, as Cordeyro naïvely says, "picao
+algum tanto na garganta" (scratches the throat).
+
+Sweet potatoes (_Convolvulus edulis_, Lin.), water-melons, gourds, as well
+as all kinds of European garden vegetables, are found throughout the year
+in the market, though not of a particularly good quality. Oranges, lemons,
+bananas, guavas, pine-apples, figs, apricots, and peaches, are abundant
+during the summer season, and on higher ground even apple and pear-trees
+are to be met with.
+
+On the "Desertas," three uninhabited little islands south-east of
+Madeira, and belonging to it, there grows on the rocks the orchilla
+(_Rocella tinctoria_), a species of lichen, celebrated for yielding a fine
+purple colour, much used in dyeing. Considering the great importance for
+industrial purposes of this lichen, it might, with some care, be
+advantageously grown in Madeira. Formerly there was a small quantity
+brought to market, and sold for 14,000 reis the quintal. At the present
+time the yield has entirely ceased, though it is found in large quantities
+in the neighbouring islands. It is considered not to be of such good
+quality as that of the Azores, where, as is the case with all lichens,
+that grow in more southern and warmer climates, it is of a better quality,
+and more highly esteemed.
+
+The product, however, which hitherto has yielded the largest profit to the
+natives, and made the name of Madeira famous and familiar, even to those
+who do not profess a particular interest in the beauties of nature in this
+romantic island, is its _wine_. Though this article of exportation has,
+through the vine disease, entirely lost its former importance, yet it may
+be of some interest to take a glance at its history and culture, in order
+the better to comprehend the magnitude of the calamities that have
+overwhelmed the people of Madeira, in consequence of the bad vintages of
+the last seven years.
+
+The vine was introduced from Cyprus, almost at the same time with the
+sugar-cane, under the auspices of Prince Henry of Portugal, in 1425, but
+its culture did not attain much importance till the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. Some authors even suppose that the wine of Madeira owes
+its reputation chiefly to those plants which were, at a much later date,
+imported by the Jesuits from Candia. This much is certain, that the
+produce grown on the estates of the Jesuits greatly surpassed in quality
+all others in the island, and maintained a higher price in the market even
+when those estates had changed hands. The grape ripens in the north at an
+elevation of 2700 feet, but such as are fitted for the manufacture of
+wine, grow only as high as the Curral das Freiras (2080 feet).
+
+Hitherto four sorts of vines have been cultivated in the island, namely,
+the _Bual_ and _Tinta_, both of which were brought from Burgundy, the
+_Sercial_ from the Rhine, and the _Malvasia_ or _Malmsey_ from Candia.
+There are four species of the last-mentioned, (_candila_, _roxa_,
+_babosa_, and _propea_); the delicious flavour of which by many people is
+considered to have a great similarity with the Hungarian _Tokayer_. The
+most esteemed sorts were grown west of Funchal, near Cama de Lobos, and
+Estreita. Excellent qualities were grown also at Santa Cruz, on the north
+side of the island, and the valleys near Ponta da Cruz; in general,
+however, the grape of the northern district proved to be of inferior
+quality, and was therefore only used in the manufacture of rum. In the
+north the vines were trained on chestnut trees, but in the south, as in
+Lombardy and the Tyrol, in festoons, supported by a kind of cane (_Arundo
+sagittata_), and tied up by a species of willow (_Salex rubra_),
+specially cultivated for that purpose.
+
+Though nearly a fifth of the cultivated portion of the island was thus
+planted, yet the individual vineyards were but small in extent, the
+largest of them not exceeding three or four acres. In the wine-growing
+countries of Europe fresh plants are set at least every twenty years; but
+in Madeira they are allowed to remain in the ground so long as they yield
+any fruit. The native growers do not relish improvements; of all the
+agricultural implements which some English landowners, settled near
+Funchal, wished to introduce, the garden-rake alone was adopted by these
+enemies of innovation. The vineyards of Madeira were usually let out to
+farmers (_caseiros_), and rarely cultivated by the proprietors themselves.
+The yield of an acre was estimated at from one to three pipes. In 1848 the
+cost of producing a pipe of Madeira amounted to from 12 to 40 Spanish
+piastres. In the same year the total production of the island amounted to
+30,000 pipes, of which only 10,000 were exported, as the inferior sorts,
+not keeping well, are not suited for the foreign markets. Of the wines
+exported, half went to Russia and the Baltic provinces, the other,
+comprising the best kinds, were sent to England, the West Indies, and the
+United States. Up to the year 1851, when the last good vintage occurred,
+the price of a pipe varied from 12 to 14 Spanish piastres. So late as
+1845, when the Danish corvette _Galatea_, on her voyage round the world
+for scientific purposes, put in at this island, the inferior sorts were
+so cheap that Captain Steen Bille considered it more profitable to supply
+the crew with wine mixed with water than beer. Since that time prices have
+become ten times higher, and the best quality now sells for from £110 to
+£150 a pipe, and will doubtless rise in proportion as the older stores are
+exhausted.
+
+Though the yield of the vine had been decreasing, year after year, for a
+considerable time, yet the actual vine disease only made its appearance in
+1852, when the leaves and fruit were covered with a kind of fungus
+(_Oïdium Tuckeri_),[20] like a white dust. The Portuguese Government sent a
+commission for the purpose of investigating the causes of the calamity.
+The report[21] is not decisive on the point, whether the fungus is the real
+cause or only a symptom of the disease, nor does it offer any advice as to
+how it may be checked. Dr. Hermann Schacht,[22] who resided during a period
+of 18 months in the island, and has published a valuable treatise, states
+that the vine-disease appears there in the same form as in Germany, even
+as regards the season, which is soon after the blossom disappears. At
+first the young leaf is covered with a whitish matter, chiefly on its
+lower side; it then assumes a crumpled appearance, becomes spotted, and
+at last decays. The young diseased grape likewise becomes covered with a
+white dust, at first partially, and then entirely, the green skin by
+degrees assuming a brown colour, the grape increasing at same time in
+size, until it as large as a currant, or a small cherry, when it becomes
+black, and perishes together with its diseased stock. In this decayed
+condition the grapes remain on the vine till late in the autumn. Dr.
+Schacht was successful in arresting the progress of the disease in its
+earlier stages, by washing all parts of the plant with a solution
+consisting of one part of glue to sixteen parts of water; an operation
+which had been likewise performed with good effect in the Royal hothouses
+of Sans-souci in Prussia. He rubbed the leaves and grapes infected by the
+fungus with this solution, and, where possible, dipped the grapes in it.
+The solution very soon dried, and gave the grapes and leaves a glossy
+appearance. All that had once been operated upon in this way remained in a
+healthy condition, and even those affected by the fungus recovered beneath
+the crust, the operation thus seeming to afford a protection against the
+fungus. The practice of strewing the plant over with powdered sulphur,
+which was so much lauded, seems to be of little use. At Teneriffe, Dr.
+Schacht found the fungus widely spread, notwithstanding the application of
+sulphur. Keeping the grape close upon the ground is also recommended as a
+protection against the disease, having proved very successful in the
+south.
+
+[Footnote 20: Vide Botanical Gazette of 1852, page 9; of 1853, page 583;
+and of 1854, page 137;--Fulasne, "Sur le Champignon, qui cause la Maladie
+de la Vigne."--_Comptes Rendus_, vol. xxvii. 1853;--Dr. Schacht on
+Madeira, pages 52 to 58.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Memoria primero sobre a mangra e doenza das vinhas nas ilhas
+da Madeira e Porto Santo, por Joao de Andrade Corvo. Lisbon. 1854.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Madeira und Teneriffa mit ihrer Vegetation, &c. Von Dr. H.
+Schacht. Berlin. 1859.]
+
+The pecuniary loss sustained since the first appearance of the malady
+amounted in the autumn of 1852 to 1,137,990 Spanish piastres, £190,000,[23]
+and after having waited in vain a period of five years, for a better state
+of things, the impoverished landowners entirely gave up cultivating the
+vine. A traveller who chances now to visit Madeira can scarcely believe
+that but a few years ago the greater portion of the island was covered
+with the plant. The cause of its disappearance must, however, not be
+ascribed entirely to the disease, but partly also to the utter neglect of
+its culture in favour of that of other products, so much so that of late
+it was scarcely possible to procure a sufficient quantity of grapes for
+invalids to whom they were medicinally prescribed. Moreover, the sugar
+plantations, which annually increase in extent, have contributed to the
+destruction of the vines, as the former require irrigation, which causes
+the roots of the latter to rot in the humid ground.[24]
+
+[Footnote 23: The quantity of wine produced amounted, in the year 1851, to
+10,374 pipes; in the following year (1852), only to 1413-1/2 pipes.]
+
+[Footnote 24: The vine disease seems, however, to have been already
+prevalent in Madeira at a former period. In an old lease, referring to
+land or property in the west of the island, there is a clause to the
+effect that "In the event of the young grape being covered with mildew
+(_mangra_), the contract would be null and void." In Portugal also, the
+disease is said to have existed more than fifty years ago, though not to a
+great extent.]
+
+The present situation of the people of Madeira claims alike the sympathies
+of the philanthropist and the attention of the political economist. We
+here behold a population of upwards of a hundred thousand souls, deprived
+at once of a product, which has been for more than three centuries the
+principal means of obtaining their living, and by which many an
+industrious grower made a considerable fortune.
+
+The farmer of Madeira, accustomed for generations to this branch of
+industry, is now forced to apply his energies to another, on the fortunate
+selection of which will depend his welfare for the future, or at least for
+years to come.
+
+Some of the wealthier growers have not entirely abandoned the culture of
+the vine, and have been assisted in their endeavours by the Consul of the
+United States in Funchal, the liberal-minded Mr. Marsh; experiments were
+made by engrafting and setting fresh and healthy plants, brought from the
+banks of the Ohio. They proceeded on the principle, that it is most
+advisable, and likely to be productive of the best success, to obtain
+young plants only from countries where the disease has never appeared. The
+choice fell upon the Isabella and Catawba grapes, which are indigenous to
+the United States; and, whatever may be the final success, the merit of
+transplanting, at a considerable expense, these two North-American grapes
+to Madeira, is due to Mr. Marsh. It is, however, a question, whether they
+will be able to replace those hitherto cultivated, the conditions of
+climate and soil being so different. As is well known, none of the
+European vines succeed in North America; and the two indigenous sorts,
+which are grown in great quantities on the banks of the Ohio and the
+Missouri, cannot stand a comparison with any of our finer kinds. The juice
+of the American grapes is best suited for the manufacture of what is
+called sparkling hock, which is very like the Austrian Schaumwein.
+
+Some of the wealthier landowners formed an association for the purpose of
+introducing the culture of cochineal, to supply the place of that of the
+vine. Several plantations of nopal, or cactus, were laid out, and the
+first harvest was gathered in 1858. The nopal (_Opuntia cochinillifera_)
+is the only kind of cactus on which the cochineal insect breeds, and the
+south of the island, up to an elevation of 500 feet, the only part adapted
+for its cultivation. An attempt was made to introduce the culture of
+cochineal in the island by Señor Miguel de Carvalho, as far back as 1836.
+But the indifference of the people, and their prejudices against
+innovation, as well as the limited spirit of enterprise possessed by the
+native merchants, rendered the attempt, in that instance, abortive. In
+consequence, however, of the vine disease, the idea of cultivating
+cochineal was resumed, without considering, as it would appear, the
+probable results in a mercantile point of view. At the time of our visit
+there were about thirty acres of land planted with cactus, and the "seed"
+of the cochineal insect was expected from the Canary Islands. One cannot
+but think the notion of substituting the cultivation of cochineal for that
+of the vine was not a lucky one, the large capital required, and the
+limited market for the article, holding out small chance of success. The
+entire consumption of cochineal in the whole world amounts to no more than
+about 30,000 quintals, and towards this quantity, Guatemala furnishes
+15,000, the Canary Islands 6000, Mexico 8000, Java and the Philippine
+Islands together 1000 quintals. There is little prospect, therefore, that
+the cochineal culture of Madeira will ever become an important source of
+gain, or advantageously compensate for the loss of the vine. Few
+landowners in the island seem to possess sufficient means to withstand the
+chances and fluctuations to which its culture is subject. To illustrate
+this, it may be mentioned, that during our visit to the highlands of
+Guatemala, in 1854, when the cochineal harvest was bad, the tercio (150
+lbs.) of cochineal cost 140 Spanish piastres. In the following year, when
+it was unusually productive, the price declined to 80 piastres. A tercio
+of dried cochineal costs the grower, or nopalero, about 50 piastres; a
+nopal plantation must lie fallow every third year, being consequently only
+productive during two years. Have the landowners of Madeira considered all
+these disadvantages, and will they be able to bear all the drawbacks
+peculiar to the culture of cochineal? The climate and soil seem to hold
+out far greater advantages for the cultivation of the sugar-cane, coffee,
+cotton, and tobacco.
+
+There are few spots on the earth's surface which possess a climate so
+delightful, and so little subject to extremes as Madeira, the mean annual
+temperature being 64 degrees Fahrenheit, or only 5 degrees higher than in
+the most southern parts of Europe. The lowest temperature during five
+years' observation was 50 degrees, the highest, 74. An invalid residing at
+Funchal, within his own doors, may always have a temperature not lower
+than 64, nor higher than 74 degrees. Violent siroccos occur in the course
+of the summer, which drive the thermometer up to 90 degrees in the shade;
+these storms, however, occur only twice or thrice a year, and rarely last
+longer than a couple of days. Dr. Renton, who lived in Madeira from 1825
+to 1831, only once during all that time saw the thermometer marking 90
+degrees, two hours after sunset. The rainy season, marked by west and
+south-west winds, begins at the end of September or the beginning of
+October. In November the weather clears up, and generally keeps fine till
+the end of December. At this period snow falls on the mountains, and rain
+at Funchal, accompanied by north-westerly winds, lasting till about the
+end of February, during which time the weather is wet. The remainder of
+the year is comparatively dry, the annual fall of rain at Madeira
+amounting, according to Sir James Clark,[25] to 36 inches, there being in
+all about 73 wet days,[26] whilst at Rome, for instance, it rains, on an
+average, during 117 days, though the amount of rain-fall is only 29
+inches.
+
+[Footnote 25: On the Sanative Influence of the Climate of Madeira. By Sir
+James Clark. London. 1841.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The fall of rain, according to Dr. Hoberdon's observations,
+is, on a seven years' average, 30·62 inches per annum. Dr. Mittermayr,
+from Heidelberg, states, on a three years' average, the rainy days to be
+95 per year. Johnston, in his Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, states
+the fall of rain on an average to be 29·82 inches, and the number of rainy
+days 100 per annum, viz. 48 in the winter, 17 in the spring, 4 in the
+summer, and 31 in the autumn.]
+
+In some respects the winter is warmer at Madeira than the summer, owing to
+the north-westerly winds and the regular sea-breezes of that season,
+which keep the atmosphere continually at an even temperature; and hence
+the island is the favourite resort of consumptive patients during the
+winter season. England, which seems to possess the very unenviable
+privilege of furnishing to the annual mortality in Europe the most
+numerous contingent of phthisical patients, provides this island likewise
+with the greatest number of this, the most to be pitied of all classes of
+patients. The climate of Madeira will, however, be of little benefit in
+advanced and decided cases; although it seems to have a curative effect on
+young people in the first stage of the malady, as well as in cases where,
+being hereditary, its presence is merely apprehended.
+
+The number of strangers who annually, during the winter, resort to Madeira
+for the benefit of their health, amounts to from 400 to 500, and the money
+thereby circulated in the island reaches the sum of about £30,000. The
+number of English alone in the year 1855 was 285. But in the winter of
+1856-57, the English invalids who came to Madeira scarcely reached 100.
+The reason of this was another calamity, the cholera, which suddenly made
+its appearance in Funchal on the 4th of July, 1856. Until this epoch, the
+island had been spared this devastating scourge of our time. The epidemic
+is said to have been introduced by a detachment of Portuguese troops,
+which shortly before had arrived from Lisbon, where cholera was then
+raging. The circumstances under which this epidemic appeared in Madeira
+leave little doubt of the correctness of this supposition, and seem to
+confirm the view of Professor Pettenkofer,[27] relative to the importation
+of the disease by ships, and its propagation by human excrements, a theory
+advanced by this learned German physician in his famous work, with as much
+soundness as sagacity.
+
+The first individuals attacked were four soldiers of the 1st battalion of
+infantry, and the first who fell a victim to the epidemic was a boatman,
+who had landed some of the soldiers from the steamer. He was attacked on
+the 7th of July, at 1 P.M., and nine hours afterwards was a corpse. A few
+weeks later the scourge had spread over the whole island, raging with
+fatal severity, in consequence of the poverty, distress, and helplessness
+of the inhabitants. We cannot forbear mentioning a phenomenon observed at
+the time of the first appearance of the pestilence by Major Dom Pedro de
+Azevedo, one of the most distinguished men in Funchal. According to the
+observations regularly made by him, during two years, with reference to
+the quantity of ozone[28] contained in the atmosphere, he found that, as
+long as the pestilence was raging, it scarcely amounted to 2, whilst,
+under normal circumstances, the quantity, according to the ozonometer of
+Schönbein, is said to reach 6 to 7.
+
+[Footnote 27: Dr. Pettenkofer's Investigations and Observations on the
+Spread of Cholera. Munich. 1855.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Ozone, or oxygen in an allotropic condition, is found in more
+perceptible quantity in pure localities than in those where great
+quantities of putrescent substances are accumulated, as the ozone
+disappears by oxidation. Observations on the quantity of ozone contained
+in the air during an epidemic are, therefore, of great interest, because
+they may throw a light on the influences of the atmosphere in the
+propagation of certain diseases.]
+
+In the beginning of October the malady gradually began to decrease, the
+last case which happened on the island occurring at Funchal, on the 16th
+December, 1856. It appears, from official reports, that out of a
+population of 102,837 souls, 7041 fell victims to the epidemic; other
+statements, that seem not less reliable, even raise the number of fatal
+cases to a much larger figure. A variety of local circumstances tended to
+heighten the fearful violence of the epidemic: the great distress among
+the people, arising from the deficiency of the vintages during several
+years; the potato disease, which occurred in the summer of 1856, and
+deprived the population, whilst suffering from other calamities, of one of
+their most important means of sustenance; and finally, to bring
+misfortunes to a climax, even that source of gain was dried up which the
+people derived from the temporary residence of numerous wealthy families.
+Terrified by the reports which were in circulation as to the ravages
+caused by the cholera at Madeira, hundreds altered their original plan of
+passing the winter there, and even resident strangers, horror-stricken,
+left the island, which had been so suddenly converted from a paradise into
+a burial-ground. The loss arising from the latter cause is estimated at
+£20,000, an immense sum at a time when pestilence and famine were raging
+so fiercely. The British Government, as well as English philanthropists in
+general, deserve the highest praise for the liberality with which they
+promptly and generously hastened to the assistance of the sufferers. Soon
+as intelligence of the great distress arrived in London, two steamers of
+war, the _Salamander_ and _Hesper_, with provisions, medicine, clothing,
+bedding, and money, were despatched to Funchal, where the former arrived
+on the 18th and the latter on the 31st of October, 1856. This assistance
+essentially contributed to the rapid extinction of the epidemic, as it
+sufficed to relieve the more pressing wants.[29] Considerable contributions
+arrived also from the United States; and, according to public statements,
+the relief that came from foreign countries amounted to £8895.
+
+[Footnote 29: Old chronicles report that Madeira has been visited by a
+pestilential disease, that raged within the years 1521 to 1535. But the
+cholera was never in the island before the year 1856. The yellow fever is
+altogether unknown.]
+
+The commerce of the island was, as a matter of course, seriously affected
+by such a train of calamities. The principal exports had hitherto
+consisted of wine, cattle, fruit, and wicker-work; the first and most
+important of these articles--wine--had, as already stated, all but
+entirely disappeared from the list for several years, the small quantities
+still exported being merely the remnants of old stocks.
+
+According to custom-house registers, the entire value of the produce
+exported in 1851 amounted to £164,960, of which £96,950 were shipped in
+English, £26,500 in American, and £16,650 in Portuguese vessels. The
+exports of 1855 were only £95,470, and in 1855, when the wine export had
+entirely ceased, the value did not exceed £2400!
+
+The imports were of a more numerous and varied description; calico, cotton
+and woollen goods, hardware, spices and provisions from England; timber,
+salt meat, and other articles from the United States; grain from the
+Mediterranean and the Black Sea; and sugar, coffee, oil, rice, and other
+colonial produce from Lisbon and the Portuguese settlements. The commerce
+is almost entirely in the hands of the English,[30] whose liberality during
+the cholera epidemic has much raised them in the estimation of the
+inhabitants.
+
+[Footnote 30: Three-fifths of the 50,000 tons annually imported are
+_English_ manufactures.]
+
+The absence of a regular banking establishment is much felt by the trading
+community, particularly in times of temporary distress. Singularly enough
+there are few Portuguese coins to be met with, and even these are not
+liked by the inhabitants. The moneys chiefly in circulation are English
+and American gold and silver coins, French five-franc pieces, and Spanish
+dollars. The sailing vessels in the roads of Funchal are mostly under
+English and American flags. The steamers which keep up the intercourse
+between Europe and the Brazils call regularly at Funchal for mails and
+passengers,[31] and a steam-packet arrives regularly every fortnight on its
+way from Europe to South America.
+
+[Footnote 31: An English coal depôt has been established in Funchal since
+1848.]
+
+The trade carried on under ordinary circumstances is, as we have seen, by
+no means inconsiderable, and by proper management might enable the people
+to extricate themselves from their present depressed position; but though
+not exactly lazy, they are entirely deficient in the energy requisite for
+effectively improving their condition. Whenever they have enough of yams
+and potatoes, they no longer think of exerting themselves or of acquiring
+a more comfortable or independent mode of existence. Neither in Ireland,
+nor in the Silesian mountains, nor even amongst the Indians in North or
+South America, have we witnessed such a degree of poverty and wretchedness
+as we beheld among the labouring classes in the mountainous districts of
+this island. On entering a village, shoals of haggard-looking beggars
+covered with rags were seen, whose features indicated their unhealthy way
+of living, and an utter lack of the most common necessaries of life. The
+calamities of the last five years have certainly contributed to this
+excess of misery, and a traveller who visited Madeira twenty years ago,
+may have carried away with him quite a different impression of its
+inhabitants.
+
+The race inhabiting the island, notwithstanding some favourable
+exceptions, is rather unprepossessing and decrepit, owing to the elements
+of which it is composed. The first settlers, as already stated, belonged
+by no means to the better classes of Portugal, but consisted of a motley
+assemblage of ruffians, who came to the newly-discovered island merely in
+search of adventure. The admixture which afterwards took place with the
+black race imported from Africa, materially contributed to deteriorate the
+people both physically and morally. Though there is not one single pure
+negro in the whole island, yet the features of a considerable proportion
+of the inhabitants denote their African descent. In the population of
+Punta da Sol, a village on the west side of the island, the negro type is
+said to be exhibited in its strongest character.
+
+The dress of the native is extremely simple; a pair of white trowsers, a
+shirt, and linen jacket, constitute the entire toilette; with a few rare
+exceptions we never saw shoes: but even the poorest of the poor wears a
+curiously-shaped small cloth cap (_carapuça_) of a blue colour, with red
+lining, terminating in an erect pointed tail, six inches long. This seems
+to be a remnant of a turbaned head-dress, worn formerly by the inhabitants
+of the African coast, with whom the first settlers, allured by the
+slave-trade, once carried on an active intercourse.
+
+[Illustration: CARAPUÇA, OR CAP WORN BY THE NATIVES OF MADEIRA.]
+
+Many of the inhabitants of Funchal obtain their livelihood by acting as
+guides to strangers. The roads being very steep, and formed of pointed
+stones, horses of an excellent breed are used in going even short
+distances; however fast the visitors may gallop, the guide follows the
+horses on foot, to which the natives are habituated from their earliest
+years. This practice is undoubtedly one of the principal causes of
+consumptive complaints, which are more frequently met with here than might
+have been expected considering the climate, though bad nourishment and
+unhealthy dwellings may have their part in causing the prevalence of the
+malady. The common people are mostly lodged in small low cabins of wood or
+timber, thatched with straw, the only opening being the door, through
+which air and light are admitted. Their sleeping-places are wooden
+benches, covered with straw, raised only one or two feet from a ground
+which, during nine months of the year, is damp.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to state that the wealthier classes offer a more
+pleasing aspect. They are extremely obliging, kind, and attentive towards
+strangers, and evidently endeavour to impress the visitor with favourable
+ideas of themselves and the island. To the hospitality of the Austrian
+Consul, as well as to Major P. A. de Azevedo and Don Juan Muniz, so
+deservedly celebrated for his knowledge of the flora of Madeira, the
+members of the _Novara_ expedition are indebted for many a happy and
+delightful hour.
+
+The population is perceptibly on the decrease. The causes are emigration
+to the British West Indies, and devastation by the cholera. The number of
+inhabitants in the two islands, in 1836, amounted to 115,446; in 1854, to
+103,296; and in 1855, to only 102,183. The emigrants during the last
+twenty-five years (1835 to 1860) are said to have amounted to 40,000, many
+of whom depart secretly, in order to avoid the heavy emigration tax.
+
+Numerous benevolent institutions indicate the charitable disposition of
+the inhabitants. The hospital, or Santa Casa de Misericordia, standing in
+a beautiful square, planted with planes and magnolias, can receive 104
+patients, and is exceedingly well managed. It appears, however, rather
+singular that the surgical are separated from the medical cases, whilst no
+separation exists amongst the patients who may happen to be labouring
+under contagious diseases. The most frequently recurring diseases are
+cutaneous, a circumstance which need excite no surprise in a country where
+the natives pay so little attention to the cleanliness of their bodies,
+and where Government itself favours as it were this carelessness by
+levying a considerable tax upon the importation of soap! Dysentery
+prevails throughout the year; intermittent fever and inflammatory diseases
+occur more rarely; but apoplectic cases are at times very numerous. The
+nominal amount of the funds of the hospital is estimated at £40,000; the
+annual income being about £1800 sterling.
+
+The hospital for lepers is fitted up for the reception of about forty
+patients, most of whom come from places in which the black has least mixed
+with the white race.
+
+The workhouse, for 230 paupers, was founded in 1847 by public
+subscription, and has an annual income of from 3000 to 4000 piastres.
+
+The nunnery of St. Isabel, for the reception of female orphans, was
+erected as early as 1726. Great care is taken of the education of the
+inmates, who are not permitted to leave the establishment, except in case
+of getting married or respectably employed.
+
+Foundlings, of whom, in one single year, 839 were maintained by the
+commune of Funchal, are given out to nurse; and there has been a most
+singular expedient adopted, in order to prevent abuse as regards obtaining
+the board money, which amounts to about one piastre a month, for each. A
+piece of tape is put round the infant's neck, the two ends of which are
+fastened with a lead seal, and stamped, so that, in the event of death, it
+cannot be taken off and put on another child's neck. The witnessing of the
+process of fastening and stamping this necklace is most unpleasant,
+although no real pain is inflicted on the child.
+
+In the year 1855 there existed in the entire island twelve elementary
+schools, attended by about 200 scholars, and likewise forty-nine Sunday
+schools, having about 2400 pupils. Funchal also possesses a college, with
+six professors and 120 students, an ecclesiastical seminary for
+twenty-four pupils, and a medical school, with four professors, which,
+however, during the year of our visit, had only seven students. Though the
+Government is very rigid in exacting the attendance of the children at
+school, yet only about a seventh part of the whole number living in the
+island really avail themselves of the benefit.
+
+A hospital for the consumptive is now in course of erection, at the
+expense of the Empress dowager of the Brazils, as a memorial of her
+daughter, who, in 1853, died of this disease on the island.
+
+There exist several public libraries and book societies at Funchal; and in
+several of the clubs a great many of the leading English, French, Spanish,
+Portuguese, and German journals, are to be found. Four weekly papers, in
+the Portuguese language, are published at Funchal. The first newspaper
+ever published there was the _Patriota Funchalense_, the first number of
+which appeared on the 2nd of June, 1821.
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF MADEIRA.]
+
+The public buildings offer little to attract notice; the churches are
+insignificant, and even the cathedral, a building in the Basilica style,
+is in no way remarkable otherwise than by the innumerable garlands and
+nosegays, offerings of pious devotees, which as it were transform its
+interior into a fragrant temple of flowers.
+
+That which was once a Jesuit monastery, has been now converted into a
+barrack, in which the whole garrison of the island, amounting to 400 men,
+are lodged. The daily pay of these soldiers amounts to 20 reis, or about
+one penny!
+
+An ordinary dwelling-house has lately been converted into a town gaol, in
+which the prisoners are very humanely treated. Passers-by may have an
+undisturbed talk with them through the lattice-work; and once we even
+observed a man who had thrust his foot through the iron bars, in order to
+have his measure taken by one of the inmates for a pair of shoes!
+
+The charms of beautiful walks, and a most enchanting neighbourhood,
+enhance the pleasantness of the climate of Funchal so much resorted to by
+invalids. In the interior of the town, not far from the sea-shore,
+splendid avenues of magnificent planes, large-flowered magnolias, and
+massive oaks, form delightful promenades, and afford repose and shade on
+numerous seats under the dense foliage of their wide-spreading branches.
+
+Seated on a gently-ambling steed, one may reach most pleasantly the
+summits of those lofty mountains, which rise close to Funchal, where a
+balmy fragrance perfumes the air, and the eye roams with delight in all
+directions over scenery of the most striking description.
+
+One of the favourite points from which such a view may be obtained in all
+its beauty, is the terrace in front of the church of Nossa Senhora de
+Monte, situated 1965 feet above the level of the sea, on a ridge of the
+Arrebantao mountain, reached in less than an hour by one or other of the
+existing conveyances; these are either horses, or hammocks and
+sedan-chairs, or sledges, covered with tasteful canopies, and drawn by a
+couple of small oxen.
+
+[Illustration: SLEIGH PARTY IN MADEIRA.]
+
+Though a vehicle, reminding one so strongly of a northern winter, appears
+rather odd in a climate such as that of Madeira, yet its practicability
+and convenience is very soon perceived, when comfortably sliding away over
+the smooth stones of Funchal. Wheel carriages, such as used in Europe, are
+unknown here.
+
+But he who has bodily strength and health enough to be able to wander
+through the interior of the island, will find spots which command
+landscapes by far more grand and sublime than that seen from Nossa Senhora
+de Monte. Cape San Lorenzo, with its petrified fauna;--the awe-inspiring
+Entroza pass, that wonderful sculpture of nature which bears so powerful a
+witness to the corroding action of water;--the lovely and solitary cascade
+of Rabacal;--the Pic Arrieiro, with its craggy rocks, offering to the
+geologist such a remarkable peep into the geognostical history of the
+island;--the numerous gigantic rocky skeletons of volcanic cones, on which
+the geologist is able to make the most interesting studies and
+investigations, just in the same manner as the anatomist on a corpse;--all
+these wonders of nature are calculated to awaken the reflection and excite
+the admiration of the beholder.
+
+The most delightful event during our stay in the island was an excursion
+of several days, made to the romantic localities of the northern coast. A
+stately cavalcade of twenty-two horsemen set out, early on a fine June
+morning, from Funchal to Nossa Senhora, and from thence over the Pic
+Poizo, through the glens of Metade to St. Anna. After a ride of two hours,
+the Casa de Abrigo was reached, a small house, situated about 4500 feet
+above the level of the sea, erected by the Government some years ago for
+the shelter of travellers. From this point the path runs through a hilly
+country covered with heath, from which the majestic Pico Ruivo, with the
+fantastic forms of its rugged volcanic walls bathed in gold by the rays of
+the rising sun, presents a most imposing sight. On the whole route only
+one small miserable village, called Fayal, was passed, consisting of a few
+straw thatched huts, exhibiting a picture of poverty and wretchedness,
+which can scarcely be paralleled in any part of the habitable globe.
+
+[Illustration: VILLAGE OF FAYAL.]
+
+At last, after a ride of eight hours, we reached St. Anna, an extensive
+village, with a large church and some brick buildings prettily situated in
+flower-gardens, the most stately of which was--the inn. The good cheer and
+repose found here for a few hours of the night, compensated in some degree
+for the fatigues of the past day, and prepared us for those to be
+encountered on the morrow.
+
+The frequent fogs prevalent in Madeira during the month of June, render it
+indispensable to start early in the morning, if the traveller wishes to
+enjoy the beauties of the scenery. At 2 A.M., therefore, our cavalcade
+set out, followed by a host of boys and porters carrying provisions and
+instruments for observations. Nature was still buried in sleep, the air
+quiet and motionless; the full moon, shedding her pallid light over sea
+and mountain, feebly shadowed forth the outlines of the hedges and bushes
+of roses, fuchsias, and hortensias, that lined the narrow path, and
+brought out dimly in faint relief the ghost-like white figures which,
+standing at the doors of their poor cabins, looked inquisitively at the
+riders, that were already so early on their way. The path led up to the
+mountains in steep and numerous windings, sometimes on soft ground through
+ravines, sometimes on solid basalt, or over the uneven surface of
+indurated lava. And when at last, emerging from deep glens, steep
+precipices, and rocky walls, all yet buried in the shades of night, the
+blue star-spangled sky burst upon us in all its beauty and grandeur, the
+effect was almost overpowering. A faint glimmer of light appeared on the
+distant horizon, masses of vapour moved over the ocean, and rising mists
+gathering into clouds, undulated like the surface of an agitated sea. It
+was only along the ridges of mountains and through the ravines, that one
+might glance between mist and land down to the calm boundless expanse of
+water at our feet.
+
+At 4 o'clock a halt was made near a solitary hut, called Choupana, at a
+height of 4400 feet, when the horsemen dismounted, and left their horses
+behind, preferring to reach on foot the termination of their journey.
+
+[Illustration: EL HOMEM EM PÉ.]
+
+We had just climbed up some steep basalt rock and reached an open spot,
+when the first rays of the sun tinged the eastern sky. Beaming in all his
+majesty on the sharply-defined clouds that hovered beneath, they sparkled
+like so many ice-capped peaks of Alpine glaciers; and when the great
+luminary ascended higher, distributing mingled light and shade in such
+gradations of tint as only Nature's cunning hand can mingle, the chaotic
+masses of vapour assumed the appearance of gigantic islands and lofty
+towering mountains, whilst a chorus of feathered songsters rung cheerfully
+out from the depths of the wooded valleys. The path wound along a
+precipitous declivity, grown over with tangled Til-trees, past a group of
+basaltic columns, which rose isolated to a height of 40 feet above the
+beautiful grassy carpet that clothes the ground, and in the crevices of
+which an old laurel, the last of its genus at this height, had taken root.
+The natives call this singularly-shaped group _Homem em pé_, or the man
+standing erect.
+
+Arrived at an open space of meadow ground, the Barreiro, or Encumiada
+Caixa, a gigantic rocky ridge, suddenly rises to a prodigious height, from
+a frightful abyss of almost fathomless depth. We now hastened across a
+plain covered with lava, to the rough basaltic summit of the Encumiada
+Alta. Safe on an eminence[32] above yawning gulfs, beneath a deep blue sky,
+in the brilliancy of a lovely morning sun, we abandoned ourselves to the
+thrilling impressions of the magnificent picture which nature here brought
+forth of earth, rock, and manifold vegetation. Towards the south an
+immense mountain ridge, with serried peaks (called Torres and Torinhas),
+rises to a height of 6000 feet, declining almost imperceptibly on the left
+hand, whilst on the right it descends abruptly in terraces, with
+perpendicular walls of rocks 1000 feet in height, connected by an
+inaccessible ridge with the imposing, stupendous, cupola-shaped summit of
+the Pico Ruivo. All this is disclosed to the eye within a radius of little
+more than two miles. Deep clefts and ravines run from the rocky crevices,
+and unite in a gloomy and profound abyss of 3000 feet, which forms the
+mouth of the ravine of Ribeiro Secco. Similiar chasms open to the right
+and to the left, and when they are too distant to be distinguished by the
+eye, dark shadows rising on the rocky walls indicate the deep crater-like
+basin of the Curral, and the gulfs of the Metade river, and the Ribeiro
+Frio. It would seem as if the whole island has, in a series of fearful
+convulsions, burst from a single central point in all directions; as if
+entire mountains had sunk into the deep, or had, by the action of torrents
+permeating their crevices, been converted into rubble, and carried as sand
+and fragments into the ocean.
+
+[Footnote 32: 5883 feet, according to the geologist's barometrical
+measurements.]
+
+The summits of the Torres and Torrinhas are nothing but barren naked
+rocks,--not a blade of grass, not a shrub, not a trace of vegetation is to
+be seen. At the highest points, strata nearly horizontal extend in
+remarkably regular layers, chiefly distinguished by the most manifold
+variety of colours and tints.[33] A dark grey schistus of volcanic ashes
+alternates with strongly-marked red, yellow, and violet layers of tufa,
+dross, and scoriæ, together with brown and grey conglomerates. Just as red
+predominates on the upper part of these _Torres_, green prevails on the
+lower. From the spot where the springs first issue out of the crevices of
+the basalt, everything seems covered with a dense green carpet. These are
+the celebrated "clefts" of Madeira, in which, even on rocks of 1000 feet
+high, not an inch is to be discovered bare; they afford a rich harvest to
+the botanist, whilst they fill the spectator with delight and admiration.
+
+[Footnote 33: The celebrated American geologist, Mr. Dana, mentions that
+these wild contorted masses of mountain reminded him of the crater-walls
+of the Kilauea at the Sandwich Islands.]
+
+[Illustration: ERICA TREES.]
+
+Generally speaking, the scenery of Madeira does not owe its character to
+the grandeur or magnitude of its trees; the peculiar charm of the
+landscape arises more from grasses, ferns, shrubs, and different kinds of
+moss, all of which grow so rank and luxuriant, that the rocks, chasms, and
+abysses overgrown with them, appear like so many swelling cushions, or as
+if laid with soft velvet carpets in all directions. The different shades
+of green indicate the characteristics of successive zones of vegetation.
+Through the lower parts of the valleys run the beds of those mountain
+waters which, though nearly dried up in the summer, swell in the winter
+into torrents. Along these are scattered the straw-thatched huts of the
+natives, surrounded by vineyards and fields planted with rye, barley,
+potatoes, yams, and in the lower parts with single bananas. These
+cultivated lands rise to a height of 2000 feet, and in many places even to
+3000. Wherever on the steep declivities there is the smallest shelf to be
+found, even if only a square yard in size, it is turned to account. Next
+to this region, in ascending, is that of the brush and laurel woods.
+_Vaccinias_ (blackberries), and different kinds of heath, often attaining
+a growth of five or six feet, occupy the whole of the ground, and in the
+month of June, when the broom is in full flower, a bright golden-coloured
+belt girts Madeira, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet. We beheld this
+golden girdle in its richest splendour, set off by the dark masses of
+evergreens in the clefts. Higher up is the true region of the _Erica
+arborea_, which, with its light-green and _paille_ tint, contrasted with
+the deeper colour of the laurel, represents the underwood of our secondary
+mountain ranges. The _Erica arborea_ attains here the height of a large
+tree, and, on some spots, 30 to 40 feet of its gnarled stems stretch along
+the ground. Thus it may be traced, in company with other heaths, to the
+summit of the Pico Ruivo.
+
+After having made some physical observations, and enjoyed a most
+delightful prospect, we re-packed our instruments, filled our boxes and
+pouches with plants and geological specimens, and prepared for our
+departure. The guides, despite their heavy burdens, marched steadily on,
+humming in plaintive cadence their native songs. We soon reached our
+horses, and, penetrating through layers of clouds, rapidly descended the
+steep mountain sides to St. Anna.
+
+A walk on the same evening towards Porto Santo Jorge was not less
+charming than instructive, especially as we gazed on those hardened
+streams of lava, so interesting as regards the geological history of the
+island, out of the numerous crevices of which grew luxuriant magnificent
+rosettes of _Sempervivum_. Fuchsias and heliotropes were gathered from the
+bushes, and each took a share, now with the geological hammer, now with
+the botanical box, or the butterfly-catcher, in the harvest of objects of
+natural history. We passed in this neighbourhood several houses
+delightfully situated, surrounded by hedgerows of luxuriant shrubs and
+splendid native flowers.
+
+In the fine garden of the inn, amidst myrtles, bignonias, euphorbias, and
+fuchsias, was a handsome _Camellia japonica_, which had attained the
+imposing height of 15 feet, with a diameter of 9 inches, the top spreading
+fan-like in numberless branches.
+
+The following morning we returned to Funchal, accompanied by a troop of
+ragged and diseased natives, pertinaciously appealing to our charity.
+Plenteous alms were given them, for where Nature is so prodigal of her
+gifts, the human mind becomes more sensitive and liberal. At noon, we
+again reached the beautiful terrace of Nossa Senhora de Monte, and here
+the excursion was wound up by a diversion of quite a peculiar character;
+for, instead of returning to Funchal on horseback, we slid down a mountain
+1500 feet high, right into the town, on small double-seated wooden
+sledges, thus travelling down what is probably the grandest natural
+_Montagne Russe_ in the world. A train of more than a dozen sledges
+started at the same time. These singular vehicles are guided on either
+side with admirable adroitness by two natives, who avoid slipping by
+moistening their shoes; and, notwithstanding the velocity of these
+conveyances, even slight accidents are unheard of. Sledge parties of this
+kind, being cheap, constitute the most favourite amusement of the people
+of Funchal.
+
+The whole company met together once more at a convivial dinner in the
+hotel, where, agreeably to the custom of the country, not only the room
+and table, but even every single dish served up, was adorned with garlands
+of fragrant flowers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.--TRACK FROM MADEIRA TO RIO DI JANEIRO.]
+
+On the 17th June we again weighed anchor. The intention had originally
+been to steer direct for Rio de Janeiro; but as we learned, two days
+before our departure, that the yellow fever, though on the decrease, had
+not yet entirely ceased, we were in no hurry to arrive at the capital of
+Brazil, and therefore determined to employ the time so gained, in
+investigating the nature of the winds and currents prevalent in these
+latitudes. For though the proper course of ships between England and North
+America has been admirably laid down, for nearly every month of the year,
+by the long-continued ingenious labours of Commander Maury, of the
+Washington Observatory, yet there still exists great difficulty in
+steering sailing vessels from Gibraltar or Madeira to South America, by
+the directions hitherto existing; the more so, as the seafarer in these
+latitudes, close to the limits of the north-east trade-wind, generally
+falls in with variable breezes and frequent calms, caused partly by the
+African coast and partly by the cluster of isles from the Azores to the
+Cape Verde Islands, and which are of still more frequent occurrence in the
+summer of the northern hemisphere.
+
+We kept Madeira, or rather the clouds which, during the summer, gather
+daily round the mountains, a long time in view; and on the 19th, at a
+distance of 120 miles from the island, some persons on board thought they
+could still distinguish them.
+
+We steered at first in a south-westerly direction, with light breezes and
+fine weather. Advancing, however, towards the limits of the trade-winds,
+showers became frequent, and the wind chopped about much oftener; a more
+southerly course was therefore taken, in order to come as soon as possible
+under the influence of the north-easterly trade-winds.
+
+There was now an opportunity of directing attention to the formation of
+the clouds, which, in these latitudes, assume at times very curious
+appearances. The _cirri_ disappeared by degrees, and the _cumuli_ towered
+up on the horizon in colossal masses. These latter are formed under the
+influence of the sun, when most powerful, and are therefore seen chiefly
+during the afternoon. As soon as they rise they vanish by absorption, just
+as fast as they are formed by evaporation from the sea. Rain very rarely
+proceeds from them. The alternation of their shades, tints, and colours,
+is beautiful in the extreme, particularly at sunset, when their outlines,
+as they stand out in bold relief on the clear blue sky, vary in hue from
+the deepest grey to the most brilliant golden yellow.
+
+The nearer the tropics are approached the more does ocean teem with
+animated orgasms. A net cast into it was immediately filled with an
+immense number of little living creatures. Pretty-looking blue cockles,
+sea-nettles, and various other inhabitants of the deep, all of the most
+minute size, lay rolled up in one lump with small sea-weeds of beautiful
+forms and tints, from which those tiny things endeavoured, with great
+exertion, to extricate themselves. The microscope discloses to the
+observer an entirely new world in the economy of nature, as displayed in
+the animal life of the surface of the sea. The entire oceanic creation,
+from the smallest infusoria to the huge whale, are all specially adapted
+to the element in which they exist, and organized to contribute to the
+preservation, as well as the further development, of the whole globe.
+
+This is beautifully illustrated by the operations of the zoophytes; the
+water of rivers dissolves the chalky substances of the land and carries
+them down to the ocean,--immense numbers of these form, for themselves,
+habitations from this matter;--by successive accumulation, produced
+through the action or the dead bodies of these creatures, the ground is
+raised gradually into the reefs, banks, and rocks, so dangerous to
+navigation; or into islands inhabited by man, who, in the development of
+his moral and physical powers, performs his mission in his high position,
+just as definitely as the imperceptible animalcuæ do in their narrow
+sphere.
+
+Exceedingly beautiful in the tropic seas are those small _physali_, a
+species of _Acalephæ_, known to sailors as "Portuguese men-of-war." They
+sail along by means of their large air-bags, exposed to the wind, whilst
+their numerous long, dark-blue tentacles, like fibres or roots, reach deep
+into the water, extending or contracting in order to secure their food.
+The fringes of these air-bags are of a violet colour, and resemble, when
+in sunshine, a splendid flower, floating about the sea in all directions.
+
+Approaching the zone of the trade-winds, the aspect of the sea is animated
+by flying-fish. It has been long a matter of doubt whether this fish
+really moves through the air by flying, or whether, being pursued by
+enemies, it merely darts from fear out of the water, and sustains itself
+in the air by means of its long pectoral fins, though the long distances
+it moves are out of all proportion to its size and probable muscular
+power. This doubt seems to have originated with those who never have had
+an opportunity of personally observing flying-fish; or who have merely
+seen these creatures in the Mediterranean, where they are so small as to
+render it rather difficult to decide in what the movement really consists.
+
+But in the tropics all doubt vanishes, for the fish here attains a length
+of from 6 to 8 inches, and its pectoral fins are so much developed that
+they may perfectly well be used as wings. By closely observing them, it is
+seen that these fins, or wings, have an oscillating or vibratory motion,
+like that of the grasshopper, by which they assist the oblique spring from
+the water, produced by muscular power; they move at a height of from two
+to three feet above the surface of the sea, to a distance of from 50 to
+100 yards, and at the same time change the direction of their flight in
+exactly the same way as grasshoppers.
+
+It seems, however, to be neither pleasure nor want of food that drives
+these creatures from their own element. They have numerous enemies, of
+which the principal is the bonita (_Scomber Palamy_); whenever flying-fish
+were seen the bonitas likewise made their appearance; we often saw the
+latter darting out of the water and snapping at a flying-fish, when, if
+they did not succeed, they were perceived hastening under water in the
+same direction that their prey was taking. But the flying-fish is quite
+aware of the movement of the enemy, and, therefore, sometimes turns back
+abruptly, evidently with a view of dodging his pursuer. The advantage of
+the wings is, however, more apparent than real, for whilst they escape by
+these means from the bonitas, dorados, and dolphins, they fall a sacrifice
+to the seagulls and man-of-war birds (_Tachypetes aquilus_), which reach
+them like arrows shot from a bow, before they are able to conceal
+themselves again in the ocean. Those which were seen on the north of the
+equator, were invariably of the smaller kind (_Exocætus volitans_); whilst
+in the south, also, the larger species (_Exocætus exulans_) made their
+appearance. They often drop during the night on the decks of small vessels
+with low bows, but on the _Novara_, which rose about 20 feet over the
+surface of the water, this was not possible; however, some fell upon the
+chains, which were caught and preserved in alcohol by the zoologists.
+
+On the 27th June, at midday, we had arrived in 27° 2' N. Lat., and 24° 7'
+W. Long., and lay in a perfect calm, the mirror-like aspect of the sea
+allowing us to take a deep-sea sounding with what is called Brooke's
+apparatus. This consists of a tube, which runs through a thirty-pound
+shot, fastened to a thin line. As the shot, however, cannot easily be
+drawn up after the sounding, there is an ingenious mechanism, by means of
+which, on touching the ground, it is detached from the tube, which may
+then be drawn up, the shot remaining in the sea. The tube has a
+funnel-shaped opening at its lower extremity, by which a portion of the
+ground may likewise be brought up for scientific examination.
+
+In the afternoon a boat provided with everything requisite for the
+sounding, was launched, and the operation began. Unfortunately there were
+only 4050 fathoms of line, as we did not find at Gibraltar the quality
+required for the purpose. The whole stock ran entirely out without
+reaching ground; we could therefore do nothing more than make the attempt
+to heave the tube without the shot. In this, however, we succeeded only in
+so far as regarded the first 2000 fathoms; then the line broke, and the
+remainder was lost. One of the causes of this accident was the sudden rise
+of the trade-wind which increased so much as to engross nearly our entire
+attention.
+
+To convey an idea of the time a ball of this kind takes to descend through
+the different strata of water, which increases in density in proportion to
+the depth attained, we annex the length of the different periods required
+in paying out the line during the experiment:--
+
+                                                       Minutes. Seconds.
+
+    The first 1000 fathoms occupied                       19      8
+ From 1000 to 2000  "                                     21      3
+   "  2000 to 3000  "                                     40      6
+   "  3000 to 4000  "                                     76      6
+   "  4000 to 4050  "                                      3      5
+                                                      ______________
+ Total time in running out the entire length     Hours 2  39     28
+
+As the winding up of the tube requires at least the same period, it may
+easily be conceived how great is the expenditure of time necessary for
+such an experiment, and on what chances the success of the whole operation
+depends. Though this trial was partially unsuccessful, yet so much is
+certain, that at this point, 24,300 feet of line were run off without
+reaching the ground. There is always, however, to be taken into
+consideration the under-current, which draws the line out of the
+perpendicular, and renders the result of the operation rather doubtful.
+
+We now sailed with a fresh and steady trade-wind towards the thirtieth
+degree of W. Long., and thence along that meridian to the southward.
+
+In the night, between the 29th to the 30th, we crossed the parallel of the
+sun's declination, upon which the direction of our shadows, already for
+several days scarcely perceptible, was of course changed from north to
+south.
+
+We soon crossed the belt of the north-eastern trade-wind, as we made daily
+from 180 to 200 miles. On the 3rd of July the wind became very unsteady,
+and on the 5th, in 8° 30' N. Lat. and 29° 30' W. Long., it entirely left
+us. The sky often became dark and threatening; indeed, its aspect changed
+at times with surprising rapidity, without any particular disturbance in
+the direction or strength of the wind; nor had we to complain of as much
+rain as might have been expected in these regions.
+
+The calms in the so-called "belt of calms" were fortunately not of long
+duration, for in 6° 43' N., and 28° 49' W., a fresh south-east wind sprang
+up. When we came within the influence of the south-east trade-wind, we
+endeavoured to approach the coast of South America, for the purpose of
+observing the currents in that latitude, this being one of the
+investigations suggested by the letter of instructions drawn up by
+Alexander v. Humboldt. The great oceanic stream, which, on leaving the
+western coast of Africa takes a westerly direction, is divided by the
+projecting American Continent into two branches, of which the stronger
+turns N.W. towards the Caribean Sea, while the weaker moves south-west
+along the coast of Brazil.
+
+We had already felt its influence whilst in the zone of calms, and it
+became still more perceptible the more the equator was approached. The
+continuance of the south-easterly trade forced us to cross the Line at a
+more westerly point than usual. This, however, causes no disadvantage to a
+good sailing ship; nay, Commander Maury has proved indisputably that ships
+make extremely short passages, which reach the Equator so far to the west
+that they run a risk of hugging the coast too closely. Those on the other
+hand, which, from over-anxiety to avoid the current, keep too far to the
+east, lose much time, being compelled to pass weeks in the zone of calms,
+which increases in breadth towards the east, whereas the others come very
+little in contact with it, and avail themselves of the changes of wind
+near the shore, to double the Cape of St. Roque on the American coast, so
+much dreaded by the former. We cannot here forbear expressing our high
+admiration of the great merits of Mr. Maury, whose classical work on the
+physical geography of the sea, as well as his inestimable wind and current
+charts, deserve the especial attention of all who navigate these seas.
+
+The nearer we approached the Line, the more striking became the aspect of
+the southern constellations. The light of the northern polar star grew
+fainter and fainter, its altitude diminished, and it at length entirely
+disappeared. But, on the other hand, the Southern Cross, the Magellan
+clouds, the ship Argo on the "coal-bags," or starless, dark spots of the
+southern hemisphere, became more elevated in proportion as the northern
+sky moved away, and for a moment we felt some difficulty in recognizing
+our old acquaintances of the northern hemisphere in their relation to the
+new stars.
+
+On the 15th, at 3 A.M., we crossed the Line in 33° 50' W.L. This event,
+which with all sailors forms a marked epoch in their seafaring life, had
+in this case the additional feature of being actually the first occasion
+of an Austrian man-of-war entering the southern hemisphere, and our crew,
+who had long before enjoyed, in anticipation, the merriment to which it
+would give occasion, had commenced the ceremony the preceding evening.
+Neptune, accompanied by an appropriate retinue of mermaids, tritons, and
+nereids, appeared at sunset, to announce with the utmost gravity to the
+Commodore, in a set speech, the astounding news that the vessel was
+entering his dominions, demonstrating the fact mathematically by an
+immense sextant, a chart, and pair of compasses a yard long, all
+manufactured by the ship's carpenter, and claiming his right to see the
+act of shaving and baptizing properly performed on all those who for the
+first time came into his kingdom. Amidst streams of water from the masts
+and fire-engines he made his exit down the rope ladder in a blaze of blue
+fire, followed by an ignited tar-barrel, which floated along like a globe
+of fire on the mirror-like surface of the sea.
+
+The real farce, however, took place the next afternoon, when Neptune
+re-appeared, accompanied this time by his good lady and a hopeful youth,
+all decked out in real sea-god-like attire, in a car drawn by six tritons,
+still accompanied by his farcical retinue blowing a flourish on their
+bugles, when, after a second set speech to the Commodore, the great ruler
+of the waves declared that the ceremony was now to begin.
+
+Every sailor was obliged, whether he would or no, to undergo a lathering
+with a nasty mixture of tar and grease, and submit to be scraped by an
+immense tin razor; which operation being performed, the unfortunate
+sufferer was thrown into a sail suspended by its four corners, and there
+deluged from head to foot from pails, pumps, hose, pots, dishes, and
+everything else that would hold water. The officers and other gentlemen
+escaped the ordeal by a contribution in money or wine towards the
+festivities.
+
+When the greater part of the sailors had undergone this process, and the
+scene, amidst formidable gushes of water, rioting, uproar, and excitement,
+had reached its highest point, behold! a voice thundered from the
+quarter-deck the words "two o'clock," and everything resumed its wonted
+aspect.
+
+Though the Line had been crossed at a more westerly point than usual, we
+were able, in the night from the 18th to the 19th of July, to pass
+easterly between the rocks Las Roccas and the island of Fernando da
+Noronha.[34] On the 20th July we were carried again by unfavourable winds
+to a distance of 100 miles from the Brazilian coast, where we parted from
+our faithful companion, the _Caroline_. She sailed for Pernambuco, whilst
+we kept out to sea in order to continue the observations on the westerly
+currents, and be able freely to double Cape St. Augustin. Bad weather,
+showers, and heavy swells prevented complete success in our task; it was,
+however, ascertained that the current close to the land is not so strong
+as at some distance from it, and that the extreme point of divergence is,
+at this particular season of the year, somewhat east of the south point of
+Fernando de Noronha. In the angle formed by the direction of the two
+currents between the point of division and the land, partial currents
+(according to circumstances and the strength of the wind), run towards one
+or the other side, of which the stronger tends towards the north-west.
+
+[Footnote 34: This island, situated 300 miles from Pernambuco, which
+supplies it with provisions, is at present used by the Brazilian
+Government as a penal settlement. It is extremely beautiful and fertile,
+but very little cultivated, and admirably suited for a coal depôt, and a
+place for ships obtaining stores, particularly when epidemics are
+prevalent in Rio de Janeiro.]
+
+On the 23rd July the weather cleared up; we approached the coast and came
+in sight of Cape St. Augustin, the first land descried since leaving
+Madeira. On the 1st of August a rock was announced ahead; as nothing of
+the kind was indicated in the charts, we were curious to know what this
+could be. A boat was manned, and we were soon made aware, by our olfactory
+organs, of the real nature of the object, which turned out to be the
+carcase of a dead whale in a state of putrefaction, over which a number of
+birds were hovering, whilst a troop of sharks feasted on the putrid mass,
+boring themselves into the body. This incident shows how many rocks marked
+in charts as doubtful may owe their origin to similar circumstances; for,
+had we not been convinced of the real nature of the object, we should have
+believed this carcase to be a rock, and thus augmented the number of
+"doubtfuls" and interrogations in the charts of the Atlantic.
+
+On the 3rd August we made Cape Frio, and after a rough and stormy night
+reached at last, on the morning of the 5th, the numerous small islands
+situated in front of the harbour of Rio. The _Sugar Loaf_, that remarkable
+black basaltic rock at its entrance, stood grandly forth, as we ran in.
+Unfortunately the gloomy state of the atmosphere prevented the enjoyment
+of the exquisite beauty of this so often described charming bay.
+
+Here we found an English, a French, and an American frigate, as also a
+dirty old Brazilian sloop of war. Besides these ships of war, a Spanish
+frigate and galliot lay in the mercantile dock for repair; they had
+shortly before their arrival lost their masts in a _pampero_,[35] which,
+however, had borne all the characteristic marks of a cyclone.[36] The
+occurrence of tornadoes in the South Atlantic has been so often and so
+decidedly denied, that the mariner does not readily believe the violent
+storms of those latitudes to be hurricanes. This Spanish frigate had
+accordingly sailed heedlessly into the storm, and, with only such
+precautions taken as referred to mast and sail, had without further
+concern proceeded on her course. She thus had got into the very heart of
+the cyclone, and escaped entire destruction only by a fortunate chance.
+Now, had her commander considered this storm to have been a real hurricane
+he would have undoubtedly steered a different course, and probably in that
+case would have reached the harbour in safety. But the notion of the
+non-existence of hurricanes in these waters is so pertinaciously
+maintained that it was no wonder the careful and able Spanish commander
+had also been misled. Our own opinion is, that any storm in the ocean may
+assume a revolving motion, and it is therefore highly advisable always to
+bear in mind the well-founded theory of cyclones, in order to act upon it,
+as circumstances may require. Were this always done, how many valuable
+lives and property might be saved from destruction!
+
+[Footnote 35: A squall of wind of the South American Pampas.]
+
+[Footnote 36: The following succinct statement of the characteristics and
+general laws of cyclones will be found useful by way of reference:--
+
+1. It has been fully ascertained that in both hemispheres the air in the
+cyclone rotates in a direction _contrary_ to that of the sun. Thus, in the
+N. hemisphere, the course of the sun being from E. to S., W., and N., the
+course of the hurricane is from N. by W., S., and E.; and in the S.
+hemisphere, the sun's course being from E. by N., W., and S., the
+hurricane runs from N. by E., S., and W.
+
+2. They originate in the space between the equator and the tropics, near
+the equatorial limit of the trade winds.
+
+3. There is no instance on record of a hurricane having been encountered
+on the equator, nor of any one having crossed the Line, although two have
+been known to be raging at the same time in the same meridian, but on
+opposite sides of the equator, and only 10° to 12° apart!
+
+4. Their movement, which is always oblique from the equator to the poles,
+is usually from E. to W. at first, and towards the end W. to E., which is
+but a development of the gyratory motion that forms their most essential
+characteristic.
+
+5. The "motion of translation" varies from so low as 9 miles an hour to 43
+miles an hour. There is no precise estimate of the velocity of the
+gyratory motion.
+
+6. They are liable to dilate and contract in area, the contraction always
+implying a great accession of violence. (See _post_, p. 183.)]
+
+[Illustration: CAPE FRIO.]
+
+[Illustration: THE QUAY AT RIO.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+                           Rio de Janeiro.
+
+   Brazil the land of contrasts.--Appearance of the city of Rio and
+     its environs.--Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and the
+     Tejuca Waterfalls.--Germans in Rio.--Brazilian literary men.--
+     Assacú (_Hura Brasiliensis_).--Snake-bite as an antidote
+     against leprosy.--Public Institutions.--Negroes of the
+     Mozambique coast.--The House of Misericordia.--Lunatic
+     Asylum.--Botanical Garden.--Public instruction.--
+     Historico-Geographical institution.--_Palæstra Scientifica._--
+     Military Academy.--Library.--Conservatory of Music.--Sanitary
+     Police.--Yellow Fever and Cholera.--Water Party on the bay.--
+     Chamber of Deputies.--Petropolis.--Condition of the Slave
+     population.--Prospects of German emigration.--Suitability of
+     Brazil as a market for German commerce.--Natural products, and
+     exchange of manufactures.--Audience of the Emperor and
+     Empress.--Extravagant waste of powder for salvoes.--Songs of
+     the sailors.--Departure from Rio.--Retrospect.--South-east
+     Trades.--Cape Pigeons.--Albatrosses.--Cape Tormentoso.--A
+     Storm at the Cape.--Various Methods of measuring the height of
+     waves.--Arrival in Simon's Bay.
+
+
+Brazil--situated on the ocean-highway to the South Seas and the shores of
+India, endowed by nature, over the greater portion of her territory, with
+a salubrious climate, and a soil of tropical fertility, very nearly as
+large as Europe, and ten times the size of France, and yet containing not
+above 8,000,000 souls--has, far beyond all other States of South America,
+concentrated on herself, during more than half a century, the interest of
+the naturalist, as well as of the political economist--of the merchant as
+well as of the emigrant. Indeed, we may say that there are few countries,
+beyond the limits of Europe, which in certain parts have already been more
+thoroughly explored than the Brazilian Empire, while at the same time it
+can boast the possession of a rich and valuable stock of literature,
+treating of its history, since its discovery by the Portuguese Admiral,
+Pedro Alvarez Cabral, on the 22nd of April, 1500, down to the present
+time.
+
+After so brief a sojourn as ours, we can hardly offer more to the reader
+than a short sketch of our own few experiences, and some remarks regarding
+the alterations which took place in the appearance of the city and in its
+social and political condition, since the period when Martius and Spix,
+Rugendas, Prince Neuwied, Helmreichen, Natterer, Pohl, d'Orbigny, Wilkes,
+Castelnau, Burmeister, and others visited Brazil, and so accurately
+delineated it both by pen and pencil.[37]
+
+[Footnote 37: Before we left Europe, the wish was repeatedly expressed to
+us that, during our stay in Rio, more accurate information should be
+obtained as to the fate of numerous scientific works and collections, by
+several German naturalists who died in Brazil in recent times, such as
+Frederick Sello, Dr. Müller (a companion of Castelnau), Dr. Engler, and
+others. Unfortunately, we can only give the little consolatory
+intelligence that, with the exception of the scientific memoranda left
+behind by Dr. Engler, chiefly relating to Itù in the province of St. Paul,
+there was nothing further to be hoped for. The collections have all been
+dispersed through want of care, and the manuscripts nearly all destroyed
+through ignorance of their value.]
+
+The magnificent scenery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro still continues to
+possess the same absorbing interest for the new comer, wherever it has not
+suffered by the expansion of the rapidly-increasing city, or the axe of
+the emigrant settler; it is but little one can add to or alter in the
+picturesque description which travellers, alive to its natural beauties,
+had already given, half a century ago, of the wonderful haven of the
+Brazilian metropolis! Very different, however, is the impression, when the
+stranger, on disembarking, sets foot on the new world, and has to make his
+way through narrow, steep, filthy streets, greeted by yelling crowds of
+blacks and whites, poor negro slaves, and wealthy planters, into the
+interior of this bustling port. An entirely altered state of affairs has
+sprung up since the separation of Brazil from Portugal, and he who has not
+seen Rio within the last ten years would hardly recognize the capital of
+the Brazilian empire. Along with the most conspicuous deficiencies, in
+numerous particulars, one finds such institutions as are not to be met
+with, in a similarly flourishing condition, in any other State of South
+America, or among the republics of the Isthmus. But Brazil is emphatically
+"The Land of Contrasts."
+
+When the traveller, stepping on shore from the anchorage for ships of war,
+(which is a little to the south of that for merchant vessels), has forced
+his way through the swarms of human beings at the landing stage, and in
+front of the hotel Pharoux, he finds himself on the Largo do Paço, or
+Palace Square. Here on his left rises the singular-looking Imperial
+Residence, and on his right, close to the shore, the Market Hall. A dense
+bustling crowd throngs the streets, while numerous vehicles, some drawn by
+horses, others by mules, as also omnibuses of all colours and dimensions,
+and crammed within and without, dash swiftly about, emulating the din and
+confusion of European capitals. Turning now to the right, into the Rua
+Direita, and thence a little further into the Rua do Ouvidor, the two most
+elegant but none the less most-neglected streets of Rio, there dazzles the
+eye, in the splendid, richly-decorated shops and arcades, the same profuse
+luxury as in Regent Street, or on the Boulevards. But how disagreeable the
+contrast with those cities, presented by the pools of stagnant water,
+which occur even in the most-frequented streets!
+
+The city proper presents the figure of a square of about one mile and
+three quarters each way, between the sea beach and the Campo da Santa
+Anna, and is divided with tolerable regularity by narrow streets built at
+right angles to each other. Except the most important public buildings,
+such as the National Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Military
+Academy, the Naval Arsenal, the Custom House, the Market Hall, the
+Imperial Palace, the Chamber of Deputies, and several of the churches,
+only shops and mercantile counting-houses are to be met with.
+
+From the city stretch the suburbs like long tentacles in every direction,
+on one side along the beach as far as St. Christoph, the winter palace of
+the emperor, and, in the opposite direction, as far as the charming Cove
+of Botafogo, while backwards they extend to the valleys leading to the
+Corcovado, to the suburbs of Larangeiras, Catumbý Grande, and in the
+direction of the Tejuca mountains, as far as Engenho Velho, and Andarahý.
+Elegant little villas, frequently built in the strangest and most
+_bizarre_ style of architecture, alternate in these suburbs with ordinary
+dwelling-houses, all having most beautifully laid-out gardens. The
+merchant, the manufacturer, in fact every individual in easy
+circumstances, remain in the city only long enough to transact daily
+business. Each has his residence in the suburbs, where his family lives,
+to whose quiet circle he returns every evening. Among these suburbs, those
+of Caminho Novo and Catete, along the road leading to the charming cove of
+Botafogo, are more specially the diplomatic quarter, and the residence of
+the moneyed aristocracy of the capital.
+
+Amid so much that calls for censure in Rio Janeiro, and of which the
+æsthetic perceptions of the visitor will apprize him in the course of a
+stroll in any part of the city, there are two improvements which deserve
+grateful acknowledgment. The first of these consists in the lighting of
+the city by gas (prepared from English coal), which had been introduced
+shortly before our arrival, and is now extended to the extreme outskirts
+of the suburbs; the second is the magnificent aqueduct, which provides
+every quarter of Rio with a lavish supply of excellent drinking-water.
+However ugly Rio may look in the daytime, the gas at night gives
+it a magnificent and splendid appearance, particularly from the
+harbour. When, the evening after our arrival, we gazed out upon the
+brilliantly-illuminated city that lay before us, we could not help
+thinking there must be some festive occasion for such a flood of light,
+ignorant as we then were of what we learned afterwards, that Rio is as
+fairy-looking by night as it appears gloomy by day.
+
+Not less surprising, and forming a strong contrast with the deficiencies
+and requirements in other particulars, are the stately fountains that
+adorn the squares. Close by the corner of each street, gushes out through
+metal cocks, a stream of clear, fresh spring-water, which has been
+conveyed by the great aqueduct a distance of 10 or 12 English miles from
+the slopes of the neighbouring Carioca or Tejuca mountain-chains. The
+water supply has been in existence for 120 years, but the present immense
+reservoir and various improvements in it have been introduced by the
+Brazilian Government. With the exception of the Croton aqueduct, near New
+York, which supplies that city with 40,000,000 gallons daily, we do not
+remember to have seen in any part of the world a similar work of such
+magnitude.
+
+The dreary, uncomfortable feeling left by the city, gives way to most
+enjoyable impressions so soon as one emerges from the suburbs of Rio, and
+seeks compensation for the absence of the appliances of European
+civilization in the eternal grace and majesty of Nature. Walks may be
+taken in every direction, each opening up a fresh point of view, while, if
+the visitor take horse or mule, he may in the course of an hour or two
+transport himself into the very midst of the most extraordinary features
+of tropical vegetation.
+
+Among the most charming of these is a ride to the rocky peak called
+Corcovado, 2300 feet high, the road to which runs through magnificent
+shady forests. On the highest pinnacle of this rocky cone, which rises
+rather abruptly on the side of the valleys of Clementi and Broca, a
+parapet has been erected within these few years, so that the traveller can
+gaze over the delightful panorama below with as much, or even more,
+comfort and security, than from the Righi or the great Winterberg in the
+Saxon Switzerland. In the south and south-east rise the two stern-looking
+mountains, Gavia and Dos Irmaos, both of considerable height, and
+encircled by the mirror-like lagoon, Rodrigo das Freitas, near which
+stands out, clothed in the most luxuriant verdure, a part of the botanical
+garden; thereafter follows the beautiful valley of Clementi and Broca,
+with the splendid Lunatic Asylum and the fort of Praya Vermelha; beyond
+which is the smiling cove of Botafogo, and the singular Sugar Loaf, which
+forms such a characteristic feature of the entrance of Rio harbour; close
+beside the latter is the fort of San Juan; and lastly, facing the entrance
+of the bay, that of Santa Cruz, the strongest in the empire. At our feet
+lay stretched out the city itself, with the beautiful valleys of
+Larangeiras, Engenho Velho, and Catumbý Grande. On the other side of the
+bay, just opposite Rio, is Praya Grande, the capital of the province, and
+in the background the lofty, spectre-like mountain-chain of the Organos--
+so called from the rocky peaks projecting like so many organ-pipes. What a
+wondrous prospect! It is scarcely possible to have, from a single point of
+view, a grander or more varied natural picture. We lingered here more
+than an hour, and tore ourselves away with reluctance from all those
+glories which Nature has shed with so profuse a hand over this enchanting
+landscape.
+
+One of our companions was the veteran Brazilian naturalist, the venerable
+Dom Antonio Ildefonso Gomez, who passed several years in Europe when a
+young man, and had, together with Humboldt, once attended the lectures of
+Cuvier at Paris. M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, during his visit to Rio, spent
+several months at Dom Ildefonso's hospitable abode. Although now a
+septuagenarian, the old physician is uncommonly hale in person, full of
+his pristine enthusiasm, indefatigable in the pursuit of knowledge, and
+able to pass an entire day on the back of his mule, so that he can ride to
+the most distant consultations without betraying any symptoms of
+exhaustion. He had brought with him a number of large oranges, some cheese
+and bread, and a bottle of excellent port wine, so that there was no want
+of wherewithal to recruit our strength; and there, on the summit of the
+Corcovado, our hearts swelling with rapture as the eye ranged over the
+marvellous landscape that lay unrolled at our feet, we drank to the
+prosperity of Brazil. Dom Ildefonso, a warm friend to all foreigners,
+remarked that within forty years Brazil will probably be more German than
+Brazilian or Portuguese, and expressed a hope it might be so, as only by
+that means, so far as his observation went, could his beloved native land
+hope for a prosperous future.
+
+We returned through most charming forest scenery by way of Larangeiras
+and Andarahý. Throughout the entire distance we rode amidst the most
+exquisite specimens of tropical vegetation, palms, ebony trees, bignonias,
+plantains, mangoes, papayas, and bread-fruit trees, mingling with which we
+could discern the various trees and shrubs of the Northern Hemisphere, and
+occasionally strange plants from China, Japan, and Australia, which had
+been planted here by the enterprising hand of foreign settlers.
+
+Not less charming is the excursion to the Falls of the Tejuca, to which a
+broad road leads through blooming flower-gardens, and past delicious
+country seats, extending far into the mountains, and surrounded and
+overshadowed by a wall as it were of verdure, consisting of the flowers of
+_Bignonia bella_, intermingling with the shining leaves of the gigantic
+_Bougainvillea_. The coral tree (_Erythrina coralliflora_), the indigenous
+magnolia, the fan-shaped _urania_, numerous species of palms, and lofty,
+carefully-tended screw-pines, plantains with gigantic fruits, bread-fruit
+trees, eugenias, casuarinas, and melon trees--such are the blooming
+odoriferous attractions that here adorn garden and field. Ever threading
+his way among such charming plantations, the traveller finally reaches the
+path which, hemmed in between two mountain ridges of moderate height,
+leads direct to the Tejuca mountains, while to the right branch off
+numerous narrow paths conducting to the various adjoining eminences, from
+which a view can be obtained of the small cascade. The tropical richness
+and profusion of vegetation, has here crowded together upon a few square
+feet of soil hundreds of plants of all kinds. They strike into the soil,
+or struggle upwards to the light, or give out roots from the stems or
+branches, and all twine and tangle with each other to such an extent that
+often in these tufts and thickets one sees the top of a fern, without
+being able to distinguish any part of its stem, or a passion-flower
+without any visible stalk or leaves, all suspended in mid-air, like so
+many elegant festoons.
+
+A short distance from this singular, thoroughly tropical landscape, is the
+second, known as the Great Cascade, which, however, owes its special
+attractions rather to the character of the surrounding vegetation than to
+the volume of water. The trees here grow on a sort of amphitheatre of
+rocks, all of colossal size, and the most widely different forms, no two
+of the same species adjoining each other, their stems and branches adorned
+with the most beautiful parasites and the blood-red leaves of innumerable
+creepers, which in their lavish luxuriance now stretch like garlands from
+tree to tree, now hang perpendicularly down from the very highest branch
+of the tree like a network of green lace, till they sweep along the
+ground.
+
+The water welling out from the granite rock, rushes into the abyss below
+after traversing a rocky declivity, somewhat resembling a sloping terrace
+of about twenty fathoms wide. Its track is indicated by the
+irregularly-shaped blocks piled upon each other, some of which at a little
+distance below, their huge wide ridges enclosed by retaining walls, serve
+as spots in which to dry in the sun the ripe berries of the coffee plant,
+which in many parts hereabout forms an almost impervious forest.
+
+As we prosecute our wanderings further, we finally emerge upon the green
+hills of the vicinity, and obtain a charming glimpse of the ocean; we have
+now arrived in front of the gigantic outline of the Gavia, and directly
+facing us lies the salt-marsh, known as Tejuca-Lake, in the midst of which
+rises an island, thickly overgrown with mango-trees, standing on their
+distorted hundredfold roots; melancholy-looking examples of the inactivity
+and absence of all attention of the Brazilian authorities, who permit such
+a hot-bed of poisonous miasma to remain in the immediate vicinity of the
+city, and leave these plants unchecked to carry on their pestiferous vital
+processes!
+
+Returning from such a delightful excursion to Rio de Janeiro, the stranger
+feels doubly uncomfortable and lonely in the dreary and sombre city. The
+Brazilians are in general neither very social nor hospitable, and only,
+after many years' acquaintance, is a familiar intercourse formed with
+strangers.
+
+In this respect they bear a strong resemblance to the Spanish-Americans,
+whom they also greatly resemble in many of their habits of life.
+Foreigners settled in Rio spend their evenings generally at their country
+seats, some distance from the town, so that the occasional visitor is
+deprived of the social intercourse that might otherwise be so accessible.
+We met with a most hospitable reception at the houses of the Austrian
+Minister, Chevalier de Sonnleithner, and our Consul-General, as well as
+from some German families, and also from the "Germania," a Club founded by
+twelve Germans as far back as 1821. This Society numbers now about 200
+members, and is well supplied with German newspapers and periodicals,
+besides possessing a well-selected library of several thousand volumes,
+and a reading-room, with _restaurant_, smoking, billiard, and
+dancing-rooms attached. Of the various nationalities represented at Rio,
+the Germans are the most respected by the Brazilians. They are about 3000
+in number, and as the majority are Protestants they have their own church,
+founded by three Germans in 1827, which now numbers 600 members, and has
+an annual income of 5000 milreis.[38] The community is under the protection
+of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council in Berlin, and accordingly, as often
+as public worship is joined in, prayers are offered up for the King of
+Prussia, as head of the church. Despite its existence for more than thirty
+years, the position occupied by the Evangelical church with reference to
+the State, has never been accurately defined, so that differences are
+constantly occurring. In connection with the congregation are a school,
+and a society for aiding distressed Germans, which numbers 200 associates,
+and has an annual income of from 6000 to 7000 milreis (£600 to £700). The
+objects of the association are the advance of money, pensions, payment of
+passage-money for transport, assistance to unemployed or sick German
+workmen, education of orphan children, and so forth. The German choral
+union had given a concert in aid of this humane society, which alone had
+realized 3100 milreis (above £300)!
+
+[Footnote 38: One milreis = 1000 reis = about 2_s._ English. The Brazilian
+milreis is of this small value as compared with that of the Portuguese (3
+to 7), in consequence of its being represented by paper-money of
+fluctuating value, which gradually became so depreciated that Government,
+when regulating the value in 1846, were not in a position to restore it to
+its par value of 3_s._ 4_d._ sterling.]
+
+It is not alone, however, as merchants, engineers, and artisans, that the
+Germans in Rio occupy a conspicuous position; they likewise contribute
+their mite to the advancement of art and science. For example, the most
+important literary enterprise in the empire is in German hands, viz. the
+printing and bookselling business of the brothers Laemmert. Their
+publications embrace two hundred and fifty works, chiefly of Portuguese
+(not Brazilian) authors, original or translated, treating of Brazilian
+legislation, history, medicine, public instruction, poetry, popular
+literature, works on religion, novels, romances, kalendars, and theatrical
+pieces. One publication due to the founder of the firm, Mr. C. Laemmert, a
+Bavarian by birth, has already proved of immense utility, the "_Almanak
+administrativo, mercantil, e industrial_," compiled by himself, first
+published in the year 1843. From a most defective little pamphlet at its
+start, this periodical publication has, in the course of time, become
+developed into an elegant, simply-classified octavo volume, 1400 pages
+thick, which, compiled carefully and kept constantly corrected to the
+latest moment, despite the most disheartening material difficulties, gives
+a very interesting insight into the entire internal organization of the
+empire, and at the same time supplies the most authentic information as
+to the scientific, commercial, and industrial activity of the city and
+province of Rio. Even more important as a medium for the diffusion of
+useful knowledge among the masses is a sort of popular kalendar, which is
+published in duodecimo form, under the title of "_Folinhas_" (Leaves), and
+for 320 reis (about 7-1/2_d._ English), gives upon 360 pages an immense
+amount of useful information. Of this publication 80,000 copies were sold
+throughout the empire in the year 1857. There are very few works of
+importance written by native authors, as they devote their energies
+chiefly to periodical literature. Of daily and monthly publications there
+are abundance, both in Rio and in the provinces, but they have only an
+ephemeral existence. The press enjoys the most unbounded freedom, and
+probably in very few continental cities would such language be tolerated
+as that of the _Courier du Brésil_, edited by a French refugee. If the
+influence of journalism in Brazil is as yet insignificant, it is in
+consequence of the prevailing ignorance, as four-fifths of the population
+are unable to read or write, and the papers published are consequently
+only in the hands of the upper classes.
+
+While we found but few opportunities of intercourse with Brazilian
+families, the public authorities received and treated us in the most
+obliging and distinguished manner. In this respect, we were particularly
+indebted to Dr. de Lagos, Dr. Schüch de Capanema, Dr. F. de Paulo Candido,
+and Dom M. de Portoalegre.
+
+These gentlemen took especial pains to make our stay in Rio as instructive
+as useful, and likewise gave us in reply to various scientific queries the
+most valuable information and practical hints. Thus, for example, we were
+favoured by Dr. de Lagos with the following particulars respecting the
+alleged efficacy of the milky sap of the assacú tree (_Hura
+Brasiliensis_), and of the bite of the rattlesnake as antidotes in cases
+of _Elephantiasis_, as also regarding the "Curaré," that celebrated poison
+with which the Indians of Brazil tip their arrows.
+
+The assacú had long been employed as a remedy for the frightful malady
+known as _Elephantiasis Græcorum_, and its use was occasionally followed
+by the happiest results, without any attempt having been made thoroughly
+to investigate the specific action of the juice, although, like that of so
+many other Brazilian plants, it would probably surrender, if
+scientifically analyzed, the therapeutical energies which enable it to
+overcome occasionally the most obstinate cases of disease. The assacú is a
+tree growing in the northern provinces of Pará, on making an incision into
+which there exudes a resinous sap, of a brownish or reddish-white colour,
+which coagulates, and gradually hardens. This inspissated substance is of
+a dark brown, rather resembling gum than resin, and readily soluble in
+water. When dissolved, it regains the colour and odour of the sap as it
+first trickles from the tree. A committee of physicians of Pará long ago
+presented to the Brazilian Government a memorandum as to the practical
+efficacy and peculiarities of the assacú in cases of the above malady,
+according to which it appears, that the symptoms of the patient improve in
+the most marvellous manner from the very first day on which the remedy is
+used; the illness seems to be suddenly arrested, or, at all events to make
+but very slight progress. The milky sap is exhibited internally, in the
+form of pills, and a decoction of the bark is also administered by way of
+a beverage for the patient,--externally an infusion of the bark is used
+for bathing purposes. Some of those affected, to whom this remedy was
+applied, felt a sensation as of formication, immediately on taking it,
+while others experienced a feeling as though they had been submitted to a
+series of shocks of electricity, only weaker and more equable.
+
+It is a well-established fact that in many parts of South America, a
+popular belief prevails that the bite of the deadly _Cobra de cascavel_,
+or rattlesnake, heals _Elephantiasis_, or pustular leprosy, in which
+disease, as is well known, the legs and feet of those attacked are covered
+with a scurf resembling the cuticle of the elephant. However, instances of
+the practical application of so terrible a remedy, which seems to be
+almost more dreadful than the disease it professes to cure, are in all
+probability of rare occurrence, and are therefore doubly important when,
+as in the case detailed to us, they occurred under the very eyes of a man
+of science, and are related by the observer himself.
+
+A native, named Marianno José Machado, from Rio Pardo, in the province of
+southern Rio Grande, fifty years of age, had long been afflicted with
+morphea (_Elephantiasis Græcorum_), and had already passed four years in
+the Lazarus Hospital at Rio, when one day, worn out with his loathsome
+malady, he resolved as a last chance of being delivered from his dread
+disease, to submit to the bite of a rattlesnake. All the warnings and
+representations of the physicians, who entertained well-founded doubts as
+to the remedial efficacy of so dangerous a remedy, were disregarded.
+Marianno betook himself to a house in the Rua da Imperatriz, the occupant
+of which possessed a living rattlesnake, and there in the presence of
+numerous witnesses declared, signing at the same time a document to the
+same effect, that what he was about to do he did of his own free will,
+without any influence on the part of strangers, and that he assumed to
+himself the entire responsibility of his own deed. Marianno was of
+middling stature and athletic build; his entire skin was covered with
+rugosities, but without any appearance of ulceration, while his face was
+frightfully disfigured. The points of his fingers, moreover, had entirely
+lost their form, the skin readily peeling off from them.
+
+The daring sufferer opened the box in which lay the deadly reptile, and
+roughly seized it; but it at first attempted to escape, as though it too
+was disgusted at the horrible object before it. When, however, it felt
+itself once more squeezed, the snake turned round in self-defence, and bit
+the man on the finger. Marianno was sensible neither of the puncture of
+the teeth, nor of the instantaneous activity of the injected poison, but
+it became ere long apparent that he had been bitten, from the blood making
+its appearance, coupled with a slight swelling of the hand. Several
+physicians watched by the bedside of the sufferer; almost every half-hour
+the observed results were circumstantially reported. When, however, the
+symptoms rapidly became worse, antidotes were applied, and every effort
+made to save the patient. Nevertheless, the result of the experiment was
+as anticipated--within twenty-four hours after the bite of the rattlesnake
+Marianno was a corpse.
+
+Several members of the medical society of Vienna laid great stress on our
+procuring a considerable quantity of the celebrated poison, "_curaré_,"
+used in South America for tipping arrows, with the view of instituting
+fresh experiments--similar to those already made, so as to elucidate its
+chemical and physiological properties. As the curaré is not to be procured
+in Rio, but comes thither from the northern province of Pará, where the
+natives procure it from the sap of the _Strychnos toxifera_, Dr. de Lagos
+promised he would take care to procure some, so as to transmit samples
+direct to the Vienna _savans_, and at the same time gave us much
+information as to the latest researches touching this substance, with
+whose remarkable properties Alexander v. Humboldt had made the scientific
+world acquainted, more than half-a-century previously, in his classic
+"Travels through the Equatorial Countries."
+
+One special peculiarity of the curaré consists in the fact that, like most
+other organic poisons, it is only active when absorbed into the
+circulating system, and proves entirely innoxious, nay in some cases even
+beneficial, when introduced into the body by other means.
+
+The more the faculty became acquainted with the terrific activity, and
+invariably fatal results of this poison, the more zealously did science
+bestir itself to discover some means of neutralizing the operation of the
+curaré. Quite recently the preparations of iodine-natron, when
+administered in certain proportions, have been recognized as antidotes;
+dissolved with the curaré they seem entirely to obviate its evil effects.
+Careful observation and a gradual acquaintance with the properties of the
+curaré, have further led to the conclusion that it may be regarded as a
+remedy in certain cases, and it has actually been administered with good
+results to animals affected with tetanic convulsions. May it be reserved
+to the physicians of our native country, to elicit from the quantity of
+this subtle and singular poison, which they may expect to receive through
+the kindness of Dr. de Lagos, such results as shall make its remedial
+properties available for man, instead of leaving its baleful energies as
+at present solely directed to the destruction of organic life!
+
+In the company of our Brazilian friends, already mentioned, we also
+visited the most interesting of the public charities and educational
+institutions of Rio.
+
+On the occasion of a visit we paid to the in part newly-erected Casa de
+Correçâo, which is managed on what is known as the Auburn system, we were
+shown three Mozambique negroes, who, in 1852, had been smuggled in a
+"slaver" from the east coast of Africa into Brazil, there to be sold as
+slaves, despite the interdicts against the introduction of slaves, then
+actually in force. The vessel was, however, captured by the Brazilian
+cruisers, and the negroes forthwith restored to liberty, when, in their
+own interest, and with the view of preventing their being a second time
+sold into bondage, they were removed to a quarter of the prison away from
+the rest, and specially set apart for what are called "free Africans,"
+where they had been carefully educated and instructed in various
+handicrafts, all at the expense of the State. As a vocabulary of the
+idioms spoken by the Mozambique negroes, was an especial desideratum of
+the class of philosophic history in our Imperial Academy of Sciences, and
+there seemed to be but little prospect of our expedition visiting the
+eastern coast of Africa, we gladly availed ourselves of this unexpected
+opportunity to compile the wished-for vocabulary, in which Professor
+Portoalegre, Director of the Academy of Fine Arts, materially assisted us.
+Two of these negroes, Camillo and Ventura, were born in Quillimani, and
+belonged to the Mananpi race; the third, Jeremias, was born about sixty
+days' journey from the coast, of the Maqua race, and spoke a dialect of
+the Mozambique idiom. Ventura, a youth of, at the outside, seventeen years
+of age, related that he could perfectly remember having been stolen one
+night from his parents in Quillimani, when he was brought to a
+slave-dealer named Jones, after which he was shipped off in a wretched
+leaky vessel to the coast of Brazil. On our asking these three swarthy
+fellow-labourers, hearty of aspect and neatly clothed, who had been so
+carefully tended by the State, and earned, one as a house-servant, the
+other two as stonemasons, thirty milreis (£3 3s.) a month, whether they
+did not feel themselves better off in Rio than in their own home,--they,
+with one accord, answered that they longed to return to Quillimani, where
+it is hardly requisite to work above six months, and the rest of the year
+may be consumed in a genuine "_dolce far niente_" existence, instead of
+being compelled, as in Rio, to work the whole year round!
+
+In spite of long-continued efforts, the vocabulary turned out much less
+complete than we wished, in consequence of the limited capacity of these
+negroes. We did not content ourselves, however, with merely transcribing
+the answers to our questions, but also endeavoured to obtain a more
+accurate idea of the precise meaning attached to each, by repeating each
+of the words of the Mozambique language, and translating into it from the
+questions put in Portuguese. This method seemed to be the most effectual
+for ensuring the correctness of the pronunciation, so as to permit of its
+being afterwards reduced to writing. In the arrangement of the vocabulary,
+we availed ourselves of what is known as Gallatin's method, as it appeared
+to us more complete and comprehensive than that sent to our academy by the
+celebrated naturalist and traveller, Dr. Martius, of Munich, with a
+request that it should have his list of Latin words translated into the
+various languages hitherto unknown, or such idioms as have been as yet but
+little examined and investigated.
+
+The race, to which these three negroes belonged, seems to have been
+already converted to Christianity. At least, they all had Christian names,
+but could give us no information either as to certain heathenish rites in
+their own country, or concerning an idol of carved ivory which we showed
+them, brought from the east coast of Africa, and the method of worshipping
+it.
+
+Two of the most elegant edifices of Rio Janeiro, worthy indeed of being
+placed side by side with the largest charitable establishments in Europe,
+are the immense palace-like Hospital of the Santa Casa da Misericordia, in
+which between 8000 and 9000 patients are received and treated annually,
+and the really splendid Lunatic Asylum (_Asylo dos Alienados_), in the
+cove of Botafogo. The latter institution, founded in 1841, which, whether
+as regards the tastefulness of its architecture or its munificent
+endowment, can hardly be rivalled anywhere, owes its existence to one of
+the most estimable benefactors of his native country, Don José Clemente
+Pereira, Minister of the Interior at the time of its erection. This
+genial, benevolent soul, deeply acquainted with the human heart and its
+weaknesses, hit, as we were told, upon the following eminently original
+and ingenious method of raising the sums required. All grades of the
+various Brazilian orders, as well as the titles of Baron, Count, and
+Marquis, were put up for sale at fixed prices, the proceeds resulting
+from which purposes were applied to the erection and endowment of the
+asylum! And thus arose, at the south end of the cove of Botafogo, a
+splendid palatial edifice--a monument less of humanity and love of our
+afflicted neighbours, than of the vanity and frailty of poor human nature,
+the tributes to which erected it. Unfortunately, in this establishment,
+mere succour is all in all, and the cure seems entirely lost sight of, the
+sanative treatment of the patients lagging far behind their careful
+supervision; in short, it being rather a place for the safe confinement
+than the recovery of those deprived of their reason.
+
+One of the most instructive examples of how little the inhabitants of Rio
+make use of the natural capabilities of the site of their capital, is
+incontestably furnished by a piece of ground immediately adjoining the
+Lunatic Asylum, which has been dignified with the name of the Botanic
+Garden. With the exception of a very fine alley of hundreds of graceful
+king-palms (_Oreodoxa regia_), which present a magnificent spectacle,
+growing as they do with such admirable regularity as to appear rather
+artificial columns than planted trees, the eye encounters nothing but
+uncultivated land, abounding with the commonest vegetation, alternating
+with badly-selected nursery plantations, although both in the climate and
+the soil every facility is at hand for enabling this garden to be made a
+means of representing the vegetation of every zone of the globe. Even a
+large tea plantation, for the cultivation of which 10,000 Chinese were
+imported at the cost of Government, and from which, if the experiment had
+proved successful, the most important results might have been anticipated,
+stood there uncared-for and untended, a melancholy witness of how things
+are inaugurated in Brazil, and then suffered to fall through. When we
+enquired how long the garden had been laid out, our guide, a witty
+Portuguese, replied with a sarcastic smile; "Since the beginning of the
+world!" In that part of the garden which adjoins the Lagune, called
+Rodrigo das Freitas, stands a common mud hovel, with broken windows, and
+doors hanging by the hinges. This was pointed out to us by a labourer as
+the spot at which the Emperor alights and reposes when he visits the
+Botanical Garden.
+
+Singular to say, Brazil possesses no regular university! The jealousy with
+which any one city invested with certain privileges and prerogatives is
+regarded by the rest, is the reason that induced the Government to
+separate the medical and juridical classes, so that each of the four chief
+cities of the Empire benefits by the presence of a certain portion of the
+students. Thus the medical schools are in Rio Janeiro and Bahia, while
+those of jurisprudence are held in St. Paul and Pernambuco. The entire
+number of students attending these establishments amounted of late years,
+on an average, to upwards of a thousand. Great prominence has been
+assigned by Government, especially of late, to the extension of public
+instruction. In March, 1857, there were throughout Brazil, 2452 schools,
+(765 private, and 1687 public,) in which instruction was given to 82,243
+children of both sexes.[39] A school of industry, having for its object the
+instruction of able-bodied persons, was opened in 1856, and classes for
+teaching natural philosophy and political administrative science, are in
+process of being introduced. Amongst the scientific establishments of the
+country, the Historico-Geographical Institute occupies the first place,
+the meetings of which are generally attended by the Emperor as honorary
+president. This institution, which occupies in Brazil about the same
+position as the Academy of Sciences in Vienna, directs its special
+attention to the publication of old documents and manuscripts relating to
+the history of Brazil and the aboriginal population; but investigations
+relating to natural history are also included in its domain of enquiry.
+The sittings are held every alternate Friday. The naturalists of the
+_Novara_ attended one of these meetings, which took place in one of the
+wings of the palace. At half-past 6 P.M., the Emperor entered the hall, in
+plain clothes, attended by two chamberlains. All the gentlemen present
+approached one after the other and respectfully kissed the hand of their
+sovereign. On this occasion we remarked that even ladies, when presented
+to the head of the State, were accustomed to kiss his hand. The Imperial
+Honorary President, whose simple apparel was relieved only by the star of
+some order worn on the breast, took his seat at the upper end of a long,
+wide table, covered with green cloth. The associates, with the exception
+of the Vice-President and Secretaries, seemed to have no fixed seats, but
+sat in the order of their arrival. During the sitting there was the most
+marked absence of ceremony, and the business was transacted in the freest
+and easiest manner.
+
+[Footnote 39: Among the higher class of educational institutions, the
+College of Pedro Segundo ranks foremost, and is at present attended by
+about 900 students.]
+
+The proceedings were uninteresting, the greatest portion of the time being
+occupied in reading over the minutes of the last sitting, and replying to
+certain strictures upon the incapacity of land-surveyors in Brazil. Sir
+Robert Schomburgk had, in one of his works published in 1843, upon the
+subject of New Guinea, made some disparaging observations as to the method
+of admeasurement pursued in Brazil, and one member of the society, Dr.
+Schüch de Capanema, seemed to consider it his duty in his double capacity
+as a Brazilian and an engineer, to protest--somewhat tardily it must be
+owned!--against these, according to his opinion, unjust remarks. After the
+discussion was over, a manuscript was next brought forward concerning some
+of the native tribes; His Majesty expressed a wish to have this treatise
+read. The secretary accordingly made the attempt, but the writing was so
+illegible, that he was obliged to abandon the task. At the conclusion of
+the meeting, which lasted upwards of three hours, His Majesty conversed
+very affably with the Austrian gentlemen, and presented each with a copy
+of a national poem, "Conferaçao dos Tamoyos," by a native poet, Gonçalves
+de Magalhaes, and recently printed at His Majesty's expense, which relates
+the wars of the Tamoyos with the Portuguese residents of San Vincente--
+the last struggle of that heroic Indian race, the founding of Rio, and the
+subjugation of the entire force, under Nictheroy, by the Portuguese.
+
+The _Palæstra Scientifica_ is a branch of this institution, the members
+being chiefly naturalists. The gentlemen of the _Novara_ Expedition were
+invited to one of the meetings, which was inaugurated by the secretary
+reading aloud an ancient manuscript upon the natural resources of various
+provinces in Brazil, according to explorations, which had been undertaken
+in 1798, by the directions and at the cost of the then Portuguese
+Government. There was also read a memoir upon the culture of linseed,
+formerly carried on in the province of St. Catharina, which, however, is
+now entirely discontinued. Dr. Schüch presented to the Society
+vocabularies of the Croado and Puris languages, compiled by M. R. F. de
+Senestes, a retired Belgian ship captain, now resident at Minas, who had
+long traded with these two Indian races. Dr. Schüch also exhibited a
+pigment, or dye-stuff, extracted from the wood of the Ipé-tree, a species
+of bignonia, extensively used in the manufacture of axles. State
+Councillor and Senator Candido Baptista de Oliveira, [formerly Minister
+and Ambassador at St. Petersburg, and at that time publisher and editor of
+the _Rivista Brasileira_ (Brazilian Review)], brought forward some
+meteorological tables, and explained his new method for measuring
+altitudes. The proceedings are usually conducted in the Portuguese
+language; but out of courtesy to the foreigners, French was principally
+spoken, and the President kindly proposed that Dr. Schüch de Capanema, who
+is thoroughly versed in German, should translate into that idiom the
+proceedings as carried on in Portuguese. At the close of the sitting, the
+commander of our Expedition and the various members of the scientific
+commission were named associates of the _Palæstra Scientifica_.
+
+This society had projected an expedition to explore the western provinces
+of the empire, and some of their members were appointed to draw up the
+plan for carrying it out. The arrangements for the enterprise were on the
+grandest scale. The requisite books and scientific apparatus were ordered
+from London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. Every branch of science had its
+representative,--an astronomer, botanist, zoologist, ethnologist, &c.,
+were to accompany the Expedition; each section had a number of assistants,
+the astronomical as many even as nine. When we arrived in Rio, the printed
+instructions for the use of the members were just being distributed; and
+it was asserted that nothing but the non-arrival of the instruments from
+Europe prevented the departure of the Expedition. In short, the
+preparations which were made in the year 1857, justified the hope that a
+most brilliant success would be the result of an undertaking got up on so
+expensive a scale. The only pity is, that up till now--more than three
+years later--the Expedition has had but little result, and, according to
+the latest intelligence from Rio, some of the members in the north-east of
+the province of Cearà cannot proceed any further for want of money (_por
+falta de dinhero_), and expect new funds in order to continue their
+explorations and their efforts in search of the wild tribes (_em busca das
+tribus selvaticas!_) in the interior of Maranhao.
+
+There is, generally speaking, in Brazil, as in all other South-American
+States peopled by the Roman race, much of good-will, and still more
+vanity, to follow in the wake of northern European civilization in
+everything pertaining to progress and investigation; but there is wanting
+that energy, that perseverance so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race,
+which are essential conditions in successfully carrying out any
+undertaking, however zealously entered upon. This probably is the reason
+why in Brazil so many things in science and social life are begun and
+never brought to a conclusion; there is nowhere more talk about _what is
+to be done_, than at Rio de Janeiro. Thus, for example, the Museum of
+Natural History at the Campo Santa Anna, is an elegant building, with
+magnificent apartments, and large elegantly fitted cases--which, however,
+contain as yet but few objects of natural history, even those being most
+unsystematically arranged.
+
+Another educational institution--the Military Academy--founded under John
+VI., in 1810, for the instruction of the engineers and officers of the
+various scientific corps, has, since then, undergone nine reforms, and was
+just about to undergo another one! In this establishment the highly
+objectionable practice still exists, of making every pupil acquainted with
+the chapter and verse of the subjects of examination twenty-four hours
+before it takes place.
+
+The Public Library, though little more than begun at the period of our
+visit, already comprised 86,000 volumes, and is annually increased by an
+addition of five or six hundred. This institution was, in 1856, visited by
+3407 readers, who perused 7717 volumes, mostly in Portuguese and French,
+consisting of 238 on theology, 1046 on political economy, 2879 on natural
+science, 153 on the fine arts, 1083 on history, and 2318 on
+belles-lettres, which furnishes a very fair criterion for estimating the
+education of those availing themselves of these advantages.
+
+Another institution, which is an evidence of the efforts now making by the
+Brazilians to gratify their national vanity, is the _Conservatorio da
+Musica_, a newly-established institution for the promotion of the _opera
+lyrica nacional_, the number of pupils attending which averages 100. A
+custom has lately prevailed of sending one or two of the most gifted of
+these annually to Europe to complete their musical studies. During a four
+years' residence there, each pupil has a stipend from the Imperial
+exchequer of 3000 francs per annum; and in the event of obtaining a prize
+abroad, he receives a gratuity of 1000 francs; his compositions, however,
+in that case become the property of the parent institution. By this means
+the Brazilians hope to render themselves entirely independent of foreign
+musical talent. "Why should we annually pay hundreds of thousands of
+francs to foreign singers and concert-givers?" said a Brazilian to us one
+day in all earnestness. "We shall soon have our own artists--Brazilian
+Thalbergs, Grisis, and Lablaches!" Confessedly the inhabitants of the
+United States have been vain enough in all conscience; but when we
+consider the wonderful advances made by that active, energetic people, and
+contemplate their surpassing qualities, such a national foible is readily
+overlooked. In Brazil, on the contrary, the contempt affected for
+everything foreign, the fretful impatience to become emancipated from the
+smallest resemblance to European customs, is exceedingly childish and even
+ludicrous in a country which can hardly yet be said to be able to stand
+alone, since the pressure of circumstances is daily making them more and
+more dependent on other countries, and where it is necessary to import
+from abroad not merely the evidences of high culture, but the very first
+necessaries of life, even to obtaining supplies of foreign labour. This
+overweening self-esteem has rather increased, since it has become the
+fashion of young Brazilians, of the better classes, to visit Europe for
+the completion of their studies, as will, perhaps, be best illustrated by
+the following laughable anecdote:--A young Brazilian, the son of a German
+father and a native lady, who had but recently returned from Europe,
+overheard one of his friends asking another if he could tell of what
+country he thought the fresh arrival to be, at the same time indicating
+the youth, who just came from the academy of Freiberg. "There can be no
+doubt on that point," was the reply; "the blue eyes, light hair, and fair
+complexion, distinctly indicate that the gentleman is a German." "God
+forbid!" (_Deu m'en guarda!_) exclaimed the young gentleman, who seemed as
+it were ashamed of his foreign descent, and to feel even more indignation
+than a full-blood Brazilian at such a mortifying imputation.
+
+Among the various institutions recently established in Rio, the
+introduction of which is intended to be made available in promoting the
+physical well-being of the people, the foremost place must indisputably be
+assigned to the Board of Health (_Junta Central de Hygiena Publica_). It
+owes its origin to the appearance of the yellow fever and the cholera,
+which had never been known before in the country. The former broke out on
+the 29th December, 1850, having been introduced by vessels that had
+cleared from Bahia, at which port it had been raging for some weeks. The
+ravages of this pestilence were fearful in Rio; out of a population of
+250,000 souls, as many as 120,000 were attacked, and upwards of 5000 fell
+a sacrifice to the disease.
+
+The first case of cholera occurred a few years later, on the 15th of July,
+1855; and during the months in which it prevailed, nearly the same number
+(to be more precise, 4826) of the inhabitants of the capital were carried
+off. The fatal cases throughout the empire from this epidemic during the
+eighteen months between May, 1855, and December, 1856, are said to have
+amounted to the enormous number of 107,093! Dr. Francisco de Paulo
+Candido, one of the most eminent physicians of Rio, and the principal
+member of the Board of Health, states, in a report to the Government,
+relative to the statistics of the cholera throughout the empire, that he
+had observed, during the prevalence of the epidemic, three phenomena,
+which seemed to stand in a certain relation to its appearance, increase,
+and decrease, viz., the almost entire disappearance of the ozon in July
+and following months, when the disease was on the _increase_; the gradual
+increase of that atmospheric agent, in proportion to the decrease of the
+disorder; and lastly, the influence exercised by humidity and sudden
+changes in temperature on the intensity of the disease. Dr. Candido has
+added to his highly instructive report some meteorological tables and a
+graphical representation of the presence and absence of ozon in the
+atmosphere, which will be published, in its proper place, in the medical
+section of the present work.
+
+The consequence of the ravages of these two scourges was, that a variety
+of other measures for securing the public health were inaugurated by the
+newly-established Board of Health. Among others, a hospital was set on
+foot in a charming part of the Cove of Jurujuba,[40] at the eastern
+extremity of the Bay of Rio, expressly for the reception of patients
+afflicted with yellow fever or cholera. Every morning since that attack,
+(and during the unhealthy season several times a day), a small Government
+steamer, fitted up for the purpose, plies round the bay, to take up any
+cases that may happen to occur on board the ships arriving, and convey
+them hither free of charge. Two medical men on board the steamer commence
+the treatment, by applying the necessary remedies, during the passage
+from the ship to the hospital. Any vessel at anchor in the bay with an
+epidemic on board, has, according to arrangement, simply to hoist a flag
+on the mainmast, whereupon the Government steamer immediately embarks the
+sick persons. In order more effectually to keep from all contact with the
+population of the town, such shipboard patients as are labouring under
+infectious complaints, another hospital has been established on the Island
+of Marica, situated beyond the bar.
+
+[Footnote 40: Pronounced Shooru-shooba.]
+
+In consequence of these recent epidemic attacks, much greater attention
+than formerly has of late been paid to the cleanliness of the capital of
+the Brazilian empire, though a great deal has yet to be done in this
+respect. Rio used to be, without exception, the dirtiest city in the
+world. As there were neither gutters nor sewers, all impurities
+accumulated during the twenty-four hours used, towards evening, to be
+carried by negroes on their heads, in pails and casks, to the bay, and,
+singularly enough, emptied in the immediate vicinity of the Imperial
+palace, whereby several quarters of the city, particularly in the hot
+season, were rendered entirely uninhabitable. The execution of proper
+drainage and sewerage works in a city such as Rio, which lies on a flat
+and is densely built near the water, must be at all times attended with a
+very large expenditure of money. But who would boggle at any amount for an
+object which concerns the bodily health, not merely of the present, but of
+all succeeding generations? At the period of our visit, the Government had
+entered into a contract with Messrs. Joaquim Pereira de Lima and J. F.
+Russell, by which, in consideration of a lease for ninety years of
+certain taxes specially levied, the two contractors have undertaken to
+introduce into the capital of Brazil a system of harbour and street
+purification, similar to that which has long been in general use
+throughout England. There had also been lately started a _Companhia
+Reformadora_, having for object the widening and beautifying of certain
+streets, and the improvement of the paving. One must have lived in Rio,
+where each street and open square is a hotbed of fever and sickness, to be
+able aright to estimate the importance of the two last-named associations.
+
+A war steamer was, by the command of H.M. the Emperor of Brazil, placed at
+our disposal, to afford us an opportunity of viewing more closely the most
+beautiful points in the magnificent bay of Rio. There were on board with
+us the Captain of the Port, Dom Francisco de Perura Pinto, the captains of
+the Brazilian men-of-war lying in the harbour, as also several members of
+the Historico-Geographical Institute. A military band enlivened the party
+by playing national airs during the day. We first visited the south-east
+part of the bay at the villages of San Domingo and Ponta da Armacao,
+opposite to Ponta da Aréa, whence steamers, for navigating the bay and
+adjoining coast, are run by an English company, which employs 667 hands,
+(of whom 298 are foreigners, 207 natives, and 162 negro slaves). Except a
+part of the funds advanced by native capitalists, the whole undertaking is
+carried out by foreigners. England furnishes the engineers and machinery,
+whilst the requisite timber is brought from Norway and North America. The
+value of the labour employed during 1856 amounted to nearly £90,000.--We
+proceeded hence past the islands of Salinas and Honorio, and between the
+island of Baretto and the eastern shore of the bay, as far as the
+luxuriant island of Paquetá, on the lovely shores of which we landed. It
+has a circumference of five miles, and is inhabited by 16,000 persons, who
+convert shells into chalk; nearly all the houses on shore are chalk-kilns.
+During the dry season this island is the favourite Sunday resort of the
+_fluminenses_, as the Rio de Janeirians delight to call themselves. From
+this sweet spot the steamer carried us to the north side of the bay. In
+the back-ground, the Organos mountains now appeared in all the majesty of
+their imposing outline, whilst on one of the projecting ridges, the church
+San Francisco de Croara forms an extremely picturesque object.
+
+[Illustration: ISLAND OF PAQUITÀ, BAY OF RIO.]
+
+The more the northern portion of the bay is approached, the more romantic
+becomes the panorama of the mountains: from this point stand out in their
+full grandeur the Serra da Estrella, the Serra da Tinguá (which is
+currently believed to be the highest mountain, not merely on the bay, but
+in Brazil), then the deep valley of Santa Cruz, next to which the
+mountain-chains of Suaratyba, and the Serra de Iguassoú, rise
+majestically, melting away into the charming Tejuca chain, the Gavia, and
+the world-renowned Corcovado, whilst the Sugar Loaf, that gigantic
+guardian at the entrance of the harbour, splendidly terminates this
+magnificent amphitheatre.
+
+We passed the largest of the islands in the bay, the Ilha do Governador,
+which has a circumference of upwards of seven miles, and is inhabited by
+about a hundred persons chiefly employed in the chalk-kilns, sail-cloth
+and soap manufactories; and touched at some wild spots that promised a
+harvest for our naturalists. Here and there, from the deep blue waters,
+sprang up islands of the most luxuriant vegetation, like tropical idylls
+of rock and forest, such as the eye marvels to rest upon, but the pen
+refuses to describe. Indelibly impressed on our minds remains in this
+respect the lovely islet of Catalán, with its beautiful flowers and palms.
+
+On approaching the capital, towards the east of the bay, passing the
+island Bom Jesus, with a magnificent Franciscan monastery, and the Ponta
+do Cajù, with charming country seats, a forest of masts, strikes the eye
+in bold contrast with the Sugar Loaf in the east, and the Morro de Viracao
+and the fort Pico in the west, which covers the position of Santa Cruz.
+Unfortunately we went down, just at this point, to a splendid banquet,
+etiquette requiring that we should exchange the quarter-deck for the
+state-room; for in Brazil also, upon such occasions, meals and
+speechifying play an important part, and greatly prejudice the special
+object of travel--the enjoyment of nature.
+
+We were not yet done, however, with our excursion. Again we turned towards
+the beautiful Cove of Jurujuba, where on the shore lay pretty little
+cottages embowered in the richest foliage, while, through a deep
+depression, appeared the masts of ships which were still on the bosom of
+the ocean outside, on the point of entering the harbour. As the vessel
+steamed in, the scenery changed character at every moment, like a fairy
+landscape, full of the loveliest, most enchanting glimpses of the
+surrounding country. At Jurujuba, we landed to visit the _Hospital
+Maritimo de S. Isabel_, erected in 1853, for the reception of sailors in
+ill-health of all nations and creeds. It proved of immense utility during
+the prevalence of epidemics. In the five years of its existence at the
+period of our visit, there had been admitted nearly 6000 cases of yellow
+fever.[41] For the excellent management of this fine hospital the utmost
+credit is due to the physicians in charge, Dr. Bento Maria da Costa, and
+Dr. José Teixeira da Souza.
+
+[Footnote 41: In the year 1856, 2452 patients were received into the
+hospital at Jurujuba Cove, of whom 175 died, 2195 were dismissed cured,
+and 82 remained under treatment. By comparison with former years, the
+number of sick seemed to have fallen off 13 per cent., while the expenses
+of management had increased 9 per cent.]
+
+The ground immediately surrounding the hospital has been reclaimed by the
+hand of man, and transformed into a garden, in which flourish, in
+solitary majesty, the shady _Aleurites triloba_ and the _Anda Gomesii_,
+growing in avenues or other regular groups, after all wild vegetation had
+been cut down. But at the first step beyond, the foot of the wanderer
+through these solitudes strikes into paths leading through the richest,
+densest forest scenery Casuarinas (_Anacardium occidentale_), with its
+luscious pear-shaped fruits, the Indian mango-tree, the various species of
+Eugenia, so rich in ethereal oil, the Figuera Branca (_ficus doliaria_),
+the canoe-tree, a gigantic species of _Bombax_, protected by sharp spines,
+and other lofty forest-children, reach to the very buildings; while, amid
+the dense underwood that grows unchecked, and a few paces distant only
+from the dwellings of man, lurk dangerously poisonous snakes, who find
+here a secure haunt. Within our own experience, as one of the botanists of
+the Expedition was placing a ladder against a primæval forest tree, the
+progenitor of numberless scions, he stumbled upon a poisonous Jacaraca,
+ready to defend from intrusion his accustomed resting-place.
+
+At the north-west entrance of Jurujuba Cove, rises a lofty island, with
+the appropriate name of Bom Viajem ("a happy voyage"), with its church of
+the Virgin of the same name, situate on the extreme summit, 400 feet in
+height. As, during our visit to the hospital, the twilight had crept
+stealthily on, we returned without further stoppage to Rio; when the
+company, landing at the usual landing-place of the arsenal, separated,
+full of the most pleasing impressions, arising from the beautiful scenery
+enjoyed during the day, and a deep sense of gratitude for the noble
+hospitality shown us by our amiable hosts.
+
+Another favour was conferred by Drs. de Lagos and Schüch, who formed a
+fishing-party on a grand scale, which was greatly enjoyed by all, though
+the gun proved more profitable to our naturalists than rod, line, or net.
+
+As the number of days at our disposal in Rio Janeiro began to diminish, we
+applied ourselves to seeing the utmost possible with the smallest
+sacrifice of time. The morning after our excursion on board the Santa
+Cruz, we attended a sitting of the Chamber of Deputies. The hall, oval in
+shape, is plainly, but comfortably fitted up. The members sit on benches
+in a semicircle. Opposite the president stand tables for the ministers of
+state; at the upper and lower end of the hall are galleries for the
+public, and one is specially assigned to the diplomatic body. Each member
+speaks from his place. Their language is very free and their behaviour
+still more so,--they sometimes carry this so far as not to allow a speaker
+to proceed; and in screaming, brawling, and violence, they excel even
+certain members of the late French Chamber of Deputies. There are said to
+be some very able speakers amongst the Brazilians. The subject of debate
+was a petition presented to the House for an inquiry into the conduct of a
+late minister of justice, who was accused of having tyrannically dismissed
+a government officer in the province of Maranhao. The subject had created
+great interest in the public mind, and the galleries were crowded to
+suffocation; we did not remain till the conclusion of the debate, but the
+minister is said to have justified the proceeding by proving that the
+officer had allowed himself to be bribed.
+
+On the same day we made an excursion to the Serra da Estrella and
+Petropolis, a place which has of late excited so much attention in the
+public journals, since the question of German emigration to Brazil, with
+its accompaniments of agitations by the Brazilian recruiting agents, began
+to assume its present remarkable proportions. Though the distance from Rio
+to Petropolis may be accomplished in four hours, yet three different
+vehicles are required:--in the first place, a steamer from Rio to the
+railway-station on the opposite side of the bay, then the railway to
+Fragosa, and lastly, a carriage to the final destination over an excellent
+road which runs through the mountains to Petropolis.
+
+This fine work, which was opened in 1848, is unfortunately the only one of
+its kind in the whole empire,[42] as are likewise the five miles of
+railway between Mauá and Fragosa; and yet how highly important would
+railway communication prove from the metropolis to the northern provinces,
+by means of which the excessive cost of carriage by mules might be so
+considerably reduced, benefiting alike the landowner and the merchant! As
+an illustration, the fact may be mentioned, that the cost of transit for
+an arroba (32 lbs.) of coffee from the coffee district of Vassouras to
+Rio, a distance of about 50 miles, amounts to from 700 to 800 reis (about
+1_s._ 8_d._). The trouble and expense connected with this miserable mode
+of conveyance, so much enhance the price of some kinds of natural produce,
+that it does not pay to transport them to the harbour of the capital.
+Several companies have latterly been projected, and money subscribed for
+constructing railways in the various provinces of the empire, and a few of
+these are already under weigh, as, for example, that of Dom Pedro Segundo,
+which will put the richest provinces in direct communication with Rio, and
+for which the amount of money required has been entirely subscribed. But
+in this, as in all other Brazilian enterprises, energy is wanting to make
+these good intentions bear fruit; and so long as there is not a greater
+admixture of foreign go-a-head-ativeness in the country, much must remain
+confined to the mere expression of patriotic wishes. And in this
+connection, foreign immigration, of which we shall treat further on, will
+prove of immense importance.
+
+[Footnote 42: This road is to be continued from Petropolis as far as
+Parahyba; and in various other directions also the building of roads for
+commercial traffic is being fostered by Government. The Brazilian
+Government are at the same time turning their attention to improving the
+existing means of transport by importing dromedaries for use. As it
+withstands variation of temperature, and thrives on almost any kind of
+nourishment, the dromedary is certain to do well, especially in the
+northern provinces, and will prove exceedingly serviceable in the
+transport of the products of that section of the country. The great heat
+and drought which prevail in Maranhao, Piauhy, Matto Grosso, and that
+direction generally, is eminently suitable to the dromedary, which does
+not thrive in hot _damp_ weather. It is calculated that a dromedary, which
+can carry an average weight of 700 pounds, (being six times what a horse,
+and four times what a mule will carry on his back), costs, in his own
+country, from £12 to £16; and after paying cost of transport to Brazil,
+will be worth £48. With the introduction of the "ship of the desert," that
+of the date-palm must go hand in hand, as that fruit constitutes the chief
+food of the dromedary, and will probably simultaneously effect a great
+change in the articles of consumption by the lower orders.]
+
+The journey by carriage through the Sierra from Fragosa to Petropolis is
+extremely beautiful. He who is not fortunate enough to enter deeper into
+the interior, at least obtains here an idea of what constitutes a primæval
+Brazilian forest. The wonders of tropical vegetation, as manifested not
+only by vastness of form but also by gorgeous and rank luxuriance, strike
+the eye at first-sight almost the same way as an overpowering chorus
+affects the ear. It requires time to collect the thoughts, so as to be
+able to appreciate and enjoy thoroughly the extraordinary beauties that
+impress the wondering mind.
+
+If the eye of the astonished traveller has been but in the most cursory
+manner directed to the vegetable phenomena that surround him, it must have
+rested on a climbing plant, which constitutes one of the chief marvels of
+the native woods. This singular creeper is the _Cipo matador_, a climbing
+plant of a very peculiar aspect, at once the most powerful and most
+destructive of all the Cipo tribe. It twines round the stems of lofty
+trees, which its flattened coils gradually constrict with almost life-like
+cruelty! Its aërial roots run out from all parts and embrace the tree like
+artificial clamps, forming in some places complete rings, and in others
+growing into the very bark. The tree, in consequence of this parasitic
+embrace, dies away by degrees, whilst its destroyer continues to grow
+gaily on the corpse of its victim, and spreads its leafy crown until it
+falls and perishes simultaneously with the support that had hitherto
+upheld it. To what profound reflections does the contemplation of this
+spectacle give rise! Involuntarily our thoughts fly from the wild
+Brazilian forest to the plains of civilization,--to the modern society
+where, likewise, many a noble human nature is slowly undermined by a
+treacherous Cipo matador of flesh and blood, till too surely he falls
+prone on the ground!
+
+Petropolis is, on account of its more temperate and healthy climate, a
+favourite residence of the wealthy Rio de Janeirians, and during the hot
+season, when the sultriness of the air, if not something worse, renders
+life almost unendurable, Petropolis is said to have the appearance of a
+European spa. It is at the same time the summer residence of the Emperor,
+and the only place in Brazil where an electric telegraph--uniting it with
+Rio de Janeiro--has been established. The town contains about 7000
+inhabitants; the streets, when completed, will be broad and handsome,--but
+only one has as yet been finished, the others being merely marked out,
+while even among the clean and neat houses already erected, there are
+frequent and wide gaps.
+
+The German colony, planned by a German engineer, Julius Friedr. Köhler, is
+at a little distance from Petropolis. The first colonists who arrived on
+the 30th of July, 1845, came mostly from Baden and the Rhenish provinces.
+The Government granted to each family a cottage, with a slice of forest
+near it, a cow, a dozen of chickens, and about £5 in money. Such at least
+was the information given us at Petropolis. Köhler soon afterwards met
+with a sad end at a newly-formed shooting ground. Many an emigrant family
+perished in misery; others, however, overcame the difficulties that beset
+them at the commencement; more emigrants arrived, and now one may walk,
+within a few hours, through the Rhine and Mosel valleys, Nassau,
+Darmstadt, Ingelheim, Bingen, the Palatinate and Switzerland, as the
+emigrants, in fond commemoration of their native homes, call their small
+settlements, which run some distance through the mountain valleys. The
+German origin of these settlements displays itself distinctly in the
+cleanliness and neatness of their log cabins, the affability of the
+people, the heartiness of their greeting, the fair hair, curly heads, and
+beautiful blue eyes of the children, as well as the language and music
+which is now and then heard.
+
+Petropolis is, however, not an agricultural colony in the real sense of
+the word, the majority of the 2500 Germans settled there obtaining a
+livelihood as artizans and labourers. The Government has done much to
+promote the growth of the colony, by making roads, and establishing
+schools. Still the people never become agriculturists, on account of the
+sterility of the soil; but as the road to the province of Minas Geraes
+runs through the place, the settlement will always retain some importance.
+For the cargoes of coffee which are conveyed by mules from the interior to
+the harbour, Petropolis is the last station, and will remain so for a long
+time yet, for the large outlay required renders it unlikely that the
+projected railway will soon be completed.
+
+Several attempts have been made to establish similar German colonies in
+various provinces of the empire, but, unfortunately, with as yet even less
+success than in the Serra da Estrella. However, the activity of the
+Brazilian emigration agents has much increased in different German ports;
+for the remarkable words of the Emperor, with which he opened the
+Chambers in May, 1854, at Rio,--"The necessity of a settled industrious
+population becomes more and more urgent,"--have become since then even
+more significant; in fact, the result of the endeavours on the part of the
+Government to increase the amount of labour by immigration, is now a
+question of life or death for the empire. Every disinterested person feels
+that, without an increase of labour, productive activity is impossible;
+nay, some even apprehend a considerable decrease in the producing
+capabilities of the country, in consequence of the effect to be
+anticipated in Brazil from the abolition of the slave-trade by the
+interference of England. Up to the year 1851, the importation of negro
+slaves continued undiminished, notwithstanding the treaty with England of
+1826, in which the abolition of the slave-trade forms one of the
+conditions on which the recognition of the Brazilian crown by the
+Government of Her Britannic Majesty was made specially contingent.
+According to a statement of the Foreign Office, there were from 1842 to
+1851 (despite the treaty) 325,615 negroes sold as slaves in Brazil, so
+that the amount of the slave population is now upwards of 2,000,000 souls.
+
+The condition of the black population in this country is materially
+different from that of the United States and the West Indies. The colour
+of the skin, which renders the life of even free and prosperous negroes
+almost intolerable in the northern states of America, where they are
+subject to so many humiliations, makes in Brazil no difference whatever.
+The question here is not whether white or black, but whether free or a
+slave. Free negroes may here occupy the highest places in the State, and
+even exercise a certain influence on the destiny of the white inhabitants.
+Slaves also are treated here with more humanity and less prejudice than in
+any other country visited by me, on which the curse of slavery yet rests;
+yet it must be confessed, without hesitation, that slavery, as beheld in
+Brazil, seems even a greater misfortune to the white population than to
+the black; for neither agriculture nor industry can thrive in a country
+where labour is not considered, as in free States, an honourable
+occupation--but rather as a disgrace--in consequence of its being
+performed by slaves. Not merely the blacks, who have no interest in being
+industrious, but their masters also are lazy, and approaching ruin becomes
+more and more certain. Free labour alone, by obtaining the upper hand in
+the country, can remedy these things. Slave labour cannot long compete
+with it. The intelligence, activity, and perseverance of 100,000 free
+white labourers will promote the prosperity and the happiness of Brazil,
+much more than the compulsory labour of two millions of negroes in
+bondage.
+
+In consequence of repeated and energetic remonstrances on the part of the
+British Government, the slave-trade has now ceased in Brazil, and "one of
+the grandest monuments of our century," as the celebrated declaration by
+the Congress of Vienna termed the entire suppression of the
+slave-trade,[43] may be considered by this circumstance approaching its
+termination.
+
+[Footnote 43: Déclaration des puissances sur l'abolition de la traite des
+nègres, du 8 Février, 1815. L. Neumann, Recueil des traités et conventions
+conclus par l'Autriche (Leipzig, 1856. Vol. II., p. 502).]
+
+As the Government became convinced that there was not the least hope of
+reaping any advantage from civilizing the aboriginal tribes, it had
+recourse to free immigration, and promoted it in every way.[44] It
+endeavoured, particularly in the warmer northern provinces, to replace the
+deficiency of negroes by Chinese Coolies, who were imported from different
+parts of China; but they could not stand the climate, and were not found
+capable of advantageously replacing the negro in his various and often
+very heavy labour. This partially arose from the indiscriminate selection
+of the immigrants, as the agents, when they could not obtain able-bodied
+men, did not scruple to make up their cargo with whatever came to hand.
+
+[Footnote 44: It may be useful, however, on many accounts to observe, that
+the Brazilian Government take considerable pains to adapt this doomed race
+for a civilized mode of existence. A law of 19th September, 1855, assigned
+an annual sum of £6000 for the proper execution of this humane project. In
+order to remedy the very marked deficiency of suitable missionaries, the
+Government, through its representative in Paris, invited a number of
+Catholic priests from France--men, whose rearing and zeal for their faith
+had effected such marvels among the Indians of Canada. But the aborigines
+of Brazil seem hopelessly degraded, and are destined, after having filled
+their appointed place in the history of nations, to make room for a more
+energetically endowed race.]
+
+The Government pays, therefore, the utmost attention to European
+immigration; it has agents in Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, and
+especially in Germany; and endeavours to organize associations that have
+for their object the settlement of industrious labourers in the country,
+and to support colonies already in existence, till they are in a position
+to maintain themselves. In Brazil, the conviction is pretty general, that
+only an emigration _en masse_ of white labour can save this splendid
+country from ruin, though there are individuals who entertain a different
+opinion, and think--perhaps not altogether without reason--that the energy
+and industry of European settlers might eventually--considering the
+indolent and careless disposition of their countrymen--prove destructive
+to the national element!
+
+The most striking proof of how thoroughly in earnest the leading members
+of the Brazilian Government are in their efforts to procure an immigration
+of foreign labour, may be found in the report of the Commission upon the
+new tariff, in which the following passage occurs, illustrative of the
+advantages which may be expected to be reaped from European emigration on
+a large scale:--"'These foreign labourers arrive here poor, and depart
+from the country laden with our gold and silver, and, like blood-suckers,
+absorb our natural riches!' is the remark of those who are ignorant of the
+true interests of Brazil. For to whom are we indebted for our capital, for
+the industry and commerce which we have? To whom belong those
+manufactories which the people want to protect, and in whose favour so
+much is said? Why, to foreigners! Foreign hands and foreign capital
+cultivate our soil, expand our trade and commerce, and promote the arts.
+The _results_ of their labour remain, though they may themselves quit the
+country! Foreigners man our ships, build our manufactories, and supply
+them with hands; foreigners buy our produce and carry it to distant
+markets; foreigners render our forests and rivers productive; they work
+our mines, uncover the metallic wealth of our country, and educate our
+children! Capital, practical science, instruments, and machines, with
+which we perform our labours, belong mostly to foreigners; and,
+consequently, these blood-suckers are just the very men who render our
+land productive, preserving, instead of, as some erroneously imagine,
+depriving us of our vitality. The money which they take back to their
+homes is amply replaced by the treasures they leave behind in the product
+of their labour, and in the branches of industry which they have
+introduced or improved."[45]
+
+[Footnote 45: Of the sixty-four manufactories and workshops, twenty-eight
+belong to foreigners; and there is not a single industrial establishment
+in which foreigners are not employed, either as managers, engineers, or
+labourers.]
+
+More explicitly and discerningly it was hardly possible for Government to
+speak, and to enumerate the glorious results which the country may expect
+from the introduction of foreign industry and foreign activity, although
+such an official avowal could not fail to wound the national pride of the
+Brazilians.
+
+Notwithstanding this strong language of the Government, and all the
+enticements and zealous activity of the Brazilian agents in the various
+ports of Europe, the emigration to that country, in 1856, amounted to
+only 13,800 souls.[46] Among this number there were but 628 agriculturists,
+all the others coming merely with the view of obtaining a livelihood in
+the capital as artizans and labourers. There are probably in all the
+Brazilian agricultural colonies, at this moment, not more than 40,000
+emigrants settled, that is to say, about as many as emigrate in the course
+of three months to the United States!
+
+[Footnote 46: Namely: 9159 Portuguese, 1822 Germans, and 2819 of other
+nations.]
+
+The number of Germans emigrating to Brazil is strikingly small, when
+compared with the total annual emigration from that country. Of 61,413
+individuals, who, in 1856, embarked from Hamburg and Bremen, only 1822
+went to Brazil. The cause of this may be that, simultaneously with the
+large promises held out by the agents, warning voices were heard depicting
+in the most gloomy colours the terrible trials that await the unfortunate
+immigrant on his touching Brazilian soil.[47] Of late such excellent works
+have been published concerning Brazil, that we may advise all who take a
+special interest in the condition of that empire to study these works, the
+more so as the views therein expressed exactly coincide with our own
+impressions.[48]
+
+[Footnote 47: Among these, the opposition of the late Consul-General for
+Brazil at Dresden, Mr. John Sturz, deserves special mention, as, despite
+the threats of losing his appointment, that gentleman was incessantly
+occupied in exposing the iniquities of the Parceria system (see _post_),
+and recommending the immigrant, so long as such a slavish system
+continued, to refrain from turning his steps towards Brazil. Mr. Sturz had
+recently the enviable misfortune of being sacrificed to his own strong
+sense of justice, and dismissed from all employment by the Brazilian
+administration, though not without carrying with him the respect and
+admiration of every friend of humanity. An excellent and circumstantial
+description of the present condition of the German colonies in southern
+Brazil will be found in Dr. Avé Lallemant's attractive "Travels through
+Southern Brazil in 1858." (Leipzig, 1859.)]
+
+[Footnote 48: H. Handelmann's "History of Brazil" (Berlin, 1860), a
+remarkably profound and instructive work, devotes a special section (p.
+933) to the subject of German emigration, and gives a very copious and
+complete insight into the various missions and works since 1819 to the
+present day, which treat of German emigration and colonization.]
+
+So long as the unoccupied lands are not surveyed, laid out in lots, and
+sold at a small rate to the settler, as, for instance, in the United
+States; so long as the immigrant is unable to improve for himself his own
+plot of ground, but must remain a mere field-labourer, working for some
+foreign master, according to the iniquitous _Parceria_, or half-profits
+system;[49] so long as the expense of transport of the emigrant is to be
+worked off by future payments out of his labour, so long must every friend
+of humanity strongly dissuade the emigrant from proceeding to the great
+South American Empire.
+
+[Footnote 49: The modern Brazilian system of _Parceria_ may be shortly
+stated as that by which a planter engages in Europe such of the poorer
+classes as are desirous of emigrating, and has them transported at his own
+cost to Brazil, where they are engaged as farmers, with half profits, upon
+the coffee and sugar plantations, and contracting to reimburse him, by
+their personal services and labour, for the outlay he has been at for
+their transport, maintenance, instruction, &c. Until all these have been
+repaid by the improvement in the rent or productive powers of the land,
+they must remain, as working out their emancipation from the lord of the
+soil, veritable "_adscripti glebæ_." After that has been attained they are
+free people, and may leave if they please, or may sink into the rank of
+"unattached labourers," which implies their assigning half of the net
+produce of the land to the ground landlord, the remaining half being their
+remuneration for labour. Proprietorship in the soil is never attainable by
+these farmers on half profits, inasmuch as the Parceria system can only
+exist where the soil is already exclusively vested in a planting
+aristocracy. (See Handelmann, etc., p. 568).]
+
+For Brazil, beautiful, fertile, and abounding in undeveloped natural
+wealth, two alternatives are alone open at present--either ruin to the
+producing power of the population through deficiency of industrial power,
+or the throwing open the land to foreign emigration by means of the most
+extensive concessions. The longer this is deferred, the more oppressively
+will the want of manual labour manifest itself; and the more advantages
+will foreign emigration secure.
+
+Once, however, these important stipulations are conceded, the German
+emigrants may forthwith bend their steps to the coasts of Brazil, where
+the glorious dawn of a magnificent future is surely breaking for them.
+While, in the United States, the problem to be solved by the German
+emigrants seems to be, to mingle German industry, German capacity, and
+German knowledge, with the keen spirit of enterprise and restless energy
+of the Anglo-Saxon race, and gradually to assimilate with it,--on the
+other hand, in the South American continent, it appears as though the
+German element were about gradually to gain the upperhand of the Latin
+stock, and permanently to conquer for German industry and German commerce,
+one of the fairest countries on the globe with the weapons of peace--the
+spade and plough.
+
+Brazil is, however, of great interest to Germany not merely on account of
+the prospects she holds out for its overflowing population. A market,
+teeming with the most important colonial products, with an area[50] of
+3,956,800 English square miles, and an annual consumption of nearly
+£10,000,000, must in the highest degree attract the attention and excite
+the most favourable anticipations of a country such as Germany, the
+majority of whose inhabitants are engaged in manufactures.
+
+[Footnote 50: According to the computation of the Historico-Geographical
+Institute of Brazil.]
+
+The chief article of Brazilian trade at present is coffee, the production
+of which, in consequence of the great profit of late years derived from
+it, has increased so much, that it has superseded the cultivation of all
+other produce; thus, notwithstanding the fertility and capability of the
+ground, even the commonest necessaries of life, as, for instance,
+potatoes, must be imported from abroad, the majority of the rural
+population being engaged in labour for the foreign market, and only very
+few for home consumption. This is the principal cause of the enormous
+prices which, even the most indispensable necessaries have reached in Rio
+de Janeiro.
+
+Brazil grows annually, in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and Santa
+Catharina, 5,190,000 quintals of coffee, consequently more than
+three-fifths of the entire amount produced on the whole earth, and of this
+the province of Rio de Janeiro alone yields two-thirds.
+
+The most important objects of export, besides coffee, are sugar, rice,
+cotton, hides, and dried meat, together with dye and cabinet woods. The
+progressive decrease of late years in these articles may probably be
+ascribed to the want of sufficient labour, as well as to the great extent
+to which the culture of coffee has been carried.
+
+Although the trade carried on between Brazil and Europe, and its great
+importance, will form the object of a special work, we cannot help
+noticing in this place as a very interesting fact, that among the
+importations, that of wheat-flour holds a very conspicuous place, above
+300,000 barrels of 200 lbs. each being annually consumed, of which
+seventeen twentieths are supplied by the United States, two twentieths
+from Trieste and Fiume, and the remaining one twentieth from Lisbon and
+Valparaiso. The flour from Trieste, by reason of its whiteness and
+superior quality, commands a high price, so as to necessitate its being
+mixed in baking with that from Baltimore. We were told it occasionally
+happens, that the best quality of the much-appreciated Trieste or Fontana
+flour reaches the price, altogether unapproachable by the finest American
+flour, of 64 to 66 shillings the barrel.
+
+As in the interior of the country the flour chiefly used is that called
+Mandioca, prepared from the root of _Jatropha Manihot_, it follows that
+the chief consumer of wheaten flour is Rio itself, the monthly consumption
+amounting to upwards of 16,500 barrels. The reason for the small sale of
+the Austrian manufactures in Brazil must be sought for, not so much in the
+deficient supplies of the articles required, as in the circumstance that
+the Austrian manufacturers have not hitherto found it much their interest
+to study the Brazilian market, so as to make the requisite alterations in
+the method of producing their fabrics, and thus render them suitable for
+that purpose. What little of our Austrian manufactures is at present
+exported for Brazilian consumption, seems at present to follow the, to all
+appearance, much less natural route northwards, and instead of proceeding
+from Trieste direct, is exported from Bremen or Hamburg as fabrics of
+Northern Germany.
+
+During our stay at Rio, Commodore Wüllerstorf, accompanied by Captain
+Pöck, and one of the members of the scientific commission, had the honour
+of being presented to the Emperor and Empress of Brazil, at a private
+audience. The reception took place at the winter residence of St.
+Christoph. It is an old unsightly building, and still unfinished, the
+central part especially having been for some years in a ruinous condition.
+The Emperor seems not to be partial to display, and a very characteristic
+anecdote in this respect, which does him great credit, is very generally
+reported. On the occasion of a visit to the splendid lunatic asylum of
+Botafogo, one of the ministers remarked to His Majesty that the inmates of
+the establishment were better and more elegantly lodged than himself. "It
+will always afford me great pleasure," was the reply, "to know that these
+unfortunate people are better provided for than I am."
+
+At the entrance of the palace at St. Christoph, the gentlemen of the
+Expedition were received by an ecclesiastic, who led them into an
+exceedingly plain ante-chamber, the furniture of which seemed to belong to
+bygone centuries. Several of the ministers of state, whose servants
+carried large portfolios, exchanged compliments with the Austrian
+minister, and entered the contiguous apartments. Chamberlains and
+domestics of the court looked stealthily at the strangers, and disappeared
+as rapidly as they had come. It seemed as though these presentations were
+of infrequent occurrence. At last, about half-past 6 P.M. the door opened,
+when His Majesty and the ministers walked through the room into the hall
+of audience, into which the gentlemen of the Expedition were soon
+afterwards conducted by a chamberlain. The Austrian minister presented
+each separately to His Majesty Dom Pedro II., who is the son of an
+Austrian Archduchess, and received the gentlemen in the uniform of an
+admiral, surrounded by all his ministers. He is a fine-looking man, of
+some 30 years of age, of stately appearance, but with a voice somewhat too
+thin for so robust a person. The portrait on the Brazilian coinage is
+remarkably like. The conversation was carried on in French; it is said,
+however, that the Emperor speaks German fluently. He conversed very
+affably and graciously with every one, and had something agreeable to say
+to each, expressing much interest in the _Novara_ Expedition. After
+several questions, the Emperor wished us success on our future voyage, and
+retired, upon which the audience was at an end.
+
+After the members of the Expedition had remained a short space in a corner
+of the audience chamber, they were conducted through a narrow boarded
+passage to the apartments of the Empress. In the ante-chamber we again
+encountered the Emperor, who had exchanged his admiral's uniform for plain
+clothes, and now stood before us in the undress black frock he usually
+wears.
+
+We were now ushered into the small and very plainly furnished
+reception-room of the Empress, in which there was nothing to attract
+attention except a couple of highly-finished portraits. Her Majesty, a
+sister of the late King Ferdinand II. of Naples, and of Queen Maria
+Christina of Spain, was in mourning owing to a death in the family. She
+was only attended by one lady in waiting, and received us with infinite
+grace. She is rather short in stature, and although still young, looks
+aged; in conversation she becomes however very animated, and thereby gains
+in gracefulness; her favourite theme was Italy, on which she dwelt with
+childlike fondness. Speaking of Naples, its charming bay, of the Vesuvius,
+and the lovely walk of Santa Lucia, near the sea, the tone of her voice
+became involuntarily more lively. Notwithstanding the tropical splendour,
+and an Imperial throne, the Princess seems to have a great longing for her
+native land. Alas! even an imperial crown is no protection against the
+yearning for home!
+
+During our stay here, the anniversary came round of the birth of our
+gracious Emperor, which was celebrated in the most festive manner. From
+early dawn the frigate appeared decked out in her gayest flags, which was
+similarly responded to by the English and French ships of war in the
+harbour. At 8 A.M., with the customary salutes of the ensign, a salute of
+twenty-one guns was fired, as also at mid-day and sunset. At 11 A.M., the
+crew were paraded and divine service was performed, to which our resident
+envoy and his family were invited, together with the acting
+Consul-General, the captain of an Austrian vessel, and a few Austrians who
+happened to be at that time in Rio. After service, the foreign guests and
+several officers of the staff were entertained by the commodore at
+breakfast. In the evening there was a banquet at the hotel of the envoy,
+at which were present several notabilities of the empire of Brazil, among
+others, Viscount Maranguapè, minister of foreign affairs, and the Senator
+Viscount de Uruguay. In the garden of the club the frigate's band of music
+played chiefly German and Austrian pieces, which awoke in the bosoms of
+many the most tender recollections.
+
+The frequent arrival of men of war in the bay of Rio gives rise to an
+almost continual firing; each vessel entering fires a royal salute, which
+is answered by the fortress and the other ships of war in the harbour.
+During our stay we discharged not less than 432 salvos, while all the men
+of war together fired at least 1500 salvos, thus making, within three
+weeks, about 5250 rounds of gunpowder, used merely in salutes.
+
+The 31st of August had been fixed as the date of our departure. During the
+latter days of our stay, there had been frequent collations on board to
+make some return to those who had shown us attention. Several of the sick,
+one midshipman and two sailors, had to be left behind in hospital, where
+they received the most careful treatment, while Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant,
+who, by the kind recommendation of Humboldt, had been permitted by the
+Archduke to accompany the Expedition with the rank of surgeon of corvette,
+for the purpose of prosecuting his studies of yellow fever, was, at his
+own request, put ashore at Rio, whence he afterwards undertook the journey
+through Southern Brazil already alluded to.
+
+The night previous, three sailors had deserted from a boat sent on shore
+to bring back some officers. The system of kidnapping, as is well known,
+flourishes in Rio, and many a ship is said to have lost, in this way, from
+thirty to forty men. The crimps, who make their living by this traffic in
+man, entice young and robust sailors to desert by means of all imaginable
+allurements and promises, making advances in money, and leading them into
+a dissolute life, in order that, when afterwards they find themselves in a
+desperate state, and without resources, they may be sold by the scoundrels
+to the captains of vessels, as sailors, or, what is worse, as white
+slaves, to the planters in the interior. This abominable trade is said to
+be carried on, on a great scale, by an Italian, in Catumbý Grande, and
+though the Brazilian police is perfectly cognizant of the haunts of the
+fellow, yet it seems not to be powerful enough to put a stop to the
+nuisance.
+
+These incidents did not, however, interfere with our departure at the
+specified hour, when we were towed out by the tug steamer _Perseverancia_,
+which we had hired for _£25_. Almost every large ship on leaving Rio is
+towed clear of the bay, so as to avoid having to tack between the islands,
+or perhaps have to anchor, so that the tug, which belongs to a private
+individual, and accompanied us eastward as far as the island of Razza,
+must be a source of considerable profit.
+
+On 31st August, at six A.M., we bade farewell to the splendid harbour of
+Rio. We had fortunately reached Rio after the visit of the yellow fever,
+but the almost continual rainy weather had spoiled many an excursion, and
+deprived us of the opportunity of more closely examining the environs of
+the city. Nor were we more successful in making ourselves at home here,
+notwithstanding the kind reception with which we were favoured by the
+Government and some private individuals. There is, in short, a great want
+of sociability, and we may add, almost utter indifference to scientific
+pursuits, which indeed appeal in vain to the great majority of the
+Brazilian population. Of course there are numerous and agreeable
+exceptions; but slavery, the mixture of races, the egotism and indolence
+of the wealthier classes, are all reasons why a European, just arrived,
+cannot feel himself comfortable. The white Brazilians bear, in some
+respects, a strong resemblance to the Italians, but they are deficient in
+their pleasing, insinuating demeanour, in their cheerful humour, quickness
+of perception, and lively imagination. They occupy a lower scale in social
+culture, without depth of thought or feeling, and seem almost incapable of
+persevering activity. This perceptible deficiency of hearty, energetic
+temperament, in addition to the confused intermingling of other foreign
+nations, which seem to regard the country as booty, to be abandoned so
+soon as success has crowned their labours, imparts to each new arrival a
+feeling of depression, which, so far from being weakened, is yet more
+keenly felt by those who have lived some time in the country, so that not
+merely among foreigners recently arrived, but with those also who have
+spent years at Rio, the desire to leave these shores becomes rather
+increased than diminished by a longer acquaintance.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.--FROM RIO DI JANEIRO TO THE CAPE
+OF GOOD HOPE.]
+
+At nine A.M., we cast off from the tug, not far from the little island of
+Razza, with its lighthouse, and spread our sails to the breeze, which
+gradually freshened, but blew from the N.E., which was foul for our
+course. However, we could still derive some advantage from even this as it
+was our intention to steer southerly from Rio, so as to be able to make
+almost exclusively a great circle course to the Cape of Good Hope, after
+we should have got further south than the Antarctic limit of the S.E.
+trades.
+
+The near termination of the winter quarter in this southern hemisphere,
+the approximation of the sun towards the south pole, and the consequent
+tendency of the zones of wind and currents of air to pursue the same
+direction, gave us reason to hope, that when approaching the limits of the
+trades, we should find a change of wind, which should shorten the voyage,
+or at all events keep us clear of storms.
+
+In the open ocean, where there are no hills or extraordinary conformations
+of land to break the uniformity of the earth's surface, and where the
+expanse of water is unbroken by any extensive group of islands, the
+disturbances in the atmospheric belt must necessarily be much less
+strongly marked than where continents are interposed, or in the narrow
+seas. The winds themselves, under such circumstances, display even in
+their shifts a certain amount of regularity, which is usually dependent
+upon the universal laws of nature.
+
+Once any one is so fortunate as to comprehend the latter in all their
+extent, so as to be cognisant of their results, it becomes a mere
+question of the study of local conditions in order to be able to declare
+how these universal laws operate, and to elucidate by the most simple
+explanations many of the phenomena of nature that have till now baffled
+science. Thus, when a wind hitherto steady shifts its direction, there
+must necessarily be, certain active causes for its doing so; if these
+causes perpetually recur in well-marked periodical intervals, the change
+of the wind must follow a definite law. Under certain circumstances the
+direction of the wind is well-defined; as, for instance, at certain
+seasons in the open ocean it remains always the same, or changes with a
+certain regularity, whence it becomes apparent that the causes must remain
+unchanging, and the recurrence of the phenomenon must accordingly admit of
+explanation.
+
+We know, for example, that in the case of hurricanes--those most terrific
+exemplifications of the tendency of the atmosphere to move in circles--the
+wind does not blow in straight lines, but rather in curves described round
+a central point, which again is not immovable, but has a regular
+progression along a definite curve. In that curved plane, however, which
+has been termed a _cyclone_, the wind always blows in one and the same
+direction, and in the Northern Hemisphere runs counter to the motion of a
+watch-hand, while in the Southern Hemisphere it, on the contrary, follows
+that motion.
+
+These facts once granted as accounting for such phenomena, it follows as a
+natural consequence of the general principles laid down, that they hold
+good in minor cases, and must remain of the same efficacy, whether it be a
+hurricane or a dust-whirl which may be under consideration.
+
+So, too, in conformity with those laws, light winds may be found subject
+to a variation in direction of a similar nature, such as may not perhaps
+be fully exemplified in every case, but simply serve to indicate the
+tendency of the wind to follow the same general direction as the
+hurricanes themselves.
+
+The importance of ascertaining such curvilinearity in the direction of the
+winds will be especially manifest at the limits within which the regular
+winds prevail, and when they must necessarily become intermingled with
+other regular currents of the atmosphere.
+
+Accordingly, as we neared the limit of the S.E. Trades, which always
+extend somewhat further south, as the sun's southern declination
+increases, we had to traverse regions where necessarily we encountered
+variable winds, owing to the increased area of the Trades. There are also
+found occasional spots at which a more rarefied atmosphere seems to fill
+the surrounding space, when there is seen a similar process to that in the
+case of hurricanes, first visible perhaps in the higher strata, but
+afterwards extending to those which are lower.
+
+The winds, then, shifted with much regularity, and with them the
+atmospheric pressure, just as in the case of cyclones, except that neither
+the wind nor the sea ever presented the characteristics of a tempest. The
+wind, which began to blow from the North-East, drew gradually to North,
+thence West and South, and returned to S.E., after short intervals of
+calm. We could thus perceive, on referring to the ship's log, that the
+entire cycle was completed in five or six days; so that it became quite
+possible, by examining the central direction of the daily variation, to
+foretell the wind which must be blowing twelve hours later, when, upon
+taking into consideration the path described by such central direction
+from day to day, it appeared that the wind described very nearly a
+parabolic curve.
+
+Even the aspect of the heavens, and the state of the weather, were only
+one degree less regular in their alternations than the hurricanes. With
+the S.E. wind, the sky was bright, but as soon as it began to veer round,
+towards afternoon, a few white belts of cirrhous clouds began to appear in
+the western heavens, constituting a well-marked division of the vault of
+the sky from one side quite to the other. As it drew still further round,
+and neared the line of centres, the weather grew foul, a driving scud
+covered the heavens, and a succession of splendid rainbows were seen, till
+the ship had reached the nearest spot to the storm-centre when there were
+sharp squalls of wind, accompanied by heavy showers of rain. The lower
+strata of clouds, mere vapour, drove before the wind, while those above
+moved in a directly contrary direction, generally that of the forthcoming
+wind. The atmospheric pressure, which at first would be considerable,
+gradually decreased as we approached the central line; as we drew away
+from that centre the barometer rose again, the weather improved, and the
+sky under the influence of southerly winds once more cleared.
+
+Unfortunately it is not practicable with a single ship to ascertain
+whether the veering of the wind follows an exact curve, as we can only say
+what is the direction at the spot where the observation has been made, and
+it is impossible to determine what it may be at other points. But it is at
+all events certain that the shifts of wind are amenable to the same
+general laws as hurricanes. A number of ships sent out for the special
+purpose of this branch of investigation, could render immense services to
+science and navigation, and achieve most interesting results.
+
+We availed ourselves of these general laws to traverse the ocean as
+speedily as possible, in order to reach early our next anchorage, and in
+so doing we experienced altogether three well-marked cycles of wind at
+short intervals. We cannot afford space to prosecute all the interesting
+consequences that result from these phenomena of nature, such
+investigations being more properly reserved for the meteorological section
+of the scientific portion of this work. Here, however, the facilities for
+observation of a sea-faring life have been directed towards an object of
+inquiry, which must prove of immense utility in navigation and commerce.
+And, perhaps, even landsmen may not find it uninteresting, that even that
+proverbially fickle element, air, obeys certain fixed laws, a more
+accurate acquaintance with which must be of the utmost importance to the
+denizen of _terra firma_, as well as those "that go down to the sea in
+ships, that do business in great waters."
+
+On this passage from the American to the African coasts, we were
+continually accompanied by our winged friends, the sea-birds, which,
+notwithstanding the unkind treatment they received at the hands of the
+zoological sportsmen, followed us with the utmost pertinacity, probably
+attracted by the numerous fragments of provisions thrown overboard.
+
+The Cape pigeons (_Procellaria sp._), those prettily-marked sea-birds,
+about the size of doves, the albatrosses, (_Diomedea sp._) the largest of
+the ocean feathered tribe, with their quiet majestic flight, stormy
+petrels of all sorts and sizes, from the smallest swallow to the largest
+of its kind; all these winged inhabitants of the sea's surface followed
+the frigate in motley groups, and seemed never to weary in their active
+search for food.
+
+Sometimes they alighted, rested on the surface of the water, and were left
+far behind; but they collected again with great rapidity as soon as
+anything eatable appeared, and overtook the frigate in a swift flight from
+the remotest point of the horizon. This singular attachment to ships very
+probably arises from their being accustomed to follow whalers, from which
+such a large quantity of garbage is thrown overboard, very much affected
+by these aërial parasites, whence they learn to expect from all vessels
+their favourite food.
+
+They possess a remarkable capacity for remembering the exact time when
+they are likely to receive a large quantity of eatables from on board.
+Every day, about noon, the vicinity of the ship became animated, and
+towards one o'clock, after the crew had finished dinner, these lively
+creatures were close behind, and even fought for the pieces of tow with
+which the coppers had been cleansed. The boldest amongst them was the Cape
+pigeon, which pounced, with the utmost avidity, upon the dainty morsels
+thrown overboard, raising a loud scream, swimming round its prey, diving
+for sinking fragments, or snatching from each other those they had
+secured. Then came the black and brown-spotted and white albatrosses. As
+soon as one of these colossal birds appeared on the scene of strife, the
+uproar of the screaming pigeons at once became still; they kept themselves
+at a respectful distance from the voracious albatross, which quietly
+consumed its lion's share. In a few moments, yet greater numbers of these
+assembled, of which the black ones (_Ph[oe]betria fuliginosa_), like the
+large petrels, are extremely shy, and rarely approach the ship within
+gun-shot. The other large-sized petrels acted similarly, the brown
+spectacled-petrel, so named from two singular-looking black rings round
+the eyes, being the most numerous. Along with these were several small
+Mother Carey's Chickens, and flights of other winged creatures swarming
+over the sea. The darker the sky, the more agitated the sea, the more
+actively do the Cape pigeons tumble and toss behind the ship; it appears
+that in rough stormy weather they see less distinctly and find food with
+difficulty, in consequence of which they are in a famished state. Only
+under these circumstances, and when the ship is moving slowly, can they
+be caught with a line. To angle for birds may appear rather odd to the
+reader, and yet it is common enough in the Southern Ocean, amusing the
+sailor, and providing the zoologist with means of obtaining these birds
+alive. For this purpose, however, circumstances must be comparatively
+favourable; that is to say, the weather must be rough, the sea agitated,
+and the ship making but little headway. When the sky is serene, and the
+sea calm, even the Cape pigeons do not think it worth their while to throw
+a glance at the bait; and if the ship is moving fast, they have not speed
+enough to catch it, because they only swim, and the ship outspeeds them.
+The line, moreover, must be of tolerable length, so as, in the event of
+any bird evincing a desire to snap, to allow as much to be paid out as is
+necessary to leave the bait precisely in the same spot, without towing it
+through the water. It sometimes also occurs, particularly after sunset,
+that these birds, continually following in the wake of the ship, do not
+see the line, strike against it, and entangle themselves so that they may
+be easily drawn on board. The scream of the storm-pigeon when caught,
+makes it betray its fate even before those on board have an idea that it
+has been captured.
+
+For the albatross, it is of course necessary to use a stronger hook, which
+it is best to attach to a copper wire, because this being thinner than
+line, is not so readily perceived. In order that the whole apparatus may
+swim on the surface of the water, a few cork floats are also made fast.
+
+When an albatross has hooked itself, the full strength of a man is
+requisite to draw it on board, for the bird, in its despair, dives and
+keeps its wings spread under water, so that the resistance is very
+considerable, and frequently even the strongest lines are broken. This
+cannot be wondered at when their size is considered, as they measure from
+10 to 14 feet across the extended wings, while their weight amounts to
+from 10 to 18 lbs.
+
+Arrived on deck, none of these sea-birds are able to fly away; they move
+very clumsily on their webbed feet, and can only rise after a slanting
+spring, which, however, they cannot accomplish on firm ground; if in the
+water these birds want to rise into the air whilst swimming, they flutter
+their outspread wings for a little, and use their webbed feet in a kind of
+rowing motion, in order to acquire the requisite impetus. The albatross
+defends itself with its bill, which is often four to five inches long, and
+care must be taken to avoid being wounded in catching them. We also
+remarked that the Cape pigeons, in their rage at being captured, vomited
+up a slimy greasy substance.
+
+The latter bird was of course new to us, and afforded us much amusement.
+Many were knocked over with the fowling-piece, especially when, in their
+inquisitiveness, they came too near the boats, which, as often as our rate
+of progress admitted, were launched with the view of adding to our
+collection of objects of natural history.
+
+In shooting an albatross large shot must be used, as, at a distance of 15
+or 20 feet, small shot do not penetrate the feathers and the down of the
+bird. What is most remarkable as regards these birds is the numerous
+parasites that live upon their bodies. It is most extraordinary how
+certain of these birds (as for instance, the _Puffins_ and _Procellariæ_)
+are infested by insects, their plumage sometimes swarming with small
+specimens of _Crustaceæ_.
+
+On the 26th of September, the famous Table Mountain of the Cape was
+visible, after we had, the evening previous, at a distance of fourteen
+miles, sighted the lighthouse of Table Bay.
+
+The twenty-six days of our voyage hither had flown quickly past, and we
+were still able vividly to recall the impressions made by Brazil, and the
+scenes we had gone through in mid-ocean, as the southernmost point of
+Africa came in sight with its characteristic hills, and our eyes and our
+thoughts were directed to another quarter of the globe. On the one hand,
+excited with the prospect of new scenery, and on the other, anxious to
+complete our elaborate observations upon Brazil, so as to be able to send
+them home from the Cape, we found ourselves in a frame of mind which kept
+us alternately hard at the desk, or drove us on deck to admire the
+remarkable outline of Cape Colony. We did not, at the present season,
+think it advisable to run right into the bay, so as to anchor near Cape
+Town, but resolved to double the Cape, and proceed to Simon's Bay, the
+usual anchorage for ships-of-war. We were, however, sadly disappointed in
+the hope of soon reaching it, as the south-east wind freshened so much
+that on the 27th it had become a gale, which forced us out to sea again.
+The world-known swell off the Cape began under the ever-increasing wind to
+run high, and we were soon involved in one of those famous Cape storms
+which justified the Portuguese in calling the promontory of South Africa,
+"Cabo Tormentoso," or the Cape of Storm.[51]
+
+[Footnote 51:
+
+    "Through such mad seas the daring Gama fought,
+    Incessant toiling round the stormy Cape."
+                        (_Lord Strangford's Camoens._)
+]
+
+The wind and spray roared and lashed through the rigging: higher and
+higher rose the huge mountains of water, with their white crests, that
+tossed the ship like a plaything from side to side. The waves foamed in
+through the port-holes on the gun-deck, while masts, cordage, timbers,
+every part of the ship groaned and creaked, a perfect medley of sights and
+sounds, including woful destruction of crockery, and the heavy rolling of
+erratic cannon-shot that had broken loose from the rack, and were rushing
+about the deck--above all which was heard the shrill whistle of the pipe
+of the boatswain's mate. The scene fairly baffled all powers of
+description, and must have been eminently impressive for those who for the
+first time experienced what is meant by "a gale at sea," especially at
+night, when the moon, struggling through the flying vapours, lit up the
+appalling scene with a livid supernatural tint.
+
+On the afternoon of the 28th the gale reached its highest point, and raged
+fearfully for some hours. The frigate proved herself, in this turbulence
+of the waters, to be thoroughly seaworthy. At the same time the sun shone
+brilliantly, the sky was clear and beautiful, and only here and there some
+feathery clouds were to be seen. There was a curious sense of dualism in
+this serenity of the sky, in contrast with the fury and agitation of the
+waves. Gradually the wind chopped round towards the east, which gave some
+hope that the gale would abate, but, nevertheless, the ship was tossed
+about worse than ever.
+
+The waves, like gigantic ridges, mounted, according to measurement, to the
+height of from 30 to 35 feet above the mean level of the sea, and
+occasioned that terrible rolling of the ship, and those fearful lurches,
+which, once experienced, are not readily forgotten.
+
+Hitherto the altitude of a wave has been generally measured merely by the
+eye, so that the result depended too much on the accuracy of individual
+observation to admit of its being exactly ascertained; and it is for this
+reason that the statements relative to the maximum height of the ocean
+wave are so various that they cannot be considered reliable, for whilst
+some observers estimate them to be from 60 to 70 feet, others reckon them
+only at from 30 to 40 feet.
+
+On board the _Novara_ the following method of admeasurement was adopted:
+we first determined, by a chronometer, the time that a wave takes to pass
+from one end of the ship to the other, whereby the velocity of the
+progressive motion of the wave could be calculated in relation to the
+ship's course and speed, regard being had to the direction and velocity
+of the ship against it. With this velocity ascertained, we were in a
+position to determine and fix the average distance between two consecutive
+waves. Lastly, the height of the wave was ascertained from the angle at
+which the frigate rose and fell in the line of its keel, by the influence
+of each successive wave and by means of the ascertained distance from the
+trough of the sea to the crest of the wave. Though this method, likewise,
+has many difficulties and deficiencies, yet it appears well suited to make
+correct comparisons between the different waves; and, under certain
+favourable conditions, it yields so accurate a result, that at any rate it
+is to be preferred to mere guess-work, besides that the experiment itself
+is susceptible of many improvements. It seems safe to assume that waves
+scarcely ever attain an elevation of more than 40 or 45 feet.
+
+The gale had driven us a long distance out, and only after great trouble
+did we again near the land. On the 1st of October the Cape came once more
+in sight; we tacked, in order to get into the wide gulf termed False Bay,
+by which in some respects the peninsula of the Cape is formed, being
+separated only by a low sandy plain from the Atlantic. Whittle's rock
+renders tacking in its neighbourhood in so far more difficult, as the
+existing charts of the bay are not sufficiently exact to be implicitly
+relied on. Buoys have often been fixed in that quarter, but every new gale
+carried them away again; so that the position of the rock is not
+indicated. An English pilot now came on board, who brought papers, and
+intelligence that a number of letters were waiting for us. Our impatience
+became stronger when towards evening the light breeze entirely ceased, and
+we thereby were forced to bring up at a distance of a mile and a half from
+the actual anchorage. About the same time an officer arrived from the
+British line-of-battle-ship _Boscawen_, under the flag of Rear-Admiral
+Grey, in order to serve as a guide should no pilot have boarded us.
+
+On the 2nd of October, at 7 A.M., the anchor was let go in Simon's Bay, a
+spacious but gloomy-looking sheet of water. Here ships ride much more
+secure than in Table Bay, from which, in a stiff westerly or
+north-westerly breeze, vessels are often forced to run out to sea to avoid
+being driven on shore. The communication with the land is thus sometimes
+interrupted for days. From Simon's Bay to Table Bay, round the Cape the
+distance is forty miles, whilst by land the journey to the capital of the
+colony is, with good horses, performed in three hours.
+
+[Illustration: CABO TORMENTOSO.]
+
+[Illustration: CAPE TOWN.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  VI.
+
+                          Cape of Good Hope.
+
+                   STAY FROM 2ND TO 26TH OCTOBER, 1857.
+
+   Contrasts of scenery and seasons at Cape Colony. Ramble through
+     Simon's Town.--Malay Population.--The Toad-fish, or
+     Sea-devil.--Rondebosch and its delightful scenery.--Cape
+     Town.--Influence of the English element.--Scientific and other
+     Institutions.--Botanical Gardens.--Useful plants.--Foreign
+     Emigration.--A Caffre prophet and the consequences of his
+     prophecies.--Caffre prisoners in the Armstrong Battery.--Five
+     young Caffres take service as sailors on board the _Novara_.--
+     Trip into the interior.--Stellenbosch.--Paarl.--Worcester.--
+     Brandvalley.--The Mission of Moravian Brethren at
+     Genaadendal.--Masticatories and intoxicating substances used
+     by the Hottentots.--Caledon.--Somerset West.--Zandvliet.--Tomb
+     of a Malay Prophet.--Horse Sickness.--Tsetse-fly.--Vineyards
+     of Constantia.--_Féte champêtre_ in honour of the _Novara_.--
+     Excursion to the actual Cape of Good Hope.--Departure.--A life
+     saved.--Experiments with Brook's deep-sea sounding apparatus.--
+     Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South Indian Ocean.
+
+
+There can scarcely be a landscape more gloomy and desolate than the
+sterile, rocky mountains, and white sandy plains, which, like
+snow-fields, inclose Simon's Bay. Coming from the charming coast of
+Brazil, with its luxuriant verdure, the contrast becomes doubly
+unpleasing. A narrow green strip of land, running along from a small fort,
+forms a refreshing sight and a resting point for the eye fatigued with
+looking at these grim masses of stone. The traveller who merely touches at
+Simon's Bay without pushing into the interior, or who visits the Cape in
+the winter of the southern hemisphere (from April to September), can
+scarcely form an idea of the voluptuous loveliness which reigns during
+spring and summer in the interior of the colony, and will regard as
+fictitious those brilliant descriptions of its natural beauties, related
+by travellers who have been fortunate enough to visit this point of South
+Africa at those genial seasons.
+
+Had we left the Cape without seeing anything else than the melancholy
+neighbourhood of False Bay and the dull little settlement of Simon's Town,
+on its left bank, we should have carried away very different impressions
+and ideas to those entertained after having during spring passed some
+weeks in the delightful interior, and obtained at the same time an insight
+into the social condition of the colony.
+
+On the very day that we cast anchor in the bay, we took a stroll (our
+first footfall upon the soil of Africa) through Simon's Town, which
+consists of a single street of about forty clean, neat, and tidy-looking
+houses, straggling along the shore. The principal buildings are the
+Arsenal, the residence of the admiral of the station, five churches (one
+of which belongs to Roman Catholics), and two tolerably large hotels.
+
+It is hardly possible to conceive any town occupying a more dreary dismal
+site, with the exception, perhaps, of some of the Peruvian settlements on
+the west coast of South America. While the eye, below this row of houses,
+beholds nothing but granite rocks thickly strewn with shells, the main
+street is overhung by steep sandstone rocks, which, despite the marvellous
+richness of the blooming flowers, that well repay the researches of the
+naturalist, have a naked gloomy aspect, viewed from a distance, and are
+environed right and left by waste patches of white sand.
+
+The favourite walks of this small place seem to be along the shore, or on
+the road to Cape Town, into the soft sand of which the foot of the
+traveller is continually sinking. A number of ladies and gentlemen whom we
+met walking appeared to be somewhat surprised at the unusual appearance of
+an Austrian man-of-war, the flag of which was gaily fluttering in the
+gloomy bay. The residents in Simon's Town, amounting to about 800 souls,
+are mostly Malays, descendants of those numerous compulsory emigrants,
+who, during the period of Dutch ascendency at the Cape, had been
+transported from Java and other islands of the Indian Archipelago, owing
+to the want of labour or for political causes. For the Dutch used to send
+to the Cape Colony, as a place of banishment, many wealthy and influential
+Malay families, by whom the first germs of Mohammedanism were introduced
+into South Africa. It would even seem that the religious opinions of the
+Malay population exercise some influence on the habits of the Christian
+settlers of Simon's Town, as no butcher, for instance, would venture to
+kill and sell pigs for fear of giving offence to his Mohammedan customers.
+
+On a fine spring morning we started in a handsome vehicle from Simon's Bay
+to Cape Town. The road runs close along the seashore, which, seen from a
+distance, apparently consists of nothing but sand and rock, but, on more
+near acquaintance, exhibits at various points delightful nooks decked with
+most beautiful flowers. Everything indicated, by its glorious blooming
+garment, the bursting forth of spring.
+
+One hour's ride led us to a neat little fishing hamlet where an immense
+number of fish were hanging up to dry in the sun. The bones of whales are
+used by the inhabitants for all sorts of purposes; they fence their fields
+and gardens with the ribs, build walls with the vertebræ, make steps and
+stairs of the shoulder bones, and use the large jaw-bones as arches at the
+entrances of their huts. One of the owners of this fishing station was
+kind enough to offer us, as a particular dainty, a piece of flesh cut from
+the jaw of a whale and boiled in fat; but we were not exactly of the same
+opinion after having, from curiosity, tasted a few mouthfuls. The bay is
+very rich in the snook-fish (_Thyrsites Atun_), of which several hundred
+tons are pickled here annually and sent to the Mauritius.
+
+Another fish caught here is said to be extremely injurious to health, and
+even to endanger life--the small toadfish (_Tetraodon Honkenyi_), which
+exists in shoals, and may easily be caught with a line. One of the harbour
+regulations consists of a special paragraph warning seamen against using
+this poisonous "sea-devil." Foreign sailors who have eaten of it have died
+a few minutes after.
+
+On leaving this fishing station the road, leaving the coast, proceeds in a
+straight line over the plain which unites the Cape with the continent. The
+mountains recede, and the eye of the traveller gazes, charmed and
+surprised, on the mountain range of the peninsula, the celebrated Table
+and Devil's Mountains. The plain, which, during the dry season, is nothing
+but an arid desert, was now seen in its fullest beauty, like a flowery
+carpet, on which innumerable blossoms of varied hues and forms were
+interwoven. On the left lie the renowned vineyards of Constantia, and to
+the right stands what is called Halfway-house, the property of a native of
+Würtemberg who, some twenty years before, came to the Cape a poor
+emigrant, and is now a wealthy and respected man, known far and wide,
+holding several official appointments, and showing himself a warm patron
+of his German countrymen. Being a zealous sportsman, and intimately
+acquainted with the locality, Mr. Rathfelder was of great service to our
+zoologists, who took up their residence at this place.
+
+From the Halfway-house to Cape Town the character of the landscape
+completely changes. The road leads through a park-like country; charming
+wood plantations, pines and oaks, stretch on either hand to the extreme
+limits of an undulating plain, intersected by long shady paths, the
+vistas terminating with elegant villas built in the Dutch or English
+style. Here are Cape waggons, drawn by ten to twenty oxen, side by side
+with elegant two or four-horse carriages and densely-packed omnibuses,
+such as one may see in Cheapside. We have now arrived in the charming
+Rondebosch, a village that might well aspire to the dignity of a town,
+chiefly inhabited as a summer residence by the wealthier inhabitants of
+Cape Town. The impression made by this beautiful road will never be
+obliterated from the memory of any one who has ever ridden over it in the
+spring. We were as much delighted by the sight of this smiling and verdant
+landscape as we had been depressed by the sandy plains of Simon's Bay.
+There, extended in charming variety before the fascinated eye, lay Table
+Bay with its ships, Cape Town, and the gigantic rocky wall of the Table
+Mountain resting on its granite base, and rising nearly perpendicular to
+an altitude of 3500 feet, together with the Lion's Head and the Devil's
+Peak. The distant background on the other side of the plain is bounded by
+the precipitous face of high, rugged, and broken mountain walls, the
+summits of which were covered with snow.
+
+Convenient and comfortable quarters were found in the Freemasons' Hotel,
+situated in the Parade, a large square planted with pines. Here, to our
+surprise, we met an Austrian, attending as waiter, who had been driven by
+the wild waves of the late revolution into the wide world, until he met
+with a peaceful existence at the Cape of Storms!
+
+Favoured by introductions to the most eminent men of science, who received
+us in the most friendly way, we succeeded, in the course of a few weeks,
+in acquiring rich and valuable scientific collections, and forming
+important connections for the future supply of our museums. A most cordial
+reception was accorded us by Mr. Julius Mosenthal, the Austrian Consul,
+and the head of one of the leading mercantile firms of the colony. In his
+hospitable house, German music and German song made us entirely forget
+that we were sojourning thousands of miles from home at the southernmost
+point of Africa.
+
+Cape Town is oblong in plan, with long wide streets, intersecting at right
+angles. It is destitute of imposing buildings; a commercial place, with
+pretty dwelling-houses, built in the English style and comfortably
+furnished, all of a light brown hue, owing to the dust, which, in
+south-east or north-west winds, envelopes the town in whirling clouds, and
+may indeed be considered the only plague of this healthy delightful
+climate. The English element, which, with the stereotyped customs of its
+life and its equitable laws, possesses, wherever it obtains a footing, so
+powerful an influence, has almost entirely superseded the Dutch, which
+continues to exist only in the lonely farmhouses far in the interior.
+There is scarcely anything remaining to indicate that Cape Town was
+founded by the Dutch; and were it not for the yellow Malay faces, with
+their gaudy head-coverings or umbrella-shaped straw hats, and the tawny
+mestizoes, who remind us of the aboriginal inhabitants, and give a
+completely foreign colouring, one might easily fancy one's self to be in
+an old English provincial town. Generally speaking, any one arriving here
+with preconceived notions of finding himself amongst Hottentots and
+Bushmen, or in a state of society differing materially from that of
+Europe, will soon discover that he has been entirely mistaken. The
+aborigines whom Jan van Riebeck found, when, with three Dutch ships, he
+landed in 1652 at Table Bay, and in the name of the Dutch East India
+Company established a settlement, have now almost entirely disappeared
+from the capital. If any one desires to see a veritable Hottentot or
+Bushman, he must undertake a troublesome journey, of weeks' duration, into
+the inhospitable interior. In Cape Town this singular race is only now and
+then to be met with in prisons or hospitals, and even then of a mixed
+breed.
+
+The colony has now a population of 280,000 white and coloured inhabitants,
+of whom about 30,000 live in Cape Town; half of these are whites, and
+probably not more than 1000 form the higher and influential class. There
+can be no doubt that when, in 1815, the English took possession of the
+Cape, a firm foundation had been laid already by the Dutch 150 years
+before; but the real progress of the country, and the development of its
+natural resources, date only from the commencement of British rule, by
+which those shackles were thrown off with which the narrow-minded colonial
+policy of the Dutch had fettered this settlement, like all others that
+owned their sway.
+
+The Cape Colony since 1850 has possessed a Legislative Council of 15
+members, and a House of Assembly of 40 deputies. The executive power rests
+in the hands of the Governor-General, appointed by the British Government.
+All bills passed by this parliament require the royal assent before they
+become law.
+
+It is impossible to speak in too high and eulogistic terms of Sir George
+Grey, whom we had the happiness at the time of our stay to find in the
+important position of Governor-General of the colony. Owing to the wisdom
+with which Sir George governed this important colony, he gained for
+himself the love and admiration of the people to such an extent that,
+after the expiration of the regularly fixed period of his office as
+Governor, they petitioned the Queen of England for his re-appointment. Sir
+George is not only an able statesman, but also a sound scholar, possessing
+a most complete collection of books and manuscripts on the Australian,
+Polynesian and African languages, and he is a most zealous patron of the
+numerous scientific institutions of the colony.
+
+The astronomical observatory, under the superintendence of Mr. Maclear,
+has preserved the celebrity which it attained by the great work on the
+constellations of the southern hemisphere, the materials for which were
+collected by Sir John Herschel during his residence here some twenty years
+since. There is now a transit instrument, which in accuracy excels even
+that of the Observatory at Greenwich, and which is said to have cost
+upwards of _£_2000.
+
+The South African Museum, containing collections of natural history, is
+now under the superintendence of Mr. L. Layard (brother of the celebrated
+investigator of Nineveh). This institution, as well as the South African
+public library, the literary, scientific, and mechanics' institutions,
+besides nearly fifty other establishments and societies for religious,
+benevolent and industrial purposes, owe their foundation and flourishing
+condition to the public spirit and the charitable disposition of the
+inhabitants of the colony. In 69 schools scattered over its surface,
+upwards of 18,000 pupils are educated according to a system introduced in
+1841 by Sir John Herschel.
+
+The Botanical Gardens, likewise founded and kept up by private
+subscription, are not only a most agreeable resort, but also afford much
+instruction, arising from the many interesting and useful plants gathered
+here from all quarters of the world. To those which are adapted for
+cultivation in the sandy plains of the Cape, great attention is devoted.
+Some of them have been found available in forming as it were vegetable
+walls of protection against the inroads of the sand, so destructive to all
+cultivation. As particularly serviceable for this purpose, were mentioned
+to us _Fabricia variegata_, a sea-shore shrub of from 6 to 10 feet high;
+_Protea myrtifera_; the so-called Hottentot fig: _Mesembryanthemum
+edulis_; and the Cape wax-myrtle _Myricacordifolia_;--all these are found
+to thrive in the sand without cultivation, put a stop to its ravages, and
+in some respects may be considered as the pioneers of all other plants,
+which do not thrive before the sandy soil has been prepared for them. Nay,
+singularly enough, some of these (as for instance the Hottentot fig),
+become extinct as soon as others make their appearance, just in the same
+way as the pioneer of civilization, the backwoodsman in the west of the
+United States, leaves his lonely blockhouse and hurries on as soon as
+overtaken by the peaceful settler. The wax-berry shrub is also otherwise
+useful to the inhabitants; from its berries a substance is prepared well
+suited for making candles. According to a treatise on its culture two
+workmen are able to realize with a defecator daily 100 lbs. of white wax
+from the berries gathered by six persons. The expense of labour, &c., does
+not exceed 18_s._ per 100 lbs., or about 2_d._ per pound. A large quantity
+of this vegetable substance has lately been sent to London, where it is
+said to have met with a profitable market. In the Botanical Garden of Cape
+Town we first met the two celebrated grasses known as _Holcus Caffrorum_
+and _Holcus saccharatum_, which, by their usefulness in domestic life,
+have more extensively, and perhaps quickly, than any other plant, spread
+over the world. We are indebted to the Secretary of the Board of Public
+Roads, W. De Smidt, Esq., for some seeds of these and other plants, as
+also to Mr. McGibbon, manager of the Botanical Gardens, for similar
+favours.
+
+Considering the deficiency of labour, and the large sections of fertile
+land as yet uncultivated in the colony, Sir George Grey has directed great
+attention to the immigration of German emigrants of respectable
+characters, of all trades, as well as those attached to agricultural
+pursuits. The plan adopted is an excellent and thoroughly honest one.
+Every emigrant, if single, obtains from the Government thirty acres of
+good land, and, if married, fifty; five for each child above one, and ten
+for every one exceeding ten years of age. The rate of the land is to be
+fixed by Government at a fair and reasonable sum, and, together with the
+passage-money, to be paid four years after the location of the emigrant,
+in five annual instalments. From the moment the colonist steps on African
+ground he is an independent owner of land, although not entitled to sell
+his property until his obligations to the Government are liquidated. The
+local parliament has granted a sum of _£_50,000 to promote emigration. The
+Cape probably offers to an industrious emigrant a more advantageous field
+for active energy than any other country in the world. Some of the German
+colonists, the remnant of the British Legion engaged in the Crimean war,
+who, under General Stuttersheim, have settled in British Caffraria, are
+thriving prosperously. They are the first pioneers of the German element
+in South Africa, and, under the protection of a liberal and free
+government, are increasing in number annually in consequence of the
+favourable reports which they transmit to their native country.
+
+An emigration of a peculiar kind has unexpectedly taken place. An impostor
+amongst the Caffres, who had assumed the character of a prophet,
+pronounced the end of the world as imminent, in consequence of which large
+numbers of them slaughtered their cattle and left their fields
+uncultivated. Being thus, in a short time, reduced to a state of perfect
+destitution, not less than 19,000 of starving Caffres sought help and an
+asylum in the British territory during the year 1857, and before its close
+the number had increased to 30,000. The colonial Government, out of
+consideration to the welfare of the colonists, admitted only those Caffres
+who bound themselves to act as servants, for at least one year, at
+reasonable wages, and in order to prevent any danger arising from being
+congregated in too large numbers, they were located by the Government
+officers in various detached parts of the colony.
+
+A very active society of philanthropists exists here, under the title of
+"The Committee of Emigration from Holland." Its object is to bring over
+orphans and children of the poor from the overpopulated Dutch provinces.
+These useful emigrants are partly located as apprentices to farmers, and
+remain until they are of age under the care of the Committee. During our
+stay a party of seventy boys and girls just arrived from Holland
+assembled, with their conductors, in one of the large avenues of the
+Botanical Garden, to be inspected by the Governor-General. They all looked
+healthy and cheerful, and seemed to have but little suffered from the
+fatigues of a long voyage. When Sir George Grey made his appearance the
+children sang the English National Anthem, translated into Dutch, and
+afterwards the sweet, affectionate song, "When the swallows homewards
+fly." Some young emigrants, who, two years ago, had come under similar
+circumstances from Holland, had already obtained good situations, and
+greeted their little compatriots most heartily. Being asked if they wished
+to return to Holland, they replied, without the slightest hesitation, in
+the negative, declaring that they felt very happy where they were,--an
+announcement of course peculiarly agreeable to the new-comers.
+
+An interesting opportunity was afforded to us of seeing a large number of
+Caffres, of both sexes, who had been brought in as prisoners in
+consequence of having made predatory incursions into the British
+territory. They all arrived in a state of nudity, and in most wretched
+plight, but were immediately provided with European clothes--blue striped
+shirts, sheepskin trousers, shoes, a Scotch cap, and a blanket which
+served during the day as a cloak, and at night as a covering. Their food
+was tolerably good, but their abode during night, in the damp casemates of
+the fort, seemed not to agree with them, and many were visibly in a
+diseased state of health. Nearly all were muscular, and some were really
+specimens of manly beauty. Not one of them knew his age. Their only mode
+of calculating is by certain important events, as by the death of a
+chieftain, or the various wars with the English. The superintendent, Mr.
+Walsh, a very obliging Irishman, had the kindness to cause them to perform
+some of their national dances, wild exercises which served the purpose of
+exciting their warlike spirit. The first dance they performed they called
+"Ukutenga." Six handsomely-built dancers advanced, whilst about thirty men
+closed in a circle around them, and, by their howlings and clapping of
+hands, formed as it were a musical accompaniment to this singular
+performance. The dancers sighed, groaned, hissed, and made the most
+extravagant grimaces and contortions, in order to arouse in themselves an
+artificial excitement. One, a lad twelve years of age, engaged so
+earnestly in the sports, that he perspired from his whole body. There is
+another dance, called "Tklombo," performed in the presence of diseased
+persons whilst the quack doctor practises his deceptive remedies; and a
+third, called "Umduta," which is only practised at weddings and other
+festive occasions. This last seemed to be the most characteristic. The
+semi-nude, slender men hopped, their arms clung together, in ranks of six,
+hissing with scorn, occasionally uttering a cry, then suddenly separating
+and marching one after the other in slow time, in a circle, uttering the
+most singular sounds. Now they bent forward the whole upper part of the
+body, and then back again, each of them making the same violent gestures
+as in the former dance, and pronouncing some words to excite their
+companions, such as, "Be active!" "Be alert!" until they all trembled and
+became fearfully and feverishly excited. The surrounding Caffres, who were
+at first mere spectators, by degrees were seized with this singular
+dancing mania, till at last the entire number, as if stung by a tarantula,
+lashed themselves into a wild and apparently ungovernable frenzy. The
+great difference in the colour of the skin of these Caffres was
+particularly striking, as they evidently belong to one and the same race.
+From the blackness of coal to bronze, all tints and shades were observed,
+and one of them, called "Ngduba" (Sea-shell), appeared to be even of a
+reddish yellow. He belonged to the tribe of the Fingoes, and said that
+both his parents were of the same colour.
+
+The governor permitted five young Caffres to be engaged on board the
+_Novara_, with their own consent, as apprentices, and although they were
+prisoners sentenced for several years, yet the Government took every care
+to secure their welfare. An agreement was signed to provide that their
+return, should they desire it, might be facilitated in every possible way.
+Faithful subjects could not be cared for with more anxiety than were these
+legally-sentenced Caffre prisoners by the colonial Government. Two of them
+went one day on shore, during our stay at Auckland, in New Zealand, and
+never came back; the other three made the whole voyage with the _Novara_,
+and are now sailors on board the imperial yacht _Fancy_. They, of course,
+understood, at their embarkation, only their own singular mother-tongue;
+yet the chaplain of the expedition, the Rev. E. Marochini, after having
+made himself acquainted with their idiom, succeeded in instructing these
+black youths, by means of their own language, in the doctrines of
+Christianity, and, by degrees, imparted some knowledge of the Italian and
+German languages, the happy results of these endeavours being a complete
+vocabulary and a small catechism in the Caffre language, which the
+reverend gentlemen composed during the voyage; and such progress did his
+three pupils make, that, on our return to Trieste, they were so far
+prepared as to be fit for reception, by baptism, into the Christian
+community.
+
+In the house of correction there were a number of female Caffres who had
+been made prisoners at the same time with their brothers and husbands,
+some belonging to the family of chiefs. One, the sister of the chieftain
+Sandilli, was a handsome, tall and slender woman, with mild features and
+piercing small black eyes; another, by the name of Mnovenkeli, the sister
+of the chieftain Mkoseni, was an imposing and earnest-looking figure.
+Several of these women bore a long stripe tattooed on their breasts as an
+ornament. Several were deficient of a little finger of the left hand: this
+mutilation is the effect of superstition, as it often occurs that, in case
+of the severe illness of the child, the distressed mother causes a finger
+of her offspring to be cut off and sacrificed to the evil spirit, in order
+that the rest of the body may be saved and permitted by the evil spirit to
+recover.
+
+One of these young Caffre women had her child wrapped up in a piece of
+linen tied to her back, and endeavoured to lull it to sleep by continually
+moving the left elbow, by which the baby was kept in a swinging motion,
+and an effect was produced like that of a cradle. Various questions were
+put, through an interpreter, to several of these females, who, after their
+timidity was overcome, answered with great readiness. Polygamy is said to
+prevail amongst them. Many women have from ten to twelve children. The
+children are suckled sometimes from two to three years. A numerous progeny
+is the pride of a family. As a proof of the legitimacy of a child, there
+is said to exist a kind of milk trial. Notwithstanding considerable
+trouble in endeavouring to procure information, we were unable to obtain a
+very lucid idea of this singular experiment: it consists in the father
+giving the infant, in the bottom of his hand, directly after its birth,
+some cow's milk to drink, and if the child refuses the draught it is
+considered illegitimate. Caffre women very rarely salute their husbands
+with a kiss, except after a long separation, and even then only on the
+cheek--never on the lips.
+
+In the ethnographical part a detailed description will be presented of
+this most peculiar race, of whom the Bushmen are evidently only a decrepid
+branch. Here it will suffice to observe that a girl, only sixteen years of
+age, was noticed, whose father was a degenerate Hottentot, and whose
+mother was a Bushwoman. The girl measured 4 feet 6 1/2 inches, and weighed
+75lbs. Another Bushwoman, thirty years of age, measured 4 feet 9 inches.
+All the individuals we saw of this race were remarkable for their
+exceedingly small hands and feet.
+
+One week of our stay at the Cape was devoted to an excursion into the
+interior. On the 1st October, early in the morning, we left Cape Town in a
+light two-wheeled vehicle, drawn by four horses--a turn-out which
+certainly seemed better suited for a drive in Hyde Park than a journey,
+however short, in South Africa: for who would suppose that the principal
+roads on the southernmost point of the most unknown quarter of the globe,
+are, in consequence of English civilization and the geognostic nature of
+the ground, in a better condition than most bye-roads in the civilized
+states of Europe? For a country where labour is so deficient and
+expensive, such enormous works could only be executed by means of
+compulsory labour: in this respect the high-roads and mountain passes of
+the Cape afford the most evident proofs of how much more beneficially and
+usefully convicts may be employed in colonial works than in allowing them
+to rot within prison walls, alike a burden to themselves and to society.
+
+Only ten years ago the streets of Cape Town looked at least highly
+dangerous, and the steep rugged old roads, which sometimes run parallel
+with the new ones, evince very clearly the great difference between bygone
+days and the present, as regards the internal communications of the
+colony. The uncultivated state of the country formerly, which indeed, in
+some parts, continues even yet to exist, is the cause of the ancient
+custom having been retained of placing before every vehicle, however
+lightly laden, sixteen to twenty powerful oxen, even on perfectly level
+roads. All longer journeys into the interior are undertaken in heavy
+waggon-like vehicles, exclusively drawn by oxen. As a family is sometimes
+compelled to take up abode in such waggons for weeks together, they are
+completely covered and provided with all possible conveniences; indeed, it
+is a sort of locomotive house. The waggon, which much resembles the
+goods-trucks used on European railways, is at least 18 feet long, and the
+entire length of the set-out, including the oxen, embraces not less than
+from 120 to 180 feet. It may readily be imagined how such a custom impedes
+speedy intercourse, and how much more usefully a great part of the animal
+power might be employed. On the excursion from Cape Town to Stellenbosch,
+a small place only ten miles distant, we met more than 100 waggons, of
+which not one had less than ten, and many double that number of oxen, so
+that at least 1500 heads of cattle were employed in a work which might
+easily have been performed by a third part of the number.
+
+The coachman was a Malay, and wore that singular screen-formed straw hat,
+which so peculiarly distinguishes the male population of his race. These
+men have the reputation of being particularly skilful drivers, and thus
+form a considerable portion of the coachmen of the place. The Malay driver
+had an assistant by his side, who seemed, however, chiefly to serve as
+ballast, in order that our two-wheeled vehicle might not lose its
+equilibrium; for the disconsolate condition of the horses rendered the
+fear of their running away quite superfluous. Our charioteer drove his
+horses, which now and then were rather restive, with so much adroitness,
+that we arrived as early as nine o'clock in that charming settlement
+Stellenbosch, which Wilkes, the American Commodore, even in 1839,
+designated as the loveliest and most beautiful in the whole colony. It has
+completely preserved the aspect of a little Dutch town; the streets are
+straight and wide, adorned with avenues of oaks, many centuries old; the
+houses are extremely tidy and clean, and are built in the genuine Dutch
+style. There is no trace of English influence perceptible. Its 4000
+inhabitants mostly speak Dutch, and cultivate the vine, grain, and fruit.
+No country town seen in the whole course of our long voyage made a deeper
+impression, or left more pleasing recollections, than Stellenbosch. The
+occasion of our visit was certainly of an uncommonly cheerful and festive
+character. On the day of our arrival the Governor was about to review a
+corps of volunteers, raised in Cape Town and its neighbourhood, to supply
+the place of the regular troops about to be dispatched to the Indian
+battle-fields. Extraordinary enthusiasm and interest was manifested
+everywhere in the military movements. Thousands of visitors had assembled
+even from great distances to witness this novel national spectacle. The
+Governor had proclaimed the day as a general holiday; all shops were
+closed; the streets presented an extremely animated appearance, and in
+front of every house was a crowd. The Austrian Consul had been kind enough
+to favour us with a letter of introduction to one of the first families in
+the place; but, taking into consideration the general bustle and continual
+arrival of strangers, we were much afraid of being, at this moment, very
+unwelcome guests, as every nook and corner would already be occupied; for
+in this colony visitors do not come, as with us, for a short time, and
+without encumbrance, but with waggons, horses, servants, household and
+all, regularly to settle down for an indefinite period.
+
+Our own party consisted of five persons provided with four horses, and we
+were now, for want of other lodgings, about to claim the hospitality of
+Mynheer Van Schultze. A pretty, youthful, rosy-cheeked lady, who appeared
+at the door, took--not without some embarrassment--our letter of
+introduction, and disappeared with it into the interior of the stately
+house. We were requested to enter, and were shown into a suite of very
+neat rooms, and were received, not merely with great politeness, but with
+the heartiest welcome.
+
+At ten o'clock we drove out with our hospitable friend, Mynheer Van
+Schultze, to the review, which took place on the common in the
+neighbourhood of the village. The number of spectators was probably twenty
+times greater than that of the volunteers; they had surrounded the ground
+with a wall of carriages, on the tops of which women and children were
+grouped in every picturesque attitude. The rifle volunteers marched, with
+the Governor, Sir George Grey, at their head, and preceded by a band, to
+the ground. There might have been about 300 cavalry and 200 infantry, with
+several pieces of artillery. They all looked very well; their uniform was
+plain and remarkably suitable for the purpose, consisting of tunics and
+trousers of black cloth with metal buttons, and a common cap with a silver
+ornament. They went through the usual man[oe]uvres, whilst a good deal of
+gunpowder was expended. The evolutions of the cavalry were executed with
+wonderful precision, a result due chiefly to the circumstance that, at the
+Cape, every inhabitant is a good equestrian, and is trained from childhood
+to manage a horse.
+
+[Illustration: RIFLE VOLUNTEER _FÊTE_ AT STELLENBOSCH.]
+
+The review finished, a breakfast was served at the Drosdy, or
+Municipality, on long tables, in a magnificent avenue of oak trees;
+nearly 600 volunteers and many other guests sat down, whilst in the
+back-ground a large number of ladies and gentlemen were present as
+spectators. The presence of some members of the Novara Expedition at the
+festival led the Burgomaster, after the toast of the Queen was given, to
+propose the health of the Emperor of Austria, prefacing it with various
+laudatory remarks on the Expedition. The toast was most heartily received,
+the whole company raising their glasses, whilst the band performed the
+Austrian national anthem. The officer to whose lot it fell to return
+thanks, said:--"That he felt deeply gratified with the honour done to his
+country and nation by the enthusiasm with which the health of his
+sovereign had been received by so distinguished an assembly, and that he
+could not forbear expressing his admiration and delight in observing the
+prosperous condition of this fine country, which, like all others where
+the Anglo-Saxon race was predominant, was blessed with freedom, with the
+spirit of progress, and the blessings of Christianity;" and he concluded
+by proposing "Old England for ever."
+
+On the day after the review the journey was pursued early in the morning
+to the village of Paarl (Pearl), about four hours distant. We had come as
+strangers to the hospitable Stellenbosch, and left as old friends, the
+entire family accompanying us to the carriage, and the worthy old mother
+of our amiable host, a thoroughly genuine Dutch matron, was visibly
+touched on taking leave of those whom, in all probability, she would never
+see more.
+
+On the route to Paarl several immensely large ant-hills were met with,
+some of which measured from two to two-and-a-half feet in diameter, by
+about three feet high. The insects were partly black and partly of a
+greyish-brown colour, and must be very troublesome to the farmers.
+
+Paarl, an extremely neat village, consists of a single long street, and
+contains nearly 4000 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in the growth of the
+vine. They are the descendants of those French Protestants who, at the
+close of the 17th century, left their native country in consequence of
+religious persecution. All the detached farm-yards were extremely neat,
+and bore evidence of the wealth of their owners. Nothing reminds one of
+Africa and the neighbourhood of Hottentots, Bushmen, or Caffres. The
+landscape becomes grander the more the mountains, 4000 to 5000 feet high,
+are approached. Among them lies the little town of Wellington, charmingly
+situated; though but a few years in existence, and numbering only 2000
+inhabitants, it has already a joint-stock bank with a capital of £45,000,
+several schools, and some neat places of worship. While taking an evening
+stroll, we passed a well-lighted Reformed Dutch Church, from the interior
+of which the devotional tones of a pious Christian congregation floating
+through the night air, died away among the mountains.
+
+Singular to say, the small, and, one would think, essentially prosaic and
+practical little town of Wellington boasts a quack doctor, named Brabna,
+whom the common people, far and near, come to consult, more, one would
+imagine, to be relieved of their money than their ailments.
+
+[Illustration: PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT WAS.]
+
+[Illustration: PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT IS.]
+
+The route to Worcester, whither we set out the following morning, leads
+at first through the wide, highly-cultivated Waggonmakers' Valley, adorned
+with numbers of rich farm-steads (so named from a number of artisans of
+this handicraft having settled here in former times), after which it
+passes over the difficult pass called Paine's Kloef, 4000 feet high, which
+frequently recalled the well-known road over the Sömmering Alp, or that at
+Optschina. This mountain-pass, first completed in 1853, by the engineer,
+Mr. Paine, greatly facilitates the traffic between Cape Town and this
+fertile district, which previously was quite inaccessible, and whose
+immense natural resources are only now beginning to be developed.
+
+When we reached the highest point of the pass we found a strong south-east
+wind blowing. The thermometer marked 55° F., and when plunged in a spring
+that issued from the mountain close at hand, 48°. South-east winds are
+especially prevalent here, particularly in summer, when they frequently
+cause serious damage; hence all the upper branches of the trees incline to
+the north-west.
+
+We now came to the finest bridge in the country, named Darling Bridge,
+after a late governor, which is thrown across the broad stream called by
+the Dutch, Breede River, and by the English, Broad River, a frequent
+source of error. The English colonists are bent upon driving out the Dutch
+names of rivers and localities, and supplying them with new names of
+English origin. The Dutch, however, hold on obstinately to the names they
+have been accustomed to, and continue to use the ancient nomenclature.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Darling Bridge is a farm where the traveller can
+be comfortably accommodated, and from which, being a post-station, letters
+can be forwarded to all parts of the country. It has regular communication
+with the rest of the colony three times a week. The vehicle, however, in
+which the letters and packets are forwarded, in consequence of the
+wretched roads in the interior, and with the view of expediting the
+transmission of mail matter, is simply a light, open, eminently
+uncomfortable, two-wheel waggon, in which but one passenger can be taken
+each trip. Day and night, up hill and down dale, it continues its journey,
+changing driver and horses every two hours, only the unfortunate
+passenger being condemned to remain glued to the jolting uncomfortable
+car, until he has attained the end of his journey. We were told of an
+English captain, who once travelled on urgent business 400 miles in fifty
+hours in this fashion, and arrived at his destination in such a pitiable
+plight, that he had to be lifted from the car and put to bed forthwith,
+which he kept for several weeks, before he was able to get about again.
+Unfortunately, we were not told whether this unlucky passenger returned to
+Cape Town by a similar conveyance.
+
+In the dining-room of the farm we made acquaintance with several families
+from Graaf Reinet, in the north of the colony, who were _en route_ for
+Cape Town, and had been already three weeks on the road, during which they
+must have passed every night in their unwieldy waggon, or under tents.
+There was also among the assembled travellers a Quaker Missionary, of
+Worcester, who was on his way to the opening of the Spiritual Synod at
+Cape Town, and who was so kind as to furnish us, on the spot, with some
+introductions to his friends in Worcester, a lovely little town, which we
+reached towards the evening. There are places which charm at the first
+glance, just as there are many men who take us by storm as it were.
+Worcester is one of these; so neat, so clean, with a pretty garden in
+front of each little house, every wall of which was entwined with roses,
+and in the back-ground all around, bare, but picturesque groups of lofty
+hills of a blueish-grey tint, which imparted to the entire landscape a
+peculiar and almost magical colouring. Worcester, a creation of
+yesterday, has about 4500 inhabitants, chiefly employed in vine growing
+and sheep pasture. There are some of the peasantry here who own flocks of
+3000 to 4000 sheep! The rich vegetation of the valley has an eminently
+northern character. Alongside of oaks, pines, poplars, willows, will
+appear a tree of Australian origin, of the order of Myrtaceæ, the blue
+gum-tree (_Eucalyptus Globulus_), which, on account of its rapid growth,
+is planted before each door for the purpose of shade. One of these trees
+was shown to us of but four years' growth, the stem of which was already
+twenty feet high! The leaves have a highly aromatic odour, and must be
+especially suitable for the extraction of oil, as the rind is full of
+camphor; as yet, however, the tree is not used by the colonists for any
+other purpose than to supply shade to their gardens.
+
+It is surprising what comfort the traveller encounters among these new
+settlements, from which, even already, all traces have been eradicated of
+the difficulties that originally beset the colonist; so that at every turn
+one meets with evidences of the highest European civilization. Whenever,
+indeed, he finds himself at a settlement, he will remark that it is not
+merely provided with the necessaries of life, or the mere products of the
+soil, but that it sparkles with numerous objects of luxury and refined
+taste; such as handsome furniture, pianos, and other musical instruments,
+engravings, English classics, besides telescopes, barometers,
+thermometers, and other similar evidences of high cultivation. At the
+hotel at Worcester, we met with a degree of comfort such as is found only
+in the chief cities of Europe. Several of the inhabitants, among others
+Dr. Esselin, a missionary of the Moravian brotherhood, and Dr. Meynard, of
+the Episcopal Church, laid us under particular obligations by their
+participation in the objects of our inquiry. The latter gentleman sought
+us out at our hotel, and, after a hearty welcome, remarked that he
+possessed, in his collection, several highly interesting petrifactions
+from Beaufort, about 400 miles north-west of Worcester. We satisfied
+ourselves, however, by a visit which we paid to Dr. Meynard at his own
+house, that his collection was far from possessing the interest he claimed
+for it. In all probability, however, judging by what we heard, Beaufort
+must be a classic soil for the palæontologist, as there are numberless
+fossils in that district, especially of reptiles. In like manner, the
+stalactite grottoes, known as "The Congo Caves," 300 miles from Worcester,
+have never yet been scientifically examined or described.
+
+Dr. Esselin, who is a native of Hesse, was so kind as to accompany the
+naturalists of the Novara Expedition to the hot springs of Brand Vley the
+following morning. The road thither, which lies through a valley partly
+overflowed towards the end of the rainy season, was exceedingly trying to
+the horses, and, but for the kind offices of Dr. Esselin, who was
+acquainted with the difficulties of the route, and undertook the guidance
+of the waggon through the constantly recurring swamps and morasses, we
+should in all probability have had to retrace our steps halfway, or even
+have stuck fast, which would have been a still more serious matter. Only
+after unspeakable exertions did we succeed in threading the valley of
+Worcester as far as the shores of Breede (or Broad) River. Several times
+we were compelled, in order to lighten the waggon, to dismount, and wade
+up to our knees in water. Once the quag was so deep, that to avoid sinking
+in it we had to be carried, one by one, on the back of our Malay driver.
+
+[Illustration: CROSSING THE BREEDE RIVER.]
+
+On the bank is the cottage, (_boeren plaats_), of a peasant who avails
+himself of his proximity to convert the stream into a source of profit, by
+ferrying travellers, who have occasion to pass here during the floods,
+across the river in a small skiff, the waggon and horses being swum across
+afterwards. In summer, on the contrary, the stream is readily forded on
+horseback, and is indeed dry at several points. At the period of our visit
+(in October, 1857), towards the end of the rainy season, this Breede River
+was about 150 feet wide, and about 28 feet deep, and we accordingly found
+ourselves compelled to call in the assistance of the ferryman. Under his
+superintendence the work was gone about quite systematically. First of
+all the four horses were swum across, by a halter round the neck; after
+which the luggage was transported to the opposite bank in a small boat.
+Last of all came the waggon, with the travellers therein. It was thought
+that the upper portion of the waggon might be towed across, swimming on
+the surface of the water, by fastening an empty water-tight cask between
+the wheels; the cask, however, proved unequal to the weight. As the waggon
+left the shore it sank deeper and deeper in the water, till about
+mid-current it fairly capsized, hardly a spoke of the left wheel reaching
+the opposite bank.
+
+Amidst our perplexities, a violent shower of rain came on, making the
+waggon leak in every corner, just as we succeeded, after great trouble, in
+getting it to land, and were busy repairing it. Fortunately, every
+requisite precaution had been taken to remedy any such disaster occurring
+at this dangerous spot; so that the whole affair, though sufficiently
+uncomfortable at the time, left only the recollection of a pleasant
+adventure.
+
+[Illustration: HOT SPRINGS OF BRAND VLEY.]
+
+At last, towards noon, we reached the hot springs of Brand Vley, or Brand
+Valley. This hot spring, which is quite exposed, like a pond or tank, and
+even at the least accessible points is adorned with rich vegetation, is
+about 100 feet in circumference, and is of a triangular shape, rounded off
+at the corners. Among bananas, ferns, and cacti of all sorts, spring up
+numerous specimens of _Calla Ethioptica_, silver poplars, pines, reeds,
+and canes, in wild profusion. Many fruits even, such as pine-apples,
+mangoes, rose apples, &c., which as a rule do not flourish at this
+elevation, grew all round the edges of the basin. Some twigs of a rose
+tree, which, growing luxuriantly in the warmth and moisture, spread across
+the spring, like a green canopy, must have been a second growth of the
+same year. We in fact enjoyed the unusual spectacle of seeing one portion
+of the tree in the flush of its utmost beauty, while the upper and more
+distant branches had not as yet put forth their leaves. The water at the
+hottest point reached 145° F., while the temperature of the air was 75° F.
+It is remarkably clear, has not the slightest taste, and in many
+particulars greatly resembles the springs of Wildbad Gastein. The number
+of patients during the season (October to April) does not exceed from 100
+to 150, the waters being chiefly used in chronic maladies, rheumatic
+affections, scrofula, erysipelas, cutaneous eruptions, and similar
+complaints. Immediately adjoining is a small brook, with a temperature of
+68° F., which rises at the foot of a neighbouring eminence, and has water
+enough during the entire year to keep a mill in constant work.
+
+The only animal inhabiting the spring is the larva of a _Tipularia_, which
+frequents one quarter of the pool where the temperature of the water does
+not exceed 113°.
+
+On the 14th of August, 1857, two shocks of an earthquake were felt in
+rapid succession in Brand Valley, of such violence as to arouse the
+inhabitants out of their sleep, when several of the smaller houses were
+found to have rents and fissures in their walls. The proprietor of the
+bath alleged that the shocks in Brand Valley were much more severe than at
+Worcester, although that town is but six miles distant.
+
+At Brand Valley we took leave of our hospitable companion, Dr. Esselin,
+who presented us with several books on leaving, and set out on an
+excursion to the mission of the Moravian Brethren in Genaaden Dal, in the
+district of Caledon. _En route_ we encountered several families, who came
+from far in the interior of Cape Colony, driving before them enormous
+herds of oxen, some of which were yoked to the waggons that formed the
+caravan, these being fitted up something like dwelling-houses on wheels.
+As night fell, a halt would be called at some selected spot, when the
+draught oxen were unharnessed, a fire lit in the open air, and the evening
+repast prepared. Horses are very rarely used on long journeys, although
+these are in consequence seriously lengthened thereby, especially as it is
+the custom all over the country to unyoke every two or three hours, so as
+to allow the beasts to enjoy a roll on the ground, if only for a few
+minutes at a time.
+
+As neither of our drivers was acquainted with the road we were now to
+pursue, we hired a black guide from Brand Valley, who accompanied us on
+horseback as far as the next farm-house, where we were to pass the night.
+Just as one requires a pilot to take a ship into an insecure or unknown
+harbour, so we now had to avail ourselves of the services of this limber
+young negro, who was an excellent rider, in piloting us through the
+endless morasses and pools of water. Renden was the name of the solitary
+farm (the property of Mr. Pretorius, a landed proprietor, to whom we had
+letters of introduction), where we were to pass the night.
+
+As we approached, we were saluted with the loud barking of a hound that
+had been unchained, and who seemed ready to rush upon his unexpected prey,
+so that we hardly dared to advance one step. At last a man made his
+appearance at the door of the house, with a lantern in his hand, speedily
+followed by the whole family, anxious to learn who could be in the
+neighbourhood at so late an hour. We handed him the letter, which we
+begged him to read, and requested to know whether we could be received for
+the night. We were at once admitted, and speedily found a most cordial
+welcome. We were shown into apartments very plainly furnished, but neat,
+and scrupulously clean, after which we were invited to join the household
+at supper. It was a very numerous family. The father and mother, genuine
+Dutch figures, sat at the head of a long table; next to whom sat the
+son-in-law, who had married the eldest daughter, and then commingled with
+each other, the sons and daughters that were as yet unmarried. They all
+seemed hearty and healthy, and their indurated hands were the best
+diploma of their industry. The youngest son said a short prayer; after
+which venison, potatoes, mutton, vegetables, bread, butter, and cheese
+were set down in huge dishes, besides which two bottles of Cape wine, of
+their own manufacture, went the round of the table. Although this place
+had been only settled four years previously, an immense deal had been
+already accomplished by this stirring, cheerful family to make the soil
+thoroughly productive, and render the house habitable. Even a small garden
+had been laid out in front of the dwelling-house.
+
+The chief article of cultivation in the valley is the grape, for wine
+manufacture, which must in this place return a very handsome profit.
+
+From Renden to Genaaden Dal is a four-hours' journey. The road passes by
+Donker's Hoek, a tolerably high mountain, to ascend the summit of which
+cost our horses some strenuous exertion, although we marched a
+considerable distance on foot. A wide belt of sandstone formation
+presented a marvellous display of flowers, and gave us in little an idea
+of the South African Karroos, a series of terraced clay-patches, estimated
+at from 3000 to 4000 feet high, which, hard and steppe-like in the dry
+season, are speedily transformed in the rainy season into smiling,
+flower-bespangled plains, quite sponge-like under foot, and rich in
+alkaline products.[52] We advanced some six hours before reaching another
+farm-house. This was known as Kleene Islea Plaats (Little Island Farm),
+near which flows the Zonderend River (River Without End), the property of
+a kind and hospitable family of French extraction, whose parents emigrated
+hither from France during the revolution in 1793. As it was Sunday, the
+servants had gone to church, so they could only offer us cold mutton,
+syrup, butter, and bread. Before and after our repast, the devout old lady
+of the house put up a short petition.
+
+[Footnote 52: The English appellation "Karroo" seems to be derived from
+_Karusa_, signifying "hard" in the Hottentot language, and to refer to a
+quality appertaining to the clayey substance of which these terraces are
+composed, by virtue of which the red clay, strongly impregnated with iron,
+and mixed with sand, becomes in the dry season as hard as burnt clay.]
+
+Here, too, we remarked that those born in the country of European parents
+are called Africans: only the English form an exception to this rule, and
+remain with persistent patriotic obstinacy, "Englishmen."
+
+The journey from Kleene Islea Plaats to Genaaden Dal is extremely
+picturesque. One first catches sight of this retired Moravian settlement
+only when actually entering the place itself, embowered as it is among
+lofty trees. What a surprise, when, still fancying one's self at a
+considerable distance from the village, on reaching the end of a beautiful
+valley at the entrance to Bavian's Kloef, one sweeps by a circuit into the
+very heart of the settlement. We alighted at what is called "The
+Lodgment," a house set apart for visitors, and conducted by a brother, in
+conformity with the laws of the community.
+
+The dwellings of the Hottentots lie scattered among the rising grounds in
+the neighbourhood, and with their poverty-stricken aspect impart a
+somewhat melancholy impression. These are built of loam, low in the roof,
+as though intended for a stunted race of men, and rarely have windows, so
+that the door is, generally speaking, the largest aperture in the entire
+building. Our Malay driver laughed at them, and called them _oete kripp_
+(oxen stalls).
+
+[Illustration: HOTTENTOT HUTS AT GENAADENDAL.]
+
+There seem to be three distinct kinds of these dwellings, which apparently
+indicate so many grades of social and pecuniary consideration among the
+resident Hottentot families. The first sort, which consists simply of a
+single apartment, serving at once for kitchen, work-shop, and sleeping
+place, and receiving air and light through a narrow, low-pitched door-way,
+is that most usually met with, and may not unaptly be compared to a
+bee-hive. The next class is of a better description, and may at once and
+definitely be distinguished from the first-mentioned, in so far as it
+possesses a second room, which, if dark and windowless, is at any rate
+partitioned off, and serves as a sleeping apartment. Finally, the third
+kind, which can only be said to be the least poor-looking, consists of
+one large, almost empty chamber, for occupation during the day, with wings
+on either side, one of which is used as a kitchen, the other as a
+bed-room. The wretched ventilation, and damp, moist location of these
+habitations, combined with the bad quality of food, may be regarded as the
+main causes of the unfavourable state of health of the coloured portion of
+the inhabitants of Genaaden Dal, among whom, especially as regards the
+female portion, pulmonary complaints are rife.
+
+We were provided with letters of introduction to the Superintendent of the
+Community, Dr. Köbling, as also to the Physician and Pharmaceutist, Dr.
+Roser, a Würtemberger by birth, and experienced a most cordial reception.
+We availed ourselves of the last hours of declining day to make an
+excursion to the hills, in the country immediately adjacent, so as to
+command at a glance the entire colony. The principal buildings, the
+Church, the school, the workshops, the warehouses, and the dwellings of
+the missionaries, are assembled in a quadrangular open place, to which a
+number of lofty, massive, leafy, venerable oaks impart a sombre, but
+poetical, appearance, eminently characteristic of the community. All the
+buildings are of a uniform dingy-grey tint. Close in the rear of these
+buildings is a large garden, which reaches as far as what is called
+"Bavian's Kloef" (defile), in which, even at present, apes, antelopes, and
+zebras, abound. Near the kitchen-garden is the cemetery of the community,
+which seems to be used by meditative brethren as a favourite resort and
+promenade.
+
+This settlement, situated at the entrance of a mountain defile, at the
+foot of an immense sandstone range, of from 3000 to 4000 feet high, was
+founded in the year 1787, by a brother of the persuasion, named George
+Schmidt, from Moravia, who settled fifty-five miles east of Cape Town,
+near Sargent's River, with a number of Hottentots, whom he began to
+convert to Christianity, and called the station "Bavian's Kloef." From the
+year 1806, the settlement assumed the beautiful name of "Genaaden Dal"
+(Vale of Benevolence), so exquisitely correspondent with the benevolent
+exertions of the brotherhood. It at present numbers 3100 souls, mostly a
+race crossed between Hottentots and Mozambique negroes, of the latter of
+whom a considerable number have settled here since the Slave Emancipation
+Act of 1826. The settlers are partly proprietors of the land, partly
+artisans, cutlers, waggon-makers, tanners, carpenters, millers, &c. In the
+workshops the most exemplary cleanliness and neatness are imperatively
+insisted on. At the Great Exhibition, held in London in 1851, the
+wood-work of the Hottentot carpenters of Genaaden Dal received "Honourable
+Mention," and this elegant testimonial in recognition of their efforts now
+hangs, framed and glazed, in the library hall of the community. It
+somewhat surprised us that the cutlers did not receive, in their section,
+a similar distinction, since, in that department of industry, the
+Hottentots produce articles, which, so far as concerns quality and
+cheapness, are really astounding. The workpeople receive a fixed weekly
+payment, which they may expend as they please. The net proceeds, however,
+of the various articles manufactured belong to the community, and are
+expended in defraying the expenses of, and supporting, the mission. The
+inhabitants of Genaaden Dal are closely connected, by religious ties, with
+the community; and only those who profess the principles of the Moravian
+brotherhood are permitted to settle among them.
+
+The field-labourers, who hire themselves out to labour elsewhere, are
+frequently absent from the settlement for months at a time, and return to
+Genaaden Dal immediately after the completion of seed-time or harvest. It
+is significant that these labourers regard this period of emancipation, as
+a sort of relaxation from the severe discipline and rules to which they
+are subjected in the religious community.
+
+The principal articles of food of the inhabitants consist of maize, beans,
+pumpkins, rice, fruits, tea, coffee, and occasionally mutton. Wine is
+strictly prohibited throughout the settlement, and when a member of the
+_Novara_ Expedition, never imagining that this interdict extended to
+strangers as well, desired the attendant at the house we were occupying to
+fetch a bottle of sherry, that individual regarded him with as
+horror-stricken an air as though he had asked him to participate in some
+crime.
+
+Although the first settlers in Genaaden Dal were pure Hottentots, not more
+than five or six at present speak the idiom of their fathers, the rest
+knowing only the Dutch tongue. The Superintendent had the kindness to
+allow an old blind man, of the name of Sebastian Hendrik, to be presented
+to us, born in the colony in 1775, of Hottentot parents, "_een opregt
+Hottentot_" (an out-and-out Hottentot), as he called himself, and who
+still could speak a number of phrases in his mother tongue, with its
+extraordinary "clicking" sounds; but, on the other hand, no longer had the
+slightest recollection of the customs, usages, or proverbs of that nation
+to which he belonged by birth. In the library of the community, where this
+conversation took place, there were also shown to us numerous sketches by
+Hottentot and Caffre lads, which gave great hope of future excellence. It
+is an especially gratifying indication of intellectual progress, that
+several works of natural history are to be found on the shelves of the
+library.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH AND MISSION HOUSES OF THE MORAVIAN SETTLEMENT AT
+GENAADENDAL.]
+
+We also found time to listen to the singing in the church, quite a plain
+wooden building, erected in 1800, with white-washed walls, a spacious
+gallery, and an elegant organ, the gift of a benevolent lady of Hamburg,
+who spent some months of the year 1843 at Cape Town in search of health,
+and took an opportunity of visiting the Moravian brethren at Genaaden Dal.
+One of the missionaries sat in the middle of the chapel at a table covered
+with green cloth, and gave out, verse by verse, a hymn in the Dutch
+language, which was afterwards sung, with accompaniment by the organ, by
+the entire community assemble in the edifice. The men and women sat apart
+from each other, on smooth wooden benches, the former on the left, the
+latter on the right of the officiating minister. The chapel was only
+illuminated with a few tallow candles; but the devotional feeling of the
+community seemed to gain by this simple unostentatious ritual, and the
+mysterious solemn obscurity of their place of congregational worship.
+
+Next morning, 12th October, some of the brethren paid us the attention of
+examining in our presence the scholars of the Seminary for Teachers, so
+that we might personally satisfy ourselves of their progress in the
+various branches of education. This academy for the education of suitable
+instructors, was originally established in 1838, through the generous
+assistance of a Saxon nobleman, Count Schönburg, and year by year since,
+has been so liberally assisted by that benevolent nobleman, that its
+future prosperity seems fairly established. At present there are in the
+seminary 14 pupils (Hottentots, Caffres, and half-breeds). Since the year
+of its establishment, 50 young persons in all have been sent out hence; of
+whom, however, only one half proved to be available for the duties of
+teachers. Up to the year 1856, twenty-two pupils were already at work in
+the service of the community, fourteen had been rejected as unsuitable,
+and fourteen were still in the institute. They entered at from ten to
+fifteen years of age, remained within its walls six years for instruction,
+when they were clothed and maintained, and thereafter, without further
+obligations to the society which had educated them, were dispatched into
+the most remote districts of the colony as teachers and apostles of
+Christianity. The examination of the pupils of the seminary took place at
+the Library Hall, which boasts a portrait of a highly meritorious brother,
+the venerable C. J. Latrobe, who, in the year 1815-16, visited South
+Africa as a missionary, and, two years later published, in London, his
+very remarkable book of travels. The examination commenced with a
+performance on the piano by a Mestizo lad of about sixteen, son of a
+Mulatto father by a Hottentot mother. This youth displayed a decided
+talent for music, coupled with truly admirable execution; and besides the
+piano, played the organ, the violin, and the violoncello. Next, a variety
+of questions in geography and history were put to the pupils present.
+These consisted chiefly of easy intelligible questions, principally
+relating to England. Those examined were surprisingly well acquainted with
+the history of Liverpool, London, Manchester, Dublin, &c., and could
+enumerate many particulars about the Thames and Westminster Abbey. What
+proved most disagreeable, was the singular custom that prevailed, of all
+the pupils answering at once, each hoping, by out-clamouring his fellow,
+to prove his intimate acquaintance with the subject under discussion. The
+examiner, for example, put a question to a scholar, whereupon all the
+pupils yelled out the reply in chorus. But it was, on the whole,
+astonishing, and indeed eminently suggestive, to hear Hottentots, Caffres,
+and negroes, at the extreme southernmost part of Africa, speaking of
+England, and her influence over the destinies of humanity, as a
+commercial, maritime, and industrial power. Already the youth of the
+settlement are thoroughly interpenetrated with esteem and affection for
+the mother country and its mighty people. As a _finale_, the assembled
+pupils sang a Dutch _Bergmann's Gruss_, "The Miner's Welcome," and one of
+Mendelssohn's delightful songs.
+
+Before we quitted Genaaden Dal we breakfasted with the missionaries. They
+are all married, and manage their households in common, and accordingly
+partake of their various meals together, each with his family, all seated
+at one table, one of their wives attending to change dishes and wait at
+the table. Nowhere are any particular qualifications to be remarked, and
+it is difficult to conceive more thorough harmony than exists among the
+unpretending, yet zealously religious missionaries of Genaaden Dal.
+
+As we were preparing for our departure, Dr. Roser unexpectedly packed up a
+number of objects of natural history and scientific interest, which he
+kindly presented to the Imperial expedition as a _souvenir_ of Genaaden
+Dal. Besides these, there were also given to us two valuable little
+books,--one a small work upon the Nicobar Islands, written about the
+beginning of this century by a Moravian brother of the name of Gottfried
+Hensel; the other a treatise composed by the excellent Dr. Roser himself,
+upon the pharmaceutics and natural history of Genaaden Dal. With respect
+to the various substances chewed as stimulants, or intoxicants, by the
+Hottentots, in order to deprive themselves of sensation, or rouse
+themselves to a state of high excitability, we found the following
+particulars in this interesting essay. That most in use is composed of the
+bruised leaves of the "_Leonotis Leonurus_." This plant, which grows in
+great quantity in and beyond the Genaaden Dal, is called by the natives
+"Dagga," as also frequently, "Tacha or Takka," and this variation in
+pronunciation is very probably the reason that we find in Berghaus's
+"_Völker des Erdballs_" (Races of the Globe), this celebrated smoke-weed,
+marked as "Donha." What the same author says of certain stimulating
+properties of the plant may well be considered as an exaggeration. It is
+curious how the properties of this plant seem to be inextricably mingled
+with the destinies of the Hottentots. In many places it has been
+extirpated, in order more readily to wean the aborigines from the practice
+of chewing: at other places again, "_Leonotis Leonurus_" is expressly
+planted in order to attract the Hottentots, and so supply any deficiency
+in hands for labour, reckless of the moral consequences. Another narcotic,
+and the most widely prevalent, is the wild hemp (_Canabis Sativa_), the
+dried leaves of which are smoked by the natives. Dr. Juritz, one of the
+most respectable apothecaries in Cape Town, assured us he had been
+compelled, during a previous residence at Stellenbosch, where he was
+engaged in his business, to keep always on hand in his store a large
+quantity of wild hemp for sale to the natives.
+
+The poison with which the Bushmen tip their arrows, rendering them such
+dangerous and terrible weapons, is extracted from the "_Cestrum
+venenatum_."[53]
+
+[Footnote 53: The Dyaks of Borneo poison their arrows with the juice of
+_Strychnos Tieuté_ and _Antiaris Toxicaria_ (Upas).]
+
+Among the animal products of Genaaden Dal of importance in a scientific
+point of view is Hyrazeuma, a substance obtained from the urine of the
+Cape Marmot (_Hyrax Capensis_). It is of a dark-brown colour, somewhat
+tenacious, and nearly hard, of a very penetrating odour, and is found in
+cavities resembling a molehill. This article is made use of with much
+effect in hysterical complaints by the Hottentots. Dr. Roser is of
+opinion, that this Cape Marmot is in all probability the same animal which
+Martin Luther, in Leviticus, c. xi, v. 5, and Proverbs, c. xxx, v. 26, has
+translated by the word "_kaninchen_" (conies).
+
+On our way from Genaaden Dal to Caledon, to which there is an excellent
+level road, we perceived a large number of silver poplars, with pendent
+nests of finches. On a single tree we counted more than forty such pendent
+nests, constructed in a very singular manner.
+
+Caledon is a cheerful, ambitious little town, important as the centre of
+the wool trade, as also for the thermal springs in the neighbourhood.
+These, situated about two English miles outside the town, on a rising
+ground, in a romantic and highly attractive neighbourhood, are impregnated
+with iron, and of a considerable temperature. Even in the bath-house,
+distant about a mile from the source of the spring, a thermometer held in
+a stone trough, filled to overflowing, marked from 100°·4 to 104° Fahr. At
+their respective sources the one spring has a temperature of 116°·6 Fahr.
+and the other 114°·8 Fahr. The colour of the water is ochre yellow. From
+the terrace of the bath-house a rather extensive landscape opens to the
+view, backed by a splendid range of mountains, including the Tower of
+Babel, as the inhabitants have christened the highest peak in this
+vicinity.
+
+Caledon has 600 inhabitants. About twenty years ago there were not more
+than ten bales of wool grown in the entire district. At present about
+800,000 lbs. are shipped annually. One Merino sheep supplies from 1 lb. to
+1-1/2 lb. of wool, worth from 1_s._ 2_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._ sterling per
+pound. Besides Caledon, the principal wool districts of Cape Colony are
+Swellendam, Beaufort, and Graaf-Reinet. All these districts united produce
+yearly about 15,000,000 lbs. of wool, worth about _£_1,000,000 sterling.
+Within two years the wool produce of the entire colony has increased 30
+per cent., and during last year a strenuous and very costly experiment has
+been made to introduce the Angora breed, with the intention of increasing
+the wool-producing powers of the less fleecy race by a judicious cross
+with the native species.
+
+The road to Somerset-West leads over the high and picturesque Hauw-Hoek
+Pass and Sir Lowry's Pass; the latter is very steep, and parts of it are
+hardly, if at all, inferior in extent and variety of landscape to those
+presented by the Styrian Alps. At the culminating point of the latter
+pass, which surpasses even Paine's Kloef in height and width, one stands
+as upon the ruins of a lofty tower, from which the eye can range at will
+over the entire country beneath. South-east and eastward towers the
+Hauw-Hoek Pass, while southwards and westwards the charming Lowry's Vale,
+and far in the distance the smiling settlement of Somerset-West come into
+view, while all around, farther than the eye can reach, are luxuriant
+pasturages, that only wait to be settled and cultivated in order to
+produce magnificent returns.
+
+Somerset-West, a prettily-built, and very charmingly situated settlement,
+already supports so considerable a traffic with the capital that a daily
+omnibus has proved a remunerative speculation to the promoters.
+
+We now proceeded to Zandvliet, the property of one of the oldest and most
+highly considered families in the colony, named Cloete, where we spent the
+night. With these genial kindly people we soon felt ourselves as entirely
+at home as if with our own families; we sang, laughed, and frolicked, till
+far into the night.
+
+The following morning we drove to a hill, about a mile and a half distant
+from Zandvliet, known as Macassar Downs, on which is the spot of
+interment, (Krammat or Brammat), of a Malay prophet.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB OF A MALAY PROPHET AT ZANDVLIET.]
+
+This individual, so honoured in death, was, if we are to believe the
+Malays, a direct descendant of Mahomet, named Sheikh Joseph, who, expelled
+from Batavia by the Dutch Government for political reasons, settled in the
+colony about a century and a half ago, and died and was buried in the
+neighbourhood of Zandvliet. An especial deputation came over from Malacca
+to Cape Colony to fetch away the corpse of the defunct prophet, for
+conveyance to the land of his birth; but at the disinterment it happened
+that the little finger of the prophet, in spite of the most persevering
+research, could nowhere be found. This circumstance appeared to those
+simple believers sufficient reason for erecting a monument over the spot
+in which the finger of a Malay prophet lay hid from view. Even to this day
+the Malays from time to time perform a pilgrimage to the Colony and
+celebrate their religious ceremonies at the Mausoleum. Four followers of
+the prophet are buried with him, two of them Mahometan priests, who are
+regarded with much veneration by the Malays. An extensive flight of stone
+steps leads to the tomb, the exterior of which is very insignificant, and,
+but for a small pointed turret, hardly differs from an ordinary
+dwelling-house. On entering, a low-roofed vault is visible, a sort of
+front outhouse, which rather disfigures the façade, and much more
+resembles a cellar than the portal of a Mausoleum. Above the arch of this
+vault an Arabic inscription has been engraved with a stylus; but this is
+so painted over in brick colour that it has already become almost
+illegible. Judging by the few words that have been deciphered, it seems to
+consist of the first propositions of the Koran.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM.]
+
+The inner room, provided on two sides with modern glazed windows at
+irregular intervals, is about the size of an ordinary room of 12 feet
+long, 9 wide, and 7 high. In the middle rises the monument, to which
+access is had by some more brick steps. Immense quantities of unwashed
+white linen cloth are heaped upon it, which seem occasionally sprinkled
+with a brown odoriferous liquid (_dupa_). As at the head of Sheikh Joseph,
+so at his feet several figures, resembling those in enamel used to
+ornament tarts, are drawn upon the linen cloth with the overflowings of
+the unguent. These have undoubtedly been formed accidentally, and it
+appears wrong and unfair to attribute to them any more recondite
+significance. The monument rests upon four wooden pillars, with pyramidal
+pinnacles or ornaments, and is richly decorated with fine white muslin,
+which gives to the whole very much the appearance of an old-fashioned
+English "fourposter," with its costly drapery and curtains. While the
+curtains are spread out all around, several small green and white
+bannerets stand at the upper and lower end of the sarcophagus. The whole
+interior is, as it were, impregnated with the incense which devout Malay
+pilgrims from time to time burn here, especially after the forty days'
+fast (Ramadan), or leave behind upon the steps of the tomb in flasks or in
+paper-boxes. On such occasions, they always bring wax-candles and linen
+cloth as an offering, with the latter of which they deck the tomb afresh,
+so that a perfect mountain of white linen rises above the stone floor.
+During their devotions they unceasingly kiss this white mass of stuff, and
+as they are continually chewing tobacco, this filthy habit produces
+disgustingly loathsome stains.
+
+On the same hill which boasts the tomb of Sheikh Joseph, there are also,
+in ground that is common property, nine other graves of eminent Malays,
+enclosed with carefully-selected stones, and likewise covered over with
+large broad strips of bleached linen cloth, protected by stones from any
+injury by weather or violence. At the head and foot of each individual
+interred, is a single stone of larger size. Formerly the black inhabitants
+of the neighbourhood made use of this store of linen cloth to make shirts
+for themselves, without further thought upon the propriety of the matter.
+Latterly, however, a shrewd Malay priest spread a report that one of these
+ebony linen stealers had lost all the fingers off one hand, since which
+the graves of those departed worthies remain inviolate and unprofaned.
+
+At the foot of the hill are some small half-fallen-in buildings, near a
+large hall, painted white, red, and yellow, consisting of a small
+apartment and a kitchen, the whole in a most dirty, neglected, and
+desolate condition. At this point the Moslems must have accomplished
+certain prayers, before they can climb the hill and proceed to visit the
+tomb. Over the door of this singular house of prayer some words are
+likewise engraved in the Arabic character, which, however, are now
+entirely illegible.
+
+On quitting the Malay Krammat, we next undertook a tolerably difficult
+walk to the Downs or sand-dunes, which at this point extend along the
+entire coast line, on which the wax-berry shrub, as already mentioned,
+grows wild in vast quantities, and visibly prevents the further
+encroachments of the moving sand. The Eerst Rivier (First River) may be
+regarded as the limit of demarcation between the sand-dunes and the soil
+adapted for vegetation.
+
+The same evening the naturalists of the Expedition left hospitable
+Zandvliet, though not till after they had been presented by Herr Cloete
+with a splendid collection of fruits indigenous to Port Natal. Having been
+everywhere received with distinction, and enjoyed every sort of assistance
+in our researches, we set out on our return so richly freighted with
+objects of natural history, that the waggon, as we drove through the wide
+streets of Cape Town, presented such a various and substantial assortment
+of each as spoke volumes for the success of our journey. Every available
+corner was called into requisition to dispose of our prizes--even between
+the open windows hung suspended the bottle-shaped nests of the finch, and
+the slender sticks that supported the tilt were entwined with gigantic
+festoons of flowers. In a word, the whole waggon, with its variegated
+contents, resembled a holiday-van on its return from a country excursion,
+so gaily and cheerfully was it decorated.
+
+During our residence in the Cape colony, severe depression existed among
+the agricultural inhabitants of the Western and Eastern districts, in
+consequence of an epidemic which, within two years, had carried off 64,850
+horses (draught horses, mares, and foals), of the value of £525,000
+sterling.[54] Many landowners in consequence entirely gave up rearing
+horses, and turned their attention almost exclusively to the breeding of
+sheep. The visitations of this malady are by no means of late
+introduction, but hitherto they had made their appearance at such long
+intervals, that but little attention was paid to them and people regarded
+their return without much alarm. This disease of the horse, usually
+endemic in Cape Colony, assumed every twenty years, owing to some
+inexplicable causes, an epidemic character, and on those occasions
+extended over an extensive area, as happened with extraordinary regularity
+in the years 1780, 1801, 1819, 1839, and 1854. Hitherto no further
+precaution was taken, than, so soon as the disease appeared, to drive the
+horses from the grass pastures to their stables or covered sheds, and
+there supply them with fodder, the night dew being considered a main cause
+of the complaint. A resident in Stellenbosch, indeed, maintained that the
+dew which was deposited during the continuance of the disease tasted quite
+bitter, and was of an unusual brownish tinge. Singular to say, not the
+slightest symptoms of illness manifested themselves in the swine, dogs,
+and birds of prey which devoured the carcases of horses that died of the
+disease, while the consumption, whether boiled or roasted, of mutton
+which was ever so slightly tainted with the mere germ of this malady,
+never failed to produce the most mischievous consequences on the human
+species. According to Dr. Livingstone the same malignant ulcerous
+imposthumes were produced, if even sound portions were used of the carcase
+of an animal that had died of this complaint. These observations, founded
+on innumerable examples, run counter to the opinion of the French
+physicians and physiologists, that the malignity of the poison in such
+cases becomes neutralized by the process of cooking. Considering the
+importance of the subject to a land-holding colony, it could hardly fail
+that numerous individuals should devote themselves to elucidating the
+causes of this devastating epidemic; but it must ever remain a striking
+and significant fact, illustrative of the high standard of cultivation in
+Cape Colony, that within a very few years 112 different authors published
+treatises respecting this complaint among the horses. The result of these
+numerous researches was, that the malady is epidemic, but not contagious;
+that horses driven into the stable before sunset, and not permitted to go
+out to pasture till the dew has evaporated off the grass, are as a rule
+exempted from attack; that those horses which are kept at night in open
+pounds, or in places where there are heaps of dung, take the disease in a
+milder form than if suffered to roam at large day and night; lastly, that
+horses for which no covered shelter can be provided, may with great
+advantage be sent to hilly localities and dry runs of land. The practical
+remedy which was most resorted to, consisted in immediate and prolonged
+bleeding, pushed to actual exhaustion of the animal, in the first stage of
+the malady, as also the exhibition of 1 drachm of tartar emetic and 2
+drachms of calomel, or, at a later stage, of 30 grains of tartar emetic
+twice a day.
+
+[Footnote 54: At the same time 92,793 head of cattle (draught oxen, cows,
+and calves) fell a sacrifice to a disease of the lungs, and we were
+assured that the original cause of this terribly fatal malady
+(_Pleuropneumonia_) is attributable to a bull having been imported from
+Holland, in the year 1854, in a diseased state. The English public will
+remember the severe panic under which Continental graziers, and others
+connected with the cattle trade, laboured during the years 1854-55 and the
+commencement of 1856.]
+
+[Illustration: TSETSE FLY.]
+
+Another appalling scourge of the settlers in the south-west district of
+Cape Colony is a minute, almost imperceptible insect, of terrible omen,
+the _tsetse-fly_ (_Glossina morsitans_), a puncture from which produces
+such terrible destruction among horses and cattle, that several runs of
+land are uninhabitable--nay, even the mere passing through districts which
+they frequent, proves fatal to the draught beasts of the caravans. This
+insect is principally encountered in copses and brushwood, very seldom in
+the open country, and is about the size of a common house fly, but with
+wings a little longer. In colour it resembles the honey bee. The tsetse is
+uncommonly active, and usually escapes all attempts to catch it with the
+hand; but in the cool of the morning or evening it is less active and
+quick in its movements. The poison which it carries is so powerful that
+the bite of three or four individuals is sufficient to kill the most
+powerful ox. Many animals, especially such as appear perfectly sound or in
+the best condition, die speedily after being bitten, but the majority are
+ill for an entire week, and usually become blind before death. One
+remarkable circumstance is that the bite of these insects is fatal to
+dogs, even when fed with milk, while calves and other young animals, so
+long as they are sucking, remain perfectly exempt from the malefic powers
+of the tsetse. It is especially noticed that the danger seems to be
+confined to domesticated animals, while such as are wild or only half
+reclaimed, such as buffaloes, zebras, jackals, oxen, horses, and wild
+dogs, have not the slightest occasion to dread this insect; nay more, it
+attacks man himself without the least ill consequences. The sensation
+which their bite produces on the hand, or other portion of the human
+frame, would be confounded by any one travelling in the tsetse district,
+with that of another minute and most troublesome, though by no means
+dangerous insect, the flea. Fortunately the tsetse-fly has an appointed
+circuit to range in, in the south-west of the Cape Colony, which it never
+changes or extends. The landowner may erect his cattle-pound on one side
+of the stream in perfect security, although the opposite bank may resound
+with the hum of swarms of these insects. When the natives, who are
+acquainted with the localities in which the tsetse-fly abides, are
+compelled, as they constantly are, to shift their ground, and, in changing
+their pastures, to transgress upon the district of the tsetse, they
+usually select the moonlight nights of winter, when the insect, during the
+quiet hours of the cold season, is not likely to molest their charge.
+
+Many travellers whose draught oxen and horses have been killed by the
+ravages of this insect, are annually not merely frustrated in their
+journey, but, it appears, have their personal safety seriously imperilled
+by being deprived of all means of locomotion. Anderson, in his admirable
+work upon "Lake Ngami," relates that some twenty aborigines of the Griqua
+race, who had been elephant-hunting in the north-west of that lake, and
+were provided with three large waggons and numerous oxen and horses,
+found, on their return to their encampment, that they had lost the whole
+of their cattle-team by the bite of the tsetse. So, too, Dr. Livingstone,
+during a short journey over a district frequented by the tsetse, lost
+forty-three strong and useful oxen, although by dint of great vigilance
+scarcely twenty flies had been able to settle among the entire herd. We
+have dwelt at length on the description of the ravages caused by this so
+much dreaded insect, with the view of pointing out the numerous and
+amazing difficulties which present themselves to the traveller or settler
+in certain localities, and how often not only wild and rapacious animals,
+but even small, hardly perceptible insects endanger the life of the
+wanderer, and render large tracts of lands valueless for settlement.[55]
+
+[Footnote 55: Most valuable comprehensive details, as to the natural
+history of the tsetse-fly, its ravages, and its migration into the
+districts which it frequents, are to be found in the "Transactions of the
+Royal Society," Volume XX., page 148; "Proceedings of the London
+Geological Society," page 217; Charles John Anderson's "Lake Ngami; or,
+Explorations and Discoveries during Four Years' Wanderings in the Wilds of
+Western Africa," London, 1856; Dr. Livingstone's "Missionary Travels and
+Researches in South Africa," London, 1857. The agent of the London
+Missionary Society at the Cape of Good Hope, the estimable, highly
+respected Dr. Thompson, gave us a small piece of a root called _fly-root_,
+which is considered to grow from a parasite, and a decoction of which is
+reckoned by the aborigines an antidote to the bite of the tsetse-fly.
+Unfortunately the requisite material was not in sufficient quantity to
+admit of determining the plant itself, or of instituting further
+researches with it.]
+
+No stranger can well leave Cape Town without having visited Constantia,
+the chief seat of the wine cultivation of the country. Accordingly we had
+a day of exceedingly pleasant relaxation while visiting High Constantia.
+Mr. James Mosenthal, the very hospitable Austrian Consul, had carefully
+selected the most beautiful spot in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town,
+the charming residence of his friend Mynheer Van Reenen, at which to get
+up a splendid _fête champêtre_ on an extensive scale, in honour of the
+visit of this the first man-of-war that had borne the flag of our country
+into these remote seas. The entire staff of our frigate was invited, and
+over a hundred guests, comprising the flower of the fair sex of Cape Town,
+took part in the festivities. Immense four-horse coaches conveyed the
+company in the forenoon to the hill of Constantia. The company wandered at
+leisure under the gigantic oak trees, or in the beautifully laid-out
+garden of this extensive domain, and after a sumptuous _déjeuner_, the
+majority set to dancing. A small orchestra of stringed instruments played
+alternately with the ship's band in the garden, and in the tastefully
+decorated apartment. Those who did not care to dance, or whom a burning
+afternoon sun prevented from walking in the open air, might escape into
+cool and most elegant cellars, where our hospitable entertainer had stored
+large quantities of "spiritual treasures." The costly nectar which the
+Cape, and especially High Constantia, produces, finds its way but seldom
+to European tables, because the quantity produced is very much below the
+demand; for although the first cultivation of the grape for wine dates in
+Cape Colony so far back as 1668, the wine manufacture has only of late
+years expanded in a marked degree,--viz., 45 per cent. from 1855 to 1856,
+and 70 per cent. from 1856 to 1857, so that at present the entire quantity
+produced of red and white Cape wine (Pontac and Frontignac) may be stated
+at 24,000 pipes, worth £380,000 sterling.
+
+At the conclusion of the _fête_ we sat down to a splendid banquet in the
+open air, in a shady avenue, so as to admit of all the guests sitting at
+one long table. At the upper end, under the umbrageous boughs of some
+venerable oaks, that towered like a canopy overhead, fluttered the flags
+of England and Austria. The mayor of Cape Town occupied the chair; the
+toasts customary on such occasions were given and responded to, allusion
+being made to the pleasure felt at the arrival of an Austrian man-of-war,
+as also to the gratitude of the members of the Expedition for the hearty
+welcome prepared for them, and expressing an earnest hope that both
+Governments may ever continue faithfully allied, as both nations are, by
+descent, sympathy, and intellectual pursuits. A few days after this
+splendid entertainment, we returned to Simon's Bay, whence the _Novara_
+was already preparing to sail. The several weeks' stay of the frigate at
+the little settlement of Simon's Bay, together with a certain quantity of
+repairs, had called forth a most unwonted briskness of business. Amid so
+circumscribed a population, the sudden influx of more than three hundred
+additional consumers, with their varying wants, speedily made itself
+perceptible in every class of the community, the more so as most of the
+heavy stores for the voyage were bought here, so that the sum set in
+circulation during these few weeks amounted to some £2,000. At the same
+time the Expedition were readily permitted to contribute a mite towards
+building the Catholic Church in Simon's Town, and to present some priests'
+garments, altar cloths, and church fittings, which had been intended by
+the Austrian Government for distribution among four Catholic Missionaries
+in the various quarters of the globe visited.
+
+Some members of the Expedition also set out on an excursion some thirty
+nautical miles, to where the peninsula of the Cape stretches out to the
+real Cape of Good Hope itself--a longer, more difficult, but also more
+interesting expedition, which gave fresher impressions, and conveyed a
+pretty accurate and more just idea of the physical features of the
+Peninsula of the Cape, its vegetation, zoology, and geological structure,
+than could be obtained by a cursory examination, of the natural features
+of a large portion of South Africa. For whoever has clambered up the torn,
+broken, rocky masses of Table Mountain, worn out and eaten away by the
+atmosphere, and has scrambled among its wild hollows, with its forests of
+the greyish green _Pratea Gargentea_ at his feet, amid its far extending
+rocky plateaux, full of stagnant water-pools; whoever has strayed thence
+among the wine-producing terraced hills of Constantia, with their rich
+vegetation; over the sandy table-lands backed by rocky ridges, over
+streams of copper-coloured water, and the boggy tracts that extend to the
+extreme south-west point, as far as the Sandstone rocks, 800 feet high,
+which, descending sheer into the tempest-tossed, fearsome, boiling ocean,
+constitutes the actual Cape of Good Hope--obtains a tolerably just and
+correct idea of the appearance of Southern Africa for one hundred miles
+into the interior, and along the coast line, 400 English miles in length,
+which stretches from St. Helena Bay as far as the River Samtoos, west of
+Algoa Bay. All is sandstone or clay-slate, with occasional granitic knobs
+cropping out; no trees, but such as are planted in clumps around the
+sparsely scattered farms, conspicuous from an immense distance; while, on
+the other hand, in spring, an indescribable flush of blossoms and flowers,
+and instead of trees, millions of ant-hills, with their regularly shaped
+cones from three to four feet high, impart a peculiar character to the
+landscape of South Africa. But on the so-called Lowlands of Algoa Bay,
+beyond the River Samtoos, Nature assumes an entirely different character
+in her forest vegetation. Unfortunately, the original designs of the
+geologists of the Expedition, of Examining the petrified treasures of this
+renowned district, fell through, which was all the more to be regretted as
+this geological Eldorado promised a great accession to our collection.
+
+During our stay at Simon's Town, we also experimented with our
+astronomical instruments, which, at our next station, St. Paul's Island,
+were to be brought fully into requisition for the first time. On this
+occasion, as on many others, the unfailing courtesy and kindness of the
+renowned astronomer and director of the Observatory of Cape Town, Mr.
+Thomas Maclear, assisted us most materially in the observations for
+comparison with our own physical instruments.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.--FROM THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE TO ST. PAUL'S ISLAND.]
+
+On the morning of the 26th October it fell calm, changing to variable
+breezes and light puffs of wind, that made it doubtful whether we could
+sail that day, as we needed a catspaw from the West in order to weigh
+anchor. From the English line of battle-ship _Boscawen_, there floated
+across the bay as we worked out, the Austrian National Anthem, played as a
+farewell--a graceful mark of recognition--which was replied to by our band
+performing the sister hymn, "God Save the Queen."
+
+We steered between Noah's Ark and Roman Rock, coasting along till we made
+Whittle Rock, but the wind shifting, we were, ere long, compelled to tack.
+Had we not seized the favourable moment to get away, it would, a couple of
+hours later, have been impossible to put to sea, as the wind sprang up
+from the S.E. and blew fresh. Towards sundown, the sky cleared up, and we
+once more caught sight of the serrated outline of the southernmost point,
+with its desolate, worn, hollowed-out, rocky masses, which, however, with
+the _souvenirs_ of the hearty reception that had been accorded us in Cape
+Town seemed on this occasion much more home-like and habitable. All of
+us, indeed, carried with us in our breasts the most cordial and agreeable
+reminiscences of the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+In spite of many drawbacks and deficiencies of physical requisites, which
+oppose the rapid development of its natural resources, Cape Colony
+possesses in its healthy climate its valuable indigenous products, and its
+free political institutions, a guarantee for its perhaps gradual, but on
+that account more substantial, progress. It is a favourable specimen of a
+prosperous agricultural colony able to maintain itself, whose inhabitants,
+seeking in the peaceable cultivation of the soil their sole reward, are
+exposed to none of those ruinous reverses of fortune, which make life in
+those lands that are rich only in a metallic currency so stormy and
+uncomfortable, and render their future so problematical.
+
+A colony, which already employs annually, in its commerce all over the
+world, a thousand ships, which has a trade valued at nearly £2,000,000
+sterling, and before long will be in a position to export 30,000,000 lbs.
+of wool a year, besides an unlimited quantity of wines already in great
+demand, whose soil, owing to its prolific nature, returns, under human
+cultivation, crops of one hundred-fold, while in its unexplored districts
+as many additional vegetable and mineral treasures lie unavailable as yet--
+such a colony carries in itself the germs of a splendid development into a
+great and most enviable future. Provided with laws of a most liberal
+scope, and institutions corresponding to the spirit of our times, which
+leave each colonist entirely at liberty to develope his powers and
+capabilities in whatever direction he pleases, Cape Colony must, ere long,
+stand forth as the pattern colony for all others in the different
+countries beyond sea,--a majestic monument of the reward so justly due to
+the English nation for its policy in promoting the moral and material
+progress of mankind in the most remote corners of the earth.
+
+We lay a southerly course in order to strike the regular Westerly winds,
+which we might hope to fall in with in the neighbourhood of 40° S., and
+already we again saw our old friends, the albatross, the cape pigeon, and
+the stormy petrel, in innumerable quantities.
+
+By the evening of the 28th we had attained our limit in the South-west,
+but the West winds had not yet made their appearance, so that we had to
+contend till 1st November with baffling light winds alternating with
+calms. At length in 37° 30' S. and 18° 4' E., we encountered Westerly
+breezes, which, ere long, freshened, veered to the southward, and
+compelled us to shorten sail. We were at this time not quite as yet in the
+zone of West winds, but had to do with variable winds; which, however, as
+the prevailing winds must be west or south, could generally be made
+available to enable us to lay our course for St. Paul. Although in the
+month corresponding to May in the southern hemisphere, we found ourselves
+shivering with cold, the thermometer barely reached 18° Cent. (64°·4 Fah.)
+during the day in the open air, and our bodies, accustomed of late to a
+milder temperature, felt as though it were twice more rigorous than it
+actually was, in consequence of the wind coming from the ice-bound
+antarctic regions.
+
+On the afternoon of 4th November, a great excitement arose on board; a
+violent shower filled the lifeboats with water, and a large black object
+was observed swimming in the sea. Fortunately, it was not a man, though it
+proved to be a great favourite that had fallen overboard. Bessy, an ape,
+had got loose from her chain, and while being chased, fell in her
+eagerness into the sea, which fortunately was tolerably smooth. The droll
+little brute had quickly made itself such a favourite with the crew from
+its comical attractive ways, that its sudden fall overboard awoke
+universal sympathy. A boat was lowered, and Bessy rescued, who speedily
+recovered from her fright, and although dripping wet, proceeded to consume
+an orange that was handed her with an expression of entire satisfaction.
+
+On reaching 40° S., 31° E., the West winds became more steady, with a
+perceptible increase of motion, giving an average of 33 feet as the height
+of the waves, while the frigate rolled heavily. Sometimes several
+"Rollers" would follow one after the other, which made the ship heel over
+from 20° to 25° on either side. At each roll, streams of water poured in
+upon the gun-deck. The cannon-shot kept up a deafening dance from one side
+to the other, while stools, tables, chests, and in short everything that
+could move, were unmistakably "lively." The temperature of the air during
+the night fell to 41° Fahrenheit, and was felt yet more keenly in squalls
+accompanied by rain, which made our life on board anything but agreeable,
+although the certainty that we were proceeding favourably with the
+so-called "_Fair_" Westerly winds indemnified us in some degree for the
+discomfort.
+
+On 14th November, in 40° 44' S., 60° 8' E., we availed ourselves of a dead
+calm and smooth sea to try a cast of Brooke's Patent Deep-sea Lead.
+
+While at Rio, we had been supplied, through the kindness of Don José de
+Barnabé, Commander of the Royal Spanish Frigate _Bilbao_, with a large
+quantity of lead-line, after an unsuccessful attempt to purchase it there.
+Unfortunately, however, the line had become somewhat decomposed by
+moisture, and gave way at 6,170 fathoms (37,020 English feet) while still
+running out, so that on this occasion also, we could only tell that bottom
+had _not_ been reached with the portion of the line paid out.
+
+The times occupied by the line in running out were as follows:--
+
+         1st 1000  fathoms  15 minutes 36 seconds.
+         2nd   "      "     26    "    59    "
+         3rd   "      "     34    "    20    "
+         4th   "      "     43    "    25    "
+         5th   "      "     61    "     5    "
+         6th   "      "     75    "    55    "
+ And the last 170     "     11    "    40    "
+             ____           ______________________
+      Total 6,170     "     4 hours    29 minutes.
+
+To the apparatus two 30-lbs. shot were attached, and the first 100 fathoms
+of line were doubled. By this observation we satisfied ourselves that such
+soundings are only successful when none but the best materials are
+employed, and, moreover, that the line becomes deteriorated in an
+extraordinary degree by long stowage on boardship, so that it is better in
+long voyages not to take such large supplies of line, but to adopt most
+stringent measures to prevent its being weakened by damp. Very probably a
+light coating of tar over the line would tend to keep it in good
+preservation, and it also seems advisable proportionately to strengthen
+the first 500 or 1000 fathoms.
+
+On the 18th November the look-out man descried from the main topgallant
+mast-head the Island of St. Paul, the goal of our wishes, the object which
+had so long occupied our thoughts, and on which our scientific
+capabilities were to be called into enviable activity. The necessary
+arrangements were completed for facilitating astronomical observations,
+the instruments and other necessaries taken out and got in readiness to be
+conveyed to the island, and the various stations and duties of the
+different members specified, so as to admit of the observations being
+completed in the shortest possible time.
+
+On the 19th November, at daybreak, we found ourselves close in with St.
+Paul's Island, while on our port-side the outline of New Amsterdam was
+visible in the shape of two lofty peaks on the horizon. As the wind blew
+from the N.W., we kept the ship's course past the north promontory of the
+island, and ranged along the eastern side to the selected anchoring
+ground. As we doubled the northernmost point, the conical-shaped Nine-Pin
+Rock came into view, while the high and precipitous margin of the island
+in the N.E. with the entrance into the crater became visible. How great,
+however, was our astonishment, when we observed some neatly laid-out
+terraces, of a fresher green hue than were observed in the upper
+table-lands of the island! These were evidently spots cultivated by former
+or present residents in the island. But no traces of habitation were seen,
+whether of mankind or of the seal. Only flights of albatrosses, bryons,
+ospreys, and sea-swallows, with now and then the protracted screams (like
+human groans) of immense flights of penguins, those singular-looking
+sea-birds, which awaken so deep an interest alike for their striking
+appearance as by their mode of life.
+
+An examination of the rock of the island showed layers of black lava,
+alternating with yellow and red tufa, which seemed stratified regularly
+from the rim of the crater to the extreme circumference of the island.
+"Thirty fathoms, and no bottom," sung the wearied leadsman; and presently,
+"Thirty fathoms,"--and a few minutes before 9 A.M. the anchor rattled out,
+on the 24th day after we left Simon's Bay, after retracing our steps
+Eastward some 3000 miles. Our anchorage, as we afterwards became aware,
+was not the best possible, as we ought to have lain closer in to the
+island. But when one anchors nearer the land in a less depth of water,
+one is by no means more protected from storms sweeping in from seawards,
+to which the entire eastern half of the island lies exposed. Only on the
+west side does the island, with the steep margin of the crater some 700 or
+800 feet high, afford any protection against the west winds, which,
+however, seldom blow here.
+
+[Illustration: ARRIVAL AT ST. PAUL.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 VII.
+
+                 The Islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam,
+
+                      IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN.
+
+   Former History.--Importance of the situation of St. Paul.--
+     Present inhabitants.--Preliminary observations.--To whom does
+     the Island belong?--Fisheries.--Hot springs.--Singular
+     experiment.--Penguins.--Disembarkation.--Inclement weather.--
+     Remarks on the climate of the Island.--Cultivation of European
+     vegetables.--Animal life.--Library in a Fisherman's hut.--
+     Narrative of old Viot.--Re-embarkation.--An official document
+     left behind.--Some results obtained during the stay of the
+     Expedition.--Visit to the Island of Amsterdam.--Whalers.--
+     Search for a Landing-place.--Remarks on the Natural History of
+     the Island.--A Conflagration.--Comparison of the two islands.--
+     A _rencontre_ at sea.--Trade-wind.--Christmas at sea.--"A man
+     overboard."--Cingalese canoe.--Arrival at Pont de Galle, in
+     Ceylon.
+
+
+The visit of the Austrian frigate _Novara_ to the Islands of Amsterdam and
+St. Paul, so long confounded with one another, was one of the cherished
+objects of interest to the immortal Alexander von Humboldt.
+
+Although St. Paul has been in very recent times visited and surveyed by
+illustrious English navigators,[56] and although the doubt hitherto
+existent as to the precise discoverer, and the correct application of the
+names of the two islands, has been set at rest by the discovery of the
+original log of Antonio Van Diemen, kept on his voyage from the Texel to
+Batavia (16th December, 1632, to 21st July, 1633), by which it is made
+plain, beyond possibility of contradiction, that that renowned navigator
+passed for certain on 17th July, 1633, between both islands, and conferred
+on the northern the name of New Amsterdam, and on the southern that of St.
+Paul;[57] yet the two islands still continue to present points of great
+interest on closer examination and observation. Of the various ships
+which, since the discovery of those islands, have visited them for
+scientific purposes, hardly any have remained long enough to be in a
+position to acquire a thorough acquaintance with the various objects of
+natural history and scientific interest that present themselves. Even the
+visit paid by the naturalist attached to the expedition on board the
+English ship _Lion_ and _Hindostan_ which, on the 2nd of February, 1793,
+touched at St. Paul, _en route_ to China, and to whom we are indebted for
+the first detailed account of this island, erroneously spoken of as
+Amsterdam (following the example of former English navigators), did not
+come within the original design of that Ambassadorial expedition. It was
+the result rather of accident that, as the _Lion_ and _Hindostan_ were
+passing close in with St. Paul, two human beings were descried on the
+shore, waving in the air a piece of canvas fastened on poles, who
+apparently were anxious to convey to the expedition their desire to
+communicate with their ships. It was supposed these were shipwrecked
+mariners, stranded on this dangerous coast, who regarded the arrival of
+the _Lion_ as an unexpected means of rescue. To save these
+fellow-creatures from so desperate a position, the Captain of the _Lion_
+declared to be a pleasing duty assigned by Providence, and rejoiced to
+have been selected as the instrument of their deliverance. When, however,
+the boat of the British man-of-war, which was despatched to take off the
+castaways and bring them on board ship, had landed on the island, the crew
+speedily discovered the singular delusion which all had laboured under.
+The men, whom motives of humanity had intended to rescue from this
+inhospitable place, turned out to be anything but involuntary residents on
+the island, being seal-hunters, who for five months had dwelt here, and
+purposed remaining ten months longer, with the intention of completing a
+cargo of 25,000 seal-skins, for which at that time there was a very
+considerable and lucrative demand in the Chinese markets,[58] and the
+signals which had first attracted their attention, it now appeared were
+for no other object than to enable them to feel themselves once more,
+after such an interval, in the company of their fellowmen.
+
+[Footnote 56: Captain C. P. Blackwood, of H.M.S. _Fly_, 1842, and Captain
+Denham, C.B., of H.M. Surveying Ship _Herald_, 1853. M. Tinot "_capitaine
+du long cours_," who visited St. Paul in the summer of 1844, published
+likewise some interesting memoranda relating to that island, in the
+"_Nouvelle Annales de la Marine et des Colonies_," for November, 1853.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Previous to the resuscitation, after considerable difficulty,
+of this important, indeed decisive document, by Mons. L. C. D. Van Dyk,
+among the archives of the East and West India Company of Amsterdam, of
+which he was Librarian, the utmost uncertainty prevailed as to the
+discovery, name, and geographical position of the two islands. Now,
+William Van Flaming, a Dutch navigator, was supposed to be the
+discoverer,--now, the hardy Van Diemen. Atlases, charts, and books of
+travels, spoke of the name St. Paul belonging, here to the northern
+island, there to the southern. This long-continued confusion of names had
+naturally left ample space for the most contradictory statements as to the
+position, conformation, and geological conditions of both islands. One
+traveller, for instance, describes Amsterdam as an island with good
+anchorage on the North side, and an extinct crater, into which ran a
+fissure, forming a natural link with the ocean; while, on the other hand,
+he described St. Paul as a desert island, with steeply sloping shores,
+which make it matter of difficulty, if not utterly impracticable, to
+effect a landing; while other voyagers, again, give directly contrary
+accounts of both islands. Compare the following:--"An authentic account of
+an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China,
+together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on the occasion by
+H.M.S. _Lion_, and the ship _Hindostan_, E.I.C.N., to the Yellow Sea and
+Gulf of Pekin, as well as of their return to Europe, taken chiefly from
+the papers of H.E. the Earl of Macartney, &c., by Sir George Staunton,
+Bart. (London, 1797), vol. I., pp. 205-27."--"Rélation du Voyage à la
+recherche de _La Pérous_ fait par l'ordre de l'Assemblée constituante
+pendant les années 1791-92, et pendant la 1^{re} et la 2^{de} année de la
+République Française. Par le citoyen La Billardière, Correspondent de
+l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Au VIII. de le République Française.
+Tome I. pp. 120-123."--"Johnston, A.K., General Gazetteer of the World
+(London, 1855)."--"Hamburgh, James, India Directory; or, Directions for
+Sailing to or from the East Indies, China, Australia, and the adjacent
+parts of Africa and South America (London, 1855). 7th Edition, vol. I., p.
+101."--"Voyage to the South Pole, and Round the World, by Captain Jas.
+Cook, R.N. (London, 1777)." An interesting and tolerably circumstantial
+treatise on these islands is also to be found among the transactions of
+the Imperial-Royal Geographical Society of Vienna for the year 1857,
+second division, pp. 145-56, by Mr. A. C. Zhishman, Professor of Geography
+and History, in the I. R. Nautical Academy at Trieste.]
+
+[Footnote 58: "It seems," says Lord Macartney, "that the Chinese possess
+remarkable skill in the dressing of seal-skins, by which they remove the
+long coarse hair, so as to leave merely the soft tender skin, and
+simultaneously manage to render the hide thin and pliant. Only the
+prospect of some such enormous profit could at any time induce human
+beings to pass fifteen months at a stretch on so ungenial a spot, which,
+moreover, their occupation must render yet more loathsome. They killed the
+seals as they basked in the sun on the rocks along the shore, and around
+the broad natural rock basins. As only the skins were of any value to
+them, they left the flayed carcases exposed to rot on the ground, and
+these lie heaped together here in such masses that it was difficult to
+avoid treading on them, when one reached the shore of the island. At every
+step some disgusting spectacle presented itself, while an unutterably
+nauseous smell of decaying matter poisoned the surrounding atmosphere. In
+the summer months the seals flock hither, all at the same period, in herds
+sometimes numbering 800 to 1000, of which usually only about one hundred
+are killed at a time. This is the utmost number that five men can skin in
+the course of a single day, it being necessary to peg them together on the
+spot, on account of the drying up of the skin. For want of the requisite
+vessels only an inconsiderable quantity of the train-oil, which these
+animals contain, is collected. A portion of the best of the blubber is
+melted, and serves these people in lieu of butter. The seal which
+frequents these islands is the Southern or Falkland seal (_Arctocephalus
+Falclandicus_ of Gray--_Phoca fusilla_ of Schreber). The female weighs
+ordinarily from seventy to one hundred and twenty pounds, and is from
+three to five feet long, the male usually considerably larger. In their
+natural state these animals are not particularly timid; sometimes, indeed,
+they plunge all together into the water when any one approaches them; but
+quite as often they remain sitting quietly on the rocks, or raise
+themselves erect with a menacing growl. A sharp blow on the snout with a
+stick seems sufficient to kill them. Most of those that approach the shore
+are females, the proportion they bear to the males being about thirty to
+one. This apparent disproportion between the sexes, according to
+observation hitherto, is explained as follows:--The Southern seal at
+certain periods often undertakes distant wanderings from one tract to
+another; and certain of these tracts, such as the Cape of Good Hope and
+the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam, are only frequented by the females
+when about to bring forth, and by the younger males of the school. In
+winter the huge snouted seal, or Sea Elephant (_Macrorhinus_, "long
+snout," _elephantinus_ of Gray--_Phoca leonina_ of Schreber), which
+sometimes attains a length of twenty-five or even thirty feet, comes in
+great numbers to these islands, where they herd together like sheep in the
+natural coves which the coast is broken into, in which the males announce
+the presence of a herd by a vehement growling, deepening into a loud
+roar."]
+
+Owing to the important situation of St. Paul, midway between the
+southernmost point of Africa and the Australian continent (from each of
+which it is about 3150 miles distant), a complete, accurate survey of the
+island seemed of great importance, not merely to the scientific world, but
+also in the interests of navigation; as most of the ships bound for China,
+Australia, and New Zealand, as well as the East India liners, pass pretty
+close to these islands, especially during the winter season. Many captains
+trading in the Indian ocean see in St. Paul an advantageous haven for
+recruiting the strength of their scurvy-stricken crews, while the ships of
+others, shattered almost to the point of foundering in the storms of a
+tract of ocean where for thousands of miles there is no other land, can
+find here their only prospect of preservation.
+
+For the voyagers on board the _Novara_, an interest of an entirely
+personal sort attached to their visit to the island. Among the
+unfortunates, who on the 24th August, 1853, suffered shipwreck on the
+shores of New Amsterdam, in the British ship _Meridian_, was a native of
+Brienz, in Switzerland, named Pfau. This person, together with the
+captain, Richard Hernamann, and a Frenchman had disappeared, leaving no
+trace, when, on the following morning, the surviving passengers of the
+wrecked ship were rescued by a whaler that happened to be cruising in the
+neighbourhood. It was supposed that the three unfortunate men had
+endeavoured to reach the adjacent island of St. Paul in a small boat, and
+probably were still living there. The father of the Swiss made
+application, through an indirect channel, to the chief of the Expedition,
+earnestly requesting him on his visit to the island to institute some
+enquiries with the view of finding some trace of his ill-starred son,
+still unwilling to renounce all hope that he might yet be found living at
+St. Paul.
+
+We hove to about one mile and a half distant from the great crater-basin,
+in whose eastern buttress a natural communication has been opened with the
+sea through a breach in its side. When the Dutch captain, William Van
+Flaming, cast anchor before the island in 1697, the wearing action of the
+waves had not yet completed this breach, there existing at that period a
+dam of some five feet high between the sea and the cavity of the crater.
+At present small boats can, at any hour of the day, pass into the
+crater-basin, protected from the swell of the ocean by two natural
+barriers, which leave between them a passage of about 300 feet wide. Our
+last admeasurement gave a length of 600 feet for the southern barrier, and
+1002 feet for that in the north; while the intervening water passage
+measured 306 feet in breadth, with a depth of 9.6 feet at high water, and
+from 2 to 3 feet at ebb tide. On the north side of the entrance to the
+straits stands a lofty pyramidal rock, called Nine-Pin Rock, round which
+circle innumerable sea-fowl, which to all appearance brood among the
+chinks and crannies of the rock, while in the water below crowds of sharks
+lash the water into foam. It must be highly dangerous hereabouts to be
+capsized in a boat, as there would be little possibility of any one being
+rescued, no matter how speedily assistance might be rendered.
+
+Scarcely were we anchored, ere we in the ship perceived a boat approaching
+from the island, which rapidly neared the frigate, with three men who had
+taken up their abode in even this desolate wilderness. Our imagination
+deluded us with the pleasing idea that these three forlorn, forsaken
+figures might be the long lost men wrecked in the _Meridian_, whom pitying
+billows might have wafted to this solitary island.
+
+Presently there stepped on deck by the side-ropes a grizzly figure, with
+deeply-furrowed features and long, grey beard, clothed in a blue blouse
+and coarse linen trowsers, that seemed to have weathered many a winter's
+storm. This primitive-looking old man proved to be a Frenchman named Viot,
+who had lived here for a considerable time as overseer of a fishing
+establishment on the island. Our first question had reference to the
+missing men from the _Meridian_. But how sore was our disappointment when
+the old sailor in the blouse told us he knew all the particulars of the
+catastrophe of the ship, but that he had never come across the slightest
+trace of the three unfortunates whom we had enquired about. Viot had
+visited the island regularly every year since 1841, except that in which
+the _Meridian_ had been lost. The fate of these three shipwrecked men must
+therefore remain for ever undetermined, although, considering the
+tempestuous weather which usually prevails in the Indian Ocean in the
+month of August, it is highly improbable that a boat of such small
+dimensions as that to which the captain and his two unhappy
+fellow-travellers committed themselves, could reach St. Paul, which was
+distant 42 miles from the spot at which the ship was wrecked.
+
+About 11.30 A.M. the naturalists, accompanied by the officers appointed
+to assist in the scientific operations, proceeded in two boats to the
+shore, for the purpose of making some preliminary observations. When we
+reached the bar there opened to our view, covered with luxurious grass
+growing in tufts, the walls of a majestic crater, the exquisite regularity
+of the cavity of which left the exact impression of an enormous natural
+amphitheatre.
+
+[Illustration: DISTANT VIEW OF CRATER-BASIN OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+On either side the ground rises nearly perpendicularly to a height of
+about 800 feet, which probably is likewise the average height of the walls
+of the crater. On the north side of the basin, a kind of terrace was seen
+low down, with huts thatched with straw, while on the shingle of the bar
+was planted a not very perpendicular flagstaff, on which, in honour of the
+arrival of a ship of war, old Viot had run up the French ensign. As the
+_Novara's_ boat swept into the crater-basin, he saluted with the
+proverbial courtesy of his nation, which not even the rough occupation of
+a whale-fisher had been able to rub out of him. Viot had last come hither
+in the preceding March, with a mulatto and a negro on board of a fishing
+craft, named the _Alliance_, of 45 tons, in which he had sailed from St.
+Denis, on the Island of Bourbon, anew to take charge of the little fishing
+station here, which is at present the property of M. Ottovan, a French
+gentleman domiciliated in St. Denis.
+
+While at Cape Town we were informed, in reply to our enquiries, by the
+first authority in the country, that the Island of St. Paul belonged to
+England, and was a dependency of the Mauritius; here, to our astonishment,
+we on the other hand learned from the inhabitants that St. Paul at present
+was under the protection of the French Government, and, in fact, was an
+appendage of the Island of Bourbon, the governor of which long previously
+had ordered the French flag to be hoisted, with all the naval formalities,
+by a detachment of French soldiers who had been landed from a French ship
+of war. According to Viot--who is to all appearance a thoroughly
+trustworthy man, but on whom, however, we throw the responsibility of the
+correctness of the following information,--the island seems, in fact, to
+have been, some twenty years since, the property of a French merchant of
+St. Denis, named Camin, who somewhat later entered into partnership with a
+person named Adam, a Pole by birth, to whom he ultimately resigned the
+entire island.[59] Adam, who was described to us as a man of exceedingly
+fierce and determined character, did wonders for the cultivation of the
+island. He left a number of Mozambique negroes, whom he compelled to work
+through the entire year, exposed to the severest privations, and employed
+in hewing stone from the rocks, with which huts were erected, in preparing
+a landing-quay on the north side of the basin, and in sowing a number of
+plots of ground along the lower margin of the crater with European
+vegetables.
+
+[Footnote 59: According to Captain Denham, who visited this island in 1853,
+the present proprietor called this fishing station, Marie Heurtevent, and
+said he had bought it about five years previously for 6000 dollars from a
+Polish merchant of St. Denis, where he himself also resided. (_Nautical
+Magazine_, pp. 68, 75).]
+
+About eight or ten years since, Adam (who afterwards, in the course of a
+voyage from Bourbon to New Zealand, met a disgraceful death, having been
+thrown overboard for his cruelty by the black crew of a small vessel, whom
+he had driven to desperation) sold the islands to their present possessor,
+M. Ottovan, a ship-chandler of St. Denis, who since then has twice each
+year, during the fine season, despatched a small craft of some 30 to 45
+tons, manned by from 15 to 18 fishermen, from St. Denis to St. Paul
+Island, so as to turn to advantage the unusual abundance of this
+fishing-ground. This vessel leaves St. Denis regularly every November on
+its voyage of from 24 to 30 days to St. Paul. The return voyage to St.
+Denis takes place during the prevalence of the South-East Trades, and
+occupies a much shorter time, rarely exceeding 14 to 16 days. The fishing
+sloop, during its stay at the island, anchors inside the basin of the
+crater, so as to discharge her provisions for the fishermen, and to
+facilitate the freighting for the homeward voyage with the fish that have
+been caught, as also to guard her against sudden changes of weather, which
+in these latitudes, as we ourselves experienced, is, even during the best
+season, very stormy and dangerous. The fishermen use the excellent
+whaleboats (or _baleinières_), so admirably suited to the heavy swell of
+the Indian Ocean, in which they go out in the morning, returning to the
+shore at nightfall. The species of fish which is found in greatest
+numbers, and is caught exclusively by the hook, is usually called by the
+fishermen, "Indian Cod:" it is by no means, however, of the _genus_
+Haddock, and very slightly, if at all, resembles the codfish of northern
+waters, or common stock-fish, but seems to belong to the class of finger
+fish (_cheilo-dactylus-fasciatus_), which is usually classed among the
+crow fish (_sciænæ_). These are salted, dried in the open air, packed in
+casks, and dispatched in large quantities to the markets of St. Denis. It
+is calculated that the number thus sent off in the course of each year
+amounts to about 40,000. which are sold in the market of St. Denis by the
+hundred, for from 40 to 60 francs (£1 12s. to £2 8s.--total £640 to £960).
+The expenses of maintaining the settlement is very small.--Viot has 57
+francs a month (£2 6s.); his two companions 40 francs and 25 francs
+respectively (£1 12s. and £1); the men engaged in the fishery receive 25
+to 30 francs a month, besides provisions. The second voyage of the vessel
+ordinarily takes place in January or February, so as to return in April or
+May, with a similar cargo. It often happens that the owner of the vessel
+finds some more profitable employment for it, when it only returns during
+the second year, and their provisions, as meal, rice, biscuit, tobacco,
+&c., get rather short. The settlers, however, employ what leisure time
+remains after their work is done, in cultivating a number of plots of
+ground with cereals and vegetables, potatoes especially returning from
+time to time an excellent yield. Of these useful tubers, which grow with
+remarkable luxuriance in the turf-soil of the island, they raise from 60
+to 80 cwt. annually. Fresh vegetables being articles in great request are
+more particularly made available by the inhabitants of St. Paul, by way of
+barter, when trafficking with the whalers, from 20 to 30 of which touch
+here in the year, to exchange their salt fish, rice, tobacco, cheese,
+brandy, &c., for the fresh provisions grown on the island. The number of
+vessels that pass within sight of St. Paul in the course of a year may be
+reckoned at from 100 to 150, of which, however, only a very few, except
+the whalers, visit the island.[60] In the year 1857, for example, it
+occurred only twice (one case being an English man-of-war), that passing
+ships sent boats to the island, five months of the year having elapsed in
+the first instance, and two in the second.
+
+[Footnote 60: All the Dutch Indiamen on the home voyage from Batavia,
+during the months of October till May, have been for many years in the
+habit of running south till they sighted St. Paul, so as to catch the S.
+E. Trades. But it has never been the policy of the Dutch to attract
+attention to the eastern seas, and accordingly no information found its
+way to Europe respecting these interesting islands, till the period
+mentioned in the text.]
+
+When the take of fish in the immediate vicinity of the island does not
+seem sufficiently remunerative, the fishermen occasionally launch out to
+greater distances. They then bring out from the basin of the crater the
+barque that brought them from Bourbon to St. Paul, and remain at sea for
+several days, or make for the adjoining island of Amsterdam, the shores
+of which are even more frequented by the fish than those of St. Paul.
+
+As already remarked, our first movements were directed solely towards an
+examination of its physical features. We were accompanied on this tour of
+inspection by Ferdinand, an active, intelligent Mulatto, with thoroughly
+French manners. The French stock has this peculiarity as compared with the
+German, that it remains unmistakably French, even when mixed with
+two-thirds African blood. Ferdinand was for the first time in St. Paul,
+having been conveyed hither in the _Alliance_ in the previous March, to
+work for M. Ottovan. Family troubles had been the cause of his banishment
+to this dismal island. Although only 24 years of age, he was already the
+father of two children, whom, he informed us, he had placed at school in
+St. Denis; and in sheer despair at the worthless conduct of their mother,
+had hired himself hither as a labourer at 40 francs a month, paid by the
+owner of the island. He proposed returning to St. Denis in the next ship
+that left St. Paul, in the hope that peace might be by that time restored
+in his family.
+
+At various spots in the lower rim of the crater-basin, within which
+Ferdinand acted as guide, we perceived heavy volumes of smoke emerging
+from the shallow parts of the water, which obviously implied the existence
+of hot springs. The two most active and largest in circumference were on
+the north side of the crater-basin, and were known, the one as the Bath,
+the other as the Drinking Fountain. Moreover, at several points on the
+north bar, hot water bubbles up from the soil, of such a temperature that
+the same person who, with a hook and line had caught a fish in the cold
+water basin, might, with the same motion of his hand, let them drop into
+the hot adjoining spring, where, in fact, it is boiled within a few
+minutes and fit for eating! We have ourselves made this experiment, which
+is also mentioned by Lord Macartney, and found the fish thus prepared
+exceedingly palatable.
+
+At high water the whole of the hot springs become mingled with the brine
+of the ocean, and thus indicate a temperature which is barely perceptibly
+higher than that of the latter. Adjoining the landing-place, several late
+visitors to the island have endeavoured to perpetuate the record of their
+fleeting presence on some compact granite blocks of rock, which are
+scattered in the path to the hot springs. Thus, on one of those stones,
+fast becoming obliterated by the weather, may be read:--"Savouret, 1841"--
+"J. D. Rogers, 1855, Mars."--On a second huge block:--"Hte. Rogers, 1852
+to 1857;" and lastly, these names, with difficulty decipherable,
+"Pallefournier-Emile, Mazarni-Denoyarez, Grenoble, Canton de Sassenage,
+Département de l'Isère, 1844." In general we found none of the
+inscriptions on the island that can be recognized.
+
+On reaching the plateau above, which is reached by a narrow, steep, and in
+many places rather fatiguing path, from the settlers' huts on the north
+side of the basin of the crater, we came to a breeding-place of the
+yellow-tufted "Crested or Hopping-Penguin"[61] (_apterodytes chrysocome_)
+in which we found at the lowest estimate from 500 to 600 of these singular
+creatures, which are adorned with grey-yellow tufts of feathers arranged
+in a semicircle above the eyes, and which, as was well remarked by the
+naturalist attached to the _Lion_, with the peculiar plumage and the
+almost scaly covering of their fin-like wings, suggest a remote
+resemblance to the form of a fish. Living part of the year in the water,
+and passing most of the remainder on land, Nature has, in a manner,
+adapted them for these widely differing modes of life. The dirty
+greyish-brown attire of the young contrasts so strongly with the gay
+plumage of the old penguin, that at the first glance they hardly seem to
+belong to the same species. The females lay only one or two eggs, usually
+in October, so that at the time of our visit, the young were only about a
+month-and-a-half or so old. These penguins, so graceful and nimble in the
+water, as if it were their proper element, are very awkward on land, so as
+to be easily caught, or knocked down with a stick. Only in so doing it is
+necessary to be on one's guard against a blow from their long sharp bills,
+with which they can inflict on their pursuer a by no means trifling wound.
+In the course of centuries, during which they have paid undisturbed visits
+to this island, they have trodden a well-marked path from their
+breeding-place to the edge of the sea; and it is a proof of the wonderful
+instinct of this creature, that this place is almost the only point on
+the entire island, at which it would be possible for it to reach the sea.
+A flock of these hopping penguins presents an odd and peculiar appearance,
+as, after leisurely bathing in the sea, and providing a sufficient supply
+of food for their young, their elegant heads emerge from the water, when
+carefully calculating the effect of the breakers, they ride their crest
+and allow themselves to be deposited on the beach; or, after hopping from
+stone to stone, the plumes on their heads nodding to and fro, suddenly
+plunge headforemost into the sea, like so many somersault-throwers! Not
+less diverting are the movements of these animals when, returned from
+their laborious wanderings, which they undertake two or three times a day
+in search of food for their young, they bend their tottering steps back to
+the roosting-place, waddling in their walk like ducks. One always leads
+the way as guide and forager-in-chief, and the rest, usually from ten to
+fifteen in number, follow him in a column; on reaching the roosting-place,
+a piece of level winding ground, they give a shrill cry, and comport
+themselves anything but peaceably towards their neighbours, especially if
+these have possessed themselves of their accustomed seats. Continual
+squabbling and disputing go on, and their croaking and screaming are
+prolonged far into the silence of night. They show much tenderness for
+their young, shelter them with great care, and defend them with
+extraordinary courage and pertinacity against the southern hawk gull[62]
+(_stercorarius antarcticus_), which frequently swoops upon the
+breeding-ground, and even ventures within reach of man, from whom it
+defends itself by violently striking and biting with its beak. Always at
+war under ordinary circumstances, they are nevertheless the most faithful
+of allies in moments of common danger or necessity. The flesh of the old
+penguin has so rank a smell that it is only used by those frequenting the
+island in case of the most extraordinary necessity; that of the young, on
+the other hand, has a far more agreeable flavour.
+
+[Footnote 61: Called also the "_Jumping Jack_" by the English sailors, from
+its custom of jumping quite out of the water, like a porpoise, on its
+encountering the slightest obstacle.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Called by the English sailors "Port Egmont Hens" from their
+frequenting Port Egmont in the Falkland Isles. They seem to be identical
+in species with the "skua," or "bonxie" of the Shetlands.]
+
+The breeding-place of the penguin is about 300 feet above the level of the
+water in the basin of the crater.[63] Four hundred feet more of laborious,
+steep scrambling, brings the adventurer to the plateau at last, from the
+highest peaks of which he readily obtains a view of the greater part of
+the island, which is utterly treeless. At many places we found the ground
+quite warm, and at one slimy tract, about 600 feet wide, which was noticed
+by the naturalists on board the _Lion_, there was positive danger of
+sinking several feet into the hot, yielding soil, if we did not advance
+with great care. On the other hand, the fierce tongues of flame, which
+Lord Macartney alleged were visible at night from the deck of the ship,
+and which greatly resembled the celebrated nocturnal fires of Pietra Mala,
+in the mountains between Florence and Bologna, were nowhere visible, at
+least during the time we were on the island.
+
+[Footnote 63: A second breeding-place, somewhat larger, but much more
+inaccessible than that described, occurs on the north-west side of the
+island. There among rugged fantastically broken masses of rock, these
+extraordinary creatures can sun themselves undisturbed, and have hardly
+anything to dread from the destroying hand of man, who could only get
+thither with much difficulty, and not without peril to life, by clambering
+along the face of a precipitous wall of rock.]
+
+On the north-west side of the islands, facing the sea, two lofty pinnacles
+of scoriæ, with truncated summits, rise in cones of such exquisite
+regularity of form as speedily attracted the attention of our geologist,
+and became somewhat later the chief scene of his activity. In the
+immediate vicinity, many traces of lava-streams are visible, which plainly
+show the direction in which their currents had flowed. From the upper edge
+of the great basin of the crater the ground slopes gradually to the sea,
+ending abruptly in a precipice, descending sheer 150 or 200 feet into the
+sea.
+
+In order to avoid retracing our steps by the same path, we directed our
+guide, the ever active Ferdinand, to conduct us back to the shore by some
+other track than that by which we had clambered up to this point;
+whereupon he stopped at a point of the upper rim of the crater, where the
+ground fell suddenly away quite perpendicular, grasped the rich luxuriant
+grass hand over hand, and having proceeded a few steps, invited us to
+follow. At the first glance we involuntarily recoiled at the bare idea of
+descending into the abyss by such a route, but presently we found our
+advance less dangerous and appalling than had at first appeared, when it
+was found we might, without any misgiving, let ourselves down by the long
+tough grass, the strong stalks of which supplied a safe means of descent.
+
+In less than three-quarters of an hour we had descended from the upper
+margin of the crater to the settlement, and at once proceeded on our
+return to the frigate. A pretty fresh N.W. breeze had sprung up in the
+meantime, which rendered our re-embarkation in our small short boats,
+totally unsuited to the tremendous swell of the Indian Ocean, exceedingly
+uncomfortable. Arrived at the ship's side, the sea ran so high, and had so
+increased the difficulty of laying the boats alongside, that we at first
+endeavoured to reach the deck by the Jacob's ladders suspended at the
+poop. When, however, one of the sailors (who confessedly have much greater
+readiness in clambering than ordinary mortals), while holding on to one of
+the ladders, was reached by a tremendous wave, and half his body being in
+the water, ran a risk of being carried off by a shark, the scientific
+gentlemen in the boats preferred making for the starboard side of the
+ship, whence they reached their haven of refuge by the man-ropes.
+
+Although this accident sufficiently manifested the impracticability of our
+original plan of returning every evening on board, and of being able to
+remain beside the ship during the carrying out of the objects of our
+visit, no man supposed as yet that, at this season, the summer of St.
+Paul's, the weather might suddenly become so stormy and generally
+unfavourable, as thus early to necessitate our re-embarkation, and that
+the ship would be compelled, with all speed, to leave her anchorage, and
+put to sea for a week under most uncomfortable circumstances.
+
+On 20th November, about 6 A.M., the officers and naturalists, together
+with a portion of the crew, 32 in all, left the frigate with a large
+quantity of instruments, scientific apparatus, and baggage. This little
+expedition was supplied with provisions and water for six days, there
+being no springs of fresh water on the island, the frequenters of which
+are compelled to depend for their whole supply of drinking-water, partly
+on the rain-fall, partly during long-continued dry seasons on the water of
+one of the hot brackish springs which occur on the north side of the lower
+circuit of the crater. Long accustomed to these fluids and to their
+peculiar taste, the inhabitants feel no evil results from their
+employment, which very probably would not be the case with those persons
+who visit the island for the first time, and whose arduous exertions
+necessitate their drinking daily large quantities of water.
+
+On a small eminence, about 150 feet high, above the fisherman's huts on
+the north side of the crater-basin, a small wooden cottage was erected for
+the protection of the astronomers; and at a distance of about 40 feet, a
+second for the magnetic instruments, both of which, with their contents,
+were entrusted to Lieutenant Robert Müller. Lieutenants Batlogg and Eugen
+Kronowetter, were respectively entrusted with the observations by
+theodolite, and with the surveying board. To the last-mentioned gentleman
+were also confided the observations with the meteorological instruments,
+the researches with the tide-gauge, the instruments for measuring the
+velocity of currents, as also the soundings in the basin, and on either
+side of the bar,--to assist him in the execution of which Cadet Count
+Borelli and Head Quartermaster Cian were detached. We quartered ourselves
+as well as we could in the wretched filthy huts which, in summer, serve
+the fishermen from St. Denis as a shelter. In one of these hung several
+pictures--one representing Napoleon I. riding the inevitable white horse,
+the majority consisting of female portraits and scenes of Parisian life,
+so that the whole place had quite a Frenchified appearance.
+
+Hardly had the instruments, apparatus, men, and baggage been placed under
+shelter, when once more a strong north wind came on, which, during the
+night between the 20th and 21st, increased to such a height, that it blew
+down the two huts intended for the observations, which had not been quite
+finished, and in which, fortunately, the instruments had not yet been
+placed--exposing the work already begun to very considerable interruption.
+
+Early in the morning, a whaler approached the island, and sent one of her
+boats off for fresh provisions. She proved to be the _Herald_, of New
+Bedford, Massachusetts, U. S., out 27 months, and expecting to require to
+remain out 11 months longer, in order to complete her lading of oil and
+whalebone. She was last from St. Augustin's Bay (Madagascar), which place
+she had left two months previously. When the captain, who chanced to be in
+the boat, saw the activity of the scientific corps, the results of which
+were already beginning to be visible in the hitherto deserted island, he
+said that one of his crew had fallen from the mast a few days previously,
+and severely injured himself, and forthwith asked whether we could render
+him any surgical assistance. Considering the precarious circumstances
+under which we ourselves were on the island, we judged it more advisable
+to receive the unfortunate whaler on board the frigate, where we could
+give him all necessary assistance. As we afterwards learned, the surgeon
+of the frigate, Dr. Ruschitztha, notwithstanding the inclemency of the
+weather, was ordered from the frigate, and had the satisfaction of
+rendering valuable assistance to the invalid.
+
+The foul weather continued all day, and during the night of the 21st, it
+became so tempestuous that the frigate was at last compelled to put to
+sea. About 3.30 A.M. she began to labour heavily with an unusually high
+sea and frequent shifts of wind, accompanied by showers of rain, after a
+heavy blow from the N.W., so that at first it was thought on board that
+one of these furious gusts, which for several hours past had followed each
+other at regular intervals, had sprung the cable, and that the anchor
+would be lost. The jib accordingly was hoisted, and the fore-topsail set
+with four reefs in it, and an attempt made to weigh anchor. This
+operation, at all times laborious, was now especially so, and seemed as
+though it would never have an end. Although the capstan was manned, as
+already said, at 3.30, it was not till past seven, or four hours later
+that the anchor hove in sight. It was the port anchor that had been
+weighed, and it was now perceived that one of the flukes had given way,
+and was entirely broken off. In such stormy weather it seemed very
+uncertain whether the anchor could be brought on board, as it struck with
+much force against the ship-side, in consequence of her severe rolling,
+and it was only secured at great risk to the life of the men employed. The
+cable was unbent, and the anchor slipped, so as to relieve the ship (for
+which the anchor still on board was sufficient in the meantime), from the
+vehement thumping. The frigate now had to encounter a regular
+North-wester, and only after three days of the most furious rolling or
+pitching, was she able, aided by northerly breezes, again to reach her
+former anchorage. The members of the Expedition, left at St. Paul to
+prosecute their scientific labours, occasionally experienced a somewhat
+peculiar feeling when the frigate, owing to the severity of the weather,
+remained invisible during these three long days; and fancy involuntarily
+depicted themselves in the position of men whom the stormy waves of
+destiny had cast away on this lonely island in the Indian Ocean, there
+perhaps to languish for weary months out of reach of assistance or means
+of rescue.
+
+Old Viot, who had come for the sixth time to the island, alleged that such
+rainy tempestuous weather at this season of the year was quite an unusual
+phenomenon,--an opinion which somewhat later was confirmed by the reports
+of several North American whalers. Ordinarily the fine season commences at
+the beginning of November, at which period the South wind is the most
+prevalent, the sky often remaining clear and hot for weeks together. The
+hottest month of the year is January, the coldest June. From May to
+October it is exceedingly difficult to land with boats on the island, and
+cases not unfrequently occur during the continuance of the stormy season
+resembling that which is instanced by the historiographer of Lord
+Macartney's embassy to China, in which, during September, 1792, a ship
+anchored on the east side of the island, was only able twice, during the
+lapse of eight weeks, to send a boat to the island with provisions. On
+this station the fishery is confined to the fine season (from November to
+April), while for the rest of the year the various huts of the fishermen
+are entirely abandoned, being only inhabited by a couple of men, in whose
+charge are left the few but by no means valueless implements and apparatus
+of the island. These men lead a very monotonous life, though not one of
+privation, for the crater-basin supplies the whole year round the most
+delicious fish, and craw-fish of the finest kind.
+
+Our sailors used to hang a basket with bait close to the edge of the
+crater-basin, sunk a few feet in the water, which they would draw out
+every time full of lobsters. In a few hours they frequently caught from
+eighty to one hundred pounds' weight of these large and extremely delicate
+species of shell-fish. An excursion which was got up one morning to the
+South side of the island, in a fisherman's boat, was rewarded in a few
+hours with some fifty different sorts of denizens of the deep, some of
+which weighed twenty to twenty-five pounds each.
+
+According to Viot's account, snow does not fall often in winter, and in
+consequence of the heat inherent in the volcanic soil, never lies long on
+it. On the other hand, hail is a tolerably frequent visitant. Rain is of
+constant occurrence, and sometimes falls in immense quantities. Viot was
+never weary of expressing his astonishment at the enormous size of the
+drops of rain which for many a year he had seen fall at St. Paul. The cold
+is often pretty severe; while the almost entire want of firing on the
+island (for the dung of animals is not obtainable in sufficient quantities
+to make its storing worth the requisite labour), deprives the poor
+residents of the comfort of a fireside. "If the last storm had not blown
+down our hut, we should for long have had to do without fuel," was the
+naïve remark on one occasion of the old Frenchman, as he lay stretched out
+on a dirty bed, carefully rolled up in his rough woollen blanket. Winter
+begins in May and ends in September. During this period the Northerly
+winds are often very strong. On 27th June, 1857, there blew for six or
+eight hours here so terrific a tempest that the inhabitants of St. Paul
+did not venture outside of their huts for fear of being rapt away by the
+wind. These storms of winter occasionally rage to such a degree that they
+drive before them into the basin of the crater huge masses of water, which
+they whirl in wild confusion to an enormous height, showing that the tract
+in the Southern Ocean traversed by the hurricanes which occasionally do
+such damage about Mauritius and Rodriguez, occasionally embraces the
+islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam. In November, at the commencement of the
+fine season, the winds are rather variable, and so continue to the end of
+March, when the N. and N.W. winds begin once more to blow regularly; these
+bring heavy rains and foul weather, after which, except that it is cold
+when the wind changes to West with a Southerly tendency, a warmer and
+drier climate is experienced. During our stay we frequently had an
+opportunity of verifying by observation the steady return of certain winds
+in regular succession. For instance, after the N.E. wind had prevailed for
+some days, it veered to N.N.W. whence it invariably went to W. by S.,
+where it usually stayed some little time, after which it once more went to
+N.E.--a phenomenon which went through its phases every six days with
+surprising regularity.
+
+There are heavy mists during autumn, but thunder on the other hand is far
+from frequent, nor is it particularly violent when it occurs. During a
+residence of eighteen days we never saw the centigrade thermometer stand
+higher than 66°·2 Fahr., or lower than 53°·6 Fahr. Lord Macartney gave 62°
+Fahr. as the average of the thermometer during his visit in February,
+1793.
+
+As for earthquakes, a phenomenon whose occurrence at St. Paul would
+possess an uncommon interest, Viot averred that during sixteen years that
+he had visited the island, off and on, he neither himself had perceived
+any indications of one, nor had he at any time heard of any such having
+been observed.
+
+On the contrary, Ferdinand (who, nevertheless, had lived but eight months
+on the island) affirmed that his predecessor, Rosemond, had told him of
+shocks, comparatively slight it is true, which he (Rosemond) had felt
+during his several years' abode here. Considering the small circumference
+of the island, and the violent surf on its shores, slight oscillations may
+not improbably be felt, which are caused by other than volcanic agencies.
+Moreover, on the outer margin of the crater-basin, the island presents at
+those numerous points, from which at ebb-tide roll volumes of smoke and
+steam, so many natural vents for the escape of the confined subterraneous
+gases, that in their ordinary state, and so long as they continue open, in
+future, there is no especial reason to suppose there will be any
+upheavings of the earth's crust in consequence of volcanic agencies. The
+earthquake of 14th August, 1857, which was pretty severely felt in Cape
+Town and the vicinity, does not seem to have included St. Paul within the
+circle of its influence. The present inhabitants of St. Paul, at all
+events, unanimously assert that they cannot recall having perceived,
+either on the 14th August, or at any time about that period, any shocks of
+earthquake whatever, or to have observed any unusual appearances either in
+the surface of the earth or in the atmosphere.
+
+We purposely say "at any time about that period," because the inhabitants
+of the island do not avail themselves of that assistance so universal
+now-a-days of a printed calendar, but trust to memory for keeping a
+reckoning of the flight of time. That mistakes should frequently occur
+with such a method of computing time is rendered the more probable that
+not one of the three denizens of the island can write. For instance, we
+once remarked to our worthy Viot that by his own reckoning he had marked
+one day more than he had actually lived. "We always get into a mess with
+these confounded months of thirty-one days!" was the good-humoured reply
+of the ancient wanderer from Nantes.
+
+Although the volcanic soil of St. Paul is everywhere especially adapted
+for scientific study, it nevertheless presents few objects with which to
+enrich collections of natural history. An island, on which not a single
+tree or bush is to be found, and on whose tufa soil, though well adapted
+for fruit, only a few grasses, ferns, and mosses thrive, must, so far as
+regards the value of his researches, prove as little interesting to the
+botanist as the zoologist, who, as we shall see more circumstantially
+further on, came across but few representatives here of the animated
+kingdom.
+
+At several places, the practical gardener who accompanied the frigate was
+ordered to plant a number of European vegetables and anti-scorbutic
+plants, such as cabbage, horse-radish, turnips, of various assorted
+species, celery, garden-cress, and spoonwort,[64] it is to be hoped with
+favourable results. At all events, we had the satisfaction during our
+stay, of seeing the tender shoots of some of the vegetables already
+sprouting through the surface of the earth. At that time there were not
+above a dozen or so cultivated spots on the Island; if, however, these are
+carefully cultivated, they can always furnish enough excellent nourishing
+provision for from 80 to 100 men. A quantity of potatoes, from 6 to 8
+sacks, planted in June, yield, in January or February, a crop of from 60
+to 80 casks of 100 lbs. each, or between 3 and 4 tons.
+
+[Footnote 64: The vegetables planted were as follows:--_Brassica rapa_
+(rape); _Brassica oleracea capitata_ (sea kail); _Brassica rapa alba_
+(white turnip); _Brassica rapa flava_ (yellow turnip); _Raphanus sativus_
+(radish); _Lepidium sativum_ (dittandu); _Cochleæia officinalis_ (scurvy
+grass).]
+
+Wheat, maize, and barley, also thrive at St. Paul, and their cultivation
+has only been discontinued, in consequence of their conversion into bread
+requiring a much larger amount of fuel than is at the command of the
+residents. On the other hand, all attempts to cultivate beans and peas
+have utterly failed hitherto. All kinds of nutritive plants give but one
+crop in the year. So also several kinds of trees, which promised to grow
+well, considering the resemblance between the climate here and that to
+which they were indigenous--such as _Pinus maritima_, various kinds of
+_Protea_, &c., and the successful rearing of which would ultimately prove
+an extraordinary benefit to all who frequent the island, in consequence of
+the great scarcity of firewood--were planted as seedlings by the gardener
+attached to the Expedition, in the vicinity of the two huts used for the
+observations. Assuredly it will not be one of the least important benefits
+of the _Novara_ Expedition, which it will have conferred on St. Paul, if
+the growth of the seedlings, planted in its soil with such a noble purpose
+in view, should result in the gradual and at all events partial clothing
+of the island in the forest.
+
+As to the Fauna of St. Paul, there appears to be one kind of sea-swallow
+(_storna_) not hitherto described, the bill and feet of which are of a
+coral-red colour, and delicate silver-grey plumage, undoubtedly the most
+beautiful of the feathered inhabitants, as the penguin is the most
+extraordinary and peculiar creature on the island. Besides these there is
+also a pretty grey diver (_Prion Vittatus_), which builds its nest among
+the rocks; also a brown gull (_Stercorarius antarcticus_), as also three
+kinds of albatrosses (_Diomedea exulans_, _D. fuliginosa_, _D.
+chlororhinchos_).
+
+The Crater-basin was somewhat less unproductive than the dry land. The
+depth is from 100 to 175 feet. Close to the edge, the sounding line gave a
+depth of 10 fathoms (60 feet). Experiments with the dredging-net, although
+frequently made, gave by no means satisfactory results. On the other hand,
+the rod and line brought up many an interesting addition to our
+collection, and frequent strolls at ebb-tide along the barely uncovered
+masses of rock that skirted the basin of the crater were rewarded with
+numerous discoveries of specimens of conchology. In the centre of the
+basin we came upon slimy ground at a depth of 204 feet; near the hot
+springs (about 100 feet distant), 19 fathoms (114 feet); and at a third
+point, on the south side, 23 fathoms (138 feet). Viot said, that after
+repeated soundings at different points, he had found the depth of the
+basin varied from 10 to 35 fathoms (60 to 210 feet). The seals
+(_Arctocephalus Falclandicus_) of which, according to Macartney, at the
+end of last century, thousands daily came to the coast of the island to
+bask in the sun, have almost entirely disappeared, so that these animals
+are very rarely seen or captured by the inhabitants. Even of the skeletons
+of these marine mammals, which, when the naturalists of the _Lion_ were
+roaming through the island, used to lie about in such numbers that one
+could almost walk upon bones all round the crater, not a vestige is left,
+and one can hardly realize that formerly hundreds of thousands of these
+animals were slaughtered at this island.
+
+Almost all the quadrupeds of the island are domestic animals that have
+been brought hither from Europe and the French colonies--such as swine,
+goats, cats, rabbits--which at present live here in a wild state. The
+goats, which were first introduced in 1844, are most numerous on the N.W.
+of the island; the swine, on the contrary, are not so frequently met with.
+During our residence, a boar and a wild cat were killed; a few days after,
+the five young of the cat were found, having been compelled to emerge from
+their lair in search of food. A female hare, which we had brought from
+Cape Town, was also set free on the island, and it was fortunate for the
+propagation of these useful animals that there was already a male hare on
+the island. A pair of geese was also presented to the colonists, which
+perhaps have continued to breed there.
+
+As we thought the island was uninhabited, it was originally our intention
+to leave several kinds of domestic animals of different sexes with a view
+to propagation; and with that object, when at Cape Town had made various
+purchases of useful animals; but, under the circumstances, we relinquished
+this intention, as there seemed but little chance of their being left
+undisturbed sufficiently long to secure the desired object. Occasionally
+cows would be landed from the whalers for the sake of the fresh fodder,
+and taken away again after the lapse of a month or two.
+
+The projected scientific operations of the Expedition might easily have
+been carried out within eight days, had we not been so obstinately
+persecuted with unfavourable weather. Violent north winds, which rendered
+it impossible to make any use of the surveying-board in the open air,
+alternated in an extraordinary manner with rainbows. Our astronomical
+observations were as yet nothing to speak of. Observations with the
+barometer, thermometer, current-measurer, and tide-guage, could alone be
+prosecuted, the last of which especially gave the following interesting
+result, that the hour of high water, both at full moon and new moon, is
+not 11 A.M., as given by Horsburgh (7th edition, Vol. I. p. 102), but at
+1.10 P.M.[65]
+
+[Footnote 65: According to Lord Macartney, the tide rises at full and new
+moon, between 8 and 9 feet perpendicular. A northerly wind always causes
+the highest tide, the current of which is from S.E. by S. to N.W. by N.,
+and has a velocity of about 3 miles an hour.]
+
+The proper carrying out of the objects of the geognostic enquiries was
+hampered by unforeseen obstacles and difficulties. One day the rain would
+be so heavy, that the slight covering of our apartments would be
+insufficient to protect us any longer from the beating of the rain which
+fell in bucketsfull, and began to leak through innumerable seams and
+cracks on to the beds, tables, and floor. Did any one think to shelter
+himself in the hut of a neighbour?--ere long there commenced a regular
+emigration, which very speedily came to a conclusion, by each and all
+having the melancholy satisfaction of perceiving that Fortune had set to
+work with rigorous impartiality, and had resolved to let each one of us
+feel the weight of her displeasure. And so we passed the long dreary hours
+in our comfortless huts, that gave free entrance to wind and rain, with
+umbrellas outspread or wrapped in our India-rubber cloaks, gazing moodily
+at the numerous cases full of valuable instruments, which, instead of
+being serviceable to science, were, by the loss of so many splendid
+opportunities, doomed to inactivity.
+
+[Illustration: RAINY DAY AT ST. PAUL.]
+
+Fortunately, all showed themselves animated by the utmost zeal for the
+undertaking and its successful issue; and, in a word, each fresh
+avalanche of difficulties, which sought to thwart our exertions and impair
+our forces, served only to reawaken the energies and reanimate the
+confidence of each and all amid all our calamities.
+
+So soon as the hovel we inhabited, which had enabled us to make
+observations upon the direction and strength of the wind rather than
+secured us any accommodation for sleep, had been in some degree restored
+to its original condition, we availed ourselves of the slight improvement
+in the weather, to examine a tolerably numerous collection of very
+beautifully bound books, which were found stowed away in one of the
+recesses for books running into the four partitions, and had in all
+probability much to dread from the rain-water trickling through the
+covering of the roof. These had been brought hither by a former proprietor
+of the island, and when it was sold were transferred with the rest of the
+stock of tools, &c., to M. Ottovan, who occasionally resided at St. Paul
+for a month or two, but seemed, so far as the condition of the books went,
+rarely to meddle with them. It was curious enough, however, to encounter
+in a lone desert island, so many evidences of the most refined
+civilization, so we shall cite in a note some of the most interesting of
+this library of about 150 different works, which deserved a better fate
+than to moulder away undisturbed till they fell into dust.[66]
+
+[Footnote 66: Among these were the works on Natural History, by Charles
+Bonnel (Neufchâtel, 1783); J. S. Laharpe's "Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale
+des Voyages, Paris, 1816;" Dacier's "Translation of Horace into French,
+with Notes and Critical Remarks. Paris, 1816;" "De la Félicité Publique;
+ou, Considérations sur le sort des Hommes dans les Différentes époques de
+l'Histoire: A. Bouillon: from the Printing Establishment of the
+Typographical Society, Paris, 1776;" "Essay on the Life of the Great
+Condé, by Louis Joseph, Prince de Condé, at present in England, London,
+1st May, 1807;" "Précis des Journées 15, 16, 17, and 18 Juin, 1815, ou Fin
+de la Vie Politique de Napoleon Buonaparte, par M. Giraud, auteur de la
+"Campagne de Paris en 1814;" Paris, 1815, 1st vol. 8; "Histoire des
+Guerres des Gaulois et des Français en Italie, avec le tableau des
+évènemens civils et mílitaires qui les accompagnèrent et leur influence
+sur la civilisation et les progrès de l'esprit humain." "Depuis Bellevise
+jusqu'à la mort de Louis XII., par lex Adjutant-Général Auguste Jubé,
+tribun." "Depuis Louis XII., jusqu'àu Traité d'Amiens, par Joseph Servan,
+Général de Division. Dediées à S. M. l'Empereur. Paris, an. XIII. (1805)."
+"Manuel des habitans de St. Dominique, contenant un précis de l'histoire
+de cette isle depuis sa découverte, etc., par S. J. Duc[oe]urjoly, ancien
+habitant de St. Dominique; Paris, 1800, an. X, 2 vols.]
+
+Less fortunate were we in our researches for any document which could in
+any way throw any light, direct or indirect, upon the former history of
+St. Paul. The only piece of writing which we found that had reference to
+the island, was a licence drawn up during the reign of Louis Philippe,
+dated 20th February, 1846, to M. Adam, of St. Denis (in the Island of
+Bourbon), to proceed to carry out a certain undertaking in the schooner
+"_La Mouche_," 30 tons' burthen, under the protection of the French flag.
+"_La Mouche_," is the same boat in which Viot had made so many voyages to
+and fro between St. Denis and St. Paul. This document, which the poor old
+Frenchman drew out one evening from a drawer thickly strewn with dust,
+insensibly led the conversation to the quondam owners of St. Paul, and
+thence naturally to an enquiry, on our part, as to the number of graves
+which dotted this romantic offshoot of Père la Chaise. "The climate is far
+too healthy, and the island far too little frequented, to admit of there
+being many graves in St. Paul," replied Viot. Of the blacks, whom M. Adam
+had once worked so unmercifully on the island, very many perished here
+owing to the severity of their treatment, but no one knows where their
+bodies lie;--very possibly their bones lie scattered about the island,
+like the remains of the much persecuted petrel (_prion turton_), which the
+predatory gull throws carelessly from him after he has stripped off the
+flesh, and gorged himself on the most delicate morsels. Only two graves
+are known to the present residents,--one is the resting-place of an
+Englishwoman, who died on board a merchant-ship which happened to be near
+the island, and whose grave was dug in the earth on the north side of the
+crater-basin; the second covers the body of a ship captain, who was
+accidentally drowned in the basin by the upsetting of a small boat, as he
+was approaching the bar in heavy weather. His grave is at a short distance
+behind the huts of the colonists, and bears traces to this day of the
+solemn feelings with which it was erected; an enclosure of large stones
+neatly arranged, make the site and its object at once recognisable.
+
+Shipwrecks are unheard of at St. Paul; at least, none such have been known
+to occur since it has been occupied by man. On the other hand, they are of
+more frequent occurrence at the sister island, as has very lately been
+evidenced by the catastrophe of the _Meridian_. However, the elements are
+not always to blame for such lamentable occurrences. Ships are sometimes
+dashed to pieces on the shores of Amsterdam in the finest weather, so that
+one is almost induced to believe that these misfortunes are occasionally
+resorted to intentionally, so as to realize some high insurance on a
+vessel which has probably already become half unseaworthy--a not very
+conscientious method of doing business, of which, however, some of the
+natives of Greece and the borders thereof are not unfrequently guilty. In
+February, 1855, a North American whaler struck upon the north-east side of
+Amsterdam in a calm, and with a clear sky overhead, so that the entire
+crew, 30 in number, were able to secure the provisions and their kits. The
+captain, with one of the ship's small boats, made for the Island of St.
+Paul, 42 miles distant, in the hope, probably, of getting assistance
+thence. A lucky destiny so willed it, that (the accident having occurred
+in the finest season of the year), a vessel of M. Ottovan's, which by a
+strange coincidence was named _L'Ange Gardien_ (the Guardian Angel), lay
+at anchor inside the crater-basin, loading with fish. The shipwrecked crew
+were indebted to his circumstance that, within 14 days more, they found
+themselves at Mauritius. A report circulated among the residents of St.
+Paul that the captain of the stranded ship had landed with some of his
+companions in a boat on the N.E. of Amsterdam, with the intention of
+searching for a sum of several thousand dollars which a previous visitant
+to this island was said to have buried there for some mysterious reasons.
+While the captain was on shore, vainly searching for a considerable time
+after the buried treasure, the shipmaster left in charge in his absence
+came too near the island, whereupon the vessel had been lost upon one of
+the numerous reefs which lie off the shore. A part, it was added, of the
+buried money had, in fact, been recovered. According to Viot, the captain
+had dug up 1000 dollars (above £200), and one of his companions 300
+dollars.
+
+At last, on the morning of 3rd December--the fifteenth of our stay at the
+island--the sky shone so brightly that one could, with more probability
+than hitherto, cherish the hope that the various operations we had been
+compelled to lay aside might finally be brought uninterrupted to a
+successful conclusion. However, the very wet day was again exceedingly
+unfavourable for open-air observations, especially astronomical, inasmuch
+as a pretty strong North-east wind incessantly drove over the island
+clouds of rain, the very heaviest of which, attracted by the mass of the
+island, broke right over our heads. Fortunately this spell of bad weather
+did not last as long as the first; and when, on 6th December, the _Novara_
+once more made her appearance at the island, and enquired by signals as to
+the progress made in our appointed work, we were so fortunate as to be
+able to reply by the same means, that the most important portion had been
+completed, and that the officers and naturalists were ready to re-embark.
+
+About 9 A.M., the frigate anchored in 25 fathoms, close to the spot where
+the English ship _Fly_, Captain Blackwood, lay in 1842. It was the third
+time that the _Novara_ anchored off St. Paul. Twice before had she
+experienced unusually tempestuous weather, which compelled her to sheer
+off from such a perilous coast, and expose herself to be lashed for days
+together by the raging giant waves of the infuriated element.
+
+One of the boats sent by the frigate to take us off to the ship, brought
+at the same time some presents, in memory of the Expedition, for the
+residents of the island, who had been so hospitable and obliging during
+our stay. The presents consisted of ship biscuit, salted meat, and various
+other edibles, wine, a musket, woollen blankets, clothes, shoes, tools,
+medicines, vinegar, oil, &c. The simple, modest fellows were immensely
+pleased with these unexpected presents, and Viot especially seemed
+overjoyed on seeing a number of tools, for want of which many of the
+repairs necessary in the interior of their anything but air-tight wooden
+habitations, were daily becoming more apparent.
+
+We left a book on the Island of St. Paul, in which the principal memoranda
+of what we had achieved were set forth in three languages (German,
+English, and French), with the view of supplying to future scientific
+visitors, data for further researches and observations, and at same time
+incite them to prosecute these we had ourselves made.
+
+We insert here this document, which will yet give witness, probably, of
+the scientific activity of the Austrian Expedition at the Island of St.
+Paul in the Indian Ocean, at a period when those engaged in it will long
+since have voyaged to
+
+    "That undiscovered country from whose bourne
+    No traveller returns."
+
+"The Imperial Austrian Frigate, _Novara_, 44, under the command of
+Commodore the Chevalier von Wüllerstorf-Urbair, engaged in a voyage round
+the globe for scientific purposes, anchored at nine in the morning of
+19th November, 1857, on the Eastern side of St. Paul, with the purpose of
+prosecuting astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, and geodesical
+observations and measurements, and at same time examine thoroughly the
+natural history of the island. Extremely unfavourable weather in great
+measure delayed the expedition; and, after having successfully carried out
+a series of observations and researches, the results of which will in due
+time be published, the officers and naturalists in charge of the various
+departments, on the 6th December of the same year, quitted St. Paul, each
+bearing with him the most pleasing reminiscences of that interesting
+island, and of its three poor, but eminently kind inhabitants.
+
+"For the guidance of future observers the following memoranda may prove
+useful:--
+
+"I. That the spot at which observations were taken was on a small
+eminence, north of the huts of the colonists, and which may be recognized
+by a small pyramid of stones, on which the Austrian Expedition marked the
+observed latitude 38° 42' 55'' S., and the longitude 77° 31' 18'' E. of
+Greenwich.[67] Further that:--
+
+[Footnote 67: The time, which we took from the Cape Observatory by four
+excellent chronometers, gave, on our voyage between the Cape and St. Paul,
+a period of forty-six days, a difference of 3 h. 56 min. 11 sec., which
+the island was E. of the Cape, so that adding the Longitude of the latter
+East of Greenwich (by nautical almanack), 1 h. 13 min. 55 s., we have the
+Longitude of St. Paul 5 h. 10 min. 6 s. East of Greenwich (77° 31' 30''
+E.) Between Madras and St. Paul, during a long passage of sixty-seven
+days, and with six chronometers somewhat less accurately set than the
+preceding, St. Paul was found by observation to be 0 h. 10 min. 51.8 sec.
+West of Madras (2° 42' 55'' W.) By the longitude of the Observatory of
+Madras, 5 h. 20 min. 57 sec. East of Greenwich (80° 14' 15'' E.), as
+furnished by the Director of the Observatory, Major Jacobs (whereas the
+nautical almanack gave 5 h. 21 m. 3.77 sec. = 80° 16' 0-1/2''). The
+longitude of St. Paul would be 5 h. 10 m. 5.2 s. East of Greenwich (77°
+31' 23'' E.) The average of the two measurements gives as the average 5 h.
+10 m. 5.6 sec., or 77° 31' 26'' E. to be assumed as the final longitude of
+St. Paul, while the latitude was taken from the various means of the
+height of the sun at the meridian on an average of days. An additional
+computation in which allowances were made for the various corrections,
+gave, as the latitude, 38° 42' 47'' S.]
+
+"II. That the direction of the true meridian line drawn from this point to
+the nearest opposite shore of the South side of the crater-basin was
+marked by an oblique (St. Andrew's) cross.
+
+"III. That the tidal-gauge was situated on a rock near the landing-place,
+and that the rise of the tide above the mean level of the water (3 feet 5
+inches), was marked on a slab of rock smoothed for the purpose.
+
+"IV. Lastly. The magnetic observations were taken in a hut erected for
+that express purpose on the little plateau behind the settlers' huts,
+where at the same time various sorts of useful trees were planted by the
+Expedition.
+
+"The names of the officers and naturalists who, under the superintendence
+of the commander of the Imperial Expedition, took part in the various
+scientific operations were:--for Astronomy and Terrestrial Magnetism,
+Lieutenant Robert Müllar; Botany, Dr. Edward Schwarz and M. Jellinck;
+Geodesy and Meteorology, Lieutenant Eugen Kronowetter; for the
+Trigonometrical Measurement of the Crater-basin, Lieutenant Gustavus
+Battlogg; for Geology, Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter; Ethnology and Physical
+Geography, Dr. Karl Scherzer; Zoology, G. Frauenfeld and J. Zelebor;
+Draughtsman and Artist, Joseph Sellemy."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.--TRACK FROM ST. PAUL TO POINT DE GALLE. (CEYLON).]
+
+Towards 5 P.M. the last boat came off with the measuring and levelling
+instruments, and various articles of baggage.[68] The embarkation was
+finally completed. Half-an-hour later the _Novara_ weighed anchor, and we
+steered, favoured with most splendid weather and full of pleasing
+anticipations, for the adjacent island of New Amsterdam. Not without
+sundry twitches of sadness did we remark the sharp crater of St. Paul
+gradually fade away like a vision in the gloom of approaching night; and
+many undying memories must attach to our residence on that lonely,
+world-forsaken island.
+
+[Footnote 68: Remembering how many bottles and glass tubes were shattered,
+we have not thought it beyond our province to recommend future scientific
+travellers to bring with them a good supply of duplicates of all
+instruments liable to breakage, as it is very difficult to get such
+insignificant articles replaced out of Europe, and we frequently found on
+this occasion the want of some such little instrument interposed an
+obstacle to the further usefulness of the instruments.]
+
+And now, at the moment of our departure from the island, be it permitted
+us to cast a retrospective glance at the various results obtained by the
+Expedition of the _Novara_ during her stay at St. Paul.
+
+Never hitherto on this island, so important by its geographical position
+for ships trading with China, the East Indies, Australia, and New Zealand,
+have astronomical and magnetic observations and geodesical measurements
+been so thoroughly ascertained as by the _Novara_ expedition. Upon a
+carefully measured base-line, various points of the upper and lower
+margin of the crater were accurately laid down by means of the Theodolite,
+and the whole island submitted to a geometric network of angles. At the
+same time the geologist, with the aid of the compass and the patent
+levels, prepared a chart originally intended for geological purposes only,
+while the draughtsman of the expedition added to its value, by skilfully
+sketching in from these given points the configuration of the coast-line
+of the island. By their united efforts there has been published a chart of
+St. Paul, which gives even to the minutest details an entirely correct and
+accurate representation of the form and surface of the island. This minute
+chart, or plan, was prepared on a scale of 132 Vienna fathoms to one
+Vienna inch, or 1/9504 of the natural size. Moreover, it is intended
+preparing, from this map and from the various outlines and views taken on
+the spot, a plastic model of the island after Nature, which, moulded in
+gypsum, will give scientific inquirers the most accurate conception of its
+singular structure. Not less interesting for navigators in the Indian
+Ocean will be the publication of the various observations which, during
+our stay of 18 days, were made with the barometer, thermometer,
+tide-gauge, and gauge of the velocity of currents, taken at certain fixed
+hours, day and night, as also the soundings in the crater-basin, and on
+both sides of the bar. Although the complete publication of these _data_
+must await the appearance of the nautical portion of the present work, we
+shall give here the most important of these results. The extreme length of
+the island from N.W. to S.E., is three nautical miles; the superficial
+area is 1,600,000 Vienna square klafter--1 Vienna klafter = 1 fathom = 6
+English feet--100 English square feet = 92-986/1000 Vienna square feet.
+The highest point of the crater-basin is 846 feet; the greatest diameter
+of the upper rim of the crater is 5490 feet; the least 4590 feet; the
+greatest diameter of the basin at the level of the sea is 3984 feet, and
+the least 3444 Vienna feet.
+
+The observations on the state of the weather, taken with much difficulty,
+are not intended to include the regular observations on the exterior of
+the island, and in like manner some of those taken in the harbour, or
+basin of the crater, must be accepted with a certain limitation. For
+similar reasons, we were unable to fix the rate of the current setting
+from the sea into the basin, although we secured most extraordinary
+results considering the circumstances. The amount of specimens of natural
+history which was procured, was very limited, but on that account was the
+more valuable. To the geologist, it must be of the very highest interest
+to find that St. Paul has been classified, with scientific precision, and
+by dint of personal examination and research, in one of the four main
+divisions in which, according to the scheme of Alexander Von Humboldt, the
+volcanic formations of the earth may be divided. Measured by the latest
+distribution of the volcanic strata by the description of stone found, as
+laid down by the greatest of German naturalists, St. Paul belongs to the
+same class as Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Teneriffe, &c., in a word, to
+what is known as the Chimborazo formation. A section of the east-side,
+taken in profile, lays bare its entire geological history, and forms one
+of the most instructive means of coming to direct conclusions as to its
+geological structure.
+
+The birth of this island from the bosom of the deep, combined with
+eruptions of lava and scoriæ, was the last effort of the subterranean
+forces. Since that period it has been subject wholly and solely to the
+various terrestrial influences, although the lapse of centuries has not
+been able to extirpate the last traces of the volcanic fire which once
+poured forth its currents of molten lava. A large proportion of the level
+ground is hot, and at the lower edge of the rim of the crater appear
+several hot springs, the temperature of which, as already remarked, is so
+high that fish, eggs, potatoes, &c., can be cooked on them in a few
+minutes. The highest point of St. Paul rises 870 feet above the basin of
+the crater. Its walls rise abruptly at an angle of about 85°, while the
+upper surface of the island (with the single exception of a small plateau
+of about 400 feet on the north side) stretches, at first level from the
+periphery of the upper margin of the crater, gradually falling away
+towards the sea-coast, at an angle of about 13°. On its North-west coast,
+where it is from 100 to 200 feet in perpendicular height, the island
+presents several small pyramids of pumice, like parasitic warts on the
+principal mass.
+
+Like the geologist, the botanist also found in this wild spot an unusual
+opportunity of acquiring accurate information as to the occurrence and
+propagation of certain kinds of plants in a primitive soil. Six grasses
+and one reed (_cyperaceæ_) form the vegetation of the island, one rush and
+three or four of the grasses forming the majority. The botanist having
+ascended to the plateau found there two grasses, both of which grew to a
+certain height only, and at certain places; the one (in the immediate
+vicinity of the settler's huts,) the oat, or _avena_; the second a
+_digitaria_, in the neighbourhood of the terraced fields, directly
+opposite the entrance to the crater, in warm positions, which, so soon as
+the earth is a little disturbed, emit jets of steam. It is still uncertain
+whether the other kinds of grass, _Poa_ and _Setaria Holcus_, belong
+exclusively to St. Paul, or are to be included in the more general group
+of geographical plants known as that of the islands of Edward's Island,
+Kerguelen's Island, and St. Paul.
+
+Among the grasses there spring up here and there, but on the whole very
+sparsely, some wild vegetables which have been planted by previous chance
+visitors.[69] In the crater there are also _Sonchus arvensis_ and one
+_Plantago_ (Plantain). On the south margin of the crater are _Cerastium_
+(maize-ear chickweed), and _Stellaria media_ (chickweed); both grow on a
+small piece of ground, and are far from thriving. Of _Cryptogamia_ the
+botanist found four sorts. Two _Parmelias_, one _Evernia_, and one
+_Cladonia_, the first-named overrunning the blocks on the edge of the
+crater with great luxuriance.
+
+[Footnote 69: Such as _Rumex acetosella_, _Cynara Scolcymus_ (artichoke);
+_Solanum tuberosum_ (species of nightshade); _Daucus carotta_ (carrot);
+_Petroselinum sativum_ (parsley); _Brassica oleracea_ (sea-kail);
+_Raphanus sativus_ (horse-radish).]
+
+Of _Algæ_ there were found 33 species. The stones rolled backwards and
+forwards by the action of the waves, as also those surfaces which remained
+covered at lowest tide, were entirely covered with _Dicurella flabellata_.
+Most numerous was _Gigartina radula_, just in a state of fructification.
+Every movement of the water calls up slender, delicate _confervæ_, and
+pale and coloured _luminariæ_. The breakers have crowned the stones with
+festoons of the _Macrocystis pyrifera_. Of Liverworts there were found
+_Marchantia_ and _Jungermania_; of foliaceous mosses, _Sphagnum_
+(bog-moss), and two kinds of _Bruym_. Two ferns, just beginning to bear
+fruit, were found on the plateau, and one _Lycopodium_ (club-moss), which
+thrives pretty well, and frequently grows on the _Sphagnum_. On the whole,
+the botanist of the expedition found on the island, 11 _Phanerogamia_, 4
+_Lichens_, 33 _Algæ_, 2 ferns, 2 Liverworts, 3 foliaceous mosses, 1
+_Lycopodium_. In this enumeration are included the European vegetables
+cultivated by the residents, as also some untended plants, which
+apparently have been introduced with the vegetables, or have been brought
+hither by previous visitors. The stony substratum of this island is barely
+covered with a plastic vegetable substance, which fills the cracks. The
+walls of the crater, as also the entire plateau, present to view a plain,
+unrelieved expanse of grass; not, however, like fields clothed with sward,
+but single tufts pressing one upon the other, which seem like the
+grave-mounds of a hundred bygone generations of plants. Frequently, at the
+foot of a block of pumice, all overrun with grasses of all sorts, one
+comes upon a moss or a stem of fern on one of the pieces of lava that has
+been washed up, or perceives with amazement in some out-of-the-way place,
+and utterly neglected, good old acquaintances from Europe, such as
+carrots, parsley, potatoes, &c., which apparently have been begun to be
+cultivated on some of the terraces, whence they have propagated themselves
+in a wild state all over the island. But not a tree, or bush, is to be met
+with throughout the island.
+
+In like manner, although the zoologist seemed to have but a poor prospect
+at St. Paul, it presented materials for most satisfactory speculation to
+the attentive naturalist. Only one of the grasses is infested by an
+insect, which appears in great numbers, a very tiny _cicada_ (cricket),
+the _Delphis hemiptera_, of which, according to the zoologist of the
+expedition, it is hard to say whether it became indigenous to St. Paul
+before, or contemporaneous with the arrival of man. Among other insects
+that have certainly been introduced here, the zoologist found the common
+bluebottle-fly, a gnat, the universally found cockroach, the book-tick
+(_acarus eruditus_), one kind of earwig, and the flea; besides the
+_Isopodis_, our common barrel-worm,[70] in almost fabulous quantities.
+These animals invariably follow man wherever he plants his foot, living
+upon garbage or decaying organic matter. With the exception of the
+clothes-moth, which has probably been introduced among the wool-stuffs,
+there are in the island no butterflies, none of the been tribe, no
+_Neuroptera_. Mites also need scarcely be reckoned, since the only
+representative, the common cheese-mite, is more apt to become extinct than
+to thrive; on the other hand, there are two kinds of spiders, for which
+the enormous number of flies furnish sufficient food.
+
+[Footnote 70: These loathsome animals cover the island in such quantities
+that one of the naturalists reckoned them at 6,000,000,000, counting 100
+as the minimum to each square foot of the island.]
+
+The species belonging to the sea are somewhat more plentifully
+represented, although, with few exceptions, very small and insignificant.
+The largest shell fish, a _Tritonium_, only attains a length of 3 inches;
+_Patella_, which is very plentiful all round the island, is only 1 inch
+long; several sorts of snails (such as _Buccinum_, _Defrancia_,
+_Mangelia_, _Paludinella_, _Adeorbis_, _Janthina_, _Fissurella_,
+_Scutellina_, _Lepidopleurus_, _Bulla_, _Asteronotus_, _Doto_), are barely
+a few lines in length, or even less.
+
+The _Brachiopoda_ are represented by a very inferior member, the
+_Terebratulina_, only two lines long, which, however, is a giant compared
+with one of the two only kinds of mussel, _Kellia_ and _Lima_, which are
+occasionally met with here, and are only half-a-line in length.
+
+Among the _Vertebratæ_, the fishery of which is the principal object of
+the visits annually paid to the island, one, the _Cheilodactylus_, a
+spinous-finned fish, which is extraordinarily abundant all round the
+island, supports an important fishery, while _Thyrsites Atun_ were
+frequently caught with rod and line from the frigate.
+
+Of _Amphibiæ_, there is not a vestige to be found on the island; the birds
+belong for the most part to the powerful-winged web-footed birds that
+frequent the open ocean, as, for example, the _Diomedea exulans_ (great
+albatross or man-of-war bird), _D. chlororhynchus_ (yellow-billed
+albatross), _D. fuliginosa_ (a new one not determined), _Lestris
+catarractes_, _Storna sp: Prion Vittatus_, of which the four last-named,
+at the time of our visit, had both eggs and young. Of birds with
+fin-shaped wings, there was the golden-crested penguin (_Apterodytes
+chrysocoma S._), living in two distinct colonies among the precipitous
+overhanging cliffs, with innumerable young, already of a pretty good
+size.[71] We also remarked several other winged denizens of the deep, which
+had alighted on our ship during the last few days immediately preceding
+our arrival at St. Paul. According to the fishery-people, the other birds
+of the island quit it altogether so soon as their young have grown
+sufficiently, and only return when the next breeding season comes round.
+
+[Footnote 71: One of the zoologists, Mr. Zelebor, endeavoured to kill two
+penguins that had been caught alive in the island, the one with arsenic,
+the other with chloroform. Of the latter, a quantity was administered
+enough to have killed a man, but which scarcely affected the penguin, who,
+in a quarter of an hour after, seemed quite restored to himself. The
+second, which had swallowed two tea-spoonsful of arsenic, died eight hours
+later.]
+
+In contradistinction to the sea-birds, M. Frauenfeld remarked but one
+single land-bird, a swallow, whose movements seemed to indicate that he
+was watching a breeding female. A stray bird on this lonely spot of earth,
+nearly 3000 miles away from the main land! Hundreds of questions
+suggested themselves on thus unexpectedly coming upon so well-known a
+wanderer. What could have condemned him to this self-imposed exile? Was he
+a straggler? Was it the first time he had selected this island for a home?
+Had it been his own cradle? And would he at some future period find
+companions to visit with him, and ultimately share these solitary desolate
+abodes?
+
+There were no seals visible,--they have retreated before the attacks and
+stratagems of their insatiate pursuer the seal-hunter, and for a long
+period have ceased to frequent the island. Indeed, St. Paul furnishes not
+a single specimen of mammal peculiar to itself; for all the members of
+this great natural division at present on it,--such as goats, swine, cats,
+&c.,--having become wild, must necessarily be classed, however unusual,
+with rats, mice, and the like. In other respects, all these have not
+varied in the slightest from the type of the domesticated animal (although
+they have probably lived wild for a hundred years past), except that they
+are very shy and avoid the presence of man.
+
+While upon these various points, the stay of the Imperial Expedition at
+St. Paul gave many splendid results by means of observations and
+scientific collections, it was also productive of a number of important
+practical benefits for seafaring people. The geodesical results, for
+instance, obtained by the Expedition, demonstrate that there is formed by
+the basin of the crater at St. Paul's, despite the small extent of its
+coast-line, a secure natural haven which would afford substantial
+facilities for ships, to which, on their voyage to China, Australia, or
+anywhere in the East Indies, any accident has happened, necessitating
+complete and speedy repair, or which might require fresh provisions for
+their crews, stricken with scurvy after a long voyage. For, although the
+depth of the basin of the crater in the centre is very considerable, and
+although the squalls of wind from the N.W. are often very violent, the
+ship can always make fast to the land, and so ensure the requisite
+security. How far the assistance so cheerfully rendered by science may
+have been called for, or how far the route at present traversed by sailing
+vessels makes that assistance desirable, must be left to the judgment of
+those nations, such as the English, French, and Dutch, which, as having
+possessions washed by the Indian Ocean, have a direct interest in the
+future condition of such a harbour of refuge, situate equidistant from
+Asia, Africa, and Australia.
+
+The morning after our departure from St. Paul, that is to say, on 7th
+Dec., we found ourselves not more than ten miles distant from Amsterdam.
+The first view of the island greatly resembles that of St. Paul, and the
+hypothesis gained constantly in probability that the geological formation
+of Amsterdam is nearly identical with that of St. Paul.
+
+A whaler was cruising in the neighbourhood of the island, while one of his
+slim whaleboats was pursuing a school of sperm whales, which sported about
+in great numbers.
+
+Towards 7 A.M., a boat approached from the whaler _Esmeralda_, Captain
+Pierce, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, to ask for surgical assistance for
+a sailor who, while engaged a few days previously in hauling a captured
+fish alongside, had had his left hand so severely injured by one of the
+lines, that amputation had seemed the sole remedy. The Captain had, in
+genuine Yankee fashion, assumed the duties of surgeon, and performed the
+operation himself. Now that it was over, and when neither praise nor
+censure could benefit the patient, he was anxious to know whether he had
+done right or wrong. While one of the ship's surgeons was getting ready,
+as requested by the captain, to proceed to the bedside of his patient, the
+whaler informed us he had already been absent from his family in the
+States five months, and would proceed hence to the Sandwich Islands and
+the Northern grounds, and finally return home round Cape Horn. If the take
+of fish proved good, he hoped to complete the voyage within two years.
+Whale-fishing, in truth, is not only a very dangerous and laborious, but
+also a most precarious pursuit. Occasionally a ship gets loaded within a
+brief space with oil and whalebone, by which, of course, the owner or
+charterer makes a splendid profit, and the entire crew obtain a handsome
+share. But frequently does it happen that, after a voyage of fifteen
+months and more, there is not a single fish taken, in which case the hardy
+sailors, who are entirely dependent for their pay upon a share of the
+spoil, have had all their labour and undergone all their privations in
+vain, while the freighter is poorer by a good round sum. The bare chance,
+however, of a rich haul is sufficient to raise to 8000, the number
+(probably on the increase) of the ships of varying tonnage and
+nationality, which at present encounter the anxieties, dangers, and
+hardships attaching to the whale-fishery. It is calculated that, were it
+possible to anchor them within signalling distance of each other, they
+would form a complete girdle round the earth at the Equator. In other
+respects, the incessant activity of the whaler is not without its
+advantages for science, since the observations and communications of many
+of the captains connected with the whaling business have essentially
+contributed to extend our acquaintance with atmospheric phenomena,
+especially in high latitudes, on both sides of the Equator.
+
+The loquacious captain, an uncommon quality in a Yankee, could not conceal
+his astonishment at encountering an Austrian man-of-war in such a latitude
+in mid-ocean, and adverted to this unexpected phenomenon. Captain Pierce
+further complained bitterly of the weather, and said that, as long as he
+had sailed the Indian Ocean, he had never at this season experienced such
+tempestuous weather as during the last week; which was further confirmed
+by several other whalers, regular visitors to these waters. Respecting
+Amsterdam, Captain Pierce, unfortunately, could give us but very little
+information. He had never set foot on the island, nor did he know whether
+it was accessible at all. But he spoke highly of the availability of the
+coasts for valuable fish. Nowhere in the Indian Ocean, the Captain
+remarked, was there such an abundance of fish of all descriptions as at
+the Southernmost point of this little-known island. Consequently most
+whalers, on their course Southwards, approach this island, and send out
+boats to bring in supplies of fish suitable for the table. Usually the
+boat is filled in a few hours with delicious food caught with the rod and
+line, when the fish are forthwith salted, in sufficient quantities to
+supply the crew for several weeks.
+
+Is Amsterdam really a sister-island of St. Paul? Is it, too, of volcanic
+origin, upheaved by the same subterranean energy, and does it still show
+similar traces of long-continued activity? These questions pressed on us
+for solution all the more vividly as we neared this inaccessible island,
+when we recalled to mind the mysterious phenomena which D'Entrecasteaux
+had observed here in March, 1792, and which have remained unexplained to
+this day.[72] The French Expedition saw, it is true, clouds of smoke
+emerging alternately from a subterranean opening close to the shore, but
+without being able to satisfy themselves whether the vegetation had been
+set on fire by the hand of man or by volcanic action, the wind which blew
+direct from the island making it impossible to land, unless one was
+prepared to run the risk of being suffocated by the rolling masses of
+smoke. There was, therefore, to be solved, at Amsterdam, the mystery as to
+whether the pillars of smoke, which were observed by the naturalists of
+the French Expedition of 1792, issuing from the soil adjoining the sea,
+were produced by an actual eruption, or were caused by subterranean fires
+in activity.[73]
+
+[Footnote 72: La Billardière, Rélation du voyage à la recherche de la
+Peyrouse, fait par ordre de l'Assemblée Constituante pendant les années
+1791-94, Paris, 1800. (Vol. I., pp. 112, 113.)]
+
+[Footnote 73: Vide Alexander v. Humboldt's "Kosmos," Vol. IV., pp. 412 and
+585; also Physical and Geognostic Remarks, by the same author, prefixed to
+this volume.]
+
+About 11 A.M., the two jolly-boats of the _Novara_ were lowered to look
+for a landing-place on Amsterdam, while the frigate stood off and on,
+under easy sail, at an offing of five or six miles. Our whaling informant
+had told us the most abundant fishing-station was at the south point of
+the island, while the best place for disembarking was on the N.W. shore.
+As, however, upon consideration, it was deemed advisable, looking to the
+probability of a N.E. gale springing up, to get to windward of the ship,
+so as to be able to fetch her more speedily on our return, the S.E. side
+was selected, and our course laid for it accordingly. Along the
+acclivities of the coast pyramids of loose stones were visible, resembling
+those on St. Paul, but more numerous and of larger dimensions, the entire
+island seeming altogether on a much larger scale, and more lofty. On the
+West side we observed rocky precipices of from 1000 to 2000 feet in
+height, fissured with deep clefts and rents, whereas on the South and
+S.E., these presented a more gradual slope.
+
+For above an hour we steered along the shore, which rose sheer out of the
+water, without being able to detect a single point at which it was at all
+practicable to disembark, so as to scramble up to the high ground. The
+entire Eastern side is hemmed around with steep abrupt precipices of 150
+to 200 feet high, not unlike skilfully-erected bastions, and clothed with
+long thick grass.
+
+As we drew near, we could plainly discern in the water-courses that
+descend upon the upper slope--radiating, as it were, from all sides of the
+highest peak, which was enveloped in clouds--numerous streams of water,
+each pouring through a rift like a thread of silver, after which,
+precipitating itself over the steep precipices on the shore, it washed
+like a small torrent over terraces and banks of lava, till it was lost in
+the sea. If these streams are swollen by the heavy rain in winter, they
+may form waterfalls, as mentioned by early navigators, which must impart a
+far less pleasing character to the landscape. Two small patches of
+dazzling white, like fresh fallen snow, which were visible high above the
+slope, we could not make out with the utmost power of our glasses. The
+green colour which enveloped the entire island seemed to indicate the
+existence of grass vegetation resembling that of St. Paul.
+
+At last, when we had got within two cables' length of the shore, we
+encountered enormous green flakes of floating sea-weed, which, becoming
+entangled with the rudder, made further progress possible only by dint of
+most strenuous exertions. This proved to be the same gigantic sea-tangle
+of the Southern hemispheres (_Macrocystis Pyrifera_), which likewise
+constitutes a barrier of _fucus_ on the East side of St. Paul. The
+sea-calves mentioned by older describers were nowhere to be seen; but on
+the other hand we had an opportunity of satisfying ourselves as to the
+immense abundance of fish which frequent the coast of the island in a
+truly astonishing degree, although the American whaler had prepared us by
+his remarks. From bow and stern of the boat hooks and lines were hung out,
+and several of the crew were at once kept busy hauling in the lines, at
+the end of each of which there usually struggled a fish of some two or
+three feet long. These were chiefly umber fish, which are also very
+plentiful about St. Paul, where, from their delicacy, they formed a
+favourite dish at our otherwise very frugal repasts.
+
+We had now got so near, that we could distinctly perceive grass and the
+stems of ferns growing among the clefts of the rocks. However, although
+there was a dead calm, and the sea outside was as smooth as glass, the
+long ground-swell of the ocean, with its broad flat billows, caused such a
+heavy surf on the rock-bound stony beach, that the attempt to pass it was
+not to be thought of. The further we advanced along the coast in a
+northernly direction, the more distant we got from the ship, and unluckily
+in an equal degree our hopes were disappointed of finding a spot at which
+we could land, and scramble from the strand up the steep bank to the level
+ground above. The south-easternmost point, which at a distance presented
+the appearance of a low headland jutting out into the sea, behind which we
+had hoped to find a good landing-place, now that we had got close to it,
+proved to be a small detached rock; while the shore, as far as the eye
+could reach, rose like a wall to a height of from 150 to 200 feet. There
+now hove in sight five whalers, who seemed hunting that most valuable of
+all the inhabitants of the deep, of the spots frequented by which Maury's
+renowned Whale Charts have lately supplied so interesting and useful a
+code of instruction. These charts, which are based on a vast number of
+observations, of the tracts of ocean and seasons of the year at which
+whales are most frequently seen, will at the same time greatly tend to a
+solution of the question as to the migration of these enormous mammals;
+for it has never yet been settled, whether these animals flee from the
+pursuit of man to remote seas, thus continually constraining their
+pursuers to seek their prey in new waters, or whether, (as is the most
+prevalent opinion), they are always entirely extirpated from one locality,
+and accordingly are only to be met with in any numbers in some different
+area, in which man has as yet only rarely, if ever, disturbed them.[74]
+
+[Footnote 74: Some very valuable and detailed particulars of the Whale
+fishery are to be found in Maury's incomparable work, "The Physical
+Geography of the Ocean," and in Dr. Hartwigs' "Popular Treatise on
+Animated Nature in the Ocean. (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.)"]
+
+After an hour-and-a-half of continuous rowing, and when, in our very
+unsuitable boat, we had got about 7 nautical miles distant from the
+frigate, we at last found a smooth spot between two reefs, which projected
+above the level of the sea like a breakwater, and at once let go the
+boat's anchor. A regular landing-place, however, was not to be hoped for
+at this point. It was necessary first to make a spring to a block of rock,
+and thence, picking one's way among stones rendered slippery by being
+covered at flood-tide, endeavour to reach the beach. This we all
+succeeded in accomplishing over the rough rocks, without any mischance,
+and at last we stood on the firm soil of the Island of Amsterdam, at a
+spot which assuredly had never before been trodden by human feet, unless
+by some castaway. For only in consequence of the sea being perfectly calm,
+which at this season was quite unusual, were we able to reach the shore at
+this point.
+
+What a scene of wildest desolation, and inaccessible solitude now met our
+gaze! Around us nothing but huge blocks of basalt, some rolled about by
+the breakers, and so slippery with half-dry _algæ_, that one was in danger
+of falling at every stride; others with their angles and indentations as
+sharp, as when first violently torn from their original bed; and behind
+these gigantic blocks, a perpendicular wall of rock rising 200 feet sheer,
+composed of a schistus of basaltic lava lying regularly and horizontally
+one over the other, intermixed with red or brown slag, and yellow tufa.
+Immense holes and cavities in the rocky wall, as also the empty spaces
+between the broken blocks that had fallen down, and the vast air-holes
+scooped out in the lava beds, furnished an undisturbed nestling-place for
+flocks of a beautiful sea-swallow, with glossy black head, silver-grey
+body, and bill and feet of carmine red--the most elegant and attractive
+contrast of colours that can well be imagined upon any bird. These pretty
+creatures afforded great amusement to the sportsmen of our little party,
+while the geologist acquired a better idea and more information as to the
+mineralogy and geognosis of the island beneath the steep wall of rock,
+than he could have obtained above, where all seemed to be covered with
+thick green grass. But the botanist and zoologist found but little to
+repay their search on the beach. The same _Algæ_, the same grasses, the
+same _patellæ_ (limpets), as at St. Paul, even to the same caterpillars
+swarming upon every tuft of grass in numberless quantities. At several
+points, fresh, perfectly good, sweet spring-water trickled down from the
+heights, and we could thus confirm the relations of former explorers, that
+the island contains fresh water; but whether it can be got at, still
+remains a very uncertain question. As we were convinced, after several
+examinations and much exertion, that to ascend the precipice from this
+spot was impossible, it was resolved, after the men had rested, and a few
+observations had been made with the sextant, to re-embark and endeavour to
+find a more suitable spot for disembarking.
+
+We quitted this first spot about 2 P.M., and continued to steer along the
+coast in a N.E. direction. The character of the scenery remained almost
+unaltered. The steep shore wall indeed dipped somewhat occasionally, but
+it was never less than 100 feet above the level of the sea. At various
+points there appeared, as at St. Paul, between the tufa strata, black
+veins of basalt, and fragments of scoriæ, lying upon reddish-brown slag.
+Our curiosity, however, was especially excited by the appearance of small
+trees and low bushes. At first, while we were yet at some distance, we
+could barely distinguish a few dark, clear, green spots amid the universal
+dull olive appearance of the vegetation that covered the island; now that
+we were keeping closer in, we plainly saw small trees, which seemed most
+to resemble forests of pine, as also what appeared to be thick close
+brushwood of a light green colour, with which large patches of the middle
+and lower slopes of the island were covered. In vain did we watch for some
+spot in this singular island at which we might land and climb; at length,
+after steering several miles further along the coast, and passing several
+promontories advancing from the island, and numerous isolated rocks, we
+came, towards 3.30 P.M., upon a number of lava-blocks that had fallen from
+above, and, forming a sort of dam or bulwark between the sea and the
+shore, seemed to render disembarkation possible. The boat's anchor was
+again dropped, and we proceeded to make for the shore by dint of jumping,
+as before, from rock to rock; a method of reaching land more agreeable and
+better suited to penguins than decorous philosophers!
+
+Among the rocks on the strand lie fragments of shipwrecked vessels--pieces
+of masts and yards--dumb witnesses of human disaster, and suffering, and
+death! At this point the shore was not very steep. The masses of rock
+piled here on each other in wild confusion, made our ascent more
+practicable than at our former landing-place, though perhaps they
+necessitated greater circumspection. Dr. Hochstetter and M. Zelebor, as
+also Lieutenant Kronowetter, and a sailor, started for the height. A
+ridge, grown over with grass and rushes, and forming a line of
+communication between the upper and lower portions of the island, seemed
+the most accessible point. at which to mount to the high ground above. At
+first the path led over the colossal rampart of broken rocks and through
+the surf, after which came clumps of rushes and clods, in which the former
+grew, and thence upwards over masses of slag. It was a regular Sisyphean
+task. On the loose rolling _débris_ beneath the feet, for every five feet
+forwards, one slipped four backward, so that to climb this height of
+little over 100 feet, took nearly a whole hour. At last the adventurous
+scramblers stood on the top of the island, on a small bare cone of scoriæ,
+whence they were able to overlook a portion of the ground. Dense rush-like
+grass, as high as a man, thickly covered the entire surface--
+half-withered, half of a lively green; here broken short off by wind and
+rain, there still standing erect. Further progress was not to be thought
+of, not even as far as the green clump of bushes which had already been
+observed from the boat, although it was scarcely a hundred paces distant,
+on the surface of the declivity, and although a closer examination
+promised to afford many interesting details as to the vegetation on the
+island. It would have been necessary to make one's way either through
+heaps of withered rushes, requiring to be broken down at every moment, or
+across thick, matted, fresh, slippery grass, in order to get anywhere near
+the copse that resembled the pinewood. Moreover, owing to the short
+allowance of daylight that remained, both were for the present
+inaccessible.[75] Evening was coming on, and it was necessary to think of
+our return, as we were at a distance of at least eight miles from the
+frigate. With the help of pocket-handkerchiefs, which they had tied to the
+reeds, the explorers readily found again the place at which they had
+ascended, and now speedily returned to the improvised landing-place,
+where, meanwhile, the naturalists that had remained behind had occupied
+themselves with collecting specimens on the beach, and amid the
+surrounding rocks. A singular spectacle now presented itself to the
+astonished view. A couple of lucifer matches that had been thrown aside
+without further thought, had burst into flames amid the parched rush beds,
+and dense volumes of black smoke forthwith rose upon the surface of the
+island. The fire speedily spreading among the thick dry grass, soon
+assumed a formidable breadth, and ere long a considerable portion of the
+east coast of the island was in a light flame. There was now presented to
+the members of the _Novara_ expedition, the same spectacle as that
+witnessed by the naturalists of the _Recherche_, when D'Entrecasteaux
+passed here some sixty years before. It may safely be assumed that the
+fire, and the thick wreaths of smoke then visible were like those of
+to-day, the result of man's hands, and not of subterranean forces--in
+fact, kindled in all probability by fishermen, who were clearing this
+uninhabitable island of the close impervious brushwood that so greatly
+impedes locomotion, and were rendering it capable of being traversed, as
+well as susceptible of cultivation. During the night of 7th and 8th
+December, 1857, the sky was clear and cloudless, and the flames crackled
+and leaped high above the beach, in an elliptical area, which must have
+measured a couple of miles in its major axis. A dense, copper-coloured,
+luminous cloud of smoke rose straight into the air, where it spread out
+horizontally, till at last a long trail of smoke stretched in a S.E.
+direction to the farthest horizon, entirely covering the upper part of
+the island. About 2 A.M., according to the report of the officer of the
+watch, the spectacle was still more grand and imposing. The conflagration
+at that time extended over an immense surface, so that the imagination
+might naturally enough be disposed to regard this as the bursting forth of
+the pent-up flames of a volcano, with the usual accompaniments of red-hot
+streams of lava, clouds of floating ashes, and pillars of flame mounting
+to heaven.
+
+[Footnote 75: One of the shipwrecked crew of the _Meridian_, in an article
+in the _Nautical Magazine_, for 1854, p. 75, describes at some length the
+difficulties of access to this island. We quote it here as a supplement to
+our own experiences:--"After we had clambered up to the top by means of
+ropes, and after much exertion and considerable danger, we found the
+island for a space of two or three miles thickly covered with reeds, from
+5 to 8 feet high; behind rose a lofty hill, also clothed with reeds.
+Fortunately, during our stay on the island, there was a sufficiency of
+fresh water, although in summer, in all probability, there is a great
+scarcity. So long as we remained, constant rain fell upon the summit of
+the mountain, and kept the numerous little brooks full of water. In order
+to signal our situation to any ship that might be passing, we set the
+reeds on fire; but the flames spread more furiously than we had
+anticipated, so that our lives were endangered. A considerable quantity of
+young birds were picked up, which had fallen victims to the flames. On the
+29th August, to our great joy, a ship, the _Monmouth_, hove in sight, and
+observed our signal; but the surf was at this time so violent that no boat
+could reach us. At last, on 31st August, a boat came near enough to the
+shore to make us a signal to proceed eastward over the rocks. We set off
+at once, but found the path very rugged, and owing to the immense masses
+of rock lying around, excessively difficult. Besides reeds and brushwood,
+there were no other plants but parsley and endive (_cichorium intybus_).
+During the first half of the following day we found no water, but we found
+the hail very grateful, which day and night fell incessantly, alternating
+with rain. At the first watering-place we came upon an English sailor,
+whom the captain of the _Monmouth_ had despatched to assist us. He
+informed us we must make for the north side of the island, as no boat
+could reach the shore at the spot where we had gone ashore. The
+south-coast is the worst part of the island; there the surf breaks
+continually against the iron-bound coast; there is nothing resembling a
+beach--only here and there enormous blocks of a hard species of stone,
+that have fallen from time to time from the cliffs above. On 2nd
+September, we had neither provisions nor water. The following day,
+however, we found water, and a few cabbage-stalks, which several years
+before had been sown by some whalers, and fortunately had thrived. On 5th
+September, we reached what is called the Cabbage Garden, and the same
+evening arrived at the place where the boat was awaiting us."]
+
+Fortunately, this gigantic conflagration must have done far more good than
+harm to this desolate island, covered as it was for the most part with
+reeds, since, without destroying any of the vegetation that could be of
+service to man, it will greatly facilitate examination by future voyagers,
+and adapt it for settlement by fishers and others, who at present seem to
+leave it utterly abandoned.
+
+Towards 6 P.M., as it was already getting dark, our two boats set out on
+their return to the frigate, from which in the course of the day they had
+been distant about fifteen miles. However a fresh Northerly breeze having
+sprung up we were able to make sail, and at 7.30 P.M. once more reached
+the frigate, when we were received with a storm of questions, principally
+turning upon the mysterious far-visible conflagration,--which had been
+kindled by a couple of humble Vienna lucifers! During our visit to the
+island a variety of observations were also made on board the frigate, to
+obtain the position of Amsterdam, as also to determine the elevation of
+the most prominent peaks of the island, and the outline of the shore. The
+results of these gave the following: latitude 37° 58' 30'' S.; longitude,
+77° 34,' 44'' E. of Greenwich; elevation of the highest summit (nearly
+corresponding with previous observations), 2891 English feet; of the
+second highest, 2651 feet; the length of the South coast, as measured from
+the frigate, 32,359 feet; of the Western shore, 5507 feet.
+
+There was still some faint hope that we might visit the island next day.
+However, during the night the wind sprung up, the weather became variable,
+and we saw ourselves compelled to renounce our cherished desire to
+investigate the island thoroughly, the rather that, owing to the
+unpropitious weather during the last few weeks, the stay of the _Novara_
+in these latitudes had been prolonged so considerably beyond the period
+fixed, that no more time could be spared, if it were desirous to avoid
+sacrificing the objects of the Expedition with reference to other and more
+important departments of scientific enquiry, by engaging in them at a
+season in all probability highly unfavourable for the purpose.
+
+Consequently our observations in Amsterdam remained most imperfect;
+although the geologist of the expedition was enabled to clear up the
+uncertainty hitherto prevailing as to the geological structure of the
+island, and to determine upon scientific data, that Amsterdam is an
+extinct volcanic cone, of precisely the same character, and belonging to
+the same order of volcanic formation as the sister island of St. Paul;
+that it probably contains on itself all the usual indications of its
+volcanic origin, and that its upheaval probably took place at the same
+period. On the other hand, the naturalist regretted to see slip the
+opportunity so rarely vouchsafed, of instituting a comparison between the
+respective vegetations of these islands, and of making evident how,
+simultaneously with the advance of a more luxuriant, and more multiform
+vegetable organization, there also appears an entirely new race of
+animals, and how closely allied in the economy of nature is the existence
+of individual specimens with certain fixed pre-existent types. In any case
+St. Paul, which we enjoyed an opportunity of examining in the utmost
+detail, is, of the two islands, the most important to the commerce of the
+world, not merely as a finger-post on the most frequented deep-sea route
+in the Indian Ocean, but also as a haven of refuge for ships and crews.
+Already the crater-basin of St. Paul has served in case of need as a
+desirable asylum for ships that are half unseaworthy. Not many years since
+an English man-of-war steamer came to St. Paul, after a severe storm in
+the Indian Ocean, during which her engine broke down, and her rudder was
+knocked away, after which she, for twelve days, was steered by a temporary
+rudder. The vessel, after discharging the heaviest part of her equipment,
+was easily brought into the interior of the crater-basin, and was there
+hove down for several months on the Northern barrier, undergoing repairs.
+
+On the 8th December, about 4 A.M., only a dark cloud of smoke in the
+distant cloudless horizon indicated the position of Amsterdam. The island
+itself, properly speaking, was actually out of sight, for a fresh N.W.
+breeze had driven us merrily along during the night. The last hope was now
+dissipated of being able to obtain a view of the North side of Amsterdam.
+We were now rapidly approaching the region of the S.E. Trades. The breeze
+freshened and crept gradually to the West, thence to the South, and
+finally to the Eastward. This veering of the wind proved to be a
+fore-runner of the Trades, which we got into on 14th December, in S.
+latitude 28° 1', E. longitude 85°.
+
+On that day a merchantman hove in sight, which, with favouring breezes and
+all sail set, soon bore down on us. She came down without any flag, and
+stood right across our bows at so short a distance that we could plainly
+read her name--the _Bunker's Hill_, of Boston--on her stern. Thereupon we
+ran up our flag; and, as it is as gross a breach of the code of maritime
+politeness for a ship to pass across the bows of another in the open ocean
+without saluting, as for a man on land to brush quickly across another's
+path without apologizing, a blank shot was fired at this unmannerly
+American. To this manifestation etiquette lays it down that, as the
+hoisting of her flag by a man-of-war is a direct challenge for any
+merchantman that may be in sight to hoist its flag, any neglect of these
+universally recognized rules must involuntarily give rise to suspicions.
+After we had fired the blank shot, the American, by a telegraph of
+flag-signals, enquired the latitude and longitude, which in merchant ships
+in the open sea is pretty frequently resorted to, in order to know where
+precisely they are, as they are not able to make such frequent
+observations as ships of war. Before anything else, however, it was
+necessary to settle the question of saluting; and this the obstinate
+Yankee, in spite of the warning signal, seemed resolved not to notice,
+although he well knew the seriousness of his position, as was abundantly
+evident in the celerity with which several ladies and gentlemen, whom we
+could discern on deck, flew to seek shelter below! A second report,
+accompanied by a ball over his stern, at last brought this pertinacious
+captain to his senses, and the whistling of the shot had the desired
+effect. The "Stars and Stripes" were run up, upon which we signalled the
+required latitude and longitude. Probably it was but a petulant explosion
+of a silly national vanity, as also the consciousness of commanding a
+handsome crack "clipper," that could speedily run out of gun-shot, which
+led to this premeditated and persistent violation of one of the most
+ordinary rules of politeness. Indeed, even the vessels of the North
+American navy itself are frequently compelled in the open sea to treat
+their fellow-countrymen in a similar manner; and the captain of the
+war-steamer _Minnesota_, looking after the North American interests in
+China, was obliged, as we learned afterwards at Shanghai, to enforce a
+compliance with established sea usages on one of his seafaring
+compatriots, by dint of cannon-shot, in accordance with the undoubted
+practice of all maritime nations.
+
+The south-east Trade, which we had hoped would drive us on our destined
+course, was not so strong or so steady as we had expected, chiefly
+perhaps in consequence of the influence exercised by the Australian
+continent, the temperature of which during this, the summer season of the
+Southern Hemisphere, is raised to an extraordinary degree by its sandy
+surface, that when the air has become thus warmed, it ascends and becomes
+more rarefied in its lower strata, in consequence of which its elasticity
+becomes so great as to drive back the surrounding colder atmosphere, and
+only admit it to contact with the heated air at its most remote limits.
+This occurs the more readily, that the heated air, after it has risen to
+the more rarefied tracts, expands on all sides, and at a certain distance
+from the lower level, begins to add to the pressure of the atmosphere. In
+this self-acting zone of increased atmospheric pressure, the winds,
+however, are naturally more faint, and, to observers who happen to be on
+the exterior of this zone, always appear to take their rise from the
+further side. For this reason, probably, we fell in with easterly breezes,
+so long as we had the Northern portion of Australia to the eastward of us.
+
+At any rate, the equilibrium of the air seemed to be disturbed, as we
+could plainly perceive from the weather and the confused sea. At last on
+18th December, the heavens seemed somewhat more propitious, though the
+wind still continued easterly; indeed occasionally blew from the north,
+and frequent squalls of rain poured pitilessly down upon us. The more,
+however, we increased our distance from the Australian continent, that is,
+from all land to the eastward, the more steadily blew the south east
+Trade. And so we kept standing steadily forwards, till at last, on the
+24th December, in 6° 4' S. Lat., and 82° 34' E. Long., we reached the
+eastern boundaries of the Trades and got into that of calms.
+
+The heat, which thus far had spared us, began now to be most oppressive,
+and was felt all the more owing to the air being extraordinarily damp and
+dense. Frequently in the afternoon a passing shower of rain, which would
+sometimes completely flood the deck, would cool the air for a few fleeting
+moments. Occasionally indeed we had westerly and more rarely
+north-westerly breezes, but these were never of long duration, and were
+incessantly broken by rains and squalls.
+
+And at this same season, at which in our distant Fatherland, palace and
+hut are decked out with unwonted attention, when golden fruits and elegant
+presents glitter from the green fir-branches of the Christmas Tree, all
+lit up with the neat little wax-tapers, when man's heart seems to overflow
+with cheerfulness and love of his fellow-creatures,--at this season we
+were languishing far from our dear ones, tormented with the intense heat,
+scarcely able to realize to ourselves, that at home it must now be snow
+and frost, while keen Boreas is whirling the snowflakes aloft, and howling
+a grim accompaniment the while! However, we promised ourselves the
+satisfaction of enjoying these pleasures at our own firesides, whereupon
+our recollections of home and dear friends imparted to our minds a
+wholesome stimulus, arising from the soul-inspiring conviction, that we
+too were present in their minds and hearts at this hallowed season. Nay,
+several of the officers of the _Novara_ Expedition were surprised when
+far at sea, in the very midst of the Indian Ocean, with Christmas gifts,
+which thoughtful friends had many months before entrusted to the care of
+discreet fellow-voyagers.
+
+After constantly struggling against calms and contrary winds, exactly at
+the first stroke of the New Year, at midnight of 31st December-1st
+January, we reached the Equator, which we were now crossing for the second
+time, and began the year 1858 in the Northern Hemisphere.
+
+On this New Year's Day we had nearly had a great disaster. A lad who was
+coming down the shrouds fell overboard. The sea was perfectly calm and
+smooth, but already on the morning of this very day we had seen many
+sharks, those dreaded foes of man in the domain of ocean, so that the life
+of the unfortunate youth seemed seriously imperilled. The same instant in
+which the youth fell, saw a life-buoy thrown over, a boat prepared for
+lowering, and all usual appliances for a rescue made available. But
+although an excellent swimmer, he seemed to lose all presence of mind,
+probably through fear, and must undoubtedly have been drowned, had not the
+boatswain's mate, and two other sailors, leaped into the water and made
+all haste to his assistance. Meanwhile the boat had been got into the
+water, by which rescued and rescuers were got safe on board again.
+
+A few months later, the boatswain's mate, for his gallant conduct on this
+occasion, received, by the express orders of His Majesty, the silver cross
+of merit, while the sailors were advanced one grade.
+
+The current, which runs northward along the coast of Australia, but turns
+off to the westward about the tenth degree of South latitude, so as to
+pass southward of Ceylon, directly along the Equator to the Coast of
+Africa, carried us far to the westward, in consequence of which we had
+overcast, uncertain weather, with, for the most part, calms or light
+breezes. As we found ourselves approaching the fourth degree of Northern
+latitude, a rather fresh N.E. wind sprung up, probably the trade wind of
+the Northern Hemisphere, which, however, as we neared Ceylon, again died
+away to a calm.
+
+At the same time, in lat. 5° 32' N., 79° 5' E., we fell in with a current
+running more than two miles an hour. We had, as it turned out, got to the
+westward of the roadstead of Point de Galle, in Ceylon, and found some
+little difficulty in making headway against the current. On 7th January,
+toward 3.30 P.M., land was made to the eastward, and an hour later, a
+Cingalese canoe was perceived making for the frigate under sail. It was
+the pilot boat, whose crew, having been informed by a Hamburg brig that a
+large ship was in sight, had put to sea to meet us.
+
+At the first sight of this little canoe, it was hardly possible to refrain
+from amazement at the courage and hardihood with which the half-naked
+Cingalese boatmen could put off some 30 or 40 miles to sea in such a tiny,
+narrow boat, that barely gives them room to sit lengthwise. Two
+cross-bars, or outriggers, projecting on one side, where they are
+fastened externally to a rather massive beam, which swims parallel with
+the boat, gave this canoe, apparently so fragile, such stability and
+seaworthiness, that it is at all times not less safe than a boat of
+European construction.[76]
+
+[Footnote 76: These canoes resemble very closely the "proas," of the
+Polynesian Islands, carrying a beam on one side, which is quite straight,
+and always kept on the lee of the wind and sea, the change of course being
+effected by simply shifting the sail, and steering with the paddle from
+the opposite end.]
+
+The natives steer with short paddles, and continue an incredibly long time
+at this most exhausting work, as we must conceive it to be. And yet they
+are to appearance a feeble race, except that the muscular system of the
+upper part of the body is remarkably developed.
+
+The dress of these people is remarkably simple, and usually consists only
+of a piece of coloured linen cloth or calico, which, worn short like a
+woman's petticoat, is thrown single-fold round the loins.
+
+The pilot, though he could only make himself intelligible in broken
+English, speedily came to a good understanding, and offered to sell us
+bananas, pine-apples, and cocoa-nuts, as also Ceylon jewels, the latter of
+which he carried on his person, secured in a parti-coloured cotton belt.
+This reminded us that we were nearing the shores of the country in which
+costly stones are found, but precisely on that account, as was natural,
+our speculative pilot found but a poor market for his wares.
+
+Off the coast we caught a shark 7 feet long, and 135 lbs. weight--a rather
+juvenile specimen--whose teeth, which we examined, were already strong
+and sharp enough to seize a man, and strip the flesh off him. Also a
+number of large dolphins and other fish, sported in the dead water under
+the frigate's stern, and provided plentiful employment for the harpoon and
+the rod. Presently we found ourselves within six miles of the land, when a
+large number of pirogues forthwith came swarming about us, all of a
+construction similar to the pilot boat, and each manned by four half-naked
+bronze natives. These offered fruits for sale, especially magnificent,
+gigantic clusters of banana. On one such cluster we counted, arranged in
+five rows, one over the other, not less than 175 bananas.
+
+On the 8th January, we anchored in the unpicturesque haven of Point de
+Galle, surrounded by groves of cocoa-nut palms, directly opposite the
+lighthouse tower, and in a fine quartz sand bottom of 16-1/2 fathoms (103
+feet English). All large ships, that only intend remaining a short time,
+anchor in the open roadstead, the entrance into the inner harbour being
+rather difficult, owing to numerous coral reefs. In the roads also lay the
+English frigate _Shannon_, from which, in the absence of her captain, the
+first lieutenant immediately came on board the _Novara_, and in the
+handsomest manner put his services at our disposal.
+
+As the only Austrian Consul on the island was resident in Colombo, M.
+Sonnenkalb, the Consul for Hamburg, had the courtesy to receive us with
+the most hospitable of welcomes, and proceeded to do us the honours of the
+place.
+
+On the 10th we hauled the frigate into the small inner harbour, in order
+to facilitate the shipping of stores. The entrance is rather winding,
+owing to the numerous shoals, and it is with some little difficulty that
+one can find a comfortable, commodious berth among such a crowd of
+shipping. We only saluted the flag of the dominant nationality--a
+customary courtesy--and were replied to by the batteries on shore. An
+officer of the frigate was then dispatched to announce our arrival to the
+governor of the station--a major in the English army. This gentleman
+seemed not to think it incumbent on him to put himself in the least out of
+his way for us. Indeed, we even experienced some little difficulty in
+procuring a sufficient supply of drinking water for shipment as stores;
+but we must at the same time add, in justice to the representatives of
+England in distant countries, that during our entire voyage this was the
+one solitary instance in which English military official men did not
+display that universal readiness to oblige, which, to their credit, is so
+conspicuously and so kindly displayed by them in their intercourse with
+foreign nations.
+
+[Illustration: CINGALESE CANOE.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ADAM'S PEAK FROM COLOMBO.]
+
+
+
+
+                               VIII.
+
+                               Ceylon.
+
+                   STAY FROM 8TH TO 16TH JAN., 1858.
+
+   Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English Government.--
+     Better Prospects for the Future.--The Cingalese, their
+     Language and Customs.--Buddhism and its Ordinances.--Visit to
+     a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of Galle.--The sacred
+     Bo-tree.--Other Aborigines of Ceylon.--The Weddàhs.--
+     Traditions as to their Origin.--Galle as a City and Harbour.--
+     Snake-charmers.--Departure for Colombo.--Cultivation of the
+     Cocoa-nut Palm, a benevolent, Buddha-pleasing work.--
+     Polyandria; or, Community of Husbands.--Supposed Origin.--
+     Annual Exportation of Cocoa-nuts.--Rest-houses for
+     Travellers.--Curry, the National Dish.--A Misfortune and its
+     Consequences.--The Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makun,
+     and Father Miliani.--Annoying Delays with restive Horses.--
+     Colombo.--A Stroll through the "_Pettah_" or Black Town.--Ice
+     Trade of the Americans with Tropical Countries.--Cinnamon
+     Gardens and Cinnamon Cultivation.--Consequences of the
+     Monopoly of Cinnamon.--Rise and Expansion of the Coffee
+     Culture in Ceylon.--Pearl-fishery.--Latest Examination of the
+     Ceylon Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+     Results.--Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.--The Divers.--
+     Pearl-lime, a Chewing Substance of wealthy Malays;--Annual
+     Profit of the Pearl-fishery.--Origin of the Pearl.--Poetry
+     and Natural Science.--Artificial Production of the Pearl.--The
+     Chank-shell--The Wealth of Ceylon in Precious Stones.--Visit
+     to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.--The Cowry-shell, a Promoter
+     of the Slave Trade.--Discovery of valuable Cingalese MSS. on
+     Palm-leaves.--The heroic Poem of "Mahawwanso," and Turner's
+     English Translation of it.--Hospitality of English Officials
+     in Colombo.--A second Visit to Father Miliani.--Agreeable
+     Reception.--The Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous
+     Snakes.--Adventures on the Journey back to Galle.--Ascent of
+     Adam's Peak by two Members of the Expedition.--The sacred
+     Footprint.--Descent.--The "Bullock-bandy," or Native Waggon.--
+     Departure from Galle for Madras.--The Bassos (shallows).--A
+     Berlin Rope-dancer among the Passengers.--Nyctalopia; or,
+     Night Blindness.--Fire on board.--Arrival in Madras Roads.
+
+
+The inquirer who becomes acquainted by personal examination with the
+important geographical position of the Island of Ceylon (called also
+Seilan or Singhala), her commodious harbours, her productiveness, and her
+marvellous climate, involuntarily wonders at the stepmother's part that
+England has hitherto played with respect to this renowned island of palms
+and spices, the Malta of the Indian Ocean, which of all the British
+possessions in distant parts of the earth, has, till recently, received
+the least care or attention.
+
+It must be borne in mind, however, that Ceylon is an appanage of the
+British Crown, and it is not an independent, self-supporting colony. Those
+shortcomings of administration, for which the mother country is
+exclusively responsible, have been hitherto a complete drag upon her
+development. But the English people have this advantage over all other
+nations, that once anything has been recognized to be useful and
+imperatively required, they proceed to apply it with such energy, that
+they are enabled to make up for any neglect with giant strides. During
+late years many fetters have been knocked off which formerly impeded the
+more active development of agriculture and commerce. The harbour of Point
+de Galle (also called only Galle for shortness) has become a central
+station for the steam-boat trade with the East Indies, the Burmese
+Archipelago, China, and Australia. A telegraphic wire will ere long
+stretch from Ceylon to England, such as even now unites the island with
+the Coromandel Coast and India; a railway is in course of construction
+between the most important commercial centres of the island, and so
+obvious are the fundamental benefits it must confer, that ere long the
+classical and incomparably beautiful island of Ceylon is destined to shine
+a star of the first magnitude in the azure of the Indian Ocean, one of the
+most prosperous, wealthy, and blest of islands!
+
+The scientific researches of all kinds, which have in modern days been
+instituted in Ceylon, have been attended with the most important results,
+bearing upon its history and its various tribes, as well as on its natural
+wealth; and the masterly and marvellous work Sir Emerson Tennent lately
+published on the isle of Ceylon, seems intended to compensate for many
+instances of neglect which Ceylon and its inhabitants have experienced
+from the English since they seized on it.
+
+Embracing all the three kingdoms of nature, and following up with learned
+accuracy the history of the inhabitants, from the obscure traditions
+attending their earliest settlement down to the present day, Sir Emerson
+Tennent's work is a perfect pattern of a monography, although upon this
+subject the German inquirer will involuntarily, and not without an
+emotion of pride, recall to mind Carl Ritter's admirable, well-digested
+publication upon Ceylon, in his classical work on Eastern Asia, doubly
+meritorious by the very fact that the German scholar never set foot in the
+country itself. There are, however, indeed few spots on earth which
+present such inexhaustible subjects for the study of the historian as well
+as the inquirer into physical science, of the poet and the political
+economist, as this romantically-beautiful island, which we have been
+taught to regard as the Garden of the World, as indeed the special site of
+the Garden of Eden, the first abode of the progenitors of the human race.
+
+We have not to do here, as in most of the islands of southern seas, with a
+savage people, that have only, since the first appearance of Europeans,
+emerged from a state of barbarism, and been raised one step towards
+civilization, but rather find, as in the East Indies and China, a peculiar
+type of civilization, which, although widely differing from that of
+Europe, yet seems not less valuable and extraordinary. The whites (scarce
+7000 in number, of whom 2482 are females), who live scattered over an area
+of 24,700 English square miles, have hitherto been too few in number to
+exercise any marked influence on the customs or mode of life of a native
+coloured population of 1,726,640 souls, and hence it is that Ceylon
+exhibits a more romantic and characteristic air than any other British
+settlement in distant parts of the globe.
+
+A people like the Cingalese, of such ardent imaginativeness, with a
+splendid history, and a religion professed in the various realms of the
+East by more than 300 millions of people, gains in interest the more we
+become acquainted with them, and the more we make their traditions, their
+mode of life, and their customs, the object of special inquiry.
+
+The Cingalese, or indigenous natives (so named to distinguish them from
+the other inhabitants of the island, belonging to other stocks and
+amalgamated races, who at various periods had settled here, and who call
+themselves Ceylonese), were entirely the offspring of Hindoo emigrants,
+who, about five centuries before the birth of Christ, came from Hindostan
+to Ceylon, and imported their own mode of government, and system of caste,
+as also their arts, language, and religion, from the continent into the
+island.
+
+They constitute the germ of the present population, and early divided
+themselves into four leading castes:--1st, that of the royal family;--2nd,
+the Brahmins;--3rd, the merchants, peasants, and shepherds;--and 4th, the
+sixty inferior common castes. At present there exist in Ceylon only the
+two latter. The most numerous is that of the peasants, who, however,
+meddle but little with the cultivation of the soil, but have arrogated to
+themselves the exclusive and hereditary possession of all employments, lay
+or ecclesiastical. The dress of the Cingalese usually consists of a cloth
+wound turban-fashion round their head, and long white drapery. On festive
+occasions they wear richly-adorned tight-fitting jackets of velvet or
+wool, and on such occasions rank and power assert themselves by the number
+of garments, to such an extent that frequently a wealthy man makes his
+appearance in several of these habiliments, worn one above the other. The
+Cingalese are shorter in stature than the Europeans, their average stature
+being 5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 5 inches, English. Their _physique_,
+though graceful and delicate, is powerful and muscular, with a brawny
+breast, broad shoulders, the muscles of the thigh strongly developed, but
+with disproportionately small hands and feet. Their colour is commonly a
+light-brown, their hair black and quite straight. The women are
+beautifully formed, but even when they can, like Asokamalla of historic
+fame, boast all the forty and six marks of the Cingalese ideal,[77] they
+must fall far short of the European standard of female beauty, with their
+bodies anointed with oil, and their mouths stained with the betel-nut. As
+the Cingalese girls usually marry so early as 12 years of age, they
+speedily lose the bloom of youth, and frequently have the appearance of
+crones at 20. Another especially loathsome habit of the Cingalese is the
+chewing the betel-nut, a custom so universally prevalent among all Indian
+races, that not merely the men and women, but the very children exhibit an
+extraordinary predilection for it. The ingredients of this masticatory
+consist of the green tender leaves of the Betel-pepper-shrub (_Piper
+betle_), the nut of the areca-palm (_Areca catechu_, or cabbage-tree),
+some lime made of calcined shells, and tobacco, which, according to the
+rank of the individual, they keep ready prepared by their side, in silver
+or brass boxes, resembling snuff-boxes. These corrosive substances at the
+same time stain the saliva so deep a red, that, after long use, the lips
+and teeth seem as though smeared with blood.
+
+[Footnote 77: Of these forty-six perfections of womanly beauty we extract
+the following by way of example, from a Cingalese author:--hair, glossy as
+the tail of a peacock, and hanging in ringlets to the knee, eye-brows like
+the rainbow, eyes like sapphire, and the leaves of the manilla flower, a
+hawk nose, lips lustrous and red as coral, teeth small and regular, like
+the buds of the jasmine, neck thick and round, haunches broad, breast
+firm, and conical like the cocoa-nut, the figure slight, capable of being
+spanned by the hand, the limbs spindle-shaped, the sole of the foot
+without any hollow, the skin free from any prominence of the bones,
+sweeping in rounded curves, soft and tender.]
+
+The language is an offshoot of the Sanscrit, copious, harmonious, and full
+of expression, with threefold grammar, and as many vocabularies, viz. for
+the royal tongue, the official or court tongue, and that of society at
+large. To these there must be added the Pali, the learned, but obsolete
+written language of the priestly caste, which the Cingalese have in common
+with the kingdoms of Siam and Ava, in the further Indies. In this
+language, itself but a dialect of the Sanscrit, all their sacred books,
+traditions, and poetry are written. In many parts of the island the
+knowledge of language and written lore are held in such high honour, that
+grammar and literature form the entire study of the inhabitants. Reading
+and writing are as common among the Cingalese as in England, except that
+in Ceylon the women take no part therein. They do not write as we do, with
+quill or steel pen upon paper, but engrave the characters with a
+fine-pointed iron graver, or _stylus_, upon the leaves of the Talipot
+palm-tree (_Corypha umbraculifera_), from which they slice a broad strip
+for the purpose about 2 feet long, and several inches broad. These require
+no further preparation than that they must be well smoothed beforehand,
+and all inequalities removed. In order to render the writing more clear
+and legible, the Cingalese rub it with a mixture of cocoa-nut oil and fine
+pulverized wood-ashes, which imparts to it durability and prevents
+obliteration. Great numbers, however, use the leaves of another species of
+palm for writing upon, viz. the Palmyra palm (_Borassus flabelliformis_),
+but those of the Talipot are preferred to all others for their closeness
+of texture, and are alone used in important records and other documents.
+
+The religion of the Cingalese is Buddhism, which in Ceylon still
+flourishes in these times in all its pristine vigour. Buddha is not the
+name of the founder of this belief, who is called Gautama, or Sakja-Muni,
+but is only one of the numerous titles of honour invented by that
+personage, who in the Sanscrit figures so conspicuously as a sage. Gautama
+was born in the province of Maghada (now known as Reha), in Northern
+Hindostan, B.C. 624. His parents were Suddhodana, King of Magadha, and his
+consort Maja. Contemplating the degeneracy and misery of man, sunk in
+deepest woe, Gautama attacked the doctrine of Brahma, rejected the Vedas,
+or holy books, and founded the new faith, which consists of the following
+fundamental propositions:--The Creator and Ruler of the world is a
+supreme, invisible, purely spiritual (and for that reason obviously
+impossible to be figured) Being, almighty, wise, just, beneficent, and
+merciful. Man most fitly recognizes and honours the Deity by silent
+contemplation: by the practice of chastity, temperance, and virtue he
+attains to happiness. The complete fulfilment of all his duties confers on
+him here on earth the dignity of a Buddha, or sage, and after death
+consigns him to the beatific repose of _non-existence_[78] (_Nirwana_).
+Condemned souls are born again in the forms of wild animals. According to
+Gautama's teaching a fresh Buddha always appears at certain epochs, whose
+existence is manifested by his extraordinary spiritual powers, by his
+deeds, and by his prophecies, selected by destiny for the purpose of
+enlightening the world as to the decrees of the Supreme Being, and to
+restore religion to her pristine purity. The death of a Buddha is also the
+commencement of a new reckoning of time. Gautama, who died about B.C. 542,
+or some 2400 years since, was the forty-fifth and last Buddha that
+appeared to the Cingalese; his doctrine must continue to operate for 5000
+years, when, according to the Cingalese traditions, the next Buddha, or
+Purifier, will appear. Gautama's belief, bequeathed by him to his
+disciple, the Brahmin Mahakaja, was immediately translated into Sanscrit,
+and speedily spread. Several hundred temples and monuments dedicated to
+him are scattered in various parts of the island, and remain to this day
+an evidence of the extent and influence of Buddhism.
+
+[Footnote 78: The ten precepts of the moral code of Buddhism are as
+follows:--Kill no living creature--do not steal--follow no unclean
+occupation--tell no lies or untruths--drink no fermented liquors--live
+exclusively on vegetables--anoint neither the head nor the body--go to no
+singing parties or spectacles--do not sleep on a raised nor on a wide bed--
+eat but once a day, and before noon.]
+
+[Illustration: BUDDHA TEMPLE NEAR GALLE.]
+
+On the day of our arrival we at once set off to visit one of these
+Buddhist temples, in the vicinity of Galle. The edifice is small and
+insignificant, only the carved woodwork of the door presenting any object
+of interest as a work of art. In the interior is a gigantic figure of
+Buddha, carved in wood, and in a reclining position; it is 20 feet long,
+and painted yellow and red, with long flaps to the ears, and a lotus
+flower on the head; while on the walls around, richly decorated with
+scrollwork, dragons and lions, part painted, part sculptured, various
+interesting episodes are represented in the history of Buddhism. Right in
+front of the figure are placed a number of offerings of the most
+miscellaneous description, beneath which are flowers and fruits; a small
+tin box is also particularly conspicuous, into which every stranger is
+expected to drop a piece of silver by way of present. Adjoining such a
+temple are always to be found the _wiharas_, or residences of the priests
+(_hamaduruhs_), and the spot where preaching and teaching are carried on.
+The priests wear long wide vestures, yellow or white according to their
+rank, or else only a single yellow outer garment, which falls in the form
+of graceful drapery over the naked shoulders; their heads are shaved, and
+they walk about quite barefoot, with a parasol of Talipot palm in their
+hand, and observe with strangers a reserved, distrustful demeanour.
+
+We were conducted all round by a young priest, of about 20 years of age,
+who spoke a little English, which is not a very common accomplishment,
+since the Buddhists have a great dislike for all that is foreign. Only at
+the conclusion of our visit did the old, grey, half-blind superior priest
+make his appearance, saluted us, but immediately left us to snatch from a
+boy a shaddock (_Citrus decumana_), which is especially prized by the
+Cingalese on account of the refreshing qualities of its juice.
+
+The priestly office, however, does not deter a native from indulging the
+disgusting habit of chewing the betel-nut, and this aged _hamaduruh_
+became much more sociable on receiving some.
+
+Adjoining the temple, which stands in a charming cocoa-nut grove, we first
+got an idea of the extraordinary luxuriance of the vegetation of this
+island. In a single enclosure, not much larger than an ordinary
+house-garden, we saw coffee-trees, cinnamon-bushes, clove-trees,
+nutmeg-trees, (_Areca catechu_), oranges, lemons, pine-apples, and
+bread-fruit trees (_Arctocarpus incisa_), flourishing in wildest
+profusion.
+
+A second temple, which we also visited, was the Dadále Panzela, the
+largest in the province, and the seat of the high-priest of the Buddhists.
+This worthy personage, a septuagenary, is named Nanalangara Seresumana
+Mahdamaradjigurù Ganatchari-Naikunangi, and is surrounded by a staff of
+priests of the temple who are reputed holy, and who apparently venerate
+him as a superior being. This temple did not differ much in construction
+and arrangement from the first; but the place set apart for instruction,
+where, at the time of our visit, some youths were busily engaged in
+copying the sacred books upon palm leaves, as also the residences of the
+priests, made a much more imposing impression, and spoke of a certain
+degree of opulence. In the midst of a piece of ground laid out like a
+garden was planted the sacred Bo-tree, which is looked upon as holy by the
+Buddhists, because, according to an ancient tradition, Buddha was in the
+habit of reposing under the shadow of its branches, as often as he visited
+the earth. Towering above everything wherever a Buddhist temple is raised,
+there a Bo-tree is planted; but the particular sacred tree, the original
+plant from which the legend took its rise, grows at Anaradnapura, in the
+northern part of the former kingdom of Kandi, whither it had been suddenly
+translated from a far-distant land, and spontaneously took root in the
+spot where it at present stands, in order to serve as a protection and
+shelter for Buddha.[79] Ninety Cingalese monarchs are interred around it,
+all of whom, by the temples and statues they erected to Buddha, are deemed
+worthy of this pre-eminent mark of distinction.
+
+[Footnote 79: The sacred Bo-tree (_Ficus religiosa_) of the Buddhists is
+frequently confounded with the Banyan Tree (_Ficus Indica_), held in such
+honour by the Brahmins, from which latter it differs in this, that it does
+not throw out from its branches numberless twigs which take root again in
+the earth. The incessant waving and rustling of the leaves and branches,
+which is common to both species of _Ficus_, is regarded by the faithful
+Buddhists as the effect of a fear-instilling scene of which the sage was
+once witness under the Bo-tree; just as the Syrian Christians deduce, from
+the fact that the Holy Cross was manufactured out of aspen-wood, that this
+tree is trembling, even in our days, with anguish and terror. Singular,
+what an important part the fig-tree seems to play in all religions,
+including the Christian and the Mahometan!]
+
+The grey-headed high-priest permitted the library of the temple to be
+shown to us, which consists of a large number of Pali manuscripts,
+inscribed on Talipot leaves, each of which was enclosed between two
+elegant boards made of calamander wood (_Diopyrus hirsuta_), fastened with
+strings, and enveloped in numerous folds of cloth, the whole guarded with
+singular reverence, in lofty, broad, wooden cupboards, richly carved. When
+we returned, the chief priest requested us to give him our names, and that
+of the country we came from, upon which a young priest carefully wrote
+down with a goose quill on a sheet of paper, in Cingalese language,
+apparently with the view of showing us civility, some superficial remarks
+respecting the _Novara_ Expedition.
+
+Besides the pure Cingalese, the island is also inhabited by Hindoos from
+the Malabar coast, Moors (the descendants of wandering Arabs and
+Mahometans from northern India, who at present carry on the greater part
+of the trade of the island), Malays, Javanese; then Portuguese, Dutch,
+British of the various nationalities comprised under that title; and,
+lastly, Negroes from Mozambique and Madagascar, who have formed alliances
+with the Cingalese, and are rearing a numerous mixed race.[80]
+
+[Footnote 80: What is related by various writers of the practice of
+"running a muck" (a custom that seems to recall the frightful blood-feuds
+of the Corsicans), long supposed to be peculiar to Ceylon, in which a
+Malay thirsting for revenge, and armed with a naked "_kreese_," or dagger,
+rushes through the streets like a madman, yelling "_Amock, Amock_" (kill,
+kill), and runs the fearful weapon through the body of the very first
+person he meets,--seems to be founded on a mistake. No one could give us
+any particulars on the subject from personal observation. Sir Emerson
+Tennant too, in his work on Ceylon, passes over this custom of "running a
+muck," without a syllable of mention. Evidently the custom is not
+naturalized in this island. It now prevails among the Malays of the Sunda
+archipelago, while in Ceylon no instance has occurred within the memory of
+man. That this tendency to murder is caused by the use of opium likewise
+appears improbable. Crawford, in his most excellent descriptive dictionary
+of the Indian islands, speaking of "running a muck," pretends it results
+frequently from a monomania taking this particular form, and originating
+in disorders of the digestive organs.]
+
+Deep in the interior of the island, in the province of Bintang, N.E. from
+Kandi, and towards Trincomalee and Batacalva, in holes in the earth, or
+under the palm-leaves, reside the tribe of the Weddàhs or Veddàhs, the
+most savage race in the island, traditionally said to be the aborigines
+proper, who go about naked, with the exception of a girdle round the
+loins, and use only bows and javelins, which however they manufacture and
+handle with great dexterity.
+
+According to one of the various Cingalese traditions, these Weddàhs are
+the descendants of a very bloodthirsty, cannibal monarch, who, deposed by
+his people, was only permitted the alternative of death, or of
+withdrawing with the ministers of his cruelty to roam for ever amid the
+solitudes of the forest. The dethroned king chose the latter alternative,
+and thus became the little-to-be-envied progenitor of this rude savage
+race. At any rate it seems worthy of note, that these Weddàhs, destitute
+though they are of the remotest traces of civilization, are still regarded
+as belonging to the privileged caste.
+
+Owing to the shortness of our stay, we unfortunately had no opportunity of
+visiting the interior of the island, or of seeing these Weddàhs. With
+difficulty did we tear ourselves from the zone of the cocoa-nut growth,
+and therefore only got acquainted with two places on the island, Galle and
+Colombo, the latter the seat of government.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT GALLE.]
+
+Galle is, from its position, as also from its configuration, indisputably
+the best and most important harbour in the south and west of the island,
+as Colombo can only be regarded as an open, insecure roadstead. Founded in
+the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, conquered at a later period by
+the Dutch, and finally, at the peace of Amiens, transferred to the
+English, Galle displays singularly few traces of its different masters.
+The streets are narrow, but cleanly; the houses are for the most part
+constructed of earth, with verandahs, or airy colonnades towards the
+street, and rooms within, plastered to imitate stone, of spacious
+dimensions, as is desirable, considering the heat of the climate. As one
+enters from the roadway at once into the sitting apartment, and as the
+door stands wide open all day to admit a free current of air, a sort of
+open screen-work is usually put up before the entrance, to prevent a too
+minute inspection of the interior, by the prying eyes of inquisitive
+passers-by. At Galle we, for the first time, saw the "Punkah," a sort of
+fan peculiar to India, which stretches from one end of the roof of the
+room to the other, and being swung to and fro by a servant produces a
+refreshing coolness. Here, too, we first became acquainted with the
+"Gecko" (_Hemidactylus maculatus_), an elegant little house-lizard, which,
+with graceful agility, runs to and fro upon the walls, windows, and roofs,
+and speedily becomes as familiar with man as a pet-dog or kitten. They
+usually make their appearance towards evening, when, without the slightest
+symptoms of timidity, they begin their surprising evolutions, during which
+they catch gnats with astonishing dexterity, and although they are
+disagreeable objects to all new comers, one speedily becomes accustomed to
+these harmless, innocuous, playful little animals, of which the Ceylonese
+are in the habit of relating many interesting and amusing anecdotes.
+
+Of late years, during which Galle has risen into considerable importance,
+as the converging point of the lines of steamers to Eastern India, China,
+and Australia, the number of substantial houses has greatly increased, and
+several large hotels are found here replete with every comfort. Like most
+European settlements in India, the Cape, and China, Galle possesses a fort
+in which, at an earlier period, the European colonists dwelt with their
+wives and families apart from the natives, and has also a "Pettah," or
+Black Town, a sort of Cingalese Ghetto, exclusively inhabited by the black
+population. At present this separation is not so strenuously enforced as
+in earlier times, but whoever would seek to form a more accurate idea of
+the various races of this population, its mode of life and its demeanour,
+must leave the so-called "Fort," and wander through the native or
+Cingalese quarter. Here are the fruit and vegetable markets; here all was
+devoted to buying and selling, which seemed to excite the otherwise
+listless little covetous disposition of the Cingalese; here jugglers and
+snake-charmers exhibit, who excite interest rather by the horrible nature
+and the foolhardiness of the performances, than by their executing any
+surprising feats. A belief is prevalent among the people that this
+singular class of men, greatly resembling our own gipsies, possess the art
+of depriving a poisonous serpent of its venom, and rendering it
+innocuous. And, in fact, one does see them produce from a white cloth the
+dreaded Cobra di Capello, 4 or 5 feet long, and exquisitely marked,
+irritate it violently, and go through all manner of unpleasant
+performances with it on their naked bodies. Frequently the serpent, weary
+of being constantly brought out for exhibition, endeavours to escape from
+its tormentor, whereupon a general scramble for escape takes place among
+the spectators. Every one hurries off to a safe distance, and the
+unfortunate charmer is left alone on the scene with his eminently
+intractable pupil, and has, into the bargain, given his exhibition in
+vain. As, however, it not unfrequently happens that the bite of the Cobra
+di Capello is followed by fatal consequences to the snake-charmer himself,
+it is highly probable that the whole mystery resolves itself into courage,
+and the shrewdness with which, availing themselves of the uncommon dread
+and aversion with which this animal is regarded, they are able at once to
+prevent him from making use of his deadly poison fang, and to put forth
+their own sleight of hand. This explanation seems also to account for the
+very remarkable fact that men have ventured to domesticate this dangerous
+reptile in more places than Ceylon. Indeed, within the experience of Major
+Skinner, a thoroughly trustworthy personage, who has resided for many
+years on the island, and to whom the naturalists of the Expedition are
+indebted for many acts of kindness, an instance actually occurred in the
+neighbourhood of Negombo, in which a wealthy man, who keeps large sums of
+specie in his house, bethought him of the singular precaution of having
+several deadly cobras to watch the treasure in lieu of dogs. Day and night
+they glide about, a terror to thieves, while they are quite harmless to
+the inmates who feed them and attend to them!
+
+In former times snake worship (_Nagas_) was universal throughout Ceylon,
+and, as in India, the cobra received divine honours from the natives,
+because it was supposed to be a metamorphosed king. This serpent, however,
+is so singularly and wonderfully endowed by nature, its appearance and
+motions are so peculiar, that an imaginative people like the Cingalese may
+well be excused for associating the idea of metempsychosis with its aspect
+of mystery.
+
+From Galle, an excellent road, following the coast-line the entire
+distance, leads to Colombo, the seat of government, 75 English miles
+distant. Every morning there starts from Galle for that destination, the
+"Royal Mail" coach, an uncomfortable, somewhat dangerous, mode of
+conveyance, in which this distance is traversed in from 8 to 10 hours. In
+order to travel more at our ease, we engaged an extra waggon. In Ceylon
+people usually employ, on long excursions, but one horse, which is changed
+at distances varying from 6 to 10 miles. We had some difficulty in
+reconciling this custom with our predilection for travelling at our
+leisure. The first few hours of our journey passed away very pleasantly;
+the road was excellent, and the country magnificent and charming. We
+seemed as though driving through a park inhabited by thousands of men, and
+planted with cocoa-nut palms--amidst which occasionally the white dome of
+a Buddhist temple, or the minarets of a Mahometan mosque, shooting up
+above the summits of the palms, imparted an aspect of life to the
+landscape--while in the gay bazaars that fringed the road, the few
+necessaries of life required by the exceedingly frugal natives were
+exposed for sale, temptingly arranged on palm or plantain leaves. The
+whole south-western coast district is so populous that the huts of the
+natives were continually in sight, right and left, under the forest shade,
+and the scenery in consequence seemed as full of life and careless
+enjoyment as though the people had nothing else to do but walk about under
+palm-trees. This impression was the more strengthened, that we rarely
+perceived a man with anything else in his hand than a Talipot leaf, or a
+Chinese parasol, to protect himself against the burning rays of the sun,
+which shone almost directly overhead. Of the women, on whom for the most
+part fall all the troubles and hardships of life among the Cingalese, we
+only saw a few carrying to the city heavy baskets balanced on their heads.
+
+The luxuriant, widely-extending cocoa-nut forests, which on the south and
+west sides of the island stretch down to the sea-shore (whereas on the
+eastern coast they are altogether absent), seem independently of the
+necessity of paying all due care to the maintenance of one of the
+necessaries of life, to be specially indebted for their existence to the
+circumstance that additional planting of this tree, as also its careful
+cultivation, is one of the religious observances and duties of the
+servants of Buddha. Whoever plants a cocoa-nut, palm, or bread-fruit tree,
+performs a work agreeable to Buddha. At the birth of a son, or on any
+similar festive occasion, it is customary to plant a few cocoa-nut shoots
+in the earth. Cocoa-nut palms form a very important part of the property
+of a family. The father divides them as heritable property into equal
+portions for bequest to his children. Not one single palm but has an
+owner, though instances occasionally occur in which several families are
+supported by the produce of a single palm!
+
+This peculiar phenomenon has been followed by most remarkable results
+bearing upon the social condition of the native population. Increasing
+poverty, and the ever present grinding necessity of preventing any further
+subdivision of the joint property, have impelled the natives to resort to
+the unnatural remedy of the brothers of a family having but one wife among
+them! The fact that there are in Ceylon fully one-tenth more men than
+women, was the cause of the rapid spread of this custom, and upheld
+Polyandria, or plurality of husbands, as a desirable invention for
+remedying the deficient supply of females. Many a female has three, four,
+or even seven husbands, and all children that are born of such a wedlock
+have equal rights, and are (differing in this respect from the law of
+Hindostan, by which only the children of the eldest brothers are
+registered, as the entire property belongs to him, while all the younger
+brothers serve him as vassals, and can be driven by him out of the house),
+the _lawful_, recognized heirs of the different fathers. In order to guard
+against the rise of law-suits respecting birth and heritage among the
+Cingalese, in consequence of their local customs, the British courts of
+justice, singular to say, find themselves constrained to recognize this
+disgraceful custom, and to interpret the law with reference to it.
+Although in the maritime provinces plurality of husbands has been signally
+on the decrease, owing to foreign influences, it still prevails to a great
+extent in the interior of the island. The submissiveness of the Cingalese
+to their superiors and their monarchs is assigned as the origin of this in
+other respects very ancient custom, which seems to have been universally
+in use among the various races of the mainland of India from time
+immemorial. Constrained to apply their own manual labour in cultivating
+the land of their tyrants, and frequently to accompany them on distant
+journeys, they thought they could, during their absence, most surely
+protect their own fields and crops against utter ruin, by apportioning
+wife and chattels among brothers and nearest relatives, and thence the
+family tie was gradually converted into a socialist community.
+
+The almost endless cocoa forests, which we were traversing by splendid,
+broad, level roads, not alone provide the native with, to him, the most
+important necessary for supporting existence, but the fruit itself forms
+at the same time so important and valuable an article of produce, that the
+cultivation of the cocoa-nut has been regularly and systematically carried
+on by European enterprise since 1841--at present covering an area of
+23,000 English acres--while the proportion of native land on which this,
+the most useful growth of the tropics, is cultivated, amounts to about
+100,000 acres. Formerly, the nuts were shipped to foreign parts for the
+extraction of their oil; but for this purpose there are now on the island
+itself, especially in Colombo and Galle, a considerable number of
+manufactories, at which the oil already expressed from the nuts is usually
+at once put into casks for exportation. The quantity of oil thus exported
+annually is estimated at from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 gallons, worth from
+£100,000 to £150,000. Besides this, the elastic fibre of the outer husk of
+the cocoa-nut is used in the manufacture of ropes, door-mats, &c., and,
+under the name of Coir, forms an important article of export, the annual
+consumption averaging between 30,000 and 40,000 quintals (centner weight),
+worth from £20,000 to £25,000.
+
+The first station on leaving Galle for Colombo is Bentotte, where, as is
+the custom all through the country, there is a "resting-house" open to all
+travellers, similar to the "Choultries" in India, the "Caravanserais," or
+lodgings for pilgrims, in Eastern countries, or the "Pasangrahans," of
+Java. These resting-houses, which all through the interior of the island
+are found on the highways and forest roads, are among the oldest
+institutions of the country, and were formerly maintained at the expense
+of private individuals. The resting-houses, which have been erected under
+the English rule on the main roads of the island, are in all respects of a
+far higher class, and strongly resemble the waiting-rooms of our own
+(German) railroads. One is not merely provided in these with shelter, but
+also with food and drink, at a fixed tariff. A special committee (the
+Provincial Road Committee) is appointed to superintend the management of
+these resting-houses.
+
+Here we partook of a luxurious "tiffin," as the customary meal between
+breakfast and dinner is called in Ceylon, as well as throughout India; and
+in so doing, made acquaintance for the first time with the renowned Indian
+dish "Curry," which consists of flesh or fish prepared with a powder
+compounded of spices. It tastes so hot that the European palate only gets
+accustomed to it by degrees; but in these countries it is looked on as the
+favourite dish, which must never be absent from any meal, because the
+cayenne pepper plentifully sprinkled over it, stimulates the stomach and
+promotes digestion. Hence the curry-powder is in immense request, and is
+largely exported. The assertion that this dish was first invented by the
+Portuguese is quite erroneous, as the chronicles of the country establish
+that it was in request in Ceylon in the second century before Christ.[81]
+
+[Footnote 81: According to Professor Wilson, "Curry" is but a corruption of
+the Carnatic term _Májkki-Kari_, a dish composed of rice, sour milk,
+spices, and red pepper.]
+
+As we mounted into our vehicle again, after a short halt at Bentotte, in
+order to resume our journey to Colombo with a fresh horse, we perceived
+that our driver, a negro, had been too free of his visits to the
+brandy-bottle, and occasionally took to rolling on the box. In the hope
+that he might become sober by the way, we ventured to proceed, but ere
+long he lost his balance, and fell to the ground, compelling us, to avoid
+further mishap, to retrace our steps on foot to the nearest village--thus
+reversing the order of matters, and, so to speak, escorting our horse,
+coach, and driver. This occurrence, unimportant and hardly worth
+mentioning in itself, was the occasion of an interesting adventure. As it
+was only with much difficulty that we could make ourselves intelligible to
+the natives, we resolved to apply to the authorities in the very first
+place we came to. It turned out that we were in the vicinity of the
+Catholic mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn, whose superior was a
+Benedictine from Rome. The church is situated amid the rich vegetation of
+the primeval forests, the gigantic trunks of whose trees, supporting a
+huge diadem of luxuriant foliage, are arched into a natural dome of the
+most graceful proportions. With curiosity whetted to the uttermost, we
+advanced along a beautiful path, beneath cocoa-palms, cabbage trees,
+bread-fruit trees, screw pines, tree-like ferns, and broad-leaved bananas,
+till we reached the dwelling-house of the Mission, and introduced
+ourselves to the missionary. Forthwith the latter, a tall, stately figure,
+with handsome features and cultivated manners, and dressed in a woollen
+robe, ushered us into a darkened chamber opposite, and received us most
+cordially. This worthy priest, by the name of Miliani, was not less
+surprised at being visited at this solitary mission by Austrian
+travellers, and with the most lively satisfaction and the utmost readiness
+to oblige, offered us all the assistance in his power. In spite of our
+hurry, we had to take a cup of coffee _à la Romagna_, with our hospitable
+missionary, and to promise to visit him on our return journey. Father
+Miliani has already lived many years in this country, and ministers to a
+Christian community of more than 1000 souls. Altogether there are in
+Ceylon about 50 Catholic missionaries under a Bishop whose residence is in
+Colombo. Our priestly host was greatly respected by the Cingalese, but he
+evidently was overjoyed at being able once more to express his thoughts
+and feelings in his native Italian.
+
+It was evening ere, with many a hearty shake of the hand, we tore
+ourselves away from the cordial hospitality of St. Sebastian de Makùn.
+Horse and driver this time gave hope of faster progress. But we were
+doomed once more to experience a severe disappointment, and although we
+were only about 10 or 12 miles distant from Colombo, which was our
+destination, it took us five long hours to get over the ground. The night
+was very dark, but the road was continually illuminated with torches of
+palm, carried by the homeward plodding natives, which emitted a gloomy
+light alternating with showers of sparks.
+
+When at last we got to Colombo about midnight, pretty well knocked-up, we
+comforted ourselves with the reflection that the inconveniences attending
+personal transport between Galle and the seat of government, can by no
+means be classed among events of rare occurrence; since, in consequence of
+the inveterate obstinacy of the native horse, one must have recourse to
+the most incredible expedients to get the carriage under weigh. For
+instance, at every station the ears of the post-horse were twisted
+together and then suddenly relaxed in order to set the vehicle in motion;
+and, when this torture failed, a pole, or thick stick, was inserted under
+the tail of the recalcitrant, and rubbed up and down till the poor animal,
+smarting under this painful operation, took to the collar. Once the
+carriage is started in this extraordinary fashion, the coachman swings to
+and fro at the peril of his life, and endeavours by continually "pitching
+into" the horse, to keep him at the gallop. Thus between whooping and
+whipping the next station is reached, where the same trial of patience
+awaits the traveller, and a similar martyrdom for the next horse.
+
+Our first business the following morning was to take a walk through
+Colombo, which, like Galle, consists of "The Fort," or White City, and the
+"Pettah," or Black Quarter, in the latter of which are situated the houses
+and shops of the natives, and where the chief traffic and the greatest
+activity are combined. Here one rarely encounters a white man, for even
+the soldiers and police belong to the brown and black races. The natives,
+however, manifest, outwardly at least, a great respect for the whites, and
+everywhere draw aside reverentially when one makes his appearance.
+
+In the middle of the main street are some Buddhist temples. We were not,
+however, permitted to enter, unless we consented to take off our shoes. At
+several of the natives' houses the entrance porch and windows were gaily
+adorned with plantain leaves. On inquiring of our Cingalese attendant what
+was the occasion of this manifestation, he replied in broken English that
+the inmates were celebrating "Christmas," wishing probably to express that
+the natives celebrated a feast analogous to our Christmas.
+
+The filth and unsavoury odours which prevail in the Black Quarter, and the
+noise and yelling of the natives, speedily drive visitors back to the
+European portion of the city, which altogether, with its gloomy, decayed
+aspect, makes anything but a favourable impression. The public buildings,
+the houses of the mercantile community, the warehouses, and
+fortifications, all bear the impress of the Portuguese settlement of
+bygone centuries; and as its commerce is attracted more and more every
+year to Galle,[82] there remains but faint hope that this quaint type will
+not ere long be effaced by a new style of building, albeit the inhabitants
+of the capital promise themselves a restored reign of activity and energy,
+as the result of railway communication with Galle.
+
+[Footnote 82: The value of the produce exported annually from the island
+(chiefly cocoa-nuts, coir, cinnamon, and coffee), is above £2,000,000, and
+the imports of European manufactures are about the same amount.]
+
+During our random promenade through the streets of what is called the
+Fort, we perceived at a sugar-baker's in Chatham Street--the most select
+quarter of Colombo, and containing the most important warehouses, which,
+however, are far from elegant in their appearance--some rough ice offered
+for sale, which had a curious effect in a town so near the Equator, and
+presenting such few evidences of luxury in other respects. This ice is
+brought round the Cape of Good Hope from the United States, and is chiefly
+shipped from Boston. The daily consumption of iced-water, ices, and so
+forth, is estimated at about 1000 lbs., costing about one shilling the 8
+lbs. It is impossible to repress a feeling of astonishment at these
+speculative Yankees who, despite all obstacles interposed by temperature,
+transport in all directions and over thousands of miles an article so
+perishable, so easily destructible as ice, and are able to drive a
+profitable business in it in the hottest and most diverse regions of the
+globe--in the West Indies and South America, in Asia, and in Africa.
+
+The traveller who visits Colombo will hardly fail to make an excursion to
+the Cinnamon Garden, in order to inhale the fragrant and peculiar aroma,
+and enjoy tasting the tender rind of this remarkable shrub, which plays so
+conspicuous a part in the history of Ceylon. During the palmy days of
+cinnamon culture, the five principal cinnamon plantations of the southern
+half of the island extended some 15 or 20 miles. For this one lucrative
+product of the soil all others on the island were abandoned, with most
+deplorable consequences. The cinnamon culture, a monopoly of the various
+governments which one after another conquered Ceylon, and domineered over
+its inhabitants, was carried on, especially by the Dutch East India
+Company, with terrible severity. The slightest embezzlement of cinnamon,
+or wilful damage to the plant, was visited with death. The unintentional
+breaking off of a twig of the cinnamon bush was punished with amputation
+of the offending member. Every cinnamon bush, even to those growing in the
+gardens of private individuals, was the property of the Government, and
+the cinnamon collector, or even cinnamon-peeler alone, had the right to
+strip off the rind when ripe. To destroy such a plant, or even to dispose
+of it to any one, was regarded as a crime affecting life. The labourers,
+who were employed in the cutting off, peeling, and preparation of the
+rind, belonged to the caste of Chalias, and constituted the lowest grade
+of that class. In like manner, under the English rule, the monopoly of
+cinnamon was at first continued, with such disastrous consequences to the
+trade that it was finally abandoned in 1832, and the merchants of Colombo
+and Galle were left to divide among themselves the exportation of this
+important article, under an exporting duty of 3_s._ per lb. These duties,
+however, were found much too high, as the highest price obtainable in
+Europe was from 6_s._ to 7_s._; and this advance in the price to the trade
+of the genuine article, was the cause of foreign merchants turning their
+attention to the supply of various species of cinnamon-bearing laurels and
+cassias, growing in Cochin-China and Java.
+
+When Government, recovering at last from its delusion of treating
+cinnamons, which at first had seemed indigenous to the island of Ceylon
+alone on the earth,[83] as a national monopoly, reduced the export duty to
+one shilling, and ultimately repealed it altogether, the various
+substitutes had already found their level in Europe, as affording a larger
+supply at a much more moderate rate, and the cultivation of the finer
+kinds became less and less each year. Prices fell, and the consumption was
+diminished. Only the coarser sorts repaid exportation. Nay, it even led to
+the interesting and curious result, that just as, previous to the high
+price under monopoly, the low-priced cassia displaced the finer sort of
+genuine cinnamon, at the present day the coarser sorts of cinnamon are
+beginning to oust the cassia from the English market, whence all the world
+are supplied. At present there are from 14,000 to 15,000 acres planted
+with cinnamon, chiefly in private hands, and producing annually from
+800,000 to 900,000 lbs. of cinnamon, worth from £40,000 to £50,000
+sterling.
+
+[Footnote 83: Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work (vol. i. p. 599), challenges
+the assertion that Ceylon is the native country of the cinnamon-tree. In
+no European or Asiatic chronicles is any mention made of cinnamon as a
+product or article of commerce in Ceylon up to the end of the thirteenth
+century. Although it was from the earliest times imported into Europe from
+Africa through Arabia, the natives trading with Ceylon first knew of the
+existence on the island of this important shrub about the twelfth or
+thirteenth century. Hence Sir Emerson looks upon Africa as the native
+country of the cinnamon-tree.]
+
+The chalias, moreover, are no longer, as formerly under the Portuguese and
+Dutch, _adscripti glebæ_ for life, or slaves that could be purchased with
+the soil, but free labourers, who are entitled to demand proportionate pay
+for the lightest services rendered.
+
+The Cinnamon Gardens in the neighbourhood of Colombo, although for the
+most part gone to decay, nevertheless impart to the whole scene a
+singularly cheerful, agreeable aspect. The bushes, from 4 to 6 feet in
+height, with their smooth, beautiful, light green leaves, resembling those
+of the bay-tree, and their pale, yellow flower-stamens shoot up doubly
+fresh and succulent, from the snow-white quartz soil in which they best
+thrive. The flowering season of the cinnamon is in January, and the fruit
+ripens in April, when the sap is richest in the shrub. In May the boughs
+are begun to be "barked," which process continues till October. The
+pruning and gathering of the yearling shoots, which are about the
+thickness of a man's thumb, is very laborious, and employs many hands.
+Each labourer cuts off as many as he can conveniently carry in a bundle,
+then, with the point of a crooked knife, made for the express purpose,
+strips the entire rind from the wood, carefully scrapes off the exterior
+corticle and innermost layer, and lays the stripped-off cinnamon rind, now
+reduced to the thickness of parchment, in the sun, where it dries and
+curls together. All round the hut, in which the peeling of the rind is
+carried on, is diffused a most exquisite aroma, caused by the breaking of
+the leaves or twigs. What is related, however, by various travellers of
+the fragrance of the cinnamon forests, which they have scented at a great
+distance seaward, would seem to indicate that this delicious odour
+emanates from various other aromatic plants in which Ceylon is so rich,
+rather than the cinnamon groves, the aroma of which, indeed, is not
+perceptible beyond the immediate vicinity. The best description of
+cinnamon is not so thick as stout paper, and is fine-grained, flexible,
+light brown, or golden yellow, sweet and pungent; the coarser qualities
+are thick-skinned, dark brown, acrid, stinging, and leaves a bitter
+after-taste. In the warehouses, the cinnamon rinds and canes sorted for
+shipping are piled upon each other, packed in bales of about 90 lbs.
+weight each, and carefully sewed. In all cavities and spaces between each
+layer an immense quantity of pepper is strewn, to preserve the cinnamon
+during its sea-voyage, by which both spices are benefited, the black
+pepper absorbing all the superfluous moisture, and gaining by the
+fragrance of the cinnamon.
+
+Consequent on the diminution of cinnamon cultivation, which undoubtedly
+has resulted in great measure from the altered taste of mankind and the
+consequent extraordinary falling off in the demand for this once
+highly-prized spice, the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon has, during the
+last 20 years, increased tenfold; and it is solely owing to the dearth of
+available labour that this branch of produce, considering the splendid
+profits it returns, is not even more extensively carried on. In 27
+districts there are 404 coffee plantations, covering a surface of 80,950
+acres, of which, however, only 63,771 acres are really productive. These
+produced last year, 347,100 cwt., or 5-1/2 centners per acre. To this must
+be added the quantity under cultivation by the natives, who possess about
+36,000 acres of coffee plantations, and in the year 1859 alone, exported
+180,000 cwt. We may safely assume, therefore, that the cultivation of
+coffee is on the eve of transforming this island of Ceylon, from a mere
+military station of England, into one of the most flourishing colonies of
+the British Empire. Twenty years ago there were exported barely 60,000
+centners, worth £180,000. In September, 1858, the export exceeded 600,000
+cwt., which represented on the spot a value of £1,500,000 sterling. "When
+capital and labour shall have become more plentiful," remarked to us a by
+no means over-sanguine resident, "Ceylon will have in its mountain
+districts 240,000 acres planted with coffee trees, yielding at the lowest
+estimate, 1,680,000 cwt. of coffee annually." Here, as among the high
+table-lands of Guatemala and Costa Rica, we have the reassuring evidence
+how one of the most important plants for the civilized man can be
+profitably cultivated, without having recourse to the blighting influences
+of slave-labour, at the same time making the lands in which it is produced
+both rich and prosperous.[84]
+
+[Footnote 84: The coffee-tree frequently suffers, especially in Ceylon,
+from an insect called the coffee-bug (_Lecanium Coffeæ_); as, however,
+this troublesome insect has only infested the coffee plantations since
+1848, and this branch of cultivation has nevertheless increased so
+surprisingly since then, there seems no reason to dread that the coffee
+plant will suffer by these bugs, in the same manner or to the same extent
+as the vine by the ravages of the _fungus_.]
+
+While the cultivation of the coffee-plant has been followed by such
+splendid results, the repeated attempts to introduce the sugar-cane have
+been on the contrary as uniformly failures--so that of the numerous
+plantations established by Europeans, there are at present no more than
+five remaining. In all those localities where the temperature seemed
+adapted to the growth of the sugar-cane, the nature of the soil, and the
+too great humidity have prevented its thriving.
+
+On the other hand, the island possesses two natural products in which but
+few spots on the globe are qualified to enter the lists with her, and
+which may be expected to increase in value and importance in proportion as
+science assumes her share in their exploration. These products are PEARLS
+and PRECIOUS STONES.
+
+The most productive pearl banks lie on the west coast of Ceylon, between
+the 8th and 9th degrees of North latitude, near the level, dreary beach of
+Condatchy, Aripo, and Manaar. The pearl fisheries are a monopoly, and,
+therefore, under the inspection of the Government. Former governors had
+counted too much on the abundance of this natural treasure, and in their
+blind haste to fill the coffers of the State, had so exhausted the banks,
+that suddenly, from a source of revenue they became an item of
+considerable deficiency, and, from 1838 to 1854, could no longer be
+dredged. From a net annual return of £120,000 sterling, the yearly return
+had sunk to £10,000, of which nearly one-half was consumed in the
+attendant expenses. Now-a-days the work is gone about more circumspectly,
+a scientific examination having been made by a native naturalist, Dr.
+Kelaart, of all the oyster banks on the west coast. We had the pleasure,
+while at Colombo, of becoming personally acquainted with this very able,
+unassuming gentleman, who presented us with several memoirs of his own,
+touching upon the latest facts that had been ascertained with reference to
+the pearl oyster. One special result of his various researches has been
+the demonstration of two facts of the utmost importance to the pearl
+fishery, and which hitherto had not been fully ascertained--that this
+mollusc possesses locomotive powers; that its occasional disappearance is
+perfectly natural; and that, moreover, the pearl oyster may, without any
+injury, be transplanted from one locality to another--nay, even from salt
+to brackish water. The first-named observation explains the occasional
+disappearance of the pearl oyster from certain beds,[85] even when they
+have not been inordinately thinned by too keen a quest after gain; the
+latter opens up the pleasing anticipation of the pearl oyster being
+susceptible of very extensive propagation, by a process similar to that of
+pisciculture, or artificial breeding of fish (such as the colonies of
+edible oysters which are met with in the South of France), by
+transplanting them to such places as seem best suited to the conditions
+necessary to their highest development. What a splendid conception it were
+to plant the sea-coasts of Ceylon with pearls, and thus throw the wealth
+of the island in precious stones into the shade, by the treasures she
+would possess in the depths of the sea!
+
+[Footnote 85: This singular property of the oyster, in virtue of which it
+can be fed to as confirmed obesity as a prize-ox, and admits of nearly as
+much dexterity in "crossing," if we are to trust the palates of
+"gourmets," as the Southdown and Leicester breeds of sheep, has received
+its most extraordinary development in the vicinity of New York, where the
+amount of capital sunk in the oyster trade considerably exceeds
+£1,000,000! The finest of these are transferred as spawn from the beds in
+the East River, or Long Island Sound, to the "nurseries," which are
+situated in the brackish water near the head of the tide-way, just below
+the "Highlands of the Hudson." Here they are carefully tended for some
+months, till, their education being completed, they are re-transferred to
+their native beds, and fed there with oatmeal daily; while, by some
+mystery of the craft, the spawning season is postponed, except in the case
+of those that are selected for propagating the race.]
+
+Exactly at the period of our arrival at Colombo, the preparations were
+being resumed at Aripo for the take of the oysters, which commences at the
+beginning of February each year, and lasts about three weeks. It is, in
+fact, a sort of jubilee time for the people, at which the Governor and
+numbers of the wealthier classes mingle with the populace. Ordinarily this
+spot becomes at that season a rendezvous for the poor and the wretched,
+and a rallying point for all manner of abominable odours, filth,
+troublesome flies, and intolerable heat, despite which drawbacks the
+fishery is visited by thousands of boats, and hundreds of thousands of
+men, who flock hither with the alluring prospect of speedy and abundant
+wealth, or have been attracted from all parts of the Indian Continent by
+the singularity of the spectacle. Suddenly, as though evoked by the wand
+of a magician, a regular town starts into existence, of tents, or even
+neat huts, with bamboo and cabbage-tree palings, roofed over with
+palm-leaves, rice-straw, or coarse thick woollen cloth; booths for the
+sale of merchandise "rise like an exhalation" during the night to supply
+necessaries of all sorts to the converging multitudes from the interior,
+as well as the fleets of visitors from seaward; and last, not least, the
+divers themselves. Swindlers and mountebanks throng hither, adroit thieves
+creep stealthily about, all Indian customs and fashions are represented,
+all castes jostle each other. Priests, and the subordinate hangers-on of
+the various sects, hurry about, and jugglers and Nautch girls vie with
+each other in amusing the noisy multitudes.
+
+The result of numerous experiments has proved that no diving apparatus can
+replace the human machine, the cost of which, moreover, is a fixed
+definite quantity, viz., the fourth part of the pearls brought up, which
+is the diver's share. In each boat, or "Dhonie," are ten divers, each
+having an assistant. Before the divers proceed to descend, a number of
+quaint ceremonies are gone through, and incantations murmured, as well in
+the boats as on shore, by the so-called "shark-charmers;" indeed, the
+superstition of the divers, who for the most part come from the Coromandel
+coast, is so great, that not one of their number, Christian or idolator,
+would continue in this employment without the countenance of the sorcerer;
+and the Government finds itself compelled to pay the impostors.[86] They
+levy a tribute of ten oysters upon each boat.
+
+[Footnote 86: In 1857, the chief shark-charmer was a Roman Catholic!]
+
+Accidents with sharks are of rare occurrence: the noise of 1000 divers on
+the water at once seeming to scare the animals. Moreover, the dark colour
+of the skin of their bodies, acts as a considerable protection to the
+divers, so that there are numbers who blacken their legs, in order still
+more to alarm the monster.[87]
+
+[Footnote 87: An encounter in the water between a shark and an expert
+swimmer, armed only with a knife, is not so unequal an affair as might at
+first be supposed. The pearl fishers of the Gulfs of Panama and Nicoya
+only use a short stick, with which, if the sharks get _above_ them, they
+stir up the mud, under cover of which they swim along the bottom for a
+little distance, and then shoot up to the surface. Of the equality in
+which a good swimmer armed with a knife feels himself in encountering a
+shark, there are numerous instances. Many years ago, when shipping was
+more plentiful in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, than at the present day,
+vessels had occasionally to put up with somewhat awkward berths, when they
+used regularly to "foul their anchors," whereupon it became necessary, of
+course, to send some one down to free the cable. For this purpose, negro
+divers were employed, and one man attained a wide reputation from having
+himself, unscathed, slain in fair combat at different times, no less than
+five sharks! Ultimately the sharks steered clear of any black man who had
+a knife suspended round his neck.]
+
+After these preliminaries, the divers go down into the water, each
+carrying a basket-shaped net, in which to bring up the oysters, when
+selected--a stone of from 15lbs. to 25lbs. weight being fastened round the
+body, so as more readily to enable him to sink to the bottom. When at a
+depth of some 5 or 6 fathoms, the diver unfastens the stone, which is
+forthwith hauled up. He now throws himself forward on his face, and keeps
+himself as close as he can to the ground, while he rapidly rakes up and
+collects together all that is within his reach, so as to fill his landing
+net. He crawls along in this manner during the minute of his submersion,
+over a space of from 40 to 50 feet; and so soon as he pulls the cord
+attached to his plaited basket-edge, it is immediately hauled up, and he
+himself speedily follows it to the surface.[88]
+
+[Footnote 88: The divers are mostly old men, vigorous and healthy in
+appearance, thus dispelling the general notion that deep-sea diving
+weakens the body and shortens life. We were told of one diver, employed
+during the year 1856, in the pearl fishery, who was so stout and fat, that
+in addition to the ordinary diver's stone, he had to make fast a
+considerable weight to his body, in order to sink himself in the water.]
+
+The utmost depth at which the diver can safely remain seems to be about 40
+feet, beyond which blood is apt to issue from the nose and ears. They
+seldom remain above 50 or 60 seconds under water, although cases
+occasionally occur in which the stay under water is protracted to 80
+seconds. The diving is carried on for 5 or 6 hours without intermission,
+so that each of the ten divers can, in the course of a day, bring up from
+1000 to 4000 oysters. By dint of good fortune, and close packing, about
+150 oysters are brought up in each basket-net, while occasionally an
+unprolific bed does not give more than five or ten oysters. So soon as the
+oysters have been dragged to land, they are sorted in shares, of which one
+goes to the oyster fisher as his remuneration, and the remainder are sold
+in lots of 1000 each to the highest bidder. Now begins speculation. Chance
+presides here, quite as capriciously as at a lottery or another game of
+hazard. It often happens that a single oyster contains thirty or forty
+pearls, of which some may be worth a sovereign on the spot; but it more
+frequently occurs that several hundred oysters do not yield a single
+pearl. The small, valueless pearls, called also "seed pearls," are burnt
+down, and sold as pearl-lime to the wealthy Malays, by whom it is used as
+a luxurious addition to the betel and cabbage nuts, as masticatories. The
+Ceylonese mix the lustreless pearls with other grains, with which they
+feed the poultry, in whose croops the pearls regain their former
+brilliancy after a few minutes' grinding. The croop is then slit up, and
+the glittering stones extracted, white as the most beautiful
+pearl-muscular tissue.[89]
+
+[Footnote 89: This method of procedure, which is adopted by the rest of the
+Indian races, and in which the lustreless pearls are swallowed by hens,
+pigeons, and ducks, so as to be polished up, after being subjected to the
+preliminary digestion of these birds, has been proved to be anything but
+beneficial to the pearls as regards loss by attrition. Careful observation
+has established, for example, that four pearls, weighing twelve grains,
+have lost four grains by undergoing this process during twelve hours,
+while eight others, weighing thirty grains, were reduced to twenty grains
+after a sojourn of two days in the gizzard of a duck.]
+
+The pearl oysters caught on the coast of Ceylon are all of the same
+species (_Meleagrina Margaritifera_), uniformly oval in shape, and about
+9-1/2 inches in circumference. The number taken in Ceylon annually must be
+numbered by millions. In the year of our arrival to Ceylon (1858), the
+pearl fishery yielded £24,120. According to the last returns, before us as
+we write, there were in the year 1859, 1352 boats engaged during eighteen
+days in the pearl fishery, the gross take of which amounted to 9,534,951
+oysters, sold for £48,216. The divers' shares amounted together to
+2,126,749 oysters.
+
+The wide-spread popular delusion, that the pearl in the oyster is but a
+produce of disease in the animal, has long been refuted by scientific
+research, and although the great German poet, Henry Heine, in his
+"Romanzero," sings,
+
+   "Those world-famed pearls,
+    They are but the wan mucus
+    Of a sad oyster,
+    Dimly sickening in the depth of the sea!"
+
+it is rather a poetic fancy than a scientific fact. We have latterly been
+especially indebted to the German naturalist, Theodore von Hessling, for a
+very circumstantial and thoroughly exhaustive memoir on the natural
+history of the pearl oysters and their pearls,[90] in which the learned
+author seeks to establish that the enveloping matter of the germ of the
+pearl is identical with the covering of the animal, and that in the
+process of growth two influences are at work, an external and an internal.
+The first is called into play by the property peculiar to the hinge system
+that unites the double shell, of gaping wide open, in consequence of which
+extraneous substances rush in with the current of water, such as minute
+fragments of quartz, molecules of plants, &c., which, being detained
+either circling in the cavity, or eddying round the hinges, are seized on
+in the course of their revolutions, and entangled in the parenchyma of the
+various organs, which is specially secreted from the mantle, till it
+becomes enveloped by layers of solid shell. On the other hand, the
+internal development is closely allied to the conditions of deposition
+and subsequent growth of the shell-matter. Molecules, either a single
+grain or congeries of grains, varying from 9.01 to 0.05 of a line (3/4 of
+an inch down to the 1/240th of an inch), enclosed in the _epidermis_ of
+the shell, constitute usually the _nuclei_ of the pearls, which, to a
+certain extent, may be considered as nothing but a portion of the
+_epidermis_ not applied to the formation of shell. The pearls also are
+simply independent concretions growing in the creature, and consisting of
+the substance of the shell, which are with difficulty discriminated from
+the various descriptions of growths which constitute the inner surface of
+the shell.
+
+[Footnote 90: Die Perlen-Muschel, und ihre Perlen, Naturwissenschaftlich
+und Geschichtlich mit Berücksichtigung der Perlen-gewässer Bayerns,
+beschrieben von Theodor von Hessling, Leipzig, 1859.]
+
+The great importance of the pearl as an article of luxury and commerce,
+has naturally led to numerous attempts to manufacture them by artificial
+means, in the course of which extraneous bodies have been introduced
+between the mouth and shell of the animal, sometimes with, sometimes
+without injury to it. The Chinese especially are adepts at placing certain
+small bodies, specially prepared, in the shells of the pearl oyster,
+which, after a short time, becomes coated with mother-of-pearl, or nacre.
+This manufacture of artificial pearls is carried on on a large scale in
+the neighbourhood of Hong-Chow-Foo. During our stay at Hong-Kong and
+Shanghai respectively, we ourselves saw several mussel-shells, in which a
+mother-of-pearl covering had formed over small neatly carved figures,
+mostly sitting figures of Buddha,[91] the singular appearance of which
+would, at the first glance tend to make the observer suspect that the
+pearl had been fastened to the mussel by some adhesive substance. But we
+had so frequently an opportunity of satisfying ourselves by actually
+witnessing the entire process, that we could no longer doubt that the
+carved figures are with the utmost care introduced into the animal, and,
+after remaining a few days in the water, become attached to the mussel by
+a distinct membrane. This, their membrane, afterwards becomes
+interpermeated by the calcareous matter, till, finally, layers of
+mother-of-pearl are deposited all around the nucleus, the whole formation
+corresponding with the chalk-like concretions occurring in other
+creatures.
+
+[Footnote 91: The antiquity of this experiment is proved by the fact that
+the _Topographia_ of Ischikiang speaks of a pearl, which had been sent to
+the Imperial Palace at Pekin, 490 B.C., which resembled Buddha, and
+apparently must have been produced by this same method; although likewise
+the priests of Buddha, at that early epoch, might not have objected, in
+the interests of their religion, to make capital out of such a specimen of
+artistic skill.]
+
+Besides the pearl-shells, the northern shores of Ceylon, especially
+between the Island of Manaar and Karativoe, are especially rich in beds of
+a volute mussel (_Turbinella rapa_, or _soluta gravis_), which are
+exported in great numbers to India, where the Hindoo women saw them into
+rings of all sizes, to be worn as ornaments on the arms, legs, fingers and
+toes. The chank-shell is likewise a chief instrument of the Buddhists,
+who, amongst other devout customs, blow three times a day on this sacred
+shell, to summon believers to worship.[92] It is also used as a festive
+ornament of the Indian temples, as well as a donation to the dead, which,
+inspired by a religious feeling, the survivors place in the grave
+alongside of the corpse of their illustrious departed.
+
+[Footnote 92: According to the most ancient annals of the Cingalese, the
+chank-shell is sounded in one of the superior heavens of the demigods
+(similar to the conk-blowing Tritons of Grecian mythology), in honour of
+Buddha, as often as the latter wanders abroad on the earth.]
+
+The gems found on the island are distinguished, less for their intrinsic
+value than for the great variety of precious stones which are present.
+They are, with few exceptions, found to have been disengaged from the
+primitive rocks, and washed into the alluvial soil, especially in the
+outskirts of the mountainous districts, where they are rolled along the
+beds of the streams together with other pebbles, or are washed out of the
+alluvial deposits. Hitherto, they have only been searched for for purposes
+of trade, and then only in the most desultory and thriftless way, no one
+having as yet examined the rocks themselves, by the disintegration of
+which the valuable stones are disengaged. There was, indeed, no detailed
+information as to the wealth in precious stones of the island, until the
+researches of the English mineralogist, Dr. Gygax, who has very lately
+published on this subject many interesting observations and remarks. The
+locality in which precious stones are most abundant is, so far as present
+experience goes, the district of Saffragam, the capital of which in
+consequence takes the name of Ratnapoora, or Anarhadnaporra, "the city of
+rubies." They are also found at various other parts of the island; in the
+plains on the West coast, between Adams' Peak and the sea, at Nuwera
+Ellia, Kandy, Matelle, and Ruanwelli, near Colombo, as also in Matura, and
+the river courses on the eastern side, towards the ancient Mahagam. The
+geologist of the Expedition visited some mines of precious stones near
+Ratnapoora. These are situated on the Kaluga-Sella, a small tributary of
+the Kalu-Gunga, and lie, some in the very bed of the river, some on the
+steep bank. They are about thirty feet deep, but having been some time
+disused, they are full of water. The uppermost stratum of these pits or
+mines is a rich fertile yellow loam, exactly resembling our diluvial
+loams. This is succeeded, according to the report of the proprietor of the
+mines, by a slimy black clay, and clayey sand, beneath which again is a
+bituminous clay, holding numerous organic remains, such as leaves, trunks
+of trees converted into a substance resembling lignite, and not
+infrequently elephants' tusks and bones of animals; thereafter sand, and
+lastly a bank of rolled gravel, forming a species of conglomerate with
+red, yellow, and occasionally blue clay--being, in fact, what is known as
+stone-gravel. This bank of pebbles is the layer in which the precious
+stones occur, and these are most commonly found between the larger masses
+of agglutinated matter, that are always found especially to abound in
+gems, whenever they are superposed upon what is called malave, which
+appears to be a sort of greenish-coloured talc-like half-decomposed mica.
+The most valuable stones that are obtained from these mines are rubies and
+sapphires. In the Kalu-Gunga, also, precious stones are occasionally
+washed down, and as the geologist of the _Novara_ Expedition was
+descending the river in a boat, from Ratnapoora to Caltura, he perceived
+at several places, more particularly at the various rapids, men standing
+in the water, provided with flat pan-shaped baskets, in which they sifted
+the sand and pebbles.
+
+The gems found on the island are rubies, sapphires topazes, amethysts,
+garnets, cinnamon-stone, and tourmaline. On the other hand, all the
+diamonds, emeralds, carnelians, agates, opals, and turquoises, which the
+natives offer for sale, are imported from India. One precious stone, on
+which the Cingalese set an exceedingly high value, because they
+erroneously believe that it is peculiar to the island of Ceylon, whereas
+it is also found on the southern shores of Hindostan, is the "Cat's-eye,"
+a greenish transparent quartz, which, when polished in its natural shape,
+or "_en cabochon_," exhibits in its interior a varying reflected light,
+undoubtedly arising from the presence of fibres of asbestos, and which, in
+fact, bears some resemblance to the eye of a cat. The natives, as a rule,
+estimate the value and symmetry of this stone by the brilliancy and
+tenuity of the beam which it emits, and the clear olive-coloured ground
+upon which it shines in relief.
+
+A vast number of men give themselves up to the exciting but most uncertain
+occupation of searching for precious stones, and barter what they have
+found, chiefly to Mahometan merchants, for clothes and salt. As, however,
+the natives themselves set a high value on jewels, in consequence of
+their small bulk admitting of their being readily concealed and easily
+carried about, the finer descriptions are readily disposed of at a good
+price, and, singular to say, it has frequently happened, as we ourselves
+found by personal experience, that precious stones are dearer in Colombo
+and Galle than in the European markets! The explanation of this paradox is
+probably that the steady copious influx into the London and Paris markets
+of precious stones from all parts of the earth where jewels are found,
+admits of by no means such excessive fluctuations in value as at Ceylon,
+where the supply actually on hand is so varying, and where the value of
+the article almost always depends upon the rank and wealth of the Indian
+purchaser. The foreign traveller very often cannot restrain a feeling of
+surprise at seeing the fingers of the stately Mahometan jewellers adorned
+with rings of costly gems, which are only offered for sale to himself at
+an exorbitant sum.
+
+The value of the precious stones of all sorts found in Ceylon in the
+course of a year is estimated by Sir Emerson Tennent at about £10,000,
+one-fourth, at least, of the entire quantity finding a market on the
+island, a full half being sent to the jewel-polishers of India, so that
+only the remaining fourth is exported to Europe.
+
+The scant time allotted to us at Colombo was zealously occupied in seeing
+the utmost that we could of the many interesting objects that invited
+attention. Among others, we visited one of the largest industrial
+enterprises in Ceylon, known as Hultsdorf Mill, a cocoa-nut-oil factory,
+the proprietorship consisting in shares, of which the largest holder is
+David Wilson, Esq., the Austrian Consular Agent. Here are carried on all
+the various processes connected with the manufacture, the preparation of
+the oil-cake from the cocoa-nut, the expressure of the oil, &c., which are
+carried on by apparatus, partly sent out from England, partly put up in
+this country, all set in motion by steam-engines. The task assigned in
+these factories to the natives, of whom above a thousand are employed in
+the various departments, is, nevertheless, not the less important and
+significant, that, while machinery is used in those processes where it is
+necessary to use an agency far transcending the powers of mere human
+labour, all collateral products, such as soap, candles, perfumery, as also
+the implements and tools required for the works, and even the barrels and
+chests required for the transport of the manufactures, are prepared and
+used by handicraft labour.
+
+To the thoughtful visitor it is a scene of no ordinary interest to behold
+several hundreds of Cingalese, Hindoos, and Mozambique negroes, all
+thoroughly conversant with the management of the most magnificent
+invention of the nineteenth century. Here are a number of artisans
+employed at the hydraulic presses and iron turning-lathes; in another
+apartment the various parts of the different machines are being
+constructed or put together, which regulate the pressure of the steam
+supplied to the apparatus when in activity; in a third, persons are busy
+examining and testing the resulting products with scrupulous precision.
+With all its development, European industry has, in this quarter,
+exercised but an obscure influence; and, thus far, has been productive of
+but small results as a civilizing element among this population, which has
+hitherto shown itself so little disposed to accept the Christian form of
+civilization.
+
+In the large warehouse belonging to Mr. Wilson, we also saw huge heaps of
+"Kauris," or Cowries, (_cypræa moneta_), the renowned, or rather
+ill-reputed, species of mussel, which comes from the Maldive Islands, and
+plays so important a part in the commerce with the coast of Malabar and
+the interior of Africa; while here, it constitutes the sole medium of
+exchange, which is used by way of barter for almost all sorts of
+agricultural produce, chiefly among the blacks.[93] These mussels are sent
+from Ceylon to London, and thence back to the Eastern Coast of Africa, and
+thus indirectly uphold the slave-trade, as, the native merchants of that
+region barter these shells, so greatly sought after by all African tribes,
+as ornament, for negroes and negresses, who are in turn sold to the
+"speculators in human flesh." A ton of these shells, of which the smaller
+description are most in request, and therefore the most valuable, costs
+in Ceylon about £70 to £75.
+
+[Footnote 93: The Malay name for this mussel is "beya," implying duty,
+toll, tax, thus leaving it open to conjecture that that nation, in their
+commerce with the Asiatic and African continents, have for untold ages
+employed the same principles of currency and expressions of value as
+ourselves.]
+
+To the kindness and active interest in our objects of Mr. Wilson, in whose
+agreeable villa at Mootwall--the plan and method of construction of which
+reminded us of the beautiful planters' houses on the sugar estates of
+Louisiana--we spent the last night of our stay at Colombo, we are also
+indebted for a copy, with which he presented us, of the most ancient
+annals of Ceylon, inscribed with an iron graver upon Talipot palm-leaves
+in the highly-esteemed Pali language, and preserved between richly-carved
+boards of the costly wood of the Kalamander tree (_Diospyrus Hirsuta_).
+This carefully-preserved MS. includes, among others, the celebrated epic
+poem "Mahawanso," (an abbreviation "Mahantaman Wanso," "Genealogy of
+mighty men,") which recites under 100 heads, and in 9175 verses, the most
+important events connected with the interior constitution and history of
+the island, as also of all the battles fought by the inhabitants in
+foreign countries from B.C. 543 to the year 1758, A.D. Of these, the most
+renowned historic relics of the Cingalese, 38 chapters, of 262 pages 4to,
+were translated into English by George Tumour, Esq., an eminent Pali
+scholar, and printed at Ceylon, in the year 1837. Unfortunately, his
+earnest desire to publish the rest of this highly-interesting work was
+destined not to be gratified. The grave closed over him ere he could
+realize his wish. At present, however, there is a prospect of the
+translation of the "Mahawanso" being completed by Mr. James de Alwis, a
+worthy follower in the footsteps of Mr. Turnour, chiefly through the
+munificence of Government and of the Scientific Institutes, which were
+invoked to supply the requisite assistance for the prosecution of an
+undertaking likely to prove so unremunerative.
+
+In addition to the copy of the "Mahawanso," we also procured a number of
+other important Cingalese MSS. on Talipot palms, which were made use of by
+Tumour, partly in his translation of the "Mahawanso," partly in his other
+works upon Ceylon, and which embrace numerous valuable historical details
+not comprised in the "Mahawanso." This complete collection of the most
+antique annals of the Island of Ceylon, in the purchase of which we were
+kindly favoured with the advice and assistance of Mr. Wilson at Colombo,
+together with a variety of other Cingalese MSS. on palm leaves, collected
+at a subsequent date, now form part of the collection of valuable books in
+the Imperial Royal Library at Vienna.
+
+Besides Mr. Wilson, our very best thanks are due to the Colonial
+Secretary, Sir C. J. McCarthy, who had the kindness to provide several of
+the members of the _Novara_ Expedition with the requisite letters of
+introduction to the authorities in the interior of the Island: also to Mr.
+John Selby, the very obliging proprietor of the _Examiner_; to Dr.
+Kelaart, physician and naturalist; to Charles P. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent for the Western Provinces; and to Captain Gosset,
+Surveyor-General, for their numerous attentions. The last-mentioned
+gentleman very kindly provided us with a pair of level-tubes which we
+urgently needed for one of our levelling instruments, and which, in this
+quarter of the globe, were more rare and difficult to be met with than
+pearls or precious stones.
+
+Our return from Colombo to Galle, was not less marked by misadventures
+than our journey thither. As far as Caltura, where our amiable Father
+Miliani was in waiting for us with his neat single-horse equipage, to
+convey us to the beautiful parsonage of St. Sebastian Makùn, all went
+tolerably smoothly with us. We arrived, as had been concerted, to
+breakfast with this hospitable shepherd of souls. On our way to the
+parsonage, we noticed that great respect was paid to the worthy Father, by
+such of the Cingalese as met us. Their usual salutation was to bend
+themselves to the earth, veiling their eyes at the same time, and bending
+forward the outstretched head as though to implore a blessing. Father
+Miliani, who held the reins in his left hand, while his right hand
+flourished a long heavy whip, slightly inclined his body upon the
+cabriolet, and so dismissed in peace the poor folk that besought his
+benediction. When we had now got pretty near the parsonage, we were
+suddenly brought to a halt by a couple of natives, of whom one implored
+the spiritual ministration of the Father for his wife, then lying almost
+_in articulo mortis_, while the other had brought with him, from the
+sacristy of Makùn, the Communion-plate required for the purpose. The
+priest, to whom this interruption seemed to come as a matter of course,
+stopped, apologized for the unexpected delay, threw the reins to one of
+the party, sprang from the waggon, and disappeared in the gloom of the
+forest. It was not for long, as it proved; for the stately, handsome
+figure of the priest of Makùn presently appeared between the cocoa-palms.
+He had found the woman much less dangerously ill than he had been led to
+expect by the report of the husband, the native converts to Christianity
+being very much given to requesting the administration of the rites of the
+Church, upon being attacked by the slightest indisposition, because they
+anticipate much more benefit from spiritual treatment than from the
+medicines of their body-curers. And now we proceeded on our way to the
+parsonage at a smart gallop, which, however, did not prevent a zealous,
+much-believing Cingalese from keeping up with the mettled horse, stride
+for stride, for the entire distance, keeping close to the waggon as he ran
+alongside. We were not then aware, indeed, whether this violent bodily
+exercise was undertaken as a matter of choice or as a penance, but it
+seemed to us, in any case, an act far less meritorious than prejudicial to
+health.
+
+In St. Sebastian de Makùn, the entire community were awaiting our arrival,
+and escorted us by a romantic hill, and through a delicious palm-forest,
+to the priest's abode. Here we found the porch of the house gaily adorned,
+and metamorphosed with tropical fruits and flowers into a smiling fragrant
+bower, with the feathery leaf of the cocoa-palm cut into thin strips. The
+inventive ingenuity of the Cingalese had endeavoured to represent the
+various birds found in tropical forests, which were suspended in
+ornamental baskets of green leaves among the festoons. Over the entrance
+to this bower, improvised out of materials supplied by the primeval
+forest, was placed a picture painted by the good Father himself,
+representing a large anchor, with the superscription in Italian "La
+speranza non confunde!" (Hope never disappoints!) This was evidently a
+delicate allusion of our kind-souled entertainer to the hope which he had
+expressed during our previous visit, that he should see us on our return
+from Colombo, "which had not been disappointed."
+
+In the interior of the arbour appeared an elegantly appointed table, that
+seemed ready to give way under the weight of good things spread upon it,
+around which were placed a number of arm-chairs, worked in tapestry, while
+the plastered floor was strewed with the glistening green leaves of the
+_Ficus religiosa_. As soon as we had taken our seats, the members of the
+community, consisting of more than a hundred tawny, half-naked Cingalese
+(principally men and children), arranged themselves in a circle, and some
+half-dozen dancers began to execute a very ordinary-looking dance to the
+sound of a drum. The entire figure consisted in their simply approaching
+each other from opposite sides, during which they struck the
+hollow-sounding instrument pretty sharply, holding it in their hand the
+while, after which they drew away from each other, and wound up by
+dancing round in a circle in couples. A boy of eight, in glittering
+costume, next performed a dance, in which he was accompanied by a grown-up
+Cingalese who sung, occasionally accompanied by drum and fife. Frequently
+we enquired what was the meaning of the vocal accompaniment to the dance,
+but could get no information upon the subject. But we have always had
+occasion to remark among the various primitive races, that they are rarely
+able to give any connected account of the history of their dances or even
+their songs, but simply go through a set of mechanical figures which they
+have learned, or rehearse a set of words by rote, without being able to
+assign any signification to either. Over and over again have we put the
+question, only to receive the same stereotyped answer from Hindoos,
+Negroes, Chinese, Malays, and Polynesians, that they could tell us nothing
+more than that these songs and dances took their origin in the "olden
+times." Breakfast was served in the arbour by Cingalese boys. As often as
+the hospitable Father turned to apologize for his scanty means, which
+prevented him from ministering to our entertainment as he could wish, some
+new dish would be forthcoming, or some fresh kind of wine would be
+produced, till one knew not which most to admire, the variety of the
+entertainment, or its cost in preparation.
+
+On inquiring of Father Miliani, in the course of conversation, whether he
+had any acquaintance with the plants to which the natives ascribe healing
+properties, he sent for a phial containing an oily substance, which;
+according to the Cingalese herbalists, is composed of 57 different roots
+and as many flowers, and has already been wonderfully efficacious in cases
+of persons bitten by poisonous serpents. It is called by the natives,
+_Visanili-Katail_ (oil against poison); and the priest of Makùn remarked
+to us, he had himself had an opportunity of satisfying himself as to the
+marvellous curative qualities of this vegetable substance, in the case of
+persons who had been bitten by the most venomous snake in the whole
+island, the _Cobra di Capello_, who had entirely recovered by the copious
+use of this antidote. The application is very simple. The mouth is rinsed
+out with it, and the patient further takes from 15 to 20 drops of the oil
+internally. Unfortunately, we were not able to inquire more particularly
+as to the ingredients from which the Visanili-Katail is compounded, of
+which we eventually got a small quantity to carry away with us, after much
+entreaty; but by way of compensation, Father Miliani was able to give us
+much valuable information as to the manners, customs, and traditions of
+his flock. He regretted, however, that they were all of a highly
+impassioned strain, and that they constantly passed from one extreme to
+the other. The following trait, which was pointed out to us by the Father
+in the course of conversation, may serve to indicate the modes of thought
+and observation of the natives. When the Cingalese perceived how eagerly
+and with what warmth of friendship the Father received us, they inquired
+of him whether he had been previously an acquaintance of ours, as they
+were unable to conceive the existence of such hearty good-will between
+persons who were utter strangers to each other. The priest, readily
+appreciating the results which must flow from the reply he should give, in
+confirming the devout souls of his children, replied that the reputation
+of his name had long since penetrated to us, and we were unwilling to ride
+by without turning aside to salute him, to which he had readily expressed
+his assent, and had also long since been apprized of the important mission
+of the Austrian ship of war, whose commander was termed by the natives,
+with the bombast of their native tongue, "King of the Sea." At our
+departure, the kind Father presented us with several interesting articles,
+as _souvenirs_ of Makùn, while we, on our part, left with him a donation
+in money to defray the expenses of erecting his church.
+
+Father Miliani, the band of musicians, consisting of ten or twelve
+wild-looking fellows, with all manner of barbarous musical instruments, of
+which they made not less barbarous use, together with a laughing, yelling,
+gesticulating crowd of half-naked Cingalese, with long raven locks
+floating over their shoulders, accompanied us to our travelling chariot.
+Here we took leave of the hospitable Father, the vehicle set out on its
+route, and the whole brown retinue at once dispersed.
+
+Hardly had we left the Mission of St. Sebastian Makùn behind us, ere our
+troubles began afresh. At almost the very first station we came to, we
+had to hire a horse from a resident at an exorbitant rate--the animal
+belonging to the station, and which had been engaged for us, being utterly
+useless. This gave occasion for fresh delays. The party letting the horses
+was what is called a native doctor, who assumed the title of "native
+vaccinator," and bitterly complained, that for his attendance four days in
+every week, as required by the law, for the purpose of inoculation, he
+only received from Government a monthly salary of £2 5_s._ sterling.
+Whatever deficiency existed in his salary, he seemed determined to make up
+for in the hire of his horse, which he charged for at the rate of ten
+shillings for six miles! On the cash being forthcoming, our "native
+vaccinator" did not disdain himself to take the reins, and, with his own
+hands, apply the whip to his mare between the shafts of our vehicle. But
+this mark of distinction was destined, ere long, to cost us dear. Hardly
+had we proceeded a couple of miles under his care, when the hind-wheels of
+the vehicle sunk into a rut, whence our Æsculapian steed lacked the
+strength to extricate us. To complete the sum of our misfortunes, at the
+very moment we were using our utmost endeavours to replace the waggon on
+the regular track, it came on to rain heavily, and we were, in a
+twinkling, wet to the skin. Some thirty young Cingalese, in the full dress
+of Adam before the Fall, who were standing open-mouthed round the waggon,
+could only be roused by threats from their passive attitude; and when,
+finally, they lent a hand to assist, they, in their ill-timed zeal, came
+near oversetting the waggon into the ditch on the opposite side. Next, we
+exchanged this stubborn brute for one that was blind. For a brief space we
+hoped the latter might probably be the more easily driven in consequence
+of his not seeing what was going on around him; but these anticipations
+were speedily dispelled, and in a rather unpleasant manner. The short
+distance that now separated us from our destination seemed as though it
+would never have an end; and, in a word, it was already verging on
+midnight ere we reached Galle, where we had been expected to dinner five
+hours before, by our hospitable friend, the Consul for Hamburg. Some of
+the invited guests had already left this agreeable house, while others
+were still seated at the whist-table, as, wearied and exhausted, we
+entered the drawing-room. The circumstances that had so seriously delayed
+our arrival were explained by way of apology, and proved the subject of
+some goodnatured quizzing on our misfortunes by the guests present; and in
+such agreeable society, and over a sumptuous supper, we speedily forgot
+the trifling annoyances of our latest experiences.
+
+In the course of a desultory agreeable conversation about the natural
+beauties of the island, many were the plans of more distant excursions
+which we projected this evening--which, however, upon more mature
+consideration, all proved impracticable, owing to the scanty time at our
+disposal. Thus we found ourselves, much against our wishes, compelled to
+forego a visit to Kandy, and its beautiful environs, in which is situated
+the renowned temple that enshrines the tooth of Buddha, the occupation of
+which by the English was, in the eyes of the Cingalese, the most manifest
+indication of their being the legitimate conquerors of the kingdom.[94]
+Neither were we able to take part in an elephant hunt, although these
+animals are found in the island in such quantities, that it is related,
+with every appearance of accuracy, of a single elephant hunter, the late
+Major Rodgers, who was struck dead by a flash of lightning a few years
+since in the midst of the forest, that he had, in the course of his life
+of active exercise, laid low fifteen hundred elephants with his own hand!
+But permission was granted by the commander of the Expedition to the
+geologist and one of the zoologists to remain in Ceylon, and rejoin the
+frigate at Madras by the steamer which runs fortnightly, so as to enable
+them to ascend the world-famous Adam's Peak, 7000 feet high, one of the
+loftiest peaks in Ceylon, where, according to tradition, the founder of
+the Buddhist doctrine, when last he visited the earth, in answer to the
+supplications of a priest, left behind the print of his footstep
+(_Sri-pada_), as a visible sign of his presence.
+
+[Footnote 94: The legend relating to these relics, about which so many wars
+were waged, goes back as far as the third century of the Christian era,
+when Mahasana, a true believer, having become King of Ceylon, purchased
+these teeth for numerous valuable presents, of one of his kindred, a
+Calinga king in Bengal, who sent them over by his princes. The tooth
+Dahata Wahansa immediately achieved a miracle--it illumined the entire
+island, and supplanted all heretical teaching. It was forthwith enveloped
+in a hundred cloths, and a temple erected to enshrine it, since which it
+has been regarded as the Palladium of Ceylon. When, in 1560, this tooth
+was transferred to the temple at Manaar by the Portuguese under Constantin
+de Braganza, the king offered the Portuguese bigots 600,000 pieces of gold
+by way of ransom. Braganza judged it more advisable to destroy the tooth.
+But he little knew the adroitness and subtlety of the Buddhist priesthood.
+The very next morning the tooth, that had been supposed to be destroyed
+was marvellously found in a Lotos leaf in the temple, where it had been
+deposited by Buddha himself!]
+
+We cite, in the following extract, the most prominent features of this
+venture, as supplied by the two members of the Expedition who undertook
+it, so as to complete the description of the _Novara's_ visit to Ceylon:--
+
+"On 13th January, 1858, we proceeded from Colombo to Ratnapoora, _en
+route_, to visit Adam's Peak, a tolerably long and tedious journey. On the
+margin of a river we encountered an elephant, who was engaged in assisting
+the labourers on the public roads in that vicinity. While our car and the
+baggage were being embarked here, and again put in order, this animal went
+through a number of tricks, such as swaying to and fro, lying down,
+raising his trunk, and trumpeting, the latter of which, at a sign from his
+driver, he did with a vengeance, and for so doing was rewarded with a few
+plantains. These exercises seem to constitute the first steps in taming,
+as they were gone through in a similar manner by all the elephants we
+afterwards saw, whether employed like this one in task-work, or maintained
+for show, or made use of in the Temple service.
+
+At mid-day we reached Ratnapoora, and as we were anxious to shorten as
+much as possible our next day's journey, we decided on pushing forward in
+the course of the afternoon, as far as the little village of Gilli-Mali,
+seven miles further on. We had been provided by C. W. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent in Colombo, with letters of introduction to his deputy,
+Mr. Mooyart, at Ratnapoora, who, however, we unfortunately found was
+absent from home. Next day, however, we had unmistakable evidence that our
+letters had, very shortly after our departure, reached the hands they were
+intended for, by a variety of precautions which the hospitable gentleman
+must have at once arranged with a view to our greater comfort. While yet
+on the second-half of our road to Gilli-Mali, night overtook us, and we
+prosecuted our march by torch-light through the dense jungle. Our guides
+and porters had shown some reluctance to enter this jungle, partly on
+account of the swarms of land-leeches (_litchies_, as they are termed
+here, doubtless by a corruption of the English name), which are especially
+active during the night, partly from other causes of anxiety. Accordingly,
+they kept reciting Cingalese ditties, alternated with shrill yells, or
+shouted, so as to be heard at a distance; whether to drive away evil
+spirits, or to frighten the _chetah_ or leopard, we could not ascertain.
+No long time elapsed ere we ourselves began to perceive traces of having
+been victimized by that most uncomfortable of guests, the land-leech. The
+naked Hindoos were incessantly occupied with pulling off these painful
+blood-suckers, and we had to call a halt from time to time, in order to
+loosen and carefully fling them away, as they had succeeded in reaching
+the skin, through the trousers immediately above the boot. They are found
+up to an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea on the mountains, chiefly in
+damp or wet localities, and are most active during the evening and night
+in the selection of a victim.
+
+At Gilli-Mali, we fell in with Mr. Braybrooke, an English engineer, who
+most hospitably invited us to his bungalow, and with whom we conversed
+upon topics relating to Ceylon, till far into the night.
+
+Next day we had to ascend the Peak itself; which is in so far a difficult
+undertaking on the side from which we approached it, that one has gained
+no vantage-ground at Gilli-Malli, our last night's resting-place, towards
+reaching the summit, so that one sees it in its entire colossal height of
+above 7000 feet directly in front; whereas, in ascending from Kandy, one
+has already, at Neuwera Ellia, attained an elevation of 4000 feet, which
+can be performed in a carriage. We set out at 7 A.M., and after an
+hour-and-a-half's march, gained the last village, Balahab-a-Dullu, in the
+Buddhist temple of which is kept a flat metal dish, adorned with silver
+_rosettes_, with which the imprint of the holy footstep is covered over at
+the season of the annual pilgrimage. On the table, before a colossal
+figure of Buddha, were strewn, as usual, a quantity of flowers presented
+by the faithful; these were the flower-shrubs of the _Areca palm_,
+_Hibiscus_, _Alamanda_, _Tagetes_; also, close to the wooden statue, are
+placed several small figures of silver or wood, 3 or 4 inches long. The
+priest also showed us a magnificent manuscript of at least 1000 palm
+leaves, closely and beautifully engraved on both sides with Cingalese
+characters, which belonged to the temple, and was guarded with great care.
+
+At a solitary house on the road, we left our guides and porters to discuss
+their modest repast, which, in consequence of the strict ordinances of the
+Buddhist faith, consists of vegetable substances only. Reclining on a mat
+spread on the ground, each took a piece of green plantain leaf, scattered
+upon it a little rice which they had just brought with them, and some
+chili (red Spanish pepper), and thence conveyed their simple food to their
+mouth with the hand. This frugal meal was speedily concluded, and we once
+more pushed forward. From this point we had the dense covert of the high
+forest trees, the lofty foliage of which afforded a most agreeable shade,
+and kept us comparatively cool. The path, which consists simply of
+ravines, formed by the rush of torrents during the rainy season, is so
+steep that it seems like one uninterrupted flight of stairs, the steps of
+which seem partly constructed by Nature, partly by the hand of man.
+Frequently they are artistically chiselled in the solid rock; at one
+stupendous precipice a Cingalese monarch has had four flights, of 250
+steps in all, hewn out of the living rock. Here and there, also, ladders
+have been contrived, the rounds of which are composed of pieces of bamboo
+bound together, by which one clambers up. The whole route bears marks of
+being much used, and is considerably worn, the stones being rubbed quite
+smooth. Under the damp shade of the forest are found a vast quantity of
+the most beautiful ferns and _Lycopodium_ (Club-moss; or Wolf's-claw, as
+it is called in Sweden, whence the Linnæan name); from the delicate beauty
+of the _Jungermania_ (Star-tip), to the tree-like fern, _Filius
+Phyllophisidos_, which vies with the giants of the forest. The more deeply
+shaded spots are adorned here with beautiful balsams, a genus of plants
+which, besides being unusually luxuriant and beautiful in this district,
+exhibits certain peculiarities of form not usually met with.
+
+At one place, called Nihilabellagalla, there was pointed out to us, at a
+few paces to the side of the road, near a rugged projecting rock with a
+steep declivity in front, a narrow valley which seemed to be closed in by
+perpendicular walls of rock on the opposite side. This _cul de sac_, we
+were informed, was a favourite resort of numerous wild elephants. A shot
+fired at this point, with the gun directed towards the rocks opposite,
+returned a thundering echo.
+
+By 4 P.M. the last halt, or resting-place, was reached, above which the
+singular-looking cone towers sheer overhead, some 500 or 600 feet high.
+The vapours which, during the entire day, had been playing about the
+summit, from time to time lifted like a veil, as though to indulge us with
+an opportunity of beholding this sublime mountain-peak under the magical
+effect of twilight. Our native retinue, which had gathered fresh
+accessions of strength at every place we passed, and now consisted of from
+24 to 30 persons, showed no inclination to proceed farther, but appeared
+desirous of passing the night at the last halting-place, which was nothing
+but a sort of hovel. It was only by a resolute expression of our
+determination to reach the summit the same evening that they gave in.
+Their reluctance arose from an idea that no one could with impunity pass
+the night on the highest point of the mountain--which, indeed, is natural
+enough, since the sharp night-air at such an elevation may well be
+prejudicial to the health of those who are not sufficiently protected
+against its attacks.
+
+The last portion of the ascent is so steep, and so difficult, that all
+superfluous baggage was left behind, and we took with us only what was
+absolutely indispensable. Thus far we had seen occasional traces of
+elephants, sometimes so fresh, that they could not have been more than an
+hour old. According to a report of Major Skinner, the unmistakable marks
+of one of these animals was remarked in the year 1840 quite close to the
+rock which bears the sacred footprint! At the steepest points, iron
+ladders have been made fast, by which the visitor has to scramble up.
+There were, also, innumerable chains fastened to the rock, of every
+description and variety of link, which swung to and fro by dozens on
+either hand, some eaten away with age and rust, some forged quite lately,
+it being considered a meritorious work to provide such as a protection
+against the occurrence of accidents. By 6 P.M., we at last reached the
+summit, and were rewarded with a panoramic view of indescribable
+magnificence. The mists were almost entirely dispersed, and in the clear,
+calm, evening light, the eye wandered at pleasure over the vast, almost
+limitless, panorama at our feet, as far as the sea, barely visible in the
+grey distance. Bounding our view from north-west to east, the mountain
+ranges rose by three distinct terraces of hills, each behind the other,
+and in regular gradations, till they culminated in the highest peak on the
+island, the Pedro-talla-galla, which overtops Adam's peak by nearly 1000
+feet,[95] but presents no pre-eminent peak, similar to that on which we now
+stood. The remainder of the horizon was filled with low mountains, which
+gradually became more and more flat as they approached the coast. The
+followers of three religions,--Buddhists, Brahmins, and Mahometans, stand
+face to face with each other on this space of barely a few steps, in order
+to bow before these visible emblems, in sincere devotion to the invisible
+Deity. The highest surface, which is nearly level, is of an irregular oval
+form, and is about 60 or 70 feet in length, by from 36 to 40 feet in
+breadth, and is inclosed within a wall 5 feet in height, with two
+entrances on the west and south, while the north-east corner is shut out
+by an artificially rounded rock, easily surmounted, however, by any one
+who ascends it. In the middle of this enclosure stands a block of rock
+some 10 or 11 feet high, which, on the extreme top, has a depression, the
+divine _Sri-pada_, or Holy Footstep. The adoration consists chiefly of
+offerings of flowers which are brought up hither, and presented with
+innumerable genuflections, invocations, and exclamations of "_Sadoo_,"
+which corresponds to the Christian Amen. The impressed foot-print is
+ascribed by the Buddhists to the last incarnation of Buddha, the gentle
+hermit Gautama; while it is regarded by the Brahmins as the footstep of
+Siva, and by the Mahometans as that of Adam, as being the spot on which
+the progenitor of the human race stood so long, doing penance after his
+expulsion from Paradise, until the Almighty pardoned him.
+
+[Footnote 95: The precise relative elevations of the two mountains are,
+Pedro-talla-galla 8280 feet, Adam's Peak 7420 feet. Two other peaks of the
+main range are also higher than Adam's Peak, viz. Totapella 7720 feet, and
+Kirrigal-potta 7810 feet, while the plains, or table-lands, of Welinani
+and Neuwera Ellia are, respectively, no less than 6990 feet and 6210 feet
+above the level of the sea.]
+
+This depression, in which only the most unbridled imagination can see any
+resemblance to the human foot, is about 5 feet in length by 2-1/2 in
+breadth, and is set, as it were, in a level stratum of mortar, several
+inches in height, by six in breadth, shaped to resemble the outline of the
+human foot. At its anterior extremity, it presents a straight line, on
+which the five toes are artificially formed by several tolerably thick,
+narrow crevices, filled with mortar, and about 8 or 9 inches in length,
+which jut inwards, the great toe being on the right or east side, and thus
+indicating that it is a representation of the left foot. At the heel end
+the setting of mortar is somewhat narrowed and rounded off. Over the whole
+affair a wooden temple with balustrades open on all sides, has been
+erected, which is fastened by iron chains to the rock, and to beams of
+rhododendron fastened on the N.W. side, outside the wall, to prevent its
+being swept away by the storms which, on this lofty, exposed peak,
+occasionally rage with great vehemence. These cables, as also several of
+the poles by which the temple was supported, were thickly hung with carved
+figures of Buddha enveloped in linen cloth, which, originally the votive
+offerings of pilgrims, and bleached by long exposure, fluttered in the
+breeze. On the front of the temple is erected a penthouse roof, shading a
+bench beneath, on which several of our porters, who regarded our impious
+presence, and still more impious admeasurements of the holy footprint,
+with a horror which they flattered themselves was unobserved, deposited
+their offerings of flowers, and humbly bent the knee. On the west side,
+under two small distinct roofs, were two bells, and quite apart, on the
+rock itself, and somewhat in the background, a smaller temple. Between the
+block of rock and the inner half of the enclosure, a small house has been
+erected, 12 feet long by 6 feet broad, which is used as a shelter at night
+by the priests who are on duty during the pilgrimage season,[96] in which
+we too took up our quarters. Suddenly, from the depths below there arose,
+through the unbroken silence of the night, a confused murmur, in which the
+sounds of human voices were plainly recognizable. The singularity of such
+a phenomenon produced a certain degree of excitement among our
+superstitious spectre-dreading followers, inasmuch as it had never
+happened that strangers undertook the ascent of the peak at night, seeing
+it gives trouble enough to reach the summit by daylight. By degrees we
+perceived a number of torches borne by natives, who, with loud and
+long-continued cheers, set about slowly ascending the ladders. To the
+inquiries of our followers they made no reply; and we had, in a word, to
+wait a considerable interval, until, indeed, the leading torch-bearer had
+reached the summit, ere we were enlightened as to the object of this
+mysterious nocturnal visit. How great, and let us add, agreeable was our
+surprise at finding ourselves suddenly surrounded by a choice array of
+wines, with food of various sorts, which the overflowing hospitality of
+Mr. Mooyart had dispatched after us to the summit of Adam's Peak, together
+with his card, the whole being conveyed in huge baskets by the supposed
+spectres! A cheerful fire speedily blazed up, at which our tea and
+provisions were cooked, and, as may well be supposed, while, enjoying our
+delicate fare, we thankfully toasted the kind and thoughtful donor.
+
+[Footnote 96: The dry season, occurring in the south-west side of the
+island from January to April, is likewise the chief season of pilgrimage,
+at the end of which the entire amount of the offerings, annually averaging
+from £250 to £300 sterling, is handed over to the High-Priest of Buddha.]
+
+Deep silence once more fell on all around, no cry of any wild beast
+reached us at this elevation, no hum of insect broke upon the awful
+stillness. Our coolies lay cowering together around the drooping blaze,
+seeking some shelter against the night air. One division stowed themselves
+away in a second sleeping-house for priests, which had been run up some
+twenty paces distant, in which we also were in the end fain to seek
+shelter from the ever-increasing keenness of the air, the temperature of
+which fell to 54°.5 Fahr., where, with our wrappers drawn close around us,
+and stretched at full length on the bare rock, we awaited the approach of
+morning.
+
+The first faint glimmer of dawn invited us once more to the open air, in
+order to contemplate the wonderful aspect of Nature at this elevation. We
+had, after leaving Ratnapoora, taken barometrical and thermometrical
+observations, with the view of determining the elevation at nine different
+stations, which had been, wherever practicable, selected in such manner,
+that by means of them the various limits of certain classes of vegetation
+were indicated, which in many instances are marked out with extraordinary
+distinctness upon the perpendicular side of the peak. These series of
+observations, which were at the same time supplemented by investigations
+as to the temperature of the soil and of various springs, will be compared
+with the results of previous scientific visitors to the summit of Adam's
+Peak, and published in another form. The geology of the isolated pinnacle
+of Adam's Peak, so far as the dense covering of primeval forests permitted
+us to observe, is uncommonly simple and uniform. The chief directions of
+the lofty chain of mountains in Southern Ceylon, separated from each other
+by level plateau-like depressions, is from S.S.E. to N.N.W., corresponding
+likewise with the chief directions of the strata of gneiss, of which these
+mountains are composed. The gneiss is uniformly of a species not often met
+with, studded with garnets, and between its strata are inserted single
+beds of hornblende-gneiss and splinters of pure hornblende, as also
+granulite-gneiss and pure granulite. The steep, final cone of the rock
+consists of a granulitic gneiss of varying texture from coarse to fine,
+and abounding in garnets. Everywhere, even up to the highest summit, the
+gneiss is decomposed on the surface into laterit-like products. The huge
+blocks of brown ironstone, however, which are found near the summit, in
+the hollow path by which it is customary to ascend, owe their origin to
+the decomposition of the hornblende.
+
+After these interesting observations, admeasurements, and investigations,
+made at the summit of the most remarkable peak in the world, had been
+brought to a conclusion, we set out on our return to Gilli-Mali, which we
+reached late at night. Here we found, at the abode of our hospitable
+entertainer, Mr. Braybrooke, a fresh guest, who likewise intended to
+ascend Adam's Peak the following day. This was the well-known Count Medem,
+a Russian gentleman, who has frequently traversed both the old and new
+worlds, and was now about making a second visit to China.[97] The next day
+saw us at Ratnapoora, from which point we continued our return journey on
+the waters of the Kalu-Gunga, or Black River, as far as Caltura.
+
+[Footnote 97: Count Medem died the same year at Shanghai.]
+
+Our boat consisted of two trunks of trees hollowed out and fastened
+together, upon which was erected a semicircular tilt, covered with the
+leaves of the Fan Palm (_Borassus Flabelliformis_), under which one might
+sit or lie at pleasure, sheltered from the sun. As the mail-car that runs
+daily from Colombo to Caltura was already full, we were compelled, in
+order to pursue our journey to Galle, to make use of the native waggon, or
+bullock-bandy. This is a two-wheeled cart drawn by oxen, and covered with
+a semicircular tilt of palm-leaves, beneath which there was room for two
+persons to lie at full-length packed closely together. The oxen, of a
+breed that have humps and erect horns, are small, and walk with a quick,
+short tramp, while their entire bodies are tattooed with Cingalese
+characters and ornaments. The horns are usually adorned with metal tips,
+and frequently are dyed, the one red, the other green. The cross-piece of
+the pole is fastened to the neck instead of the customary yoke, and the
+cord for guiding the animal passes through the nose. The driver either
+strides along between the two oxen, or sits with his back to them on the
+pole. The rate of progression by this national conveyance is so slow, that
+the mail-car which left Colombo the day after overtook us long ere we
+reached our destination, and it was with some difficulty we reached Galle
+in time for the overland steamer which was to bring us to Madras."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.--TRACK FROM POINT DE GALLE TO MADRAS.]
+
+At 6 A.M. of the 16th January, the _Novara_ set sail from the roads of
+Point de Galle with light breezes off the land, and steered southerly in
+order to avoid the Basses or Baxos, a much-dreaded rocky shoal,
+traditionally alleged to be the remains of the island of Giri, swallowed
+up by the sea, and which, owing to the very strong current, require the
+utmost care to be observed, in order to avoid drifting right upon them.[98]
+
+[Footnote 98: A late survey, instituted with the intention of erecting a
+lighthouse on the "Basses," proved a failure, in consequence of the ground
+having sunk in while an examination was being made by the diver, and left
+nothing but holes filled with water, in which, according to the report of
+the fishermen, besides fish and molluscs, sea-snakes are occasionally
+seen, of a light-gray colour, and about 4 or 5 feet in length.]
+
+The evening before our departure, the Consul for Hamburg had requested
+from the Commander of the Expedition the favour of a free passage to
+Madras, on board our frigate, for a native of Berlin, named Neupert. This
+man had come to Ceylon a long time previously with a company of
+rope-dancers, and had at first made a good deal of money as an acrobat and
+juggler, despite the dangerous competition of the Indian practitioners,
+but had afterwards lost his all, and had been for some weeks in a pitiable
+plight. The request was at once acceded to, and Neupert came on board
+during the night. His luggage did not encumber him much. However, although
+the greatest part of his effects had disappeared in Galle, he fortunately
+had kept his various apparatus; and, by way of showing his gratitude for
+the free passage that had been accorded to him, professed his willingness,
+in the course of the voyage, to give us some specimens of his skill on
+deck. Accordingly, one fine afternoon, he gave us an entertainment out on
+the open ocean, which not alone hugely pleased the sturdy tars grouped
+together on the forecastle, but ultimately, in consequence of a collection
+set on foot for the unfortunate Berlin acrobat, procured him enough ready
+money to enable him to pass the first week after his arrival at Madras
+free from anxiety, besides supplying him with a fresh outfit.
+
+Within a few days after our departure from Galle, several severe cases
+occurred of hemeralopia, chiefly among members of the ship's band. Every
+evening, as darkness set in, these men lost all power of distinguishing
+objects, and had to be led about like blind men. In Vienna, we had been
+advised by various physicians there, with a view to the confirmation or
+refutation of the popular belief, to try the use of boiled ox-liver;[99]
+and, as one of the oxen shipped at Ceylon had been slaughtered, we were in
+a position to make the desired experiment, which, it must be confessed,
+proved eminently successful. This time, moreover, several of those thus
+afflicted were treated with cooked pig's-liver, which was given them to
+eat, while the steam rising from the dish was applied to their eyes. But
+we had, on our return voyage, the most convincing proof of the efficacy of
+the liver of animals of the ox tribe in cases of night-blindness, when
+above twenty of those afflicted, after frequent relapses during the voyage
+from Valparaiso to Gibraltar, were treated in the last-named port with
+ox-liver, and dismissed permanently cured.[100]
+
+[Footnote 99: This cure is likewise very much resorted to, even of late
+years, among the Highlands of Scotland!]
+
+[Footnote 100: During the entire voyage round the globe, there occurred 75
+cases of _Hemeralopia_; the largest number of which, 60, occurred between
+Cape Horn and Gibraltar. The remainder were isolated cases, occurring at
+Rio, Ceylon, the Nicobar Islands, and on the voyage from China to Sydney.]
+
+The voyage from Ceylon to Madras was, on the whole, monotonous and void of
+interest, with the exception of one single event, which no one on board is
+likely to forget for the remainder of his life. About 3.30 P.M. of the 2nd
+January, 1858, there suddenly resounded from the hold, the astounding cry
+of "Fire! fire!" Everyone rushed, in the utmost excitement, on deck. It
+turned out that a by no means insignificant quantity of pure alcohol,
+which was stowed away in the hold for the preservation of specimens of
+natural history, had, from some unknown cause, caught fire. Forthwith the
+pumps were manned, the sails clewed up, all the portholes closed, so as to
+cut off the slightest draught, and all the hammocks of the crew trundled,
+_pêle-mêle_ on deck anyhow, out of the quarter-nettings, in which they are
+stowed away during the day, there to be dipped in sea-water, and in that
+wringing-wet condition applied, partly in extinguishing the flames, partly
+in preventing the fire from spreading. In less than a quarter of an hour
+the worst danger was over, and our wonted quiet restored, despite the
+first terrible excitement. On a more searching investigation, several of
+the tin carboys in the hold, filled with spirits of wine, and kept between
+layers of sand in iron chests, were found to have been corroded till the
+liquor had oozed through, while the air, having free access to the sand,
+had become strongly impregnated with gas. This atmosphere, impregnated as
+it was with alcoholic fumes, took fire on one of the sailors carelessly
+entering the hold with a badly-fastened lantern, and in a moment the light
+flames which speedily enveloped the man in such a confined space, at once
+gave the alarm. The full carboys remained uninjured by the fire. Had such
+a catastrophe happened, and the whole quantity of spirit (about 40
+gallons) taken fire, considering the immense quantities of combustible
+matter we had on board, among the rest a ton-and-a-half of gunpowder, the
+upshot must have been of a far less agreeable nature. The extraordinary
+lightning-like activity displayed by the entire ship's company on this
+occasion was something wonderful. Each man seemed to have got wings. There
+was the most laudable emulation displayed by all hands in seeking to save
+the lives of themselves and others from such a terrible doom.
+
+On the 30th January, at 7.30 P.M., we anchored in Madras Roads, so dreaded
+for their insecurity, about three nautical miles from the shore, and in 9
+fathoms (56 feet English). Even in the calmest weather there is a
+tremendous surf on this coast, and from October to December, in which
+strong gales blow from the N.E., it is all but unapproachable. For this
+reason, so soon as the wind increases so as to endanger the ships in the
+roads, a flag is hoisted on a staff at the Master Attendant's office, that
+they may put to sea at once. On the second signal, all ships must quit the
+Roads for fear of being dashed through the surf upon the beach.
+
+From the city we heard a running fire of musketry and some salutes with
+cannon, which, considering the prevalence of warlike rumours and movements
+in the then circumstances of India, made us conjecture that the natives of
+the Coromandel coast were also in insurrection against the English.
+However, we learned afterwards that the musketry and salvoes proceeded
+from the troops stationed near the drilling-ground, who were receiving
+their general on his return from parade with a salute. The following day
+(Sunday, the 31st January, 1858) the European community of Madras fell
+into a precisely similar error in consequence of our salute, which they,
+being at that hour assembled at worship, mistook for a much less peaceful
+and agreeable intimation, so that the majority, dreading an outbreak,
+hurried to their houses in deep anxiety.
+
+[Illustration: MASULI BOAT AT MADRAS.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF MADRAS (AND PROPOSED PIER).]
+
+
+
+
+                                 IX.
+
+                               Madras.
+
+      DURATION OF STAY FROM 30TH JANUARY TO 10TH FEBRUARY, 1858.
+
+   "Catamarans" and "Massuli" boats.--Difficulty of disembarkation,
+     and plans for remedying it.--History.--Brahminism.--Festival
+     in honour of Vishnu.--Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+     Government.--Politics and Religion.--Laws of Brahminic faith.--
+     The Observatory.--Museum of Natural History and Zoological
+     Garden.--Academy of Fine Arts.--Medical School.--Infirmary.--
+     Orphan Asylum.--Dr. Bell.--Lancastrian Method of Teaching
+     Children first applied in Madras.--Colonel Mackenzie's
+     Collection of Indian Inscriptions and Manuscripts.--The Palace
+     of the former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.--Journey by rail
+     to Vellore.--_Fête_ given by the Governor in Guindy Park.--
+     Visit to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.--
+     Excursion to Pulicat Lake.--Madras Club.--_Fête_ in honour of
+     the members of the _Novara_ Expedition.--"Tiffin" and dance on
+     board.--Departure from Madras.--Zodiacal light.--Shrove
+     Tuesday in the tropics.--Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.
+
+
+The morning after our arrival in Madras Roads, a native boat came
+alongside, of the sort known as "Catamarans," having on board two
+natives, who brought off from the authorities of the port the customary
+papers to be filled up. This extraordinary and very primitive boat
+consists of merely two or three trunks of trees bound together
+raft-fashion, on which these daring boatmen kneel. As a great part of
+their body is necessarily under water, they carry the papers and letters
+entrusted to them for transmission to the ships in the Roads, in
+turban-like wrappings which envelope their heads. Ordinarily, these men
+are excellent swimmers, a most requisite accomplishment to enable them to
+regain their boats, in the event of being swept off by the waves, or to
+save themselves and others from the innumerable sharks, which frequent the
+entire Coromandel coast, and render it eminently dangerous. About noon, a
+larger boat approached us, manned by from 15 to 20 natives, who offered
+their services as caterers, washers, agents, servants, in short as
+"Dubashes" a sort of Hindoo _factotum_; while each individual, shrieking
+and vociferating at the top of his voice, held high in the air, with
+outstretched arm, a number of written testimonials of ship-captains that
+had already employed him. These boats, called "Massuli," or "Musli" boats
+(from _Muchly_--fish), about 36 feet long by 5 or 6 in width, and in which
+alone it is possible to bring passengers and goods to land, are light, as
+flexible as if made of leather, and are fastened together with the elastic
+fibres of the cocoa-nut, being in every particular specially adapted to
+yield to the tremendous blows of the heavy surf, which a boat of ordinary
+construction could not possibly live through. They are for the most part
+pretty deep, and are usually manned with from 12 to 15 naked natives, who
+make use of an exceedingly smooth pallette-shaped paddle. In one of these
+boats, the officers of the frigate on leave, and the naturalists of the
+Expedition, were conveyed to land in the midst of a fresh breeze from the
+N.E. The more we approached the shore, the more formidable was the
+appearance of the tumultuous tempest-driven waves. Amid frightful yells
+and hurrahs, we passed in safety the first and second lines of surf. But
+we had yet to encounter the third, and by far the most furious. The
+boatmen spread a couple of cloths over our heads, to prevent our getting a
+soaking; the boat made several violent plunges forward, and was for an
+instant apparently covered by the tremendous foaming billows, but seemed
+to glide in a most extraordinary manner over these, and finally was neatly
+laid alongside the beach on the crest of the last breaker. This is the
+critical moment, and the most disagreeable, because the boat is, by this
+manipulation, thrown on its side, and one feels disposed to rush out, ere
+the returning wave throws the boat high and dry on the sand. The noisy
+shrieks of the boat's crew and Coolies, or Lascars (Indian porters), with
+which the disembarkation is accompanied, combine to render it still more
+annoying and unpleasant. One feels a sensation of satisfaction at having
+gone through this remarkable, and to some extent wholly peculiar,
+experience; but no one was ever known to encounter it voluntarily a second
+time. The glowing picture, which numbers of travellers have drawn of the
+landing at Madras, might impress many readers with the idea that their
+representations were most probably tinged somewhat with a colouring of
+romance; but, in view of our own experience at what is confessedly the
+pleasantest season of the year, there can be at certain times no
+description, however vividly sketched, but what must lag behind the
+reality.
+
+There could hardly have been selected a more unsuitable site for a city,
+than that of Madras, and it is only the circumstance that the entire
+Coromandel coast presents no more eligible haven, as also the importance
+of the place as the chief city of the Carnatic, which alone has a
+population of 5,000,000, that has enabled Madras to boast a population of
+700,000 inhabitants, and a commerce of such magnitude that 6000 vessels,
+British and foreign, are annually[101] cleared inwards and outwards, laden
+with upwards of 650,000 tons of produce and goods of a total value of more
+than £8,000,000 sterling.
+
+[Footnote 101: In the year 1857, the number of trading vessels was 6241,
+carrying 652,146 tons merchandise, of which 1438 were square-sailed ships;
+and 4803 native boats and Chinese junks. The imports of goods and metals
+amounted to Rs. 40,563,826 (about £4,050,000 in round numbers); the
+exports to Rs. 40,060,656 (about £4,000,000 in round numbers). We are
+indebted to the kindness of Dr. Balfour for a variety of interesting
+statistical _data_, the information contained in which must be transferred
+to the statistical portion of the _Novara_ publications.]
+
+The spot at which vessels anchor can by no stretch of terms be called a
+roadstead, being in fact nothing but an open strip of coast running nearly
+due north and south, so that during the N.E. monsoons, the sea that sets
+in is something extraordinary, and produces a tremendous surf. At no
+season of the year is it practicable to reach the shore by ordinary
+ship-boats, because the beach, being utterly unprovided with any
+artificial appliances, is left in its natural state--that is to say,
+covered with fine sand, which lies so level that the depth is only nine
+fathoms two miles out at sea! Singular to say, no steps have to this day
+been taken to carry out the proposition, made many long years ago, of
+remedying this difficulty in reaching land, by the construction of a mole
+or pier, although three or four plans have already been presented by
+distinguished engineers. The last and most feasible scheme, and the most
+likely to be put in execution, consists in constructing a mole 1000 feet
+in length and 60 feet in breadth, to be erected upon iron piles driven
+into the sand, and with a cross-piece at the seaward extremity--the mole
+construction resembling the letter =T=. On either side of the mole,
+tramways will be laid down to facilitate the transport of goods that have
+been discharged. The entire cost of this undertaking would be about
+£100,000--an entirely disproportionate, and, indeed, insignificant amount,
+when one takes into consideration the important consequences which must
+result to trade and passenger traffic on the completion of this erection.
+
+The earliest British settlement was at Armegon, about 36 miles north of
+Pulicat (or about 78 miles N. by W. of Madras). The cession of a piece of
+land by the native Rajah of Besnayor induced the president of the old
+factory at Armegon, Mr. Francis Day, to abandon the latter, and in the
+year 1639, the Fort of St. George was erected at the newly-selected
+station, where formerly stood the little Hindoo village of Ischinapatam.
+This fort formed the nucleus, at a later period, of the city of Madras,
+which is built on the flat alluvial soil along the coast, and at present
+comprises an area of about 30 (English) square miles. Its extent along the
+beach from north to south is about 9 miles by an extreme width of 3-3/4
+miles. Madras, like all the rest, consists of a White town, exclusively
+inhabited by Europeans, and a Black town, or _Pettah_, in which the
+natives and all coloured residents carry on business.
+
+The White town, which, however, presents none of the carefully laid-out
+streets and compact blocks of houses involuntarily suggested by the word
+"town," but rather resembles a gigantic park, in which are situated a vast
+number of comfortable ornamental villas, rises at its highest point 20
+feet above the sea; whereas the Black town, at several points--for
+instance, Popham's Broadway--is hardly 8 feet above the level of spring
+floods.
+
+While in Ceylon we had had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
+influence exercised by Buddhism over the political and social condition of
+the island; here we, for the first time, found ourselves confronted with
+the followers of Brahmah. At the moment of our arrival, the principal
+festival of the year was being celebrated in honour of Vishnù, one of the
+three godheads of the Brahminical faith. It lasted fourteen days, and was
+celebrated with much pomp. Temples were improvised, and some dancing
+platforms erected for the female servants of the temple and "_bayadères_."
+In one of these dancing saloons, adorned in the most marvellous manner, a
+sort of altar rose in the background, richly hung with gold filagree work
+and stained cut-glass, and fringed with singular representations of the
+god. In the doorway stood, on the left hand side, a copy of the statue of
+the Venus de' Medici; on the right, of the Apollo Belvedere; on a small
+table were visible butterflies, fire-flies, and conchs, in ornamental
+glass cases. On the walls, of plain deal boards, were suspended on one
+side, adjoining the portrait of Anthony da Padua, a number of
+representations of voluptuous Oriental "_odalisques_;" on the other, near
+an engraving in copper of Carlo Barromeo, all sorts of obscene engravings,
+such as are offered for sale only in the most abandoned quarters of Paris
+and London, and then under the cover of night. For that matter, we believe
+that the Hindoo priests, who superintended the erection of this hall
+consecrated to the worship of Vishnù, gave themselves less anxiety
+respecting the subjects treated of in the pictures suspended round, than
+that the walls should appear richly decorated with engravings and
+pictures. Adjoining this half-open dancing booth for the women in
+attendance on the temple, rises the chief Hindoo temple in Madras, a
+stately edifice of blocks of syenite, and surrounded by a lofty wall
+painted with the usual white and red streaks; and on which a fleecy-coated
+long-tailed baboon was performing his antics. Two gloomy pyramidal towers
+shoot up from the wall of the temple, and a beautiful colonnade leads to
+the entrance porch. A huge tank, almost resembling a pond, in which the
+Hindoos thrice daily performed their ceremonies, and went through their
+ablutions, lies in front of the temple, surrounded on its remaining sides
+by buildings for various purposes, while a stately elephant, specially
+consecrated to the service, is kept on the side next the temple, which
+carries up a pitcher of water every forenoon from the pool in front of the
+pagoda, one of the servants attached to the temple sitting on his back
+holding it, while a second, seated behind him, keeps waving a fan in
+either hand. The elephant is first conducted round the temple and then
+inside, in order to present the water to the god. This elephant (which
+animal it seems is itself an incarnation of Vishnù) had the distinguishing
+mark of the sect, as also several other indications of a similar nature
+richly tatooed upon his huge broad forehead. Every evening during the
+continuance of the fourteen days' festival, the various temples and
+dancing booths were brilliantly illuminated with wax tapers and oil lamps,
+but admission was refused to the profane, and in the eyes of Brahmah,
+unbelieving Europeans, a rule which was everywhere enforced with much
+politeness but unvarying firmness. Moreover, everything that the hand of a
+European has touched is unclean to the Hindoo. Only the _Pariah_, or
+"outcaste," the very lowest class of the people, eats any food that has
+been prepared in the kitchen of a Christian.
+
+The most substantial part of the festival, however, was fortunately not
+confined to the interior of the temple, but took place in the streets,
+through which, during the period the festival lasted, immense processions
+of Hindoos, praying, singing, and dancing, used to pass every evening
+about 11 P.M. on their way from one temple to another, so that we were in
+no want of picturesque objects. First, a band of musicians would lead the
+way, with the peculiar little drum or tom-tom, whining pipes, and blaring
+clarinets. It was more like the noise of a lot of children's instruments
+than music. Next came a Hindoo riding on a gaily-bedizened ox, after whom
+appeared a number of girls and "_Bayadères_," dressed in white clothes,
+their hair richly dressed, and with rings through their nostrils, while
+the flaps of their ears were adorned with richly-gemmed ear-rings hanging
+down to the neck, and moving both hands and feet as they danced before the
+sacred figure, which was drawn along by 24 sturdy believers in Vishnù. The
+image was placed on a daïs thickly overspread with flowers, filagree work,
+and small mirrors, approached by steps, and with a parasol outspread
+overhead; in a vehicle in front was a sort of figure dressed up in
+flowers. On either side a multitude of torch-bearers strode along, with
+sulphurous lights and other means of illumination, or iron frames, on
+which were disposed in pyramidal form or like a bow, from 7 to 13
+fireballs, which, let off at intervals alternately with Bengal lights and
+rockets, formed a veritable ocean of light. A tub filled with cocoa-nut
+oil was dragged behind, from which the cotton wicks were kept constantly
+replenished, so that the flames continued unintermittently. Wherever the
+procession passed the by-standers stood with hands reverentially folded.
+Many had the thresholds of their houses gaily adorned with flags and
+illuminated with paper lamps, others let off sky-rockets. From time to
+time, the procession halted for a moment, the female dancers formed two
+rows, and some of their number went through a sort of dance, in which they
+performed a set of stereotyped motions with their hands, and chanted the
+praises of the god in a most monotonous chorus. Thousands upon thousands
+of Hindoos joined the procession, so that we could hardly make way through
+the crowds. The yelling, heat, odour of oil, and stink of sulphur were
+absolutely intolerable. As often as the procession paused, the noise was
+redoubled, the confusion became tenfold. Itinerant confectioners, who
+offered for sale all sorts of sweetmeats, prepared either from the kernel
+or milk of the cocoa-nut, drew back reluctantly when the eye of a stranger
+was directed towards their piled-up delicacies, through dread lest a mere
+glance from him should blight their stock in trade. On the other hand, we
+remarked some of these vendors pressing forward with eagerness to satisfy
+the curiosity of strangers by offering small samples of their eatables, so
+as the more easily to propitiate and get rid of these dangerous guests,
+and leave the poor Hindoo in peace and unharmed! As Christianity makes but
+slow progress among the Hindoos, and as the tendencies of the English
+residents in India do not point, as of yore among the Spaniards in
+America, towards the violent conversion of the heathen natives with the
+alternative of annihilation, but rather towards political and commercial
+influences, we find the British Government regarding with placid
+indifference the abominations of Hindoo worship, which, even to this hour,
+take the form of laceration of the flesh and self-immolation, rather than,
+by ruling with the strong hand, fan the religious fanaticism of the
+multitude, without the possibility of Christianity becoming a gainer.
+Among the thousands upon thousands who were celebrating the festival of
+Vishnù in such a heathenish fashion, there undoubtedly were many who are
+in the employ of Government, which has no scruples about appointing
+Hindoos of all sorts to the various posts in the public service. The
+English State Church which held that such appointments tended, not very
+indirectly, to support heathenism,[102] earnestly remonstrated against the
+practice, but the Government becoming daily more convinced that the
+doctrines and homilies of the Christian faith continued to be entirely a
+dead letter among the Hindoos, seems to hold fast to a policy of seeking
+gradually to introduce Christianity and European civilization among the
+Indian races, by means of equality of rights and assimilation of laws, by
+a system of well-organized national, trade, and industrial education, and,
+above all, by the influence of personal example. This, to be sure, is a
+very slow and arduous method of conversion, inasmuch as a life of
+religious observances is more deeply intertwined with the very foundations
+of the social system in India than in any other country of the globe, and
+fairly blocks the way against the expansiveness of European civilization.
+For as simple as the Hindoo religion appears in its primitive principles,
+the proper observance of its various rites is proportionately difficult,
+and full of subtle distinctions for the sincere Hindoo believer.
+
+[Footnote 102: The East India Company even undertook the maintenance of the
+Hindoo temples, and defrayed the receipts of the annual festival in honour
+of Vishnù out of the revenues. There exist in the Presidency of Madras
+alone 8292 Hindoo temples, with an annual revenue of about £100,000, all
+under the protection and control of the Company. (See "India, Ancient and
+Modern," by David O. Allen, Boston, 1856.)]
+
+The worship of Brahma, according to the doctrines enunciated by Brahma's
+own lips in the Vedas, or holy books, took its rise in the adoration paid
+to the powers of nature, regarded as so many divinities, especially in the
+exalted transcendentalism of their ideas respecting the sun, the moon, the
+stars, and the firmament. Thence was readily developed the belief in a
+sole, eternal, Almighty Creator and Ruler of the world, Brahma,
+represented as having four faces looking to the four quarters of the
+globe, and reposing on a swan. This simple monotheistic belief was
+gradually developed into the divine manifestation of Brahma as a Triune
+divinity, namely, as the Creating power (Brahma), the preserving power
+(Vishnù), and the destroying, and at the same time renewing, energy of
+nature (Siva).
+
+Although the revelation of Brahma has long since been completed, while
+Vishnù and Siva are still active agencies in the world as Supporter and
+Augmenter respectively, Brahma is assigned a very inferior rank in the
+worship of the masses, although, according to the lawgiver Menù, the Moses
+of India, he created the Brahmins out of the substance of his head, to
+guide and instruct man; from his arms the Chetriyas, to protect and defend
+him; from his trunk the Veisigas, to nourish and support him; and, lastly,
+from his feet the Sadras, to serve and be the property of all the other
+castes.
+
+To Brahma, the fulness of whose existence no earthly notions can embrace,
+there are no temples dedicated, these being rather erected in honour of
+Vishnù, the Intercessor and Supporter, who manifests himself in the
+atmosphere and in water, and Siva the destroyer and regenerator of the
+various races, as also to the other divinities whom the Hindoo religion
+numbers by millions, although the majority of these have several names,
+and the lower classes are simply Avatars, that is incarnations or
+manifestations, of the superior deities. This peculiarity of the Hindoo
+religion makes it impossible correctly to classify or define Indian
+mythology. The god Rama, for example, is frequently named for Krishna, and
+the latter again for Vishnù. Vishnù, on his part, sometimes figures as
+Rama, when he is to destroy Ravana, the tyrant of Ceylon, or as Buddha, in
+order to found Buddhism. Like the Proteus of Grecian fable, the Hindoo
+mythology assumes a thousand different shapes,--it is, in short, Pantheism
+in its most perfect development.
+
+A zealous Hindoo requires about four hours of each day to get through his
+religious ceremonies, these being performed at different periods, as he
+must bathe in the morning, at noon, and again at night, in a tank or pool
+before the temple, and recite certain prayers. For purposes of
+recognition, the two chief castes wear special marks, the worshippers of
+Vishnù having a trident painted on the forehead in either white or yellow,
+while those of Siva, on the other hand, sport three horizontal stripes, or
+one round spot marked with the ash of burnt sandal-wood. Many Hindoos
+write on their foreheads the distinguishing insignia of both Vishnù and
+Siva, and look thus the more strange and peculiar.
+
+After every ablution these marks are painted afresh, and with much care
+upon the forehead, so that paint and rouge-boxes play an important part in
+a native household. No Hindoo can partake of his exclusively vegetable
+nutriment, if cooked in a European kitchen, such being entirely contrary
+to the principles of his faith. Every servant, therefore, leaves his
+master regularly at noon, in order to partake of his simple meal of rice
+and vegetables, either with his family or in one of the numerous Hindoo
+cook-shops. The frequent holidays of the Hindoos, of which there are
+twenty-one within two months, seriously interfere with trade among the
+natives, and still more with the instruction of the young.
+
+Hindooism, however, appears to have lost much of its originality by
+constant contact with Europeans, and by the various political revolutions,
+and although many of these ceremonies are still kept up, and the bodies of
+their dead are still burned on pyres, yet the modern Hindoo has so far
+relaxed from his ascetic austerity, as to admit of his being employed in
+the various pursuits of active life. And it is not a little surprising to
+see these handsome, tall, brown figures, with their insignia of Vishnù or
+Siva marked on their foreheads, and dressed in their sweeping plaited
+togas of pure white, employed on the telegraph, the railway, the arsenal,
+and even the observatory, all which employments demand the utmost
+exactness and punctuality, and thus afford the most gratifying evidence of
+the adaptability of the Hindoo race to be impressed and to benefit by
+European civilization. With the exception of Major Jacob, the director of
+the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the whole of the _employés_ are
+natives, who are not indeed employed in making the actual observations,
+but are found perfectly competent to compute the various calculations, and
+make the requisite reductions. The institution itself is at present of but
+little importance as a place of scientific observation, in consequence of
+the small support it receives, but it is to be provided with a meridian
+circle, similar to that in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope,
+when it must become an important station. Strange to say, here, as at the
+Cape, there are no observations made on the Sundays, which in the course
+of a year gives rise to lamentable deficiencies, especially when some
+natural phenomenon of rare occurrence happens to fall upon a Sunday.
+
+We were greatly surprised at the flourishing condition of the Central
+Museum, with which is united a Zoological Garden, both set on foot in
+1851. In the spacious rooms of this stately edifice are ranged costly
+Indian antiquities and sculptures, inscriptions in Sanscrit, in stone, or
+marble slabs, antique fragments of Indian monuments,[103] as also an
+instructive collection of technical and ethnographical subjects, models of
+fortresses, ships, agricultural implements, instruments, tools, machines,
+and native forts. The geological department of the Museum is the weakest
+and poorest department; and as spirits of wine and glass jars are
+expensive articles in India, the greatest number of the animals, even the
+fish and snakes, are simply stuffed. In the garden which surrounds the
+museum buildings are a considerable number of cages inclosing living
+animals, such as monkeys, panthers, bears, giraffes, stags, gazelles,
+cobras, Indian hens, pigeons, marsh-birds, and singing-birds. In addition
+there were _Aquaria_ with fishes arranged in groups at various spots all
+round the garden. Of objects of special interest there was a powerful
+baboon (_Pithecus Satyrus_), above 5 feet high, fastened to a chain in a
+large monkey-house, around whom were gambolling a number of smaller
+species, as also a number of cobras in a large box with glass sides, so
+that one could examine them at leisure on every side. Here we witnessed
+the uncomfortable spectacle of a native engaged in cleaning the panes
+inside the cage and directly beneath these formidable animals, which
+thronged around him in such numbers that he was continually compelled with
+one hand to resist their importunate caresses. Anyone not aware of the
+fact that these animals have been rendered harmless by the extraction of
+their poison-fangs, must experience a feeling of terror and astonishment
+at the sight of this brood of malign, stealthy-moving, hissing serpents,
+with a naked Hindoo in their midst!
+
+[Footnote 103: These important inscriptions are explained and described in
+the Selections from the Records of the Madras Government, Report on the
+Elliot Marbles (p. 191) by R. W. Taylor, Madras, 1857.]
+
+Most astonishing and gratifying is the immense number of casual visitors
+that frequent this institution for advancing education. The book for
+inscribing names lying in the Museum, showed for a single month no less
+than 36,522 visitors, mostly natives, and this it seems has been about the
+average number since the foundation of the Museum. There is also a small,
+valuable library, which, by means of purchases, gifts, and exchanges, is
+being visibly added to with each year, and is accessible to visitors of
+all classes, the custodian and inspectors being all natives.
+
+The Madras Literary Society, an offshoot of the Royal Asiatic Society in
+London, and now reckoning but a small number of associates, publishes from
+time to time the most valuable information as to the latest achievements
+of science in India, and serves in a measure as a medium by which to
+compare the intellectual progress of Asia and Europe. To the members of
+this society the naturalists of the _Novara_ Expedition are specially
+beholden for their great attention during their stay in Madras, as also
+for their hearty participation in the objects of the Imperial Expedition
+as evidenced by their sending copies of their own various and useful
+publications.
+
+There are in Madras numerous institutes devoted to the diffusion of useful
+knowledge among the masses, part founded and maintained by Government,
+part by private enterprise, and this liberality is the more praiseworthy
+that the European community of Madras does not comprise much more than
+1600 persons, of whom only a very few settle any length of time. The
+Europeans resident here are chiefly military men and merchants, who leave
+the country after remaining five or ten years, as almost every one regards
+his stay in this hot, sandy capital of the desert Coromandel coast, as
+purely provisional, and views it as a stepping-stone towards attaining
+some better post, or becoming suddenly wealthy by some favourable
+conjuncture of circumstances. That the majority of these institutions have
+more practical objects in view admits of ready proof, and is but one
+instance the more of the moulding power of surrounding circumstances. In
+the school of arts for instance, under Dr. Hunter's superintendence, there
+are 20 pupils, mostly Hindoos, who are receiving instruction in drawing,
+sculpture, lithography, woodcutting, etching, and photography. But in
+order to reduce, as far as possible, the expenses of this institution,
+there is also included a manufacture of earthenware, the proceeds arising
+from the sale of which are applied to the support of the school.
+
+Another eminently useful institution, the Medical College, which, as well
+as most of the other professional foundations, we visited in the company
+with our hospitable and influential friend, Dr. Kelly, possesses one
+division, in which such of the natives as purpose to set up as
+apothecaries, are at the same time so far educated as to be able, in case
+of necessity, to perform a few of the minor surgical operations. Of the
+hundred of an auditory who at the period of our visit were attending a
+lecture on chemistry, the majority were half-blooded Indians, dressed in
+the European fashion, with a sprinkling of barely 9 or 10 Hindoos in their
+white robes, and with the Vishnù or Siva marks on their forehead. We
+frequently heard the professors, among whom are several gentlemen of high
+scientific attainments, such, for instance, as Messrs. Evans, Lorimer,
+Mudge, Montgomery, Mayr, &c., express their regret at the severe check
+which the development of science sustained by the outbreak of the late
+revolt. Plans for a new university, a hospital, and a medical school to
+correspond are all ready, and but for that ruinous catastrophe would have
+been by this time in working order.
+
+In other respects the present Infirmary is an ugly and unsuitable
+building, making up about 100 beds for patients. Several of these were
+occupied by soldiers, who had been severely wounded under Havelock at the
+storming of Delhi. The introduction of punkahs, or wind-fans, into the
+wards has proved so salutary, that there is an intention to have them
+worked without intermission day and night, by means of water power,
+instead of by manual labour as hitherto. In order to be able to estimate
+the boon conferred by such an improvement upon the condition of the poor
+invalids, we must call to mind that the average annual temperature of
+Madras is about 94° Fahr., which is slightly in excess of the average
+temperature at the equator, although Madras is 10 degrees north of the
+line. Under such climatic conditions, it is no wonder that the
+invigorating wholesome breeze is known at Madras as "The Doctor."
+
+Among the benevolent institutions visited by us, we found the twin asylums
+for male and female orphans of soldiers well worthy of notice in many
+particulars. These are for the most part the offspring of European
+soldiers married to native women, and are known as "half-castes," or
+"Mestizoes." In the Military Female Asylum, there were at this time 216
+girls, who were brought up to all manner of female work, as well as taught
+reading, writing, and arithmetic, and remained in the institution until
+suitably provided for in marriage. The marriage outfit, as also a small
+wedding present of Rs. 50 (£5), for each girl is provided by Government,
+and the entire working expenses, which amount to about Rs. 30,000 (£3000)
+annually, are defrayed by a Government grant of Rs. 1000 (£100) a month,
+together with the interest of the funded capital, upon which Government
+pays 8 per cent. interest.
+
+The Military Male Orphan Asylum was founded in 1788 by means of voluntary
+contributions, supplemented by a Government Subvention, and possesses a
+special historical interest from the circumstance that it was here that
+Dr. Bell, who held the post of Head-Master in the establishment, first
+projected and put into execution the method of imparting elementary
+instruction, afterwards so widely renowned as the Lancastrian method of
+teaching, which since that period has traversed the globe, and has been
+introduced into every capital in Europe. The course of instruction of the
+institution includes writing, reading, arithmetic, grammar, geography,
+history, English, Tamil, and music. The capital of the institution is
+vested by Government in the 4 per cent. stocks, paying 8 per cent.
+interest, which, with the large amount realized within the establishment
+itself, is sufficient to defray all expenses without any further
+assistance. The number of boys is about 242. The head teacher, who
+obligingly conducted us over the whole establishment, which is very
+handsome, called a dozen boys forward just as we were leaving, who played
+a few simple pieces on wind instruments, on which they performed a variety
+of national airs with great precision. The music master was a German.
+
+Among its casual attractions, Madras has occasionally flower shows, and
+exhibitions of industry, and it is exceedingly gratifying to observe how
+European science is even here called in to elicit the treasures of nature,
+and administer to the necessities of mankind. The catalogue of the
+industrial exhibition of 1857 shows, _inter alia_, 17 sorts of spices, 20
+varieties of resin, 64 plants suitable for the distillation of oil, and 41
+different drugs, and Dr. Kirkpatrick, a physician in Mysore, has taken the
+trouble to enumerate, by their botanical and Indian names, 240 native
+drugs, which had been sent to the Madras exhibition, as also their market
+value, and at the same time has subjoined the modes in which the natives
+use them.
+
+Among the most remarkable private museums which have been formed at
+Madras for the illustration of the history and monuments of the southern
+provinces of the Deccan, must undoubtedly be included the collection of
+native inscriptions and manuscripts of the well-known Colonel Mackenzie,
+which first attracted the attention of all friends of Oriental science, as
+also the British Government, through a memoir[104] of Alexander Johnston,
+Esq. It is a magnificent testimony to the conservative spirit of the
+British resident among heathen nations, as compared with the barbarous
+spirit of destruction that characterized the Spanish colonists. From an
+erroneous idea that they were in so doing promoting the interests of
+Christianity, these Romanist conquerors destroyed all sculptures and
+monuments of the pagan Indian races, and, by this fanatical Vandalism, at
+the same time prevented the hand of science from unfolding, as it might
+have done from these important vestiges, the history of these very
+remarkable races from the most remote ages.
+
+[Footnote 104: On Colonel Mackenzie's Collection, in the Journal of the
+Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain. London, 1835, p. 4, vol. ii.]
+
+In the immense old palace, surrounded by adjacent edifices and gardens,
+once occupied by the King of the Coromandel coast, the renowned nabob of
+the Carnatic, the offices of the English Government _employés_ are at
+present located. The last of these sovereigns died a few years since, and
+his former minister receives from the British Government a pension of Rs.
+1300 (£130) a month. Great men who have fallen do not ordinarily like to
+be sought out or gazed at. There is, however, on the contrary, no
+difficulty in obtaining access to the last minister of the last monarch of
+the Coromandel coast, who seems to feel flattered by a visit from
+strangers. On our entering, the venerable old gentleman rose from a rich
+thick carpet, on which he was sitting cross-legged, held out his hand in
+the most affable manner, and did us the honour of accompanying us through
+the palace. He had a long white beard, and wore a white turban on his
+head, while his person was enveloped in white linen. A splendid staircase
+conducted to a council-room, adorned with a portrait of the late nabob,
+life-size, executed in London. A second room has a likeness of George
+Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, dedicated to his friend,
+Omadal-Omrah, nabob of the Carnatic, 1st January, 1797, and of Lord
+Cornwallis, arm in arm with a nabob, the former represented as walking
+among pines, the latter among palms. In the harness-room and coach-house
+adjoining, our obliging attendant revealed to us an endless array of
+golden howdah trappings, gilt with cunning hand, which seemed to have
+formerly borne the mighty nabob, when riding on his elephant. As we
+emerged from this lumber room, filled with dust and mud, we perceived in
+the square before us an immense dust-cloud, which approached nearer and
+nearer in its gyrations, and gradually assumed the shape of an elephant.
+It was a gigantic and magnificent specimen, and proved to be the favourite
+elephant of the last nabob, which, like the minister himself, was reduced
+to eat the bread of charity. His enormous tusks were sawn half off, for
+which his attendant assigned the singular reason that the tusks of an
+elephant must be cut, just as we pair our nails! This pensioner-elephant,
+however, seemed to find himself in very good quarters, and was a
+carefully-tended gentle creature, who carried about his chain with his
+proboscis, and knelt down at the word of command.
+
+Among the other spacious apartments of this deserted palace was the
+banquetting hall, as it is called, which was represented by various
+writers as one of the largest rooms in the world, which, however, is a
+transparent fallacy. It is hard to believe that above a thousand persons
+could find room in it. At the period of our visit this apartment was used
+as a barrack for the English troops, in consequence of which the splendid
+full-length pictures already mentioned were carefully covered. One of the
+soldiers, anxious to show them to us, tore away the covering of one before
+we could interfere, when we found it to be a splendid likeness, painted in
+London, of Sir Thomas Monroe, a former governor of Madras.
+
+In the first few days of our stay in Madras, we made an excursion to the
+fort of Vellore, distant about 80 miles (English) from Madras, formerly a
+renowned native fort, which is now reached in a few hours by rail. This
+line passes through a flat uninteresting country, which is barely relieved
+here and there by a couple of solitary palms or a Hindoo temple, and
+altogether presents a strongly African character in its scenery. Only at
+those points, at which there are tanks, or artificial basins, either
+excavated or formed by damming the water, does there occur a luxuriant
+green vegetation covering the parched, brown, dusty soil. These tanks are
+filled in the rainy season, and during the dry season, which continues for
+months, supply the rice-fields with water for irrigation, the culture of
+that plant requiring an unusually large supply of water.
+
+If English railroads are proverbially comfortable in the mother-country,
+they certainly fall off lamentably in that particular in the cars used in
+India. This deficiency is the more provoking and remarkable, considering
+the various other appliances for comfort which are to be found in this
+country. The conductor, as well as the other servants of the Company, was
+a Hindoo. On the entire line we saw but five or six white men employed.
+The fares are pretty moderate, that for the entire distance, 80 miles,
+being Rupees 7-1/2 (15_s._), for first-class, and Rupees 3 (6_s._), second
+(about 2-1/4_d._ and 1_d._ per mile, respectively). The line is to be
+extended from Bejapoor, so as to unite the eastern and western coasts of
+the peninsula. There are also lines projected from Madras to Bombay by
+Poonah and Bellary, and from Madras to Calcutta. The Governor, who (the
+evening previous to our departure, as we were being entertained at his
+summer residence, Guindy Park,) had been apprized of our intention to
+visit Vellore, was so attentive as to order the commandant to be informed
+by telegraph of our projected excursion at a late hour of the evening,
+and when we reached Vellore at 11 A.M., Captain Stevens was awaiting us at
+the station, to greet the voyagers by the _Novara_ in the name of the
+commandant of the fort, and convey them to the fort, three miles off, in a
+waggon drawn by oxen, as is the custom of the country. The waggon was
+about as large as an ordinary sized sitting-room, and contained several
+arm-chairs and cane stools, the position of which could be altered at
+pleasure.
+
+Vellore was once one of the strongest fortresses in India, the wells of
+which were formerly rendered inaccessible by numerous colonies of
+alligators. These Hindoo fortifications have, however, lost their military
+importance for Europeans, as they are on all sides "overcrowed," as
+Rittmeister Dugald Dalgetty would say, by eminences, from which they could
+easily be cannonaded. Within the fort itself are several extraordinary
+buildings, once pagodas and houses of entertainment for priests and
+pilgrims (_choultries_). The former sanctuary, now used as an arsenal, is
+a _chef-d'[oe]uvre_ of architectural skill, with splendid _relievos_ and
+figures sculptured in granite blocks. Most of the divinities have four
+arms, symbolical of the universality of their power. The various edifices
+seem to have been once an abode of Brahmins, a sort of Hindoo monastery in
+which, in addition to the pagoda, there were ranged all round, a temple,
+colonnades, and halls for the residence of the priests. In some of the
+smaller apartments there still are openings for windows, with a finely
+carved grating hewn out of the solid granite, the workmanship of which
+even the stone-cutters of our own days might feel proud of. Captain
+Mitchell, an English officer stationed at Madras, had hit upon the idea of
+photographing the most interesting of these monuments.
+
+The fortress of Vellore has been fortified for about 1000 years! Captured
+by the English at the close of the last century, the then Nabob, a
+Mussulman, was taken prisoner, and his descendants have ever since
+inhabited the fort as State prisoners, without ever being permitted to
+leave it. We inquired of the officer who accompanied us, whether the Nabob
+was permitted at least to make use of the space within the fortress for
+exercise in the open air. "The Mussulmen," replied the cautious
+Englishman, "do not care to show themselves in public; they prefer taking
+their exercise in the court in front of their residence, or in the
+garden." Accordingly, the aged prince is rarely known even to take an
+airing in a palanquin. The town of Vellore itself is, in a great measure,
+another place altogether, whose inhabitants are Mahometans, about 80,000
+in number, chiefly engaged in rice culture.
+
+We originally intended to return the same day to Madras, the length of the
+journey, as well as the distance of the fort from the railway station,
+having been represented to us as much shorter than was actually the case.
+Accordingly, we telegraphed to the Austrian Consul, M. Campbell, Esq., an
+exceedingly courteous gentleman, that we should not return till the
+following morning. How great was our astonishment to find that the
+telegraph _employés_ at Vellore, both in the transcribing department, and
+in the management of the apparatus, which was on Morse's system, were
+Hindoos, with their curious marks upon their foreheads, and their
+old-fashioned costume! They went, however, through the duties connected
+with this modern invention with great adroitness. The telegraph is already
+in operation to Bombay, and in this direction has two separate lines.
+There are, moreover, other lines in course of construction,--along the
+coast to Calcutta,--along the coast to Pondicherry by Adam's Bridge,[105]
+from Madras to Point de Galle, and from Madras to Hyderabad, Bangalore,
+and Bellary.
+
+[Footnote 105: Adam's Bridge--called by the Hindoos Rama's Bridge,--is a
+bank extending between Ceylon and the mainland of Hindostan, by the
+islands of Manaar and Ramisseram. It is about 30 miles in length, running
+in a N.W. by W. direction, about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and
+principally composed of shelving sand, through which are three main
+openings or channels, that admit the passage of boats of very light
+draught.]
+
+In proceeding from the fort to the town of Vellore, which is charmingly
+situated and regularly laid out, and is inhabited by numerous pensioners
+of the East India Company, we must cross the river Palaar (or Peliar),
+which, during the rainy season, is a headlong dangerous torrent, while in
+the dry season its bed, 1000 feet wide, is but a bare expanse of sand. It
+is only by dint of strenuous exertions that the traveller is able to pass
+this sand waste in a waggon, as it sinks at some points above the hubs of
+the wheels. We had four buffalo oxen yoked, and even then had to be
+propelled at certain points by the assistance of some 30 coolies or Indian
+porters besides. This serious inconvenience was shortly after our visit to
+be remedied by the erection of a splendid bridge of solid masonry, which
+was to span the river by 42 arches, and will reduce the time of transit
+from the station from 1-1/4 hour to 20 minutes. Hereabouts oxen are
+usually employed for draught, which are of the same humped species as
+those we had previously seen in Ceylon. These animals trot with uncommon
+swiftness, so that the rapidity of transport may stand comparison with
+that where horses are employed.
+
+A few miles distant from Vellore, and visible from the hills around, lies
+Arcot (Arucati), the residence of the nominal nabob of the Carnatic, who
+has long been a pensioner of the British. The population of Arcot are
+mostly Mahometans, who speak a dialect of Hindustani, and drive a very
+active trade.
+
+At Vellore we resided in the house of the hospitable Lieut.-Colonel
+McCally, who, in the absence of the Commandant, did the honours of the
+Fort to the members of the _Novara_ Expedition. Here we experienced a most
+cordial reception, and passed a few most delightful hours in the domestic
+circle of his amiable family. In the evening we made out an excursion to
+an adjoining eminence, 1400 feet above sea-level, 300 above Vellore, from
+which there is a commanding view over the town and neighbourhood. Seen
+from this point, the Fort looked charming, presenting itself to us,
+surrounded as it is by moats and watercourses, like an island in the
+foreground. On the top of this hill is the bungalow or country-seat of the
+collector of revenue, W. A. Sulivan, Esq., where we revelled in the
+enjoyment of the exquisite natural scenery, and partook of refreshment.
+
+In the evening a number of officers, with their wives, met us at dinner at
+Lieut.-Colonel McCally's house. The gaieties were prolonged till far in
+the evening, music and songs alternating with round games and dancing, so
+that we had hardly composed ourselves to sleep ere we were awakened by the
+servants, in order to avoid missing the train, which leaves Vellore for
+Madras at 6.30 A.M. By 11 A.M., we were once more in the chief city of the
+Carnatic.
+
+The same afternoon the officers of the _Novara_, and the naturalists of
+the Expedition, were invited to an Indian fête, which Lord Harris gave
+every year at this season in his palace at Guindy Park, and to which it
+was customary to invite the majority of the European residents at Madras,
+together with their families,--military, civil service, and mercantile
+community, all being honoured with cards. This festival originated in a
+children's entertainment, which the governor had been in the habit of
+giving on the birthday of his son; the latter had long since gone to an
+English University, but the custom had survived, and the day was equally
+carefully observed this year also, having been looked forward to for
+months before by the "white" young folks of Madras. The entertainment
+still retains the character of a children's party, inasmuch as on the
+present occasion there were assembled above 250 children of both sexes,
+varying from 5 to 12 years of age. The total number of guests who, in
+addition to these, shared in the festivities was probably more than a
+thousand. The fête began with the performances of some 30 Indian jugglers
+and acrobats, on a large lawn in the park. These, as may be conceived, had
+been selected from among the most athletic and skilful. They presented a
+singularly-picturesque appearance, from the diversities of age, agile
+boys, athletic young men, slender voluptuous-looking _Bayadères_, old
+grey-headed men, and marvellous-looking old hags, with streaming white
+hair, and dark, piercing, gleaming eyes, recalling in their manners and
+appearance our own gipsies. All played at once, and performed with the
+most astonishing precision a succession of breakneck feats, that set the
+spectator's hair on end. It was a spectacle entirely _sui generis_,
+thoroughly Indian in short, to behold these wild-looking brown figures,
+unawed by the presence they were in, going through their various
+performances and feats of agility. In front of us knelt an old man who
+played with a dozen knives, which he kept circling around him with wild
+yells, apparently without looking at them, till he finally turned them in
+such a manner that it seemed as though the sharp points of the knives had
+transfixed his hand. Next youthful acrobats sprang through paper balloons
+set on fire,--girls in boys' dresses climbed up bamboo poles 100 feet
+high, in the midst of continual yells,--boys executed on the damp meadow
+ground the most extraordinary feats of agility and contortions of the
+limbs, while one old fellow, to the intense astonishment of the assembled
+children, swallowed swords, as also tow and other combustible matter,
+whereupon flames presently seemed to issue from his month. These, indeed,
+are feats of conjuring which have been performed in Europe, _usque ad
+nauseam_, but here all was done with such precision and dexterity (each
+man especially playing entirely _con amore_, evidently not to impress the
+spectators, but because he felt a pleasure in it himself), that the whole
+exhibition left quite a different impression from anything of the sort
+elsewhere.
+
+After this introductory amusement, the children invited were regaled with
+a refection under an enormous tent. This was for the grown-up guests
+another source of great amusement. More than 300 children took their seats
+at a long well-covered table, while their fathers, mothers, governesses,
+&c., stood behind the benches, and took special care to supply the little
+watering mouths with a sufficient supply of the many delicacies before
+them.
+
+A distribution of souvenirs to the various children present succeeded the
+repast, the various articles being fastened to a gigantic tree under a
+tent. The tree was profusely hung with elegant paper lamps, and although
+there were no pine-branches, only palm leaves, the "_tout ensemble_," bore
+a strong resemblance to a genuine Christmas tree. Fathers and mothers
+expressed to us their own feelings of pleasure at beholding the glee of
+their children, and, indeed, seemed to think this the most entertaining
+part of the fête. The distribution lasted a considerable time, and many of
+the children affected to coquette disparagingly with the presents of
+their neighbours, which these latter held fast with both hands, till at
+length the whole joyous train were dismissed homewards, thoroughly pleased
+with the day's proceedings.
+
+After this interlude there were fireworks on the lawn for the grown-up
+children, which seemed intended to serve merely as a stop-gap to while
+away the time between the distribution of the presents to the children and
+the supper, which was laid out in the brilliantly-illuminated dining-room
+of the palace. The fine band, which a few days previously had so pleased
+us by its performances during dinner at Guindy Park, drew up on the large
+lawn fronting the ball-room, and during this interval played a few select
+pieces with admirable precision. At last, supper was announced by a
+flourish of trumpets. Despite the spacious proportions of the apartment,
+the company was too numerous to admit of all sitting down at once. We
+calculated the number of guests still remaining at at least 500. The
+ladies supped first, and afterwards the gentlemen--the Governor, Lord
+Harris, doing the honours in person, in the most courteous and kindly
+manner. After supper the party proceeded in couples to a splendid
+ball-room, where dancing speedily began, while over their heads an
+omnipresent punkah, of rich tapestry-paper, and elegantly adorned with
+beautiful arabesques, swung to and fro, and kept the half-breathless
+dancers continually fanned by its currents of air.[106] In spite, however,
+of this artificial ventilating machine overhead, one must have had an
+extraordinary love for the dance to find pleasure in a polka or galop at a
+temperature of 86° of Fahrenheit.
+
+[Footnote 106: In many English families in India there prevails a sort of
+punkah mania, so that there is a regular hurricane incessantly blowing
+over their heads. Undoubtedly these artificial gales are particularly
+agreeable in apartments where, a large number of persons being assembled,
+the atmosphere becomes intolerable--as, for instance, courts of justice,
+churches, hotels, and hospitals. Under such circumstances, they are,
+indeed, a most valuable contrivance. But their application is entirely
+overdone; and there are persons who, even while they are sleeping, have a
+Hindoo servant continually working the punkah, which, under such
+circumstances, is usually worked from an adjoining room by means of silken
+cords, so that the motive power is not visible from the apartment, but
+only the effect felt. Strangers at first find these artificial currents
+very apt to superinduce headache, until continued residence makes him
+regard the punkah as a most necessary article of furniture.]
+
+Lord Harris had taken measures for ensuring our proceeding direct from his
+residence in Guindy Park upon the favourite excursion from Madras--that,
+namely, to the Seven Pagodas. We had accordingly provided ourselves with
+only what was indispensable in the way of luggage; and towards 1 A.M., we
+left the ball-room, and proceeded on our way to the renowned Hindoo
+Temples to the south of Madras. A waggon conveyed us to the Adyar bridge,
+where a Government boat was in waiting for us, together with some Hindoo
+servants of the Governor, who were to be our guides to the Seven Pagodas.
+One of these _peons_, as they are called in India, named Iritschapa,
+presented us with a document, in which he was commissioned to place
+himself at our disposal during the whole period we were absent, and
+anticipate all our requirements without further authorization, to the best
+of his ability, so as to ensure our comfort and assist the objects we had
+in view. The Government boat was supplied with everything that could
+minister to our comfort, a second boat following us exclusively for the
+conveyance of our heavy baggage, personal effects, tents, and provisions.
+Towards 2 A.M., we embarked on the Eastern Coast Canal, which goes as far
+as Sadras, and by which we reached the Seven Pagodas, called also
+Mahamalaipuram, the city of the Great or Holy Mountain, at 9 A.M.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOLY MOUNTAIN.]
+
+These singular and majestic specimens of architecture are about 3 miles
+from Sadras, being situated on the coast northwards, and about 500 paces
+from the canal. They consist of temples, grottoes, bas-reliefs, cisterns,
+stone-benches, and thousands of sculptures in long ranges of bas-reliefs,
+which afford an abundant store of antiquarian research. They go by the
+name of the Seven Pagodas (from _Baghavati_--Holy House, whence the
+European corruption, Pagoda), from the circumstance, that there are, upon
+the very brink of the ocean, seven temples hewn out of one piece of rock.
+The Brahminical legends speak of an entire city having existed here, of
+which only the fragments are now washed by the sea. But, according to
+Babington's and Heber's minute researches in this neighbourhood,[107] there
+seems no doubt that there never existed any large city here, but that the
+whole was a mere myth of the Brahmins, who procured a royal gift, an
+Agrabaram in this neighbourhood, and with subtle forethought left here a
+caste of stone-cutters, who from time to time, under the guidance of their
+priests, executed these sculptures for the adornment of their sanctuary,
+which are justly the objects of wonder to their descendants. To this day,
+even, there dwell here certain families of stone-cutters, who work these
+singular rocks as granite quarries, and make money by the trade. The Seven
+Pagodas, specially so-called, are monolith temples, hewn on the spot out
+of massive blocks of rock. The mountain itself, a huge block of granite,
+to which the entire locality owes its reputation as a site of works of
+art, is covered, behind as well as in the front slope, with innumerable
+figures.
+
+[Footnote 107: Benjamin Guy Babington. An Account of the Sculptures and
+Inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, illustrated by Plates I.-XVIII., in the
+Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, London, 1819,
+p. 258. Bishop Heber's Narrative, London, 1828, Vol. III., p. 216.]
+
+After our arrival, we made a hasty circuit through the place, so as first
+of all to be able to identify them, and be in a position to recognize the
+various sculptures and bas-reliefs cut out in the solid granite rock. The
+greater number of the sculptures represent either the one or the other
+descriptions of the Avatars (the incarnations or transfigurations) of
+Vishnù, to whom the larger proportion of the temples is dedicated. In one
+of these temples, we perceived the god Vishnù in the fifth, or Dwarf
+Incarnation, in the course of which he had, under the guise of a
+Brahminical dwarf, begged of King Balitscha-Kravathi--who, by his piety,
+had acquired so much power over the gods, that they had to transfer to him
+the dominion of sea and land, and had in consequence waxed arrogant--as
+much soil as he could traverse in three steps! The wealthy Rajah made no
+objection to complying with the apparently moderate request of the pigmy
+being before him. On the opposite wall of the temple we now see, in a
+large admirably executed bas-relief, how Vishnù, represented on this
+occasion with eight arms, at once embraced heaven and earth with his left
+foot, and as there was thus no more room left for the next step, Vishnù
+released the haughty Rajah from his promise, on condition that he should
+descend to the infernal regions. From this feat, Vishnù bears the name of
+Triwikrama and Tripadas (thrice-stepper).
+
+In the next rock grotto we came to, we beheld the Life of Krishna, the
+shepherd-god, represented, first as tending his sheep, surrounded by cows,
+goats frisking about, &c. Walter Elliot names this representation
+"Krischna's Choultry," or the abode of the priests. The temple has a
+frontage of 50 feet, is from 30 to 40 feet in depth, and has about twenty
+figures.
+
+From this spot, our guide, a Brahmin, brought us to what is called the
+Ganeza Temple, a monolith Pagoda. When we expressed a wish to touch the
+face of Ganeza (a son of Siva), cut in stone and plentifully besmeared
+with oil and lard, one of the Hindoo attendants hurried forwards to
+prevent us from being guilty of insult to this much-beloved divinity. The
+inscription to the right, in front of the niche in which Ganeza, hewn out
+of a single block of granite, is represented in a sitting posture,
+consists of verses and prayers to Siva, written in Sanscrit.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOD GANEZA.]
+
+We also remarked, on our way to the village, an ellipsoidal block of rock,
+68 feet in circumference, by 25 in height, which, from its very peculiar
+position, seems to shift every moment, and presents a very extraordinary
+appearance.
+
+As we were proceeding to the beach, we came upon the Pagoda of
+Kovulgobrom, which is at present in use (first constructed in the days of
+Rajah Apatsch, 400 or 500 years since), situated on a large oblong plot of
+ground, which is surrounded by a wall from 6 to 8 feet high. We were not
+permitted to cross the threshold of the pagoda, the door of which always
+stands wide open, and the minor apartments of which, so far as we could
+discern at a little distance away, were quite empty. We could just descry
+a few sculptures on the walls.
+
+The whole village contains at present about 400 inhabitants,[108] who
+reside in eighty small dwellings. Of these, three, built of bricks and
+with tiled roofs, belong to the caste of Brahmins, thirty to the Pariahs,
+five to families occupied in fishing, and two mere hovels of palm-wood to
+the Willis, the lowest and most wretched caste of all. The families of
+stone-cutters reside outside the village. One remarks here that the walls
+of the houses are hidden by heaps of cow and horse-dung, which the
+inhabitants, as in Egypt, use for fuel, and which they pile up to dry
+against those of the walls which are most exposed to the sun. The _peon_
+of the settlement, by name Randghajaneik, a sort of overseer, gave us a
+drawing of the various groups of houses, their inhabitants, and also the
+names of the various castes in Tamil, engraved as usual with an iron tool
+upon palm-leaves, and very elegantly rolled up in a small envelope. Among
+the customs and fashions of the inhabitants which attracted our notice, we
+were informed that they always burn their dead from four to five hours
+after life has departed--usually four hours and forty minutes--alleging
+that the released soul takes that length of time to reach heaven! The
+bones are collected and thrown into the sea. Widows are no longer
+required, on the death of their husbands, to ascend the pyre with them.
+Accordingly, the mortality upon this score is small enough in
+Mahamalaipuram. All seem hale and hearty, although for the most part they
+live upon rice and fruits, tasting flesh but seldom, as it is never used
+by the Brahmin caste. The Brahmins will not even eat eggs, because they
+are the produce of hens; nor drink milk because it is procured from cows!
+The girls generally marry at thirteen. They are, however, usually
+betrothed from the time they are two or three years of age, the
+bridegroom-elect taking the bride-elect to reside with himself.
+
+[Footnote 108: Of these inhabitants 50 belong to the Brahmin caste, 250 to
+the Malabar, Sentù, and Siva castes, and 100 are Pariahs.]
+
+All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write, but the
+Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite unintelligible to
+them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telùgu, and Malabar. The greater number
+had their foreheads painted according to the caste they belonged to. Those
+worshipping Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver
+amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed. The adherents
+of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no distinguishing mark upon the
+forehead, except that those that are married wear a five-ply cord
+(_panul_), tied obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not,
+however, attach too much faith to these varieties of external markings,
+since many tattoo their foreheads with red, or yellow, or ashen-gray
+punctures, which usually have no special signification, but simply imply
+that on account of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence,
+they have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing insignia
+of their caste properly designed. According to the natives, the yellow
+colour is procured from the crushed, yellow-tinted root of the _Curcuma
+longa_, (a species of spice), the red from the Cardomum (_Amomum repens_),
+citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from common chalk.
+
+[Illustration: BIVOUAC AT MAHAMALAIPURAN.]
+
+Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most admirable
+arrangements for our accommodation while at the Seven Pagodas. When, after
+our first survey of the locality, we came down to the beach, we found two
+large and two small tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected
+round a fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our astonishment,
+on entering the first tent, to find it spread with carpets, with an
+elegant sleeping-apartment with two large commodious bedsteads, and fitted
+up with all the usual necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage
+which ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two immense
+baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate our exhausted frames!
+Ere we had recovered from our surprise, we were advised of the voice of
+the Government Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second
+tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and reception room, and was
+also furnished with every conceivable appliance to promote our comfort.
+His lordship was even so attentive as to send his own travelling canteen
+for our use on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls, with
+a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with blue, by means of
+which the glare of the sun and of the blinding white sand was rendered
+less painful and more tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were
+employed in sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained sand,
+which produced a most refreshing coolness all around. The Government Peon,
+as also the chief of police of the district, wore their best uniforms of
+white, with bran new bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red
+scarves, with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate, with
+the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number of men and children
+ran hither and thither,--in a word, the whole village seemed in an uproar
+to see the strange gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of
+receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 P.M., the thermometer suspended
+within the tent marked 84° Fahr., although a gentle breeze was blowing
+from seaward through the fragrant luxuriant grass (_Kus-kus_, or
+_Vetiveyr_), which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an
+exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant _Kus-kus_, (_Andropogon
+muricatum_) in the manufacture of mats, which are intended to be suspended
+in the entrance-halls of houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon
+the penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine damp
+texture, which thus at once tempers the heat, and fills the air with
+perfume.
+
+Towards 5 P.M., the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled to the Five
+Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our encampment. The prevalent
+tree in this locality is the _Palmyra_ palm, which, though it does not
+boast the majestic proportions of the _Oreodoxia Regia_, or the cocoa-nut
+palm, presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance. Generally
+speaking, however, the district is quite bare and destitute of trees; and,
+in short, like all the rest of this coast, has very much the appearance of
+the flat coasts of Africa.
+
+Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the brothers of
+Vishnù, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and Sawadewen, the fifth being
+excavated in honour of Dubrotis, the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend
+relates that the four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality
+of husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species of Amazon.
+All these temples are tolerably sculptured, which, indeed, constitutes
+their chief claim to attention; but they are far from showing the artistic
+finish of the bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy
+Mount.
+
+Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not the most
+important of these artificial grottoes. The sculptures here are
+incontestably the most highly-finished. The upper portion, to which access
+is obtained by some steps cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite
+block, known as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of one
+piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed allegories.
+
+Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga, Siva's wife,
+riding on a lion (according to the natives, on a tiger), and bending her
+bow in conflict with Mahishasura, a giant with the head of a buffalo, who
+brandishes a club. According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this
+represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and heroine, Donga, the
+representative of active virtue, and the bull-headed Mahishasura, the
+personification of brute strength and animal passion. Over the head of
+either figure, a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread,
+giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.
+
+[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF ON ONE OF THE MONOLITH TEMPLES.]
+
+The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnù
+(Rhanganatha), 9-1/2 feet high, apparently representing the idea of the
+Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five heads, encircles his head.
+At his feet one perceives two rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in
+a praying attitude, with uplifted hands, only the bust being represented.
+In one of the niches at Swami are two busts, life-size, of Siva, and his
+wife Paravathi, the latter holding an infant at the breast, his offspring
+Supramanión. Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from
+the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma, on the left
+Vishnù, each with four arms, symbolical of their power and dominion.
+
+The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of platform of loose
+stones accurately fitted to each other without mortar, so as to make an
+ornamental whole. The interior is adorned with much more highly-finished
+specimens of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing penance,
+annually climb, with great difficulty, into this part of the building, and
+make their way into the unfinished interior apartments. While we were
+giving free scope to our surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed
+in our contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of flowers,
+wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players (_Pulanpolen_) who
+were passing, made their appearance to give us a specimen of their musical
+skill. One old man, of whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnù, neatly
+carved in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there was in
+the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a manuscript, known as the
+_Istálam-purànam_ which gave the history of the Seven Pagodas, written in
+Tamil.
+
+The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter Elliot, who
+formed an extensive collection of the various valuable Hindoo manuscripts
+and inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a
+translation of them,[109] told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil
+Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give one single
+reliable particular as to the history of the Seven Pagodas.
+
+[Footnote 109: Journal of the Madras Literary Society, 1846, Nos. 30 and
+31.]
+
+In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and surrounded by a
+modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on the exterior of the Temple,
+an inscription in Tamil, which is, however, utterly unintelligible to the
+natives. This inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a
+donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and gives the most
+complete detail, together with signature of the donor. The name
+Mahamalaipur,[110] the "City of the Sacred Hill," occurs frequently in it.
+
+[Footnote 110: Dr. Elliot writes Mamallaipuram; the natives call the place
+Mahawalipuram, obviously a mere corruption of the customary mode of
+spelling.]
+
+In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo followers, we
+remarked that they made no difference between a "kovül" or praying-house,
+in which the divinities are never produced, but are guarded under lock and
+key, and a pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they can
+be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it is that a pagoda is
+more readily accessible than a kovül, the sanctity of which it is
+forbidden him to violate.
+
+In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the Brahmins, was
+permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (£3), to break away the partition which
+divided the inscriptions into two portions, in order to prepare three
+copies, and have them translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these
+translators was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The
+inscription contains the history of two donations, on the enlargement and
+laying the foundation-stone of the temple, accomplished by the "Kanattan"
+of the village, and, lastly, a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin
+Paramesvara-Mahavara, on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept
+constantly burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073. It
+results from this interpretation that the inscription was put up towards
+the end of the 11th century, thus supplying some clue to the age of this
+rock temple, which, according to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed
+a thousand years.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO ONE OF THE TEMPLES.]
+
+To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole history, the
+natives wander regularly every morning, and sometimes two or three times
+during the day, to offer flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight
+of steps cut in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is an
+excellent view over these monumental edifices.
+
+That fancy has been called in to invest these unique unfinished sculptures
+with the character of pleasure-grottoes, baths, &c., &c., of historical
+personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the guide does not
+fail to point out to the stranger a sort of stone cistern hewn out of the
+solid rock, traditionally reported to have been once the plunge-bath of
+Dubrotis. This colossal basin has about 2-1/2 feet water during the rainy
+season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use. The water,
+tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves a mark behind on the
+stone sides, which naturally becomes very visible during the dry season.
+This the natives maintain marks the height of the water as often as
+Dubrotis, (Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another similar
+block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch, and is called Dharma
+Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which, near the head, a tiger is crouched
+to guard it. This gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as
+though balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor made to
+oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock piled up above the
+grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so forth. All these spots, however,
+have in reality not the slightest historic significance; it is only the
+present generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions, and
+interpretations, which assuredly never were in the intention of the
+constructors.
+
+On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of sculptures of
+remarkable beauty, representing the history of Tapasa, or the deep
+penitence of Ardschuna. On the right hand, close to the figure of the
+penitent Ardschuna, one perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as
+large as life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half woman
+half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have seen, is a huge
+sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in height, comprising hundreds
+of figures, with an idol in the centre, to which from all sides
+worshipping deities, men, and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory
+attitudes; along the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The
+colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal, tends still
+more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder doubt whether he is looking
+upon sculptures or upon living elephants. Elliot and others who have
+described these rock temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a
+comparatively small antiquity. They are representations borrowed from the
+poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo mythology. The five roundish temples to
+the south of the village are beyond all question the oldest of these
+monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed; solid, and
+here and there showing marks of work, but only adorned externally, the
+interiors being masses of unhewn granite; each of these temples is 30 feet
+in length by 20 in breadth and height. Thus far, the inscriptions have
+been ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are as yet
+undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to decipher them, or at
+all events to find the key by which to decipher them. The most important
+has been copied and interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the
+various representations give the slightest historical clue as to the
+object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to establish the fact,
+that in the 17th century this district was inhabited by the Corumbas, a
+half-civilized race of the Dschaina religion. About this period, or a
+little later, in the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals
+were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced to this
+neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however, their nature, and the
+immense expense incurred, all point to a long-continued influence of the
+Brahmins. Most of these temples seem to have been first erected in the
+17th century, under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several
+even a much later date.
+
+As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old pyramidal
+pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the sea, peering up from amid
+the furious foaming surf, it seems to be altogether a myth, so that such
+enquirers as Ellis, Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo
+traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble of searching
+for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of seeking to recover the ruins of
+the submerged city. Several writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea
+on the Cormandel coast is retiring; but this appears to be a mistake, for
+here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is the case at Fort St. George,
+which 80 years ago was at some distance from the sea-shore, whereas its
+walls are at present washed by the tremendous surf.
+
+But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden and extensive
+as to have swallowed up an entire city, without leaving any traces. Not
+one of the natives to whom we spoke in the place could say for certain,
+that the sea had materially gained upon the land within the memory of man.
+Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a city. One can
+safely assert that there never existed such a city at Mahamalaipuram, but
+that it has always been a mere abode of priests, with temples,
+sanctuaries, &c., without any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan,
+Quirigua, or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more
+artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of the artist.
+The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at Mahamalaipuram is too low, to
+admit of our supposing that since their erection the greater part had been
+swallowed up in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to
+any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they are all
+susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo mythology, with the
+aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata, all referring to Vishnù and his
+world of deities.
+
+While some of the _Novara_ expedition were visiting Mahamalaipuram, others
+made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake, near the shore, northwards from
+Madras. About 40 or 50 miles on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or
+Blue Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the gray horizon
+to the N.W., the height of which may be about 1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow
+bulwark or quay of unequal breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles,
+separates this salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some
+narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters. The lake
+varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about 60 to 70 miles long.
+The level of its bed is so remarkably regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5
+feet, that when the wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be
+pushed along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked inhabitants of
+the coast standing in the very middle of the water, with their landing or
+drag-nets, or busily occupied with rod and line! Being but a few hours
+distant from Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial
+canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets, carefully faced
+with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining land into lagoons, in which
+during the rainy seasons the strongly brackish water enters, and is used
+to make sea-salt.
+
+In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by fishing-boats, as by
+those laden with wood and fruit, which they convey to the city for
+disposal. Most especially remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds,
+which frequent its shores and all around it. At several places where the
+shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere swamps with barely a foot of
+water, they are literally covered with myriads of curlews, which fly
+about in flights of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long
+rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the earth, seeking
+their food in the mud; far as the eye can reach, one saw whole ranks of
+these birds blending with storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in
+the water itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the
+sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in the air. As
+evening came on, the naturalists of the _Novara_ were sailing as though in
+a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish, as they sprang out of the water, left a
+fiery wake behind them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured
+ever-widening circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again.
+Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round the boat,
+united with the singular melancholy cry of the jackal, which resounded
+from the shore, while overhead flights of birds flew restlessly about in
+the air, whirring in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.
+
+From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the artificial canals,
+which unite this basin of water at various points and in different
+directions with the surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta
+Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a sort of
+underwood or brush, which grows again within the extraordinary short space
+of ten to twelve years. _Sisyphus vulgaris_ (_Rhamnea_), _Gardenia Ficus_,
+tamarinds, and several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the
+forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of climbers. The
+wood is cut by the natives, who have constructed huts in the jungle, into
+pieces of about 2 feet in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the
+shore, whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.
+
+When the members of the _Novara_ Expedition had returned, greatly pleased,
+from their various excursions, the Madras Club gave a grand banquet in
+honour of the captain and staff, to which the _élite_ of Madras society
+were invited. Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the
+club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific members of the
+Expedition upon the free list of the club during the ship's stay. The
+Madras Club-house, though not so luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of
+London, fairly surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in
+fact, a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds assembled
+all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable mode of existence;
+parlours, with wide arm-chairs and American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms,
+in which are all the best journals and an excellent assortment of the best
+and newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine in either
+the English or French style; billiard-rooms, shower and plunge-baths, and
+a large swimming-bath. Members from the country, or strangers, can be
+accommodated with lodging as well.
+
+At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at which above 200
+persons sat down, the chair was taken by the Chief Justice Sir Christopher
+Rawlinson--next to the Governor, the most influential person in the
+community. The extremely friendly disposition manifested on that occasion
+found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few, but appropriate
+words, welcomed the foreign guests; while, on the other side, they gave
+unmistakable evidence of the admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by
+the _Novara_ carried away with them from the hospitable shores of
+Madras.[111]
+
+[Footnote 111: After the customary official toasts had been proposed by the
+chairman, and thanks returned by the Commander-in-chief of the Expedition,
+the health was also proposed of the scientific staff, on which occasion
+one of the naturalists present expressed his thanks for this honour, in
+his name and that of his colleagues, in the following speech, which may be
+permitted to find a place here, as best showing with what impression the
+members of the Expedition left Madras.
+
+"Gentlemen,--It is not without some feeling of anxiety that I am rising,
+for I have so many things to say, and yet it is but the thousandth part of
+what I, of what my fellow travellers all feel! Surely, it is always
+flattering to a man to be distinguished by his fellow-men; but such a
+distinction becomes the more honouring if those who concur to distinguish
+him are--as this is the case with you--a most estimable part of the
+_British_ nation! Of a nation, which has done more than any other on the
+globe for the propagation of Christianity, the diffusion of knowledge, the
+advancement of science, for the progress of civilization, industry, and
+commerce. I do not intend, gentlemen, to return with the shiny currency of
+flattery the many proofs of attention and kindness which all the members
+of the Expedition have witnessed during our short, but most pleasant,
+ever-remembered stay in this city, the birth-place of hospitality! What I
+say is but truth! Every page in modern history certifies my words! Which
+nation has done more for the propagation of Christianity among savage
+tribes all over the world? Some years ago, when I was rambling in British
+America, and along the north shores of Lake Superior, I often found
+villages of 300 or 400 Indians, and but one single white man amongst them.
+And who was that white man, who voluntarily shared their misery, their
+wants, and their privations? He was an _English missionary_!
+
+"And again! Which nation has made greater and more serious efforts to
+suppress the slave trade, and to abolish slavery in all countries where it
+still exists, a shame to the nineteenth century?--Slavery! that hideous
+leprosy on the limb of the gigantic body, called the United States! Who is
+even now anxiously engaged to open, with the heartblood of its noblest
+sons, a vast empire--the Chinese kingdom--to civilization, to
+Christianity, to the traffic of all seafaring nations of the globe!
+
+"And is not this very city, Madras, where we have been so heartily
+welcomed, the best proof of the energy and perseverance of the political
+and commercial greatness of the British nation? Nothing but English
+steadiness and English perseverance could succeed to build on this barren,
+inhospitable, and even most perilous coast, a vast, flourishing city,
+rivalling in size and the number of inhabitants the largest capitals in
+Europe! And what is still more pleasing and satisfactory, is the
+intellectual and physical condition in which one finds the Indians,
+especially if compared with the condition of the natives in North and
+Central America, &c. There he meets a population, rapidly dying away, in
+proportion as the axe of civilization is resounding from the backwoods.
+One may almost determinate the day when the last of the red men will have
+disappeared from the North American Continent, the land of his ancestors!
+Here in India, on the contrary, the traveller meets with a thriving,
+industrious population. Who can see Hindoos, Malabar, Sentus, &c., occupy
+most important employments at the observatory, at the telegraph offices,
+at the railroad, in any branch almost of the public service, and still
+believe the Hindoo race like the Indians of North America to be a _doomed_
+people--to be a people that has no future? No, it HAS a future, and, under
+the wise and humane government of the British Crown, I am sure the
+coloured race of India will even have a most _glorious_ future!
+
+"These are the impressions and feelings, gentlemen, with which we part
+from Madras, with which I and my scientific colleagues bid you all a most
+sincere and heartfelt farewell."]
+
+As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish, notwithstanding the
+difficulties of getting out to, and back from the roads, to visit our
+ship, the commodore invited some forty guests, shortly before our
+departure, to a "tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty
+heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the company of some
+twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After "tiffin," which was served on the
+poop, under a tent improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt
+sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck, our band of
+music being called into requisition for quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes;
+and, indeed, our guests paid so little attention to the approach of
+night, that their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of
+which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our pleasant guests
+homewards with Bengal lights.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII.--TRACK FROM MADRAS TO THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.]
+
+At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set sail. As the
+frigate was perceived, from Fort George to weigh anchor, a thundering
+salute was fired of 21 guns--an extraordinary honour and mark of
+attention, to which we responded by a similar salute. In consequence of
+calms and light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and it
+was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our voyage. For several
+evenings after, that magnificent, and as yet unexplained, phenomenon, the
+Zodiacal light, which is conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age,
+to be the beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving in
+the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was visible with much
+regularity. What was afterwards observed, however, of this remarkable zone
+of light, during the course of our voyage, will be found detailed in the
+meteorological portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather
+accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar Islands, our next
+station. But although, as was rendered necessary by the climate so near
+the Equator, we were clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was
+nothing to remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our sailors
+did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without celebrating that day, to be
+marked with a white stone, by masking and dancing according to ancient
+custom. Jack has an especially good memory for the return of such
+junketings, and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of
+the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near the line also,
+not because he had any pleasure therein, but because it has always been
+his custom to do so at carnival-time!
+
+The state of health of the ship's company was excellent, there being but
+eight on the sick list, of whom only two were seriously ill.
+
+On the 22nd February towards 10 A.M. the Island of Kar-Nicobar hove in
+sight, and towards afternoon we found ourselves but a few miles distant.
+The land seemed for the most part level, only a low eminence thickly
+covered with frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown with
+cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three Malay boats at
+anchor. On the beach were some huts of beehive-like shape, in and out of
+which naked brown figures were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous
+lights glimmered from the shore.
+
+The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we anchored off the
+N.W. side of the island, in 14-1/2 fathoms coral sand, about 2 miles
+distant from the shore, and just between the two villages of Mosse and
+Sàui, each consisting of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4
+cable-lengths of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay
+bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies covered in the
+most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European clothes, approached the
+frigate while she was being secured, in small but elegant canoes, and
+called out anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive tone
+and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we interpreted into an
+inquiry as to whether they had anything to fear, and whether we were
+disposed to be friendly. When, however, we did not immediately throw them
+a rope to make fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our
+numerous guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.
+
+[Illustration: ARRIVAL AT KAR-NICOBAR.]
+
+                            END OF VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+                            APPENDIX A.
+
+
+           LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE "NOVARA" EXPEDITION.
+
+          Commodore--B. v. Wüllerstorf-Urbair, Commander-in-Chief.
+          Captain--Frederick Baron Pöck.
+          First Lieutenant--Bela Saal de Gyula.
+          Lieutenants--Maurice Monfroni de Montfort.
+              "     "   Alexander Count Kielmansegge.
+              "     "   William Lund.
+              "     "   Robert Müller.
+              "     "   Ernest Jacoby.
+              "     "   Eugen Kronowetter.
+              "     "   Gustavus Battlogg.
+          Purser--Antonio Basso.
+          Principal Surgeon--Dr. Francis Seligmann.
+          Assistant Surgeons--Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant.
+                 "       "      Dr. Edward Schwarz.
+                 "       "      Charles Ruziczka.
+          Chaplain--Edward de Marocchini.
+          Midshipmen--Henry Fayenz.
+            "    "    Joseph Natty.
+            "    "    Gustavus v. Semsey.
+            "    "    Richard Baron Walterskirchen.
+            "    "    Louis Meder.
+            "    "    Alexander Kalmar.
+            "    "    Augustus Baron Skribanek.
+            "    "    Andreas Count Borelli.
+            "    "    Francis Baron Cordon.
+            "    "    Frederick Baron Haan.
+            "    "    Edward Latzina.
+            "    "    Michal de Mariassi.
+            "    "    Eugen Prince Wrede.
+            "    "    Joseph Berthold.
+          Engineer--Wenceslas Lehmann.
+
+
+                           _Naturalists._
+
+               Geology--Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter.
+               Botany--Dr. Edward Schwarz.
+                  "    Mr. Anthony Tellinek, horticulturist.
+               Zoology--Mr. George Frauenfeld.
+                  "     Mr. John Zelebor.
+               Ethnography--Dr. Charles Scherzer.
+               Artist--Mr. Joseph Selleny.
+
+The entire crew, including sailors, marines, gunners, servants, and the
+ship's band, amounted to 352 men.
+
+
+
+
+                             APPENDIX B.
+
+ _List of the various Provisions and Stores furnished to the Frigate
+           "Novara" before her departure from Trieste._
+
+
+ Coals--23 tons (at 260 pounds daily consumption)           for 198 days
+ Water--86 tons (the daily consumption was
+   furnished by the distilling apparatus)
+ Biscuit--50,965 pounds (Vienna weight)                      "  145  "
+ Wine--(light red Istrian wine), 8777 mass (= 3510 gallons)  "   50  "
+ Rum--7913 mass (= 3165 gallons)                             "  226  "
+ Salt Beef--17,800 pounds            for 105 days \ Meat
+ Preserved Meat (in tins)                122   "  | (boned)  "  264  "
+ Pork--5760 pounds weight                87    "  /
+ Rice--6850 pounds                       77    "  \ (for
+ Essence--3184 pounds                    58    "  /  Soup)   "  135  "
+ Mélanges d'Equipage, 40,000 rations    114  days \
+ Sour-crout, 16,000 rations              46    "  | Vege-
+ Cabbage, 16,000 rations                 46    "  | tables   "  298  "
+ Potatoes, 32,000 rations                92    "  /
+ Cocoa--10,290 pounds (Vienna weight)                        "  610  "
+ Sugar--3494     "                                           "  156  "
+ Salt--1000      "                                           "  100  "
+ Vinegar--831 mass (= 332-1/5 gallons)                       "   95  "
+
+
+
+
+                             APPENDIX C.
+
+                        SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURE
+
+        DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE "NOVARA."
+
+
+ KEY:
+ A - Pay of Commodore, in Austrian currency.
+ B - Pay of Staff.
+ C - Pay of Naturalists, and incidental Expenses of this department.
+ D - Pay of Crew, including extras.
+ E - Victuals for Crew and Hospital (Sick).
+ F - For Sundries, Repairs, and Ship's Material.
+ G - Purchase of Books, Instruments, and Medicines.
+ H - Pilots and Tug Steamers.
+ I - Pay of Servants, including extras.
+ J - Boat-hire, Postages, Travelling Expenses of the Staff, &c.
+ K - Totals.
+
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+       Period of       |         |          |         |          |
+      Expenditure.     |    A    |    B     |    C    |    D     |
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+                       | Florins.| Florins. | Florins.| Florins. |
+                       |  Kr.    |   Kr.    |   Kr.   |   Kr.    |
+ April to June, 1857   | 2,112 ..|  5,413 51| 1,744 53|  7,522 52|
+ III. Quarter    "     | 2,327 10|  8,214 10| 3,302 40| 10,562 37|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 3,261 20|  9,604 50| 4,816 57| 10,560 50|
+ I.    ditto    1858   | 3,118 ..|  9,377 ..| 4,073 ..| 10,557 49|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 3,212 ..| 10,542 30| 4,358  5| 10,755 39|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 5,102 30|  9,638 30| 5,421 17| 10,245 24|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 2,217 10|  6,931 50| 5,272 56| 10,020  6|
+ I.    ditto    1859   | 4,914 20| 16,958 20| 9,578 23| 10,840 43|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 3,227 16| 11,008 ..| 4,090 20| 11,151 56|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 3,117  7| 10,911 41| 3,857 14| 11,009 29|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|   984 18|  2,564  5| 1,990  5|  3,314 16|
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+     Grand Total       |33,593 11|101,164 47|48,505 50|106,541 41|
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+       Period of       |          |         |        |        |
+      Expenditure.     |    E     |    F    |   G    |   H    |
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+                       | Florins. | Florins.|Florins.|Florins.|
+                       |   Kr.    |   Kr.   |  Kr.   |  Kr.   |
+ April to June, 1857   |    133 55|   146  7|   37 10|  ... ..|
+ III. Quarter    "     |  2,316 40|   362 47|   16 28|   28 ..|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 27,344 29| 2,839  3|  644 49|  356 26|
+ I.    ditto    1858   |  2,099 39|   646 10|   36 34|   85 53|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 21,514 37| 2,170 53|  349 54|  ... ..|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 17,443 32| 5,925 48|  338 14|  645 50|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |  5,762 30|   ... ..|  212 34|2,197 55|
+ I.    ditto    1859   | 30,715 17|18,185 34|2,286 40|  647 54|
+ II.   ditto     "     |  3,179 24|   767  4|   23  2|   94 23|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 11,444 ..| 7,551 15|  306 24|  ... ..|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|  2,163 40|   ... ..|   33 30|  ... ..|
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+     Grand Total       |124,009 43|38,594 41|4,285 19|4,056 21|
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+       Period of       |        |         |          |
+      Expenditure.     |   I    |    J    |    K     |
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+                       |Florins.| Florins.| Florins. |
+                       |  Kr.   |   Kr.   |   Kr.    |
+ April to June, 1857   |  811 34| 5,277 59| 23,200 21|
+ III. Quarter    "     |  363 53|   186 18| 27,680 43|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |  435  9| 2,027 31| 61,891 24|
+ I.    ditto    1858   |  397 28|    96 22| 30,487 55|
+ II.   ditto     "     |1,144 43|   814 25| 54,764 46|
+ III.  ditto     "     |  566  8| 1,351 46| 56,678 59|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |   29 24|   651 59| 33,296 24|
+ I.    ditto    1859   |1,592 30| 1,258 51| 96,978 32|
+ II.   ditto     "     |  200  5| 1,258 32| 35,000 2 |
+ III.  ditto     "     |1,910 ..|   793 ..| 50,900 10|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|  269 46|     5 ..| 11,324 40|
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+     Grand Total       |7,720 40|13,721 43|482,193 56|
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+
+Thus the Expenditure, during the voyage, amounting to 483,193 florins 56
+kreuzer, Austrian currency, which, calculated at the rate of 10 florins to
+a pound sterling at par, is equal to about £48,219 sterling. To this sum
+must be added the outfit and armament of the frigate for the purposes of
+the voyage, amounting to about £6000 sterling, and the expenses for four
+months' provisions, taken in at Trieste before our departure, and
+estimated at about £4500 sterling, so that the entire Expenditure of the
+Expedition, from the time of starting till its return, amounted to about
+£58,000 sterling.
+
+
+
+
+                              LONDON:
+
+                    PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
+
+                     ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+                                66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, W.
+
+                   MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, & CO.'S
+                       LITERARY ANNOUNCEMENTS.
+
+
+   THE VOYAGE OF THE NOVARA ROUND THE WORLD. The Circumnavigation
+     of the Globe, by the Austrian Frigate Novara. English Edition.
+     Containing an Unpublished Letter from Baron Humboldt. With
+     numerous wood engravings. Dedicated, by special permission, to
+     Sir Roderick Murchison. 3 vols., 8vo.
+
+   THE MARQUIS OF DALHOUSIE'S ADMINISTRATION of BRITISH INDIA. By
+     Edwin Arnold, M.A., of University College, Oxford.
+
+   THE POLITICAL LIFE of the EARL of DERBY.
+
+   THE LIFE of the RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN DISRAELI, M.P.
+
+   THE SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES of the LORD BISHOP of OXFORD from
+     1841 to the Present Time. Edited by the Author. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE LIVES of the SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. By William
+     Nathaniel Massey, Esq., M.P., author of "The History of
+     England," and Chairman of Ways and Means.
+
+   THE LATITUDINARIANS. A Chapter of Church History, from the
+     Accession of Archbishop Tillotson in 1691, to the Death of
+     Archdeacon Blackburne, in 1787. By Edward Churton, M.A.,
+     Archdeacon of Cleveland.
+
+   THE LIFE OF THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   ECCLESIA RESTITUTA. By F. C. Massingberd, M.A., Prebendary of
+     Lincoln and Rector of Ormsby.
+
+   SEVEN ANSWERS to the 'ESSAYS and REVIEWS,' BY SEVEN WRITERS IN
+     SEVEN SEPARATE ESSAYS.
+
+   THE HISTORY OF THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY, from the Defection of Sir
+     Robert Peel to the Present Time. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, from the Death of
+     Elizabeth to the Present Time. By the Rev. Geo. G. Perry,
+     M.A., Rector of Waddington, late Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln
+     College, Oxford. 3 vols., 8vo.
+
+   CHURCH RATE A NATIONAL TRUST. By the Venerable Archdeacon
+     Denison. 1 vol., 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST. By the Rev. George Williams, B.D.,
+     Senior Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE AMERICAN CHURCH and the AMERICAN UNION. By Henry Caswall,
+     D.D., of Trinity College, Connecticut, and Prebendary of
+     Sarum. 1 v., post 8vo.
+
+   PHILOSOPHY; or, THE SCIENCE of TRUTH, being a Treatise on First
+     Principles, Mental, Physical, and Verbal. By James Haig, Esq.,
+     M.A., of Lincoln's Inn.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS OF GENERAL GARIBALDI; or, TRAVELS FROM ROME TO
+     LUCERNE, comprising a Visit to the Mediterranean Islands of La
+     Madalena and Caprera, and the Home of General Garibaldi. 1
+     vol. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF DR. WOLFF, the Bokhara Missionary.
+     2d. edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36s.
+
+   AN AUTUMN TOUR IN SPAIN. By the Rev. R. ROBERTS, B.A., of
+     Trinity College, Cambridge, and Vicar of Milton Abbas. With
+     numerous Engravings. 21s.
+
+   HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE SUCCESSORS OF ST. PATRICK AND
+     ARCHBISHOPS OF ARMAGH. By James Henthorne Todd, D.D., F.S.A.,
+     President of the Royal Irish Academy, Treasurer of St.
+     Patrick's Cathedral, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the
+     University, and Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. 2
+     vols., 8vo.
+
+   THE LIFE OF GEORGE FOX, The Founder of the Quakers. From
+     numerous original sources. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE PRIVATE JOURNAL OF THE MARQUESS OF HASTINGS,
+     Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in India. Edited by
+     his Daughter, SOPHIA, the Marchioness of Bute. Second Edition,
+     2 vols. post 8vo, with Map and Index. 21s.
+
+   NAPOLEON THE THIRD ON ENGLAND. Selections from his own writings.
+     Translated by J. H. SIMPSON. 5s.
+
+   THE HUNTING GROUNDS OF THE OLD WORLD. By H. A. L. (the Old
+     Shekarry). Second Edition. 21s.
+
+   HIGHLANDS AND HIGHLANDERS; As they were and as they are. By
+     WILLIAM GRANT STEWART. First and Second series, price 5s.
+     each; extra bound, 6s. 6d.
+
+   THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA. With numerous Woodcuts. 10s. 6d.
+
+   LECTURES ON THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. By the Rev. R. J.
+     M'GHEE. Second Edition. 2 vols, Reduced price, 15s.
+
+   PRE-ADAMITE MAN; or, THE STORY OF OUR OLD PLANET AND ITS
+     INHABITANTS, TOLD BY SCRIPTURE AND SCIENCE. Beautifully
+     Illustrated by Hervieu, Dalziel Brothers, &c. 1 vol, post 8vo,
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   LOUIS CHARLES DE BOURBON: THE "PRISONER OF THE TEMPLE." 3s.
+
+   A HANDY-BOOK FOR RIFLE VOLUNTEERS. With 14 Coloured Plates and
+     Diagrams. By Captain W. G. Hartley, author of "A New System of
+     Drill." 7s. 6d.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS of a WINTER CAMPAIGN IN INDIA, in 1857-58. By
+     CAPTAIN OLIVER J. JONES, R.N. With numerous illustrations
+     drawn on stone by Day, from the Author's Sketches. In 1 vol.
+     royal 8vo, 16s.
+
+   TWO YEARS IN SYRIA. By T. LEWIS FARLEY, Esq., Late Chief
+     Accountant of the Ottoman Bank, Beyrout. 12s. Second Edition.
+
+   DIARY OF TRAVELS IN THREE QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. By an
+     AUSTRALIAN SETTLER. 2 vols, post 8vo, 21s.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS of the COURT of NAPLES in OUR OWN TIMES.
+
+   MOUNT LEBANON AND ITS INHABITANTS: A Ten Years' Residence from
+     1842 to 1852. By Colonel CHURCHILL, Staff Officer in the
+     British Expedition to Syria. Second Edition. 3 vols, 8vo,
+     £1·5s.
+
+   FROM SOUTHAMPTON TO CALCUTTA. Sketches of Anglo-Indian Life.
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   THE TABLETTE BOOKE of LADYE MARY KEYES, OWNE SISTER TO THE
+     MISFORTUNATE LADYE JANE DUDLIE. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   TRAVEL and RECOLLECTIONS of TRAVEL. By Dr. JOHN SHAW. 1 vol,
+     post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
+
+   LETTERS ON INDIA. By EDWARD SULLIVAN, Esq., Author of 'Rambles
+     in North and South America;' 'The Bungalow and the Tent;'
+     'From Boulogne to Babel Mandeb;' 'A Trip to the Trenches;' &c.
+     1 vol. 7s.
+
+   CAMPAIGNING IN KAFFIRLAND; or, SCENES AND ADVENTURES IN THE
+     KAFFIR WAR OF 1851-52. By Captain W. R. KING. Second Edition.
+     1 vol. 8vo, 14s.
+
+   THE RELIGIOUS TENDENCIES OF THE AGE. 6s. 6d.
+
+   ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A HORSE. By SIR GEORGE
+     STEPHEN. With illustrations by Cruikshank. New and cheaper
+     Edition, 5s.
+
+   THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, Elegant Gift Book for the Season.
+     Beautifully bound in green watered silk, with coloured plates.
+     Containing the Art of Conveying Sentiments of Esteem and
+     Affection. Eleventh edition, dedicated, by permission, to the
+     late Duchess of Kent. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES; With a description of the "Ladies'
+     Safety Hive." By SAMUEL BAGSTER, Jun. 1 vol., illustrated. 7s.
+
+   THE HANDBOOK OF TURNING, With numerous plates. A complete and
+     Practical Guide to the Beautiful Science of Turning in all its
+     Branches. 1 vol. 7s. 6d.
+
+   TEXTS FOR TALKERS. By FRANK FOWLER. 3s. 6d.
+
+   THE SUMMER TOUR of an INVALID. 5s. 6d.
+
+   ARMY MISRULE: BARRACK THOUGHTS. By a COMMON SOLDIER. 3s.
+
+
+                              Fiction.
+
+   WHY PAUL FERROLL KILLED HIS WIFE. By the Author of "Paul
+     Ferroll." Third Edition. 10s. 6d.
+
+   OUR NEW RECTOR. Edited by the Author of 'Mr. Verdant Green.'
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   THE RECTOR'S DAUGHTERS. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+
+   SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. A Novel. By MARGUERITE A. POWER. 3 vols.,
+     31s. 6d.
+
+   AN M.P. IN SEARCH OF A CREED. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ROTTEN ROW. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   CRISPIN KEN. By the Author of 'Miriam May.' Dedicated, by
+     special permission, to the Right Hon. Sir E. B. Lytton, Bart.,
+     M.P. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   WHO SHALL BE DUCHESS? or, THE NEW LORD OF BURLEIGH. A Novel. 2
+     vols., 21s.
+
+   THE LIGHTHOUSE. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE SKELETON IN THE CUPBOARD. By Lady Scott. 2 vols., 21s.
+     Cheaper Edition, 5s.
+
+   TOO LATE! By Mrs. DIMSDALE. 7s. 6d.
+
+   HELEN. A Romance of Real Life. 7s. 6d.
+
+   THE CASTLE and the COTTAGE in SPAIN. By Lady Wallace, Author of
+     'Clara; or, Slave Life in Europe.' 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   CYRUS. By Lady Julia Lockwood.
+
+   GERTRUDE MELTON; or, NATURE'S NOBLEMAN. A Tale. 7s. 6d.
+
+   RUTH BAYNARD'S STORY. 1 vol., 10s. 6d.
+
+   VANITY CHURCH. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   MY WIFE'S PINMONEY. By E. E. NELSON, a grand niece of the great
+     Lord Nelson. 5s.
+
+   THE EMIGRANT'S DAUGHTER. Dedicated, by permission, to the
+     Empress of Russia. 5s.
+
+   MIRIAM MAY. 4th Edition. 10s. 6d.
+
+   WHISPERING VOICES OF THE YULE. Tales for Christmas. 5s.
+
+   THE SENIOR FELLOW. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ALMACK'S. A Novel. Dedicated to the Ladies Patronesses of the
+     Balls at Almack's. New Edition, 1 vol, crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   NELLY CAREW. By MISS POWER. 2 vols, 21s.
+
+   MEMOIRS OF A LADY IN WAITING. By the Author of 'Adventures of
+     Mrs. Colonel Somerset in Caffraria.' 2 vols, 18s.
+
+   HULSE HOUSE. A Novel. By the Author of 'Anne Gray.' 2 vols, post
+     8vo, 21s.
+
+   THE NEVILLES OF GARRETSTOWN. A Historical Tale. Edited, and with
+     a Preface by the Author of 'Emilia Wyndham.' 3 vols, post 8vo,
+     31s. 6d.
+
+   CORVODA ABBEY. A Tale. 1 vol, post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE VICAR OF LYSSEL. The Diary of a Clergyman in the 18th
+     century. 4s. 6d.
+
+   GOETHE IN STRASBOURG. A Dramatic Nouvelette. By H. Noel
+     Humphreys. 7s. 6d.
+
+   SQUIRES AND PARSONS. A Church Novel. 1 vol. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE DEAN; or, the POPULAR PREACHER. By BERKELEY AIKIN, Author of
+     'Anne Sherwood.' 3 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d.
+
+   CHARLEY NUGENT; or, PASSAGES IN THE LIFE OF A SUB. A Novel, 3
+     vols, post 8vo. 31s. 6d.
+
+   PAUL FERROLL. By the Author of 'IX Poems by V.' Fourth Edition.
+     Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   LORD AUBREY; or, WHAT SHALL I DO? By the Author of 'Every Day.'
+     A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE IRONSIDES. A Tale of the English Commonwealth. 3 vols., 31s.
+     6d.
+
+   AGNES HOME. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+   LA CAVA; or, RECOLLECTIONS OF THE NEAPOLITANS. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ANSELMO. A Tale of Modern Italy. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE DALRYMPLES; or, LONG CREDIT AND LONG CLOTH. 10s. 6d.
+
+   INSTINCT; or, REASON. By Lady JULIA LOCKWOOD. 5s. 6d.
+
+   CARELADEN HOUSE. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+
+                              Poetry.
+
+   Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton's Eva, AND OTHER POEMS.
+
+   Sacred Poems. By the late Right Hon. Sir Robert Grant, with a
+     Notice by Lord Glenelg.
+
+   Eustace; An Elegy. By the Right Hon. Charles Tennyson
+     D'Eyncourt.
+
+   Oberon's Empire. A Mask.
+
+   The Shadow of the Yew, AND OTHER POEMS. By Norman B. Yonge.
+
+
+
+
+                MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.'S
+
+                     EAST INDIA ARMY AND COLONIAL
+                               AGENCY.
+
+                  66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE,
+                             LONDON, W.
+
+    (_In the immediate vicinity of the New East India House and
+                        the Oriental Club._)
+
+
+Messrs. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, and Co. beg to invite the attention of Regimental
+Messes, Officers, Members of the Civil Service, and other Residents in
+India, Australia, and the Colonies to their East India Army and Colonial
+Agency, and to the advantages it offers.
+
+
+                         BANKING DEPARTMENT.
+
+PAY, PENSIONS, FUND ALLOWANCES, DIVIDENDS, &C., drawn and remitted with
+regularity. SALES of, and INVESTMENTS in, Government Stock, Foreign
+Securities, &c., effected. Every other description of FINANCIAL BUSINESS
+transacted.
+
+
+                         SUPPLY DEPARTMENT.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, including Provisions, Wines,
+Plate, Jewellery, Books, Guns, Band Instruments, Clothing, &c., carefully
+selected and despatched by Overland Route, or Sailing Ship, to Regiments
+and Messes in India, Australia, and the Colonies.
+
+PRIVATE ORDERS from Officers, Members of the Civil Service, and Residents
+in India, Australia, and the Colonies generally, are executed with care,
+economy, efficiency, and promptitude.
+
+All orders should be accompanied by full and detailed directions.
+
+
+                    PERSONAL AGENCY DEPARTMENT.
+
+The Constituents of Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. may depend upon
+receiving every attention to their requirements and instructions. Every
+assistance will be afforded to their Constituents and their Families on
+their arrival in England, with the view to relieve them from every
+possible inconvenience.
+
+Charge, when required, will be taken of children coming from India and the
+Colonies, and arrangements will be made for their education in England.
+
+To those going out to India, Australia, and the Colonies, Messrs.
+Saunders, Otley, and Co. offer their services to secure passages Overland,
+or by Ship, and to afford them all necessary information connected
+therewith.
+
+All Letters, Parcels, &c., will be received by Messrs. Saunders, Otley,
+and Co., for their Constituents (whether in England, India, or the
+Colonies), to whom they will be forwarded regularly.
+
+
+                               TERMS.
+
+NO COMMISSION CHARGED on the execution of Orders, whether from Regimental
+Messes or Private Individuals, WHEN ACCOMPANIED BY A REMITTANCE, and a
+small Discount at all times allowed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+             LITERARY AND POLITICAL NEWSPAPER FOR INDIA
+                        AND THE COLONIES.
+
+                       THE ORIENTAL BUDGET,
+
+                  PRICE ONE SHILLING (POST FREE).
+
+   Published on the First of every Month by Saunders, Otley, and Co.,
+                66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Changes to the original document: Footnotes and
+illustrations may have been moved. Minor punctuation inconsistencies or
+errors have been corrected. To the table of illustrations have been added
+entries for the preceding illustrations. The publisher's corrections
+listed at the end of Volume III have been applied. The following
+additional changes were made:
+
+ analagous[analogous] to the mountain chains
+ to be reaped from European emigation[emigration]
+ Namely: 9159 Portuguese[Two footnotes were improperly swapped]
+ we were still able vividly to recal[recall]
+ If any one desires [to] see a veritable
+ towards the end of the rainy reason[season],
+ their bite produces on the the[del 2nd the] hand
+ that such soundings are only succesful[successful] when
+ they cannot recal[recall] having perceived,
+ Terrestrial Magnetism, Liuteenant[Lieutenant] Robert Müllar;
+ of New Bedford, Massachussets[Massachusetts],
+ pendant les annés[années] 1791-94
+ there there[del 2nd there] is nothing resembling a beach
+ custom that seems to recal[recall] the frightful
+ This time, morever,[moreover]
+ and chaunted[chanted] the praises
+ all to be able to indentify[identify] them,
+ thirty to the Parias[Pariahs],
+ Ry[By] T. LEWIS FARLEY, Esq.,
+ effected. Every other descripion[description]
+
+Also, the publisher on one occasion confused the degrees Réaumur and
+Fahrenheit used in measuring temperature with degrees and minutes used to
+determine lattitude and longitude:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as 24°
+5', (87° 12' Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72° 5' to
+74° 75' Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13° 8' to 10° 5' (63°·05 to 5° 62'
+Fahr.); between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from
+18° 8' to 9° 2' (74° 3' to 52° 7').
+
+The corrected paragraph is as follows:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to
+74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to
+9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of
+the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38456-0.txt or 38456-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38456/
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/38456-h/38456-h.htm b/38456-h/38456-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f080ba4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/38456-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,17791 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara (vol. 1), by Karl Scherzer
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+body {
+    margin-left: 12%;
+    margin-right: 12%;
+}
+
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 {
+    text-align: center;
+    clear: both;
+}
+h2 {padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+
+p {
+    margin-top: .75em;
+    text-align: justify;
+    margin-bottom: .75em;
+    text-indent: 2em;
+}
+
+a:focus, a:active { outline:#ffee66 solid 2px; background-color:#ffee66;}
+a:focus img, a:active img {outline: #ffee66 solid 2px; }
+
+hr {
+    width: 33%;
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+sup {padding-left: 0.1em; vertical-align: text-top; line-height: 50%; font-size: small;}
+sub {padding-left: 0.1em; vertical-align: text-bottom; line-height: 50%; font-size: small;}
+
+table {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+
+.pagenum {
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 87%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+    color: gray;
+    margin-top: -0.45em;}
+
+.blockquot {
+    margin-left: 5%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+.bl       {border-left: solid 1px black;}
+.br       {border-right: solid 1px black;}
+
+.center   {text-align: center;}
+
+.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+
+.caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+.figcenter   {
+    margin: auto;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figleft {
+    float: left;
+    clear: left;
+    margin-left: 0;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figright {
+    float: right;
+    clear: right;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-bottom:
+    1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-bottom: 0.75em;
+           font-size: 0.9em; text-align: justify;}
+.footnote .label {}
+.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: 0.8em; text-decoration: none; position: relative;}
+
+.poem {
+    margin-left:10%;
+    margin-right:10%;
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+.poem br {display: none;}
+
+.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+
+.poem span.i0 {
+    display: block;
+    margin-left: 0em;
+    padding-left: 3em;
+    text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.poem span.i20     {
+    display: block;
+    margin-left: 20em;
+    padding-left: 3em;
+    text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.ads {text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 2em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+.c2 {font-size: 1.50em; margin: 0.75em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;}
+.c3 {font-size: 1.17em; margin: 0.83em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;}
+.c4 {font-size: 1.00em; margin: 1.00em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;}
+.c5 {font-size: 0.83em; margin: 1.15em 0; font-weight: bolder; text-align: center;}
+.ChapDescr {text-align: justify; font-size: 0.9em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+.ChapterTopRule {width: 85%;}
+.loi1 {text-align: left; text-indent: -2em; padding-left: 2em;}
+.loi2 {text-align: right;}
+
+/* For transparent absolute-position images at left margin, block text flow underneath: */
+.ilbl {float: left; clear: both; margin: 0 1em 0 0; visibility: hidden;}
+
+/* For portion of transparent absolute-position image in center, block all text flow: */
+.icba {margin: auto; visibility: hidden;}
+/* For portion of transparent absolute-position images in center, restrict text flow to channel: */
+.icbl {float: left; padding-right: 50%; clear: left; visibility: hidden;}
+.icbr {float: right; padding-left: 50%; clear: right; visibility: hidden;}
+
+.right {text-align: right;}
+.toc1 {padding-top: 1.5em;}
+.toc2 {font-size: 0.8em;}
+.toc3 {text-align: justify; font-size: 0.9em;}
+
+div.fig { display:block;
+          margin:0 auto;
+          text-align:center;
+          margin-top: 1em;
+          margin-bottom: 1em;}
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the
+Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I
+       (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order
+              of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, &amp; 1859,
+              Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the
+              Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the
+              Austrian Navy.
+
+Author: Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+Commentator: Alexander von Humboldt
+
+Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38456]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div class="center" style="width: 25em; margin: auto; border: solid 1px; padding: 1em;">
+Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been faithfully replicated except as listed
+<a href="#Changes" name="Start">here</a>.
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div style="text-align: center; padding-bottom: 2em;">
+<a href="#PREFACE_TO_THE_ENGLISH_EDITION">Preface</a>
+&nbsp; <a href="#CONTENTS">Table Of Contents</a>
+&nbsp; <a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List Of Illustrations</a>
+&nbsp; <a href="#PHYSICAL_AND_GEOGNOSTIC_SUGGESTIONS">Pre-Cruise Comments by A. V. Humboldt</a>
+&nbsp; <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendices</a>
+&nbsp; <a href="#ADS">Advertisements</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px; padding-bottom: 4em;"><a name="illu000t" id="illu000t"></a>
+<img src="images/illu000t.jpg" width="350" height="151" alt="Eastward track around the world." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHART OF THE TRACK OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE NOVARA
+ON HER VOYAGE ROUND THE GLOBE<br /><i>In The Years 1857, 1858 &amp; 1859.</i></span><br />
+<a href="images/illu000.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<h1 style="line-height: 2em;">NARRATIVE<br />
+
+<small>OF THE</small><br />
+
+Circumnavigation of the Globe<br />
+
+<small>BY THE AUSTRIAN FRIGATE</small><br />
+
+NOVARA,<br />
+
+<small>IN THE YEARS 1857, 1858, &amp; 1859,</small><br />
+
+VOL. I.</h1>
+
+<div class="c4">(COMMODORE B. VON WULLERSTORF-URBAIR,)<br />
+
+<i>Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government</i>,<br />
+
+UNDER THE IMMEDIATE AUSPICES OF HIS I. AND R. HIGHNESS<br />
+
+THE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND MAXIMILIAN,
+
+COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.</div>
+
+<div class="c2">DR. KARL SCHERZER,</div>
+
+<div class="c5"><span class="smcap">MEMBER OF THE EXPEDITION, AUTHOR OF "TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA," ETC.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 170px;"><a name="illu001" id="illu001"></a>
+<img src="images/illu001.jpg" width="170" height="116" alt="Sans Changer" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="c4">LONDON:<br />
+
+<i>SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.</i><br />
+
+66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE.<br />
+
+1861.</div>
+
+<div class="c5">[THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.]</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="padding-top: 2em;">LONDON:<br />
+PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,<br />
+ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div class="c5">TO</div>
+
+<div class="c3">SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON,</div>
+
+<div class="c5">G.C.S.ST., M.A., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., G.S., L.S., F.R.G.S.,<br />
+
+DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,<br />
+
+TRUST. BRIT. MUS., ETC., ETC.,</div>
+
+<div class="c4">THE GREAT PROMOTER OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE,</div>
+
+<div class="c4">These Pages are respectfully Inscribed,</div>
+
+<div class="c5">IN RECOGNITION OF HIS VALUABLE EXERTIONS IN ADVANCING THE SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS<br />
+
+OF THE AUSTRIAN EXPEDITION,<br />
+
+AS WELL AS<br />
+
+IN GRATITUDE FOR THE HOSPITABLE RECEPTION SECURED TO THE NAVIGATORS<br />
+
+THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES,<br />
+
+WHEREVER IT WAS THEIR GOOD FORTUNE TO CAST ANCHOR,<br />
+
+BY</div>
+
+<div class="c4">THE AUTHOR OF THE FOLLOWING NARRATIVE.</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">iii</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"><a name="illu005" id="illu005"></a>
+<img src="images/illu005.png" width="416" height="700" alt="Letter." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LETTER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="illu006" id="illu006"></a>
+<img src="images/illu006.png" width="387" height="644" alt="Letter continued." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LETTER CONTINUED.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_ENGLISH_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_ENGLISH_EDITION"></a>PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.</h2>
+
+<p>A member of the scientific corps attached to the Expedition,
+which, under the auspices of that enlightened friend of
+science and liberty, the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, was
+despatched on a voyage round the globe, the high honour has
+been conferred upon me of having entrusted to my care the
+publication of the Narrative of our Cruise.</p>
+
+<p>In this not more difficult than enviable task, I have been
+most liberally assisted by my eminent fellow-labourers&mdash;the
+whole literary material collected during the voyage having
+been kindly placed at my disposal. The comprehensive
+journals and reports of the venerable Commander-in-Chief of
+the Expedition, Commodore Wullerstorff-Urbair, as well as
+the various memoranda of the other members of the Scientific
+Commission, contributed materially to the elucidation of my
+own general notes, as well as my observations upon special
+subjects, which latter chiefly referred to the Geography,
+Ethnography, and general Statistics of the various countries
+visited.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span></p>
+
+<p>While preparing the details of our voyage for publication in
+my own language, the idea perpetually presented itself that
+a translation of this narrative into English might prove not
+unacceptable to the British public. And although fully aware
+that a voyage round the globe, in the course of which little
+more than the coasts were visited of the various countries
+we touched at, could not pretend to offer much new
+information to the greatest of maritime nations, it seemed,
+nevertheless, that it might interest a people so eager in
+the pursuit of knowledge as the English, to know the
+impression which has been made upon travellers of education
+by the Colonies and Settlements of Britain throughout the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>The English language, moreover, being spoken more or less
+over the greater part of the earth's surface, geographically
+speaking, the author who addresses his readers in that
+tongue is sustained by the flattering conviction that he
+will be understood by the majority of the nations of the
+globe! For it is not alone the educated classes of all
+countries that seek to master a language which possesses
+such a grand&mdash;all but unrivalled literature! The political
+and commercial development which Great Britain enjoys under
+the benign influence of liberal institutions, has made
+English the medium of intercourse among almost all
+sea-faring nations; nay, even barbarous tribes find it their
+obvious interest to get a slight inkling at least of the
+language of a people whose civilizing and elevating
+energies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span> they may not, it is true, understand, far less
+appreciate, but whose imposing power inspires them with awe,
+while they are more closely attached by the tie of material
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The following narrative describes the most important
+occurrences and most lasting impressions of a voyage during
+which we traversed 51,686 miles, visited twenty-five
+different places, and spent 551 days at sea, and 298 at
+anchor or on shore.</p>
+
+<p>As the purely scientific results of the Expedition will be
+published separately under the supervision of Commodore
+Wullerstorf and the other members of the scientific corps, I
+shall, in this place, only attempt to place before the
+reader a general outline of the countries and races visited
+during our cruise in different regions of the world.</p>
+
+<p>In relating simply and concisely what was seen and
+experienced, I have endeavoured to avoid incurring the
+reproach, so frequently launched by English critics against
+German works of travel, of dryness and minute detail, such
+as render them distasteful to the English reader, and make
+it almost impossible to enlist his attention or evoke his
+sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>If, as is specially the case with respect to natural
+science, many a doubtful point still remains undecided&mdash;if
+the ingenious "Suggestions" of the immortal Alexander von
+Humboldt (for the translation of which I feel particularly
+indebted to that profound scholar, my learned and esteemed
+friend Mr. Haidinger, whose name will be familiar to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span>
+scientific world in Great Britain), could not be acted upon
+to the extent and in the effectual manner each of us could
+have wished, the reason for such deficiencies will be found
+in the peculiar mission of the Expedition, and in the
+arrangement of our route, which was specially laid out with
+reference to the numerous and widely different objects,
+which it was specially intended to keep in view throughout
+the voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more prominent of these, may be specified the
+opportunity thus afforded for the practical instruction of
+our young and rapidly-increasing navy; the unfurling of the
+Imperial flag of Austria in those distant climes, where it
+had never before floated; the promulgation of commercial
+treaties; the aid afforded to science in exploration and
+investigation, as well as by the collection of those objects
+of Natural History, the acquisition of which is all but
+impossible to the solitary naturalist, owing to the expense
+and difficulty of transport,<a name="Anchor-1" id="Anchor-1"></a><a href="#Footnote-1" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 1.">[1]</a> and the establishment
+everywhere of friendly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span> correspondence between our own
+scientific institutions and those in remote regions, I have
+considered it necessary to invite the attention of the
+British reading public to these circumstances, in order to
+make them more intimately cognisant of our various and
+manifold tasks, and thus make them the more readily disposed
+to overlook the deficiencies and discrepancies of this book,
+which I now respectfully commit to their perusal.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-1" id="Footnote-1"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-1">[1]</a> Notwithstanding the short period at our
+disposal at each port, which concomitant necessity militates
+so much against the practical utility of a circumnavigation
+of the globe as compared with an expedition solely directed
+to one single centre of scientific observation, the
+collection of objects of Natural History made during the
+cruise are very extensive, and unusually rich in new or rare
+species. The zoological department alone embraces above
+23,700 individuals of different kinds of animals: viz. 440
+mammalia, 300 reptiles, 1500 birds, 1400 <i>Amphibiæ</i>, 1330
+fish, 9000 insects, 8900 Molluscs and <i>Crustaceæ</i>, 300
+birds' eggs and nests, besides numerous skeletons. The
+botanical collection consists of <i>Herbaria</i>, seeds of useful
+plants, special regard being had to those best adapted for
+the various climates of the respective Austrian provinces,
+drugs, specimens of dye-woods, and timber, fruits preserved
+in alcohol, &amp;c. The Geological and Palæontological Museums
+of our country have likewise been enriched with various rare
+and valuable specimens, particularly in consequence of Dr.
+Hochstetter, the geologist of the Expedition, having
+prolonged his stay in New Zealand, where, at the special
+request of the Colonial Government, he explored the province
+of Auckland. The Ethnographical and Anthropological
+collection consists of above 550 objects, among which are
+100 skulls, representing the craniology of almost all the
+races of the globe.</p></div>
+
+<p>Before concluding, I beg leave to express my hearty thanks
+to all those who have contributed in such various ways to
+aid my humble efforts&mdash;to specify some were invidious, as in
+so doing I must wrong others. To each and all I return the
+most heartfelt gratitude.</p>
+
+<p>May the indulgent reader peruse the following pages with an
+approving eye&mdash;may they afford him as much satisfaction and
+as much interest as I experienced in committing to paper the
+descriptions and impressions therein set forth, since in so
+doing, I, so to speak, made the delightful voyage for the
+second time, and in thought visited once more the different
+localities, from every one of which I, and my
+fellow-travellers, brought away none but the most friendly
+and agreeable recollections.</p>
+
+<p>It inspires a <i>German</i> traveller with a peculiar and lofty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span>
+feeling of pride and delight that he can look upon himself
+as belonging to a race, to whom seems to have been reserved
+the diffusion of a New Life over the earth&mdash;whose special
+mission it appears to be to make even the most primitive
+tribes in the remotest corner of the world acquainted with
+the blessings of Christian civilization, of political
+liberty, of intellectual culture, and, standing triumphant
+on the ruins of slavery and despotism, to proclaim to the
+great family of universal mankind, the advent of a new, a
+vernal era of Faith, Freedom, and Happiness!</p>
+
+<div class="right">
+<span class="smcap">Dr. Karl Scherzer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trieste</span>, <i>18th March, 1861</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">xi</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">PREPARATIONS FOR THE VOYAGE.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="smcap" style="font-size: 0.8em">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Approval of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+Voyage round the World.&mdash;Object of the
+Expedition.&mdash;Appointment of a Scientific
+Commission.&mdash;Preparations.&mdash;Fitting out the Frigate <i>Novara</i>
+at Pola.&mdash;Departure for Trieste.&mdash;Visit of the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian on board.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">FROM TRIESTE TO GIBRALTAR.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Departure.&mdash;Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.&mdash;A Man lost and
+found again.&mdash;Passage through the Straits of Messina.&mdash;The
+Steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> returns to Trieste.&mdash;Regulations and
+Instructions for further Proceedings.&mdash;A Day on Board the
+<i>Novara</i>.&mdash;Sunrise.&mdash;Cleaning the Ship.&mdash;Mental and Physical
+Occupation.&mdash;Moonlight at Sea.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">GIBRALTAR.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Political Significance of the Rock.&mdash;Courtesy of the British
+Authorities.&mdash;Fortifications.&mdash;Signal Stations.&mdash;The only
+Place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.&mdash;Calcareous
+Caves.&mdash;Chief Entrances into the Town.&mdash;Shutting the Town
+Gates.&mdash;Public Establishments.&mdash;Inhabitants.&mdash;Elliott's
+Gardens.&mdash;The Isthmus, or Neutral
+Ground.&mdash;Algeziras.&mdash;Ceuta.&mdash;Commerce and
+Navigation.&mdash;Excellent Regulation in the English Navy
+relative to Officers' Outfit.&mdash;Small-pox appears on board
+the <i>Caroline</i>.&mdash;Departure from Gibraltar.&mdash;A Fata
+Morgana.&mdash;The <i>Novara</i> passes the Straits.&mdash;Takes leave of
+Europe.&mdash;Voyage to Madeira.&mdash;Floating Bottles to ascertain
+the Currents.&mdash;Arrival in the Roads of Funchal.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">MADEIRA.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+First Impressions.&mdash;Difficulty in Landing.&mdash;Description of
+the Island.&mdash;History.&mdash;Unfavourable Political Circumstances
+connected with the Cultivation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a></span> of the
+Ground.&mdash;Aqueducts.&mdash;First Planting of the
+Sugar-cane.&mdash;Culture of the Vine.&mdash;Its Disease and
+Decay.&mdash;Cochineal as a Compensation for its Loss.&mdash;Prospects
+of Success.&mdash;Climate.&mdash;A favourable Winter Residence for the
+Consumptive.&mdash;Strangers.&mdash;First Appearance of the
+Cholera.&mdash;Observations with the Ozonometer.&mdash;Great Distress
+among the Lower Classes.&mdash;Liberal Assistance from
+England.&mdash;Decline of Commerce.&mdash;Inhabitants and their Mode
+of Life.&mdash;Decrease of the Population, and its
+Causes.&mdash;Benevolent Institutions.&mdash;Public Libraries.&mdash;The
+Cathedral.&mdash;Barracks.&mdash;Prison.&mdash;Environs of
+Funchal.&mdash;Excursion to St. Anna.&mdash;Ascent of the Pico
+Ruivo.&mdash;Singular Sledge Party.&mdash;Return to
+Funchal.&mdash;Departure.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">RIO DE JANEIRO.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Brazil the Land of Contrasts.&mdash;Appearance of the City of Rio
+and its Environs.&mdash;Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and
+the Tejuca Waterfalls.&mdash;Germans in Rio.&mdash;Brazilian Literary
+Men.&mdash;Assacú (<i>Hura Brasiliensis</i>.)&mdash;Snake-bite as an
+Antidote against Leprosy.&mdash;Public Institutions.&mdash;Negroes of
+the Mozambique Coast.&mdash;The House of Misericordia.&mdash;Lunatic
+Asylum.&mdash;Botanical Garden.&mdash;Public
+Instruction.&mdash;Historico-Geographical Institution.&mdash;<i>Palæstra
+Scientifica.</i>&mdash;Military Academy.&mdash;Library.&mdash;Conservatory of
+Music.&mdash;Sanitary Police.&mdash;Yellow Fever and Cholera.&mdash;Water
+Party on the Bay.&mdash;Chamber of
+Deputies.&mdash;Petropolis.&mdash;Condition of the Slave
+Population.&mdash;Prospects of German Emigration.&mdash;Suitability of
+Brazil as a Market for German Commerce.&mdash;Natural Products,
+and Exchange of Manufactures.&mdash;Audience of the Emperor and
+Empress.&mdash;Extravagant Waste of Powder for Salvoes.&mdash;Songs of
+the Sailors.&mdash;Departure from Rio.&mdash;Retrospect.&mdash;South-east
+Trades.&mdash;Cape Pigeons.&mdash;Albatrosses&mdash;Cape Tormentoso.&mdash;A
+Storm at the Cape.&mdash;Various Methods of Measuring the Height
+of Waves.&mdash;Arrival in Simon's Bay.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Contrasts of Scenery and Seasons at Cape Colony.&mdash;Ramble
+through Simon's Town.&mdash;Malay Population.&mdash;The Toad-fish, or
+Sea-devil.&mdash;Rondebosch and its delightful Scenery.&mdash;Cape
+Town.&mdash;Influence of the English Element.&mdash;Scientific and
+other Institutions.&mdash;Botanical Gardens.&mdash;Useful
+Plants.&mdash;Foreign Emigration.&mdash;A Caffre Prophet and the
+Consequences of his Prophecies.&mdash;Caffre Prisoners in the
+Armstrong Battery.&mdash;Five young Caffres take Service as
+Sailors on Board the <i>Novara</i>.&mdash;Trip into the
+Interior.&mdash;Stellenbosch.&mdash;Paarl.&mdash;Worcester.&mdash;Brand
+Vley.&mdash;The Mission of Moravian Brethren at
+Genaadendal.&mdash;Masticatories and intoxicating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a></span> Substances
+used by the Hottentots.&mdash;Caledon.&mdash;Somerset
+West.&mdash;Zandvliet.&mdash;Tomb of a Malay Prophet.&mdash;Horse
+Sickness.&mdash;Tsetse-fly.&mdash;Vineyards of Constantia.&mdash;<i>Fête
+Champétre</i> in Honour of the <i>Novara</i>.&mdash;Excursion to the
+actual Cape of Good Hope.&mdash;Departure.&mdash;A Life
+saved.&mdash;Experiments with Brook's Deep-sea Sounding
+Apparatus.&mdash;Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South
+Indian Ocean.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">THE ISLANDS OF ST. PAUL AND AMSTERDAM, IN THE SOUTH INDIAN
+OCEAN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Former History.&mdash;Importance of the Situation of St.
+Paul.&mdash;Present Inhabitants.&mdash;Preliminary Observations.&mdash;To
+whom do the Islands belong?&mdash;Fisheries.&mdash;Hot
+springs.&mdash;Singular
+Experiment.&mdash;Penguins.&mdash;Disembarkation.&mdash;Inclement
+Weather.&mdash;Remarks on the Climate of the Island.&mdash;Cultivation
+of European Vegetables.&mdash;Animal Life.&mdash;Library in a
+Fisherman's Hut.&mdash;Narrative of old
+Viot.&mdash;Re-embarkation.&mdash;An official Document left
+behind.&mdash;Some Results obtained during the Stay of the
+Expedition.&mdash;Visit to the Island of
+Amsterdam.&mdash;Whalers.&mdash;Search for a Landing-place.&mdash;Remarks
+on the Natural History of the Islands.&mdash;A
+Conflagration.&mdash;Comparison of the Two Islands.&mdash;A
+<i>Rencontre</i> at Sea.&mdash;Trade-wind.&mdash;Christmas at Sea.&mdash;"A man
+overboard!"&mdash;Cingalese Canoe.&mdash;Arrival at Point de Galle, in
+Ceylon.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">CEYLON.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English
+Government.&mdash;Better Prospects for the Future.&mdash;The
+Cingalese, their Language and Customs.&mdash;Buddhism and its
+Ordinances.&mdash;Visit to a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of
+Galle.&mdash;The sacred Bo-tree.&mdash;Other Aborigines of
+Ceylon.&mdash;The Weddàhs.&mdash;Traditions as to their Origin.&mdash;Galle
+as a City and Harbour.&mdash;Snake-charmers.&mdash;Departure for
+Colombo.&mdash;Cultivation of the Cocoa-nut Palm a benevolent,
+Buddha-pleasing work.&mdash;Polyandria; or, Community of
+Husbands&mdash;Supposed Origin.&mdash;Annual Exportation of
+Cocoa-nuts.&mdash;Rest-houses for Travellers.&mdash;Curry the national
+Dish.&mdash;A Misfortune and its Consequences.&mdash;The Catholic
+Mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn, and Father
+Miliani.&mdash;Annoying Delays with restive Horses.&mdash;Colombo.&mdash;A
+Stroll through the "<i>Pettah</i>," or Black Town.&mdash;Ice Trade of
+the Americans with Tropical Countries.&mdash;Cinnamon Gardens and
+Cinnamon Cultivation.&mdash;Consequences of the Monopoly of
+Cinnamon.&mdash;Rise and Expansion of the Coffee Culture in
+Ceylon.&mdash;Pearl-fishery.&mdash;Latest Examination of the Ceylon
+Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+Results.&mdash;Aripo at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv"></a></span> the Season of Pearl-fishing.&mdash;The
+Divers.&mdash;Pearl-lime, a chewing Substance of wealthy
+Malays.&mdash;Annual Profit of the Pearl-fishery.&mdash;Origin of the
+Pearl.&mdash;Poetry and Natural Science.&mdash;Artificial Production
+of the Pearl.&mdash;The Chank-shell.&mdash;The Wealth of Ceylon in
+Precious Stones.&mdash;Visit to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.&mdash;The
+Cowry-shell, a Promoter of the Slave Trade.&mdash;Discovery of
+valuable Cingalese MSS. on Palm-leaves.&mdash;The heroic Poem of
+"Mahawanso," and Turnour's English Translation of
+it.&mdash;Hospitality of English Officials in Colombo.&mdash;A second
+Visit to Father Miliani.&mdash;Agreeable Reception.&mdash;The
+Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous Snakes.&mdash;Adventures
+on the Journey back to Galle.&mdash;Ascent of Adam's Peak by two
+Members of the Expedition.&mdash;The Sacred
+Footprint.&mdash;Descent.&mdash;The "Bullock-bandy," or Native
+Waggon.&mdash;Departure from Galle for Madras.&mdash;The Bassos
+(Shallows).&mdash;A Berlin Rope-dancer among the
+Passengers.&mdash;Nyctalopia; or, Night Blindness.&mdash;Fire on
+Board.&mdash;Arrival in Madras Roads.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"><a href="#IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc2" colspan="2">MADRAS.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc3">
+"Catamarans" and "Masuli" Boats.&mdash;Difficulty of
+Disembarkation, and Plans for remedying
+it.&mdash;History.&mdash;Brahminism.&mdash;Festival in Honour of
+Vishnù.&mdash;Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+Government.&mdash;Politics and Religion.&mdash;Laws of Brahminic
+Faith.&mdash;The Observatory.&mdash;Museum of Natural History and
+Zoological Garden.&mdash;Academy of Fine Arts.&mdash;Medical
+School.&mdash;Infirmary.&mdash;Orphan Asylum.&mdash;Dr. Bell.&mdash;Lancastrian
+Method of Teaching Children first Applied in
+Madras.&mdash;Colonel Mackenzie's Collection of Indian
+Inscriptions and MSS.&mdash;The Palace of the former Nabob of the
+Coromandel Coast.&mdash;Journey by Rail to Vellore.&mdash;<i>Féte</i> given
+by the Governor in Guindy Park.&mdash;Visit to the Monolithic
+Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.&mdash;Excursion to Pulicat
+Lake.&mdash;Madras Club.&mdash;<i>Féte</i> in Honour of the Members of the
+<i>Novara</i> Expedition.&mdash;"Tiffin" and Dance on
+Board.&mdash;Departure from Madras.&mdash;Zodiacal Light.&mdash;Shrove
+Tuesday in the Tropics.&mdash;Arrival at the Island of
+Kar-Nicobar.
+</td>
+
+<td><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3">VOL. I.</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="smcap">page</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu000t">The Track Of The Austrian Imperial Frigate Novara.</a></td><td class="loi2"><i>frontispiece</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu005">Letter.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_iii">iii</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu006">Letter Continued.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_iv">iv</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu020t">Letter.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu055">Departure.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu058">Gun-room of the <i>Novara</i>.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu061t">Plate: Vertical Section of the Frigate "Novara".</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu065">Geodetical and Astronomical Instruments.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu067">Look-out Man.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate066t">Track from Triest To Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu072">"Palinurus".</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu077">Seamen off duty.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu084">View of Gibraltar from Seaward.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu085">Rock of Gibraltar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu090">Rock Cavern in Gibraltar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu094">South Gate, Gibraltar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu104">Inhabitant of Frangola.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu108">Cape Trafalgar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu113">Loo Rock (Madeira).</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu114">Scene in Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu127">Bridge over the Ribeiro Seco.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu147">Carapuça, or Cap worn by the Natives of Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu151">Cathedral of Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu153">Sleigh party in Madeira.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu155">Village of Fayal.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu157">"El Homem em pié".</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu160">Erica Trees.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate177t">Track From Madeira to Rio Di Janeiro.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu176">Cape Frio.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu178">The Quay at Rio.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu213">Island of Paquità, Bay of Rio.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate254t">Track from Rio Di Janeiro to the Cape Of Good Hope.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu252">Cabo Tormentoso.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu253">Cape Town.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu276">Rifle Volunteer <i>Fête</i> at Stellenbosch.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu278">Paine's Kloef as it was.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu279">Paine's Kloef as it is.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu284">Crossing the Breede River.</a></td><td class="loi2">226
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi"></a></span>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu285">Hot Springs of Brand Vley.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu291">Hottentot Huts at Genaadendal.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu295">Church and Mission Houses of the Moravian Settlement<br />at Genaadendal.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu303">Tomb of a Malay Prophet at Zandvliet.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu305">Interior of the Mausoleum.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu310">Tsetse Fly.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate325t">Track from the Cape Of Good Hope to St. Paul's Island.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu324">Arrival at St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu326">View of St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu334">Distant view of Crater-Basin of St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu359">Rainy day at St. Paul.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate404t">Track from St. Paul to Point De Galle (Ceylon).</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu403">Cingalese Canoe.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu405">View of Adam's Peak from Colombo.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu414">Buddha Temple near Galle.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu420">Interior of a House at Galle.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate485t">Track from Point De Galle To Madras.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu483">Masuli Boat at Madras.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_423">423</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu484">View of Madras (and Proposed Pier).</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_424">424</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu519">The Holy Mountain.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_458">458</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu522">The god Ganeza.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_461">461</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu525">Bivouac at Mahamalaipuran.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu528">Bas-relief on one of the Monolith Temples.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_467">467</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu531">Entrance to One of the Temples.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_470">470</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#plate542t">Track from Madras to the Nicobar Islands.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="loi1"><a href="#illu544">Arrival at Kar-Nicobar.</a></td><td class="loi2"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="illu020t" id="illu020t"></a>
+<img src="images/illu020t.jpg" width="350" height="250" alt="Letter." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LETTER.</span><br />
+<a href="images/illu020.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Transcriber's Note: The text of the letter above, along with supplemental
+address information, are in the first volume of the German edition:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot" lang="de" xml:lang="de">
+  <div style="text-align: center; margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1em;">
+  Sr. Hochwohlgeboren<br />
+  dem Herrn Oberst von W&uuml;llerstorf,<br />
+  kais. k&ouml;n. Linienschiffs-Capit&auml;n,<br />
+  Befehlshaber S. Maj. Fregatte Novara,<br />
+  Ritter hoher Orden &amp;c. &amp;c. &amp;c.<br />
+  in<br />
+  Triest.<br />
+  <br />
+  <br />
+  Hochwohlgeborener Herr,<br />
+  <br />
+  Hochzuverehrender Herr Oberst, k. k. Linien-Schiffs-Capit&auml;n.<br />
+  </div>
+  <div style="padding-bottom: 1em;">
+  Ew. Hochwohlgeb. wollen, als Befehlshaber Sr. Maj. Fregatte Novara, die zu
+  einem gro&szlig;en, edeln, das deutsche Vaterland und die Wissenschaft ehrenden Unternehmen
+  durch kaiserliche Huld bestimmt ist, den Ausdruck meiner Verehrung nachsichtsvoll
+  empfangen, indem ich, von der Zeit naher Abfahrt in halber Genesung bedr&auml;ngt, es
+  wage, Ihnen einige <i>physikalische</i> und <i>geognostische Erinnerungen</i> ganz
+  gehorsamst vorzulegen, von denen Einiges vielleicht den ausgezeichneten Gelehrten, die
+  die Expedition zu begleiten das Gl&uuml;ck haben, von Nuzen sein kann. Ich w&uuml;rde
+  dies Wenige nicht angeboten haben, wenn eine so gen&auml;dige und liebensw&uuml;rdige Aufforderung
+  Sr. kaiserl. Hoheit des Herrn Erzherzogs Ferdinand Maximilian mich nicht
+  dazu bestimmt h&auml;tte. Was ich Nautisches &uuml;ber Richtung und Temperatur der Meeresstr&ouml;hmungen,
+  &uuml;ber die magnetischen Curven eingeflochten habe, mu&szlig; ich besonders <i>Ihrer</i>
+  Nachsicht empfehlen. Wenn man erinnert, scheint man belehren zu wollen, und von dieser
+  Anma&szlig;ung bin ich weit entfernt. Da kein Entwurf, keine Abschrift meiner, wenigstens
+  flei&szlig;igen, mit Zahlen &uuml;berladenen Arbeit existirt, so w&auml;re es vielleicht vorsichtig, sie
+  von Jemand, der der behandelten Gegenst&auml;nde kundig ist, abschreiben zu lassen. Meine
+  gelehrten und mir lieben Freunde Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter, Dr. Karl Scherzer und
+  Dr. Robert Lallemant, der mich bei seiner letzten Durchreise durch Berlin, um mir
+  sein wichtiges Werk &uuml;ber das Gelbe Fieber in der Tropenzone zu geben, verfehlt hat,
+  wage ich dringend Ihrem besonderen Schuze und Wohlwollen zu empfehlen.<br />
+  <br />
+  Mit der innigsten Verehrung und den hei&szlig;esten W&uuml;nschen f&uuml;r den Erfolg eines
+  so sch&ouml;n vorbereiteten Unternehmens<br />
+  </div>
+  <div style="text-align: center; margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1em;">
+  Ew. Hochwohlgeboren
+  </div>
+  <div style="margin: auto; padding: 0 0 1em 30em;">
+  gehorsamster<br />
+  <br />
+  Al. Humboldt.
+  </div>
+  <div style="text-align: left; margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1em;">
+  Berlin, den 7. April<br />1857 Nachts.
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="PHYSICAL_AND_GEOGNOSTIC_SUGGESTIONS" id="PHYSICAL_AND_GEOGNOSTIC_SUGGESTIONS"></a>PHYSICAL AND GEOGNOSTIC SUGGESTIONS,</h2>
+
+<div class="c5">BY</div>
+
+<div class="c3">ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT.</div>
+
+<p>In compliance with the gracious invitation which H.I.H. the
+Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian was pleased to address to me
+from Trieste (December 12th, 1856), and as yet barely
+recovered from an indisposition, I jot down these hasty
+notes, without presuming to give definite instructions, such
+as those I drew up, conjointly with M. Arago, for the
+guidance of the French expeditions, or for Lord Minto, then
+First Lord of the Admiralty, on the occasion of the
+Antarctic Voyage of Discovery of Sir James Ross (1840-43).
+The following pages consist simply of hints which may
+possibly prove serviceable to the distinguished and highly
+informed gentlemen, who have the good fortune to sail on
+board the Imperial Frigate, <i>Novara</i>, under the command of
+Commodore von Wüllerstorf. With two of these savans, Dr.
+Ferdinand Hochstetter and Dr. Karl Scherzer, I have had the
+pleasure, here in Berlin, to agree verbally on various
+subjects.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">xviii</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As I do not exactly know what course it is intended the
+<i>Novara</i> shall follow in navigating the Atlantic, nor in
+what meridian it is proposed to cross the Equator, (in
+conformity with the sound and useful directions of my friend
+Lieut. Maury, of Washington), on her voyage to Rio de
+Janeiro, nor how near she shall keep to Cape San Roque and
+Fernando de Noronha, I must content myself with inviting the
+attention of the voyagers in a general way to the
+temperature of the sea, as also to the variations and
+aberrations of the magnetic curves, and their currents.</p>
+
+<p>A lower degree of temperature is usually observed W. of the
+Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands, commencing with the
+Salvages, the thermometer indicating as low as 72°·7 Fahr.
+This has been already ascertained by Mr. Charles Deville, in
+his chart of temperature on the voyage "aux Antilles, à
+Ténériffe et à Fogo." I consider this diminution of
+temperature results from the North Guinea current, bringing
+with it cold water from the north southwards as far as the
+Bight of Biafra and the River Gaboon, at which point it is
+encountered by an opposite current flowing northwards along
+the south-western coast of Africa from Loando and Congo.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825, Captain Duperrey had accurately laid down the point
+of intersection of the magnetic, with the terrestrial
+equator. In 1837, we learned from Sabine's investigations of
+magnetic inclination near the Island of St. Thomas (on the
+Equator, adjoining the above portion of the coast of
+Africa),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">xix</a></span> that this point of intersection had already
+shifted four degrees to the westward. A period of twenty
+years having elapsed since Sabine's expedition for
+determining observations with the pendulum, it would be most
+desirable that fresh investigations should be made in that
+neighbourhood, for the purpose of verifying the secular
+changes of all magnetic curves, especially with regard to
+their variation. In 1840, the line of no declination in
+America began 9° 30&#8242; E. of South Georgia, whence it ran to
+the S.E. coast of Brazil, near Cape Frio, thus traversing
+the mainland of South America only between the latter point
+and the parallel of 0° 36&#8242; S., when it leaves the continent
+a little to the east of Gran Parà, near Cape Tigioca,
+cutting the terrestrial equator again, but in 50° 6&#8242; W.
+According to Bache's Map of Equal Magnetic Declination, it
+reaches the coast of North America near Cape Fear, to the
+south-west of Cape Lookout. This line, along which the
+magnetic declination is <i>nil</i>, extends to a point in Lake
+Erie, 2° 40&#8242; W. of Toronto, where the declination is already
+1° 27&#8242; W.<a name="Anchor-2" id="Anchor-2"></a><a href="#Footnote-2" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 2.">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-2" id="Footnote-2"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-2">[2]</a> Wherever, in this paper, it is not precisely
+expressed to the contrary, the scale of the Centigrade
+Thermometer, the longitude from the Meridian of Paris, the
+French foot (<i>pied du roi</i>=12·79 inches English), and the
+geographical mile, 15 to a degree of the Equator, measuring
+3807 "toises," are meant.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is evident from the observations of Captains Beechey and
+Findley, and still more particularly from those of the
+French Captain Kerhallet, that the remarkable subdivision of
+the main equinoctial current, flowing from east to west into
+two branches, one directed to the N.W., the other to the
+S.S.W.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">xx</a></span> commences at a considerable distance from the Capes
+of St. Roque and St. Augustin. This bifurcation has always,
+and with good reason, been ascribed to the protruding
+convexity of the South American continent at these two
+promontories. It would be an important step gained in
+verifying the theory of currents, could the precise distance
+be ascertained by chronometer. It is apparently like an
+"<i>actio in distans</i>," probably a phenomenon of what is known
+as "packing." As the frigate, on leaving Rio de Janeiro is
+to make for the Cape of Good Hope, the opportunity will
+present, should she steer sufficiently southerly, for many
+interesting observations with respect to the <i>connecting
+current</i> W.N.W. and E.S.E. which encounters that from
+Madagascar and Mozambique, close to the Cape, more
+especially with regard to the temperature of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>If the frigate is intended to approach the small cluster of
+islands of Fernando de Noronha, E. of Pernambuco (Lat. 3°
+50&#8242; S.), I would recommend to that excellent geognostic, Dr.
+Hochstetter, the hornblendic phonolithe rock found there,
+far from a volcanic crater, but with trachytic dykes and
+basaltic amygdaloid. The flat little island of St. Paul
+(Peñedo de San Pedro), 1° N. Lat., singular to say, is not
+volcanic at all, containing, like the Malouin or Falkland
+Islands, slaty green-stone passing into serpentine.</p>
+
+<p>Should the frigate alter her course and cross the Equator
+more to the eastward, without touching at Rio de Janeiro,
+she might possibly fall in with the Marine Volcanic region,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span>
+(Lat. 0° 20&#8242; S., Long. 22° W.), which has quite lately
+become famous again by the U. S. Expedition of the Brig
+<i>Dolphin</i> (1854), commanded by Lieutenant Lee. On 19th May,
+1806, columns of black smoke were seen issuing from the sea
+by Krusenstern, and volcanic ashes were gathered, after a
+singular bubbling of the sea from 1748 to 1836, according to
+careful investigations by Daussy.</p>
+
+<p>As the frigate is commissioned to visit Ceylon and the
+Nicobar Islands, she cannot sail direct from the Cape to
+Australia; and the hope must therefore be abandoned of her
+visiting the small basaltic islands, known as Prince
+Edward's (47° 2&#8242; S., 38° E.), and Possession (46° 28&#8242; S.,
+47° 30&#8242; E.), belonging to the Crozet's Group, or the two
+islands, long confounded with each other, of Amsterdam (Lat.
+37° 48&#8242; S.) and St. Paul (Lat. 38° 38&#8242; S.) The latter
+island, the more southerly of the two, (a very
+characteristic drawing of which was given by Willem de
+Vlaming so far back as 1696), is supposed to be volcanic,
+not only by its form, which will at once remind the
+geologist of Santorin, Barren Island, and Deception Island,
+(one of the New Shetland group), but also in consequence of
+the eruption of steam, and the flames occasionally observed
+there.</p>
+
+<p>As for Amsterdam, which consists of a single densely-wooded
+mountain, the puzzle remains for solution as to how, during
+the expedition of D'Entrecasteaux in 1792, the whole island
+seemed, during two entire days, enveloped in smoke; whereas,
+on landing there, the naturalists of that expedition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">xxii</a></span> were
+satisfied that the mountain was not an active volcano, and
+that the columns of steam issued out of the ground near the
+shore! As yet, the phenomenon remains entirely unexplained.</p>
+
+<p>If we examine any map of the Indian Ocean, we may trace the
+continuation of the Sunda group from Sumatra, N.W., through
+the Nicobar, and Great and Little Andaman Islands, and
+thence through the volcanoes of Barren Island, Narcondam and
+Cheduba, nearly parallel with the coasts of Malacca and
+Tenasserim, all on the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal.
+The minor volcanoes just enumerated will present valuable
+opportunities of geological enquiry.</p>
+
+<p>Along the coasts of Orissa and Coromandel, the western
+portion of the Bay of Bengal is quite free of islands,
+Ceylon, like Madagascar presenting rather the type of a
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>Off the W. coast of the peninsula of India, (that is
+opposite the Neilgherrie hills, and the coast of Canara and
+Malabar), there is a series of three archipelagoes,
+extending from 14° N. to 8° S., viz., the Laccadives, the
+Maldives, and the Chagos, which appears, as it were,
+continued through the banks of Sahia di Malha, and Cargados
+Carajos, to the volcanic group of the Mascarenhas and
+Madagascar. As the first-named archipelagoes, so far as is
+yet known, consist solely of coral, and are, consequently,
+true "atolls," or reef-lagoons, the bottom of the ocean
+should be examined over a large extent, adopting the
+ingenious hypothesis of Darwin, that it is to be considered
+<i>as an area of subsidence</i>, rather than an elevated region.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It would also be a matter of great importance to get
+observations respecting terrestrial magnetism, particularly
+so as to define the position of a given segment of the
+magnetic equator. Capt. Elliott, as the result of his
+comprehensive studies, (1846-49), ascertained that the
+magnetic equator passes through the north end of Borneo, and
+thence nearly due W. to the northern extremity of Ceylon. In
+this region the curve of minimum intensity is nearly
+parallel to the magnetic equator, which intersects the
+Continent of Africa near Cape Guardafui&mdash;according to Rochet
+d'Héricourt, in lat. 10° 7&#8242; N., long. 38° 5&#8242;. E. Between
+this point and the Bight of Biafra nothing is known.</p>
+
+<p>The South Asiatic islands comprise Formosa, the Philippines,
+the Sunda group, and the Moluccas. The great and little
+Sunda Islands and the Moluccas embrace 109 volcanoes, with
+fiery eruptions, and 10 what are called mud-volcanoes. This
+is not a mere estimate, but is the result of an enumeration
+by Junghuhn, who, within the last year (1856), has returned
+to Java, and thoroughly equipped by M. Pahud,
+Governor-General of the Indian Netherlands, will be of great
+assistance to the Imperial Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>An exact mineralogical determination of the volcanic rocks
+(trachytes) is unfortunately wanting everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>The most active volcano of Sumatra is the Gunung Merapi
+(8980 feet), which must not be confounded with a volcano in
+Java, of the same name. That of Sumatra was ascended by Dr.
+L. Horner, and Dr. Korthals in 1834. We may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</a></span> pronounce
+Indrapura (11,500 feet, but this measurement is very
+uncertain), and Gunung Pasoman (9010 feet), the Ophir of our
+maps, to be utterly unknown geologically. The highest of the
+Java volcanoes is Gunung Semeru (11,480 feet), ascended by
+Junghuhn in 1844, 1220 feet higher than the Etna. The
+largest craters of the 45 which are disposed in a line along
+the shores of Java, are Gunung Tengger, and Gunung Raou. Dr.
+Junghuhn has recently given the outlines of each separate
+volcano in his splendid topographical and geological map of
+Java, in four sheets, published in 1856, which does great
+credit to the Dutch Government.</p>
+
+<p>The following subjects are worthy of special attention while
+the frigate is at Java.</p>
+
+<p>1. The curious phenomenon of the ribbed surface. (<i>Vide</i>
+Junghuhn, Java, Part II., p. 608.)</p>
+
+<p>2. The disposition, as yet unaccounted for, of a series of
+regularly-shaped hills, formed by the mud-streams ejected in
+the year 1822 by the volcano of Gunung Galungung. (<i>Vide ut
+suprà</i>, pp. 127-731.)</p>
+
+<p>3. The ejection of water by the Gunung Idjen, on 21st
+January, 1817, (pp. 707, and 717-121).</p>
+
+<p>4. The erroneousness of the assertion that the volcanoes of
+the Island of Java do not emit streams of real lava.</p>
+
+<p>It must be admitted that the mighty Javanese volcano, Gunung
+Merapi, already alluded to, has not, within the historic
+period, presented any coherent compact streams of lava, but
+mere fragments and boulders; although in 1837,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">xxv</a></span> lines of
+fire were seen running uninterruptedly from the top down the
+sides of the cones in eruption. But each of the three
+volcanoes, Tengger, Idjen, and Slamat, present examples of
+black lava currents, descending as far as the tertiary
+strata.</p>
+
+<p>Streams of stone-boulders, red-hot, similar to those of the
+Cotopaxi, but scarcely touching each other, flowed from
+Gunung Lamorgan on 6th July, 1838.</p>
+
+<p>No active volcano is known in the island of Borneo. The
+highest mountain of the whole island, perhaps of the whole
+insular world of Southern Asia, is the Hina Baïlu (12,850
+feet?) on the northern point of Borneo. It is as yet
+unexplored. According to Dr. Lewis Horner, son of the
+astronomer of the Krusenstern expedition, there occur among
+the syenite and serpentine mountain range of Rathus, on the
+S.E. of the island, deposits yielding gold (which has even
+been worked by diggings), diamonds, platinum, iridium, and
+osmium,&mdash;presenting, in fact, a similar association to those
+of the Ural mountains. No mention is made of palladium.
+Rajah (now Sir James) Brooke describes in the province of
+Sarawak in Borneo, a low hill, Gunung Api ("hill of fire" in
+Malay), the slags of which attest former volcanic activity.
+A visit to Borneo would be of very great service.</p>
+
+<p>There are eleven volcanoes in Celebes, and six in Flores,
+all active.</p>
+
+<p>It is still uncertain whether the conical mountain Wawari,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">xxvi</a></span>
+or Atiti, which is more generally known as the volcano of
+the island of Amboyna, ever poured out anything except hot
+mud (1674), or whether it should be merely classed as a
+<i>solfatara</i>. The main group of the South Asiatic Islands is
+connected through the Moluccas and the Philippines with the
+Papua and Pellew islands, and the Caroline Archipelago of
+the South Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The most important geological fact to be remarked with
+reference to the island of Formosa, abounding in mineral
+coals, is the break in the line of direction of the open
+vents, when, instead of N.E. to S.W., the central line
+follows the meridian line, which it pursues nearly as far as
+6° S., passing through Formosa and the Philippine Islands
+(Luzon and Mindanao), respecting which deviation nothing
+certain is known, and in which region every mountain of
+conical shape, or outline is invariably set down as a
+volcano, even though there should be no indications of a
+crater. The Sooloo Archipelago forms the connecting link
+between the islands of Borneo and Mindanao, the long, narrow
+island of Palawan, constituting that between Borneo and
+Mindoro.</p>
+
+<p>The Island of Yesso, separated from that of Niphon by the
+Straits of Sangar, or Tsugar, and from the islands of Krafto
+(Saghalien) and Tschoka, or Tarakai, by the Straits of La
+Pérouse, connects, through its North Eastern Cape, with the
+archipelago of the Kuriles. From Broughton's Southern Vulcan
+Bay up to its northernmost point, Yesso is traversed by an
+uninterrupted range of volcanoes&mdash;a fact the more worthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">xxvii</a></span> of
+being recorded, as in the expedition of La Pérouse there
+were found red porous lavas, as well as wide areas, covered
+with slags, in the Baie des Castries, in the narrow island
+of Krafto (Saghalien), which is, as it were, merely a
+continuation of Yesso. In our own day these regions command
+a higher interest, from a political point of view, more
+especially since Russia, dissatisfied with the situation of
+Okhotsk, at the sanded mouth of the Amoor, was anxious,
+after the destruction of Petropaulowski, on the coast of
+Kamtschatka, to obtain, on the S.E. coast, a harbour
+suitable for a military station.</p>
+
+<p>Among the three islands which form the main portion of the
+Japanese Empire, six volcanoes are known to have had
+eruptions in the historic period. The volcano, Fusi Jama, in
+Niphon, province of Suruga (Lat. 35° 18&#8242; N., Long. 136° 15&#8242;
+E., altitude 11,675 feet), is said to have risen out of the
+plain 286 years before the Christian era. Its last eruption
+was in 1707. The volcano, Asama Jama, in the district of
+Saku, between the meridians of the two capitals, Miaco and
+Jeddo, was last in eruption in 1783. On the island of
+Kiusiu, adjoining the peninsula of Corea, four volcanoes are
+situated, from one of which, called Wanzen, there was a most
+destructive eruption in 1793.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful work of Commodore Perry, U.S.N., detailing his
+mission to Japan, on the part of the United States
+Government, in 1852, containing excellent photographs of
+races, as also drawings by the Berlin artist, Wilhelm
+Heine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">xxviii</a></span> does not, as yet, comprise the scientific results of
+that expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding northwards, the volcanoes are more densely
+crowded, and are found arranged in series. Of the fifty-four
+which I enumerated as still in activity among the islands of
+Eastern Asia, there are thirty-four on the Aleutian, and ten
+on the Kurile Islands. The Peninsula of Kamtschatka contains
+nine volcanoes, which have been in activity within the
+historic period. Lying under the 54th and 60th degrees of
+northern latitude, we see a long strip of sea-bottom between
+two continents undergoing a perpetual process of destruction
+and re-arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The South Sea, the superficial extent of which is one-sixth
+greater than that of the entire solid crust of our planet,
+actually presents a smaller number of active volcanoes, less
+vents for communication between the centre of the earth and
+its atmospheric envelope, than the single Island of Java!
+Out of 40 volcanic cones, including those which are extinct,
+only 26 have been seen in eruption during the historic
+period. They are not scattered at random, but, on the
+contrary, as was pointed out by Mr. James Dana, the
+ingenious geologist of the great United States Exploring
+Expedition, under the command of Capt. Wilkes (1838-42),
+they have been thrown up, at widely extending clefts,
+communicating by submarine mountain systems. They are
+arranged in groups and distinct regions, analogous to the
+mountain chains of Central Asia and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">xxix</a></span> Armenia (in the
+district of the Caucasus), and belong to two quite distinct
+systems, one running S.E. to N.W., the other S.S.W. to
+N.N.E.</p>
+
+<p>In the Hawaiian Archipelago (or Sandwich Island group), we
+find Mauna Loa, according to Wilkes, 12,900 feet in height,
+which does not present any cone of volcanic scoriæ
+(resembling, in this particular, the volcanoes of the
+Eifel), but has emitted streams of lava. The lava basin of
+Killauea, 13,000 feet in its greatest, by 4800 in its
+smallest diameter, is not a <i>solfatara</i>, but a true lateral
+vent on the flank of the powerful Mauna Loa itself, exactly
+resembling the less elevated sheet of lava of Arak. Mauna
+Kea is 180 feet higher than Mauna Loa, but is extinct. Tafoa
+and Amangura, in the Tonga group, are still in eruption, the
+last discharge of lava having occurred in July, 1847. The
+volcano of Tanna was in full eruption during Capt. Cook's
+Voyage of Discovery in 1774, as was also the volcano of
+Ambrym, west of Malicollo in the archipelago of the New
+Hebrides. At the south point of New Caledonia, lies
+Matthew's Rock, a small smoking rocky island. The volcano of
+Santa Cruz, N.N.W. of Tina Kora, with periodical eruptions
+occasionally occurring at intervals of 10 minutes, had been
+already noticed as a volcano by Mendana, so far back as
+1595. In the Salomon Archipelago, there is found the volcano
+of Sesarga, while others are said to be in full activity in
+the Marianas or Ladrones, just like those of Guguan, Pagon,
+and El Volcan Grande de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">xxx</a></span> Asuncion, which appear to have
+broken forth along a line that follows the meridian. In New
+Britannia, three conical mountains were observed vomiting
+streams of lava, by Tasman, Carteret, and Labillardière.
+There are two volcanoes in full activity on the north-east
+coast of New Guinea, opposite Admiralty Islands, which
+themselves are so rich in obsidian. In New Zealand, numerous
+regions abound in basaltic and trachytic rocks. Of active
+volcanoes there are Puhia-i-Wakati (the volcano of White
+Island), and the lofty cone of Tongariro (5816 feet). To the
+absence of centres of volcanic agency in New Caledonia,
+where sedimentary formations and seams of coal have recently
+been discovered, is ascribed the vast development of coral
+reefs. Dana was the first to ascend the Peak of Tafua, in
+the Island of Upolu, one of the Samoa group, not to be
+confounded with the still active volcano of Tafoa, south of
+Amangura, in the Tonga Archipelago. Dana found in it a
+crater overgrown with thick forest. So, too, on the isolated
+Vaihu or Easter Island group, there is found a range of
+conical mountains with craters, but inactive.</p>
+
+<p>Of the volcanic groups of the South Sea, the most violent is
+the farthest east, adjoining the shores of the New World,
+viz., the archipelago of the Gallipagos, which consists of
+five considerable islands, very admirably described by
+Darwin. There are streams of lava down to the very shore of
+the sea, but no pumice. Some of the trachytic lavas are said
+to abound with crystals of albite. It is important to
+examine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">xxxi</a></span> whether or not this is oligoclase, as on Teneriffe,
+Popocatepetl, and Chimborazo; or labradorite, as on Etna and
+Stromboli. Palagonite, exactly similar to that of Iceland or
+in Italy, was discovered by Bunsen in the specimens of tufa
+from Chatham Island, one of the Gallipagos.</p>
+
+<p>New Holland does not show any signs of recent volcanic
+activity, except at its most southern point (Australia
+Felix), at the foot of the Grampian Mountains. N.W. from
+Port Philip, as also towards the Murray River, there are
+numbers of volcanic cones and sheets or flows of lava.</p>
+
+<p>It would be of great interest and utility to observe the
+relative inclinations of the Magnetic and the Geographical
+Equators, by means of the dip of the magnetic needle, though
+this will be rendered more difficult, from the fact of the
+ship's course being easterly, that is, contrary, to the
+Equinoctial current. As regards the low temperature of the
+current, which I discovered in 1802, running up from 40° S.
+to the Gallipagos along the coast of South America, and then
+turning westward, it would be highly important to
+investigate whether in the eastern part of the South Sea in
+7° N. and between 117° and 140° W., there really exists in
+every season a <i>counter current</i> from west to east. But I
+need not enlarge upon this topic to such attentive
+navigators.</p>
+
+<p>The line of no inclination was crossed six times by Duperrey
+between 1822 and 1825. When I first discovered, near
+Truxillo, the low temperature of the cold Peruvian current,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii">xxxii</a></span>
+it was 12°·8 Réaumur (60°·8 Fahr.). The temperature observed
+in the course of twenty years by Mr. Dirckinck von Holmfeld,
+in the neighbourhood of Callao, expressed in degrees of
+Réaumur, were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col style="padding-right: 1em" /><col style="padding-right: 1em" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td align="left">September 1802</td><td align="center">12°·8</td><td align="center">(Fahr.</td><td align="center">60°·8)</td><td align="center">Thermometer in the air. 13°·3 Réaumur. (61°·92 Fahr.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">November 1802</td><td align="center">12°·4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">59°·9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">December, end of</td><td align="center">16°·8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">69°·8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">January 1825</td><td align="center">12°·7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">60°·57</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">February 1825</td><td align="center">15°·3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">66°·42</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">March 1825</td><td align="center">15°·7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">67°·32</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">April 1825</td><td align="center">14°·5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">64°·62</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The temperature of the sea I found to be 22° Réaumur (81°·5
+Fah.) north of Cape Blanco, when on my way from Callao de
+Lima, at which point the cold current diverged towards the
+Gallipagos.</p>
+
+<p>Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the
+cold current, the temperature of the sea during the month of
+April rose as high as 24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the
+range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had carried on his
+observations in compliance with my instructions, by means of
+thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in
+the current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68°
+to 72°·5 Fahr.); between Quilca and Callao, in January,
+1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to 74°·75 Fahr.); between
+Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39&#8242; S.) and Valparaiso, in
+August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825,
+from 18°·8 to 9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii">xxxiii</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In sailing from the Sandwich Islands to the west coast of
+America, the Imperial Expedition will have to choose between
+the Ports of San Francisco or Acapulco. The first choice
+would be of great mineralogical advantage for those regions
+of the United States, lying North of the river Gila.<a name="Anchor-3" id="Anchor-3"></a><a href="#Footnote-3" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 3.">[3]</a>
+Parallel with the chain of the Rocky Mountains, which,
+according to Marcou, contains up to the present day several
+volcanoes in full activity in its northern part (Lat. 46°
+12&#8242; N.), run single, and at certain points double ranges of
+coast chains from San Diego to Monterey, from 32° 15&#8242; N. to
+46° 45&#8242; N. They begin with the coast range specially
+so-called, which is a continuation of the high ridge of the
+Peninsula of Lower or Old California; after which, farther
+to the North, there follow in succession, first the Sierra
+Nevada di Alta California, between 36° and 38° N. the lofty
+Shasty mountains, and the Cascade Range, nearly twenty six
+miles distant from the littoral, including many high and
+active volcanoes, and extending far beyond Fuca Straits. The
+following are still in eruption:&mdash;Mount St. Elias (46° 2&#8242;
+N.); Mount Regnier, or Rainier, (46° 46&#8242;); and Mount Baker,
+(48° 48&#8242;.) These three active cones would be most
+conveniently visited by the geologist of the expedition from
+San Francisco, as would likewise the whole Cascade Range. We
+have as yet no certain intelligence as to the geology of the
+entire longitudinal auriferous valley of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv">xxxiv</a></span> Sacramento
+River, (where a trachytic crater, in a state of
+disintegration, is known as the Butt of Sacramento). Does
+the auriferous quartz occur in veins, and are these still
+<i>in situ</i>, or are they broken up? What description of rock
+is traversed by these veins? Does the wash-gold here contain
+occasionally, as in the Ural Mountains, fragments of
+vein-stones with isolated cavities, in which are found
+impressions of leaves and membranes, clearly proving that
+they have not been rolled, or transported by water, any
+great distance to the spot they now occupy? Have these been
+found, alongside of gold, diamonds, platinum, osmium,
+iridium, or mercury?</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-3" id="Footnote-3"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-3">[3]</a> The Gila falls into the Colorado about forty
+miles above the embouchure of the latter into the head of
+the Gulf of California.</p></div>
+
+<p>Should the frigate steer for Acapulco, it may be assumed
+that there exists an intention to cross the Continent to
+Mexico and Vera Cruz, from the volcano of Colima (1877
+toises) as it were, along the parallel of the range of
+volcanoes, and greatest heights rising in detached groups
+between the two seas, about the parallel of 19° N. New
+astronomical observations are greatly needed for determining
+the position of the volcanoes of Colima and Jorullo (667
+toises). The volcano of Colima, with its twin peaks <i>de
+fuego</i> and <i>de nieve</i>, should be carefully examined, as also
+the volcano of Jorullo, with the fragments of granite
+enclosed in its lava; the Nevado de Toluca (2372 toises),
+Popocatepetl (2772 toises), Itztaccihuatl (2456 toises),
+Cofre de Perote (2098 toises), and the volcano of Tuxtla
+(18° 28&#8242; N.), on the eastern slope of the Sierra St. Martin,
+from which a column of flame shot up with great violence on
+2nd March, 1793, a fair specimen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv">xxxv</a></span> what the Spaniards term
+<i>Malpays</i>, the Sicilians <i>Sciarra viva</i>. The face of the
+country is covered over with boulders of lava, at San
+Nicolas de los Ranchos, at the foot of Popocatepetl,
+adjoining the city of Puebla de los Angeles, after which, on
+the road from Puebla to Vera Cruz, will be observed two
+narrow strips of boulders of cooled basaltic lava, rich in
+olivine. Similar examples will be found at Parage de Carros,
+near Tochtilacuaja and Loma de Tablas, between Cancas and
+the Casas de la Hoja. The mere ascension of volcanic cones
+is geologically of far less importance, than the bringing
+away numerous specimens, carefully selected, of various
+trachytic rocks, which, by their oryctognostical
+composition, are characteristic of each volcano. I would
+nevertheless recommend that the Pico del Fraile of the
+Toluca volcano (2372 toises) should be ascended, proper
+caution being used. From this very sharp peak, I brought
+away thin plates of trachyte perforated by lightning, and
+within the holes of a melted glassy surface, resembling
+those brought from Little Ararat. Both for the miner and
+geologist, an interesting and useful visit might be paid to
+the rich mines of Guanaxuato and the Mines de la Biscaina
+and Regla, on the road from Mexico to Real del Monte, so as
+to observe the close connection subsisting between the
+richer silver ores, occurring in trachytic porphyry without
+quartz, but with felspar, (glassy felspar?), and the
+thoroughly volcanic Cerro del Jakal, abounding in obsidian,
+and the Cerro de las Navajas (Razor Range), which remind one
+of the environs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi">xxxvi</a></span> Schemnitz, with the sole exception, that
+the trachytes "<i>porphyres meulières</i>" of Beudant, are
+wanting here.</p>
+
+<p>As it is highly desirable that considerable time should be
+devoted to the volcanoes of Quito, Peru, and Chili, it
+appears uncertain whether the course of the frigate, on
+leaving Acalpulco, will be shaped direct for Guayaquil, thus
+reversing the route taken by myself, or whether she will not
+touch at some of the central American ports&mdash;Realejo or
+Sonsonate. The crowded series of volcanoes in Central
+America, of which no less than eighteen, conical or
+dome-shaped, may be considered as still in active eruption,
+would yield a rich harvest of facts of all kinds in
+elucidation of the theory of volcanic action, such as have
+never hitherto been sufficiently taken advantage of. We are
+still in need of the mineralogical determination of the
+rocks, while the form and situation of the mountain masses
+have been well described by Squier, Oersted, and other
+modern travellers. The greater number, indeed, of the
+eruptions of scoriæ and slag were unaccompanied by streams
+of lava, as, for example, those of Mount Isalco, abounding
+in ammonia. But recently eye-witnesses have furnished us
+with quite different accounts regarding these eruptions, in
+the case of several volcanoes&mdash;as the Nindiri (a twin
+volcano with that called Massaya), on which Dr. Scherzer has
+lately shed much light; the Volcano el Nuevo, erroneously
+called Volcano de las Pilas, that of Coseguina, situated on
+the Great Bay of Fonseca, and that of San Miguel de
+Bosotlan, from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii">xxxvii</a></span> there flowed an extensive stream of
+lava in July 1844. It would be most tempting to pass by land
+from Mexico southwards to Oaxaca, and thence to the Isthmus
+of Guasacualco or Tehuantepec, and Chiapas, so as to rejoin
+the frigate at Realejo or Sonsonate. Facts might be
+obtained, in such a journey, of great value in determining
+the dependence of geological phenomena on each other; but it
+is to be feared it would be attended with too much fatigue
+and loss of time. For similar reasons, it cannot be proposed
+that the scientific gentlemen attached to the Expedition,
+should leave the frigate for three or four months, when they
+reach Central America, in order to cross by rail the Isthmus
+of Panama, with the object of examining the Volcancitos of
+Turbaco and Gabra Zamba, both active, and thence ascend the
+Rio Magdalena from Carthagena de las Indias, as far as
+Honda, whence they could proceed by Bogotà and Popayan to
+Quitó.</p>
+
+<p>It will be also unavoidable to forego the examination of the
+sedimentary rocks, rich in fossils, between Honda, Bogotà
+and Ibagues, the Mastodon fields (<i>Campos del Gigante</i>), and
+the Salto de Tegumidama on the plateau of Bogotà, the wax
+palm (<i>Ceroxylon Andicola</i>), and the Azufrales of the Passo
+de Quindiu, the volcanoes of Tolima, measured by myself and
+ascended by Boussingault, and of Paramo de Ruiz (4° 15&#8242; N.),
+as also the two volcanoes of Popayan, the Puracé and the
+much more interesting but now extinct Sotará. As a middle
+course, I may suggest a disembarkation, not exactly at
+Guayaquil, but on the gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxviii" id="Page_xxxviii">xxxviii</a></span> and platinum coast of the Choco,
+near San Buenaventura, so as to proceed thence to Popayan,
+and afterwards return to the volcanoes of the province of
+Pasto, which are highly important, and so on to Quitó, by
+way of Guachucal, Tulcan, and Villa de Ibarra, rejoining the
+frigate only at Guayaquil.</p>
+
+<p>I believe, however, it would be more advisable to select
+Quitó as the starting-point, whence to examine the important
+elevated volcanic region De los Pastos (between 2° 20&#8242; and
+0° 56&#8242; N.), containing the volcano of the town of Pasto, the
+volcanoes of Tuguerres, Chiles and Cumbal, and the Azufral
+de Pasto, and not to land at any port of the Choco coast,
+not even from the Bahia de Cupica, which for half a century
+I have recommended in vain on account of its vicinity to the
+Rio Naipi, one of the tributaries of the Atrato. In drawing
+up a list of names of the volcanoes of the renowned lofty
+plateau of Quitó, I may include, Imbaburu, Cotocachi, Rucu,
+Pichincha, Antisana, the much-disputed question of the stony
+walls like streams of lava, on the east slope of Tana
+Volcan, and Reventazon de Ansango; Cotopaxi, with its
+strange inexplicable quarries of pumice, of Guapecho and
+Zumbalica, in the neighbourhood of Llactacunga and San
+Felipe, the pumice containing oligoclase, not glassy
+felspar, deposited in strata, like any rock <i>in situ</i> for a
+considerable distance on all sides of Cotopaxi; Tunguragua
+(mica slate), studded with garnets, and beds of granite,
+which dip under the former, and have themselves been pierced
+by the trachytes of Tungurahua at Rio Puela and the Hacienda
+de Ganace;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxix" id="Page_xxxix">xxxix</a></span> the hills of Moya, near the village of Pelilco,
+cast up in the celebrated earthquake of 7th February, 1797,
+and still in a state of activity; the Chimborazo, which M.
+Jules Rémy, accompanied by an Englishman named Princkley,
+was in the belief they had ascended, on the 3rd of November,
+1856, to the very summit, "<i>mais sans s'en douter</i>."
+Poggendorff, (Vol. X. p. 480), has clearly demonstrated that
+the boiling point given by Rémy for the summit, would not
+give 6544 mètres (little different from my own
+trigonometrical admeasurement of 6530 mètres), but fully
+7328 mètres. As I distrust my own half-barometical
+measurements, I have vainly implored travellers, these fifty
+years past, to have a new series of trigonometrical
+observations made of the summit of Chimborazo. The merit,
+then, of settling this moot point, it also remains for the
+members of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition to obtain.</p>
+
+<p>It would be important to examine the Sangay (16,068
+feet)&mdash;which, like Stromboli, is in constant activity, yet
+without any traces of lava-streams&mdash;on account of the grains
+of quartz discovered by Wisse in the trachytic boulders
+ejected by the volcano, which is of such rare occurrence in
+the trachytes out of Hungary; and also on account of the
+close vicinity of beds of granite and gneiss, which are
+broken through by the Sangay trachyte, forming an island, as
+it were, of not hardly two miles in breadth. Still more
+deserving of attention is the extinct volcano El Altar de
+los Collanes (Capac Urcù) a sketch of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xl" id="Page_xl">xl</a></span> which I presented in
+the atlas published in my "Kleine Schriften" (Plate V. p.
+461), formerly higher than Chimborazo, and still (?) 16,380
+feet. Not a single specimen of its trachyte has ever been
+deposited in a European museum. The Altar itself is readily
+accessible from Riobamba Nuevo. In its vicinity may also be
+seen mica slate and gneiss, cropping out at the Paramo del
+Hatillo near Guamote, and Teocaxas, which are so seldom
+fallen in with in the highlands of Quitó. Tradition relates
+that gold-mines were worked here during the days of the
+Incas, in the neighbourhood of volcanic trachytes. From the
+Altar the geologist might proceed, by way of San Luis,
+(Query, whether the primitive clay-slate found here be of
+the Silurian formation?) and Guamote, to Paramo del Assuay
+(2428 toises), and Cuenca, as far as Atausca (2° 13&#8242; S.),
+where an immense mass of sulphur, lying in a quartz seam is
+worked, forming a bed in the mica slate. Of what rock does
+the easily accessible Cayambe Urcù (18,170 feet) consist,
+crossing the Equator, S.E. of Otavalo? <i>En route</i> from Quitó
+to Cayambe, the rich deposits of obsidian near Quinche
+should also be inspected, which furnished the large mirrors
+to the Incas, and farther to the north of which are the
+volcanoes of Los Pastos, which form a separate system by
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>For examining the rocks and exploring the volcanoes of
+Southern Peru and Bolivia&mdash;respecting which see the last
+edition of Pentland's Maps, not those published between 1830
+and 1848, in which the height of Sorata was indicated at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xli" id="Page_xli">xli</a></span>
+3949 toises (25,257 feet), and Illimani at 3753 toises
+(24,004), and accordingly both as much more lofty than
+Chimborazo, which is 3350 toises (21,426 feet)&mdash;the best
+starting-point would be the port of Arica, which may be
+reached, sailing the whole distance against the cold
+current, from Guayaquil, after a short stay at Callao de
+Lima. Of the volcanoes of Peru and Bolivia only three are
+now active.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a.</i>) The volcano of Arequipa, three miles N.E. of the town
+of the same name, which, according to Pentland and Rivero,
+is situated about 7366 feet above the level of the sea. The
+measurements of M. Dolley, of the French navy, which were
+published under my superintendence, give the summit of the
+volcano as 10,348 feet above the town of Arequipa, so that
+its total elevation above the sea would be 17,714 feet. In
+the table of heights for Mrs. Somerville's "Physical
+Geography," Mr. Pentland speaks of the summit as being
+20,320 English feet in height, or 19,065 Paris feet, closely
+approximating to the old trigonometrical measurement (19,080
+feet) given by Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian, who accompanied
+the expedition of Malaspina, in 1769. What a deplorable
+state for the science of hypsometry to be in! which the
+<i>Novara</i> ought to put an end to. Samuel Anzon, a North
+American, in 1811, and Dr. Weddell, in 1847, have ascended
+the volcano of Arequipa.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b.</i>) Sahama (18° 7' S.), according to Pentland's new map
+of 1848, is 871 feet higher than Chimborazo (which he gives
+as 20,970 feet), and is still active. The true heights of
+Illimani<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlii" id="Page_xlii">xlii</a></span> and Sorata, ascertained since 1848, are, instead
+of 3949 and 3753 respectively, only 3329 toises (21,266
+English feet), and 3307 toises (21,145 English feet).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c.</i>) Volcano Gualatieri, in the Bolivian province of
+Carangas (18° 25&#8242; S.), height 20,604 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The southern group of South American volcanoes, that, of
+Chili, presents the largest number of active
+fire-mountains&mdash;only second, indeed, to that of Central
+America, there being from eleven to thirteen. In order to
+increase the geological exploration of this region which has
+been so well prepared by the memorable expedition under
+Captain Fitzroy, in the ships <i>Adventure</i> and <i>Beagle</i>, the
+excellent generalizing theories of Mr. Darwin, and the naval
+astronomical expedition of Mr. Gilliss, for 1849-51, the
+<i>Novara</i> will probably land at Valparaiso. A great
+desideratum between Coquimbo and Valparaiso is an exact
+measurement of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>A</i>. The volcano of Aconcagua (32° 39&#8242; S.). Its height has
+been stated, in 1835, by Captain Fitzroy, as 21,767 feet,
+Pentland's correction assigning 22,431 feet; while Captain
+Kellet, of the frigate <i>Herald</i>, gives it as 21,584 feet.
+Miers and Darwin are both of opinion that the Aconcagua is
+still in activity, which is denied by Pentland and Gilliss.
+The most recent measurement of Aconcagua&mdash;that by Pissis in
+1854 (see Gilliss, Vol. I. p. 63)&mdash;makes the height 20,924
+feet. M. Pissis has published, in the "Anales de la
+Universidad de Chili," for 1852, the geodetical elements of
+his survey, which is based upon eight triangles. Aconcagua
+being probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliii" id="Page_xliii">xliii</a></span> the highest mountain in the New World, a new
+measurement is eminently desirable. Neither Dhawalagiri,
+with his 4930 toises, nor Kintsinjunga, measured by Colonel
+Waugh, with his 4406 toises, are any longer considered the
+highest mountains in the Himalaya range, but the Deodunga
+(Mount Everest), which is 29,003 English feet, equal to
+27,212 Paris feet, or 4535 toises.</p>
+
+<p><i>B.</i> The volcano Maipu (34° 17&#8242; S., height 16,572 feet),
+ascended by Meyen. The trachytic rock on the summit has
+broken through the Jurassic strata, in which Leopold von
+Buch has ascertained, from heights of 9000 feet, the
+existence of <i>Exogyra couloni</i>, <i>Trigonia costata</i>, and
+<i>Ammonites biplex</i>. This volcano has no streams of lava, but
+only eruptions of volcanic slags. It would be most desirable
+that Dr. Hochstetter should examine this remarkable
+protrusion of dislocated strata.</p>
+
+<p><i>C.</i> The volcano Antuco (37° 7&#8242; S.), the geology of which
+was described by Pöppig, is a lofty basaltic crater, having
+a trachytic cone rising up in its centre to an elevation of
+8672 feet. It was observed in full activity by Domeyko in
+1845. Gilliss gives an account of an eruption in 1853.
+According to Domeyko, a fresh-burning cone was thrown up on
+the 25th of November, 1847, which remained in activity for a
+whole year. Molina considers the Nevada Descabezado (35° 1&#8242;
+S.), ascended by Domeyko, to be the highest mountain in
+Chili; but its height is estimated by Gilliss at only 12,300
+feet. The most southerly volcanoes are the still active
+Corcovado<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xliv" id="Page_xliv">xliv</a></span> (43° 12&#8242; S.), 7046 feet; Yanteles (43° 29&#8242; S.),
+7534 feet; and the Volcan de San Clemente, opposite the
+granite formation on the peninsula of Tres Montes. Still
+further south, in 51° 41&#8242; S., another, the Volcan de los
+Gigantes, is laid down on the old maps of South America, by
+La Cruz Olmedella, as opposite the archipelago of La Madre
+de Dios.</p>
+
+<p>Should the <i>Novara</i> return to Europe through the Straits of
+Maghellanes, it would be very desirable the members of the
+Expedition should visit the locality from which Prince Paul
+of Würtemberg, after long zoological travels through North
+America, has, within the last year, brought back to Germany
+a very large collection of specimens.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether, I calculate the number of active volcanoes on
+the surface of the earth to be upwards of 225&mdash;one-third of
+which, or 75, are upon the various continents, and the
+remainder upon the insular world. The Western Continent has
+53 active volcanoes&mdash;of which, North-Western America, north
+of the river Gila, has 5; Mexico, 4; Central America, 18;
+South America about 26. Viewing the globe as a whole, there
+presents itself an extensive oblique region in which
+volcanoes most abound, stretching from S.E. to N.W. in the
+more westerly part of the Pacific, between 75° W. and 125°
+E. of Paris, and between 47° S. and 66° N. In this region,
+the fused elements of the interior of our earth may be said
+to be most permanently in communication with the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest attention should be paid, with the view of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlv" id="Page_xlv">xlv</a></span>
+improving them, to the sections and maps of Chili, contained
+in the work, "Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of Rio de la
+Plata," published in 1852 by Sir Woodbine Parish, and still
+more so, to that entitled "Map of the Republic of Chili,
+compiled from the Surveys of Gilliss, Pissis, Allen,
+Campbell, and Claude Gay, between 23° and 44° S., as
+contained in Gilliss' 'United States Astronomical
+Expedition, 1847-52 Washington, 1855.'"</p>
+
+<p>The chief object to be aimed at by the <i>Novara</i>, with
+respect to scientific enquiry, seems to me to be the
+formation of a collection in the Geological Institute of
+Vienna, in comparison to which all the collections which at
+present aspire to be considered rich in volcanic specimens,
+(such as those of Berlin, Paris and London), should appear
+to be insignificant. In all periods of history, travellers
+are only the representatives of the state of knowledge of
+their own time, and consequently, collections always present
+the readiest means of promulgating new discoveries by
+oryctognostical examination or chemical analysis. In order
+to set on foot a grand Volcanic Museum, it would be
+necessary to bring home from every one of the volcanoes
+visited, not less than 10 or 12, but still better 15 or 18,
+specimens of the porphyritic trachytes, all carefully
+selected, well-shaped, containing crystals not
+disintegrated, and of sufficient size to admit of a fresh
+fracture being made. For such quantities, however, there
+cannot be provided on board ship, even with the kindest
+patronage of the commanding officer, sufficient space for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlvi" id="Page_xlvi">xlvi</a></span>
+the accumulations of two years' arduous efforts in forming a
+collection. The greatest part, therefore, should be sent by
+other conveyance to Trieste, the most secure channel being
+through the consuls of the Austrian Empire, or those of
+allied powers, or through the medium of British, Dutch or
+American mercantile establishments, or by the regular
+packets.</p>
+
+<p>Duplicates, say four or five specimens, from each volcano,
+should be taken on board the <i>Novara</i> in boxes of about 3
+feet long. It would be too disheartening to have any
+misgivings of the success of this glorious scheme for
+getting together a Museum of Volcanic Rocks in Vienna, of
+all the regions of the globe, arranged upon a regular
+geographical system, each labelled with its own name, so as
+to promote a general acquaintance with these branches of
+knowledge:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+1. Europe.<br />
+2. Atlantic Islands.<br />
+3. Continent of Asia, South Coast of Arabia (Aden), Kamtschatka.<br />
+4. Islands of Eastern Asia and India.<br />
+5. The Indian Ocean.<br />
+6. The Pacific.<br />
+7. Continent of South America: Chili, Peru, Bolivia, Quitó and New Grenada.<br />
+8. Central America.<br />
+9. Mexico, south of the river Gila.<br />
+10. North-Western America, north of the river Gila.<br />
+11. West Indies.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlvii" id="Page_xlvii">xlvii</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Much of this work might be done on board the <i>Novara</i>. As to
+Nos. 3 and 4, Kamtschatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands,
+the Red Sea, and the West Indies, it will not be difficult
+to procure specimens at some future period.</p>
+
+<p>Our piping times of peace are favourable to the execution of
+this project, which should be zealously kept in view
+throughout the Expedition. Travelling as I was, during the
+great wars, I did not dare shrink from the difficulty of
+having to carry along with me 44 large boxes, as I did on
+the road through Mexico from Acapulco to Vera Cruz, whence
+they were sent to Cuba, Philadelphia, and so to Bordeaux.
+The mechanical labour of having the collections carefully
+packed, keeping duplicates distinct, and sending away
+geological, botanical, zoological and ethnographical
+collections, is itself quite as important as the purely
+scientific work.</p>
+
+<p>The exhibition of comprehensive volcanic collections brings
+to light the strong analogy subsisting between the trachytes
+belonging to volcanoes, far distant from one another, while
+it indicates the existence of great differences in the
+mineralogical composition of volcanoes situated very near
+each other. My most excellent friend and fellow-traveller in
+Siberia, Professor Gustavus Rose, recently subjected the
+trachytes of the Berlin Museum, the greater number of which
+were collected by myself, to careful crystallographical and
+chemical investigation. He found oligoclase and pyroxene on
+the trachytes of Chimborazo, Popocatepetl,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlviii" id="Page_xlviii">xlviii</a></span> Colima,
+Tunguragua, Puracé, Paramo de Ruiz, and the Peak of
+Teneriffe, which has recently been accurately examined by
+Mr. Charles Deville. The trachytes of Toluca, Orizaba,
+Gunung Barang, and Burung Agung, on the Island of Java,
+Argæus, in Asia Minor, Cuneguilla, south of Sta. Fé de
+Nuevo-Mexico, the Sièrra de San Francisco, west of the Rocky
+Mountains and Pueblo Zuni, consist of hornblende,
+oligoclase, and brown mica. The trachytes of Stromboli and
+Etna, those of the Siebengebirge (Drachenfels), and of Kara
+Hissar in Phrygia, consist of large crystals of glassy
+felspar, with numerous smaller crystals of oligoclase, some
+hornblende and mica. Oligoclase, having been mistaken for
+albite, led to the fantastic idea of a peculiar rock, the
+<i>Andesite</i>, prevailing in the Andes, and even led our great
+master, Leopold von Buch, to make some curious distinctions,
+(Déscription des Iles Canaries, 1836, pp. 186-87.)</p>
+
+<p>To ascertain the average height above the level of the sea,
+I propose that furrows should be cut in the rocks of the
+different regions along with inscriptions, which might carry
+information to unborn ages, as has been done, on my
+suggestion, now some 25 years ago, by the Academy of Science
+at St. Petersburg, on the Caspian Sea, while Sir James Ross,
+in his "Voyage of Discovery in the Southern and Antarctic
+Regions," 1839-43, Vol. II. p. 23, regrets not having done
+so, or, at least, of having only once adopted this plan.</p>
+
+<p>I would also, with all deference, suggest observations
+regarding the daily atmospheric variations or tides, so as
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xlix" id="Page_xlix">xlix</a></span> obtain tables of <i>maxima</i> and <i>minima</i>. In order to
+obtain these, whenever the frigate is at anchor near any
+coast, but particularly within the tropics, hourly
+observations with the barometer and thermometer (the latter
+affixed to the barometer, and also freely suspended in the
+open air), should be made through several consecutive days
+and nights. During the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis (or
+Australis), attention should be paid to the perturbations of
+the magnetic variation, and the magnetic intensity of the
+horizontal needle. Boreal Auroras have been seen in the
+southern latitudes of the Peruvian Pacific, as low down as
+12° 13&#8242; S.; but the occurrence of such phenomena there is of
+much less frequent occurrence than that of Austral Auroras
+in Scotland. It is important to keep an exact register of
+the intensity of blackness in the "coalbags," when the
+smallest stars surrounding them are still visible to the
+naked eye. The daily meteorological observations, as also
+those on the temperature of the sea, will probably be made
+on board ship, in conformity with the views of Lieutenant
+Maury, and the method agreed upon at the last nautical
+congress.</p>
+
+<div>&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p>As I shall have long ceased to be numbered with the living,
+when the <i>Novara</i> returns to Trieste, richly freighted with
+scientific treasures of all kinds, with fresh information
+relating to organic and inorganic nature, to the races of
+man, their habits and languages, I now pray to Almighty God
+that His blessing may rest upon this great and noble
+enterprise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_l" id="Page_l">l</a></span> to the honour of our common German Fatherland!
+And concluding, in this night, these oblique, illegible
+lines, I remember, not without emotion, and with very
+mingled feelings, that joyous period of my life when,
+fifty-eight years ago, in the beautiful gardens of
+Schönbrunn, preparing myself for a long journey, I was
+enjoying with grateful mind the friendly kindness of the
+venerable Jacquin and Peter Frank.</p>
+
+<div class="right">
+A. v. HUMBOLDT.
+</div>
+
+<p>Berlin, in the night of 7th April, 1857.</p>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+  width: 466px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu055.png');
+  background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu055" id="illu055"></a><a name="I" id="I"></a>
+  <span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">DEPARTURE.</span></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 466px; height: 392px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 185px; height: 240px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 235px; height: 30px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 277px; height: 30px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">I.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Preparations for the Voyage.</div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr" style="clear: none;">
+Approbation of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War
+for a Voyage round the World.&mdash;Object of the
+Expedition.&mdash;Appointment of a Scientific
+Commission.&mdash;Preparations.&mdash;Fitting out the Frigate <i>Novara</i>
+at Pola.&mdash;Departure for Trieste.&mdash;Visit of the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian on board.
+</div>
+
+<p style="clear: none;">In the autumn of 1856, His Majesty the Emperor was
+graciously pleased to approve of the proposal for a voyage
+round the world, as projected by his Imperial Highness the
+Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the head of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> Austrian
+navy, and to commission the sailing frigate <i>Novara</i> for
+that purpose, a vessel qualified to meet every requisite
+condition.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: none;">The chief object of the Expedition&mdash;a circumstance which
+must not be lost sight of&mdash;was to afford the officers and
+cadets of the ship an opportunity of acquiring that
+practical acquaintance with naval affairs which, added to
+the theoretical knowledge previously attained, would render
+them thoroughly familiar with nautical routine, and thus
+materially contribute to the further development of the
+Austrian navy.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: none;">This branch of the public service, placed since 1848 on an
+entirely new basis, has with difficulty worked its way
+through all those embarrassing circumstances inseparable
+from the organization of a new system; but the honest zeal
+and energy of the board appointed, supported by favour from
+the highest quarters, have succeeded in introducing many
+improvements, and in increasing by degrees the numerical
+strength of the men, thereby laying a secure foundation for
+the rising naval force, the importance of which, at this
+moment, every reflecting patriot will acknowledge.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: none;">The intended Expedition offered, besides the advantages for
+the service, another not less important for the State,
+namely, the recognition of the Austrian flag in remote
+quarters of the globe, to which it had never hitherto
+penetrated; and by thus opening new channels for the outlet
+of our natural products and manufactured goods, to promote
+the industrial, commercial, and maritime interests of the
+empire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In order to satisfy the scientific requirements of the age,
+the illustrious head of the navy issued orders, that the
+officers on board should in every way assist in the
+researches to be made, connected with navigation and
+geography; and was, moreover, pleased to invite the Imperial
+Academy of Sciences to nominate two members, he himself
+naming a third, to accompany the Expedition for the purpose
+of observing and investigating phenomena pertaining to the
+different branches of physical science, as well as
+collecting rare specimens and interesting objects of natural
+history. To this commission were ultimately attached a
+botanist, a practical zoologist, an artist, and a
+flower-gardener.</p>
+
+<p>The Academy had, for the guidance of these gentlemen, drawn
+up instructions which, with a multitude of other papers
+containing useful hints and interesting queries, received
+from the Imp. Geographical, Geological, and Medical
+Societies, as well as from numerous foreign and native
+scientific men, formed a most valuable collection of
+materials for the purposes of the Expedition.<a name="Anchor-4" id="Anchor-4"></a><a href="#Footnote-4" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 4.">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-4" id="Footnote-4"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-4">[4]</a> Of these instructions, "The physical and
+geognostical remarks," with which the Nestor of natural
+science honoured the voyagers of the <i>Novara</i>, being of a
+more general interest, are published at the end of this
+volume, together with the facsimile of an autograph letter
+of Baron von Humboldt to the commander of the Expedition.</p></div>
+
+<p>Foremost amongst these <i>savans</i> stood Alexander von
+Humboldt, that illustrious man, who up to the last moment of
+his existence was alive with youthful enthusiasm for every
+scientific enterprise. In England great interest in the
+success of the Expedition was evinced by Sir Roderic
+Murchison, Sir W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> Hooker, Sir Charles Lyell, General
+Sabine, Admiral Smyth, Admiral Fitzroy, Professor Robert
+Owen, Professor Philips, Professor Bell, Professor W. A.
+Ramsay, Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh, W. J. Hamilton,
+Esq., Charles Darwin, Esq., L. Horner, Esq., James Yates,
+Esq., B. Davis, Esq., &amp;c., &amp;c. From the United States of
+North America, we received most valuable communications from
+Commander M. F. Maury, National Observatory, Washington,
+D. C.&mdash;Captain Rodgers, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Letters of introduction were received from Germany, and
+particularly from England, to influential parties and
+societies in a variety of places abroad, amongst which were
+many warm and friendly recommendations from the English
+Government and Admiralty, as well as the Directors of the
+then East India Company, to various administrative
+authorities in the British Colonies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 661px;"><a name="illu058" id="illu058"></a>
+<img src="images/illu058.jpg" width="661" height="305" alt="A portion of the gun deck has been converted to a lounge." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GUN-ROOM OF THE NOVARA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frigate <i>Novara</i> was laid up in the arsenal of Pola,
+where all requisite steps were taken to complete her outfit,
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> prepare her thoroughly for the voyage. The ventilation
+of the lower deck was improved, and the number of cabins
+increased in proportion to the number of individuals for
+whom accommodation was to be provided.</p>
+
+<p>The gun-room was, by command of the Archduke, converted into
+a reading-room, and provided with a well-selected library as
+well as with all the charts and maps necessary for the
+information of the officers, who here made their
+calculations and executed their drawings.</p>
+
+<p>The store-rooms for the sails and tackle were enlarged, so
+as to hold a double quantity.</p>
+
+<p>A distilling apparatus, the same as patented by M. Rocher,
+of Nantes, was fixed on the gun-deck, and being placed in
+connection with the ship's coppers, it was found that,
+during the few hours each day that the latter were used for
+cooking, enough sea-water was distilled to supply the entire
+ship's company with excellent water to drink. This distilled
+water, after having been kept in iron tanks for a month, was
+found pleasant to the taste, and agreed very well with the
+health. The excellent health enjoyed by all the crew
+throughout the voyage must, in a great measure, be ascribed
+to the circumstance, that scarcely any other but this
+distilled sea-water was used, so that the men were enabled
+entirely to forego drinking river or spring-water, which in
+the tropics are frequently found injurious.</p>
+
+<p>The use of such an apparatus permits a great diminution in
+the store of water usually carried by a vessel. The space<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span>
+gained by this diminished bulk of water, enabled us to take
+on board a larger cargo of coal and provisions, such as
+preserved beef and compressed vegetables. The sailors were
+not, however, particularly fond of the preserved beef,
+because in cooking it loses a great part of its flavour
+(though the broth is strong and good); nor does it seem as
+an article of diet to have had a particularly beneficial
+influence on the health, for the sanitary condition of the
+crew was equally satisfactory, and the number of scorbutic
+patients not materially increased when, towards the end of
+the voyage, the fresh stores were exhausted, and only salt
+and pickled rations were issued.</p>
+
+<p>Compressed dried vegetables were of great benefit to the
+health of our men, and cannot be sufficiently recommended.
+The so-called <i>melange d'équipage</i> of Chollet, as well as
+<i>sauer kraut</i>, potatoes, and other vegetables, have an
+excellent taste, improve the soups when mixed with them, and
+are easily preserved, provided they be protected from the
+effect of damp. Hence it might be advisable to keep them
+enclosed in well-soldered tin boxes. The price of these
+vegetables is so moderate, that it is surprising they are
+not more generally employed.</p>
+
+<p>The long-continued satisfactory state of health of the crew
+must also partly be sought for in the constant use of
+shower-baths. For this purpose, apertures, three-quarters of
+an inch in diameter, were bored in the planks of both the
+deck and forecastle, under which a perforated disc could be
+screwed, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> above which a pail of water was placed. By
+these simple means every one was enabled to enjoy the luxury
+of a bath; when, however, the desire for that refreshment
+became general, so that the arrangement above-mentioned was
+insufficient, a hand fire-engine was made use of, so as to
+accommodate as many at once as might present themselves&mdash;a
+process which found great favour with the jolly tars, as
+affording abundant opportunities for fun and merriment.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="illu061t" id="illu061t"></a>
+<img src="images/illu061t.jpg" width="350" height="109" alt="Shows the arrangement of the space onboard." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE &quot;NOVARA.&quot;</span><br />
+<a href="#illu061" name="illuref061">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frigate <i>Novara</i> had been placed on the stocks in the
+arsenal of Venice in the month of February, 1845, and was
+launched in April, 1850. She was pierced for 42 guns, but
+during the voyage carried only thirty 30-pounders,<a name="Anchor-5" id="Anchor-5"></a><a href="#Footnote-5" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 5.">[5]</a> and
+four of smaller calibre.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-5" id="Footnote-5"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-5">[5]</a> The 30-pounder marine guns answer very nearly
+to the English 32-pounders.</p></div>
+
+<p>The principal dimensions of the frigate (Vienna measurement)
+are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col style="text-align: left" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Length between perpendiculars</td><td>165</td><td>feet</td><td>5&frac12;</td><td>inches.<a name="Anchor-6" id="Anchor-6"></a><a href="#Footnote-6" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 6.">[6]</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Length of water line</td><td>156</td><td>"</td><td>5</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Greatest breadth</td><td>44</td><td>"</td><td>11&frac12;</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Greatest breadth on water line</td><td>43</td><td>"</td><td>2</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Depth of hold</td><td>19</td><td>"</td><td>&frac34;</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Draught of water aft</td><td>18</td><td>"</td><td>9</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Draught of water fore</td><td>17</td><td>"</td><td>5&nbsp;<sup>2</sup>&frasl;<sub>3</sub></td><td>"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-6" id="Footnote-6"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-6">[6]</a> 96&nbsp;<sup>423</sup>&frasl;<sub>1000</sub> Austrian feet = 100 English.</p></div>
+
+<p>The superficial area of the ship, or the load-water line,
+amounted to 5685.35 square feet; quantity of water displaced
+2107 Austrian, or 2630 English tons. The superficial area of
+the principal sails amounted to 18,291 square feet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The frigate proved herself to be an excellent sailer, as, of
+the various vessels which, throughout the voyage, sailed in
+company with us, only three clippers outstripped her.</p>
+
+<p>The question may here be asked, why, in the present state of
+navigation, a sailing-vessel was preferred to a steamer for
+this voyage? The principal consideration which decided this
+selection was the greater disposable area which a
+sailing-vessel offers in comparison with a steamer of the
+same dimensions, in which coal and machinery occupy so large
+a space. On the present occasion, it will be perceived that
+what was specially wanted was room for as great a number of
+officers, cadets, and men as possible, who were, as has been
+stated, to make this voyage for improvement in nautical
+affairs. Plenty of space was also required for the numerous
+instruments and bulky collections of objects of natural
+history; while in most parts of the ocean which we were to
+traverse, the winds blow so regularly, that, with very rare
+exceptions, sails form the best motive power. The expense of
+fuel requisite for a steamer, and the trouble of replacing
+it during the voyage, are thus saved; whilst, finally, the
+space occupied by the men employed in the management of the
+machinery, and that required for the stowage of special
+stores, would be withdrawn from more important objects.</p>
+
+<p>After the frigate had been properly fitted up in the arsenal
+of Pola, she sailed on the 15th March, 1857, for Trieste,
+where she cast anchor on the 17th in the Bay of Muggia.
+H.I.M.'s corvette <i>Caroline</i>, likewise fitted out at Pola
+for a voyage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> to the coast of South America and Western
+Africa, followed in her wake, and it was now seen that the
+frigate was a better sailer than the corvette, a
+circumstance so much the more satisfactory, that the latter
+had hitherto been considered the swiftest ship in our navy.</p>
+
+<p>The unfavourable state of the weather interfered so much
+with the works which were to be finished at Trieste, that
+the embarkation of provisions, swinging the compasses, &amp;c.,
+&amp;c., could only be proceeded with very slowly.</p>
+
+<p>At last, the members of the Commission arrived, and the
+vessel only waited for sailing orders.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving on so interesting an enterprise, with which
+the most pleasing recollections of our lives will ever be
+associated, we had the gratification of being honoured by a
+visit on board from the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian. The
+commander of the Expedition introduced the officers and
+scientific gentlemen to his Imperial Highness, who addressed
+them in affecting terms, and concluded his remarks by
+expressing a hope that the frigate <i>Novara</i> would, with
+God's help, return happily from her mission to her own
+honour and that of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative of the voyage is now presented, and, probably,
+the results of the various scientific investigations will
+very shortly be offered to a discerning public, leaving it
+to them to judge how far we have succeeded in realizing the
+hopes of the illustrious Prince. But if we have not
+satisfied all the expectations entertained, it certainly was
+not from insufficiency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> of means; for everything was
+complete in that respect, and we owe it chiefly to the
+circumspection and kind care of the Commander-in-chief of
+our navy, that this enterprise had been so wisely planned,
+and its details brought in so short a time to such a degree
+of perfection that, during the whole voyage, it was not
+found necessary to make the slightest alteration in the
+original arrangements and regulations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 594px;"><a name="illu065" id="illu065"></a>
+<img src="images/illu065.png" width="594" height="330" alt="Sextant, dividers, telescope etc. on a table." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GEODETICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+width: 553px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu067.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu067" id="illu067"></a><a name="II" id="II"></a>
+<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">LOOK-OUT MAN.</span></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 551px; height: 353px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 180px; height: 18px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 163px; height: 102px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 153px; height: 47px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 166px; height: 120px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 151px; height: 17px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 131px; height: 43px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">II.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">From Trieste to Gibraltar.</div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+Departure.&mdash;Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.&mdash;A Man lost and
+found again.&mdash;Passage through the Straits of Messina.&mdash;The
+Steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> returns to Trieste.&mdash;Regulations and
+Instructions for further Proceedings.&mdash;A Day on Board the
+<i>Novara</i>.&mdash;Sunrise.&mdash;Cleaning the Ship.&mdash;Mental and physical
+occupation.&mdash;Moonlight at sea.
+</div>
+
+<p>The departure of the frigate was fixed for the 30th April,
+1857, and H.I.M.'s corvette <i>Caroline</i>, Captain Kohen, was
+ordered to accompany her as far as the coast of South
+America. H.I.M's steamer, <i>Sta. Lucia</i>, Captain von Littrow,
+received orders to tow both ships as far as the extremity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>
+of the Straits of Messina to avoid loss of time, such as
+frequently arises in the Adriatic during the spring, from
+calms and unfavourable winds.</p>
+
+<p>With the dawn of the day fixed for the departure of the
+ships, all was bustle on board; craft of all kinds hovered
+around, and relatives and friends had assembled in great
+numbers to take leave. The verdant and thickly-wooded slopes
+of the promenade to St. Andrea, near the shore, were
+thronged with spectators, and the fair and lovely picture of
+our native coast developed itself once more before our eyes,
+clad in all its charms of spring, as if to wish us a hearty
+farewell, an auspicious voyage, and a happy return!</p>
+
+<p>At 8 o'clock <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> we weighed anchor, and the steamer <i>Sta.
+Lucia</i> approached the <i>Novara</i> for the purpose of towing her
+from the Bay of Muggia into the roads of Trieste. She had
+all her colours displayed, and saluted the city of Trieste,
+Austria's chief and most important emporium, with 21 guns.
+The salute was answered from the castle, whilst the band on
+board struck up Haydn's beautiful hymn: "God preserve the
+Emperor!" The frigate moved out of the road-stead,
+accompanied by a great number of boats, and followed by the
+best wishes of the numerous crowds assembled on shore, and
+of all true patriots, who looked upon this Expedition as a
+cheering evidence that a new and energetic spirit of
+enterprise had arisen in their native country.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate066t" id="plate066t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate066t.jpg" width="350" height="205" alt="Map of track." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE I.&mdash;TRACK FROM TRIESTE TO MADEIRA.</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate066.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The corvette <i>Caroline</i>, which was waiting outside the
+roads, was attached to the frigate, and soon Trieste
+appeared like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span> a dim cloud on the distant horizon. The
+outlines of the Carinthian Alps became fainter, and the
+excitement of the parting scene was calmed by that busy
+activity required from every one embarking on a long voyage,
+if he desires to attain any degree of comfort, however
+little, in the cramped and limited space of a crowded ship.</p>
+
+<p>A perfect calm, a smooth sea, and a but-slightly-clouded
+sky, prognosticated fair weather, and promised leisure to
+complete those arrangements which had been left undone. The
+steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> performed her task of towing the two
+vessels most satisfactorily, and, favoured by the prevailing
+currents of wind and water, we made five miles an hour, and
+came, on the day of departure, in sight of the promontory of
+Pola.</p>
+
+<p>The passage down the Adriatic was on the whole most
+pleasant, with the exception of some showers of rain near
+the heights of Isola Grossa; which, however, on this
+occasion saluted us only with a slight puff of wind. The
+ship moved so gently and quietly on her way, that those
+occupying the lower cabins could scarcely have fancied
+themselves at sea, had they not been made aware of it by
+other impressions.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of May, the crew became highly excited by a man
+being missed, when the morning watch was called. Some
+thought he had, from fear of a slight punishment hanging
+over him, jumped overboard, but as nothing of the kind had
+been observed by the watch on deck, every corner was
+searched, but without success, upon which the man was given
+over as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> lost. When, however, the dinner hour arrived, and
+the tables and benches were being removed from the lower
+deck, how great was the surprise, when the culprit was
+discovered crouching among them! A peal of laughter roused
+the poor fellow, who this time was let off with the fright
+and the punishment of being made an object of ridicule by
+his comrades.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd of May, being clear of the Adriatic, the steamer
+<i>Sta. Lucia</i> was at midnight despatched to Corfu to complete
+her store of coal, whilst we sailed for Cape Spartivento, on
+the Calabrian coast, which had been assigned as our
+<i>rendezvous</i>. On the 5th, we sighted this the most southerly
+promontory of Italy, when, in consequence of a fresh breeze,
+the sea began to make itself rather disagreeably felt. The
+novices on board became somewhat alarmed. A feeble voice was
+even heard, which endeavoured to prove from this phenomenon
+that man is a creature made for <i>terra firma</i>, and not for
+the watery element; but this excellent idea came rather
+late; mankind are obliged to submit to existing
+circumstances, and this thought alone held out some hope,
+that a longer stay on board would prove the best cure for
+the evil. Such indeed was the case; though pale faces, want
+of appetite, and even worse effects, were produced, whenever
+the ship made a heavier roll than usual. But these slight
+inconveniences of sea life became rarer and rarer, till at
+last they appeared only in really stiff gales. On the 7th
+the steamer <i>Sta. Lucia</i> returned and took us again in tow.</p>
+
+<p>The weather during our passage through the charming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span> straits
+of Messina was delightful. The colossal Etna exhibited in
+all its glory its snow-capped summit, gilded by the rays of
+the rising sun, and Messina shone with all the attractions
+of its splendid situation. The coast of this part of Italy
+is mostly bare and rugged, the broken outlines of the
+mountains imparting to the landscape that characteristic
+peculiarity which makes so deep an impression on the mind.
+We passed the famous Charybdis, in which a multitude of
+dolphins were disporting themselves. The neighbouring coast
+formed a brilliant panorama, and we kept so close in shore
+as to be able to distinguish the movements of the people.
+The appearance of our three goodly ships seemed to have
+attracted the attention of the inhabitants, for they stood
+in groups in the streets and squares of Reggio and Villa San
+Giovanni, saluting us by waving their handkerchiefs. When
+towards the evening we had passed the straits, we could
+descry the Neapolitan coast as far as Monte Bulgario, in the
+Bay of Policastro, and distinguish the imposing Stromboli,
+with its volume of smoke, far on the Western horizon.</p>
+
+<p>The following morning found us in sight of the small island
+of Alicudi, situated on the north of Sicily. The estimable
+captain of the <i>Lucia</i> came on board to take leave, on his
+return to Trieste. The steamer, being relieved of her
+burden, made her way briskly towards her destination; and,
+before an hour had elapsed, we could perceive nothing but a
+small streak of smoke in the haze of the horizon.</p>
+
+<p>With light breezes, we came, on the following day, in sight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span>
+of the island of Ustica. Sea-gulls (<i>Thalassidroma
+pelagica</i>) enlivened the scene, as they, from time to time,
+flew after the garbage thrown from the ship, or sought for
+sea-nettles and other small inhabitants of the sea's
+surface. These birds much resemble our land swallows, and
+their movements are so graceful, that one cannot but admire
+them, especially when they lightly touch the agitated water
+with their little webbed feet, and directly, as if repelled,
+withdraw. The muscular power of these feathered creatures is
+truly wonderful; they follow the ship for entire days
+continually on the wing, ever on the watch to snatch at the
+little food which the sea seems but scantily to supply to
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"><a name="illu072" id="illu072"></a>
+<img src="images/illu072.png" width="448" height="531" alt="Older helmsman and a youthful assistant with bemused expression." title="" />
+<span class="caption">&quot;PALINURUS&quot;.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whilst we were passing down the Mediterranean, a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> deal
+of time was employed in drawing up regulations, and in
+digesting all those instructions which had reached the
+Commander of the Expedition from all sides, and by which we
+were to be guided in our future proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>The scientific gentlemen were the first who received certain
+rules for their guidance; for, life on board a ship, and
+especially of a man-of-war, is so entirely different from
+that on shore,&mdash;the etiquette and usages practised appear,
+to those unused to the sea, so vexatious and annoying, that
+it was absolutely necessary to inform them of the
+regulations which are essential in order to keep so singular
+an organization as that of a ship at sea in working order.
+Erelong every one perceived, that the matutinal annoyance of
+holystoning the decks, the daily cleaning of everything on
+board, &amp;c., are measures of importance, which contribute
+materially to the preservation of the health of the crew,
+and that a strict observance of discipline is absolutely
+necessary to exercise their powers, and thus to fit them for
+all eventualities.</p>
+
+<p>For the better accommodation of the naturalists, a place on
+the lower gun-deck was fitted up for those operations which,
+on account of the limited space and noxious exhalations,
+could not well be performed in the cabins.</p>
+
+<p>We had a large quantity of alcohol on board, destined for
+the preservation of interesting objects of natural history.
+In order to prevent any calamity by fire arising therefrom,
+the whole quantity was put in a large iron tank placed in
+the hold, and covered over with sand. It will, however, be
+seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> in the sequel, that even this precaution proved
+insufficient to protect the ship from the ignition of this
+highly-combustible substance.</p>
+
+<p>The meteorological observations, and those connected with
+the physical geography of the sea, were entrusted to four
+officers, who, like those attached to the watches, had
+alternately to be at their posts, and had, at prescribed
+hours, to observe the barometer, thermometer, and
+psychrometer, as well as the temperature of the surface of
+the sea, the state of the sky and the ocean, and to note
+down the obtained results. One of the junior officers was
+intrusted with the nautical observations on shipboard, as
+well as the astronomical and magnetical on shore.</p>
+
+<p>The midshipmen were at the same time trained by study and
+practice, so as to enable them to assist the officers in
+their duties. Besides the men on the look-out, one of the
+midshipmen was employed on the same service. In stormy
+nights, when the wind is howling, and rain or snow falling,
+this post is certainly not very pleasant, but is, as may
+readily be imagined, most important.</p>
+
+<p>Life in the limited space of a ship, completely cut off from
+the external world, is so peculiar and interesting to those
+unacquainted with the sea, that we will endeavour to
+describe a day passed on board the <i>Novara</i>, from the
+instant when at daybreak the bustle and activity begin, till
+the late hour when night reminds one of repose, those sweet
+moments which carry the voyager to his distant home on the
+wings of a dream.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As the sonorous bell strikes the fifth hour of the morning,
+the crew are called on deck by the boatswain's whistle, the
+hammocks are slung up and stowed away, and the work begins.</p>
+
+<p>This is the busiest time of the day, and for the mere
+spectator the most uncomfortable. On all sides scouring,
+rubbing, sweeping are going on, floods of water are
+streaming along the decks, and he who is not as yet familiar
+with these cleaning processes, runs some risk of a ducking
+as soon as he makes his appearance outside his cabin. These
+morning ablutions are, however, indispensable evils on board
+ship, for cleanliness is a condition essential to the
+preservation of health, and even the quantity of humidity
+which penetrates the timber, and renders the air damp,
+appears to be less injurious than the omission of these
+daily scourings.</p>
+
+<p>When the cleaning of the various parts of the ship is
+finished, the idlers, and such of the officers as are off
+duty, appear on deck, whither people come to enjoy the fresh
+air, and to greet the opening day. It may, however, be
+permitted to observe, that a sunrise at sea, notwithstanding
+its various charms, is by far less imposing than the same
+scene on a lofty mountain, where the veil of night seems to
+vanish as if by magic, and luxuriant nature lies at our feet
+like a smiling infant awaking from a lovely dream. That wild
+majesty of scenery, that overpowering grandeur of gigantic
+mountain forms, such as one sees in the Swiss or Tyrolese
+Alps, is wanting at sea, where the rising sun pours his
+beams only over a boundless world of water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The sailors breakfast at 7, the officers at 8, and the
+Commander at 9. At the latter hour the bugle sounds the
+order to "clear the ship," when the cleaning of arms, guns,
+and all other articles of metal connected with the ship's
+armoury, begins. During this process the band plays cheerful
+airs, so that the work is done whilst keeping time with the
+music, which serves to lighten the labour. This duty
+requires to be completed within forty-five minutes, and
+terminates with an inspection of the men and their arms.</p>
+
+<p>This being over, officers and midshipmen off duty assemble
+together with the naturalists in the reading-room. Most of
+the books in the library referred to those countries likely
+to be visited by the Expedition, so that every one might
+previously obtain useful information relative to their
+physical, historical, and social conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The naturalists employ the greater part of the day in their
+cabins, noting down their observations, and preparing for
+those to be made in the course of the voyage. The crew are
+kept in activity by being drilled and otherwise occupied.</p>
+
+<p>The men dine at 12; the dinner of the officers is served up
+at 3, and that of the Commodore at half-past 3 o'clock <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>
+The remainder of the afternoon is spent in prosecuting the
+labours begun in the morning. Thus steals on the evening,
+when a general assemblage takes place on deck, for air and
+exercise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 644px;"><a name="illu077" id="illu077"></a>
+<img src="images/illu077.jpg" width="644" height="547" alt="Sailors lounging around on deck." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SEAMEN OFF DUTY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The occurrences of the day, the sunset, the curious
+formation of the clouds, or the bewitching beauty of a
+brilliant tropical sky at night, form interesting topics for
+lively discussion. It is, however, rather daring to
+institute a comparison between the splendour of the sky in
+the tropics and that of our higher latitudes. For, most men
+become more or less unjust towards the beauties of a new and
+foreign natural scenery, in consequence of their not being
+able to divest themselves of former impressions produced in
+them by phenomena of a similar nature. What impressions are,
+for instance, deeper in young and old, and excite more
+delightful recollections than the starry sky of home? And
+can it be disputed that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> association of ideas has a most
+powerful effect upon the impressions made by those phenomena
+of nature which are so peculiarly attractive and so deeply
+fixed in the human mind?</p>
+
+<p>The conversation generally becomes more lively on those
+evenings when the moon, placid friend of the sailor, appears
+on the distant horizon, shedding her silvery beams over the
+unbroken expanse of water. The influence which she exercises
+on the state of the weather, even the prejudices and
+superstitions connected with our satellite, offer subjects
+of interesting debate; involuntarily the mariner looks with
+grateful feelings towards that heavenly luminary, the mild
+soothing light of which diminishes the number of his anxious
+nights, protects him in present, warns him of remote
+dangers, and influences so powerfully that vast element on
+which he passes the greater part of his life. Indeed he who
+has ever spent a dark and stormy night on the ocean, when
+the ship, lashed by the fury of the waves, and borne
+resistlessly along, stands in constant peril of coming in
+violent collision with a vessel similarly circumstanced, or
+of being dashed to pieces on some iron-bound coast of rugged
+rock, easily comprehends and will excuse the sailor who
+ascribes to the moonlight somewhat of a supernatural and
+mysterious power.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner, and notwithstanding the continued sameness,
+days and months glide away like hours, until we again cast
+anchor, and only the work accomplished gives an idea of the
+length of time which has been passed at sea.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sunday alone breaks the monotony of life on board, when,
+after the diurnal cleaning of the ship, and the inspection
+of the crew, the officers, and all the men who are not on
+duty, assemble for divine service on the lower gun-deck,
+where the chaplain says mass on a temporary altar, whilst
+the ship's band performs sacred music. In the afternoon the
+men off duty amuse themselves for a couple of hours with the
+"<i>tombola</i>," a game much liked by our sailors. Between 6 and
+7 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> the band plays on deck, whilst the sailors are
+cutting grotesque figures to the music. The singular capers
+by which all evince their happiness; the good-humoured
+awkwardness with which each clings to the brawny arm of his
+companion; the mock graceful air those who enact the gentler
+sex assume in the dance, and, finally, the affected attitude
+with which the cavaliers bow to their partners as if they
+really were of the gentler sex&mdash;all this is most ludicrous
+and amusing. The playing the national dance "Monferina"
+always elicits a particularly hearty reception. There is a
+peculiar charm in national melodies, even though they awaken
+no political reminiscences like the Marseillaise, or the
+Rakoczy; they electrify alike the educated and the men of
+the people; a thousand pleasing recollections suddenly crowd
+into the memory, and when the well-known tunes strike the
+ear, the heart seems to live again in bygone times! As if
+touched by magic, the sailor from the Adriatic, as soon as
+the Monferina is struck up, seizes his neighbour by the arm
+with a noisy shout and hurls him about in wild hilarity; his
+thoughts seem as if flying towards his distant home, where,
+in the country inn, with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> buxom lass on his shoulder, he
+has waltzed away many a happy hour. The whole village, with
+all its familiar faces, seems to revive in his memory during
+the playing of the melody,&mdash;now he fills his glass; now he
+clinks it merrily with that of his companion; now he presses
+his sweetheart more closely to his side: Lo! suddenly a
+shrill whistle pierces the air, the music ceases, the call
+is heard "to fall in," and the yet dance-stricken sailor,
+suddenly, as if awakening from a sweet reverie, is once more
+standing on the deck of the <i>Novara</i>!</p>
+
+<p>The frigate, in the Mediterranean also, maintained her
+superiority as a sailer. The corvette <i>Caroline</i> was able to
+keep the prescribed distance from the <i>Novara</i> only by the
+latter reefing some of her sails. As some magnetic
+observations were to be made at Gibraltar, and, as we had to
+ascertain the results of the various chronometers on board,
+on the 12th of May we signalled the corvette to take her own
+time and rejoin us at Gibraltar, as we were anxious to avoid
+unnecessary detention.</p>
+
+<p>The acquisitions of the naturalists had, as yet, been very
+scanty: to their great annoyance they could not even obtain
+any of the tortoises, which, from time to time, approached
+the ship, though they were repeatedly fired at, and on one
+occasion a boat was launched, in the hope of catching some
+of them. The specimens which we saw were from fifteen to
+twenty inches in diameter; they mostly floated quietly on
+the surface, and seemed sleeping or basking themselves in
+the sun.</p>
+
+<p>The night of the 16th May was exceedingly boisterous,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span> and
+almost tangible darkness prevailed; thunder, lightning, and
+occasionally strong easterly squalls, raged furiously, and
+only subsided towards the morning, when it cleared up with
+fresh southerly breezes. Not being far from Cape de Gatt, on
+the Spanish coast, prudence required us to change course,
+and, during the continuance of stormy weather, to keep at a
+respectful distance from the shore. Here a merchantman,
+apparently an American, bore down so close upon us, that, in
+the darkness, an unpleasant collision seemed unavoidable.
+However, we tacked about, and thus, fortunately avoiding our
+dangerous neighbour, safely proceeded on our course.</p>
+
+<p>It is truly astonishing how often merchantmen, entirely
+forgetful of their own safety, from want of caution, or
+presumption, or it would occasionally seem, sheerly from
+acting upon peculiar and abnormal principles of navigation,
+wantonly expose ship, men, and cargo to many dangers, which
+might easily be avoided, particularly in cases where no
+tacking is required, and only a slight touch of the rudder
+would suffice to prevent a collision, which is always
+attended with danger to the smaller ship. In this respect
+the North Americans are very unpleasant neighbours on
+account of their national vanity, and the Dutch for their
+phlegmatic temperament and the indifference they evince on
+such occasions.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th of May, the small rocky island of Alboran, in
+the narrow part of the sea between Africa and Spain, was
+observed; being flat and without vegetation, it is scarcely
+perceptible, and the land-fall during the night should be
+carefully avoided. The erection of a lighthouse on this
+island<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> would certainly be regarded as a great boon by all
+who navigate the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of May, the sea suddenly assumed a peculiar
+orange colour; a dust-like covering was observed on the
+surface of the water, and at some depth white points might
+be seen, mingling with each other in the wake of the ship.
+Clouds of this orange-like matter appeared spread upon the
+sea, which thereby lost its usual transparency. On closer
+examination this phenomenon appeared to arise from a mass
+consisting of myriads of minute animalculæ, which had a
+yellow opaque kernel, the gelatinous covering of which was
+transparent and colourless. A quantity of sea-water
+impregnated with this matter, having been brought into a
+dark room, gave out a light, and when agitated, such
+brightness proceeded from it, as justified the anticipation
+that, during the night, the whole sea would be illuminated.
+Accordingly the wake of the ship was illuminated by a
+wonderful stream of light, in the depths of which larger
+masses of luminous matter could be discerned, whilst on the
+surface there was a sparkling and glittering, as if all the
+stars of the firmament were reflected in the water.</p>
+
+<p>This phosphorescence of the sea, for the explanation of
+which we are chiefly indebted to Professor Ehrenberg,
+proceeds for the most part from the emanations of light from
+molluscæ of the genus <i>Medusa</i>, and other living phosphoric
+animalculæ; sometimes, however, as for instance in Venice,
+it arises from the putrescent fibres of decayed molluscæ,
+and other organisms in a state of decomposition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the evening of the 20th the splendid Ceuta Light was
+seen, which, even at a distance of twenty miles, looks as if
+it were quite near. This lighthouse is of the utmost
+importance to ships emerging into the Atlantic from the
+Mediterranean, as the current is exceedingly powerful, and
+during the night is apt imperceptibly to carry a vessel out
+of her course. On the morning of the 21st, the ship lay in a
+calm before the rock of Gibraltar. Barren, gray, and gloomy
+rose now before our sight this rocky, gun-studded, colossal
+sentinel of that vigilantly-prudent, energetic, and jealous
+Power, which is so constantly seeking to extend her rule
+wherever her own interests are concerned, or where she
+thinks it advisable to make herself respected by other
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>A light breeze sprang up, and at half-past 3 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> the
+anchorage, eleven and a half fathoms in depth, was reached.
+The frigate now lay in front of the Alameda or public
+gardens of Gibraltar, situated near the town gate, called
+the Ragged Staff. This anchorage is tolerably safe at this
+season, but in autumn and winter, as well as generally in
+strong easterly winds, it is not to be recommended, it being
+preferable to haul further in towards the place where the
+merchant-vessels usually lie. We saluted the English flag on
+the fortress with twenty-one guns, which were immediately
+answered from the ramparts. There were no English men-of-war
+in the Roads, except the sloop <i>Curlew</i>, Capt. Horton. The
+following morning our consort, the <i>Caroline</i>, anchored in
+our vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>The first day of the arrival of a man-of-war in harbour is
+attended with much inconvenience, particularly if she
+carries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> the flag of the Commodore, or it happens that the
+mail packets are arriving or departing, or that there are
+many ships of war in the Roads. The latter was not now the
+case, but so many visitors, letters, and newspapers arrived
+at once, that neither the one nor the other could be
+thoroughly enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p>The local authorities, the governor, Sir James Fergusson, at
+their head, were extremely obliging and attentive; Mr.
+Falkland, an officer of the Engineers, was placed at our
+disposal; a specially-reserved site was assigned us for
+astronomical and magnetical observations; huts were erected
+by the workmen of the arsenal for the protection of the
+instruments, and in short everything, calculated to promote
+scientific labours, was provided. The Chancellor of the
+Austrian Consulate, Mr. John Frembly, himself a geologist,
+proved likewise to be of great service to our scientific
+men: and it was considered a fortunate omen to have found,
+at this our first anchorage, so much sympathy with the
+objects of the Expedition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 659px;"><a name="illu084" id="illu084"></a>
+<img src="images/illu084.jpg" width="659" height="385" alt="Mountain emerging from the sea." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIEW OF GIBRALTAR FROM SEAWARD.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+  width: 444px; height: 701px; background-image: url('images/illu085.png');
+  background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu085" id="illu085"></a><a name="III" id="III"></a>
+  <span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 442px; height: 161px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 176px; height: 68px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 152px; height: 60px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 119px; height: 53px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 106px; height: 115px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 91px; height: 104px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 88px; height: 42px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 66px; height: 37px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 95px; height: 31px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 125px; height: 35px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">III.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Gibraltar.</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Stay from the 20th to the 30th May, 1857.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+Political Significance of the Rock.&mdash;Courtesy of the British
+Authorities.&mdash;Fortifications.&mdash;Signal Stations.&mdash;The only
+place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.&mdash;Calcareous
+Caves.&mdash;Chief Entrances into the Town.&mdash;Shutting the Town
+Gates.&mdash;Public Establishments.&mdash;Inhabitants.&mdash;Elliott's
+Gardens.&mdash;The Isthmus, or Neutral
+Ground.&mdash;Algeziras.&mdash;Ceuta.&mdash;Commerce and
+Navigation.&mdash;Excellent regulation in the English Navy
+relative to Officers' Outfit.&mdash;Small-pox appears on Board
+the <i>Caroline</i>.&mdash;Departure from Gibraltar.&mdash;A Fata
+Morgana.&mdash;The <i>Novara</i> passes the Straits.&mdash;Take leave of
+Europe.&mdash;Voyage to Madeira.&mdash;Floating Bottles to ascertain
+the Currents.&mdash;Arrival in the Roads of Funchal.
+</div>
+
+<p>This remarkable promontory, which in our days has obtained
+so much political importance, the Calpe of the ancients,
+constituted of old, with the opposite Abyla,<a name="Anchor-7" id="Anchor-7"></a><a  href="#Footnote-7" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 7.">[7]</a> the
+so-called pillars of Hercules, celebrated, at the same time,
+as the boundary of the then-known world. It derives its name
+from the corrupted Arabic <i>Gebel</i> (mountain) and <i>Tarik</i>,
+the name of a Moorish conqueror, who had pitched his camp
+here (<span class="smcap">a.&#8201;d.</span> 711).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> Like
+a colossal giant, guarding the
+portal of Europe, and converted, by the energy and ingenuity
+of the British, into an almost impregnable outpost, this
+precipitous rock has, as regards the Mediterranean, the same
+high strategic importance for that great maritime people, as
+Heligoland for the German Ocean, Aden for the Red Sea,
+Ceylon and Singapore for the Indian Archipelago, Hongkong
+for the Chinese waters, or the Cape and St. Helena for the
+Atlantic Ocean.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-7" id="Footnote-7"></a>
+<a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-7">[7]</a> The present Apes Hill.</p></div>
+
+<p>Gibraltar was already strongly fortified, when it belonged
+to the Andalusian kingdom, but its grandest fortifications
+date from the treaty of Utrecht (1713), when it became an
+appanage of the British crown. Stupendous and incomparable
+are the works which since that period have been executed on
+it, though the calcareous formation of the locality and its
+numerous caves may have considerably facilitated their
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>The English authorities, who so kindly assisted in the
+scientific researches, obligingly furnished each individual
+of the frigate's staff with a written permission to inspect
+the fortifications as often as they pleased, and thereby
+afforded them the particular gratification of being able to
+view and admire these vast structures in all their details.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent and well-kept roads lead to the principal
+fortifications, which only begin at an elevation of several
+hundred feet above the town. The galleries, hewn in the
+solid rock, forming a kind of casemates, are of such breadth
+and height that they may be conveniently traversed by a man
+on horseback<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span> with his hat on. They have been constructed at
+an immense expense of labour and money, and are designated
+by various names, as "Upper gallery," "Lower gallery,"
+"Queen's gallery," "St. George's Hall," and so on. Their
+extent is estimated at an English mile, but is probably much
+greater. Besides these galleries, passages run for miles in
+the interior of the rock, affording the garrison a
+thoroughly-protected connection with all points that may
+chance to be threatened.</p>
+
+<p>The grandest and most imposing of these marvellous
+excavations are the "Queen's gallery" and "St. George's
+Hall." According to carved inscriptions, most of them were
+begun and completed between the years 1783 and 1789. At the
+period of our visit, there were mounted on the different
+fortifications 707 guns, about one hundred of which peeped
+out of the smaller embrasures. Since that date, however, the
+number is said to have been increased so as to amount now to
+about 1500.</p>
+
+<p>During the stay of the <i>Novara</i>, it fortunately happened
+that the birthday of Queen Victoria was celebrated, and thus
+an opportunity was offered of seeing the fiery mountain in
+full activity. Though the occasion was peaceable, yet the
+imposing spectacle gave a tolerable idea of the elements of
+destruction which Gibraltar could put in action if really
+attacked. The governor of the fortress, surrounded by a
+brilliant staff, in which the Spanish governor of Algeziras
+and his officers played but a sorry part, reviewed the
+garrison, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, to
+the number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> from 5000 to 6000 men; and whilst the troops
+defiled in slow and quick step, lightnings and thunders
+issued from all the crevices and embrasures of the
+artificially-perforated rock; huge volumes of dense smoke
+followed, and a rolling subterraneous rumbling gave the
+mountain exactly the character of a volcano suddenly burst
+into action. The echo of these salvoes of rejoicing must
+have been heard, not only in the adjacent parts of Spain,
+but also on the more remote coast of Africa; and he who was
+ignorant of the real cause, might have supposed it a grand
+rehearsal of that fearful tragedy which the English seem
+determined to perform in the event of an attack. The
+supposition, however, that the guns of Gibraltar are able
+entirely to command the Straits is erroneous, for these, at
+their narrowest part, are 12&frac12; miles wide, and not even
+the Armstrong guns, with which the fortress has lately been
+furnished, have so extensive a range. The English are,
+however, able to command the Straits by a fleet, which would
+find in the Bay of Gibraltar a sufficiently safe and roomy
+anchorage.</p>
+
+<p>From the fortifications, a narrow and rather steep path
+leads to the telegraph station, at an elevation of 1300 feet
+above the level of the sea. Steamers and men-of-war, as soon
+as visible, are signalled from this point by means of
+immense balls and flags. It would be very difficult to
+signal merchantmen in the same way, as, during a prevailing
+westerly wind, multitudes of ships often appear to the
+eastward of the rock, anxiously waiting for a favourable
+easterly breeze to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span> carry them through the Straits; in the
+same way the westerly horizon is sometimes crowded with
+ships, prevented by contrary winds from entering the
+Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>We found at the station an Aneroid-barometer, and a
+thermometer. The advantages for navigation and physical
+science of extensive meteorological observations, regularly
+made, are so evident, that it is astonishing to see how
+often opportunities are neglected for making them, such as
+are offered here.</p>
+
+<p>There was no opportunity for seeing any of those families of
+monkeys, the occasional appearance of which on the Rock of
+Gibraltar has given rise to tales found in books of travel
+of the existence of a submarine communication, through which
+this single representative of the genus in Europe has found
+its way to this rock from Africa. Sometimes, however, during
+easterly winds, single individuals are observed on the
+highest peaks on the eastern side of the rock, where it is
+completely inaccessible; probably the remnants of that
+species (<i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>), which at some former time,
+either by chance, or human agency, have found their way
+hither from the Moorish coast.</p>
+
+<p>The calcareous caves are very remarkable. That on the
+western side, called St. Michael's, situated at a height of
+800 feet, is the most important. It contains beautiful
+stalactite formations, and seems to be of considerable
+extent; it has, however, not been closely examined hitherto,
+as only a small part is conveniently accessible. St.
+Martin's Cave, on the south-east, likewise about 800 feet
+above the level of the sea, is smaller, but its stalactites
+are of a purer whiteness. A third<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> was discovered a few
+years since on the eastern side of the rock at a height of
+only 80 feet, the lower portion of which consists of
+accumulations of sand and recent shells. There have also
+been found bones and teeth of large herbivorous animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 667px;"><a name="illu090" id="illu090"></a>
+<img src="images/illu090.jpg" width="667" height="459" alt="Huge cavern as viewed while looking out from inside." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ROCK CAVERN IN GIBRALTAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The characteristic vegetation of the mountain is Spanish
+broom (<i>Spartium junceum</i>), the yellow blossom of which
+strikes the eye pleasingly at a great distance. There is
+also one species of cactus, and one of the dwarf palm
+(<i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>, and <i>Chamærops humilis</i>), which grows
+in great abundance, and forms, on the south face of the
+rock, almost the only vegetation, whilst, on account of
+difference of temperature, it is altogether absent on the
+remaining sides.</p>
+
+<p>Gibraltar has little to attract strangers to settle;
+barracks,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> military store-houses, and fortifications, render
+the appearance of the place peculiarly monotonous, the more
+so that there are no elegant buildings, or fine shops, on
+the rock. There was nothing observed, however, to confirm
+the statement, in a celebrated geographical work, copied by
+all later compilers, that "most of the houses are painted
+black, to soften the glare of the sun, and prevent an
+attacking enemy having a distinct view of the place." The
+town, which is built in terraces on the side of the rock, is
+accessible only from three points. The greatest portion of
+the traffic passes through the so-called Old Mole at the
+north end, whilst the entrances on the south are generally
+used by men-of-war sailors only. All are opened at 5 in the
+morning, and, according to the season, shut between 7 and 8
+in the evening, precisely twenty-five minutes after the
+first signal-gun. This closing of the gate is attended with
+ceremonies verging on the comic. A broad-shouldered
+corporal, carrying in his hand a heavy bunch of immense
+keys, marches, visibly impressed with the importance of his
+mission, in measured steps, accompanied by a number of red
+jackets with fixed bayonets, towards the massive town-gate;
+the bridge is then, with much ado, drawn up, and the
+horribly-creaking gate, with great exertion, closed, bolted,
+and finally locked. After "gun fire" no one can leave the
+town by the Old Mole; at 10 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, however, and at midnight,
+a little postern is opened, through which those jolly
+stragglers, who have forgotten in merry company the measure
+of time, may slip out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> to return to their floating abodes.
+From this hour till morning all communication with the
+harbour is arrested, and the utter impossibility (except in
+extraordinary cases) of leaving the town <i>after</i> this hour,
+has given rise amongst the people to the saying, "There is
+only <i>one</i> thing more difficult than to get <i>out</i> of the
+town after midnight, and that is to get <i>in</i>."</p>
+
+<p>There are in the city two Anglican churches, one Wesleyan,
+one Presbyterian, two Catholic chapels, and two synagogues.
+The garrison library, where likewise a great number of
+journals and magazines are kept, possesses 22,000 volumes,
+amongst them several very rare and costly works, especially
+of ancient Spanish literature. It was founded in 1793 by
+Captain Drinkwater, and has been hitherto kept up by private
+subscriptions and the profits arising from a
+printing-establishment attached to it.</p>
+
+<p>Gibraltar owes to the energy and public spirit of the
+governor, Sir James Fergusson, the foundation of several
+important establishments and undertakings. Since the
+beginning of his administration in 1856, the number of
+public schools has been considerably increased, the town
+supplied with gas, and well-arranged public baths
+established.</p>
+
+<p>The city does not possess a single well or spring; the water
+used is obtained from tanks, in which the rain is collected.
+The quantity of rain that fell during the twelve months of
+1855 amounted to 78 inches; in 1856, it is said to have been
+only 24 inches. Nevertheless, there is at no time any
+scarcity of water. The Government have lately caused the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
+erection of a distilling apparatus for making sea-water fit
+for domestic purposes, which, however, hitherto has not been
+used.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Gibraltar, including the garrison of 6000
+men, amounts to about 20,000 souls, consisting of Spaniards,
+English, Italians (mostly Genoese), Portuguese, Moors,
+Turks, Greeks, and Jews; indeed, a mixture of races,
+customs, and manners such as scarcely can be found at any
+other place in Europe. The native residents call Gibraltar
+briefly <i>the rock</i>, and themselves, with a kind of
+pseudo-patriotism, <i>rock people</i>, though by the officers of
+the garrison and navy generally complimented with the name
+of "rock-scorpions."</p>
+
+<p>The permanent settling of foreigners, in consequence of its
+being a fortress, requires a number of formalities, which
+have the effect of limiting the population; and even the
+English portion must be considered migratory, as it consists
+chiefly of military and government officers, who, after the
+lapse of certain intervals, exchange in regular order.</p>
+
+<p>The only really beautiful walk in the place is Elliott's
+Gardens, situated at the south end of the town, laid out in
+a grand style, but disfigured by a tasteless bronze statue
+of General Elliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield), the heroic
+defender of Gibraltar in 1782. In the evenings, when one of
+the military bands is performing, the grounds are thronged
+by visitors on foot, horseback, and in carriages, whilst
+loving couples, of all races and grades, ramble in happy
+union through the shady avenues.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Near the gardens, towards the south, is a second quarter of
+the city, which mostly consists of government buildings. On
+the lowest terrace, which juts furthest into the sea, stands
+the lighthouse, on the celebrated "Europa Point."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 638px;"><a name="illu094" id="illu094"></a>
+<img src="images/illu094.jpg" width="638" height="512" alt="A soldier on guard as people pass across a narrow bridge." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SOUTH GATE, GIBRALTAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish continent by a sandy
+neck of land, called by the Spaniards <i>El Istmo</i>, and by the
+English "the neutral ground." It runs between the
+Mediterranean and the bay, one mile and a half in length and
+2700 feet in breadth. This plain, which is not more than 10
+feet above the water, owes its origin to the formation of a
+dune in the rocky bed of the ocean. Strong easterly gales
+seem by degrees to have accumulated the sand on this shallow
+run of the sea, which formerly separated Gibraltar from
+Spain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A similar sand formation, near Catalan Bay, has attained the
+enormous height of 1000 feet. The Government have caused a
+portion of the sand, at the point where the isthmus joins
+the rock, to be excavated, and the water of the bay to be
+let in, so that there only remains a narrow low dyke of firm
+ground, which probably in time of war may be completely
+submerged. The stagnant water of this cut must, however,
+during the hot season, considerably increase the amount of
+fever.</p>
+
+<p>From May till October the troops are encamped under tents on
+this isthmus, along which the neighbouring Spaniards come to
+market daily in crowds, with provisions of all kinds,
+displaying their rancour against the foreign intruders by
+endeavouring to make them pay the highest possible price for
+their produce.</p>
+
+<p>The adjacent Spanish settlements, Campamiento and St. Roque,
+are much resorted to by excursionists from Gibraltar, and,
+during the summer, are selected by numerous families for
+even a longer stay; for however little pleasure or interest
+a ride over this arid and sandy plain affords, once arrived
+at Campamiento, the rider enjoys a most charming prospect,
+while there is probably no other point from which the
+isolated rock appears more grand or picturesque than from
+this neat little village.</p>
+
+<p>In following the road that runs from Campamiento along the
+bay, the charming little town of Algeziras is reached. It
+lies on the western shore, exactly opposite Gibraltar, with
+which it is in regular correspondence by daily steamers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Algeziras, formerly a poor fishing-village, has greatly
+increased in extent and prosperity, through the smuggling
+trade. This clean and pretty-looking place has a population
+of 10,000 souls, and makes by contrast an extremely pleasant
+impression on coming from the dismal and gloomy fortress.
+Men and things here have quite an Andalusian appearance. The
+small but neat one-storied houses are mostly painted a
+bright white, and ornamented with green verandahs; at almost
+every window beautiful flowers are exhibited; and the public
+promenade, shaded by fine trees, is delightful. The
+principal square is likewise planted with trees, and the
+lower stories of its houses are occupied by apothecaries'
+shops, coffee-rooms, confectioners, and one by a bookseller
+even. The churches appear in every respect insignificant;
+the hospital of San Juan de Dios, however, is an ancient and
+noble structure, the management of which is admirable. One
+of the arrangements here was eminently characteristic of
+Spain: in the ward for male patients stands at the upper
+end, by the side of the beds for common patients, a large,
+broad, elegantly-polished bedstead, which, the porter told
+us, was intended for "<i>caballeros</i>."</p>
+
+<p>At a short distance from the town is the Amphitheatre
+Constantia, a large wooden booth, said to hold nearly 9000
+spectators. It is chiefly used for bull-fights, which always
+attract a large audience. The aqueduct here, taken with the
+fine scenery around, forms an exceedingly picturesque
+object.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of Gibraltar sometimes make excursions to
+the peninsula of Ceuta (the Sebta of the Moors), situated on
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> opposite coast of Africa. The lighthouse of this little
+promontory has been lately furnished with a Fresnel
+apparatus, throwing out a most intense light, which is
+visible at a greater distance than any other observed during
+our voyage. This place, which is used by the Spaniards as a
+penal settlement, numbers 6500 inhabitants, and has a very
+indifferent harbour. The "rock people" also occasionally
+make excursions to Tangier, the most westerly town of the
+strait, and the most important as regards the commerce of
+Morocco.</p>
+
+<p>A great number of steamers on their various routes touch at
+Gibraltar, for discharging and embarking freight and
+passengers, and to coal. The quantity of the latter thus
+shipped is estimated at 30,000 tons annually, all imported
+from England. There is also a regular correspondence by
+sailing vessels with all the leading Italian ports, and
+those of the Levant, as well as with Constantinople, Corfu,
+and Trieste.</p>
+
+<p>Gibraltar being a free port, there are no customs' dues,
+except those on wines and spirits. All flags enjoy equal
+privileges, and in all disputes the English law decides. It
+is impossible to obtain a satisfactory statement of the
+amount of imports and exports, as no Custom-house exists,
+and the official reports merely give the number and
+nationality of the flags of the ships that arrive and
+depart. Smuggling is carried on to a great extent, and,
+being a lucrative trade, will continue to be so, as long as
+Spain retains her prohibitory duties on English goods.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The principal items of commerce in Gibraltar are English
+cotton goods, which are exported to Barbary in considerable
+quantities. To compete successfully with the English in this
+branch of trade would be very difficult for any other
+nation; but there are a great number of other articles which
+might find a ready sale on the African coast, and which are
+produced cheaper in several States of the European continent
+than in England; a consideration of so much the more
+importance in trading with the Moors, that these people
+regard lowness of price rather than the quality of the
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>For this very reason, small but industrious Belgium has
+become a powerful competitor of mighty England. Thus, for
+instance, that country exports to Morocco, by way of
+Gibraltar, sugar, both in loaves and crushed,<a name="Anchor-8" id="Anchor-8"></a><a href="#Footnote-8" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 8.">[8]</a> hardware
+and cutlery, nails and screws, zinc, as well as all sorts of
+earthenware and glass. A portion of these articles goes into
+the neighbouring Spanish provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-8" id="Footnote-8"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-8">[8]</a> The superior quality and cheapness of Belgian
+sugars have of late in a great measure driven all others out
+of the market. It is also worthy of remark, that though
+Gibraltar is a British colony, all the accounts are kept in
+Spanish currency, and that there are more Spanish and French
+coins in circulation than English, which, when changed, even
+sustain a small loss. The Spanish measures and weights also
+are more in use than the English.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is rather singular that the Belgian glass goods are in
+Gibraltar represented as of <i>German</i> manufacture, and
+thereby obtain a readier sale. This seems to be a proof that
+German (<i>i. e.</i> Bohemian) glass articles have been
+patronized before the Belgian, and lost the market only
+through the importation of the latter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The intercourse between Gibraltar and Spain is carried on by
+coasting vessels, and by French as well as Spanish steamers,
+while the postal communication with Great Britain is
+conducted by the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Packet
+Company.</p>
+
+<p>Correspondence with Spain and other parts of the Continent
+is carried on overland, but is little to be relied upon, as,
+owing to the horrible condition of the Spanish roads, a
+delay of from six to eight days sometimes occurs in bad
+weather. Between Gibraltar and Cadiz, a distance of only
+sixty English miles, the letter-bag is said to have often
+been six days on its way.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative of our stay at Gibraltar would be defective if
+we omitted mention of the numerous proofs of hospitality we
+experienced on all sides. Invitations were repeatedly
+received from the Convent (Government House), as well as
+from private families, and everywhere we experienced the
+most cordial reception.</p>
+
+<p>We must in particular mention a visit paid to Captain
+Warden, the superintendent of the station and arsenal, as it
+afforded an opportunity of becoming acquainted with a
+feature in the English naval service, as practical as it is
+worthy of imitation. The superintendent of the arsenal
+inhabits a beautiful roomy house, belonging to the
+Government, situated in a large garden, well planted with
+splendid plane-trees, laurel, and orange-trees, and
+ornamented with most beautiful and odoriferous flowers. As a
+superintendent's income would not admit the outlay necessary
+properly to furnish so large an edifice,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> this is done by
+contractors, who let out the furniture at the rate of five
+per cent. annually on the value. This sum is deducted
+monthly from the pay. The same system is also adopted on
+board English men-of-war. The cabins of the officers are
+there furnished and provided with all the requisite comforts
+by contractors under the superintendence of the Admiralty.
+The value of each article is marked in a printed list
+deposited with the authorities. The captain pays a yearly
+rate of five per cent. on the valuation, and binds himself
+besides, in the event of the ship's being paid off, or of
+being appointed to another vessel, to return in good
+condition all the articles specified, and pay the value
+noted in the list for everything missing. This agreement is
+registered at the Admiralty, and the contractor receives the
+amount monthly. The advantage of such an arrangement to the
+commander of a ship will be more fully appreciated by those
+who, from personal experience, are aware of the expense
+attending an outfit, and the great loss which an officer
+transferred from one ship to another suffers through a
+sudden and forced sale of his property. The commander of a
+ship is moreover often not in a condition to spend for his
+personal outfit a sum of perhaps a thousand pounds sterling,
+but he can conveniently pay annually from £40 to £50 for the
+hire in monthly instalments; and it thus becomes easier for
+him to maintain the appearance due to his position.</p>
+
+<p>The commander and officers of the <i>Caroline</i>, which, after
+an absence since the 12th of May, had rejoined us on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span>
+23rd, were, like ourselves, received in the kindest manner
+by all the authorities of Gibraltar.</p>
+
+<p>It had been arranged that we should make the voyage to
+Madeira in company with the <i>Caroline</i>, but an unexpected
+incident prevented it. The small-pox<a name="Anchor-9" id="Anchor-9"></a><a href="#Footnote-9" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 9.">[9]</a> made its appearance
+on board, and although in a mild form and in but a few
+cases, yet it was sufficiently alarming to interrupt, as a
+matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> of precaution, all communication, and to postpone
+indefinitely her departure, as a great part of the crew
+might be overtaken with the disease whilst at sea, exposed
+to sudden changes of temperature, thereby causing the most
+serious consequences. Such is not the case with diseases
+which are in some degree localized, as cholera, yellow
+fever, dysentery, &amp;c., when it is even prudent to set sail,
+notwithstanding the presence of the malady, as a change of
+place and climate is frequently accompanied with beneficial
+results.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-9" id="Footnote-9"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-9">[9]</a> As there has lately been some difference
+amongst the medical men of Europe as to the utility of
+vaccination, the following observations from the report of
+Dr. Wawra, the principal physician on board the <i>Caroline</i>,
+regarding the appearance and the course of this epidemic,
+may not be out of place:&mdash;"A day before our departure from
+Trieste a man complained of a slight fever and headache, and
+his skin was covered with spots which were judged at once to
+be indications of an approaching eruption of small-pox. The
+man was immediately sent on shore as a matter of precaution;
+but, nevertheless, eight days after our departure we had a
+second, and ten days after that a third case: the epidemic
+was on board, and though in a mild form, yet serious
+consequences were apprehended. The <i>re-vaccination</i> of the
+men was therefore decided upon, and carried out, as far as
+the virus on board would admit. Only five individuals of the
+whole had not been vaccinated at all; some had undergone the
+operation in their childhood, a great part of them, however,
+had been vaccinated on board other vessels, from two to five
+years before. Only fourteen cases occurred. Most remarkable,
+and evidently in favour of those who advocate
+re-vaccination, is the fact, that amongst most of those who
+had been vaccinated in their childhood, the disorder was
+more severe than among those who had been re-vaccinated on
+board the ship. Among those who had <i>never</i> undergone the
+operation before, the vaccination on board was most
+successful; not one of them caught the disorder. Among the
+<i>re-vaccinated</i> only four cases occurred, with slighter
+symptoms than among those who had been once only operated
+upon. We met with several instances of the kind at other
+places where we touched. At Buenos Ayres, where the
+vaccination laws are stricter than anywhere else, the
+small-pox is extremely rare. Among the Brazilians, who
+entertain an absolute prejudice against vaccination, the
+<i>variola</i> is one of the most common and most frightful
+diseases. It prevails still worse amongst the negro slaves,
+among whom, from the ignorance and prejudice of their
+masters, vaccination is neglected. The white marks of the
+disease are particularly visible in the black skin, and are
+evident proofs how virulently it has raged amongst them."</p></div>
+
+<p>After we had got through our duties at Gibraltar, an attempt
+was made, with the first favourable wind, to set sail and
+reach the Atlantic; the <i>Caroline</i> remaining behind for the
+benefit of the sick on board. She was to follow only when
+the health of the crew no longer excited any apprehension.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th May the wind changed to south, and as the
+current in the harbour was also favourable, we weighed
+anchor in the hope that in the Straits we might meet with an
+easterly wind. The <i>Novara</i> passed the <i>Caroline</i>, which
+saluted with a round of cheers, when we tacked to clear the
+roads, after which all sail was hoisted to beat out against
+the western current in the Straits. The sea was covered with
+a mucous substance, which generally indicates that there is
+scarcely a chance of a fresh breeze; however, even the
+little we had, would have sufficed to carry us through the
+Straits, but towards 6 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> a perfect calm overtook us, and
+notwithstanding the press of sail, we were carried back
+towards the East, and about midnight found ourselves again
+in the Mediterranean,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span> which did not seem disposed to part
+with us. There was no improvement next day, and at sunset we
+were exactly twenty-five miles east from the point we had
+occupied the preceding day. The clouds passed from West to
+East across the moon, and in the night from the 31st of May
+to the 1st of June the westerly wind became so fresh that we
+had even to reef the sails.</p>
+
+<p>Current, wind, sea, everything was against us; even tacking
+was of no service, as we lost ground visibly with each tack.
+When at last all hope of making the West had disappeared, we
+anchored, like many others of our companions in sorrow, on
+the 1st June, at 6 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, in the Bay of Frangerola, fifteen
+miles north of Malaga.</p>
+
+<p>Here were anchored nearly sixty merchantmen, all wind-bound.
+Behind the Punta Molinos, near Malaga, there must have been
+quite as many more. Fresh additions were constantly being
+made to the already considerable fleet, which had
+involuntarily collected together, whilst those merchantmen
+which with fruitless obstinacy kept on tacking about us,
+were getting more and more out of their course, as with
+every successive hour their position was changed for the
+worse.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 233px;"><a name="illu104" id="illu104"></a>
+<img src="images/illu104.jpg" width="233" height="415" alt="Possibly a cowboy." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INHABITANT OF FRANGOLA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the hope of a favourable wind we were all a-taunto on the
+2nd June, perfectly prepared for a start. Under these
+circumstances no one could go on shore, but an officer was
+despatched in a boat to make inquiries as to whether there
+were any sanitary board in the neighbouring village. A
+relative of the President of the Junta de la Sanidad came<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>
+on board, and stated that, though as a rule only vessels
+clearing from Spanish harbours were permitted to have
+intercourse with the shore, an exception should be made in
+favour of ourselves. This Andalusian was very communicative,
+and amongst other things told us that the inhabitants were
+supported almost entirely by fishing. Many ships had now
+been waiting several weeks for a favourable wind to pass the
+Straits. Some had thrice attempted to sail towards the West,
+but in every case were driven back by wind and current. In
+1847, a year of scarcity, Louis Philippe had caused several
+French steamers to be stationed in the Straits in order to
+take in tow ships coming from the Black Sea laden with
+grain, and thereby to facilitate their passage between the
+Mediterranean and the Atlantic. In the afternoon we had a
+visit from about thirty inhabitants of Frangerola, who came
+on board in fishing-boats to view the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> ship. None of these
+people had ever seen so large a man-of-war, and they all
+therefore regarded the ship with great curiosity. The ship's
+band greatly delighted them, but the signal-gun at sunset
+seemed to terrify them and to hasten their departure.</p>
+
+<p>In the evening we felt from time to time some warm blasts of
+wind from the east, and enjoyed for nearly an hour the
+delightful spectacle of a "Fata Morgana." This phenomenon,
+as is well known, arises from two currents of air of a
+different density, separated by a distinctly-formed plane,
+generally produced when the temperature of the two currents
+happens to vary. When, for instance, as is frequently the
+case at sea, a considerably warmer current of air comes
+suddenly in contact with a colder current having a lower
+position, the plane of separation of the former becomes
+condensed, and forms a mirror for all those objects which
+are in the lower current, so that their image is inversely
+reflected. As this surface of separation is not level
+throughout, various contractions and distortions result,
+which impart to the whole a singular appearance. On land, as
+for instance in the deserts of Africa, where the warmer
+current of air is on the surface of the ground, the aërial
+mirror is formed beneath the eye of the observer, by which
+the same phenomenon is produced that results from the
+reflection of objects on the surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>In the present case the temperature of the atmosphere was
+about ten degrees higher than that of the sea's surface at
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> point of observation. The surface of the current of
+warm air appeared like a light fog, inclining in the East
+towards the Spanish coast, and in the South-east to South
+towards the surface of the sea. Where it was highest it
+reached nearly five degrees above the horizon. The images of
+the ships at anchor near Malaga, and those at sea under
+sail, appeared reversed, and assumed curiously fantastic
+forms, particularly in those places where the reflecting
+surface became irregular, and inclined towards the horizon.
+The appearance of these distorted ships in the air, joining
+in the most singular way the real ones actually floating on
+the sea,&mdash;the warm vapour which is from time to time wafted
+on the face of the observer, as well as the perfect and
+almost death-like stillness which, under such circumstances,
+prevails both on the sea and in the atmosphere, may easily
+produce the belief in a mysterious power, among a people who
+are generally prone to ascribe to supernatural agencies
+every phenomenon they cannot understand or explain.</p>
+
+<p>This "Fata Morgana"<a name="Anchor-10" id="Anchor-10"></a><a href="#Footnote-10" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 10.">[10]</a> was not merely interesting in itself,
+but also gave reason to indulge in the hope of a favourable
+wind. A light easterly breeze accordingly sprang up towards
+midnight, the current became reversed, the anchor was
+weighed, and all sail made with this favourable wind towards
+Gibraltar, the rock of which was distinctly recognizable
+through the misty air, at a distance of nearly sixty miles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-10" id="Footnote-10"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-10">[10]</a> The name Morgana is of Breton origin, and
+signifies "sea woman," from <i>mor</i>, sea, and <i>gan</i>, a fine
+woman;&mdash;the fairy mermaid of English legendary tales.</p></div>
+
+<p>A calm still prevailed near Europa Point, but as the day
+wore on, the easterly breeze blew strong through the
+Straits, and, in company with innumerable other ships, the
+Pillars of Hercules were at length passed. The wind
+freshened, and the frigate cracked merrily on down
+mid-channel; for, though the set of the current was dead
+against us, yet the wind proved more than a match for it,
+which in our case was the more apparent, that those
+merchantmen which sailed along the coast, not having the
+advantage of this wind, seemed as though left motionless in
+the rear.</p>
+
+<p>When towards noon the <i>Novara</i> was off the place where the
+<i>Caroline</i> had been anchored, that ship was no longer
+visible. She had probably set sail in the morning. We
+supposed her to be among the crowd of ships which were
+sailing in the fog, but did not discover her, even after we
+had overtaken and examined all of them. We now endeavoured
+to reach the Atlantic as speedily as possible, making from
+nine to ten knots an hour, and, with joyful sensations,
+sailed through those beautiful straits, on whose shores the
+ancient world unrolled its grand panorama, thanking
+Providence here, at the entrance of that vast ocean, which
+now shone so brilliantly, that we were permitted to carry
+the Austrian flag into distant regions.</p>
+
+<p>At 4 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, aided by the fresh evening breeze, we passed the
+most southerly point of Europe. We were just going to dinner
+when the last glimpse of the old world passed before the
+cabin windows, and we gazed once more with sorrowing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> eyes
+at the rapidly-disappearing coast, which, illuminated by the
+rays of the setting sun, seemed to wave us a last farewell
+in letters of fire. However beautiful, however inspiring the
+prospect of our task; however inviting the magnificent ocean
+that lay extended under our eyes, magically lit up by the
+silvery beams of the bright moon shining from a starry sky,
+yet the painful sensations of parting with that old world,
+with which so many pleasing associations&mdash;so many cherished
+recollections were bound up, had a powerful influence, and
+gave rise to melancholy impressions, of which we were only
+relieved by the comforting hope that we should one day
+return to all so dear to us.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 648px;"><a name="illu108" id="illu108"></a>
+<img src="images/illu108.jpg" width="648" height="227" alt="Cape Trafalgar." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CAPE TRAFALGAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The night was delightful. Not a single cloud obscured the
+sky, and the ship, with all sails swelled by a fair wind,
+ploughed the dark waves, leaving a glittering track behind.
+We were now on the ocean! Below, blue, foam-crested billows;
+above, the sky studded with stars;&mdash;below, the wide desert
+of the sea; above, the infallible guides to lead us safely
+through it.</p>
+
+<p>We awoke to new activity on that great element, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>
+conceals so many charms and so many hardships, where the
+continued alternations of hope and fear, of enjoyment and
+privation&mdash;where weariness and disappointment, and yet again
+the new strength imparted by returning success&mdash;so
+excitingly animate, and so gloriously manifest the innate
+power of the human mind.</p>
+
+<p>Life on board, the various excitements at sea, the different
+countries and people seen during a voyage, all tend to
+arouse feelings and sensations which are reserved for the
+mariner alone, and which render his life, if he knows how to
+use it properly, happy and most enviable. At sea the mental
+and physical eye gains strength, man there seeks to unravel
+Nature in all her phases, and to know and to admire more
+thoroughly her works. The seaman owes his energy, his
+straightforwardness, and his piety, to a life spent in the
+midst of nature, to his direct intercourse with creation.
+Between him and the Sovereign of the Universe there is, as
+it were, no mediator&mdash;he lives and labours uninterruptedly
+on the steps of the throne of his Creator and Preserver. In
+this great temple he directs to Him alone his complaints,
+his thanks, and his prayers. At sea he learns law and order
+from Nature herself in her constantly-recurring functions;
+here he admires the omnipotence and goodness of God in the
+sunrise after a stormy night, and in the brightness of the
+moon that lights up his path; here he learns by his actual
+experience the truth of that maxim of life, that "God only
+helps him who helps himself."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The wind, hitherto easterly, chopped round to the
+North-east, which, according to Maury's excellent directions
+and charts, may be considered as a trade wind, and in this
+season might be called so. In fact, the trade winds are
+produced by a current of air, which is directed towards the
+Equator, and only in consequence of the earth's motion round
+its axis acquires a north-easterly direction to the north of
+the equator, and a south-easterly to the south of it. But
+the trade winds become perceptible at a certain distance
+from the equator, or rather from the hottest zone of the
+earth's surface; and it is clear, that when the zone assumes
+a greater breadth, the boundary of the trade winds is
+extended further towards the poles, as the position of this
+zone and its heat obtained from the sun are the causes of
+these phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>This is exactly the case in these waters; Africa, with its
+sandy deserts, presents a broader zone of the greatest heat
+than is possible on the sea, and the trade winds,
+accordingly, reach further towards the north. Its direction,
+however, cannot always be north-easterly, and depends
+necessarily on the direction of the northern boundaries of
+this zone of greatest heat. Accordingly, we at first had a
+more northerly wind, which in our progress towards Madeira
+became much more easterly. The weather continued on the
+whole beautiful, the sea was calm, and only the increased
+length of the waves showed the greater expanse of water we
+were now navigating.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We overtook some other ships, which were sailing towards the
+west. As we saw nothing of the <i>Caroline</i>, we concluded that
+she was considerably ahead. The current, which near
+Gibraltar has a westerly direction, tending towards the
+Mediterranean, loses its power at a distance from the land,
+and half-way to Madeira it changes its direction in such a
+way that the ship is carried imperceptibly southwards,
+though only a few miles a-day. This current is a lateral
+branch of the great Gulf Stream, which from the Gulf of
+Mexico is directed towards England, but about the latitude
+of New York sends off a branch in a south-easterly
+direction, which passes round Madeira, and, near the
+Canaries, takes a parallel direction with the coast of
+Africa and forms the commencement of the Guinea current. The
+temperature of the sea water, which in the midst of this
+current is generally rather higher than that of the air,
+indicates to the mariner that he is in the Stream, and he
+must take care that his ship is not carried more to the
+south out of its course than he wishes. This shows clearly
+of what importance ocean-currents are to navigation; and it
+becomes evident that it is the duty of the scientific
+navigator not only to find out their direction and strength,
+but to use all means at his command, in order to ascertain
+their general movement in given districts of ocean.</p>
+
+<p>For this latter purpose, it is customary (as often as
+circumstances seem to render it advisable) to throw
+overboard, and commit to the mercy of these currents, a
+well-corked empty bottle, in which has been deposited a card
+with the name and position of the ship. The bottle thus
+prepared, and made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> conspicuous by a covering of white linen
+cloth, or some such material, wanders hither and thither
+with the current, until it is picked up by some other ship,
+or is stranded anywhere on <i>terra firma</i>. The fact of such a
+bottle having been picked up is usually published, together
+with the particulars enclosed, by means of which it is
+obvious that an estimate can be formed of the average
+strength and direction of the current.</p>
+
+<p>At 1 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> each afternoon, it was our custom to despatch one
+of these ocean-posts, under given conditions; but only
+rarely did we afterwards receive any information with
+respect to them. In each bottle was placed a card with the
+following particulars, written in German, English, French,
+Italian, and Spanish:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"H.I.M. frigate, <i>Novara</i>, such and such a day of the week
+and month, hour at which thrown overboard, Longitude from
+Greenwich, Latitude. Whoever finds this bottle, which is
+about being thrown overboard well-corked and in good order,
+is requested to forward for publication, to the nearest spot
+at which there is a newspaper, the day, hour, latitude and
+longitude, in which the bottle has been found, together with
+the particulars of a similar nature already enclosed."</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th June, towards evening, we were not more than 55
+nautical miles distant from the E. point of Madeira, and as
+the wind was favourable and pretty fresh, it became
+necessary to shorten sail, so as to reach the anchorage by
+daybreak.</p>
+
+<p>About 2.30 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, a vessel was perceived, which, by its
+lights, was made out to be a man-of-war. We now burned a
+port fire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span> which was not merely replied to, but accompanied
+by signalling the number of the <i>Caroline</i>. She was steering
+exactly our own course, and after having had to struggle
+with calms on nearing the coast, we cast anchor together, in
+the roads of Funchal, in 32 fathoms, sandy bottom,
+immediately South of the Loo Rock, a singular-looking,
+lofty, conical rock, which marks the best anchorage for
+large ships. The U. S. corvette, <i>Dale</i>, lay in our
+vicinity, and sent a boat on board with an officer to extend
+to us the usual greetings, after which she saluted the
+Commodore's standard with a salute of thirteen guns,<a name="Anchor-11" id="Anchor-11"></a><a href="#Footnote-11" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 11.">[11]</a>
+which, as is the etiquette, we returned, gun for gun. We now
+had the pleasure of hearing that the small-pox had entirely
+disappeared on board the corvette <i>Caroline</i>, those attacked
+being now in a fair way of convalescence, while on board the
+<i>Novara</i>, the health of the ship's company was eminently
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-11" id="Footnote-11"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-11">[11]</a> Commodores of other nations receive only eleven
+guns by way of salute.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"><a name="illu113" id="illu113"></a>
+<img src="images/illu113.jpg" width="414" height="404" alt="Lighthouse? on a large coastal rock." title="" />
+<span class="caption">LOO ROCK (MADEIRA).</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; margin-left: -239px;
+  width: 477px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu114.png');
+  background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu114" id="illu114"></a><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>
+  <span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">SCENE IN MADEIRA.</span></div>
+
+<div class="icba" style="width: 500px; height: 242px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 50px; margin-right: -88px;"></div>
+<div class="icbr" style="height: 50px; margin-left: -88px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 50px; margin-right: -125px;"></div>
+<div class="icbr" style="height: 50px; margin-left: -125px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -138px;"></div>
+<div class="icbr" style="height: 70px; margin-left: -158px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -148px;"></div>
+<div class="icbr" style="height: 70px; margin-left: -168px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -168px;"></div>
+<div class="icbr" style="height: 50px; margin-left: -198px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -168px;"></div>
+<div class="icbl" style="height: 70px; margin-right: -178px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">IV.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Madeira.</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">From the 8th to the 17th of June, 1857.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+First Impressions.&mdash;Difficulty in Landing.&mdash;Description of
+the Island.&mdash;History.&mdash;Unfavourable political circumstances
+connected with the cultivation of the
+ground.&mdash;Aqueducts.&mdash;First Planting of the
+Sugar-cane.&mdash;Culture of the Vine.&mdash;Its Disease and
+Decay.&mdash;Cochineal as a compensation for its loss.&mdash;Prospects
+of Success.&mdash;Climate.&mdash;A favourable Winter Residence for the
+Consumptive.&mdash;Strangers.&mdash;First Appearance of the
+Cholera.&mdash;Observations with the Ozonometer.&mdash;Great Distress
+among the Lower Classes.&mdash;Liberal Assistance from
+England.&mdash;Decline of Commerce.&mdash;Inhabitants and their Mode
+of Life.&mdash;Decrease of the Population, and its
+Causes.&mdash;Benevolent Institutions.&mdash;Public Libraries.&mdash;The
+Cathedral.&mdash;Barracks.&mdash;Prison.&mdash;Environs of
+Funchal.&mdash;Excursion to St. Anna.&mdash;Ascent of the Pico
+Ruivo.&mdash;Singular Sledge Party.&mdash;Return to
+Funchal.&mdash;Departure.
+</div>
+
+<p>Delightful and striking is the first impression of Funchal,
+its luxuriant gardens smiling with gorgeous flowers, and its
+mountain sides cultivated almost to their summits; and
+although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> the grander and more gigantic forms of true
+tropical vegetation are wanting, and the landscape displays
+rather the character of an island off the shores of Italy
+than of the torrid zone&mdash;still Nature exhibits herself here
+with such varied charms that imagination can scarcely
+conceive a sweeter or lovelier scene. The most beautiful
+plants of the temperate and sub-tropical zones meet here in
+their highest development, whilst some representatives of
+the tropics intermixed enhance the richness of the wonderful
+picture. Odoriferous magnolias, large flowering tulip trees,
+plane trees, laurels, myrtles, acacias, passion and trumpet
+flowers, tree-like fuchsias with immense blossoms, gaudy
+hortensias, sweet-smelling roses, blooming oleanders, aloes,
+40 feet high, in full flower, imposing camellias with
+shining green foliage, covered with beautiful rose-like
+flowers, chestnut trees, Brazilian pines, cypresses&mdash;all
+delight the eye, together with pomegranates, tamarinds,
+bananas, sugar-canes, coffee-shrubs, gigantic dragon trees,
+pine-apples, mangroves, papayas, and aquacatés. Certainly,
+at a later date, we met in the primitive forests of the
+Nicobar islands, or in Java, Luzon, and the Caroline
+islands, with grander and more imposing scenery; but none
+that surpassed in fragrance, luxuriance, and loveliness the
+floral beauty of Madeira.</p>
+
+<p>The anchorage of Funchal<a name="Anchor-12" id="Anchor-12"></a><a href="#Footnote-12" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 12.">[12]</a> is merely an open, exceedingly
+unsafe roadstead, which affords so little protection to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>
+ships that often in southerly winds they are obliged to get
+under sail. This is especially the case in the winter, when
+the sea often rushes into the small unprotected bay with
+fearful violence. In October, 1842, five vessels were cast
+on shore within the space of a few hours, and another sank
+whilst at anchor; a similar violent gale from the south
+raged in December, 1848, when a like number of ships met
+with the same fate, and were dashed to pieces. The British
+sloop of war <i>Daphne</i> only escaped by making the open sea in
+time. In order to run less risk of being surprised by such
+gales, sailing vessels generally cast anchor to the south of
+the Loo Rock, where there is tolerably safe anchorage at a
+depth of twenty-five to thirty fathoms. In that position
+they are clear of the rocky headlands, and can therefore
+more easily set sail before the sea rushes in with all its
+irresistible violence. Steamers, which are better able to
+resist the force of the waves than sailing vessels,
+generally cast anchor nearer the shore, so that passengers
+may be more easily landed, and coals shipped with greater
+facility.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-12" id="Footnote-12"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-12">[12]</a> The Portuguese for fennel-field, because the
+first discoverers of the island found this plant in great
+abundance.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Portuguese Government has done nothing to compensate for
+the shortcomings of nature with regard to safe
+landing-places in this island, otherwise so highly favoured.
+Though the rocky condition of the Funchal roads, (the only
+anchorage for larger ships which the island possesses,)
+offers sufficient means for the construction of a harbour
+for boats and small vessels, yet the Government has hitherto
+done so little, that the landing of passengers can only be
+effected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> by small, peculiarly-built boats, which, whilst
+tossed by the waves, have to be drawn on shore by the
+natives wading knee-deep in the water. If, therefore, the
+ship remains any length of time at Funchal, the
+communication with the land is attended with considerable
+expense. We laid out, in payments to the boatmen, during a
+stay of nine days, the sum of forty-five Spanish piastres<a name="Anchor-13" id="Anchor-13"></a><a href="#Footnote-13" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 13.">[13]</a>
+(£9 15s. sterling), although they had not over-charged us.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-13" id="Footnote-13"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-13">[13]</a> Spanish piastre = 4s. 4d. at par.</p></div>
+
+<p>The formalities at the custom-house, which strangers&mdash;even
+those belonging to a ship-of-war of a friendly Power&mdash;have
+to go through, are extremely annoying, and entail a great
+loss of time. Before landing, passengers' boats are boarded
+in the open roads by officers, who are stationed a few cable
+lengths from the shore. On landing, the stranger is obliged
+to repair to the custom-house, where even small and open
+packages are subjected to a second rigid examination. The
+time lost during this process, unnecessarily minute, is
+exceedingly unpleasant. The reason assigned for these
+vexatious regulations is the extent to which, of late,
+smuggling has been carried on in the island, and which, in
+the opinion of the Governor, required these measures of
+precaution. It seems, however, that this system rather
+promotes contraband trading, by making it very lucrative.
+The Austrian consul, Charles Bianchi, Esq., did all in his
+power to diminish the frequency of the continual
+examinations, and likewise, in all other respects,
+endeavoured to promote the objects of the Expedition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The greatest length of the island of Madeira, from Ponta
+Furado in the east, to Ponta do Pargo, in the west, amounts
+to 30 miles; its greatest breadth, from Ponta do Cruz in the
+south, to Ponta do Saõ Jorge in the north, is 12&frac12; miles,
+and its area is about 240 square miles. This volcanic and
+mountainous island is intersected by innumerable deep
+ravines and defiles, and its whole surface is so much broken
+and irregular, that the representation Columbus once gave to
+Queen Isabella, of the Island of Jamaica, when she asked him
+for a description of its configuration, might perfectly be
+applied to the aspect of Madeira also. The great navigator,
+after having crushed a sheet of paper in his hand, and
+partly opened it again, placed it on the table, saying, he
+could convey to Her Majesty no clearer idea of that island
+than that crumpled piece of paper afforded.</p>
+
+<p>A large portion of the island is not susceptible of
+cultivation; for the heathy region which constitutes nearly
+one-third of its surface, and rises to a height of about
+2500 feet above the level of the sea, is extremely steep,
+and too much exposed to winds and rains in summer, to admit
+of any kind of cultivation, even that of grain; whilst
+another not less considerable tract is too rocky and
+precipitous for that purpose. In the south of the island,
+the highest limit of cultivation is estimated to be at a
+height of 2500 feet, though in several places rye and barley
+grow at 2800 feet. In the north of the island, where a
+better system of irrigation prevails, the extreme boundary
+of cultivation reaches a higher altitude,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> and on the
+declivities of the Ribeiro Frio, it is met with at an
+elevation of above 3000 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier history of the island has had such a great
+influence upon its present industrial and social condition,
+that a few remarks on the most important features of its
+history may find a place here.</p>
+
+<p>Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joaõ
+Gonsalvo da Camara<a name="Anchor-14" id="Anchor-14"></a><a href="#Footnote-14" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 14.">[14]</a> and Tristaõ Teixeira, and, about 1421,
+a colony of Europeans settled on the island. Camara
+obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the south-eastern,
+and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together
+with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was
+then the principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico
+that of Teixeira's. These two recipients (<i>donatarios</i>)
+enjoyed the exclusive privileges of erecting flour and saw
+mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for public
+baking (private baking being permitted to all); they,
+moreover, had the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims
+upon the tithes of the royal revenues, and were empowered to
+grant portions of the land to settlers. Every settler was
+required to erect within five years a house, a cottage, or
+barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these
+conditions, at the expiration of the fixed period, had not
+been complied with, the donor had the right of granting the
+land to some one else. These grants were hereditary, and
+lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event
+of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span>
+privileges and immunities were deemed necessary in order to
+reconcile the holders with the dubious character of the
+early settlers in the island; for, though in those times the
+highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous
+expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison
+and convict hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had
+much more the character of a place of banishment for
+criminals than that of a colony of free emigrants.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-14" id="Footnote-14"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-14">[14]</a> Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.</p></div>
+
+<p>With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first
+settlers are said to have set on fire so large a portion of
+the primeval forests, that they were soon unable to check
+the conflagration. According to old writers, the fire,
+particularly in the south of the island, lasted several
+years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that
+many persons in order to escape from it, sought refuge on
+board the ships in the roads of Funchal.<a name="Anchor-15" id="Anchor-15"></a><a href="#Footnote-15" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 15.">[15]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-15" id="Footnote-15"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-15">[15]</a> The name <i>Madeira</i>, signifying in Portuguese
+"timber or wood," justifies the statement that the island
+was at one time richly wooded.</p></div>
+
+<p>This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by
+ancient and modern authors, is being avenged even at
+present, though centuries have passed since the deed. The
+cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no longer to be
+found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old
+houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show
+the magnitude which this noble tree formerly attained in the
+island. Of the dragon tree (<i>Dracæna Draco</i>), which was once
+the ornament of the forests of Madeira, there are at
+present, in the whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span> island, only six or seven specimens
+in existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers.
+The Til-tree (<i>Oreodaphne f&oelig;tens</i>), the Vinhatico
+(<i>Persea indica</i>), and the Folhado (<i>Clethra arborea</i>),
+formerly the most numerous representatives of the native
+flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with,
+and their places are occupied by plants and trees of the
+temperate zone, particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit
+of which furnishes the inhabitants with food, whilst the
+tree itself has served hitherto in the north of the island
+as a support to the vine. The destruction of the forests
+has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the
+modification of the climate in general, and to the
+diminution of humidity in particular. At the date of the
+discovery of the island, and a long time after, the Rio
+Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to have
+been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the
+sea; at present this river is quite insignificant, and
+almost dried up.</p>
+
+<p>The island remained for two centuries in the possession of
+the direct heirs of the original owners, and when at last,
+from want of legal successors, these privileges lapsed, the
+crown granted them to other favourites; but with some
+restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and saw mills was
+then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other
+privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the
+first settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable
+property in land, whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane,
+now very generally adopted, the introduction of negro
+slaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span> from Africa, and the foundation of large estates,
+contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants.
+The ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the
+island are even now mute witnesses of the opulence of their
+former occupants.</p>
+
+<p>This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the
+beginning of the last century, materially affected by the
+introduction of the so-called <i>vinculos</i> or entails, which,
+introduced under the protection and in favour of the church,
+were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich
+proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in
+order to have masses said for the repose of their souls, and
+encumbered their lands with so many burdens, that only a
+small remainder fell to their heirs. So long as these claims
+were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases for
+a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on
+their lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a
+<i>morgado</i> (entailed property). Under the severe but wise
+administration of the Marquis of Pombal, a law was passed
+which forbade the future creation of morgados (unless the
+property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and
+even then the special licence of the crown had to be
+obtained), declaring the whole system of entails "as
+contrary to the rights of property and the well-founded
+claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom
+Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe,
+as it allowed at the same time the abolition of single
+entails, the value of which was below 200 Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> piastres
+annually, as well as that of every morgado, the annual value
+of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As,
+however, a great number of these entails exceed 200
+piastres, these oppressive restrictions still weigh upon
+four-fifths of the land, notwithstanding the above-mentioned
+laws. Among the creditors who still have claims, there are
+three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar
+institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital
+of Funchal, and the Portuguese Government. The institution
+of these vinculos and morgados produced a kind of feudal
+dependency between the cultivator of the estates (<i>caseiro</i>)
+and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the occasion
+of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the
+caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land
+produced; when the landlord removed from the town into the
+country, the caseiro carried his litter and luggage; in
+conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as <i>meu amo</i>
+(my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of
+these usages, and in various ways altered the relation
+between the caseiro and the landlord.</p>
+
+<p>Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the
+system of parcelling ground into small allotments, which has
+been continued up to the present time. The farms are in
+general extremely small. In the richer and more fertile
+parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent,
+very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not
+even the tenth part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span>
+the proprietor of nearly one-third of the whole island, had
+upwards of eight thousand tenants. Supposing that this mode
+of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds, there would
+be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or,
+taking the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth
+inhabitant would be a tenant farmer. This state of things is
+not to be wondered at, considering that almost every
+day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent of
+which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large
+garden bed, on which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs,
+peaches, sugar-cane, and sometimes even grain.</p>
+
+<p>In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has
+made more progress than in the south, rent is paid in money;
+generally, however, the system of paying in kind is still in
+existence, in which the harvest, (after deducting the
+<i>tithe</i>, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and not to
+the church,) is divided between the landlord and the
+tenants. According to this principle the landlord receives
+half of the produce of the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane,
+wine, fruit or vegetables, which are brought for sale, and
+not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes happens,
+however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on
+the ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in
+agriculture. They are diminutive and singularly unsightly,
+but of a very powerful breed, and furnish very good meat for
+the table. They are generally fed in stalls, but in the
+mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are
+only a few badly-fed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> sheep on the island, so that the
+mutton is almost unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are
+in abundance, and the rearing of poultry is generally the
+principal means of living possessed by the peasantry. What
+is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and boars
+to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few
+rabbits we saw were perfectly identical with the European
+species (<i>Lepus cuniculus</i>), and lead to the supposition
+that rabbits as well as pigs, now found in a wild state here
+and there on the island, are only the progeny of those which
+have formerly been introduced from Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous open and walled water conduits (<i>levadas</i>),
+which are of considerable height, and lead to all parts of
+the cultivated land, are of particular importance. Each
+levada is placed under the superintendence of a committee,
+selected mostly from the landowners, who have a direct
+interest in them. Sometimes one person only, generally the
+most considerable landowner of the district, under the title
+of <i>juiz da levada</i>, is entrusted with the control of the
+water, and receives for his services the use of the water
+during twenty-four hours. The right of using these levadas
+is very strictly guarded, and often leads to law
+proceedings. Every piece of ground within a district through
+which such a conduit runs, is entitled to the use of the
+water by turns, during a certain number of hours (generally
+not more than twenty-four). These turns are different,
+according to the extent of the district, from fifteen to
+forty days. The distribution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> of the water is entrusted to a
+so-called <i>levadeiro</i>, who places himself at the upper end
+of the land through which the water is to flow, and with an
+hour-glass in his hand measures&mdash;a modern Saturn&mdash;the time
+during which the owner is entitled to the use of the
+beneficent element. After the expiration of the fixed
+period, the water is made to pass on to the ground of
+another proprietor. These conduits, so extremely important
+to the farmer, were constructed partly at the expense of the
+Government, and partly by the contributions of the landed
+proprietors. Those who have no other title may obtain the
+right to this privilege either by purchase or by government
+grant. For every twenty-four hours' use of the levadas 400
+reis<a name="Anchor-16" id="Anchor-16"></a><a href="#Footnote-16" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 16.">[16]</a> are paid, which tax is employed to keep them in good
+order.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-16" id="Footnote-16"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-16">[16]</a> 1000 reis or milreis=to one Spanish piastre, or
+about 4s. 4d.</p></div>
+
+<p>The high roads of Madeira are, with but few exceptions, in a
+deplorable condition. They are generally laid with small
+pointed stones, and at numerous places they have an
+inclination of from 23 to 27 degrees. Every adult male
+native is obliged to pay annually one Spanish piastre, or to
+give five days' labour for their repair. On account of the
+bad condition of the roads in the interior of the island,
+most of the natural produce is conveyed from one place to
+another in boats, or, as is the case with wine, is carried
+to the harbour in skins and casks, on the backs of the
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 635px;"><a name="illu127" id="illu127"></a>
+<img src="images/illu127.jpg" width="635" height="701" alt="Stonework bridge with houses and cobblestone streets." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BRIDGE OVER THE RIBEIRO SECO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first attempt at cultivation in Madeira was the planting
+of sugar-canes, introduced soon after the discovery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span> of the
+island, through the instrumentality of Prince Henry of
+Portugal (son of John I.), which grew so abundantly, that
+for a considerable period the produce of the island sufficed
+for the supply of the whole kingdom of Portugal. In
+commemoration of this flourishing epoch, as regards the
+cultivation of the sugar-cane, two sugar-loaves were
+introduced into the arms of the island. In the year 1452 was
+erected the first sugar factory, near Machica, and at the
+end of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> the fifteenth century there existed as many as 120,
+in which slaves chiefly were employed. The Jesuit, Antonio
+Cordeyro, who wrote his <i>Historia Insulana Lusitana</i> at the
+beginning of last century, makes mention of a considerable
+number of sugar factories, which had been erected in almost
+every part of the south coast. On the estate of the Genoese,
+Juan Esmeralda, half a league from Ribeiro do Taboa, there
+were annually manufactured 20,000 arrobas<a name="Anchor-17" id="Anchor-17"></a><a href="#Footnote-17" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 17.">[17]</a> of sugar. By
+degrees, however, the culture of the cane fell, into decay,
+whether through disease of the plant or its cheaper
+production in the Brazils and West Indies is not known, so
+that in the year 1840, only two sugar factories were at work
+in the whole island; and even these only produce molasses
+and rum, of which the latter, in the year 1856, amounted to
+1500 pipes. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, however, has
+increased since the vine disease has fallen so heavily on
+the landowner. In the summer of 1857, there were eighteen
+factories again in activity on the island, though so late as
+1855, the importation of sugar, for the consumption of the
+island, amounted to but 31,176 arrobas.<a name="Anchor-18" id="Anchor-18"></a><a href="#Footnote-18" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 18.">[18]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-17" id="Footnote-17"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-17">[17]</a> One arroba = 32 arrateles or pounds. One pipe =
+108 gallons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-18" id="Footnote-18"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-18">[18]</a> From 64 lbs. of sugar-cane are obtained 4
+galls. of juice, and from 4 galls. of juice are made 8
+galls. of rum. The average price was 2200 reis per gal. of
+sugar-juice. The rum of commerce (from 22 to 23 degrees) is
+sold at one Spanish piastre the gallon.</p></div>
+
+<p>The greatest elevation at which, in the south of the island,
+the sugar-cane can be grown, is, like that of the banana
+tree, about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>
+north, the cultivation of the cane would be remunerative
+only at those points where, as, for instance, at Fayal and
+San Jorge, ground and temperature are most favourable for
+it. To judge by the soil and climate, the cultivation of the
+cane in Madeira might, with care, even at the present time,
+prove advantageous. In the south-west part of Lousiana,
+where, in 1796, this plant was introduced exclusively for
+the manufacture of <i>Taffia</i>,<a name="Anchor-19" id="Anchor-19"></a><a href="#Footnote-19" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 19.">[19]</a> there exist at present as
+many as 1500 sugar factories, producing annually, on an
+average, 200,000 hogsheads of sugar. The planter of Madeira
+is not, as in Lousiana, obliged by the frost to cut the cane
+before it is ripe; there it ripens thoroughly, blooms in
+January, and is harvested in March.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-19" id="Footnote-19"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-19">[19]</a> A beverage resembling brandy in taste, much
+liked in the West Indies.</p></div>
+
+<p>The motive power of the sugar-mills is mostly water and
+steam. There are also a dozen large distilleries at work,
+possessing the most modern English improvements. An acre of
+land, planted with sugar-cane, is said to yield from 100 to
+120 Spanish piastres, a result for the landowner more
+profitable than that arising from the cultivation of the
+vine, even in its best days.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the culture of cotton, for which the climate and
+soil are peculiarly suitable, no attempt has as yet been
+made. The same remark applies to olive trees; though the
+Government ordered the latter to be planted so long ago as
+1768. The cultivation of tobacco, however, is prevented from
+extending, being a government monopoly. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> for wheat, it is
+not produced in sufficient quantity to meet one quarter of
+the consumption of the inhabitants. In the year 1854, wheat,
+to the amount of 216,918 bushels, was imported from the
+north of Africa alone, a quantity nearly twice as great as
+that which the island produces. Wheat and maize, or Indian
+corn, are also imported from the Azores, and some ports of
+the Mediterranean; an importation which is likely rather to
+increase than decrease.</p>
+
+<p>The potato belongs to that small class of vegetables which
+grow at considerable elevations, and, by proper irrigation
+and dressing of the ground, three harvests may be obtained
+in the course of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The Inhame [not the Yam (<i>Dioscorea alata</i>) of the West
+Indies and South America, but a kind of grume (<i>Colocasia
+esculenta</i>)] grows in large quantities near to rivers and
+water conduits, where the ground is humid. It is much sought
+for by the people, on account of its cheapness, though
+rather a coarse kind of food, which, as Cordeyro naïvely
+says, "picao algum tanto na garganta" (scratches the
+throat).</p>
+
+<p>Sweet potatoes (<i>Convolvulus edulis</i>, Lin.), water-melons,
+gourds, as well as all kinds of European garden vegetables,
+are found throughout the year in the market, though not of a
+particularly good quality. Oranges, lemons, bananas, guavas,
+pine-apples, figs, apricots, and peaches, are abundant
+during the summer season, and on higher ground even apple
+and pear-trees are to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>On the "Desertas," three uninhabited little islands
+south-east<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span> of Madeira, and belonging to it, there grows on
+the rocks the orchilla (<i>Rocella tinctoria</i>), a species of
+lichen, celebrated for yielding a fine purple colour, much
+used in dyeing. Considering the great importance for
+industrial purposes of this lichen, it might, with some
+care, be advantageously grown in Madeira. Formerly there was
+a small quantity brought to market, and sold for 14,000 reis
+the quintal. At the present time the yield has entirely
+ceased, though it is found in large quantities in the
+neighbouring islands. It is considered not to be of such
+good quality as that of the Azores, where, as is the case
+with all lichens, that grow in more southern and warmer
+climates, it is of a better quality, and more highly
+esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>The product, however, which hitherto has yielded the largest
+profit to the natives, and made the name of Madeira famous
+and familiar, even to those who do not profess a particular
+interest in the beauties of nature in this romantic island,
+is its <i>wine</i>. Though this article of exportation has,
+through the vine disease, entirely lost its former
+importance, yet it may be of some interest to take a glance
+at its history and culture, in order the better to
+comprehend the magnitude of the calamities that have
+overwhelmed the people of Madeira, in consequence of the bad
+vintages of the last seven years.</p>
+
+<p>The vine was introduced from Cyprus, almost at the same time
+with the sugar-cane, under the auspices of Prince Henry of
+Portugal, in 1425, but its culture did not attain much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>
+importance till the beginning of the sixteenth century. Some
+authors even suppose that the wine of Madeira owes its
+reputation chiefly to those plants which were, at a much
+later date, imported by the Jesuits from Candia. This much
+is certain, that the produce grown on the estates of the
+Jesuits greatly surpassed in quality all others in the
+island, and maintained a higher price in the market even
+when those estates had changed hands. The grape ripens in
+the north at an elevation of 2700 feet, but such as are
+fitted for the manufacture of wine, grow only as high as the
+Curral das Freiras (2080 feet).</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto four sorts of vines have been cultivated in the
+island, namely, the <i>Bual</i> and <i>Tinta</i>, both of which were
+brought from Burgundy, the <i>Sercial</i> from the Rhine, and the
+<i>Malvasia</i> or <i>Malmsey</i> from Candia. There are four species
+of the last-mentioned, (<i>candila</i>, <i>roxa</i>, <i>babosa</i>, and
+<i>propea</i>); the delicious flavour of which by many people is
+considered to have a great similarity with the Hungarian
+<i>Tokayer</i>. The most esteemed sorts were grown west of
+Funchal, near Cama de Lobos, and Estreita. Excellent
+qualities were grown also at Santa Cruz, on the north side
+of the island, and the valleys near Ponta da Cruz; in
+general, however, the grape of the northern district proved
+to be of inferior quality, and was therefore only used in
+the manufacture of rum. In the north the vines were trained
+on chestnut trees, but in the south, as in Lombardy and the
+Tyrol, in festoons, supported by a kind of cane (<i>Arundo
+sagittata</i>), and tied up by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> a species of willow (<i>Salex
+rubra</i>), specially cultivated for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Though nearly a fifth of the cultivated portion of the
+island was thus planted, yet the individual vineyards were
+but small in extent, the largest of them not exceeding three
+or four acres. In the wine-growing countries of Europe fresh
+plants are set at least every twenty years; but in Madeira
+they are allowed to remain in the ground so long as they
+yield any fruit. The native growers do not relish
+improvements; of all the agricultural implements which some
+English landowners, settled near Funchal, wished to
+introduce, the garden-rake alone was adopted by these
+enemies of innovation. The vineyards of Madeira were usually
+let out to farmers (<i>caseiros</i>), and rarely cultivated by
+the proprietors themselves. The yield of an acre was
+estimated at from one to three pipes. In 1848 the cost of
+producing a pipe of Madeira amounted to from 12 to 40
+Spanish piastres. In the same year the total production of
+the island amounted to 30,000 pipes, of which only 10,000
+were exported, as the inferior sorts, not keeping well, are
+not suited for the foreign markets. Of the wines exported,
+half went to Russia and the Baltic provinces, the other,
+comprising the best kinds, were sent to England, the West
+Indies, and the United States. Up to the year 1851, when the
+last good vintage occurred, the price of a pipe varied from
+12 to 14 Spanish piastres. So late as 1845, when the Danish
+corvette <i>Galatea</i>, on her voyage round the world for
+scientific purposes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> put in at this island, the inferior
+sorts were so cheap that Captain Steen Bille considered it
+more profitable to supply the crew with wine mixed with
+water than beer. Since that time prices have become ten
+times higher, and the best quality now sells for from £110
+to £150 a pipe, and will doubtless rise in proportion as the
+older stores are exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>Though the yield of the vine had been decreasing, year after
+year, for a considerable time, yet the actual vine disease
+only made its appearance in 1852, when the leaves and fruit
+were covered with a kind of fungus (<i>Oïdium Tuckeri</i>),<a name="Anchor-20" id="Anchor-20"></a><a href="#Footnote-20" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 20.">[20]</a>
+like a white dust. The Portuguese Government sent a
+commission for the purpose of investigating the causes of
+the calamity. The report<a name="Anchor-21" id="Anchor-21"></a><a href="#Footnote-21" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 21.">[21]</a> is not decisive on the point,
+whether the fungus is the real cause or only a symptom of
+the disease, nor does it offer any advice as to how it may
+be checked. Dr. Hermann Schacht,<a name="Anchor-22" id="Anchor-22"></a><a href="#Footnote-22" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 22.">[22]</a> who resided during a
+period of 18 months in the island, and has published a
+valuable treatise, states that the vine-disease appears
+there in the same form as in Germany, even as regards the
+season, which is soon after the blossom disappears. At first
+the young leaf is covered with a whitish matter, chiefly on
+its lower side; it then assumes a crumpled appearance,
+becomes spotted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span> and at last decays. The young diseased
+grape likewise becomes covered with a white dust, at first
+partially, and then entirely, the green skin by degrees
+assuming a brown colour, the grape increasing at same time
+in size, until it as large as a currant, or a small cherry,
+when it becomes black, and perishes together with its
+diseased stock. In this decayed condition the grapes remain
+on the vine till late in the autumn. Dr. Schacht was
+successful in arresting the progress of the disease in its
+earlier stages, by washing all parts of the plant with a
+solution consisting of one part of glue to sixteen parts of
+water; an operation which had been likewise performed with
+good effect in the Royal hothouses of Sans-souci in Prussia.
+He rubbed the leaves and grapes infected by the fungus with
+this solution, and, where possible, dipped the grapes in it.
+The solution very soon dried, and gave the grapes and leaves
+a glossy appearance. All that had once been operated upon in
+this way remained in a healthy condition, and even those
+affected by the fungus recovered beneath the crust, the
+operation thus seeming to afford a protection against the
+fungus. The practice of strewing the plant over with
+powdered sulphur, which was so much lauded, seems to be of
+little use. At Teneriffe, Dr. Schacht found the fungus
+widely spread, notwithstanding the application of sulphur.
+Keeping the grape close upon the ground is also recommended
+as a protection against the disease, having proved very
+successful in the south.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-20" id="Footnote-20"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-20">[20]</a> Vide Botanical Gazette of 1852, page 9; of
+1853, page 583; and of 1854, page 137;&mdash;Fulasne, "Sur le
+Champignon, qui cause la Maladie de la Vigne."&mdash;<i>Comptes
+Rendus</i>, vol. xxvii. 1853;&mdash;Dr. Schacht on Madeira, pages 52
+to 58.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-21" id="Footnote-21"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-21">[21]</a> Memoria primero sobre a mangra e doenza das
+vinhas nas ilhas da Madeira e Porto Santo, por Joao de
+Andrade Corvo. Lisbon. 1854.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-22" id="Footnote-22"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-22">[22]</a> Madeira und Teneriffa mit ihrer Vegetation, &amp;c.
+Von Dr. H. Schacht. Berlin. 1859.</p></div>
+
+<p>The pecuniary loss sustained since the first appearance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> of
+the malady amounted in the autumn of 1852 to 1,137,990
+Spanish piastres, £190,000,<a name="Anchor-23" id="Anchor-23"></a><a href="#Footnote-23" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 23.">[23]</a> and after having waited in
+vain a period of five years, for a better state of things,
+the impoverished landowners entirely gave up cultivating the
+vine. A traveller who chances now to visit Madeira can
+scarcely believe that but a few years ago the greater
+portion of the island was covered with the plant. The cause
+of its disappearance must, however, not be ascribed entirely
+to the disease, but partly also to the utter neglect of its
+culture in favour of that of other products, so much so that
+of late it was scarcely possible to procure a sufficient
+quantity of grapes for invalids to whom they were
+medicinally prescribed. Moreover, the sugar plantations,
+which annually increase in extent, have contributed to the
+destruction of the vines, as the former require irrigation,
+which causes the roots of the latter to rot in the humid
+ground.<a name="Anchor-24" id="Anchor-24"></a><a href="#Footnote-24" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 24.">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-23" id="Footnote-23"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-23">[23]</a> The quantity of wine produced amounted, in the
+year 1851, to 10,374 pipes; in the following year (1852),
+only to 1413&frac12; pipes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-24" id="Footnote-24"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-24">[24]</a> The vine disease seems, however, to have been
+already prevalent in Madeira at a former period. In an old
+lease, referring to land or property in the west of the
+island, there is a clause to the effect that "In the event
+of the young grape being covered with mildew (<i>mangra</i>), the
+contract would be null and void." In Portugal also, the
+disease is said to have existed more than fifty years ago,
+though not to a great extent.</p></div>
+
+<p>The present situation of the people of Madeira claims alike
+the sympathies of the philanthropist and the attention of
+the political economist. We here behold a population of
+upwards of a hundred thousand souls, deprived at once of a
+product, which has been for more than three centuries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> the
+principal means of obtaining their living, and by which many
+an industrious grower made a considerable fortune.</p>
+
+<p>The farmer of Madeira, accustomed for generations to this
+branch of industry, is now forced to apply his energies to
+another, on the fortunate selection of which will depend his
+welfare for the future, or at least for years to come.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the wealthier growers have not entirely abandoned
+the culture of the vine, and have been assisted in their
+endeavours by the Consul of the United States in Funchal,
+the liberal-minded Mr. Marsh; experiments were made by
+engrafting and setting fresh and healthy plants, brought
+from the banks of the Ohio. They proceeded on the principle,
+that it is most advisable, and likely to be productive of
+the best success, to obtain young plants only from countries
+where the disease has never appeared. The choice fell upon
+the Isabella and Catawba grapes, which are indigenous to the
+United States; and, whatever may be the final success, the
+merit of transplanting, at a considerable expense, these two
+North-American grapes to Madeira, is due to Mr. Marsh. It
+is, however, a question, whether they will be able to
+replace those hitherto cultivated, the conditions of climate
+and soil being so different. As is well known, none of the
+European vines succeed in North America; and the two
+indigenous sorts, which are grown in great quantities on the
+banks of the Ohio and the Missouri, cannot stand a
+comparison with any of our finer kinds. The juice of the
+American grapes is best suited for the manufacture of what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>
+is called sparkling hock, which is very like the Austrian
+Schaumwein.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the wealthier landowners formed an association for
+the purpose of introducing the culture of cochineal, to
+supply the place of that of the vine. Several plantations of
+nopal, or cactus, were laid out, and the first harvest was
+gathered in 1858. The nopal (<i>Opuntia cochinillifera</i>) is
+the only kind of cactus on which the cochineal insect
+breeds, and the south of the island, up to an elevation of
+500 feet, the only part adapted for its cultivation. An
+attempt was made to introduce the culture of cochineal in
+the island by Señor Miguel de Carvalho, as far back as 1836.
+But the indifference of the people, and their prejudices
+against innovation, as well as the limited spirit of
+enterprise possessed by the native merchants, rendered the
+attempt, in that instance, abortive. In consequence,
+however, of the vine disease, the idea of cultivating
+cochineal was resumed, without considering, as it would
+appear, the probable results in a mercantile point of view.
+At the time of our visit there were about thirty acres of
+land planted with cactus, and the "seed" of the cochineal
+insect was expected from the Canary Islands. One cannot but
+think the notion of substituting the cultivation of
+cochineal for that of the vine was not a lucky one, the
+large capital required, and the limited market for the
+article, holding out small chance of success. The entire
+consumption of cochineal in the whole world amounts to no
+more than about 30,000 quintals, and towards this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> quantity,
+Guatemala furnishes 15,000, the Canary Islands 6000, Mexico
+8000, Java and the Philippine Islands together 1000
+quintals. There is little prospect, therefore, that the
+cochineal culture of Madeira will ever become an important
+source of gain, or advantageously compensate for the loss of
+the vine. Few landowners in the island seem to possess
+sufficient means to withstand the chances and fluctuations
+to which its culture is subject. To illustrate this, it may
+be mentioned, that during our visit to the highlands of
+Guatemala, in 1854, when the cochineal harvest was bad, the
+tercio (150 lbs.) of cochineal cost 140 Spanish piastres. In
+the following year, when it was unusually productive, the
+price declined to 80 piastres. A tercio of dried cochineal
+costs the grower, or nopalero, about 50 piastres; a nopal
+plantation must lie fallow every third year, being
+consequently only productive during two years. Have the
+landowners of Madeira considered all these disadvantages,
+and will they be able to bear all the drawbacks peculiar to
+the culture of cochineal? The climate and soil seem to hold
+out far greater advantages for the cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, and tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>There are few spots on the earth's surface which possess a
+climate so delightful, and so little subject to extremes as
+Madeira, the mean annual temperature being 64 degrees
+Fahrenheit, or only 5 degrees higher than in the most
+southern parts of Europe. The lowest temperature during five
+years' observation was 50 degrees, the highest, 74. An
+invalid residing at Funchal, within his own doors, may
+always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> have a temperature not lower than 64, nor higher
+than 74 degrees. Violent siroccos occur in the course of the
+summer, which drive the thermometer up to 90 degrees in the
+shade; these storms, however, occur only twice or thrice a
+year, and rarely last longer than a couple of days. Dr.
+Renton, who lived in Madeira from 1825 to 1831, only once
+during all that time saw the thermometer marking 90 degrees,
+two hours after sunset. The rainy season, marked by west and
+south-west winds, begins at the end of September or the
+beginning of October. In November the weather clears up, and
+generally keeps fine till the end of December. At this
+period snow falls on the mountains, and rain at Funchal,
+accompanied by north-westerly winds, lasting till about the
+end of February, during which time the weather is wet. The
+remainder of the year is comparatively dry, the annual fall
+of rain at Madeira amounting, according to Sir James
+Clark,<a name="Anchor-25" id="Anchor-25"></a><a href="#Footnote-25" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 25.">[25]</a> to 36 inches, there being in all about 73 wet
+days,<a name="Anchor-26" id="Anchor-26"></a><a href="#Footnote-26" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 26.">[26]</a> whilst at Rome, for instance, it rains, on an
+average, during 117 days, though the amount of rain-fall is
+only 29 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-25" id="Footnote-25"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-25">[25]</a> On the Sanative Influence of the Climate of
+Madeira. By Sir James Clark. London. 1841.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-26" id="Footnote-26"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-26">[26]</a> The fall of rain, according to Dr. Hoberdon's
+observations, is, on a seven years' average, 30·62 inches
+per annum. Dr. Mittermayr, from Heidelberg, states, on a
+three years' average, the rainy days to be 95 per year.
+Johnston, in his Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, states
+the fall of rain on an average to be 29·82 inches, and the
+number of rainy days 100 per annum, viz. 48 in the winter,
+17 in the spring, 4 in the summer, and 31 in the autumn.</p></div>
+
+<p>In some respects the winter is warmer at Madeira than the
+summer, owing to the north-westerly winds and the regular
+sea-breezes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> of that season, which keep the atmosphere
+continually at an even temperature; and hence the island is
+the favourite resort of consumptive patients during the
+winter season. England, which seems to possess the very
+unenviable privilege of furnishing to the annual mortality
+in Europe the most numerous contingent of phthisical
+patients, provides this island likewise with the greatest
+number of this, the most to be pitied of all classes of
+patients. The climate of Madeira will, however, be of little
+benefit in advanced and decided cases; although it seems to
+have a curative effect on young people in the first stage of
+the malady, as well as in cases where, being hereditary, its
+presence is merely apprehended.</p>
+
+<p>The number of strangers who annually, during the winter,
+resort to Madeira for the benefit of their health, amounts
+to from 400 to 500, and the money thereby circulated in the
+island reaches the sum of about £30,000. The number of
+English alone in the year 1855 was 285. But in the winter of
+1856-57, the English invalids who came to Madeira scarcely
+reached 100. The reason of this was another calamity, the
+cholera, which suddenly made its appearance in Funchal on
+the 4th of July, 1856. Until this epoch, the island had been
+spared this devastating scourge of our time. The epidemic is
+said to have been introduced by a detachment of Portuguese
+troops, which shortly before had arrived from Lisbon, where
+cholera was then raging. The circumstances under which this
+epidemic appeared in Madeira leave little doubt of the
+correctness of this supposition, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span> seem to confirm the
+view of Professor Pettenkofer,<a name="Anchor-27" id="Anchor-27"></a><a href="#Footnote-27" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 27.">[27]</a> relative to the
+importation of the disease by ships, and its propagation by
+human excrements, a theory advanced by this learned German
+physician in his famous work, with as much soundness as
+sagacity.</p>
+
+<p>The first individuals attacked were four soldiers of the 1st
+battalion of infantry, and the first who fell a victim to
+the epidemic was a boatman, who had landed some of the
+soldiers from the steamer. He was attacked on the 7th of
+July, at 1 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, and nine hours afterwards was a corpse. A
+few weeks later the scourge had spread over the whole
+island, raging with fatal severity, in consequence of the
+poverty, distress, and helplessness of the inhabitants. We
+cannot forbear mentioning a phenomenon observed at the time
+of the first appearance of the pestilence by Major Dom Pedro
+de Azevedo, one of the most distinguished men in Funchal.
+According to the observations regularly made by him, during
+two years, with reference to the quantity of ozone<a name="Anchor-28" id="Anchor-28"></a><a href="#Footnote-28" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 28.">[28]</a>
+contained in the atmosphere, he found that, as long as the
+pestilence was raging, it scarcely amounted to 2, whilst,
+under normal circumstances, the quantity, according to the
+ozonometer of Schönbein, is said to reach 6 to 7.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-27" id="Footnote-27"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-27">[27]</a> Dr. Pettenkofer's Investigations and
+Observations on the Spread of Cholera. Munich. 1855.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-28" id="Footnote-28"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-28">[28]</a> Ozone, or oxygen in an allotropic condition, is
+found in more perceptible quantity in pure localities than
+in those where great quantities of putrescent substances are
+accumulated, as the ozone disappears by oxidation.
+Observations on the quantity of ozone contained in the air
+during an epidemic are, therefore, of great interest,
+because they may throw a light on the influences of the
+atmosphere in the propagation of certain diseases.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>In the beginning of October the malady gradually began to
+decrease, the last case which happened on the island
+occurring at Funchal, on the 16th December, 1856. It
+appears, from official reports, that out of a population of
+102,837 souls, 7041 fell victims to the epidemic; other
+statements, that seem not less reliable, even raise the
+number of fatal cases to a much larger figure. A variety of
+local circumstances tended to heighten the fearful violence
+of the epidemic: the great distress among the people,
+arising from the deficiency of the vintages during several
+years; the potato disease, which occurred in the summer of
+1856, and deprived the population, whilst suffering from
+other calamities, of one of their most important means of
+sustenance; and finally, to bring misfortunes to a climax,
+even that source of gain was dried up which the people
+derived from the temporary residence of numerous wealthy
+families. Terrified by the reports which were in circulation
+as to the ravages caused by the cholera at Madeira, hundreds
+altered their original plan of passing the winter there, and
+even resident strangers, horror-stricken, left the island,
+which had been so suddenly converted from a paradise into a
+burial-ground. The loss arising from the latter cause is
+estimated at £20,000, an immense sum at a time when
+pestilence and famine were raging so fiercely. The British
+Government, as well as English philanthropists in general,
+deserve the highest praise for the liberality with which
+they promptly and generously hastened to the assistance of
+the sufferers. Soon as intelligence of the great distress
+arrived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span> in London, two steamers of war, the <i>Salamander</i>
+and <i>Hesper</i>, with provisions, medicine, clothing, bedding,
+and money, were despatched to Funchal, where the former
+arrived on the 18th and the latter on the 31st of October,
+1856. This assistance essentially contributed to the rapid
+extinction of the epidemic, as it sufficed to relieve the
+more pressing wants.<a name="Anchor-29" id="Anchor-29"></a><a href="#Footnote-29" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 29.">[29]</a> Considerable contributions arrived
+also from the United States; and, according to public
+statements, the relief that came from foreign countries
+amounted to £8895.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-29" id="Footnote-29"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-29">[29]</a> Old chronicles report that Madeira has been
+visited by a pestilential disease, that raged within the
+years 1521 to 1535. But the cholera was never in the island
+before the year 1856. The yellow fever is altogether
+unknown.</p></div>
+
+<p>The commerce of the island was, as a matter of course,
+seriously affected by such a train of calamities. The
+principal exports had hitherto consisted of wine, cattle,
+fruit, and wicker-work; the first and most important of
+these articles&mdash;wine&mdash;had, as already stated, all but
+entirely disappeared from the list for several years, the
+small quantities still exported being merely the remnants of
+old stocks.</p>
+
+<p>According to custom-house registers, the entire value of the
+produce exported in 1851 amounted to £164,960, of which
+£96,950 were shipped in English, £26,500 in American, and
+£16,650 in Portuguese vessels. The exports of 1855 were only
+£95,470, and in 1855, when the wine export had entirely
+ceased, the value did not exceed £2400!</p>
+
+<p>The imports were of a more numerous and varied description;
+calico, cotton and woollen goods, hardware, spices and
+provisions from England; timber, salt meat, and other
+articles from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> United States; grain from the
+Mediterranean and the Black Sea; and sugar, coffee, oil,
+rice, and other colonial produce from Lisbon and the
+Portuguese settlements. The commerce is almost entirely in
+the hands of the English,<a name="Anchor-30" id="Anchor-30"></a><a href="#Footnote-30" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 30.">[30]</a> whose liberality during the
+cholera epidemic has much raised them in the estimation of
+the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-30" id="Footnote-30"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-30">[30]</a> Three-fifths of the 50,000 tons annually
+imported are <i>English</i> manufactures.</p></div>
+
+<p>The absence of a regular banking establishment is much felt
+by the trading community, particularly in times of temporary
+distress. Singularly enough there are few Portuguese coins
+to be met with, and even these are not liked by the
+inhabitants. The moneys chiefly in circulation are English
+and American gold and silver coins, French five-franc
+pieces, and Spanish dollars. The sailing vessels in the
+roads of Funchal are mostly under English and American
+flags. The steamers which keep up the intercourse between
+Europe and the Brazils call regularly at Funchal for mails
+and passengers,<a name="Anchor-31" id="Anchor-31"></a><a href="#Footnote-31" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 31.">[31]</a> and a steam-packet arrives regularly
+every fortnight on its way from Europe to South America.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-31" id="Footnote-31"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-31">[31]</a> An English coal depôt has been established in
+Funchal since 1848.</p></div>
+
+<p>The trade carried on under ordinary circumstances is, as we
+have seen, by no means inconsiderable, and by proper
+management might enable the people to extricate themselves
+from their present depressed position; but though not
+exactly lazy, they are entirely deficient in the energy
+requisite for effectively improving their condition.
+Whenever they have enough of yams and potatoes, they no
+longer think of exerting themselves or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> of acquiring a more
+comfortable or independent mode of existence. Neither in
+Ireland, nor in the Silesian mountains, nor even amongst the
+Indians in North or South America, have we witnessed such a
+degree of poverty and wretchedness as we beheld among the
+labouring classes in the mountainous districts of this
+island. On entering a village, shoals of haggard-looking
+beggars covered with rags were seen, whose features
+indicated their unhealthy way of living, and an utter lack
+of the most common necessaries of life. The calamities of
+the last five years have certainly contributed to this
+excess of misery, and a traveller who visited Madeira twenty
+years ago, may have carried away with him quite a different
+impression of its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The race inhabiting the island, notwithstanding some
+favourable exceptions, is rather unprepossessing and
+decrepit, owing to the elements of which it is composed. The
+first settlers, as already stated, belonged by no means to
+the better classes of Portugal, but consisted of a motley
+assemblage of ruffians, who came to the newly-discovered
+island merely in search of adventure. The admixture which
+afterwards took place with the black race imported from
+Africa, materially contributed to deteriorate the people
+both physically and morally. Though there is not one single
+pure negro in the whole island, yet the features of a
+considerable proportion of the inhabitants denote their
+African descent. In the population of Punta da Sol, a
+village on the west side of the island, the negro type is
+said to be exhibited in its strongest character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The dress of the native is extremely simple; a pair of white
+trowsers, a shirt, and linen jacket, constitute the entire
+toilette; with a few rare exceptions we never saw shoes: but
+even the poorest of the poor wears a curiously-shaped small
+cloth cap (<i>carapuça</i>) of a blue colour, with red lining,
+terminating in an erect pointed tail, six inches long. This
+seems to be a remnant of a turbaned head-dress, worn
+formerly by the inhabitants of the African coast, with whom
+the first settlers, allured by the slave-trade, once carried
+on an active intercourse.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 219px;"><a name="illu147" id="illu147"></a>
+<img src="images/illu147.jpg" width="219" height="288" alt="Man in cap with cloth spike-like appendage." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CARAPUÇA, OR CAP WORN BY THE NATIVES OF
+MADEIRA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the inhabitants of Funchal obtain their livelihood
+by acting as guides to strangers. The roads being very
+steep, and formed of pointed stones, horses of an excellent
+breed are used in going even short distances; however fast
+the visitors may gallop, the guide follows the horses on
+foot, to which the natives are habituated from their
+earliest years. This practice is undoubtedly one of the
+principal causes of consumptive complaints, which are more
+frequently met with here than might have been expected
+considering the climate, though bad nourishment and
+unhealthy dwellings may have their part in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> causing the
+prevalence of the malady. The common people are mostly
+lodged in small low cabins of wood or timber, thatched with
+straw, the only opening being the door, through which air
+and light are admitted. Their sleeping-places are wooden
+benches, covered with straw, raised only one or two feet
+from a ground which, during nine months of the year, is
+damp.</p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to state that the wealthier classes
+offer a more pleasing aspect. They are extremely obliging,
+kind, and attentive towards strangers, and evidently
+endeavour to impress the visitor with favourable ideas of
+themselves and the island. To the hospitality of the
+Austrian Consul, as well as to Major P. A. de Azevedo and
+Don Juan Muniz, so deservedly celebrated for his knowledge
+of the flora of Madeira, the members of the <i>Novara</i>
+expedition are indebted for many a happy and delightful
+hour.</p>
+
+<p>The population is perceptibly on the decrease. The causes
+are emigration to the British West Indies, and devastation
+by the cholera. The number of inhabitants in the two
+islands, in 1836, amounted to 115,446; in 1854, to 103,296;
+and in 1855, to only 102,183. The emigrants during the last
+twenty-five years (1835 to 1860) are said to have amounted
+to 40,000, many of whom depart secretly, in order to avoid
+the heavy emigration tax.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous benevolent institutions indicate the charitable
+disposition of the inhabitants. The hospital, or Santa Casa
+de Misericordia, standing in a beautiful square, planted
+with planes and magnolias, can receive 104 patients, and is
+exceedingly well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> managed. It appears, however, rather
+singular that the surgical are separated from the medical
+cases, whilst no separation exists amongst the patients who
+may happen to be labouring under contagious diseases. The
+most frequently recurring diseases are cutaneous, a
+circumstance which need excite no surprise in a country
+where the natives pay so little attention to the cleanliness
+of their bodies, and where Government itself favours as it
+were this carelessness by levying a considerable tax upon
+the importation of soap! Dysentery prevails throughout the
+year; intermittent fever and inflammatory diseases occur
+more rarely; but apoplectic cases are at times very
+numerous. The nominal amount of the funds of the hospital is
+estimated at £40,000; the annual income being about £1800
+sterling.</p>
+
+<p>The hospital for lepers is fitted up for the reception of
+about forty patients, most of whom come from places in which
+the black has least mixed with the white race.</p>
+
+<p>The workhouse, for 230 paupers, was founded in 1847 by
+public subscription, and has an annual income of from 3000
+to 4000 piastres.</p>
+
+<p>The nunnery of St. Isabel, for the reception of female
+orphans, was erected as early as 1726. Great care is taken
+of the education of the inmates, who are not permitted to
+leave the establishment, except in case of getting married
+or respectably employed.</p>
+
+<p>Foundlings, of whom, in one single year, 839 were maintained
+by the commune of Funchal, are given out to nurse;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> and
+there has been a most singular expedient adopted, in order
+to prevent abuse as regards obtaining the board money, which
+amounts to about one piastre a month, for each. A piece of
+tape is put round the infant's neck, the two ends of which
+are fastened with a lead seal, and stamped, so that, in the
+event of death, it cannot be taken off and put on another
+child's neck. The witnessing of the process of fastening and
+stamping this necklace is most unpleasant, although no real
+pain is inflicted on the child.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1855 there existed in the entire island twelve
+elementary schools, attended by about 200 scholars, and
+likewise forty-nine Sunday schools, having about 2400
+pupils. Funchal also possesses a college, with six
+professors and 120 students, an ecclesiastical seminary for
+twenty-four pupils, and a medical school, with four
+professors, which, however, during the year of our visit,
+had only seven students. Though the Government is very rigid
+in exacting the attendance of the children at school, yet
+only about a seventh part of the whole number living in the
+island really avail themselves of the benefit.</p>
+
+<p>A hospital for the consumptive is now in course of erection,
+at the expense of the Empress dowager of the Brazils, as a
+memorial of her daughter, who, in 1853, died of this disease
+on the island.</p>
+
+<p>There exist several public libraries and book societies at
+Funchal; and in several of the clubs a great many of the
+leading English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and German
+journals, are to be found. Four weekly papers, in the
+Portuguese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> language, are published at Funchal. The first
+newspaper ever published there was the <i>Patriota
+Funchalense</i>, the first number of which appeared on the 2nd
+of June, 1821.</p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+width: 535px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu151.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu151" id="illu151"></a>
+CATHEDRAL OF<br />MADEIRA.</div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 535px; height: 578px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 235px; height: 117px;"></div>
+
+<p>The public buildings offer little to attract notice; the
+churches are insignificant, and even the cathedral, a
+building in the Basilica style, is in no way remarkable
+otherwise than by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> innumerable garlands and nosegays,
+offerings of pious devotees, which as it were transform its
+interior into a fragrant temple of flowers.</p>
+
+<p>That which was once a Jesuit monastery, has been now
+converted into a barrack, in which the whole garrison of the
+island, amounting to 400 men, are lodged. The daily pay of
+these soldiers amounts to 20 reis, or about one penny!</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary dwelling-house has lately been converted into a
+town gaol, in which the prisoners are very humanely treated.
+Passers-by may have an undisturbed talk with them through
+the lattice-work; and once we even observed a man who had
+thrust his foot through the iron bars, in order to have his
+measure taken by one of the inmates for a pair of shoes!</p>
+
+<p>The charms of beautiful walks, and a most enchanting
+neighbourhood, enhance the pleasantness of the climate of
+Funchal so much resorted to by invalids. In the interior of
+the town, not far from the sea-shore, splendid avenues of
+magnificent planes, large-flowered magnolias, and massive
+oaks, form delightful promenades, and afford repose and
+shade on numerous seats under the dense foliage of their
+wide-spreading branches.</p>
+
+<p>Seated on a gently-ambling steed, one may reach most
+pleasantly the summits of those lofty mountains, which rise
+close to Funchal, where a balmy fragrance perfumes the air,
+and the eye roams with delight in all directions over
+scenery of the most striking description.</p>
+
+<p>One of the favourite points from which such a view may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span> be
+obtained in all its beauty, is the terrace in front of the
+church of Nossa Senhora de Monte, situated 1965 feet above
+the level of the sea, on a ridge of the Arrebantao mountain,
+reached in less than an hour by one or other of the existing
+conveyances; these are either horses, or hammocks and
+sedan-chairs, or sledges, covered with tasteful canopies,
+and drawn by a couple of small oxen.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 514px;"><a name="illu153" id="illu153"></a>
+<img src="images/illu153.jpg" width="514" height="358" alt="Instead of a carriage on wheels, a
+carriage on wooden runners drawn by oxen over the snow-less cobblestone streets." title="" />
+<span class="caption">SLEIGH PARTY IN MADEIRA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though a vehicle, reminding one so strongly of a northern
+winter, appears rather odd in a climate such as that of
+Madeira, yet its practicability and convenience is very soon
+perceived, when comfortably sliding away over the smooth
+stones of Funchal. Wheel carriages, such as used in Europe,
+are unknown here.</p>
+
+<p>But he who has bodily strength and health enough to be able
+to wander through the interior of the island, will find
+spots which command landscapes by far more grand and sublime
+than that seen from Nossa Senhora de Monte. Cape<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> San
+Lorenzo, with its petrified fauna;&mdash;the awe-inspiring
+Entroza pass, that wonderful sculpture of nature which bears
+so powerful a witness to the corroding action of water;&mdash;the
+lovely and solitary cascade of Rabacal;&mdash;the Pic Arrieiro,
+with its craggy rocks, offering to the geologist such a
+remarkable peep into the geognostical history of the
+island;&mdash;the numerous gigantic rocky skeletons of volcanic
+cones, on which the geologist is able to make the most
+interesting studies and investigations, just in the same
+manner as the anatomist on a corpse;&mdash;all these wonders of
+nature are calculated to awaken the reflection and excite
+the admiration of the beholder.</p>
+
+<p>The most delightful event during our stay in the island was
+an excursion of several days, made to the romantic
+localities of the northern coast. A stately cavalcade of
+twenty-two horsemen set out, early on a fine June morning,
+from Funchal to Nossa Senhora, and from thence over the Pic
+Poizo, through the glens of Metade to St. Anna. After a ride
+of two hours, the Casa de Abrigo was reached, a small house,
+situated about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, erected
+by the Government some years ago for the shelter of
+travellers. From this point the path runs through a hilly
+country covered with heath, from which the majestic Pico
+Ruivo, with the fantastic forms of its rugged volcanic walls
+bathed in gold by the rays of the rising sun, presents a
+most imposing sight. On the whole route only one small
+miserable village, called Fayal, was passed, consisting of a
+few straw thatched huts, exhibiting a picture of poverty and
+wretchedness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span> which can scarcely be paralleled in any part
+of the habitable globe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 674px;"><a name="illu155" id="illu155"></a>
+<img src="images/illu155.jpg" width="674" height="546" alt="Rural farmers'
+thatched-roof stonework homes among the fields." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VILLAGE OF FAYAL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At last, after a ride of eight hours, we reached St. Anna,
+an extensive village, with a large church and some brick
+buildings prettily situated in flower-gardens, the most
+stately of which was&mdash;the inn. The good cheer and repose
+found here for a few hours of the night, compensated in some
+degree for the fatigues of the past day, and prepared us for
+those to be encountered on the morrow.</p>
+
+<p>The frequent fogs prevalent in Madeira during the month of
+June, render it indispensable to start early in the morning,
+if the traveller wishes to enjoy the beauties of the
+scenery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> At 2 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, therefore, our cavalcade set out,
+followed by a host of boys and porters carrying provisions
+and instruments for observations. Nature was still buried in
+sleep, the air quiet and motionless; the full moon, shedding
+her pallid light over sea and mountain, feebly shadowed
+forth the outlines of the hedges and bushes of roses,
+fuchsias, and hortensias, that lined the narrow path, and
+brought out dimly in faint relief the ghost-like white
+figures which, standing at the doors of their poor cabins,
+looked inquisitively at the riders, that were already so
+early on their way. The path led up to the mountains in
+steep and numerous windings, sometimes on soft ground
+through ravines, sometimes on solid basalt, or over the
+uneven surface of indurated lava. And when at last, emerging
+from deep glens, steep precipices, and rocky walls, all yet
+buried in the shades of night, the blue star-spangled sky
+burst upon us in all its beauty and grandeur, the effect was
+almost overpowering. A faint glimmer of light appeared on
+the distant horizon, masses of vapour moved over the ocean,
+and rising mists gathering into clouds, undulated like the
+surface of an agitated sea. It was only along the ridges of
+mountains and through the ravines, that one might glance
+between mist and land down to the calm boundless expanse of
+water at our feet.</p>
+
+<p>At 4 o'clock a halt was made near a solitary hut, called
+Choupana, at a height of 4400 feet, when the horsemen
+dismounted, and left their horses behind, preferring to
+reach on foot the termination of their journey.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 346px;"><a name="illu157" id="illu157"></a>
+<img src="images/illu157.jpg" width="346" height="505" alt="A rock formation." title="" />
+<span class="caption">EL HOMEM EM PÉ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We had just climbed up some steep basalt rock and reached an
+open spot, when the first rays of the sun tinged the eastern
+sky. Beaming in all his majesty on the sharply-defined
+clouds that hovered beneath, they sparkled like so many
+ice-capped peaks of Alpine glaciers; and when the great
+luminary ascended higher, distributing mingled light and
+shade in such gradations of tint as only Nature's cunning
+hand can mingle, the chaotic masses of vapour assumed the
+appearance of gigantic islands and lofty towering mountains,
+whilst a chorus of feathered songsters rung cheerfully out
+from the depths of the wooded valleys. The path wound along
+a precipitous declivity, grown over with tangled Til-trees,
+past a group of basaltic columns, which rose isolated to a
+height of 40 feet above the beautiful grassy carpet that
+clothes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> the ground, and in the crevices of which an old
+laurel, the last of its genus at this height, had taken
+root. The natives call this singularly-shaped group <i>Homem
+em pé</i>, or the man standing erect.</p>
+
+<p>Arrived at an open space of meadow ground, the Barreiro, or
+Encumiada Caixa, a gigantic rocky ridge, suddenly rises to a
+prodigious height, from a frightful abyss of almost
+fathomless depth. We now hastened across a plain covered
+with lava, to the rough basaltic summit of the Encumiada
+Alta. Safe on an eminence<a name="Anchor-32" id="Anchor-32"></a><a href="#Footnote-32" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 32.">[32]</a> above yawning gulfs, beneath a
+deep blue sky, in the brilliancy of a lovely morning sun, we
+abandoned ourselves to the thrilling impressions of the
+magnificent picture which nature here brought forth of
+earth, rock, and manifold vegetation. Towards the south an
+immense mountain ridge, with serried peaks (called Torres
+and Torinhas), rises to a height of 6000 feet, declining
+almost imperceptibly on the left hand, whilst on the right
+it descends abruptly in terraces, with perpendicular walls
+of rocks 1000 feet in height, connected by an inaccessible
+ridge with the imposing, stupendous, cupola-shaped summit of
+the Pico Ruivo. All this is disclosed to the eye within a
+radius of little more than two miles. Deep clefts and
+ravines run from the rocky crevices, and unite in a gloomy
+and profound abyss of 3000 feet, which forms the mouth of
+the ravine of Ribeiro Secco. Similiar chasms open to the
+right and to the left, and when they are too distant to be
+distinguished by the eye,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> dark shadows rising on the rocky
+walls indicate the deep crater-like basin of the Curral, and
+the gulfs of the Metade river, and the Ribeiro Frio. It
+would seem as if the whole island has, in a series of
+fearful convulsions, burst from a single central point in
+all directions; as if entire mountains had sunk into the
+deep, or had, by the action of torrents permeating their
+crevices, been converted into rubble, and carried as sand
+and fragments into the ocean.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-32" id="Footnote-32"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-32">[32]</a> 5883 feet, according to the geologist's
+barometrical measurements.</p></div>
+
+<p>The summits of the Torres and Torrinhas are nothing but
+barren naked rocks,&mdash;not a blade of grass, not a shrub, not
+a trace of vegetation is to be seen. At the highest points,
+strata nearly horizontal extend in remarkably regular
+layers, chiefly distinguished by the most manifold variety
+of colours and tints.<a name="Anchor-33" id="Anchor-33"></a><a href="#Footnote-33" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 33.">[33]</a> A dark grey schistus of volcanic
+ashes alternates with strongly-marked red, yellow, and
+violet layers of tufa, dross, and scoriæ, together with
+brown and grey conglomerates. Just as red predominates on
+the upper part of these <i>Torres</i>, green prevails on the
+lower. From the spot where the springs first issue out of
+the crevices of the basalt, everything seems covered with a
+dense green carpet. These are the celebrated "clefts" of
+Madeira, in which, even on rocks of 1000 feet high, not an
+inch is to be discovered bare; they afford a rich harvest to
+the botanist, whilst they fill the spectator with delight
+and admiration.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-33" id="Footnote-33"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-33">[33]</a> The celebrated American geologist, Mr. Dana,
+mentions that these wild contorted masses of mountain
+reminded him of the crater-walls of the Kilauea at the
+Sandwich Islands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 546px;"><a name="illu160" id="illu160"></a>
+<img src="images/illu160.jpg" width="546" height="537" alt="Erica trees." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ERICA TREES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, the scenery of Madeira does not owe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> its
+character to the grandeur or magnitude of its trees; the
+peculiar charm of the landscape arises more from grasses,
+ferns, shrubs, and different kinds of moss, all of which
+grow so rank and luxuriant, that the rocks, chasms, and
+abysses overgrown with them, appear like so many swelling
+cushions, or as if laid with soft velvet carpets in all
+directions. The different shades of green indicate the
+characteristics of successive zones of vegetation. Through
+the lower parts of the valleys run the beds of those
+mountain waters which, though nearly dried up in the summer,
+swell in the winter into torrents. Along these are scattered
+the straw-thatched huts of the natives, surrounded by
+vineyards and fields planted with rye, barley, potatoes,
+yams, and in the lower parts with single bananas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> These
+cultivated lands rise to a height of 2000 feet, and in many
+places even to 3000. Wherever on the steep declivities there
+is the smallest shelf to be found, even if only a square
+yard in size, it is turned to account. Next to this region,
+in ascending, is that of the brush and laurel woods.
+<i>Vaccinias</i> (blackberries), and different kinds of heath,
+often attaining a growth of five or six feet, occupy the
+whole of the ground, and in the month of June, when the
+broom is in full flower, a bright golden-coloured belt girts
+Madeira, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet. We beheld
+this golden girdle in its richest splendour, set off by the
+dark masses of evergreens in the clefts. Higher up is the
+true region of the <i>Erica arborea</i>, which, with its
+light-green and <i>paille</i> tint, contrasted with the deeper
+colour of the laurel, represents the underwood of our
+secondary mountain ranges. The <i>Erica arborea</i> attains here
+the height of a large tree, and, on some spots, 30 to 40
+feet of its gnarled stems stretch along the ground. Thus it
+may be traced, in company with other heaths, to the summit
+of the Pico Ruivo.</p>
+
+<p>After having made some physical observations, and enjoyed a
+most delightful prospect, we re-packed our instruments,
+filled our boxes and pouches with plants and geological
+specimens, and prepared for our departure. The guides,
+despite their heavy burdens, marched steadily on, humming in
+plaintive cadence their native songs. We soon reached our
+horses, and, penetrating through layers of clouds, rapidly
+descended the steep mountain sides to St. Anna.</p>
+
+<p>A walk on the same evening towards Porto Santo Jorge was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>
+not less charming than instructive, especially as we gazed
+on those hardened streams of lava, so interesting as regards
+the geological history of the island, out of the numerous
+crevices of which grew luxuriant magnificent rosettes of
+<i>Sempervivum</i>. Fuchsias and heliotropes were gathered from
+the bushes, and each took a share, now with the geological
+hammer, now with the botanical box, or the
+butterfly-catcher, in the harvest of objects of natural
+history. We passed in this neighbourhood several houses
+delightfully situated, surrounded by hedgerows of luxuriant
+shrubs and splendid native flowers.</p>
+
+<p>In the fine garden of the inn, amidst myrtles, bignonias,
+euphorbias, and fuchsias, was a handsome <i>Camellia
+japonica</i>, which had attained the imposing height of 15
+feet, with a diameter of 9 inches, the top spreading
+fan-like in numberless branches.</p>
+
+<p>The following morning we returned to Funchal, accompanied by
+a troop of ragged and diseased natives, pertinaciously
+appealing to our charity. Plenteous alms were given them,
+for where Nature is so prodigal of her gifts, the human mind
+becomes more sensitive and liberal. At noon, we again
+reached the beautiful terrace of Nossa Senhora de Monte, and
+here the excursion was wound up by a diversion of quite a
+peculiar character; for, instead of returning to Funchal on
+horseback, we slid down a mountain 1500 feet high, right
+into the town, on small double-seated wooden sledges, thus
+travelling down what is probably the grandest natural
+<i>Montagne Russe</i> in the world. A train of more than a dozen
+sledges started at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> same time. These singular vehicles
+are guided on either side with admirable adroitness by two
+natives, who avoid slipping by moistening their shoes; and,
+notwithstanding the velocity of these conveyances, even
+slight accidents are unheard of. Sledge parties of this
+kind, being cheap, constitute the most favourite amusement
+of the people of Funchal.</p>
+
+<p>The whole company met together once more at a convivial
+dinner in the hotel, where, agreeably to the custom of the
+country, not only the room and table, but even every single
+dish served up, was adorned with garlands of fragrant
+flowers.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"><a name="plate177t" id="plate177t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate177t.jpg" width="193" height="350" alt="Novara's track." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE II.&mdash;TRACK FROM MADEIRA TO RIO DI JANEIRO.</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate177.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 17th June we again weighed anchor. The intention had
+originally been to steer direct for Rio de Janeiro; but as
+we learned, two days before our departure, that the yellow
+fever, though on the decrease, had not yet entirely ceased,
+we were in no hurry to arrive at the capital of Brazil, and
+therefore determined to employ the time so gained, in
+investigating the nature of the winds and currents prevalent
+in these latitudes. For though the proper course of ships
+between England and North America has been admirably laid
+down, for nearly every month of the year, by the
+long-continued ingenious labours of Commander Maury, of the
+Washington Observatory, yet there still exists great
+difficulty in steering sailing vessels from Gibraltar or
+Madeira to South America, by the directions hitherto
+existing; the more so, as the seafarer in these latitudes,
+close to the limits of the north-east trade-wind, generally
+falls in with variable breezes and frequent calms, caused
+partly by the African coast and partly by the cluster of
+isles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> from the Azores to the Cape Verde Islands, and which
+are of still more frequent occurrence in the summer of the
+northern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>We kept Madeira, or rather the clouds which, during the
+summer, gather daily round the mountains, a long time in
+view; and on the 19th, at a distance of 120 miles from the
+island, some persons on board thought they could still
+distinguish them.</p>
+
+<p>We steered at first in a south-westerly direction, with
+light breezes and fine weather. Advancing, however, towards
+the limits of the trade-winds, showers became frequent, and
+the wind chopped about much oftener; a more southerly course
+was therefore taken, in order to come as soon as possible
+under the influence of the north-easterly trade-winds.</p>
+
+<p>There was now an opportunity of directing attention to the
+formation of the clouds, which, in these latitudes, assume
+at times very curious appearances. The <i>cirri</i> disappeared
+by degrees, and the <i>cumuli</i> towered up on the horizon in
+colossal masses. These latter are formed under the influence
+of the sun, when most powerful, and are therefore seen
+chiefly during the afternoon. As soon as they rise they
+vanish by absorption, just as fast as they are formed by
+evaporation from the sea. Rain very rarely proceeds from
+them. The alternation of their shades, tints, and colours,
+is beautiful in the extreme, particularly at sunset, when
+their outlines, as they stand out in bold relief on the
+clear blue sky, vary in hue from the deepest grey to the
+most brilliant golden yellow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The nearer the tropics are approached the more does ocean
+teem with animated orgasms. A net cast into it was
+immediately filled with an immense number of little living
+creatures. Pretty-looking blue cockles, sea-nettles, and
+various other inhabitants of the deep, all of the most
+minute size, lay rolled up in one lump with small sea-weeds
+of beautiful forms and tints, from which those tiny things
+endeavoured, with great exertion, to extricate themselves.
+The microscope discloses to the observer an entirely new
+world in the economy of nature, as displayed in the animal
+life of the surface of the sea. The entire oceanic creation,
+from the smallest infusoria to the huge whale, are all
+specially adapted to the element in which they exist, and
+organized to contribute to the preservation, as well as the
+further development, of the whole globe.</p>
+
+<p>This is beautifully illustrated by the operations of the
+zoophytes; the water of rivers dissolves the chalky
+substances of the land and carries them down to the
+ocean,&mdash;immense numbers of these form, for themselves,
+habitations from this matter;&mdash;by successive accumulation,
+produced through the action or the dead bodies of these
+creatures, the ground is raised gradually into the reefs,
+banks, and rocks, so dangerous to navigation; or into
+islands inhabited by man, who, in the development of his
+moral and physical powers, performs his mission in his high
+position, just as definitely as the imperceptible animalcuæ
+do in their narrow sphere.</p>
+
+<p>Exceedingly beautiful in the tropic seas are those small
+<i>physali</i>, a species of <i>Acalephæ</i>, known to sailors as
+"Portuguese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> men-of-war." They sail along by means of their
+large air-bags, exposed to the wind, whilst their numerous
+long, dark-blue tentacles, like fibres or roots, reach deep
+into the water, extending or contracting in order to secure
+their food. The fringes of these air-bags are of a violet
+colour, and resemble, when in sunshine, a splendid flower,
+floating about the sea in all directions.</p>
+
+<p>Approaching the zone of the trade-winds, the aspect of the
+sea is animated by flying-fish. It has been long a matter of
+doubt whether this fish really moves through the air by
+flying, or whether, being pursued by enemies, it merely
+darts from fear out of the water, and sustains itself in the
+air by means of its long pectoral fins, though the long
+distances it moves are out of all proportion to its size and
+probable muscular power. This doubt seems to have originated
+with those who never have had an opportunity of personally
+observing flying-fish; or who have merely seen these
+creatures in the Mediterranean, where they are so small as
+to render it rather difficult to decide in what the movement
+really consists.</p>
+
+<p>But in the tropics all doubt vanishes, for the fish here
+attains a length of from 6 to 8 inches, and its pectoral
+fins are so much developed that they may perfectly well be
+used as wings. By closely observing them, it is seen that
+these fins, or wings, have an oscillating or vibratory
+motion, like that of the grasshopper, by which they assist
+the oblique spring from the water, produced by muscular
+power; they move at a height of from two to three feet above
+the surface of the sea, to a distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> of from 50 to 100
+yards, and at the same time change the direction of their
+flight in exactly the same way as grasshoppers.</p>
+
+<p>It seems, however, to be neither pleasure nor want of food
+that drives these creatures from their own element. They
+have numerous enemies, of which the principal is the bonita
+(<i>Scomber Palamy</i>); whenever flying-fish were seen the
+bonitas likewise made their appearance; we often saw the
+latter darting out of the water and snapping at a
+flying-fish, when, if they did not succeed, they were
+perceived hastening under water in the same direction that
+their prey was taking. But the flying-fish is quite aware of
+the movement of the enemy, and, therefore, sometimes turns
+back abruptly, evidently with a view of dodging his pursuer.
+The advantage of the wings is, however, more apparent than
+real, for whilst they escape by these means from the
+bonitas, dorados, and dolphins, they fall a sacrifice to the
+seagulls and man-of-war birds (<i>Tachypetes aquilus</i>), which
+reach them like arrows shot from a bow, before they are able
+to conceal themselves again in the ocean. Those which were
+seen on the north of the equator, were invariably of the
+smaller kind (<i>Exocætus volitans</i>); whilst in the south,
+also, the larger species (<i>Exocætus exulans</i>) made their
+appearance. They often drop during the night on the decks of
+small vessels with low bows, but on the <i>Novara</i>, which rose
+about 20 feet over the surface of the water, this was not
+possible; however, some fell upon the chains, which were
+caught and preserved in alcohol by the zoologists.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the 27th June, at midday, we had arrived in 27° 2&#8242; N.
+Lat., and 24° 7&#8242; W. Long., and lay in a perfect calm, the
+mirror-like aspect of the sea allowing us to take a deep-sea
+sounding with what is called Brooke's apparatus. This
+consists of a tube, which runs through a thirty-pound shot,
+fastened to a thin line. As the shot, however, cannot easily
+be drawn up after the sounding, there is an ingenious
+mechanism, by means of which, on touching the ground, it is
+detached from the tube, which may then be drawn up, the shot
+remaining in the sea. The tube has a funnel-shaped opening
+at its lower extremity, by which a portion of the ground may
+likewise be brought up for scientific examination.</p>
+
+<p>In the afternoon a boat provided with everything requisite
+for the sounding, was launched, and the operation began.
+Unfortunately there were only 4050 fathoms of line, as we
+did not find at Gibraltar the quality required for the
+purpose. The whole stock ran entirely out without reaching
+ground; we could therefore do nothing more than make the
+attempt to heave the tube without the shot. In this,
+however, we succeeded only in so far as regarded the first
+2000 fathoms; then the line broke, and the remainder was
+lost. One of the causes of this accident was the sudden rise
+of the trade-wind which increased so much as to engross
+nearly our entire attention.</p>
+
+<p>To convey an idea of the time a ball of this kind takes to
+descend through the different strata of water, which
+increases in density in proportion to the depth attained, we
+annex the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> length of the different periods required in
+paying out the line during the experiment:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Minutes.</td><td align="center">Seconds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">The first 1000</td><td align="center">fathoms occupied</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">From</td><td align="center">1000 to 2000</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2000 to 3000</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">40</td><td align="center">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3000 to 4000</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">76</td><td align="center">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4000 to 4050</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">_______</td><td align="center">_______</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"></td><td align="center">Total time in running out<br />the entire length</td><td align="center">2h &nbsp; 39m</td><td align="center">28s</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>As the winding up of the tube requires at least the same
+period, it may easily be conceived how great is the
+expenditure of time necessary for such an experiment, and on
+what chances the success of the whole operation depends.
+Though this trial was partially unsuccessful, yet so much is
+certain, that at this point, 24,300 feet of line were run
+off without reaching the ground. There is always, however,
+to be taken into consideration the under-current, which
+draws the line out of the perpendicular, and renders the
+result of the operation rather doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>We now sailed with a fresh and steady trade-wind towards the
+thirtieth degree of W. Long., and thence along that meridian
+to the southward.</p>
+
+<p>In the night, between the 29th to the 30th, we crossed the
+parallel of the sun's declination, upon which the direction
+of our shadows, already for several days scarcely
+perceptible, was of course changed from north to south.</p>
+
+<p>We soon crossed the belt of the north-eastern trade-wind, as
+we made daily from 180 to 200 miles. On the 3rd of July the
+wind became very unsteady, and on the 5th, in 8° 30&#8242; N.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>
+Lat. and 29° 30&#8242; W. Long., it entirely left us. The sky
+often became dark and threatening; indeed, its aspect
+changed at times with surprising rapidity, without any
+particular disturbance in the direction or strength of the
+wind; nor had we to complain of as much rain as might have
+been expected in these regions.</p>
+
+<p>The calms in the so-called "belt of calms" were fortunately
+not of long duration, for in 6° 43&#8242; N., and 28° 49&#8242; W., a
+fresh south-east wind sprang up. When we came within the
+influence of the south-east trade-wind, we endeavoured to
+approach the coast of South America, for the purpose of
+observing the currents in that latitude, this being one of
+the investigations suggested by the letter of instructions
+drawn up by Alexander v. Humboldt. The great oceanic stream,
+which, on leaving the western coast of Africa takes a
+westerly direction, is divided by the projecting American
+Continent into two branches, of which the stronger turns
+N.W. towards the Caribean Sea, while the weaker moves
+south-west along the coast of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>We had already felt its influence whilst in the zone of
+calms, and it became still more perceptible the more the
+equator was approached. The continuance of the
+south-easterly trade forced us to cross the Line at a more
+westerly point than usual. This, however, causes no
+disadvantage to a good sailing ship; nay, Commander Maury
+has proved indisputably that ships make extremely short
+passages, which reach the Equator so far to the west that
+they run a risk of hugging the coast too closely. Those on
+the other hand, which, from over-anxiety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> to avoid the
+current, keep too far to the east, lose much time, being
+compelled to pass weeks in the zone of calms, which
+increases in breadth towards the east, whereas the others
+come very little in contact with it, and avail themselves of
+the changes of wind near the shore, to double the Cape of
+St. Roque on the American coast, so much dreaded by the
+former. We cannot here forbear expressing our high
+admiration of the great merits of Mr. Maury, whose classical
+work on the physical geography of the sea, as well as his
+inestimable wind and current charts, deserve the especial
+attention of all who navigate these seas.</p>
+
+<p>The nearer we approached the Line, the more striking became
+the aspect of the southern constellations. The light of the
+northern polar star grew fainter and fainter, its altitude
+diminished, and it at length entirely disappeared. But, on
+the other hand, the Southern Cross, the Magellan clouds, the
+ship Argo on the "coal-bags," or starless, dark spots of the
+southern hemisphere, became more elevated in proportion as
+the northern sky moved away, and for a moment we felt some
+difficulty in recognizing our old acquaintances of the
+northern hemisphere in their relation to the new stars.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th, at 3 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, we crossed the Line in 33° 50&#8242; W.L.
+This event, which with all sailors forms a marked epoch in
+their seafaring life, had in this case the additional
+feature of being actually the first occasion of an Austrian
+man-of-war entering the southern hemisphere, and our crew,
+who had long before enjoyed, in anticipation, the merriment
+to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> it would give occasion, had commenced the ceremony
+the preceding evening. Neptune, accompanied by an
+appropriate retinue of mermaids, tritons, and nereids,
+appeared at sunset, to announce with the utmost gravity to
+the Commodore, in a set speech, the astounding news that the
+vessel was entering his dominions, demonstrating the fact
+mathematically by an immense sextant, a chart, and pair of
+compasses a yard long, all manufactured by the ship's
+carpenter, and claiming his right to see the act of shaving
+and baptizing properly performed on all those who for the
+first time came into his kingdom. Amidst streams of water
+from the masts and fire-engines he made his exit down the
+rope ladder in a blaze of blue fire, followed by an ignited
+tar-barrel, which floated along like a globe of fire on the
+mirror-like surface of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The real farce, however, took place the next afternoon, when
+Neptune re-appeared, accompanied this time by his good lady
+and a hopeful youth, all decked out in real sea-god-like
+attire, in a car drawn by six tritons, still accompanied by
+his farcical retinue blowing a flourish on their bugles,
+when, after a second set speech to the Commodore, the great
+ruler of the waves declared that the ceremony was now to
+begin.</p>
+
+<p>Every sailor was obliged, whether he would or no, to undergo
+a lathering with a nasty mixture of tar and grease, and
+submit to be scraped by an immense tin razor; which
+operation being performed, the unfortunate sufferer was
+thrown into a sail suspended by its four corners, and there
+deluged from head to foot from pails, pumps, hose, pots,
+dishes, and everything else<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> that would hold water. The
+officers and other gentlemen escaped the ordeal by a
+contribution in money or wine towards the festivities.</p>
+
+<p>When the greater part of the sailors had undergone this
+process, and the scene, amidst formidable gushes of water,
+rioting, uproar, and excitement, had reached its highest
+point, behold! a voice thundered from the quarter-deck the
+words "two o'clock," and everything resumed its wonted
+aspect.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Line had been crossed at a more westerly point
+than usual, we were able, in the night from the 18th to the
+19th of July, to pass easterly between the rocks Las Roccas
+and the island of Fernando da Noronha.<a name="Anchor-34" id="Anchor-34"></a><a href="#Footnote-34" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 34.">[34]</a> On the 20th July
+we were carried again by unfavourable winds to a distance of
+100 miles from the Brazilian coast, where we parted from our
+faithful companion, the <i>Caroline</i>. She sailed for
+Pernambuco, whilst we kept out to sea in order to continue
+the observations on the westerly currents, and be able
+freely to double Cape St. Augustin. Bad weather, showers,
+and heavy swells prevented complete success in our task; it
+was, however, ascertained that the current close to the land
+is not so strong as at some distance from it, and that the
+extreme point of divergence is, at this particular season of
+the year, somewhat east of the south point of Fernando de
+Noronha. In the angle formed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span> direction of the two
+currents between the point of division and the land, partial
+currents (according to circumstances and the strength of the
+wind), run towards one or the other side, of which the
+stronger tends towards the north-west.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-34" id="Footnote-34"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-34">[34]</a> This island, situated 300 miles from
+Pernambuco, which supplies it with provisions, is at present
+used by the Brazilian Government as a penal settlement. It
+is extremely beautiful and fertile, but very little
+cultivated, and admirably suited for a coal depôt, and a
+place for ships obtaining stores, particularly when
+epidemics are prevalent in Rio de Janeiro.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the 23rd July the weather cleared up; we approached the
+coast and came in sight of Cape St. Augustin, the first land
+descried since leaving Madeira. On the 1st of August a rock
+was announced ahead; as nothing of the kind was indicated in
+the charts, we were curious to know what this could be. A
+boat was manned, and we were soon made aware, by our
+olfactory organs, of the real nature of the object, which
+turned out to be the carcase of a dead whale in a state of
+putrefaction, over which a number of birds were hovering,
+whilst a troop of sharks feasted on the putrid mass, boring
+themselves into the body. This incident shows how many rocks
+marked in charts as doubtful may owe their origin to similar
+circumstances; for, had we not been convinced of the real
+nature of the object, we should have believed this carcase
+to be a rock, and thus augmented the number of "doubtfuls"
+and interrogations in the charts of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd August we made Cape Frio, and after a rough and
+stormy night reached at last, on the morning of the 5th, the
+numerous small islands situated in front of the harbour of
+Rio. The <i>Sugar Loaf</i>, that remarkable black basaltic rock
+at its entrance, stood grandly forth, as we ran in.
+Unfortunately the gloomy state of the atmosphere prevented
+the enjoyment of the exquisite beauty of this so often
+described charming bay.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Here we found an English, a French, and an American frigate,
+as also a dirty old Brazilian sloop of war. Besides these
+ships of war, a Spanish frigate and galliot lay in the
+mercantile dock for repair; they had shortly before their
+arrival lost their masts in a <i>pampero</i>,<a name="Anchor-35" id="Anchor-35"></a><a href="#Footnote-35" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 35.">[35]</a> which, however,
+had borne all the characteristic marks of a cyclone.<a name="Anchor-36" id="Anchor-36"></a><a href="#Footnote-36" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 36.">[36]</a> The
+occurrence of tornadoes in the South Atlantic has been so
+often and so decidedly denied, that the mariner does not
+readily believe the violent storms of those latitudes to be
+hurricanes. This Spanish frigate had accordingly sailed
+heedlessly into the storm, and, with only such precautions
+taken as referred to mast and sail, had without further
+concern proceeded on her course. She thus had got into the
+very heart of the cyclone, and escaped entire destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>
+only by a fortunate chance. Now, had her commander
+considered this storm to have been a real hurricane he would
+have undoubtedly steered a different course, and probably in
+that case would have reached the harbour in safety. But the
+notion of the non-existence of hurricanes in these waters is
+so pertinaciously maintained that it was no wonder the
+careful and able Spanish commander had also been misled. Our
+own opinion is, that any storm in the ocean may assume a
+revolving motion, and it is therefore highly advisable
+always to bear in mind the well-founded theory of cyclones,
+in order to act upon it, as circumstances may require. Were
+this always done, how many valuable lives and property might
+be saved from destruction!</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-35" id="Footnote-35"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-35">[35]</a> A squall of wind of the South American Pampas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-36" id="Footnote-36"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-36">[36]</a> The following succinct statement of the
+characteristics and general laws of cyclones will be found
+useful by way of reference:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. It has been fully ascertained that in both hemispheres
+the air in the cyclone rotates in a direction <i>contrary</i> to
+that of the sun. Thus, in the N. hemisphere, the course of
+the sun being from E. to S., W., and N., the course of the
+hurricane is from N. by W., S., and E.; and in the S.
+hemisphere, the sun's course being from E. by N., W., and
+S., the hurricane runs from N. by E., S., and W.</p>
+
+<p>2. They originate in the space between the equator and the
+tropics, near the equatorial limit of the trade winds.</p>
+
+<p>3. There is no instance on record of a hurricane having been
+encountered on the equator, nor of any one having crossed
+the Line, although two have been known to be raging at the
+same time in the same meridian, but on opposite sides of the
+equator, and only 10° to 12° apart!</p>
+
+<p>4. Their movement, which is always oblique from the equator
+to the poles, is usually from E. to W. at first, and towards
+the end W. to E., which is but a development of the gyratory
+motion that forms their most essential characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>5. The "motion of translation" varies from so low as 9 miles
+an hour to 43 miles an hour. There is no precise estimate of
+the velocity of the gyratory motion.</p>
+
+<p>6. They are liable to dilate and contract in area, the
+contraction always implying a great accession of violence.<br />
+(See <i>post</i>, p. 183.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 653px;"><a name="illu176" id="illu176"></a>
+<img src="images/illu176.jpg" width="653" height="325" alt="View of the cape from offshore." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CAPE FRIO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; margin-left: -350px;
+width: 700px; height: 566px; background-image: url('images/illu178.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu178" id="illu178"></a><a name="V" id="V"></a>
+<span style="position: relative; top:-0em;">THE QUAY<br />AT RIO.</span>
+</div>
+<div style="width: 700px; height: 278px; margin: auto;"></div>
+<div style="height: 288px; float: left; padding-right: 50%; margin-right: -120px; clear: left;">&nbsp;</div>
+<div style="height: 235px; float: right; padding-left: 50%; margin-left: -160px; clear: right;">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">V.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Rio de Janeiro.</div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+Brazil the land of contrasts.&mdash;Appearance of the city of Rio
+and its environs.&mdash;Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and
+the Tejuca Waterfalls.&mdash;Germans in Rio.&mdash;Brazilian literary
+men.&mdash;Assacú (<i>Hura Brasiliensis</i>).&mdash;Snake-bite as an
+antidote against leprosy.&mdash;Public Institutions.&mdash;Negroes of
+the Mozambique coast.&mdash;The House of Misericordia.&mdash;Lunatic
+Asylum.&mdash;Botanical Garden.&mdash;Public
+instruction.&mdash;Historico-Geographical institution.&mdash;<i>Palæstra
+Scientifica.</i>&mdash;Military Academy.&mdash;Library.&mdash;Conservatory of
+Music.&mdash;Sanitary Police.&mdash;Yellow Fever and Cholera.&mdash;Water
+Party on the bay.&mdash;Chamber of
+Deputies.&mdash;Petropolis.&mdash;Condition of the Slave
+population.&mdash;Prospects of German emigration.&mdash;Suitability of
+Brazil as a market for German commerce.&mdash;Natural products,
+and exchange of manufactures.&mdash;Audience of the Emperor and
+Empress.&mdash;Extravagant waste of powder for salvoes.&mdash;Songs of
+the sailors.&mdash;Departure from Rio.&mdash;Retrospect.&mdash;South-east
+Trades.&mdash;Cape Pigeons.&mdash;Albatrosses.&mdash;Cape Tormentoso.&mdash;A
+Storm at the Cape.&mdash;Various Methods of measuring the height
+of waves.&mdash;Arrival in Simon's Bay.
+</div>
+
+<p>Brazil&mdash;situated on the ocean-highway to the South Seas and
+the shores of India, endowed by nature, over the greater
+portion of her territory, with a salubrious climate, and a
+soil of tropical fertility, very nearly as large as Europe,
+and ten times the size of France, and yet containing not
+above 8,000,000 souls&mdash;has, far beyond all other States of
+South America, concentrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> on herself, during more than
+half a century, the interest of the naturalist, as well as
+of the political economist&mdash;of the merchant as well as of
+the emigrant. Indeed, we may say that there are few
+countries, beyond the limits of Europe, which in certain
+parts have already been more thoroughly explored than the
+Brazilian Empire, while at the same time it can boast the
+possession of a rich and valuable stock of literature,
+treating of its history, since its discovery by the
+Portuguese Admiral, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, on the 22nd of
+April, 1500, down to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>After so brief a sojourn as ours, we can hardly offer more
+to the reader than a short sketch of our own few
+experiences, and some remarks regarding the alterations
+which took place in the appearance of the city and in its
+social and political condition, since the period when
+Martius and Spix, Rugendas, Prince Neuwied, Helmreichen,
+Natterer, Pohl, d'Orbigny, Wilkes, Castelnau, Burmeister,
+and others visited Brazil, and so accurately delineated it
+both by pen and pencil.<a name="Anchor-37" id="Anchor-37"></a><a href="#Footnote-37" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 37.">[37]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-37" id="Footnote-37"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-37">[37]</a> Before we left Europe, the wish was repeatedly
+expressed to us that, during our stay in Rio, more accurate
+information should be obtained as to the fate of numerous
+scientific works and collections, by several German
+naturalists who died in Brazil in recent times, such as
+Frederick Sello, Dr. Müller (a companion of Castelnau), Dr.
+Engler, and others. Unfortunately, we can only give the
+little consolatory intelligence that, with the exception of
+the scientific memoranda left behind by Dr. Engler, chiefly
+relating to Itù in the province of St. Paul, there was
+nothing further to be hoped for. The collections have all
+been dispersed through want of care, and the manuscripts
+nearly all destroyed through ignorance of their value.</p></div>
+
+<p>The magnificent scenery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro still
+continues to possess the same absorbing interest for the new
+comer, wherever it has not suffered by the expansion of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>
+rapidly-increasing city, or the axe of the emigrant settler;
+it is but little one can add to or alter in the picturesque
+description which travellers, alive to its natural beauties,
+had already given, half a century ago, of the wonderful
+haven of the Brazilian metropolis! Very different, however,
+is the impression, when the stranger, on disembarking, sets
+foot on the new world, and has to make his way through
+narrow, steep, filthy streets, greeted by yelling crowds of
+blacks and whites, poor negro slaves, and wealthy planters,
+into the interior of this bustling port. An entirely altered
+state of affairs has sprung up since the separation of
+Brazil from Portugal, and he who has not seen Rio within the
+last ten years would hardly recognize the capital of the
+Brazilian empire. Along with the most conspicuous
+deficiencies, in numerous particulars, one finds such
+institutions as are not to be met with, in a similarly
+flourishing condition, in any other State of South America,
+or among the republics of the Isthmus. But Brazil is
+emphatically "The Land of Contrasts."</p>
+
+<p>When the traveller, stepping on shore from the anchorage for
+ships of war, (which is a little to the south of that for
+merchant vessels), has forced his way through the swarms of
+human beings at the landing stage, and in front of the hotel
+Pharoux, he finds himself on the Largo do Paço, or Palace
+Square. Here on his left rises the singular-looking Imperial
+Residence, and on his right, close to the shore, the Market
+Hall. A dense bustling crowd throngs the streets, while
+numerous vehicles, some drawn by horses, others by mules, as
+also omnibuses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> of all colours and dimensions, and crammed
+within and without, dash swiftly about, emulating the din
+and confusion of European capitals. Turning now to the
+right, into the Rua Direita, and thence a little further
+into the Rua do Ouvidor, the two most elegant but none the
+less most-neglected streets of Rio, there dazzles the eye,
+in the splendid, richly-decorated shops and arcades, the
+same profuse luxury as in Regent Street, or on the
+Boulevards. But how disagreeable the contrast with those
+cities, presented by the pools of stagnant water, which
+occur even in the most-frequented streets!</p>
+
+<p>The city proper presents the figure of a square of about one
+mile and three quarters each way, between the sea beach and
+the Campo da Santa Anna, and is divided with tolerable
+regularity by narrow streets built at right angles to each
+other. Except the most important public buildings, such as
+the National Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Military
+Academy, the Naval Arsenal, the Custom House, the Market
+Hall, the Imperial Palace, the Chamber of Deputies, and
+several of the churches, only shops and mercantile
+counting-houses are to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>From the city stretch the suburbs like long tentacles in
+every direction, on one side along the beach as far as St.
+Christoph, the winter palace of the emperor, and, in the
+opposite direction, as far as the charming Cove of Botafogo,
+while backwards they extend to the valleys leading to the
+Corcovado, to the suburbs of Larangeiras, Catumbý Grande,
+and in the direction of the Tejuca mountains, as far as
+Engenho Velho,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> and Andarahý. Elegant little villas,
+frequently built in the strangest and most <i>bizarre</i> style
+of architecture, alternate in these suburbs with ordinary
+dwelling-houses, all having most beautifully laid-out
+gardens. The merchant, the manufacturer, in fact every
+individual in easy circumstances, remain in the city only
+long enough to transact daily business. Each has his
+residence in the suburbs, where his family lives, to whose
+quiet circle he returns every evening. Among these suburbs,
+those of Caminho Novo and Catete, along the road leading to
+the charming cove of Botafogo, are more specially the
+diplomatic quarter, and the residence of the moneyed
+aristocracy of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Amid so much that calls for censure in Rio Janeiro, and of
+which the æsthetic perceptions of the visitor will apprize
+him in the course of a stroll in any part of the city, there
+are two improvements which deserve grateful acknowledgment.
+The first of these consists in the lighting of the city by
+gas (prepared from English coal), which had been introduced
+shortly before our arrival, and is now extended to the
+extreme outskirts of the suburbs; the second is the
+magnificent aqueduct, which provides every quarter of Rio
+with a lavish supply of excellent drinking-water. However
+ugly Rio may look in the daytime, the gas at night gives it
+a magnificent and splendid appearance, particularly from the
+harbour. When, the evening after our arrival, we gazed out
+upon the brilliantly-illuminated city that lay before us, we
+could not help thinking there must be some festive occasion
+for such a flood of light, ignorant as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> we then were of what
+we learned afterwards, that Rio is as fairy-looking by night
+as it appears gloomy by day.</p>
+
+<p>Not less surprising, and forming a strong contrast with the
+deficiencies and requirements in other particulars, are the
+stately fountains that adorn the squares. Close by the
+corner of each street, gushes out through metal cocks, a
+stream of clear, fresh spring-water, which has been conveyed
+by the great aqueduct a distance of 10 or 12 English miles
+from the slopes of the neighbouring Carioca or Tejuca
+mountain-chains. The water supply has been in existence for
+120 years, but the present immense reservoir and various
+improvements in it have been introduced by the Brazilian
+Government. With the exception of the Croton aqueduct, near
+New York, which supplies that city with 40,000,000 gallons
+daily, we do not remember to have seen in any part of the
+world a similar work of such magnitude.</p>
+
+<p>The dreary, uncomfortable feeling left by the city, gives
+way to most enjoyable impressions so soon as one emerges
+from the suburbs of Rio, and seeks compensation for the
+absence of the appliances of European civilization in the
+eternal grace and majesty of Nature. Walks may be taken in
+every direction, each opening up a fresh point of view,
+while, if the visitor take horse or mule, he may in the
+course of an hour or two transport himself into the very
+midst of the most extraordinary features of tropical
+vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most charming of these is a ride to the rocky peak
+called Corcovado, 2300 feet high, the road to which runs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>
+through magnificent shady forests. On the highest pinnacle
+of this rocky cone, which rises rather abruptly on the side
+of the valleys of Clementi and Broca, a parapet has been
+erected within these few years, so that the traveller can
+gaze over the delightful panorama below with as much, or
+even more, comfort and security, than from the Righi or the
+great Winterberg in the Saxon Switzerland. In the south and
+south-east rise the two stern-looking mountains, Gavia and
+Dos Irmaos, both of considerable height, and encircled by
+the mirror-like lagoon, Rodrigo das Freitas, near which
+stands out, clothed in the most luxuriant verdure, a part of
+the botanical garden; thereafter follows the beautiful
+valley of Clementi and Broca, with the splendid Lunatic
+Asylum and the fort of Praya Vermelha; beyond which is the
+smiling cove of Botafogo, and the singular Sugar Loaf, which
+forms such a characteristic feature of the entrance of Rio
+harbour; close beside the latter is the fort of San Juan;
+and lastly, facing the entrance of the bay, that of Santa
+Cruz, the strongest in the empire. At our feet lay stretched
+out the city itself, with the beautiful valleys of
+Larangeiras, Engenho Velho, and Catumbý Grande. On the other
+side of the bay, just opposite Rio, is Praya Grande, the
+capital of the province, and in the background the lofty,
+spectre-like mountain-chain of the Organos&mdash;so called from
+the rocky peaks projecting like so many organ-pipes. What a
+wondrous prospect! It is scarcely possible to have, from a
+single point of view, a grander or more varied natural
+picture. We lingered here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> more than an hour, and tore
+ourselves away with reluctance from all those glories which
+Nature has shed with so profuse a hand over this enchanting
+landscape.</p>
+
+<p>One of our companions was the veteran Brazilian naturalist,
+the venerable Dom Antonio Ildefonso Gomez, who passed
+several years in Europe when a young man, and had, together
+with Humboldt, once attended the lectures of Cuvier at
+Paris. M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, during his visit to Rio,
+spent several months at Dom Ildefonso's hospitable abode.
+Although now a septuagenarian, the old physician is
+uncommonly hale in person, full of his pristine enthusiasm,
+indefatigable in the pursuit of knowledge, and able to pass
+an entire day on the back of his mule, so that he can ride
+to the most distant consultations without betraying any
+symptoms of exhaustion. He had brought with him a number of
+large oranges, some cheese and bread, and a bottle of
+excellent port wine, so that there was no want of
+wherewithal to recruit our strength; and there, on the
+summit of the Corcovado, our hearts swelling with rapture as
+the eye ranged over the marvellous landscape that lay
+unrolled at our feet, we drank to the prosperity of Brazil.
+Dom Ildefonso, a warm friend to all foreigners, remarked
+that within forty years Brazil will probably be more German
+than Brazilian or Portuguese, and expressed a hope it might
+be so, as only by that means, so far as his observation
+went, could his beloved native land hope for a prosperous
+future.</p>
+
+<p>We returned through most charming forest scenery by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> way of
+Larangeiras and Andarahý. Throughout the entire distance we
+rode amidst the most exquisite specimens of tropical
+vegetation, palms, ebony trees, bignonias, plantains,
+mangoes, papayas, and bread-fruit trees, mingling with which
+we could discern the various trees and shrubs of the
+Northern Hemisphere, and occasionally strange plants from
+China, Japan, and Australia, which had been planted here by
+the enterprising hand of foreign settlers.</p>
+
+<p>Not less charming is the excursion to the Falls of the
+Tejuca, to which a broad road leads through blooming
+flower-gardens, and past delicious country seats, extending
+far into the mountains, and surrounded and overshadowed by a
+wall as it were of verdure, consisting of the flowers of
+<i>Bignonia bella</i>, intermingling with the shining leaves of
+the gigantic <i>Bougainvillea</i>. The coral tree (<i>Erythrina
+coralliflora</i>), the indigenous magnolia, the fan-shaped
+<i>urania</i>, numerous species of palms, and lofty,
+carefully-tended screw-pines, plantains with gigantic
+fruits, bread-fruit trees, eugenias, casuarinas, and melon
+trees&mdash;such are the blooming odoriferous attractions that
+here adorn garden and field. Ever threading his way among
+such charming plantations, the traveller finally reaches the
+path which, hemmed in between two mountain ridges of
+moderate height, leads direct to the Tejuca mountains, while
+to the right branch off numerous narrow paths conducting to
+the various adjoining eminences, from which a view can be
+obtained of the small cascade. The tropical richness and
+profusion of vegetation, has here crowded together upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> a
+few square feet of soil hundreds of plants of all kinds.
+They strike into the soil, or struggle upwards to the light,
+or give out roots from the stems or branches, and all twine
+and tangle with each other to such an extent that often in
+these tufts and thickets one sees the top of a fern, without
+being able to distinguish any part of its stem, or a
+passion-flower without any visible stalk or leaves, all
+suspended in mid-air, like so many elegant festoons.</p>
+
+<p>A short distance from this singular, thoroughly tropical
+landscape, is the second, known as the Great Cascade, which,
+however, owes its special attractions rather to the
+character of the surrounding vegetation than to the volume
+of water. The trees here grow on a sort of amphitheatre of
+rocks, all of colossal size, and the most widely different
+forms, no two of the same species adjoining each other,
+their stems and branches adorned with the most beautiful
+parasites and the blood-red leaves of innumerable creepers,
+which in their lavish luxuriance now stretch like garlands
+from tree to tree, now hang perpendicularly down from the
+very highest branch of the tree like a network of green
+lace, till they sweep along the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The water welling out from the granite rock, rushes into the
+abyss below after traversing a rocky declivity, somewhat
+resembling a sloping terrace of about twenty fathoms wide.
+Its track is indicated by the irregularly-shaped blocks
+piled upon each other, some of which at a little distance
+below, their huge wide ridges enclosed by retaining walls,
+serve as spots in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> which to dry in the sun the ripe berries
+of the coffee plant, which in many parts hereabout forms an
+almost impervious forest.</p>
+
+<p>As we prosecute our wanderings further, we finally emerge
+upon the green hills of the vicinity, and obtain a charming
+glimpse of the ocean; we have now arrived in front of the
+gigantic outline of the Gavia, and directly facing us lies
+the salt-marsh, known as Tejuca-Lake, in the midst of which
+rises an island, thickly overgrown with mango-trees,
+standing on their distorted hundredfold roots;
+melancholy-looking examples of the inactivity and absence of
+all attention of the Brazilian authorities, who permit such
+a hot-bed of poisonous miasma to remain in the immediate
+vicinity of the city, and leave these plants unchecked to
+carry on their pestiferous vital processes!</p>
+
+<p>Returning from such a delightful excursion to Rio de
+Janeiro, the stranger feels doubly uncomfortable and lonely
+in the dreary and sombre city. The Brazilians are in general
+neither very social nor hospitable, and only, after many
+years' acquaintance, is a familiar intercourse formed with
+strangers.</p>
+
+<p>In this respect they bear a strong resemblance to the
+Spanish-Americans, whom they also greatly resemble in many
+of their habits of life. Foreigners settled in Rio spend
+their evenings generally at their country seats, some
+distance from the town, so that the occasional visitor is
+deprived of the social intercourse that might otherwise be
+so accessible. We met with a most hospitable reception at
+the houses of the Austrian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> Minister, Chevalier de
+Sonnleithner, and our Consul-General, as well as from some
+German families, and also from the "Germania," a Club
+founded by twelve Germans as far back as 1821. This Society
+numbers now about 200 members, and is well supplied with
+German newspapers and periodicals, besides possessing a
+well-selected library of several thousand volumes, and a
+reading-room, with <i>restaurant</i>, smoking, billiard, and
+dancing-rooms attached. Of the various nationalities
+represented at Rio, the Germans are the most respected by
+the Brazilians. They are about 3000 in number, and as the
+majority are Protestants they have their own church, founded
+by three Germans in 1827, which now numbers 600 members, and
+has an annual income of 5000 milreis.<a name="Anchor-38" id="Anchor-38"></a><a href="#Footnote-38" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 38.">[38]</a> The community is
+under the protection of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council
+in Berlin, and accordingly, as often as public worship is
+joined in, prayers are offered up for the King of Prussia,
+as head of the church. Despite its existence for more than
+thirty years, the position occupied by the Evangelical
+church with reference to the State, has never been
+accurately defined, so that differences are constantly
+occurring. In connection with the congregation are a school,
+and a society for aiding distressed Germans, which numbers
+200 associates, and has an annual income of from 6000 to
+7000 milreis (£600 to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> £700). The objects of the association
+are the advance of money, pensions, payment of passage-money
+for transport, assistance to unemployed or sick German
+workmen, education of orphan children, and so forth. The
+German choral union had given a concert in aid of this
+humane society, which alone had realized 3100 milreis (above
+£300)!</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-38" id="Footnote-38"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-38">[38]</a> One milreis = 1000 reis = about 2<i>s.</i> English.
+The Brazilian milreis is of this small value as compared
+with that of the Portuguese (3 to 7), in consequence of its
+being represented by paper-money of fluctuating value, which
+gradually became so depreciated that Government, when
+regulating the value in 1846, were not in a position to
+restore it to its par value of 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> sterling.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is not alone, however, as merchants, engineers, and
+artisans, that the Germans in Rio occupy a conspicuous
+position; they likewise contribute their mite to the
+advancement of art and science. For example, the most
+important literary enterprise in the empire is in German
+hands, viz. the printing and bookselling business of the
+brothers Laemmert. Their publications embrace two hundred
+and fifty works, chiefly of Portuguese (not Brazilian)
+authors, original or translated, treating of Brazilian
+legislation, history, medicine, public instruction, poetry,
+popular literature, works on religion, novels, romances,
+kalendars, and theatrical pieces. One publication due to the
+founder of the firm, Mr. C. Laemmert, a Bavarian by birth,
+has already proved of immense utility, the "<i>Almanak
+administrativo, mercantil, e industrial</i>," compiled by
+himself, first published in the year 1843. From a most
+defective little pamphlet at its start, this periodical
+publication has, in the course of time, become developed
+into an elegant, simply-classified octavo volume, 1400 pages
+thick, which, compiled carefully and kept constantly
+corrected to the latest moment, despite the most
+disheartening material difficulties, gives a very
+interesting insight into the entire internal organization of
+the empire, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> at the same time supplies the most
+authentic information as to the scientific, commercial, and
+industrial activity of the city and province of Rio. Even
+more important as a medium for the diffusion of useful
+knowledge among the masses is a sort of popular kalendar,
+which is published in duodecimo form, under the title of
+"<i>Folinhas</i>" (Leaves), and for 320 reis (about 7&frac12;<i>d.</i>
+English), gives upon 360 pages an immense amount of useful
+information. Of this publication 80,000 copies were sold
+throughout the empire in the year 1857. There are very few
+works of importance written by native authors, as they
+devote their energies chiefly to periodical literature. Of
+daily and monthly publications there are abundance, both in
+Rio and in the provinces, but they have only an ephemeral
+existence. The press enjoys the most unbounded freedom, and
+probably in very few continental cities would such language
+be tolerated as that of the <i>Courier du Brésil</i>, edited by a
+French refugee. If the influence of journalism in Brazil is
+as yet insignificant, it is in consequence of the prevailing
+ignorance, as four-fifths of the population are unable to
+read or write, and the papers published are consequently
+only in the hands of the upper classes.</p>
+
+<p>While we found but few opportunities of intercourse with
+Brazilian families, the public authorities received and
+treated us in the most obliging and distinguished manner. In
+this respect, we were particularly indebted to Dr. de Lagos,
+Dr. Schüch de Capanema, Dr. F. de Paulo Candido, and Dom M.
+de Portoalegre.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These gentlemen took especial pains to make our stay in Rio
+as instructive as useful, and likewise gave us in reply to
+various scientific queries the most valuable information and
+practical hints. Thus, for example, we were favoured by Dr.
+de Lagos with the following particulars respecting the
+alleged efficacy of the milky sap of the assacú tree (<i>Hura
+Brasiliensis</i>), and of the bite of the rattlesnake as
+antidotes in cases of <i>Elephantiasis</i>, as also regarding the
+"Curaré," that celebrated poison with which the Indians of
+Brazil tip their arrows.</p>
+
+<p>The assacú had long been employed as a remedy for the
+frightful malady known as <i>Elephantiasis Græcorum</i>, and its
+use was occasionally followed by the happiest results,
+without any attempt having been made thoroughly to
+investigate the specific action of the juice, although, like
+that of so many other Brazilian plants, it would probably
+surrender, if scientifically analyzed, the therapeutical
+energies which enable it to overcome occasionally the most
+obstinate cases of disease. The assacú is a tree growing in
+the northern provinces of Pará, on making an incision into
+which there exudes a resinous sap, of a brownish or
+reddish-white colour, which coagulates, and gradually
+hardens. This inspissated substance is of a dark brown,
+rather resembling gum than resin, and readily soluble in
+water. When dissolved, it regains the colour and odour of
+the sap as it first trickles from the tree. A committee of
+physicians of Pará long ago presented to the Brazilian
+Government a memorandum as to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> practical efficacy and
+peculiarities of the assacú in cases of the above malady,
+according to which it appears, that the symptoms of the
+patient improve in the most marvellous manner from the very
+first day on which the remedy is used; the illness seems to
+be suddenly arrested, or, at all events to make but very
+slight progress. The milky sap is exhibited internally, in
+the form of pills, and a decoction of the bark is also
+administered by way of a beverage for the
+patient,&mdash;externally an infusion of the bark is used for
+bathing purposes. Some of those affected, to whom this
+remedy was applied, felt a sensation as of formication,
+immediately on taking it, while others experienced a feeling
+as though they had been submitted to a series of shocks of
+electricity, only weaker and more equable.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-established fact that in many parts of South
+America, a popular belief prevails that the bite of the
+deadly <i>Cobra de cascavel</i>, or rattlesnake, heals
+<i>Elephantiasis</i>, or pustular leprosy, in which disease, as
+is well known, the legs and feet of those attacked are
+covered with a scurf resembling the cuticle of the elephant.
+However, instances of the practical application of so
+terrible a remedy, which seems to be almost more dreadful
+than the disease it professes to cure, are in all
+probability of rare occurrence, and are therefore doubly
+important when, as in the case detailed to us, they occurred
+under the very eyes of a man of science, and are related by
+the observer himself.</p>
+
+<p>A native, named Marianno José Machado, from Rio Pardo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> in
+the province of southern Rio Grande, fifty years of age, had
+long been afflicted with morphea (<i>Elephantiasis Græcorum</i>),
+and had already passed four years in the Lazarus Hospital at
+Rio, when one day, worn out with his loathsome malady, he
+resolved as a last chance of being delivered from his dread
+disease, to submit to the bite of a rattlesnake. All the
+warnings and representations of the physicians, who
+entertained well-founded doubts as to the remedial efficacy
+of so dangerous a remedy, were disregarded. Marianno betook
+himself to a house in the Rua da Imperatriz, the occupant of
+which possessed a living rattlesnake, and there in the
+presence of numerous witnesses declared, signing at the same
+time a document to the same effect, that what he was about
+to do he did of his own free will, without any influence on
+the part of strangers, and that he assumed to himself the
+entire responsibility of his own deed. Marianno was of
+middling stature and athletic build; his entire skin was
+covered with rugosities, but without any appearance of
+ulceration, while his face was frightfully disfigured. The
+points of his fingers, moreover, had entirely lost their
+form, the skin readily peeling off from them.</p>
+
+<p>The daring sufferer opened the box in which lay the deadly
+reptile, and roughly seized it; but it at first attempted to
+escape, as though it too was disgusted at the horrible
+object before it. When, however, it felt itself once more
+squeezed, the snake turned round in self-defence, and bit
+the man on the finger. Marianno was sensible neither of the
+puncture of the teeth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> nor of the instantaneous activity of
+the injected poison, but it became ere long apparent that he
+had been bitten, from the blood making its appearance,
+coupled with a slight swelling of the hand. Several
+physicians watched by the bedside of the sufferer; almost
+every half-hour the observed results were circumstantially
+reported. When, however, the symptoms rapidly became worse,
+antidotes were applied, and every effort made to save the
+patient. Nevertheless, the result of the experiment was as
+anticipated&mdash;within twenty-four hours after the bite of the
+rattlesnake Marianno was a corpse.</p>
+
+<p>Several members of the medical society of Vienna laid great
+stress on our procuring a considerable quantity of the
+celebrated poison, "<i>curaré</i>," used in South America for
+tipping arrows, with the view of instituting fresh
+experiments&mdash;similar to those already made, so as to
+elucidate its chemical and physiological properties. As the
+curaré is not to be procured in Rio, but comes thither from
+the northern province of Pará, where the natives procure it
+from the sap of the <i>Strychnos toxifera</i>, Dr. de Lagos
+promised he would take care to procure some, so as to
+transmit samples direct to the Vienna <i>savans</i>, and at the
+same time gave us much information as to the latest
+researches touching this substance, with whose remarkable
+properties Alexander v. Humboldt had made the scientific
+world acquainted, more than half-a-century previously, in
+his classic "Travels through the Equatorial Countries."</p>
+
+<p>One special peculiarity of the curaré consists in the fact
+that, like most other organic poisons, it is only active
+when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> absorbed into the circulating system, and proves
+entirely innoxious, nay in some cases even beneficial, when
+introduced into the body by other means.</p>
+
+<p>The more the faculty became acquainted with the terrific
+activity, and invariably fatal results of this poison, the
+more zealously did science bestir itself to discover some
+means of neutralizing the operation of the curaré. Quite
+recently the preparations of iodine-natron, when
+administered in certain proportions, have been recognized as
+antidotes; dissolved with the curaré they seem entirely to
+obviate its evil effects. Careful observation and a gradual
+acquaintance with the properties of the curaré, have further
+led to the conclusion that it may be regarded as a remedy in
+certain cases, and it has actually been administered with
+good results to animals affected with tetanic convulsions.
+May it be reserved to the physicians of our native country,
+to elicit from the quantity of this subtle and singular
+poison, which they may expect to receive through the
+kindness of Dr. de Lagos, such results as shall make its
+remedial properties available for man, instead of leaving
+its baleful energies as at present solely directed to the
+destruction of organic life!</p>
+
+<p>In the company of our Brazilian friends, already mentioned,
+we also visited the most interesting of the public charities
+and educational institutions of Rio.</p>
+
+<p>On the occasion of a visit we paid to the in part
+newly-erected Casa de Correçâo, which is managed on what is
+known as the Auburn system, we were shown three Mozambique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>
+negroes, who, in 1852, had been smuggled in a "slaver" from
+the east coast of Africa into Brazil, there to be sold as
+slaves, despite the interdicts against the introduction of
+slaves, then actually in force. The vessel was, however,
+captured by the Brazilian cruisers, and the negroes
+forthwith restored to liberty, when, in their own interest,
+and with the view of preventing their being a second time
+sold into bondage, they were removed to a quarter of the
+prison away from the rest, and specially set apart for what
+are called "free Africans," where they had been carefully
+educated and instructed in various handicrafts, all at the
+expense of the State. As a vocabulary of the idioms spoken
+by the Mozambique negroes, was an especial desideratum of
+the class of philosophic history in our Imperial Academy of
+Sciences, and there seemed to be but little prospect of our
+expedition visiting the eastern coast of Africa, we gladly
+availed ourselves of this unexpected opportunity to compile
+the wished-for vocabulary, in which Professor Portoalegre,
+Director of the Academy of Fine Arts, materially assisted
+us. Two of these negroes, Camillo and Ventura, were born in
+Quillimani, and belonged to the Mananpi race; the third,
+Jeremias, was born about sixty days' journey from the coast,
+of the Maqua race, and spoke a dialect of the Mozambique
+idiom. Ventura, a youth of, at the outside, seventeen years
+of age, related that he could perfectly remember having been
+stolen one night from his parents in Quillimani, when he was
+brought to a slave-dealer named Jones, after which he was
+shipped off in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> wretched leaky vessel to the coast of
+Brazil. On our asking these three swarthy fellow-labourers,
+hearty of aspect and neatly clothed, who had been so
+carefully tended by the State, and earned, one as a
+house-servant, the other two as stonemasons, thirty milreis
+(£3 3s.) a month, whether they did not feel themselves
+better off in Rio than in their own home,&mdash;they, with one
+accord, answered that they longed to return to Quillimani,
+where it is hardly requisite to work above six months, and
+the rest of the year may be consumed in a genuine "<i>dolce
+far niente</i>" existence, instead of being compelled, as in
+Rio, to work the whole year round!</p>
+
+<p>In spite of long-continued efforts, the vocabulary turned
+out much less complete than we wished, in consequence of the
+limited capacity of these negroes. We did not content
+ourselves, however, with merely transcribing the answers to
+our questions, but also endeavoured to obtain a more
+accurate idea of the precise meaning attached to each, by
+repeating each of the words of the Mozambique language, and
+translating into it from the questions put in Portuguese.
+This method seemed to be the most effectual for ensuring the
+correctness of the pronunciation, so as to permit of its
+being afterwards reduced to writing. In the arrangement of
+the vocabulary, we availed ourselves of what is known as
+Gallatin's method, as it appeared to us more complete and
+comprehensive than that sent to our academy by the
+celebrated naturalist and traveller, Dr. Martius, of Munich,
+with a request that it should have his list of Latin words
+translated into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span> various languages hitherto unknown, or
+such idioms as have been as yet but little examined and
+investigated.</p>
+
+<p>The race, to which these three negroes belonged, seems to
+have been already converted to Christianity. At least, they
+all had Christian names, but could give us no information
+either as to certain heathenish rites in their own country,
+or concerning an idol of carved ivory which we showed them,
+brought from the east coast of Africa, and the method of
+worshipping it.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the most elegant edifices of Rio Janeiro, worthy
+indeed of being placed side by side with the largest
+charitable establishments in Europe, are the immense
+palace-like Hospital of the Santa Casa da Misericordia, in
+which between 8000 and 9000 patients are received and
+treated annually, and the really splendid Lunatic Asylum
+(<i>Asylo dos Alienados</i>), in the cove of Botafogo. The latter
+institution, founded in 1841, which, whether as regards the
+tastefulness of its architecture or its munificent
+endowment, can hardly be rivalled anywhere, owes its
+existence to one of the most estimable benefactors of his
+native country, Don José Clemente Pereira, Minister of the
+Interior at the time of its erection. This genial,
+benevolent soul, deeply acquainted with the human heart and
+its weaknesses, hit, as we were told, upon the following
+eminently original and ingenious method of raising the sums
+required. All grades of the various Brazilian orders, as
+well as the titles of Baron, Count, and Marquis, were put up
+for sale at fixed prices, the proceeds resulting from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> which
+purposes were applied to the erection and endowment of the
+asylum! And thus arose, at the south end of the cove of
+Botafogo, a splendid palatial edifice&mdash;a monument less of
+humanity and love of our afflicted neighbours, than of the
+vanity and frailty of poor human nature, the tributes to
+which erected it. Unfortunately, in this establishment, mere
+succour is all in all, and the cure seems entirely lost
+sight of, the sanative treatment of the patients lagging far
+behind their careful supervision; in short, it being rather
+a place for the safe confinement than the recovery of those
+deprived of their reason.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most instructive examples of how little the
+inhabitants of Rio make use of the natural capabilities of
+the site of their capital, is incontestably furnished by a
+piece of ground immediately adjoining the Lunatic Asylum,
+which has been dignified with the name of the Botanic
+Garden. With the exception of a very fine alley of hundreds
+of graceful king-palms (<i>Oreodoxa regia</i>), which present a
+magnificent spectacle, growing as they do with such
+admirable regularity as to appear rather artificial columns
+than planted trees, the eye encounters nothing but
+uncultivated land, abounding with the commonest vegetation,
+alternating with badly-selected nursery plantations,
+although both in the climate and the soil every facility is
+at hand for enabling this garden to be made a means of
+representing the vegetation of every zone of the globe. Even
+a large tea plantation, for the cultivation of which 10,000
+Chinese were imported at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> the cost of Government, and from
+which, if the experiment had proved successful, the most
+important results might have been anticipated, stood there
+uncared-for and untended, a melancholy witness of how things
+are inaugurated in Brazil, and then suffered to fall
+through. When we enquired how long the garden had been laid
+out, our guide, a witty Portuguese, replied with a sarcastic
+smile; "Since the beginning of the world!" In that part of
+the garden which adjoins the Lagune, called Rodrigo das
+Freitas, stands a common mud hovel, with broken windows, and
+doors hanging by the hinges. This was pointed out to us by a
+labourer as the spot at which the Emperor alights and
+reposes when he visits the Botanical Garden.</p>
+
+<p>Singular to say, Brazil possesses no regular university! The
+jealousy with which any one city invested with certain
+privileges and prerogatives is regarded by the rest, is the
+reason that induced the Government to separate the medical
+and juridical classes, so that each of the four chief cities
+of the Empire benefits by the presence of a certain portion
+of the students. Thus the medical schools are in Rio Janeiro
+and Bahia, while those of jurisprudence are held in St. Paul
+and Pernambuco. The entire number of students attending
+these establishments amounted of late years, on an average,
+to upwards of a thousand. Great prominence has been assigned
+by Government, especially of late, to the extension of
+public instruction. In March, 1857, there were throughout
+Brazil, 2452 schools, (765 private, and 1687 public,) in
+which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span> instruction was given to 82,243 children of both
+sexes.<a name="Anchor-39" id="Anchor-39"></a><a href="#Footnote-39" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 39.">[39]</a> A school of industry, having for its object the
+instruction of able-bodied persons, was opened in 1856, and
+classes for teaching natural philosophy and political
+administrative science, are in process of being introduced.
+Amongst the scientific establishments of the country, the
+Historico-Geographical Institute occupies the first place,
+the meetings of which are generally attended by the Emperor
+as honorary president. This institution, which occupies in
+Brazil about the same position as the Academy of Sciences in
+Vienna, directs its special attention to the publication of
+old documents and manuscripts relating to the history of
+Brazil and the aboriginal population; but investigations
+relating to natural history are also included in its domain
+of enquiry. The sittings are held every alternate Friday.
+The naturalists of the <i>Novara</i> attended one of these
+meetings, which took place in one of the wings of the
+palace. At half-past 6 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, the Emperor entered the hall,
+in plain clothes, attended by two chamberlains. All the
+gentlemen present approached one after the other and
+respectfully kissed the hand of their sovereign. On this
+occasion we remarked that even ladies, when presented to the
+head of the State, were accustomed to kiss his hand. The
+Imperial Honorary President, whose simple apparel was
+relieved only by the star of some order worn on the breast,
+took his seat at the upper end of a long, wide table,
+covered with green<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> cloth. The associates, with the
+exception of the Vice-President and Secretaries, seemed to
+have no fixed seats, but sat in the order of their arrival.
+During the sitting there was the most marked absence of
+ceremony, and the business was transacted in the freest and
+easiest manner.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-39" id="Footnote-39"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-39">[39]</a> Among the higher class of educational
+institutions, the College of Pedro Segundo ranks foremost,
+and is at present attended by about 900 students.</p></div>
+
+<p>The proceedings were uninteresting, the greatest portion of
+the time being occupied in reading over the minutes of the
+last sitting, and replying to certain strictures upon the
+incapacity of land-surveyors in Brazil. Sir Robert
+Schomburgk had, in one of his works published in 1843, upon
+the subject of New Guinea, made some disparaging
+observations as to the method of admeasurement pursued in
+Brazil, and one member of the society, Dr. Schüch de
+Capanema, seemed to consider it his duty in his double
+capacity as a Brazilian and an engineer, to
+protest&mdash;somewhat tardily it must be owned!&mdash;against these,
+according to his opinion, unjust remarks. After the
+discussion was over, a manuscript was next brought forward
+concerning some of the native tribes; His Majesty expressed
+a wish to have this treatise read. The secretary accordingly
+made the attempt, but the writing was so illegible, that he
+was obliged to abandon the task. At the conclusion of the
+meeting, which lasted upwards of three hours, His Majesty
+conversed very affably with the Austrian gentlemen, and
+presented each with a copy of a national poem, "Conferaçao
+dos Tamoyos," by a native poet, Gonçalves de Magalhaes, and
+recently printed at His Majesty's expense, which relates the
+wars of the Tamoyos with the Portuguese residents of San<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>
+Vincente&mdash;the last struggle of that heroic Indian race, the
+founding of Rio, and the subjugation of the entire force,
+under Nictheroy, by the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Palæstra Scientifica</i> is a branch of this institution,
+the members being chiefly naturalists. The gentlemen of the
+<i>Novara</i> Expedition were invited to one of the meetings,
+which was inaugurated by the secretary reading aloud an
+ancient manuscript upon the natural resources of various
+provinces in Brazil, according to explorations, which had
+been undertaken in 1798, by the directions and at the cost
+of the then Portuguese Government. There was also read a
+memoir upon the culture of linseed, formerly carried on in
+the province of St. Catharina, which, however, is now
+entirely discontinued. Dr. Schüch presented to the Society
+vocabularies of the Croado and Puris languages, compiled by
+M. R. F. de Senestes, a retired Belgian ship captain, now
+resident at Minas, who had long traded with these two Indian
+races. Dr. Schüch also exhibited a pigment, or dye-stuff,
+extracted from the wood of the Ipé-tree, a species of
+bignonia, extensively used in the manufacture of axles.
+State Councillor and Senator Candido Baptista de Oliveira,
+[formerly Minister and Ambassador at St. Petersburg, and at
+that time publisher and editor of the <i>Rivista Brasileira</i>
+(Brazilian Review)], brought forward some meteorological
+tables, and explained his new method for measuring
+altitudes. The proceedings are usually conducted in the
+Portuguese language; but out of courtesy to the foreigners,
+French was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> principally spoken, and the President kindly
+proposed that Dr. Schüch de Capanema, who is thoroughly
+versed in German, should translate into that idiom the
+proceedings as carried on in Portuguese. At the close of the
+sitting, the commander of our Expedition and the various
+members of the scientific commission were named associates
+of the <i>Palæstra Scientifica</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This society had projected an expedition to explore the
+western provinces of the empire, and some of their members
+were appointed to draw up the plan for carrying it out. The
+arrangements for the enterprise were on the grandest scale.
+The requisite books and scientific apparatus were ordered
+from London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. Every branch of
+science had its representative,&mdash;an astronomer, botanist,
+zoologist, ethnologist, &amp;c., were to accompany the
+Expedition; each section had a number of assistants, the
+astronomical as many even as nine. When we arrived in Rio,
+the printed instructions for the use of the members were
+just being distributed; and it was asserted that nothing but
+the non-arrival of the instruments from Europe prevented the
+departure of the Expedition. In short, the preparations
+which were made in the year 1857, justified the hope that a
+most brilliant success would be the result of an undertaking
+got up on so expensive a scale. The only pity is, that up
+till now&mdash;more than three years later&mdash;the Expedition has
+had but little result, and, according to the latest
+intelligence from Rio, some of the members in the north-east
+of the province of Cearà cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> proceed any further for
+want of money (<i>por falta de dinhero</i>), and expect new funds
+in order to continue their explorations and their efforts in
+search of the wild tribes (<i>em busca das tribus
+selvaticas!</i>) in the interior of Maranhao.</p>
+
+<p>There is, generally speaking, in Brazil, as in all other
+South-American States peopled by the Roman race, much of
+good-will, and still more vanity, to follow in the wake of
+northern European civilization in everything pertaining to
+progress and investigation; but there is wanting that
+energy, that perseverance so characteristic of the
+Anglo-Saxon race, which are essential conditions in
+successfully carrying out any undertaking, however zealously
+entered upon. This probably is the reason why in Brazil so
+many things in science and social life are begun and never
+brought to a conclusion; there is nowhere more talk about
+<i>what is to be done</i>, than at Rio de Janeiro. Thus, for
+example, the Museum of Natural History at the Campo Santa
+Anna, is an elegant building, with magnificent apartments,
+and large elegantly fitted cases&mdash;which, however, contain as
+yet but few objects of natural history, even those being
+most unsystematically arranged.</p>
+
+<p>Another educational institution&mdash;the Military
+Academy&mdash;founded under John VI., in 1810, for the
+instruction of the engineers and officers of the various
+scientific corps, has, since then, undergone nine reforms,
+and was just about to undergo another one! In this
+establishment the highly objectionable practice still
+exists, of making every pupil acquainted with the chapter
+and verse of the subjects of examination twenty-four hours
+before it takes place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Public Library, though little more than begun at the
+period of our visit, already comprised 86,000 volumes, and
+is annually increased by an addition of five or six hundred.
+This institution was, in 1856, visited by 3407 readers, who
+perused 7717 volumes, mostly in Portuguese and French,
+consisting of 238 on theology, 1046 on political economy,
+2879 on natural science, 153 on the fine arts, 1083 on
+history, and 2318 on belles-lettres, which furnishes a very
+fair criterion for estimating the education of those
+availing themselves of these advantages.</p>
+
+<p>Another institution, which is an evidence of the efforts now
+making by the Brazilians to gratify their national vanity,
+is the <i>Conservatorio da Musica</i>, a newly-established
+institution for the promotion of the <i>opera lyrica
+nacional</i>, the number of pupils attending which averages
+100. A custom has lately prevailed of sending one or two of
+the most gifted of these annually to Europe to complete
+their musical studies. During a four years' residence there,
+each pupil has a stipend from the Imperial exchequer of 3000
+francs per annum; and in the event of obtaining a prize
+abroad, he receives a gratuity of 1000 francs; his
+compositions, however, in that case become the property of
+the parent institution. By this means the Brazilians hope to
+render themselves entirely independent of foreign musical
+talent. "Why should we annually pay hundreds of thousands of
+francs to foreign singers and concert-givers?" said a
+Brazilian to us one day in all earnestness. "We shall soon
+have our own artists&mdash;Brazilian Thalbergs, Grisis, and
+Lablaches!" Confessedly the inhabitants of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> United
+States have been vain enough in all conscience; but when we
+consider the wonderful advances made by that active,
+energetic people, and contemplate their surpassing
+qualities, such a national foible is readily overlooked. In
+Brazil, on the contrary, the contempt affected for
+everything foreign, the fretful impatience to become
+emancipated from the smallest resemblance to European
+customs, is exceedingly childish and even ludicrous in a
+country which can hardly yet be said to be able to stand
+alone, since the pressure of circumstances is daily making
+them more and more dependent on other countries, and where
+it is necessary to import from abroad not merely the
+evidences of high culture, but the very first necessaries of
+life, even to obtaining supplies of foreign labour. This
+overweening self-esteem has rather increased, since it has
+become the fashion of young Brazilians, of the better
+classes, to visit Europe for the completion of their
+studies, as will, perhaps, be best illustrated by the
+following laughable anecdote:&mdash;A young Brazilian, the son of
+a German father and a native lady, who had but recently
+returned from Europe, overheard one of his friends asking
+another if he could tell of what country he thought the
+fresh arrival to be, at the same time indicating the youth,
+who just came from the academy of Freiberg. "There can be no
+doubt on that point," was the reply; "the blue eyes, light
+hair, and fair complexion, distinctly indicate that the
+gentleman is a German." "God forbid!" (<i>Deu m'en guarda!</i>)
+exclaimed the young gentleman, who seemed as it were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>
+ashamed of his foreign descent, and to feel even more
+indignation than a full-blood Brazilian at such a mortifying
+imputation.</p>
+
+<p>Among the various institutions recently established in Rio,
+the introduction of which is intended to be made available
+in promoting the physical well-being of the people, the
+foremost place must indisputably be assigned to the Board of
+Health (<i>Junta Central de Hygiena Publica</i>). It owes its
+origin to the appearance of the yellow fever and the
+cholera, which had never been known before in the country.
+The former broke out on the 29th December, 1850, having been
+introduced by vessels that had cleared from Bahia, at which
+port it had been raging for some weeks. The ravages of this
+pestilence were fearful in Rio; out of a population of
+250,000 souls, as many as 120,000 were attacked, and upwards
+of 5000 fell a sacrifice to the disease.</p>
+
+<p>The first case of cholera occurred a few years later, on the
+15th of July, 1855; and during the months in which it
+prevailed, nearly the same number (to be more precise, 4826)
+of the inhabitants of the capital were carried off. The
+fatal cases throughout the empire from this epidemic during
+the eighteen months between May, 1855, and December, 1856,
+are said to have amounted to the enormous number of 107,093!
+Dr. Francisco de Paulo Candido, one of the most eminent
+physicians of Rio, and the principal member of the Board of
+Health, states, in a report to the Government, relative to
+the statistics of the cholera throughout the empire, that he
+had observed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> during the prevalence of the epidemic, three
+phenomena, which seemed to stand in a certain relation to
+its appearance, increase, and decrease, viz., the almost
+entire disappearance of the ozon in July and following
+months, when the disease was on the <i>increase</i>; the gradual
+increase of that atmospheric agent, in proportion to the
+decrease of the disorder; and lastly, the influence
+exercised by humidity and sudden changes in temperature on
+the intensity of the disease. Dr. Candido has added to his
+highly instructive report some meteorological tables and a
+graphical representation of the presence and absence of ozon
+in the atmosphere, which will be published, in its proper
+place, in the medical section of the present work.</p>
+
+<p>The consequence of the ravages of these two scourges was,
+that a variety of other measures for securing the public
+health were inaugurated by the newly-established Board of
+Health. Among others, a hospital was set on foot in a
+charming part of the Cove of Jurujuba,<a name="Anchor-40" id="Anchor-40"></a><a href="#Footnote-40" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 40.">[40]</a> at the eastern
+extremity of the Bay of Rio, expressly for the reception of
+patients afflicted with yellow fever or cholera. Every
+morning since that attack, (and during the unhealthy season
+several times a day), a small Government steamer, fitted up
+for the purpose, plies round the bay, to take up any cases
+that may happen to occur on board the ships arriving, and
+convey them hither free of charge. Two medical men on board
+the steamer commence the treatment, by applying the
+necessary remedies, during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> passage from the ship to the
+hospital. Any vessel at anchor in the bay with an epidemic
+on board, has, according to arrangement, simply to hoist a
+flag on the mainmast, whereupon the Government steamer
+immediately embarks the sick persons. In order more
+effectually to keep from all contact with the population of
+the town, such shipboard patients as are labouring under
+infectious complaints, another hospital has been established
+on the Island of Marica, situated beyond the bar.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-40" id="Footnote-40"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-40">[40]</a> Pronounced Shooru-shooba.</p></div>
+
+<p>In consequence of these recent epidemic attacks, much
+greater attention than formerly has of late been paid to the
+cleanliness of the capital of the Brazilian empire, though a
+great deal has yet to be done in this respect. Rio used to
+be, without exception, the dirtiest city in the world. As
+there were neither gutters nor sewers, all impurities
+accumulated during the twenty-four hours used, towards
+evening, to be carried by negroes on their heads, in pails
+and casks, to the bay, and, singularly enough, emptied in
+the immediate vicinity of the Imperial palace, whereby
+several quarters of the city, particularly in the hot
+season, were rendered entirely uninhabitable. The execution
+of proper drainage and sewerage works in a city such as Rio,
+which lies on a flat and is densely built near the water,
+must be at all times attended with a very large expenditure
+of money. But who would boggle at any amount for an object
+which concerns the bodily health, not merely of the present,
+but of all succeeding generations? At the period of our
+visit, the Government had entered into a contract with
+Messrs. Joaquim Pereira de Lima and J. F. Russell, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>
+which, in consideration of a lease for ninety years of
+certain taxes specially levied, the two contractors have
+undertaken to introduce into the capital of Brazil a system
+of harbour and street purification, similar to that which
+has long been in general use throughout England. There had
+also been lately started a <i>Companhia Reformadora</i>, having
+for object the widening and beautifying of certain streets,
+and the improvement of the paving. One must have lived in
+Rio, where each street and open square is a hotbed of fever
+and sickness, to be able aright to estimate the importance
+of the two last-named associations.</p>
+
+<p>A war steamer was, by the command of H.M. the Emperor of
+Brazil, placed at our disposal, to afford us an opportunity
+of viewing more closely the most beautiful points in the
+magnificent bay of Rio. There were on board with us the
+Captain of the Port, Dom Francisco de Perura Pinto, the
+captains of the Brazilian men-of-war lying in the harbour,
+as also several members of the Historico-Geographical
+Institute. A military band enlivened the party by playing
+national airs during the day. We first visited the
+south-east part of the bay at the villages of San Domingo
+and Ponta da Armacao, opposite to Ponta da Aréa, whence
+steamers, for navigating the bay and adjoining coast, are
+run by an English company, which employs 667 hands, (of whom
+298 are foreigners, 207 natives, and 162 negro slaves).
+Except a part of the funds advanced by native capitalists,
+the whole undertaking is carried out by foreigners. England
+furnishes the engineers and machinery,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> whilst the requisite
+timber is brought from Norway and North America. The value
+of the labour employed during 1856 amounted to nearly
+£90,000.&mdash;We proceeded hence past the islands of Salinas and
+Honorio, and between the island of Baretto and the eastern
+shore of the bay, as far as the luxuriant island of Paquetá,
+on the lovely shores of which we landed. It has a
+circumference of five miles, and is inhabited by 16,000
+persons, who convert shells into chalk; nearly all the
+houses on shore are chalk-kilns. During the dry season this
+island is the favourite Sunday resort of the <i>fluminenses</i>,
+as the Rio de Janeirians delight to call themselves. From
+this sweet spot the steamer carried us to the north side of
+the bay. In the back-ground, the Organos mountains now
+appeared in all the majesty of their imposing outline,
+whilst on one of the projecting ridges, the church San
+Francisco de Croara forms an extremely picturesque object.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 660px;"><a name="illu213" id="illu213"></a>
+<img src="images/illu213.jpg" width="660" height="271" alt="View of countryside." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ISLAND OF PAQUITÀ, BAY OF RIO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The more the northern portion of the bay is approached, the
+more romantic becomes the panorama of the mountains: from
+this point stand out in their full grandeur the Serra da<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>
+Estrella, the Serra da Tinguá (which is currently believed
+to be the highest mountain, not merely on the bay, but in
+Brazil), then the deep valley of Santa Cruz, next to which
+the mountain-chains of Suaratyba, and the Serra de Iguassoú,
+rise majestically, melting away into the charming Tejuca
+chain, the Gavia, and the world-renowned Corcovado, whilst
+the Sugar Loaf, that gigantic guardian at the entrance of
+the harbour, splendidly terminates this magnificent
+amphitheatre.</p>
+
+<p>We passed the largest of the islands in the bay, the Ilha do
+Governador, which has a circumference of upwards of seven
+miles, and is inhabited by about a hundred persons chiefly
+employed in the chalk-kilns, sail-cloth and soap
+manufactories; and touched at some wild spots that promised
+a harvest for our naturalists. Here and there, from the deep
+blue waters, sprang up islands of the most luxuriant
+vegetation, like tropical idylls of rock and forest, such as
+the eye marvels to rest upon, but the pen refuses to
+describe. Indelibly impressed on our minds remains in this
+respect the lovely islet of Catalán, with its beautiful
+flowers and palms.</p>
+
+<p>On approaching the capital, towards the east of the bay,
+passing the island Bom Jesus, with a magnificent Franciscan
+monastery, and the Ponta do Cajù, with charming country
+seats, a forest of masts, strikes the eye in bold contrast
+with the Sugar Loaf in the east, and the Morro de Viracao
+and the fort Pico in the west, which covers the position of
+Santa Cruz. Unfortunately we went down, just at this point,
+to a splendid banquet, etiquette requiring that we should
+exchange the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> quarter-deck for the state-room; for in Brazil
+also, upon such occasions, meals and speechifying play an
+important part, and greatly prejudice the special object of
+travel&mdash;the enjoyment of nature.</p>
+
+<p>We were not yet done, however, with our excursion. Again we
+turned towards the beautiful Cove of Jurujuba, where on the
+shore lay pretty little cottages embowered in the richest
+foliage, while, through a deep depression, appeared the
+masts of ships which were still on the bosom of the ocean
+outside, on the point of entering the harbour. As the vessel
+steamed in, the scenery changed character at every moment,
+like a fairy landscape, full of the loveliest, most
+enchanting glimpses of the surrounding country. At Jurujuba,
+we landed to visit the <i>Hospital Maritimo de S. Isabel</i>,
+erected in 1853, for the reception of sailors in ill-health
+of all nations and creeds. It proved of immense utility
+during the prevalence of epidemics. In the five years of its
+existence at the period of our visit, there had been
+admitted nearly 6000 cases of yellow fever.<a name="Anchor-41" id="Anchor-41"></a><a href="#Footnote-41" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 41.">[41]</a> For the
+excellent management of this fine hospital the utmost credit
+is due to the physicians in charge, Dr. Bento Maria da
+Costa, and Dr. José Teixeira da Souza.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-41" id="Footnote-41"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-41">[41]</a> In the year 1856, 2452 patients were received
+into the hospital at Jurujuba Cove, of whom 175 died, 2195
+were dismissed cured, and 82 remained under treatment. By
+comparison with former years, the number of sick seemed to
+have fallen off 13 per cent., while the expenses of
+management had increased 9 per cent.</p></div>
+
+<p>The ground immediately surrounding the hospital has been
+reclaimed by the hand of man, and transformed into a
+garden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> in which flourish, in solitary majesty, the shady
+<i>Aleurites triloba</i> and the <i>Anda Gomesii</i>, growing in
+avenues or other regular groups, after all wild vegetation
+had been cut down. But at the first step beyond, the foot of
+the wanderer through these solitudes strikes into paths
+leading through the richest, densest forest scenery
+Casuarinas (<i>Anacardium occidentale</i>), with its luscious
+pear-shaped fruits, the Indian mango-tree, the various
+species of Eugenia, so rich in ethereal oil, the Figuera
+Branca (<i>ficus doliaria</i>), the canoe-tree, a gigantic
+species of <i>Bombax</i>, protected by sharp spines, and other
+lofty forest-children, reach to the very buildings; while,
+amid the dense underwood that grows unchecked, and a few
+paces distant only from the dwellings of man, lurk
+dangerously poisonous snakes, who find here a secure haunt.
+Within our own experience, as one of the botanists of the
+Expedition was placing a ladder against a primæval forest
+tree, the progenitor of numberless scions, he stumbled upon
+a poisonous Jacaraca, ready to defend from intrusion his
+accustomed resting-place.</p>
+
+<p>At the north-west entrance of Jurujuba Cove, rises a lofty
+island, with the appropriate name of Bom Viajem ("a happy
+voyage"), with its church of the Virgin of the same name,
+situate on the extreme summit, 400 feet in height. As,
+during our visit to the hospital, the twilight had crept
+stealthily on, we returned without further stoppage to Rio;
+when the company, landing at the usual landing-place of the
+arsenal, separated, full of the most pleasing impressions,
+arising from the beautiful scenery enjoyed during the day,
+and a deep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> sense of gratitude for the noble hospitality
+shown us by our amiable hosts.</p>
+
+<p>Another favour was conferred by Drs. de Lagos and Schüch,
+who formed a fishing-party on a grand scale, which was
+greatly enjoyed by all, though the gun proved more
+profitable to our naturalists than rod, line, or net.</p>
+
+<p>As the number of days at our disposal in Rio Janeiro began
+to diminish, we applied ourselves to seeing the utmost
+possible with the smallest sacrifice of time. The morning
+after our excursion on board the Santa Cruz, we attended a
+sitting of the Chamber of Deputies. The hall, oval in shape,
+is plainly, but comfortably fitted up. The members sit on
+benches in a semicircle. Opposite the president stand tables
+for the ministers of state; at the upper and lower end of
+the hall are galleries for the public, and one is specially
+assigned to the diplomatic body. Each member speaks from his
+place. Their language is very free and their behaviour still
+more so,&mdash;they sometimes carry this so far as not to allow a
+speaker to proceed; and in screaming, brawling, and
+violence, they excel even certain members of the late French
+Chamber of Deputies. There are said to be some very able
+speakers amongst the Brazilians. The subject of debate was a
+petition presented to the House for an inquiry into the
+conduct of a late minister of justice, who was accused of
+having tyrannically dismissed a government officer in the
+province of Maranhao. The subject had created great interest
+in the public mind, and the galleries were crowded to
+suffocation; we did not remain till the conclusion of the
+debate, but the minister<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> is said to have justified the
+proceeding by proving that the officer had allowed himself
+to be bribed.</p>
+
+<p>On the same day we made an excursion to the Serra da
+Estrella and Petropolis, a place which has of late excited
+so much attention in the public journals, since the question
+of German emigration to Brazil, with its accompaniments of
+agitations by the Brazilian recruiting agents, began to
+assume its present remarkable proportions. Though the
+distance from Rio to Petropolis may be accomplished in four
+hours, yet three different vehicles are required:&mdash;in the
+first place, a steamer from Rio to the railway-station on
+the opposite side of the bay, then the railway to Fragosa,
+and lastly, a carriage to the final destination over an
+excellent road which runs through the mountains to
+Petropolis.</p>
+
+<p>This fine work, which was opened in 1848, is unfortunately
+the only one of its kind in the whole empire,<a name="Anchor-42" id="Anchor-42"></a><a href="#Footnote-42" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 42.">[42]</a> as are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>
+likewise the five miles of railway between Mauá and Fragosa;
+and yet how highly important would railway communication
+prove from the metropolis to the northern provinces, by
+means of which the excessive cost of carriage by mules might
+be so considerably reduced, benefiting alike the landowner
+and the merchant! As an illustration, the fact may be
+mentioned, that the cost of transit for an arroba (32 lbs.)
+of coffee from the coffee district of Vassouras to Rio, a
+distance of about 50 miles, amounts to from 700 to 800 reis
+(about 1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>). The trouble and expense connected with
+this miserable mode of conveyance, so much enhance the price
+of some kinds of natural produce, that it does not pay to
+transport them to the harbour of the capital. Several
+companies have latterly been projected, and money subscribed
+for constructing railways in the various provinces of the
+empire, and a few of these are already under weigh, as, for
+example, that of Dom Pedro Segundo, which will put the
+richest provinces in direct communication with Rio, and for
+which the amount of money required has been entirely
+subscribed. But in this, as in all other Brazilian
+enterprises, energy is wanting to make these good intentions
+bear fruit; and so long as there is not a greater admixture
+of foreign go-a-head-ativeness in the country, much must
+remain confined to the mere expression of patriotic wishes.
+And in this connection, foreign immigration, of which we
+shall treat further on, will prove of immense importance.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-42" id="Footnote-42"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-42">[42]</a> This road is to be continued from Petropolis as
+far as Parahyba; and in various other directions also the
+building of roads for commercial traffic is being fostered
+by Government. The Brazilian Government are at the same time
+turning their attention to improving the existing means of
+transport by importing dromedaries for use. As it withstands
+variation of temperature, and thrives on almost any kind of
+nourishment, the dromedary is certain to do well, especially
+in the northern provinces, and will prove exceedingly
+serviceable in the transport of the products of that section
+of the country. The great heat and drought which prevail in
+Maranhao, Piauhy, Matto Grosso, and that direction
+generally, is eminently suitable to the dromedary, which
+does not thrive in hot <i>damp</i> weather. It is calculated that
+a dromedary, which can carry an average weight of 700
+pounds, (being six times what a horse, and four times what a
+mule will carry on his back), costs, in his own country,
+from £12 to £16; and after paying cost of transport to
+Brazil, will be worth £48. With the introduction of the
+"ship of the desert," that of the date-palm must go hand in
+hand, as that fruit constitutes the chief food of the
+dromedary, and will probably simultaneously effect a great
+change in the articles of consumption by the lower orders.</p></div>
+
+<p>The journey by carriage through the Sierra from Fragosa to
+Petropolis is extremely beautiful. He who is not fortunate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>
+enough to enter deeper into the interior, at least obtains
+here an idea of what constitutes a primæval Brazilian
+forest. The wonders of tropical vegetation, as manifested
+not only by vastness of form but also by gorgeous and rank
+luxuriance, strike the eye at first-sight almost the same
+way as an overpowering chorus affects the ear. It requires
+time to collect the thoughts, so as to be able to appreciate
+and enjoy thoroughly the extraordinary beauties that impress
+the wondering mind.</p>
+
+<p>If the eye of the astonished traveller has been but in the
+most cursory manner directed to the vegetable phenomena that
+surround him, it must have rested on a climbing plant, which
+constitutes one of the chief marvels of the native woods.
+This singular creeper is the <i>Cipo matador</i>, a climbing
+plant of a very peculiar aspect, at once the most powerful
+and most destructive of all the Cipo tribe. It twines round
+the stems of lofty trees, which its flattened coils
+gradually constrict with almost life-like cruelty! Its
+aërial roots run out from all parts and embrace the tree
+like artificial clamps, forming in some places complete
+rings, and in others growing into the very bark. The tree,
+in consequence of this parasitic embrace, dies away by
+degrees, whilst its destroyer continues to grow gaily on the
+corpse of its victim, and spreads its leafy crown until it
+falls and perishes simultaneously with the support that had
+hitherto upheld it. To what profound reflections does the
+contemplation of this spectacle give rise! Involuntarily our
+thoughts fly from the wild Brazilian forest to the plains of
+civilization,&mdash;to the modern society where, likewise, many a
+noble human nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> is slowly undermined by a treacherous
+Cipo matador of flesh and blood, till too surely he falls
+prone on the ground!</p>
+
+<p>Petropolis is, on account of its more temperate and healthy
+climate, a favourite residence of the wealthy Rio de
+Janeirians, and during the hot season, when the sultriness
+of the air, if not something worse, renders life almost
+unendurable, Petropolis is said to have the appearance of a
+European spa. It is at the same time the summer residence of
+the Emperor, and the only place in Brazil where an electric
+telegraph&mdash;uniting it with Rio de Janeiro&mdash;has been
+established. The town contains about 7000 inhabitants; the
+streets, when completed, will be broad and handsome,&mdash;but
+only one has as yet been finished, the others being merely
+marked out, while even among the clean and neat houses
+already erected, there are frequent and wide gaps.</p>
+
+<p>The German colony, planned by a German engineer, Julius
+Friedr. Köhler, is at a little distance from Petropolis. The
+first colonists who arrived on the 30th of July, 1845, came
+mostly from Baden and the Rhenish provinces. The Government
+granted to each family a cottage, with a slice of forest
+near it, a cow, a dozen of chickens, and about £5 in money.
+Such at least was the information given us at Petropolis.
+Köhler soon afterwards met with a sad end at a newly-formed
+shooting ground. Many an emigrant family perished in misery;
+others, however, overcame the difficulties that beset them
+at the commencement; more emigrants arrived, and now one may
+walk, within a few hours, through the Rhine and Mosel
+valleys,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> Nassau, Darmstadt, Ingelheim, Bingen, the
+Palatinate and Switzerland, as the emigrants, in fond
+commemoration of their native homes, call their small
+settlements, which run some distance through the mountain
+valleys. The German origin of these settlements displays
+itself distinctly in the cleanliness and neatness of their
+log cabins, the affability of the people, the heartiness of
+their greeting, the fair hair, curly heads, and beautiful
+blue eyes of the children, as well as the language and music
+which is now and then heard.</p>
+
+<p>Petropolis is, however, not an agricultural colony in the
+real sense of the word, the majority of the 2500 Germans
+settled there obtaining a livelihood as artizans and
+labourers. The Government has done much to promote the
+growth of the colony, by making roads, and establishing
+schools. Still the people never become agriculturists, on
+account of the sterility of the soil; but as the road to the
+province of Minas Geraes runs through the place, the
+settlement will always retain some importance. For the
+cargoes of coffee which are conveyed by mules from the
+interior to the harbour, Petropolis is the last station, and
+will remain so for a long time yet, for the large outlay
+required renders it unlikely that the projected railway will
+soon be completed.</p>
+
+<p>Several attempts have been made to establish similar German
+colonies in various provinces of the empire, but,
+unfortunately, with as yet even less success than in the
+Serra da Estrella. However, the activity of the Brazilian
+emigration agents has much increased in different German
+ports; for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> the remarkable words of the Emperor, with which
+he opened the Chambers in May, 1854, at Rio,&mdash;"The necessity
+of a settled industrious population becomes more and more
+urgent,"&mdash;have become since then even more significant; in
+fact, the result of the endeavours on the part of the
+Government to increase the amount of labour by immigration,
+is now a question of life or death for the empire. Every
+disinterested person feels that, without an increase of
+labour, productive activity is impossible; nay, some even
+apprehend a considerable decrease in the producing
+capabilities of the country, in consequence of the effect to
+be anticipated in Brazil from the abolition of the
+slave-trade by the interference of England. Up to the year
+1851, the importation of negro slaves continued
+undiminished, notwithstanding the treaty with England of
+1826, in which the abolition of the slave-trade forms one of
+the conditions on which the recognition of the Brazilian
+crown by the Government of Her Britannic Majesty was made
+specially contingent. According to a statement of the
+Foreign Office, there were from 1842 to 1851 (despite the
+treaty) 325,615 negroes sold as slaves in Brazil, so that
+the amount of the slave population is now upwards of
+2,000,000 souls.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the black population in this country is
+materially different from that of the United States and the
+West Indies. The colour of the skin, which renders the life
+of even free and prosperous negroes almost intolerable in
+the northern states of America, where they are subject to so
+many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> humiliations, makes in Brazil no difference whatever.
+The question here is not whether white or black, but whether
+free or a slave. Free negroes may here occupy the highest
+places in the State, and even exercise a certain influence
+on the destiny of the white inhabitants. Slaves also are
+treated here with more humanity and less prejudice than in
+any other country visited by me, on which the curse of
+slavery yet rests; yet it must be confessed, without
+hesitation, that slavery, as beheld in Brazil, seems even a
+greater misfortune to the white population than to the
+black; for neither agriculture nor industry can thrive in a
+country where labour is not considered, as in free States,
+an honourable occupation&mdash;but rather as a disgrace&mdash;in
+consequence of its being performed by slaves. Not merely the
+blacks, who have no interest in being industrious, but their
+masters also are lazy, and approaching ruin becomes more and
+more certain. Free labour alone, by obtaining the upper hand
+in the country, can remedy these things. Slave labour cannot
+long compete with it. The intelligence, activity, and
+perseverance of 100,000 free white labourers will promote
+the prosperity and the happiness of Brazil, much more than
+the compulsory labour of two millions of negroes in bondage.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of repeated and energetic remonstrances on
+the part of the British Government, the slave-trade has now
+ceased in Brazil, and "one of the grandest monuments of our
+century," as the celebrated declaration by the Congress of
+Vienna termed the entire suppression of the slave-trade,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span><a name="Anchor-43" id="Anchor-43"></a><a href="#Footnote-43" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 43.">[43]</a>
+may be considered by this circumstance approaching its
+termination.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-43" id="Footnote-43"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-43">[43]</a> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Déclaration des puissances sur l'abolition de
+la traite des nègres, du 8 Février, 1815. L. Neumann,
+Recueil des traités et conventions conclus par l'Autriche
+(Leipzig, 1856. Vol. II., p. 502).</span></p></div>
+
+<p>As the Government became convinced that there was not the
+least hope of reaping any advantage from civilizing the
+aboriginal tribes, it had recourse to free immigration, and
+promoted it in every way.<a name="Anchor-44" id="Anchor-44"></a><a href="#Footnote-44" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 44.">[44]</a> It endeavoured, particularly in
+the warmer northern provinces, to replace the deficiency of
+negroes by Chinese Coolies, who were imported from different
+parts of China; but they could not stand the climate, and
+were not found capable of advantageously replacing the negro
+in his various and often very heavy labour. This partially
+arose from the indiscriminate selection of the immigrants,
+as the agents, when they could not obtain able-bodied men,
+did not scruple to make up their cargo with whatever came to
+hand.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-44" id="Footnote-44"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-44">[44]</a> It may be useful, however, on many accounts to
+observe, that the Brazilian Government take considerable
+pains to adapt this doomed race for a civilized mode of
+existence. A law of 19th September, 1855, assigned an annual
+sum of £6000 for the proper execution of this humane
+project. In order to remedy the very marked deficiency of
+suitable missionaries, the Government, through its
+representative in Paris, invited a number of Catholic
+priests from France&mdash;men, whose rearing and zeal for their
+faith had effected such marvels among the Indians of Canada.
+But the aborigines of Brazil seem hopelessly degraded, and
+are destined, after having filled their appointed place in
+the history of nations, to make room for a more
+energetically endowed race.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Government pays, therefore, the utmost attention to
+European immigration; it has agents in Portugal, France,
+Italy, Belgium, and especially in Germany; and endeavours
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> organize associations that have for their object the
+settlement of industrious labourers in the country, and to
+support colonies already in existence, till they are in a
+position to maintain themselves. In Brazil, the conviction
+is pretty general, that only an emigration <i>en masse</i> of
+white labour can save this splendid country from ruin,
+though there are individuals who entertain a different
+opinion, and think&mdash;perhaps not altogether without
+reason&mdash;that the energy and industry of European settlers
+might eventually&mdash;considering the indolent and careless
+disposition of their countrymen&mdash;prove destructive to the
+national element!</p>
+
+<p>The most striking proof of how thoroughly in earnest the
+leading members of the Brazilian Government are in their
+efforts to procure an immigration of foreign labour, may be
+found in the report of the Commission upon the new tariff,
+in which the following passage occurs, illustrative of the
+advantages which may be expected to be reaped from European
+emigration on a large scale:&mdash;"'These foreign labourers
+arrive here poor, and depart from the country laden with our
+gold and silver, and, like blood-suckers, absorb our natural
+riches!' is the remark of those who are ignorant of the true
+interests of Brazil. For to whom are we indebted for our
+capital, for the industry and commerce which we have? To
+whom belong those manufactories which the people want to
+protect, and in whose favour so much is said? Why, to
+foreigners! Foreign hands and foreign capital cultivate our
+soil, expand our trade and commerce, and promote the arts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>
+The <i>results</i> of their labour remain, though they may
+themselves quit the country! Foreigners man our ships, build
+our manufactories, and supply them with hands; foreigners
+buy our produce and carry it to distant markets; foreigners
+render our forests and rivers productive; they work our
+mines, uncover the metallic wealth of our country, and
+educate our children! Capital, practical science,
+instruments, and machines, with which we perform our
+labours, belong mostly to foreigners; and, consequently,
+these blood-suckers are just the very men who render our
+land productive, preserving, instead of, as some erroneously
+imagine, depriving us of our vitality. The money which they
+take back to their homes is amply replaced by the treasures
+they leave behind in the product of their labour, and in the
+branches of industry which they have introduced or
+improved."<a name="Anchor-45" id="Anchor-45"></a><a href="#Footnote-45" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 45.">[45]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-45" id="Footnote-45"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-45">[45]</a> Of the sixty-four manufactories and workshops,
+twenty-eight belong to foreigners; and there is not a single
+industrial establishment in which foreigners are not
+employed, either as managers, engineers, or labourers.</p></div>
+
+<p>More explicitly and discerningly it was hardly possible for
+Government to speak, and to enumerate the glorious results
+which the country may expect from the introduction of
+foreign industry and foreign activity, although such an
+official avowal could not fail to wound the national pride
+of the Brazilians.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this strong language of the Government, and
+all the enticements and zealous activity of the Brazilian
+agents in the various ports of Europe, the emigration to
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> country, in 1856, amounted to only 13,800 souls.<a name="Anchor-46" id="Anchor-46"></a><a href="#Footnote-46" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 46.">[46]</a>
+Among this number there were but 628 agriculturists, all the
+others coming merely with the view of obtaining a livelihood
+in the capital as artizans and labourers. There are probably
+in all the Brazilian agricultural colonies, at this moment,
+not more than 40,000 emigrants settled, that is to say,
+about as many as emigrate in the course of three months to
+the United States!</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-46" id="Footnote-46"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-46">[46]</a> Namely: 9159 Portuguese, 1822 Germans, and 2819
+of other nations.</p></div>
+
+<p>The number of Germans emigrating to Brazil is strikingly
+small, when compared with the total annual emigration from
+that country. Of 61,413 individuals, who, in 1856, embarked
+from Hamburg and Bremen, only 1822 went to Brazil. The cause
+of this may be that, simultaneously with the large promises
+held out by the agents, warning voices were heard depicting
+in the most gloomy colours the terrible trials that await
+the unfortunate immigrant on his touching Brazilian soil.<a name="Anchor-47" id="Anchor-47"></a><a href="#Footnote-47" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 47.">[47]</a>
+Of late such excellent works have been published concerning
+Brazil, that we may advise all who take a special interest
+in the condition of that empire to study these works, the
+more so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> as the views therein expressed exactly coincide
+with our own impressions.<a name="Anchor-48" id="Anchor-48"></a><a href="#Footnote-48" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 48.">[48]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-47" id="Footnote-47"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-47">[47]</a> Among these, the opposition of the late
+Consul-General for Brazil at Dresden, Mr. John Sturz,
+deserves special mention, as, despite the threats of losing
+his appointment, that gentleman was incessantly occupied in
+exposing the iniquities of the Parceria system (see <i>post</i>),
+and recommending the immigrant, so long as such a slavish
+system continued, to refrain from turning his steps towards
+Brazil. Mr. Sturz had recently the enviable misfortune of
+being sacrificed to his own strong sense of justice, and
+dismissed from all employment by the Brazilian
+administration, though not without carrying with him the
+respect and admiration of every friend of humanity. An
+excellent and circumstantial description of the present
+condition of the German colonies in southern Brazil will be
+found in Dr. Avé Lallemant's attractive "Travels through
+Southern Brazil in 1858." (Leipzig, 1859.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-48" id="Footnote-48"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-48">[48]</a> H. Handelmann's "History of Brazil" (Berlin,
+1860), a remarkably profound and instructive work, devotes a
+special section (p. 933) to the subject of German
+emigration, and gives a very copious and complete insight
+into the various missions and works since 1819 to the
+present day, which treat of German emigration and
+colonization.</p></div>
+
+<p>So long as the unoccupied lands are not surveyed, laid out
+in lots, and sold at a small rate to the settler, as, for
+instance, in the United States; so long as the immigrant is
+unable to improve for himself his own plot of ground, but
+must remain a mere field-labourer, working for some foreign
+master, according to the iniquitous <i>Parceria</i>, or
+half-profits system;<a name="Anchor-49" id="Anchor-49"></a><a href="#Footnote-49" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 49.">[49]</a> so long as the expense of transport
+of the emigrant is to be worked off by future payments out
+of his labour, so long must every friend of humanity
+strongly dissuade the emigrant from proceeding to the great
+South American Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-49" id="Footnote-49"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-49">[49]</a> The modern Brazilian system of <i>Parceria</i> may
+be shortly stated as that by which a planter engages in
+Europe such of the poorer classes as are desirous of
+emigrating, and has them transported at his own cost to
+Brazil, where they are engaged as farmers, with half
+profits, upon the coffee and sugar plantations, and
+contracting to reimburse him, by their personal services and
+labour, for the outlay he has been at for their transport,
+maintenance, instruction, &amp;c. Until all these have been
+repaid by the improvement in the rent or productive powers
+of the land, they must remain, as working out their
+emancipation from the lord of the soil, veritable
+"<i>adscripti glebæ</i>." After that has been attained they are
+free people, and may leave if they please, or may sink into
+the rank of "unattached labourers," which implies their
+assigning half of the net produce of the land to the ground
+landlord, the remaining half being their remuneration for
+labour. Proprietorship in the soil is never attainable by
+these farmers on half profits, inasmuch as the Parceria
+system can only exist where the soil is already exclusively
+vested in a planting aristocracy. (See Handelmann, etc., p.
+568).</p></div>
+
+<p>For Brazil, beautiful, fertile, and abounding in undeveloped
+natural wealth, two alternatives are alone open at
+present&mdash;either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> ruin to the producing power of the
+population through deficiency of industrial power, or the
+throwing open the land to foreign emigration by means of the
+most extensive concessions. The longer this is deferred, the
+more oppressively will the want of manual labour manifest
+itself; and the more advantages will foreign emigration
+secure.</p>
+
+<p>Once, however, these important stipulations are conceded,
+the German emigrants may forthwith bend their steps to the
+coasts of Brazil, where the glorious dawn of a magnificent
+future is surely breaking for them. While, in the United
+States, the problem to be solved by the German emigrants
+seems to be, to mingle German industry, German capacity, and
+German knowledge, with the keen spirit of enterprise and
+restless energy of the Anglo-Saxon race, and gradually to
+assimilate with it,&mdash;on the other hand, in the South
+American continent, it appears as though the German element
+were about gradually to gain the upperhand of the Latin
+stock, and permanently to conquer for German industry and
+German commerce, one of the fairest countries on the globe
+with the weapons of peace&mdash;the spade and plough.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil is, however, of great interest to Germany not merely
+on account of the prospects she holds out for its
+overflowing population. A market, teeming with the most
+important colonial products, with an area<a name="Anchor-50" id="Anchor-50"></a><a href="#Footnote-50" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 50.">[50]</a> of 3,956,800
+English square miles, and an annual consumption of nearly
+£10,000,000, must in the highest degree attract the
+attention and excite the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> favourable anticipations of a
+country such as Germany, the majority of whose inhabitants
+are engaged in manufactures.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-50" id="Footnote-50"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-50">[50]</a> According to the computation of the
+Historico-Geographical Institute of Brazil.</p></div>
+
+<p>The chief article of Brazilian trade at present is coffee,
+the production of which, in consequence of the great profit
+of late years derived from it, has increased so much, that
+it has superseded the cultivation of all other produce;
+thus, notwithstanding the fertility and capability of the
+ground, even the commonest necessaries of life, as, for
+instance, potatoes, must be imported from abroad, the
+majority of the rural population being engaged in labour for
+the foreign market, and only very few for home consumption.
+This is the principal cause of the enormous prices which,
+even the most indispensable necessaries have reached in Rio
+de Janeiro.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil grows annually, in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and
+Santa Catharina, 5,190,000 quintals of coffee, consequently
+more than three-fifths of the entire amount produced on the
+whole earth, and of this the province of Rio de Janeiro
+alone yields two-thirds.</p>
+
+<p>The most important objects of export, besides coffee, are
+sugar, rice, cotton, hides, and dried meat, together with
+dye and cabinet woods. The progressive decrease of late
+years in these articles may probably be ascribed to the want
+of sufficient labour, as well as to the great extent to
+which the culture of coffee has been carried.</p>
+
+<p>Although the trade carried on between Brazil and Europe, and
+its great importance, will form the object of a special
+work, we cannot help noticing in this place as a very
+interesting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> fact, that among the importations, that of
+wheat-flour holds a very conspicuous place, above 300,000
+barrels of 200 lbs. each being annually consumed, of which
+seventeen twentieths are supplied by the United States, two
+twentieths from Trieste and Fiume, and the remaining one
+twentieth from Lisbon and Valparaiso. The flour from
+Trieste, by reason of its whiteness and superior quality,
+commands a high price, so as to necessitate its being mixed
+in baking with that from Baltimore. We were told it
+occasionally happens, that the best quality of the
+much-appreciated Trieste or Fontana flour reaches the price,
+altogether unapproachable by the finest American flour, of
+64 to 66 shillings the barrel.</p>
+
+<p>As in the interior of the country the flour chiefly used is
+that called Mandioca, prepared from the root of <i>Jatropha
+Manihot</i>, it follows that the chief consumer of wheaten
+flour is Rio itself, the monthly consumption amounting to
+upwards of 16,500 barrels. The reason for the small sale of
+the Austrian manufactures in Brazil must be sought for, not
+so much in the deficient supplies of the articles required,
+as in the circumstance that the Austrian manufacturers have
+not hitherto found it much their interest to study the
+Brazilian market, so as to make the requisite alterations in
+the method of producing their fabrics, and thus render them
+suitable for that purpose. What little of our Austrian
+manufactures is at present exported for Brazilian
+consumption, seems at present to follow the, to all
+appearance, much less natural route northwards, and instead
+of proceeding from Trieste direct, is exported from Bremen
+or Hamburg as fabrics of Northern Germany.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During our stay at Rio, Commodore Wüllerstorf, accompanied
+by Captain Pöck, and one of the members of the scientific
+commission, had the honour of being presented to the Emperor
+and Empress of Brazil, at a private audience. The reception
+took place at the winter residence of St. Christoph. It is
+an old unsightly building, and still unfinished, the central
+part especially having been for some years in a ruinous
+condition. The Emperor seems not to be partial to display,
+and a very characteristic anecdote in this respect, which
+does him great credit, is very generally reported. On the
+occasion of a visit to the splendid lunatic asylum of
+Botafogo, one of the ministers remarked to His Majesty that
+the inmates of the establishment were better and more
+elegantly lodged than himself. "It will always afford me
+great pleasure," was the reply, "to know that these
+unfortunate people are better provided for than I am."</p>
+
+<p>At the entrance of the palace at St. Christoph, the
+gentlemen of the Expedition were received by an
+ecclesiastic, who led them into an exceedingly plain
+ante-chamber, the furniture of which seemed to belong to
+bygone centuries. Several of the ministers of state, whose
+servants carried large portfolios, exchanged compliments
+with the Austrian minister, and entered the contiguous
+apartments. Chamberlains and domestics of the court looked
+stealthily at the strangers, and disappeared as rapidly as
+they had come. It seemed as though these presentations were
+of infrequent occurrence. At last, about half-past 6 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>
+the door opened, when His Majesty and the ministers walked
+through the room into the hall of audience,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> into which the
+gentlemen of the Expedition were soon afterwards conducted
+by a chamberlain. The Austrian minister presented each
+separately to His Majesty Dom Pedro II., who is the son of
+an Austrian Archduchess, and received the gentlemen in the
+uniform of an admiral, surrounded by all his ministers. He
+is a fine-looking man, of some 30 years of age, of stately
+appearance, but with a voice somewhat too thin for so robust
+a person. The portrait on the Brazilian coinage is
+remarkably like. The conversation was carried on in French;
+it is said, however, that the Emperor speaks German
+fluently. He conversed very affably and graciously with
+every one, and had something agreeable to say to each,
+expressing much interest in the <i>Novara</i> Expedition. After
+several questions, the Emperor wished us success on our
+future voyage, and retired, upon which the audience was at
+an end.</p>
+
+<p>After the members of the Expedition had remained a short
+space in a corner of the audience chamber, they were
+conducted through a narrow boarded passage to the apartments
+of the Empress. In the ante-chamber we again encountered the
+Emperor, who had exchanged his admiral's uniform for plain
+clothes, and now stood before us in the undress black frock
+he usually wears.</p>
+
+<p>We were now ushered into the small and very plainly
+furnished reception-room of the Empress, in which there was
+nothing to attract attention except a couple of
+highly-finished portraits. Her Majesty, a sister of the late
+King Ferdinand II. of Naples, and of Queen Maria Christina
+of Spain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> was in mourning owing to a death in the family.
+She was only attended by one lady in waiting, and received
+us with infinite grace. She is rather short in stature, and
+although still young, looks aged; in conversation she
+becomes however very animated, and thereby gains in
+gracefulness; her favourite theme was Italy, on which she
+dwelt with childlike fondness. Speaking of Naples, its
+charming bay, of the Vesuvius, and the lovely walk of Santa
+Lucia, near the sea, the tone of her voice became
+involuntarily more lively. Notwithstanding the tropical
+splendour, and an Imperial throne, the Princess seems to
+have a great longing for her native land. Alas! even an
+imperial crown is no protection against the yearning for
+home!</p>
+
+<p>During our stay here, the anniversary came round of the
+birth of our gracious Emperor, which was celebrated in the
+most festive manner. From early dawn the frigate appeared
+decked out in her gayest flags, which was similarly
+responded to by the English and French ships of war in the
+harbour. At 8 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, with the customary salutes of the
+ensign, a salute of twenty-one guns was fired, as also at
+mid-day and sunset. At 11 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, the crew were paraded and
+divine service was performed, to which our resident envoy
+and his family were invited, together with the acting
+Consul-General, the captain of an Austrian vessel, and a few
+Austrians who happened to be at that time in Rio. After
+service, the foreign guests and several officers of the
+staff were entertained by the commodore at breakfast. In the
+evening there was a banquet at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span> hotel of the envoy, at
+which were present several notabilities of the empire of
+Brazil, among others, Viscount Maranguapè, minister of
+foreign affairs, and the Senator Viscount de Uruguay. In the
+garden of the club the frigate's band of music played
+chiefly German and Austrian pieces, which awoke in the
+bosoms of many the most tender recollections.</p>
+
+<p>The frequent arrival of men of war in the bay of Rio gives
+rise to an almost continual firing; each vessel entering
+fires a royal salute, which is answered by the fortress and
+the other ships of war in the harbour. During our stay we
+discharged not less than 432 salvos, while all the men of
+war together fired at least 1500 salvos, thus making, within
+three weeks, about 5250 rounds of gunpowder, used merely in
+salutes.</p>
+
+<p>The 31st of August had been fixed as the date of our
+departure. During the latter days of our stay, there had
+been frequent collations on board to make some return to
+those who had shown us attention. Several of the sick, one
+midshipman and two sailors, had to be left behind in
+hospital, where they received the most careful treatment,
+while Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant, who, by the kind
+recommendation of Humboldt, had been permitted by the
+Archduke to accompany the Expedition with the rank of
+surgeon of corvette, for the purpose of prosecuting his
+studies of yellow fever, was, at his own request, put ashore
+at Rio, whence he afterwards undertook the journey through
+Southern Brazil already alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>The night previous, three sailors had deserted from a boat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>
+sent on shore to bring back some officers. The system of
+kidnapping, as is well known, flourishes in Rio, and many a
+ship is said to have lost, in this way, from thirty to forty
+men. The crimps, who make their living by this traffic in
+man, entice young and robust sailors to desert by means of
+all imaginable allurements and promises, making advances in
+money, and leading them into a dissolute life, in order
+that, when afterwards they find themselves in a desperate
+state, and without resources, they may be sold by the
+scoundrels to the captains of vessels, as sailors, or, what
+is worse, as white slaves, to the planters in the interior.
+This abominable trade is said to be carried on, on a great
+scale, by an Italian, in Catumbý Grande, and though the
+Brazilian police is perfectly cognizant of the haunts of the
+fellow, yet it seems not to be powerful enough to put a stop
+to the nuisance.</p>
+
+<p>These incidents did not, however, interfere with our
+departure at the specified hour, when we were towed out by
+the tug steamer <i>Perseverancia</i>, which we had hired for
+<i>£25</i>. Almost every large ship on leaving Rio is towed clear
+of the bay, so as to avoid having to tack between the
+islands, or perhaps have to anchor, so that the tug, which
+belongs to a private individual, and accompanied us eastward
+as far as the island of Razza, must be a source of
+considerable profit.</p>
+
+<p>On 31st August, at six <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, we bade farewell to the
+splendid harbour of Rio. We had fortunately reached Rio
+after the visit of the yellow fever, but the almost
+continual rainy weather had spoiled many an excursion, and
+deprived us<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> of the opportunity of more closely examining
+the environs of the city. Nor were we more successful in
+making ourselves at home here, notwithstanding the kind
+reception with which we were favoured by the Government and
+some private individuals. There is, in short, a great want
+of sociability, and we may add, almost utter indifference to
+scientific pursuits, which indeed appeal in vain to the
+great majority of the Brazilian population. Of course there
+are numerous and agreeable exceptions; but slavery, the
+mixture of races, the egotism and indolence of the wealthier
+classes, are all reasons why a European, just arrived,
+cannot feel himself comfortable. The white Brazilians bear,
+in some respects, a strong resemblance to the Italians, but
+they are deficient in their pleasing, insinuating demeanour,
+in their cheerful humour, quickness of perception, and
+lively imagination. They occupy a lower scale in social
+culture, without depth of thought or feeling, and seem
+almost incapable of persevering activity. This perceptible
+deficiency of hearty, energetic temperament, in addition to
+the confused intermingling of other foreign nations, which
+seem to regard the country as booty, to be abandoned so soon
+as success has crowned their labours, imparts to each new
+arrival a feeling of depression, which, so far from being
+weakened, is yet more keenly felt by those who have lived
+some time in the country, so that not merely among
+foreigners recently arrived, but with those also who have
+spent years at Rio, the desire to leave these shores becomes
+rather increased than diminished by a longer acquaintance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate254t" id="plate254t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate254t.jpg" width="350" height="177" alt="Track of Novara." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE III.&mdash;FROM RIO DI JANEIRO TO THE CAPE
+OF GOOD HOPE.</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate254.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>At nine <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, we cast off from the tug, not far from the
+little island of Razza, with its lighthouse, and spread our
+sails to the breeze, which gradually freshened, but blew
+from the N.E., which was foul for our course. However, we
+could still derive some advantage from even this as it was
+our intention to steer southerly from Rio, so as to be able
+to make almost exclusively a great circle course to the Cape
+of Good Hope, after we should have got further south than
+the Antarctic limit of the S.E. trades.</p>
+
+<p>The near termination of the winter quarter in this southern
+hemisphere, the approximation of the sun towards the south
+pole, and the consequent tendency of the zones of wind and
+currents of air to pursue the same direction, gave us reason
+to hope, that when approaching the limits of the trades, we
+should find a change of wind, which should shorten the
+voyage, or at all events keep us clear of storms.</p>
+
+<p>In the open ocean, where there are no hills or extraordinary
+conformations of land to break the uniformity of the earth's
+surface, and where the expanse of water is unbroken by any
+extensive group of islands, the disturbances in the
+atmospheric belt must necessarily be much less strongly
+marked than where continents are interposed, or in the
+narrow seas. The winds themselves, under such circumstances,
+display even in their shifts a certain amount of regularity,
+which is usually dependent upon the universal laws of
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>Once any one is so fortunate as to comprehend the latter in
+all their extent, so as to be cognisant of their results, it
+becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> a mere question of the study of local conditions in
+order to be able to declare how these universal laws
+operate, and to elucidate by the most simple explanations
+many of the phenomena of nature that have till now baffled
+science. Thus, when a wind hitherto steady shifts its
+direction, there must necessarily be, certain active causes
+for its doing so; if these causes perpetually recur in
+well-marked periodical intervals, the change of the wind
+must follow a definite law. Under certain circumstances the
+direction of the wind is well-defined; as, for instance, at
+certain seasons in the open ocean it remains always the
+same, or changes with a certain regularity, whence it
+becomes apparent that the causes must remain unchanging, and
+the recurrence of the phenomenon must accordingly admit of
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p>We know, for example, that in the case of hurricanes&mdash;those
+most terrific exemplifications of the tendency of the
+atmosphere to move in circles&mdash;the wind does not blow in
+straight lines, but rather in curves described round a
+central point, which again is not immovable, but has a
+regular progression along a definite curve. In that curved
+plane, however, which has been termed a <i>cyclone</i>, the wind
+always blows in one and the same direction, and in the
+Northern Hemisphere runs counter to the motion of a
+watch-hand, while in the Southern Hemisphere it, on the
+contrary, follows that motion.</p>
+
+<p>These facts once granted as accounting for such phenomena,
+it follows as a natural consequence of the general
+principles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> laid down, that they hold good in minor cases,
+and must remain of the same efficacy, whether it be a
+hurricane or a dust-whirl which may be under consideration.</p>
+
+<p>So, too, in conformity with those laws, light winds may be
+found subject to a variation in direction of a similar
+nature, such as may not perhaps be fully exemplified in
+every case, but simply serve to indicate the tendency of the
+wind to follow the same general direction as the hurricanes
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of ascertaining such curvilinearity in the
+direction of the winds will be especially manifest at the
+limits within which the regular winds prevail, and when they
+must necessarily become intermingled with other regular
+currents of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, as we neared the limit of the S.E. Trades,
+which always extend somewhat further south, as the sun's
+southern declination increases, we had to traverse regions
+where necessarily we encountered variable winds, owing to
+the increased area of the Trades. There are also found
+occasional spots at which a more rarefied atmosphere seems
+to fill the surrounding space, when there is seen a similar
+process to that in the case of hurricanes, first visible
+perhaps in the higher strata, but afterwards extending to
+those which are lower.</p>
+
+<p>The winds, then, shifted with much regularity, and with them
+the atmospheric pressure, just as in the case of cyclones,
+except that neither the wind nor the sea ever presented the
+characteristics of a tempest. The wind, which began to blow
+from the North-East, drew gradually to North, thence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span> West
+and South, and returned to S.E., after short intervals of
+calm. We could thus perceive, on referring to the ship's
+log, that the entire cycle was completed in five or six
+days; so that it became quite possible, by examining the
+central direction of the daily variation, to foretell the
+wind which must be blowing twelve hours later, when, upon
+taking into consideration the path described by such central
+direction from day to day, it appeared that the wind
+described very nearly a parabolic curve.</p>
+
+<p>Even the aspect of the heavens, and the state of the
+weather, were only one degree less regular in their
+alternations than the hurricanes. With the S.E. wind, the
+sky was bright, but as soon as it began to veer round,
+towards afternoon, a few white belts of cirrhous clouds
+began to appear in the western heavens, constituting a
+well-marked division of the vault of the sky from one side
+quite to the other. As it drew still further round, and
+neared the line of centres, the weather grew foul, a driving
+scud covered the heavens, and a succession of splendid
+rainbows were seen, till the ship had reached the nearest
+spot to the storm-centre when there were sharp squalls of
+wind, accompanied by heavy showers of rain. The lower strata
+of clouds, mere vapour, drove before the wind, while those
+above moved in a directly contrary direction, generally that
+of the forthcoming wind. The atmospheric pressure, which at
+first would be considerable, gradually decreased as we
+approached the central line; as we drew away from that
+centre the barometer rose again,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> the weather improved, and
+the sky under the influence of southerly winds once more
+cleared.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately it is not practicable with a single ship to
+ascertain whether the veering of the wind follows an exact
+curve, as we can only say what is the direction at the spot
+where the observation has been made, and it is impossible to
+determine what it may be at other points. But it is at all
+events certain that the shifts of wind are amenable to the
+same general laws as hurricanes. A number of ships sent out
+for the special purpose of this branch of investigation,
+could render immense services to science and navigation, and
+achieve most interesting results.</p>
+
+<p>We availed ourselves of these general laws to traverse the
+ocean as speedily as possible, in order to reach early our
+next anchorage, and in so doing we experienced altogether
+three well-marked cycles of wind at short intervals. We
+cannot afford space to prosecute all the interesting
+consequences that result from these phenomena of nature,
+such investigations being more properly reserved for the
+meteorological section of the scientific portion of this
+work. Here, however, the facilities for observation of a
+sea-faring life have been directed towards an object of
+inquiry, which must prove of immense utility in navigation
+and commerce. And, perhaps, even landsmen may not find it
+uninteresting, that even that proverbially fickle element,
+air, obeys certain fixed laws, a more accurate acquaintance
+with which must be of the utmost importance to the denizen
+of <i>terra firma</i>, as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> those "that go down to the sea
+in ships, that do business in great waters."</p>
+
+<p>On this passage from the American to the African coasts, we
+were continually accompanied by our winged friends, the
+sea-birds, which, notwithstanding the unkind treatment they
+received at the hands of the zoological sportsmen, followed
+us with the utmost pertinacity, probably attracted by the
+numerous fragments of provisions thrown overboard.</p>
+
+<p>The Cape pigeons (<i>Procellaria sp.</i>), those prettily-marked
+sea-birds, about the size of doves, the albatrosses,
+(<i>Diomedea sp.</i>) the largest of the ocean feathered tribe,
+with their quiet majestic flight, stormy petrels of all
+sorts and sizes, from the smallest swallow to the largest of
+its kind; all these winged inhabitants of the sea's surface
+followed the frigate in motley groups, and seemed never to
+weary in their active search for food.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes they alighted, rested on the surface of the water,
+and were left far behind; but they collected again with
+great rapidity as soon as anything eatable appeared, and
+overtook the frigate in a swift flight from the remotest
+point of the horizon. This singular attachment to ships very
+probably arises from their being accustomed to follow
+whalers, from which such a large quantity of garbage is
+thrown overboard, very much affected by these aërial
+parasites, whence they learn to expect from all vessels
+their favourite food.</p>
+
+<p>They possess a remarkable capacity for remembering the exact
+time when they are likely to receive a large quantity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span>
+eatables from on board. Every day, about noon, the vicinity
+of the ship became animated, and towards one o'clock, after
+the crew had finished dinner, these lively creatures were
+close behind, and even fought for the pieces of tow with
+which the coppers had been cleansed. The boldest amongst
+them was the Cape pigeon, which pounced, with the utmost
+avidity, upon the dainty morsels thrown overboard, raising a
+loud scream, swimming round its prey, diving for sinking
+fragments, or snatching from each other those they had
+secured. Then came the black and brown-spotted and white
+albatrosses. As soon as one of these colossal birds appeared
+on the scene of strife, the uproar of the screaming pigeons
+at once became still; they kept themselves at a respectful
+distance from the voracious albatross, which quietly
+consumed its lion's share. In a few moments, yet greater
+numbers of these assembled, of which the black ones
+(<i>Ph&oelig;betria fuliginosa</i>), like the large petrels, are
+extremely shy, and rarely approach the ship within gun-shot.
+The other large-sized petrels acted similarly, the brown
+spectacled-petrel, so named from two singular-looking black
+rings round the eyes, being the most numerous. Along with
+these were several small Mother Carey's Chickens, and
+flights of other winged creatures swarming over the sea. The
+darker the sky, the more agitated the sea, the more actively
+do the Cape pigeons tumble and toss behind the ship; it
+appears that in rough stormy weather they see less
+distinctly and find food with difficulty, in consequence of
+which they are in a famished state. Only under these
+circumstances,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> and when the ship is moving slowly, can they
+be caught with a line. To angle for birds may appear rather
+odd to the reader, and yet it is common enough in the
+Southern Ocean, amusing the sailor, and providing the
+zoologist with means of obtaining these birds alive. For
+this purpose, however, circumstances must be comparatively
+favourable; that is to say, the weather must be rough, the
+sea agitated, and the ship making but little headway. When
+the sky is serene, and the sea calm, even the Cape pigeons
+do not think it worth their while to throw a glance at the
+bait; and if the ship is moving fast, they have not speed
+enough to catch it, because they only swim, and the ship
+outspeeds them. The line, moreover, must be of tolerable
+length, so as, in the event of any bird evincing a desire to
+snap, to allow as much to be paid out as is necessary to
+leave the bait precisely in the same spot, without towing it
+through the water. It sometimes also occurs, particularly
+after sunset, that these birds, continually following in the
+wake of the ship, do not see the line, strike against it,
+and entangle themselves so that they may be easily drawn on
+board. The scream of the storm-pigeon when caught, makes it
+betray its fate even before those on board have an idea that
+it has been captured.</p>
+
+<p>For the albatross, it is of course necessary to use a
+stronger hook, which it is best to attach to a copper wire,
+because this being thinner than line, is not so readily
+perceived. In order that the whole apparatus may swim on the
+surface of the water, a few cork floats are also made fast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When an albatross has hooked itself, the full strength of a
+man is requisite to draw it on board, for the bird, in its
+despair, dives and keeps its wings spread under water, so
+that the resistance is very considerable, and frequently
+even the strongest lines are broken. This cannot be wondered
+at when their size is considered, as they measure from 10 to
+14 feet across the extended wings, while their weight
+amounts to from 10 to 18 lbs.</p>
+
+<p>Arrived on deck, none of these sea-birds are able to fly
+away; they move very clumsily on their webbed feet, and can
+only rise after a slanting spring, which, however, they
+cannot accomplish on firm ground; if in the water these
+birds want to rise into the air whilst swimming, they
+flutter their outspread wings for a little, and use their
+webbed feet in a kind of rowing motion, in order to acquire
+the requisite impetus. The albatross defends itself with its
+bill, which is often four to five inches long, and care must
+be taken to avoid being wounded in catching them. We also
+remarked that the Cape pigeons, in their rage at being
+captured, vomited up a slimy greasy substance.</p>
+
+<p>The latter bird was of course new to us, and afforded us
+much amusement. Many were knocked over with the
+fowling-piece, especially when, in their inquisitiveness,
+they came too near the boats, which, as often as our rate of
+progress admitted, were launched with the view of adding to
+our collection of objects of natural history.</p>
+
+<p>In shooting an albatross large shot must be used, as, at a
+distance of 15 or 20 feet, small shot do not penetrate the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>
+feathers and the down of the bird. What is most remarkable
+as regards these birds is the numerous parasites that live
+upon their bodies. It is most extraordinary how certain of
+these birds (as for instance, the <i>Puffins</i> and
+<i>Procellariæ</i>) are infested by insects, their plumage
+sometimes swarming with small specimens of <i>Crustaceæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of September, the famous Table Mountain of the
+Cape was visible, after we had, the evening previous, at a
+distance of fourteen miles, sighted the lighthouse of Table
+Bay.</p>
+
+<p>The twenty-six days of our voyage hither had flown quickly
+past, and we were still able vividly to recall the
+impressions made by Brazil, and the scenes we had gone
+through in mid-ocean, as the southernmost point of Africa
+came in sight with its characteristic hills, and our eyes
+and our thoughts were directed to another quarter of the
+globe. On the one hand, excited with the prospect of new
+scenery, and on the other, anxious to complete our elaborate
+observations upon Brazil, so as to be able to send them home
+from the Cape, we found ourselves in a frame of mind which
+kept us alternately hard at the desk, or drove us on deck to
+admire the remarkable outline of Cape Colony. We did not, at
+the present season, think it advisable to run right into the
+bay, so as to anchor near Cape Town, but resolved to double
+the Cape, and proceed to Simon's Bay, the usual anchorage
+for ships-of-war. We were, however, sadly disappointed in
+the hope of soon reaching it, as the south-east wind
+freshened so much that on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> 27th it had become a gale,
+which forced us out to sea again. The world-known swell off
+the Cape began under the ever-increasing wind to run high,
+and we were soon involved in one of those famous Cape storms
+which justified the Portuguese in calling the promontory of
+South Africa, "Cabo Tormentoso," or the Cape of Storm.<a name="Anchor-51" id="Anchor-51"></a><a href="#Footnote-51" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 51.">[51]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote-51" id="Footnote-51"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-51">[51]</a>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Through such mad seas the daring Gama fought,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Incessant toiling round the stormy Cape."<br /></span>
+<span class="i20">(<i>Lord Strangford's Camoens.</i>)<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wind and spray roared and lashed through the rigging:
+higher and higher rose the huge mountains of water, with
+their white crests, that tossed the ship like a plaything
+from side to side. The waves foamed in through the
+port-holes on the gun-deck, while masts, cordage, timbers,
+every part of the ship groaned and creaked, a perfect medley
+of sights and sounds, including woful destruction of
+crockery, and the heavy rolling of erratic cannon-shot that
+had broken loose from the rack, and were rushing about the
+deck&mdash;above all which was heard the shrill whistle of the
+pipe of the boatswain's mate. The scene fairly baffled all
+powers of description, and must have been eminently
+impressive for those who for the first time experienced what
+is meant by "a gale at sea," especially at night, when the
+moon, struggling through the flying vapours, lit up the
+appalling scene with a livid supernatural tint.</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of the 28th the gale reached its highest
+point, and raged fearfully for some hours. The frigate
+proved herself, in this turbulence of the waters, to be
+thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> seaworthy. At the same time the sun shone
+brilliantly, the sky was clear and beautiful, and only here
+and there some feathery clouds were to be seen. There was a
+curious sense of dualism in this serenity of the sky, in
+contrast with the fury and agitation of the waves. Gradually
+the wind chopped round towards the east, which gave some
+hope that the gale would abate, but, nevertheless, the ship
+was tossed about worse than ever.</p>
+
+<p>The waves, like gigantic ridges, mounted, according to
+measurement, to the height of from 30 to 35 feet above the
+mean level of the sea, and occasioned that terrible rolling
+of the ship, and those fearful lurches, which, once
+experienced, are not readily forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto the altitude of a wave has been generally measured
+merely by the eye, so that the result depended too much on
+the accuracy of individual observation to admit of its being
+exactly ascertained; and it is for this reason that the
+statements relative to the maximum height of the ocean wave
+are so various that they cannot be considered reliable, for
+whilst some observers estimate them to be from 60 to 70
+feet, others reckon them only at from 30 to 40 feet.</p>
+
+<p>On board the <i>Novara</i> the following method of admeasurement
+was adopted: we first determined, by a chronometer, the time
+that a wave takes to pass from one end of the ship to the
+other, whereby the velocity of the progressive motion of the
+wave could be calculated in relation to the ship's course
+and speed, regard being had to the direction and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> velocity
+of the ship against it. With this velocity ascertained, we
+were in a position to determine and fix the average distance
+between two consecutive waves. Lastly, the height of the
+wave was ascertained from the angle at which the frigate
+rose and fell in the line of its keel, by the influence of
+each successive wave and by means of the ascertained
+distance from the trough of the sea to the crest of the
+wave. Though this method, likewise, has many difficulties
+and deficiencies, yet it appears well suited to make correct
+comparisons between the different waves; and, under certain
+favourable conditions, it yields so accurate a result, that
+at any rate it is to be preferred to mere guess-work,
+besides that the experiment itself is susceptible of many
+improvements. It seems safe to assume that waves scarcely
+ever attain an elevation of more than 40 or 45 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The gale had driven us a long distance out, and only after
+great trouble did we again near the land. On the 1st of
+October the Cape came once more in sight; we tacked, in
+order to get into the wide gulf termed False Bay, by which
+in some respects the peninsula of the Cape is formed, being
+separated only by a low sandy plain from the Atlantic.
+Whittle's rock renders tacking in its neighbourhood in so
+far more difficult, as the existing charts of the bay are
+not sufficiently exact to be implicitly relied on. Buoys
+have often been fixed in that quarter, but every new gale
+carried them away again; so that the position of the rock is
+not indicated. An English pilot now came on board, who
+brought papers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> and intelligence that a number of letters
+were waiting for us. Our impatience became stronger when
+towards evening the light breeze entirely ceased, and we
+thereby were forced to bring up at a distance of a mile and
+a half from the actual anchorage. About the same time an
+officer arrived from the British line-of-battle-ship
+<i>Boscawen</i>, under the flag of Rear-Admiral Grey, in order to
+serve as a guide should no pilot have boarded us.</p>
+
+<p>On the 2nd of October, at 7 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, the anchor was let go in
+Simon's Bay, a spacious but gloomy-looking sheet of water.
+Here ships ride much more secure than in Table Bay, from
+which, in a stiff westerly or north-westerly breeze, vessels
+are often forced to run out to sea to avoid being driven on
+shore. The communication with the land is thus sometimes
+interrupted for days. From Simon's Bay to Table Bay, round
+the Cape the distance is forty miles, whilst by land the
+journey to the capital of the colony is, with good horses,
+performed in three hours.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 479px;"><a name="illu252" id="illu252"></a>
+<img src="images/illu252.jpg" width="479" height="195" alt="Big waves and storm clouds." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CABO TORMENTOSO.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+width: 586px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu253.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu253" id="illu253"></a><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>
+<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">CAPE<br />TOWN.</span></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 586px; height: 345px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 197px; height: 352px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">VI.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Cape of Good Hope.</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Stay from 2nd to 26th October, 1857.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+Contrasts of scenery and seasons at Cape Colony. Ramble
+through Simon's Town.&mdash;Malay Population.&mdash;The Toad-fish, or
+Sea-devil.&mdash;Rondebosch and its delightful scenery.&mdash;Cape
+Town.&mdash;Influence of the English element.&mdash;Scientific and
+other Institutions.&mdash;Botanical Gardens.&mdash;Useful
+plants.&mdash;Foreign Emigration.&mdash;A Caffre prophet and the
+consequences of his prophecies.&mdash;Caffre prisoners in the
+Armstrong Battery.&mdash;Five young Caffres take service as
+sailors on board the <i>Novara</i>.&mdash;Trip into the
+interior.&mdash;Stellenbosch.&mdash;Paarl.&mdash;Worcester.&mdash;Brandvalley.&mdash;The
+Mission of Moravian Brethren at Genaadendal.&mdash;Masticatories
+and intoxicating substances used by the
+Hottentots.&mdash;Caledon.&mdash;Somerset West.&mdash;Zandvliet.&mdash;Tomb of a
+Malay Prophet.&mdash;Horse Sickness.&mdash;Tsetse-fly.&mdash;Vineyards of
+Constantia.&mdash;<i>Féte champêtre</i> in honour of the
+<i>Novara</i>.&mdash;Excursion to the actual Cape of Good
+Hope.&mdash;Departure.&mdash;A life saved.&mdash;Experiments with Brook's
+deep-sea sounding apparatus.&mdash;Arrival at the Island of St.
+Paul in the South Indian Ocean.
+</div>
+
+<p>There can scarcely be a landscape more gloomy and desolate
+than the sterile, rocky mountains, and white sandy plains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>
+which, like snow-fields, inclose Simon's Bay. Coming from
+the charming coast of Brazil, with its luxuriant verdure,
+the contrast becomes doubly unpleasing. A narrow green strip
+of land, running along from a small fort, forms a refreshing
+sight and a resting point for the eye fatigued with looking
+at these grim masses of stone. The traveller who merely
+touches at Simon's Bay without pushing into the interior, or
+who visits the Cape in the winter of the southern hemisphere
+(from April to September), can scarcely form an idea of the
+voluptuous loveliness which reigns during spring and summer
+in the interior of the colony, and will regard as fictitious
+those brilliant descriptions of its natural beauties,
+related by travellers who have been fortunate enough to
+visit this point of South Africa at those genial seasons.</p>
+
+<p>Had we left the Cape without seeing anything else than the
+melancholy neighbourhood of False Bay and the dull little
+settlement of Simon's Town, on its left bank, we should have
+carried away very different impressions and ideas to those
+entertained after having during spring passed some weeks in
+the delightful interior, and obtained at the same time an
+insight into the social condition of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>On the very day that we cast anchor in the bay, we took a
+stroll (our first footfall upon the soil of Africa) through
+Simon's Town, which consists of a single street of about
+forty clean, neat, and tidy-looking houses, straggling along
+the shore. The principal buildings are the Arsenal, the
+residence of the admiral of the station, five churches (one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span>
+of which belongs to Roman Catholics), and two tolerably
+large hotels.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly possible to conceive any town occupying a more
+dreary dismal site, with the exception, perhaps, of some of
+the Peruvian settlements on the west coast of South America.
+While the eye, below this row of houses, beholds nothing but
+granite rocks thickly strewn with shells, the main street is
+overhung by steep sandstone rocks, which, despite the
+marvellous richness of the blooming flowers, that well repay
+the researches of the naturalist, have a naked gloomy
+aspect, viewed from a distance, and are environed right and
+left by waste patches of white sand.</p>
+
+<p>The favourite walks of this small place seem to be along the
+shore, or on the road to Cape Town, into the soft sand of
+which the foot of the traveller is continually sinking. A
+number of ladies and gentlemen whom we met walking appeared
+to be somewhat surprised at the unusual appearance of an
+Austrian man-of-war, the flag of which was gaily fluttering
+in the gloomy bay. The residents in Simon's Town, amounting
+to about 800 souls, are mostly Malays, descendants of those
+numerous compulsory emigrants, who, during the period of
+Dutch ascendency at the Cape, had been transported from Java
+and other islands of the Indian Archipelago, owing to the
+want of labour or for political causes. For the Dutch used
+to send to the Cape Colony, as a place of banishment, many
+wealthy and influential Malay families, by whom the first
+germs of Mohammedanism were introduced into South Africa. It
+would even seem that the religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> opinions of the Malay
+population exercise some influence on the habits of the
+Christian settlers of Simon's Town, as no butcher, for
+instance, would venture to kill and sell pigs for fear of
+giving offence to his Mohammedan customers.</p>
+
+<p>On a fine spring morning we started in a handsome vehicle
+from Simon's Bay to Cape Town. The road runs close along the
+seashore, which, seen from a distance, apparently consists
+of nothing but sand and rock, but, on more near
+acquaintance, exhibits at various points delightful nooks
+decked with most beautiful flowers. Everything indicated, by
+its glorious blooming garment, the bursting forth of spring.</p>
+
+<p>One hour's ride led us to a neat little fishing hamlet where
+an immense number of fish were hanging up to dry in the sun.
+The bones of whales are used by the inhabitants for all
+sorts of purposes; they fence their fields and gardens with
+the ribs, build walls with the vertebræ, make steps and
+stairs of the shoulder bones, and use the large jaw-bones as
+arches at the entrances of their huts. One of the owners of
+this fishing station was kind enough to offer us, as a
+particular dainty, a piece of flesh cut from the jaw of a
+whale and boiled in fat; but we were not exactly of the same
+opinion after having, from curiosity, tasted a few
+mouthfuls. The bay is very rich in the snook-fish
+(<i>Thyrsites Atun</i>), of which several hundred tons are
+pickled here annually and sent to the Mauritius.</p>
+
+<p>Another fish caught here is said to be extremely injurious
+to health, and even to endanger life&mdash;the small toadfish
+(<i>Tetraodon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> Honkenyi</i>), which exists in shoals, and may
+easily be caught with a line. One of the harbour regulations
+consists of a special paragraph warning seamen against using
+this poisonous "sea-devil." Foreign sailors who have eaten
+of it have died a few minutes after.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving this fishing station the road, leaving the coast,
+proceeds in a straight line over the plain which unites the
+Cape with the continent. The mountains recede, and the eye
+of the traveller gazes, charmed and surprised, on the
+mountain range of the peninsula, the celebrated Table and
+Devil's Mountains. The plain, which, during the dry season,
+is nothing but an arid desert, was now seen in its fullest
+beauty, like a flowery carpet, on which innumerable blossoms
+of varied hues and forms were interwoven. On the left lie
+the renowned vineyards of Constantia, and to the right
+stands what is called Halfway-house, the property of a
+native of Würtemberg who, some twenty years before, came to
+the Cape a poor emigrant, and is now a wealthy and respected
+man, known far and wide, holding several official
+appointments, and showing himself a warm patron of his
+German countrymen. Being a zealous sportsman, and intimately
+acquainted with the locality, Mr. Rathfelder was of great
+service to our zoologists, who took up their residence at
+this place.</p>
+
+<p>From the Halfway-house to Cape Town the character of the
+landscape completely changes. The road leads through a
+park-like country; charming wood plantations, pines and
+oaks, stretch on either hand to the extreme limits of an
+undulating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span> plain, intersected by long shady paths, the
+vistas terminating with elegant villas built in the Dutch or
+English style. Here are Cape waggons, drawn by ten to twenty
+oxen, side by side with elegant two or four-horse carriages
+and densely-packed omnibuses, such as one may see in
+Cheapside. We have now arrived in the charming Rondebosch, a
+village that might well aspire to the dignity of a town,
+chiefly inhabited as a summer residence by the wealthier
+inhabitants of Cape Town. The impression made by this
+beautiful road will never be obliterated from the memory of
+any one who has ever ridden over it in the spring. We were
+as much delighted by the sight of this smiling and verdant
+landscape as we had been depressed by the sandy plains of
+Simon's Bay. There, extended in charming variety before the
+fascinated eye, lay Table Bay with its ships, Cape Town, and
+the gigantic rocky wall of the Table Mountain resting on its
+granite base, and rising nearly perpendicular to an altitude
+of 3500 feet, together with the Lion's Head and the Devil's
+Peak. The distant background on the other side of the plain
+is bounded by the precipitous face of high, rugged, and
+broken mountain walls, the summits of which were covered
+with snow.</p>
+
+<p>Convenient and comfortable quarters were found in the
+Freemasons' Hotel, situated in the Parade, a large square
+planted with pines. Here, to our surprise, we met an
+Austrian, attending as waiter, who had been driven by the
+wild waves of the late revolution into the wide world, until
+he met with a peaceful existence at the Cape of Storms!<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Favoured by introductions to the most eminent men of
+science, who received us in the most friendly way, we
+succeeded, in the course of a few weeks, in acquiring rich
+and valuable scientific collections, and forming important
+connections for the future supply of our museums. A most
+cordial reception was accorded us by Mr. Julius Mosenthal,
+the Austrian Consul, and the head of one of the leading
+mercantile firms of the colony. In his hospitable house,
+German music and German song made us entirely forget that we
+were sojourning thousands of miles from home at the
+southernmost point of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Cape Town is oblong in plan, with long wide streets,
+intersecting at right angles. It is destitute of imposing
+buildings; a commercial place, with pretty dwelling-houses,
+built in the English style and comfortably furnished, all of
+a light brown hue, owing to the dust, which, in south-east
+or north-west winds, envelopes the town in whirling clouds,
+and may indeed be considered the only plague of this healthy
+delightful climate. The English element, which, with the
+stereotyped customs of its life and its equitable laws,
+possesses, wherever it obtains a footing, so powerful an
+influence, has almost entirely superseded the Dutch, which
+continues to exist only in the lonely farmhouses far in the
+interior. There is scarcely anything remaining to indicate
+that Cape Town was founded by the Dutch; and were it not for
+the yellow Malay faces, with their gaudy head-coverings or
+umbrella-shaped straw hats, and the tawny mestizoes, who
+remind us of the aboriginal inhabitants, and give a
+completely foreign colouring, one might easily fancy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span> one's
+self to be in an old English provincial town. Generally
+speaking, any one arriving here with preconceived notions of
+finding himself amongst Hottentots and Bushmen, or in a
+state of society differing materially from that of Europe,
+will soon discover that he has been entirely mistaken. The
+aborigines whom Jan van Riebeck found, when, with three
+Dutch ships, he landed in 1652 at Table Bay, and in the name
+of the Dutch East India Company established a settlement,
+have now almost entirely disappeared from the capital. If
+any one desires to see a veritable Hottentot or Bushman, he
+must undertake a troublesome journey, of weeks' duration,
+into the inhospitable interior. In Cape Town this singular
+race is only now and then to be met with in prisons or
+hospitals, and even then of a mixed breed.</p>
+
+<p>The colony has now a population of 280,000 white and
+coloured inhabitants, of whom about 30,000 live in Cape
+Town; half of these are whites, and probably not more than
+1000 form the higher and influential class. There can be no
+doubt that when, in 1815, the English took possession of the
+Cape, a firm foundation had been laid already by the Dutch
+150 years before; but the real progress of the country, and
+the development of its natural resources, date only from the
+commencement of British rule, by which those shackles were
+thrown off with which the narrow-minded colonial policy of
+the Dutch had fettered this settlement, like all others that
+owned their sway.</p>
+
+<p>The Cape Colony since 1850 has possessed a Legislative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>
+Council of 15 members, and a House of Assembly of 40
+deputies. The executive power rests in the hands of the
+Governor-General, appointed by the British Government. All
+bills passed by this parliament require the royal assent
+before they become law.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to speak in too high and eulogistic terms
+of Sir George Grey, whom we had the happiness at the time of
+our stay to find in the important position of
+Governor-General of the colony. Owing to the wisdom with
+which Sir George governed this important colony, he gained
+for himself the love and admiration of the people to such an
+extent that, after the expiration of the regularly fixed
+period of his office as Governor, they petitioned the Queen
+of England for his re-appointment. Sir George is not only an
+able statesman, but also a sound scholar, possessing a most
+complete collection of books and manuscripts on the
+Australian, Polynesian and African languages, and he is a
+most zealous patron of the numerous scientific institutions
+of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The astronomical observatory, under the superintendence of
+Mr. Maclear, has preserved the celebrity which it attained
+by the great work on the constellations of the southern
+hemisphere, the materials for which were collected by Sir
+John Herschel during his residence here some twenty years
+since. There is now a transit instrument, which in accuracy
+excels even that of the Observatory at Greenwich, and which
+is said to have cost upwards of <i>£</i>2000.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The South African Museum, containing collections of natural
+history, is now under the superintendence of Mr. L. Layard
+(brother of the celebrated investigator of Nineveh). This
+institution, as well as the South African public library,
+the literary, scientific, and mechanics' institutions,
+besides nearly fifty other establishments and societies for
+religious, benevolent and industrial purposes, owe their
+foundation and flourishing condition to the public spirit
+and the charitable disposition of the inhabitants of the
+colony. In 69 schools scattered over its surface, upwards of
+18,000 pupils are educated according to a system introduced
+in 1841 by Sir John Herschel.</p>
+
+<p>The Botanical Gardens, likewise founded and kept up by
+private subscription, are not only a most agreeable resort,
+but also afford much instruction, arising from the many
+interesting and useful plants gathered here from all
+quarters of the world. To those which are adapted for
+cultivation in the sandy plains of the Cape, great attention
+is devoted. Some of them have been found available in
+forming as it were vegetable walls of protection against the
+inroads of the sand, so destructive to all cultivation. As
+particularly serviceable for this purpose, were mentioned to
+us <i>Fabricia variegata</i>, a sea-shore shrub of from 6 to 10
+feet high; <i>Protea myrtifera</i>; the so-called Hottentot fig:
+<i>Mesembryanthemum edulis</i>; and the Cape wax-myrtle
+<i>Myricacordifolia</i>;&mdash;all these are found to thrive in the
+sand without cultivation, put a stop to its ravages, and in
+some respects may be considered as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> pioneers of all
+other plants, which do not thrive before the sandy soil has
+been prepared for them. Nay, singularly enough, some of
+these (as for instance the Hottentot fig), become extinct as
+soon as others make their appearance, just in the same way
+as the pioneer of civilization, the backwoodsman in the west
+of the United States, leaves his lonely blockhouse and
+hurries on as soon as overtaken by the peaceful settler. The
+wax-berry shrub is also otherwise useful to the inhabitants;
+from its berries a substance is prepared well suited for
+making candles. According to a treatise on its culture two
+workmen are able to realize with a defecator daily 100 lbs.
+of white wax from the berries gathered by six persons. The
+expense of labour, &amp;c., does not exceed 18<i>s.</i> per 100 lbs.,
+or about 2<i>d.</i> per pound. A large quantity of this vegetable
+substance has lately been sent to London, where it is said
+to have met with a profitable market. In the Botanical
+Garden of Cape Town we first met the two celebrated grasses
+known as <i>Holcus Caffrorum</i> and <i>Holcus saccharatum</i>, which,
+by their usefulness in domestic life, have more extensively,
+and perhaps quickly, than any other plant, spread over the
+world. We are indebted to the Secretary of the Board of
+Public Roads, W. De Smidt, Esq., for some seeds of these and
+other plants, as also to Mr. McGibbon, manager of the
+Botanical Gardens, for similar favours.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the deficiency of labour, and the large sections
+of fertile land as yet uncultivated in the colony, Sir
+George Grey has directed great attention to the immigration
+of German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> emigrants of respectable characters, of all
+trades, as well as those attached to agricultural pursuits.
+The plan adopted is an excellent and thoroughly honest one.
+Every emigrant, if single, obtains from the Government
+thirty acres of good land, and, if married, fifty; five for
+each child above one, and ten for every one exceeding ten
+years of age. The rate of the land is to be fixed by
+Government at a fair and reasonable sum, and, together with
+the passage-money, to be paid four years after the location
+of the emigrant, in five annual instalments. From the moment
+the colonist steps on African ground he is an independent
+owner of land, although not entitled to sell his property
+until his obligations to the Government are liquidated. The
+local parliament has granted a sum of <i>£</i>50,000 to promote
+emigration. The Cape probably offers to an industrious
+emigrant a more advantageous field for active energy than
+any other country in the world. Some of the German
+colonists, the remnant of the British Legion engaged in the
+Crimean war, who, under General Stuttersheim, have settled
+in British Caffraria, are thriving prosperously. They are
+the first pioneers of the German element in South Africa,
+and, under the protection of a liberal and free government,
+are increasing in number annually in consequence of the
+favourable reports which they transmit to their native
+country.</p>
+
+<p>An emigration of a peculiar kind has unexpectedly taken
+place. An impostor amongst the Caffres, who had assumed the
+character of a prophet, pronounced the end of the world as
+imminent, in consequence of which large numbers of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>
+slaughtered their cattle and left their fields uncultivated.
+Being thus, in a short time, reduced to a state of perfect
+destitution, not less than 19,000 of starving Caffres sought
+help and an asylum in the British territory during the year
+1857, and before its close the number had increased to
+30,000. The colonial Government, out of consideration to the
+welfare of the colonists, admitted only those Caffres who
+bound themselves to act as servants, for at least one year,
+at reasonable wages, and in order to prevent any danger
+arising from being congregated in too large numbers, they
+were located by the Government officers in various detached
+parts of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>A very active society of philanthropists exists here, under
+the title of "The Committee of Emigration from Holland." Its
+object is to bring over orphans and children of the poor
+from the overpopulated Dutch provinces. These useful
+emigrants are partly located as apprentices to farmers, and
+remain until they are of age under the care of the
+Committee. During our stay a party of seventy boys and girls
+just arrived from Holland assembled, with their conductors,
+in one of the large avenues of the Botanical Garden, to be
+inspected by the Governor-General. They all looked healthy
+and cheerful, and seemed to have but little suffered from
+the fatigues of a long voyage. When Sir George Grey made his
+appearance the children sang the English National Anthem,
+translated into Dutch, and afterwards the sweet,
+affectionate song, "When the swallows homewards fly." Some
+young emigrants, who, two years ago, had come under similar
+circumstances from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> Holland, had already obtained good
+situations, and greeted their little compatriots most
+heartily. Being asked if they wished to return to Holland,
+they replied, without the slightest hesitation, in the
+negative, declaring that they felt very happy where they
+were,&mdash;an announcement of course peculiarly agreeable to the
+new-comers.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting opportunity was afforded to us of seeing a
+large number of Caffres, of both sexes, who had been brought
+in as prisoners in consequence of having made predatory
+incursions into the British territory. They all arrived in a
+state of nudity, and in most wretched plight, but were
+immediately provided with European clothes&mdash;blue striped
+shirts, sheepskin trousers, shoes, a Scotch cap, and a
+blanket which served during the day as a cloak, and at night
+as a covering. Their food was tolerably good, but their
+abode during night, in the damp casemates of the fort,
+seemed not to agree with them, and many were visibly in a
+diseased state of health. Nearly all were muscular, and some
+were really specimens of manly beauty. Not one of them knew
+his age. Their only mode of calculating is by certain
+important events, as by the death of a chieftain, or the
+various wars with the English. The superintendent, Mr.
+Walsh, a very obliging Irishman, had the kindness to cause
+them to perform some of their national dances, wild
+exercises which served the purpose of exciting their warlike
+spirit. The first dance they performed they called
+"Ukutenga." Six handsomely-built dancers advanced, whilst
+about thirty men closed in a circle around them, and, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span>
+their howlings and clapping of hands, formed as it were a
+musical accompaniment to this singular performance. The
+dancers sighed, groaned, hissed, and made the most
+extravagant grimaces and contortions, in order to arouse in
+themselves an artificial excitement. One, a lad twelve years
+of age, engaged so earnestly in the sports, that he
+perspired from his whole body. There is another dance,
+called "Tklombo," performed in the presence of diseased
+persons whilst the quack doctor practises his deceptive
+remedies; and a third, called "Umduta," which is only
+practised at weddings and other festive occasions. This last
+seemed to be the most characteristic. The semi-nude, slender
+men hopped, their arms clung together, in ranks of six,
+hissing with scorn, occasionally uttering a cry, then
+suddenly separating and marching one after the other in slow
+time, in a circle, uttering the most singular sounds. Now
+they bent forward the whole upper part of the body, and then
+back again, each of them making the same violent gestures as
+in the former dance, and pronouncing some words to excite
+their companions, such as, "Be active!" "Be alert!" until
+they all trembled and became fearfully and feverishly
+excited. The surrounding Caffres, who were at first mere
+spectators, by degrees were seized with this singular
+dancing mania, till at last the entire number, as if stung
+by a tarantula, lashed themselves into a wild and apparently
+ungovernable frenzy. The great difference in the colour of
+the skin of these Caffres was particularly striking, as they
+evidently belong to one and the same race. From the
+blackness of coal to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span> bronze, all tints and shades were
+observed, and one of them, called "Ngduba" (Sea-shell),
+appeared to be even of a reddish yellow. He belonged to the
+tribe of the Fingoes, and said that both his parents were of
+the same colour.</p>
+
+<p>The governor permitted five young Caffres to be engaged on
+board the <i>Novara</i>, with their own consent, as apprentices,
+and although they were prisoners sentenced for several
+years, yet the Government took every care to secure their
+welfare. An agreement was signed to provide that their
+return, should they desire it, might be facilitated in every
+possible way. Faithful subjects could not be cared for with
+more anxiety than were these legally-sentenced Caffre
+prisoners by the colonial Government. Two of them went one
+day on shore, during our stay at Auckland, in New Zealand,
+and never came back; the other three made the whole voyage
+with the <i>Novara</i>, and are now sailors on board the imperial
+yacht <i>Fancy</i>. They, of course, understood, at their
+embarkation, only their own singular mother-tongue; yet the
+chaplain of the expedition, the Rev. E. Marochini, after
+having made himself acquainted with their idiom, succeeded
+in instructing these black youths, by means of their own
+language, in the doctrines of Christianity, and, by degrees,
+imparted some knowledge of the Italian and German languages,
+the happy results of these endeavours being a complete
+vocabulary and a small catechism in the Caffre language,
+which the reverend gentlemen composed during the voyage; and
+such progress did his three pupils make, that, on our return
+to Trieste, they were so far prepared as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> to be fit for
+reception, by baptism, into the Christian community.</p>
+
+<p>In the house of correction there were a number of female
+Caffres who had been made prisoners at the same time with
+their brothers and husbands, some belonging to the family of
+chiefs. One, the sister of the chieftain Sandilli, was a
+handsome, tall and slender woman, with mild features and
+piercing small black eyes; another, by the name of
+Mnovenkeli, the sister of the chieftain Mkoseni, was an
+imposing and earnest-looking figure. Several of these women
+bore a long stripe tattooed on their breasts as an ornament.
+Several were deficient of a little finger of the left hand:
+this mutilation is the effect of superstition, as it often
+occurs that, in case of the severe illness of the child, the
+distressed mother causes a finger of her offspring to be cut
+off and sacrificed to the evil spirit, in order that the
+rest of the body may be saved and permitted by the evil
+spirit to recover.</p>
+
+<p>One of these young Caffre women had her child wrapped up in
+a piece of linen tied to her back, and endeavoured to lull
+it to sleep by continually moving the left elbow, by which
+the baby was kept in a swinging motion, and an effect was
+produced like that of a cradle. Various questions were put,
+through an interpreter, to several of these females, who,
+after their timidity was overcome, answered with great
+readiness. Polygamy is said to prevail amongst them. Many
+women have from ten to twelve children. The children are
+suckled sometimes from two to three years. A numerous
+progeny is the pride of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span> family. As a proof of the
+legitimacy of a child, there is said to exist a kind of milk
+trial. Notwithstanding considerable trouble in endeavouring
+to procure information, we were unable to obtain a very
+lucid idea of this singular experiment: it consists in the
+father giving the infant, in the bottom of his hand,
+directly after its birth, some cow's milk to drink, and if
+the child refuses the draught it is considered illegitimate.
+Caffre women very rarely salute their husbands with a kiss,
+except after a long separation, and even then only on the
+cheek&mdash;never on the lips.</p>
+
+<p>In the ethnographical part a detailed description will be
+presented of this most peculiar race, of whom the Bushmen
+are evidently only a decrepid branch. Here it will suffice
+to observe that a girl, only sixteen years of age, was
+noticed, whose father was a degenerate Hottentot, and whose
+mother was a Bushwoman. The girl measured 4 feet 6 &frac12;
+inches, and weighed 75lbs. Another Bushwoman, thirty years
+of age, measured 4 feet 9 inches. All the individuals we saw
+of this race were remarkable for their exceedingly small
+hands and feet.</p>
+
+<p>One week of our stay at the Cape was devoted to an excursion
+into the interior. On the 1st October, early in the morning,
+we left Cape Town in a light two-wheeled vehicle, drawn by
+four horses&mdash;a turn-out which certainly seemed better suited
+for a drive in Hyde Park than a journey, however short, in
+South Africa: for who would suppose that the principal roads
+on the southernmost point of the most unknown quarter of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> globe, are, in consequence of English civilization and
+the geognostic nature of the ground, in a better condition
+than most bye-roads in the civilized states of Europe? For a
+country where labour is so deficient and expensive, such
+enormous works could only be executed by means of compulsory
+labour: in this respect the high-roads and mountain passes
+of the Cape afford the most evident proofs of how much more
+beneficially and usefully convicts may be employed in
+colonial works than in allowing them to rot within prison
+walls, alike a burden to themselves and to society.</p>
+
+<p>Only ten years ago the streets of Cape Town looked at least
+highly dangerous, and the steep rugged old roads, which
+sometimes run parallel with the new ones, evince very
+clearly the great difference between bygone days and the
+present, as regards the internal communications of the
+colony. The uncultivated state of the country formerly,
+which indeed, in some parts, continues even yet to exist, is
+the cause of the ancient custom having been retained of
+placing before every vehicle, however lightly laden, sixteen
+to twenty powerful oxen, even on perfectly level roads. All
+longer journeys into the interior are undertaken in heavy
+waggon-like vehicles, exclusively drawn by oxen. As a family
+is sometimes compelled to take up abode in such waggons for
+weeks together, they are completely covered and provided
+with all possible conveniences; indeed, it is a sort of
+locomotive house. The waggon, which much resembles the
+goods-trucks used on European railways, is at least 18 feet
+long, and the entire length of the set-out, including the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>
+oxen, embraces not less than from 120 to 180 feet. It may
+readily be imagined how such a custom impedes speedy
+intercourse, and how much more usefully a great part of the
+animal power might be employed. On the excursion from Cape
+Town to Stellenbosch, a small place only ten miles distant,
+we met more than 100 waggons, of which not one had less than
+ten, and many double that number of oxen, so that at least
+1500 heads of cattle were employed in a work which might
+easily have been performed by a third part of the number.</p>
+
+<p>The coachman was a Malay, and wore that singular
+screen-formed straw hat, which so peculiarly distinguishes
+the male population of his race. These men have the
+reputation of being particularly skilful drivers, and thus
+form a considerable portion of the coachmen of the place.
+The Malay driver had an assistant by his side, who seemed,
+however, chiefly to serve as ballast, in order that our
+two-wheeled vehicle might not lose its equilibrium; for the
+disconsolate condition of the horses rendered the fear of
+their running away quite superfluous. Our charioteer drove
+his horses, which now and then were rather restive, with so
+much adroitness, that we arrived as early as nine o'clock in
+that charming settlement Stellenbosch, which Wilkes, the
+American Commodore, even in 1839, designated as the
+loveliest and most beautiful in the whole colony. It has
+completely preserved the aspect of a little Dutch town; the
+streets are straight and wide, adorned with avenues of oaks,
+many centuries old; the houses are extremely tidy and clean,
+and are built in the genuine Dutch style. There is no trace
+of English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> influence perceptible. Its 4000 inhabitants
+mostly speak Dutch, and cultivate the vine, grain, and
+fruit. No country town seen in the whole course of our long
+voyage made a deeper impression, or left more pleasing
+recollections, than Stellenbosch. The occasion of our visit
+was certainly of an uncommonly cheerful and festive
+character. On the day of our arrival the Governor was about
+to review a corps of volunteers, raised in Cape Town and its
+neighbourhood, to supply the place of the regular troops
+about to be dispatched to the Indian battle-fields.
+Extraordinary enthusiasm and interest was manifested
+everywhere in the military movements. Thousands of visitors
+had assembled even from great distances to witness this
+novel national spectacle. The Governor had proclaimed the
+day as a general holiday; all shops were closed; the streets
+presented an extremely animated appearance, and in front of
+every house was a crowd. The Austrian Consul had been kind
+enough to favour us with a letter of introduction to one of
+the first families in the place; but, taking into
+consideration the general bustle and continual arrival of
+strangers, we were much afraid of being, at this moment,
+very unwelcome guests, as every nook and corner would
+already be occupied; for in this colony visitors do not
+come, as with us, for a short time, and without encumbrance,
+but with waggons, horses, servants, household and all,
+regularly to settle down for an indefinite period.</p>
+
+<p>Our own party consisted of five persons provided with four
+horses, and we were now, for want of other lodgings, about
+to claim the hospitality of Mynheer Van Schultze. A pretty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>
+youthful, rosy-cheeked lady, who appeared at the door,
+took&mdash;not without some embarrassment&mdash;our letter of
+introduction, and disappeared with it into the interior of
+the stately house. We were requested to enter, and were
+shown into a suite of very neat rooms, and were received,
+not merely with great politeness, but with the heartiest
+welcome.</p>
+
+<p>At ten o'clock we drove out with our hospitable friend,
+Mynheer Van Schultze, to the review, which took place on the
+common in the neighbourhood of the village. The number of
+spectators was probably twenty times greater than that of
+the volunteers; they had surrounded the ground with a wall
+of carriages, on the tops of which women and children were
+grouped in every picturesque attitude. The rifle volunteers
+marched, with the Governor, Sir George Grey, at their head,
+and preceded by a band, to the ground. There might have been
+about 300 cavalry and 200 infantry, with several pieces of
+artillery. They all looked very well; their uniform was
+plain and remarkably suitable for the purpose, consisting of
+tunics and trousers of black cloth with metal buttons, and a
+common cap with a silver ornament. They went through the
+usual man&oelig;uvres, whilst a good deal of gunpowder was
+expended. The evolutions of the cavalry were executed with
+wonderful precision, a result due chiefly to the
+circumstance that, at the Cape, every inhabitant is a good
+equestrian, and is trained from childhood to manage a horse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 686px;"><a name="illu276" id="illu276"></a>
+<img src="images/illu276.jpg" width="686" height="301" alt="Wealthy matrons among soldiers in large crowd outside the mansion." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RIFLE VOLUNTEER FÊTE AT STELLENBOSCH.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The review finished, a breakfast was served at the Drosdy,
+or Municipality, on long tables, in a magnificent avenue of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>
+oak trees; nearly 600 volunteers and many other guests sat
+down, whilst in the back-ground a large number of ladies and
+gentlemen were present as spectators. The presence of some
+members of the Novara Expedition at the festival led the
+Burgomaster, after the toast of the Queen was given, to
+propose the health of the Emperor of Austria, prefacing it
+with various laudatory remarks on the Expedition. The toast
+was most heartily received, the whole company raising their
+glasses, whilst the band performed the Austrian national
+anthem. The officer to whose lot it fell to return thanks,
+said:&mdash;"That he felt deeply gratified with the honour done
+to his country and nation by the enthusiasm with which the
+health of his sovereign had been received by so
+distinguished an assembly, and that he could not forbear
+expressing his admiration and delight in observing the
+prosperous condition of this fine country, which, like all
+others where the Anglo-Saxon race was predominant, was
+blessed with freedom, with the spirit of progress, and the
+blessings of Christianity;" and he concluded by proposing
+"Old England for ever."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the day after the review the journey was pursued early in
+the morning to the village of Paarl (Pearl), about four
+hours distant. We had come as strangers to the hospitable
+Stellenbosch, and left as old friends, the entire family
+accompanying us to the carriage, and the worthy old mother
+of our amiable host, a thoroughly genuine Dutch matron, was
+visibly touched on taking leave of those whom, in all
+probability, she would never see more.</p>
+
+<p>On the route to Paarl several immensely large ant-hills were
+met with, some of which measured from two to two-and-a-half
+feet in diameter, by about three feet high. The insects were
+partly black and partly of a greyish-brown colour, and must
+be very troublesome to the farmers.</p>
+
+<p>Paarl, an extremely neat village, consists of a single long
+street, and contains nearly 4000 inhabitants, chiefly
+occupied in the growth of the vine. They are the descendants
+of those French Protestants who, at the close of the 17th
+century, left their native country in consequence of
+religious persecution. All the detached farm-yards were
+extremely neat, and bore evidence of the wealth of their
+owners. Nothing reminds one of Africa and the neighbourhood
+of Hottentots, Bushmen, or Caffres. The landscape becomes
+grander the more the mountains, 4000 to 5000 feet high, are
+approached. Among them lies the little town of Wellington,
+charmingly situated; though but a few years in existence,
+and numbering only 2000 inhabitants, it has already a
+joint-stock bank with a capital of £45,000, several schools,
+and some neat places of worship.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> While taking an evening
+stroll, we passed a well-lighted Reformed Dutch Church, from
+the interior of which the devotional tones of a pious
+Christian congregation floating through the night air, died
+away among the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Singular to say, the small, and, one would think,
+essentially prosaic and practical little town of Wellington
+boasts a quack doctor, named Brabna, whom the common people,
+far and near, come to consult, more, one would imagine, to
+be relieved of their money than their ailments.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;"><a name="illu278" id="illu278"></a>
+<img src="images/illu278.jpg" width="507" height="581" alt="Under the whip, oxen drag a wagon up a steep hill." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PAINE&#39;S KLOEF AS IT WAS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 508px;"><a name="illu279" id="illu279"></a>
+<img src="images/illu279.jpg" width="508" height="569" alt="Slope moderated as result of major earth-moving." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PAINE&#39;S KLOEF AS IT IS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The route to Worcester, whither we set out the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>
+morning, leads at first through the wide, highly-cultivated
+Waggonmakers' Valley, adorned with numbers of rich
+farm-steads (so named from a number of artisans of this
+handicraft having settled here in former times), after which
+it passes over the difficult pass called Paine's Kloef, 4000
+feet high, which frequently recalled the well-known road
+over the Sömmering Alp, or that at Optschina. This
+mountain-pass, first completed in 1853, by the engineer, Mr.
+Paine, greatly facilitates the traffic between Cape Town and
+this fertile district, which previously was quite
+inaccessible, and whose immense natural resources are only
+now beginning to be developed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When we reached the highest point of the pass we found a
+strong south-east wind blowing. The thermometer marked 55°
+F., and when plunged in a spring that issued from the
+mountain close at hand, 48°. South-east winds are especially
+prevalent here, particularly in summer, when they frequently
+cause serious damage; hence all the upper branches of the
+trees incline to the north-west.</p>
+
+<p>We now came to the finest bridge in the country, named
+Darling Bridge, after a late governor, which is thrown
+across the broad stream called by the Dutch, Breede River,
+and by the English, Broad River, a frequent source of error.
+The English colonists are bent upon driving out the Dutch
+names of rivers and localities, and supplying them with new
+names of English origin. The Dutch, however, hold on
+obstinately to the names they have been accustomed to, and
+continue to use the ancient nomenclature.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of Darling Bridge is a farm where the
+traveller can be comfortably accommodated, and from which,
+being a post-station, letters can be forwarded to all parts
+of the country. It has regular communication with the rest
+of the colony three times a week. The vehicle, however, in
+which the letters and packets are forwarded, in consequence
+of the wretched roads in the interior, and with the view of
+expediting the transmission of mail matter, is simply a
+light, open, eminently uncomfortable, two-wheel waggon, in
+which but one passenger can be taken each trip. Day and
+night, up hill and down dale, it continues its journey,
+changing driver and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> horses every two hours, only the
+unfortunate passenger being condemned to remain glued to the
+jolting uncomfortable car, until he has attained the end of
+his journey. We were told of an English captain, who once
+travelled on urgent business 400 miles in fifty hours in
+this fashion, and arrived at his destination in such a
+pitiable plight, that he had to be lifted from the car and
+put to bed forthwith, which he kept for several weeks,
+before he was able to get about again. Unfortunately, we
+were not told whether this unlucky passenger returned to
+Cape Town by a similar conveyance.</p>
+
+<p>In the dining-room of the farm we made acquaintance with
+several families from Graaf Reinet, in the north of the
+colony, who were <i>en route</i> for Cape Town, and had been
+already three weeks on the road, during which they must have
+passed every night in their unwieldy waggon, or under tents.
+There was also among the assembled travellers a Quaker
+Missionary, of Worcester, who was on his way to the opening
+of the Spiritual Synod at Cape Town, and who was so kind as
+to furnish us, on the spot, with some introductions to his
+friends in Worcester, a lovely little town, which we reached
+towards the evening. There are places which charm at the
+first glance, just as there are many men who take us by
+storm as it were. Worcester is one of these; so neat, so
+clean, with a pretty garden in front of each little house,
+every wall of which was entwined with roses, and in the
+back-ground all around, bare, but picturesque groups of
+lofty hills of a blueish-grey tint, which imparted to the
+entire landscape a peculiar and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> almost magical colouring.
+Worcester, a creation of yesterday, has about 4500
+inhabitants, chiefly employed in vine growing and sheep
+pasture. There are some of the peasantry here who own flocks
+of 3000 to 4000 sheep! The rich vegetation of the valley has
+an eminently northern character. Alongside of oaks, pines,
+poplars, willows, will appear a tree of Australian origin,
+of the order of Myrtaceæ, the blue gum-tree (<i>Eucalyptus
+Globulus</i>), which, on account of its rapid growth, is
+planted before each door for the purpose of shade. One of
+these trees was shown to us of but four years' growth, the
+stem of which was already twenty feet high! The leaves have
+a highly aromatic odour, and must be especially suitable for
+the extraction of oil, as the rind is full of camphor; as
+yet, however, the tree is not used by the colonists for any
+other purpose than to supply shade to their gardens.</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising what comfort the traveller encounters among
+these new settlements, from which, even already, all traces
+have been eradicated of the difficulties that originally
+beset the colonist; so that at every turn one meets with
+evidences of the highest European civilization. Whenever,
+indeed, he finds himself at a settlement, he will remark
+that it is not merely provided with the necessaries of life,
+or the mere products of the soil, but that it sparkles with
+numerous objects of luxury and refined taste; such as
+handsome furniture, pianos, and other musical instruments,
+engravings, English classics, besides telescopes,
+barometers, thermometers, and other similar evidences of
+high cultivation. At the hotel at Worcester, we met<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> with a
+degree of comfort such as is found only in the chief cities
+of Europe. Several of the inhabitants, among others Dr.
+Esselin, a missionary of the Moravian brotherhood, and Dr.
+Meynard, of the Episcopal Church, laid us under particular
+obligations by their participation in the objects of our
+inquiry. The latter gentleman sought us out at our hotel,
+and, after a hearty welcome, remarked that he possessed, in
+his collection, several highly interesting petrifactions
+from Beaufort, about 400 miles north-west of Worcester. We
+satisfied ourselves, however, by a visit which we paid to
+Dr. Meynard at his own house, that his collection was far
+from possessing the interest he claimed for it. In all
+probability, however, judging by what we heard, Beaufort
+must be a classic soil for the palæontologist, as there are
+numberless fossils in that district, especially of reptiles.
+In like manner, the stalactite grottoes, known as "The Congo
+Caves," 300 miles from Worcester, have never yet been
+scientifically examined or described.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Esselin, who is a native of Hesse, was so kind as to
+accompany the naturalists of the Novara Expedition to the
+hot springs of Brand Vley the following morning. The road
+thither, which lies through a valley partly overflowed
+towards the end of the rainy season, was exceedingly trying
+to the horses, and, but for the kind offices of Dr. Esselin,
+who was acquainted with the difficulties of the route, and
+undertook the guidance of the waggon through the constantly
+recurring swamps and morasses, we should in all probability
+have had to retrace our steps halfway, or even have stuck
+fast, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> would have been a still more serious matter.
+Only after unspeakable exertions did we succeed in threading
+the valley of Worcester as far as the shores of Breede (or
+Broad) River. Several times we were compelled, in order to
+lighten the waggon, to dismount, and wade up to our knees in
+water. Once the quag was so deep, that to avoid sinking in
+it we had to be carried, one by one, on the back of our
+Malay driver.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 683px;"><a name="illu284" id="illu284"></a>
+<img src="images/illu284.jpg" width="683" height="301" alt="Trying to right a wagon capsized at a river crossing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CROSSING THE BREEDE RIVER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the bank is the cottage, (<i>boeren plaats</i>), of a peasant
+who avails himself of his proximity to convert the stream
+into a source of profit, by ferrying travellers, who have
+occasion to pass here during the floods, across the river in
+a small skiff, the waggon and horses being swum across
+afterwards. In summer, on the contrary, the stream is
+readily forded on horseback, and is indeed dry at several
+points. At the period of our visit (in October, 1857),
+towards the end of the rainy season, this Breede River was
+about 150 feet wide, and about 28 feet deep, and we
+accordingly found ourselves compelled to call in the
+assistance of the ferryman. Under his superintendence the
+work was gone about quite systematically. First of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> the
+four horses were swum across, by a halter round the neck;
+after which the luggage was transported to the opposite bank
+in a small boat. Last of all came the waggon, with the
+travellers therein. It was thought that the upper portion of
+the waggon might be towed across, swimming on the surface of
+the water, by fastening an empty water-tight cask between
+the wheels; the cask, however, proved unequal to the weight.
+As the waggon left the shore it sank deeper and deeper in
+the water, till about mid-current it fairly capsized, hardly
+a spoke of the left wheel reaching the opposite bank.</p>
+
+<p>Amidst our perplexities, a violent shower of rain came on,
+making the waggon leak in every corner, just as we
+succeeded, after great trouble, in getting it to land, and
+were busy repairing it. Fortunately, every requisite
+precaution had been taken to remedy any such disaster
+occurring at this dangerous spot; so that the whole affair,
+though sufficiently uncomfortable at the time, left only the
+recollection of a pleasant adventure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 682px;"><a name="illu285" id="illu285"></a>
+<img src="images/illu285.jpg" width="682" height="269" alt="Springs with a dam; almost a river." title="" />
+<span class="caption">HOT SPRINGS OF BRAND VLEY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At last, towards noon, we reached the hot springs of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> Brand
+Vley, or Brand Valley. This hot spring, which is quite
+exposed, like a pond or tank, and even at the least
+accessible points is adorned with rich vegetation, is about
+100 feet in circumference, and is of a triangular shape,
+rounded off at the corners. Among bananas, ferns, and cacti
+of all sorts, spring up numerous specimens of <i>Calla
+Ethioptica</i>, silver poplars, pines, reeds, and canes, in
+wild profusion. Many fruits even, such as pine-apples,
+mangoes, rose apples, &amp;c., which as a rule do not flourish
+at this elevation, grew all round the edges of the basin.
+Some twigs of a rose tree, which, growing luxuriantly in the
+warmth and moisture, spread across the spring, like a green
+canopy, must have been a second growth of the same year. We
+in fact enjoyed the unusual spectacle of seeing one portion
+of the tree in the flush of its utmost beauty, while the
+upper and more distant branches had not as yet put forth
+their leaves. The water at the hottest point reached 145°
+F., while the temperature of the air was 75° F. It is
+remarkably clear, has not the slightest taste, and in many
+particulars greatly resembles the springs of Wildbad
+Gastein. The number of patients during the season (October
+to April) does not exceed from 100 to 150, the waters being
+chiefly used in chronic maladies, rheumatic affections,
+scrofula, erysipelas, cutaneous eruptions, and similar
+complaints. Immediately adjoining is a small brook, with a
+temperature of 68° F., which rises at the foot of a
+neighbouring eminence, and has water enough during the
+entire year to keep a mill in constant work.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The only animal inhabiting the spring is the larva of a
+<i>Tipularia</i>, which frequents one quarter of the pool where
+the temperature of the water does not exceed 113°.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of August, 1857, two shocks of an earthquake
+were felt in rapid succession in Brand Valley, of such
+violence as to arouse the inhabitants out of their sleep,
+when several of the smaller houses were found to have rents
+and fissures in their walls. The proprietor of the bath
+alleged that the shocks in Brand Valley were much more
+severe than at Worcester, although that town is but six
+miles distant.</p>
+
+<p>At Brand Valley we took leave of our hospitable companion,
+Dr. Esselin, who presented us with several books on leaving,
+and set out on an excursion to the mission of the Moravian
+Brethren in Genaaden Dal, in the district of Caledon. <i>En
+route</i> we encountered several families, who came from far in
+the interior of Cape Colony, driving before them enormous
+herds of oxen, some of which were yoked to the waggons that
+formed the caravan, these being fitted up something like
+dwelling-houses on wheels. As night fell, a halt would be
+called at some selected spot, when the draught oxen were
+unharnessed, a fire lit in the open air, and the evening
+repast prepared. Horses are very rarely used on long
+journeys, although these are in consequence seriously
+lengthened thereby, especially as it is the custom all over
+the country to unyoke every two or three hours, so as to
+allow the beasts to enjoy a roll on the ground, if only for
+a few minutes at a time.</p>
+
+<p>As neither of our drivers was acquainted with the road we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>
+were now to pursue, we hired a black guide from Brand
+Valley, who accompanied us on horseback as far as the next
+farm-house, where we were to pass the night. Just as one
+requires a pilot to take a ship into an insecure or unknown
+harbour, so we now had to avail ourselves of the services of
+this limber young negro, who was an excellent rider, in
+piloting us through the endless morasses and pools of water.
+Renden was the name of the solitary farm (the property of
+Mr. Pretorius, a landed proprietor, to whom we had letters
+of introduction), where we were to pass the night.</p>
+
+<p>As we approached, we were saluted with the loud barking of a
+hound that had been unchained, and who seemed ready to rush
+upon his unexpected prey, so that we hardly dared to advance
+one step. At last a man made his appearance at the door of
+the house, with a lantern in his hand, speedily followed by
+the whole family, anxious to learn who could be in the
+neighbourhood at so late an hour. We handed him the letter,
+which we begged him to read, and requested to know whether
+we could be received for the night. We were at once
+admitted, and speedily found a most cordial welcome. We were
+shown into apartments very plainly furnished, but neat, and
+scrupulously clean, after which we were invited to join the
+household at supper. It was a very numerous family. The
+father and mother, genuine Dutch figures, sat at the head of
+a long table; next to whom sat the son-in-law, who had
+married the eldest daughter, and then commingled with each
+other, the sons and daughters that were as yet unmarried.
+They all seemed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> hearty and healthy, and their indurated
+hands were the best diploma of their industry. The youngest
+son said a short prayer; after which venison, potatoes,
+mutton, vegetables, bread, butter, and cheese were set down
+in huge dishes, besides which two bottles of Cape wine, of
+their own manufacture, went the round of the table. Although
+this place had been only settled four years previously, an
+immense deal had been already accomplished by this stirring,
+cheerful family to make the soil thoroughly productive, and
+render the house habitable. Even a small garden had been
+laid out in front of the dwelling-house.</p>
+
+<p>The chief article of cultivation in the valley is the grape,
+for wine manufacture, which must in this place return a very
+handsome profit.</p>
+
+<p>From Renden to Genaaden Dal is a four-hours' journey. The
+road passes by Donker's Hoek, a tolerably high mountain, to
+ascend the summit of which cost our horses some strenuous
+exertion, although we marched a considerable distance on
+foot. A wide belt of sandstone formation presented a
+marvellous display of flowers, and gave us in little an idea
+of the South African Karroos, a series of terraced
+clay-patches, estimated at from 3000 to 4000 feet high,
+which, hard and steppe-like in the dry season, are speedily
+transformed in the rainy season into smiling,
+flower-bespangled plains, quite sponge-like under foot, and
+rich in alkaline products.<a name="Anchor-52" id="Anchor-52"></a><a href="#Footnote-52" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 52.">[52]</a> We advanced some six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> hours
+before reaching another farm-house. This was known as Kleene
+Islea Plaats (Little Island Farm), near which flows the
+Zonderend River (River Without End), the property of a kind
+and hospitable family of French extraction, whose parents
+emigrated hither from France during the revolution in 1793.
+As it was Sunday, the servants had gone to church, so they
+could only offer us cold mutton, syrup, butter, and bread.
+Before and after our repast, the devout old lady of the
+house put up a short petition.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-52" id="Footnote-52"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-52">[52]</a> The English appellation "Karroo" seems to be
+derived from <i>Karusa</i>, signifying "hard" in the Hottentot
+language, and to refer to a quality appertaining to the
+clayey substance of which these terraces are composed, by
+virtue of which the red clay, strongly impregnated with
+iron, and mixed with sand, becomes in the dry season as hard
+as burnt clay.</p></div>
+
+<p>Here, too, we remarked that those born in the country of
+European parents are called Africans: only the English form
+an exception to this rule, and remain with persistent
+patriotic obstinacy, "Englishmen."</p>
+
+<p>The journey from Kleene Islea Plaats to Genaaden Dal is
+extremely picturesque. One first catches sight of this
+retired Moravian settlement only when actually entering the
+place itself, embowered as it is among lofty trees. What a
+surprise, when, still fancying one's self at a considerable
+distance from the village, on reaching the end of a
+beautiful valley at the entrance to Bavian's Kloef, one
+sweeps by a circuit into the very heart of the settlement.
+We alighted at what is called "The Lodgment," a house set
+apart for visitors, and conducted by a brother, in
+conformity with the laws of the community.</p>
+
+<p>The dwellings of the Hottentots lie scattered among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>
+rising grounds in the neighbourhood, and with their
+poverty-stricken aspect impart a somewhat melancholy
+impression. These are built of loam, low in the roof, as
+though intended for a stunted race of men, and rarely have
+windows, so that the door is, generally speaking, the
+largest aperture in the entire building. Our Malay driver
+laughed at them, and called them <i>oete kripp</i> (oxen stalls).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"><a name="illu291" id="illu291"></a>
+<img src="images/illu291.jpg" width="399" height="280" alt="Thatched huts with plastered walls." title="" />
+<span class="caption">HOTTENTOT HUTS AT GENAADENDAL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There seem to be three distinct kinds of these dwellings,
+which apparently indicate so many grades of social and
+pecuniary consideration among the resident Hottentot
+families. The first sort, which consists simply of a single
+apartment, serving at once for kitchen, work-shop, and
+sleeping place, and receiving air and light through a
+narrow, low-pitched door-way, is that most usually met with,
+and may not unaptly be compared to a bee-hive. The next
+class is of a better description, and may at once and
+definitely be distinguished from the first-mentioned, in so
+far as it possesses a second room, which, if dark and
+windowless, is at any rate partitioned off, and serves as a
+sleeping apartment. Finally, the third kind, which can only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>
+be said to be the least poor-looking, consists of one large,
+almost empty chamber, for occupation during the day, with
+wings on either side, one of which is used as a kitchen, the
+other as a bed-room. The wretched ventilation, and damp,
+moist location of these habitations, combined with the bad
+quality of food, may be regarded as the main causes of the
+unfavourable state of health of the coloured portion of the
+inhabitants of Genaaden Dal, among whom, especially as
+regards the female portion, pulmonary complaints are rife.</p>
+
+<p>We were provided with letters of introduction to the
+Superintendent of the Community, Dr. Köbling, as also to the
+Physician and Pharmaceutist, Dr. Roser, a Würtemberger by
+birth, and experienced a most cordial reception. We availed
+ourselves of the last hours of declining day to make an
+excursion to the hills, in the country immediately adjacent,
+so as to command at a glance the entire colony. The
+principal buildings, the Church, the school, the workshops,
+the warehouses, and the dwellings of the missionaries, are
+assembled in a quadrangular open place, to which a number of
+lofty, massive, leafy, venerable oaks impart a sombre, but
+poetical, appearance, eminently characteristic of the
+community. All the buildings are of a uniform dingy-grey
+tint. Close in the rear of these buildings is a large
+garden, which reaches as far as what is called "Bavian's
+Kloef" (defile), in which, even at present, apes, antelopes,
+and zebras, abound. Near the kitchen-garden is the cemetery
+of the community, which seems to be used by meditative
+brethren as a favourite resort and promenade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This settlement, situated at the entrance of a mountain
+defile, at the foot of an immense sandstone range, of from
+3000 to 4000 feet high, was founded in the year 1787, by a
+brother of the persuasion, named George Schmidt, from
+Moravia, who settled fifty-five miles east of Cape Town,
+near Sargent's River, with a number of Hottentots, whom he
+began to convert to Christianity, and called the station
+"Bavian's Kloef." From the year 1806, the settlement assumed
+the beautiful name of "Genaaden Dal" (Vale of Benevolence),
+so exquisitely correspondent with the benevolent exertions
+of the brotherhood. It at present numbers 3100 souls, mostly
+a race crossed between Hottentots and Mozambique negroes, of
+the latter of whom a considerable number have settled here
+since the Slave Emancipation Act of 1826. The settlers are
+partly proprietors of the land, partly artisans, cutlers,
+waggon-makers, tanners, carpenters, millers, &amp;c. In the
+workshops the most exemplary cleanliness and neatness are
+imperatively insisted on. At the Great Exhibition, held in
+London in 1851, the wood-work of the Hottentot carpenters of
+Genaaden Dal received "Honourable Mention," and this elegant
+testimonial in recognition of their efforts now hangs,
+framed and glazed, in the library hall of the community. It
+somewhat surprised us that the cutlers did not receive, in
+their section, a similar distinction, since, in that
+department of industry, the Hottentots produce articles,
+which, so far as concerns quality and cheapness, are really
+astounding. The workpeople receive a fixed weekly payment,
+which they may expend as they please. The net proceeds,
+however, of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span> various articles manufactured belong to the
+community, and are expended in defraying the expenses of,
+and supporting, the mission. The inhabitants of Genaaden Dal
+are closely connected, by religious ties, with the
+community; and only those who profess the principles of the
+Moravian brotherhood are permitted to settle among them.</p>
+
+<p>The field-labourers, who hire themselves out to labour
+elsewhere, are frequently absent from the settlement for
+months at a time, and return to Genaaden Dal immediately
+after the completion of seed-time or harvest. It is
+significant that these labourers regard this period of
+emancipation, as a sort of relaxation from the severe
+discipline and rules to which they are subjected in the
+religious community.</p>
+
+<p>The principal articles of food of the inhabitants consist of
+maize, beans, pumpkins, rice, fruits, tea, coffee, and
+occasionally mutton. Wine is strictly prohibited throughout
+the settlement, and when a member of the <i>Novara</i>
+Expedition, never imagining that this interdict extended to
+strangers as well, desired the attendant at the house we
+were occupying to fetch a bottle of sherry, that individual
+regarded him with as horror-stricken an air as though he had
+asked him to participate in some crime.</p>
+
+<p>Although the first settlers in Genaaden Dal were pure
+Hottentots, not more than five or six at present speak the
+idiom of their fathers, the rest knowing only the Dutch
+tongue. The Superintendent had the kindness to allow an old
+blind man, of the name of Sebastian Hendrik, to be presented
+to us, born in the colony in 1775, of Hottentot parents,
+"<i>een opregt Hottentot</i>"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span> (an out-and-out Hottentot), as he
+called himself, and who still could speak a number of
+phrases in his mother tongue, with its extraordinary
+"clicking" sounds; but, on the other hand, no longer had the
+slightest recollection of the customs, usages, or proverbs
+of that nation to which he belonged by birth. In the library
+of the community, where this conversation took place, there
+were also shown to us numerous sketches by Hottentot and
+Caffre lads, which gave great hope of future excellence. It
+is an especially gratifying indication of intellectual
+progress, that several works of natural history are to be
+found on the shelves of the library.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 688px;"><a name="illu295" id="illu295"></a>
+<img src="images/illu295.jpg" width="688" height="425" alt="Well-built buildings amid trees." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHURCH AND MISSION HOUSES OF THE MORAVIAN
+SETTLEMENT AT GENAADENDAL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We also found time to listen to the singing in the church,
+quite a plain wooden building, erected in 1800, with
+white-washed walls, a spacious gallery, and an elegant
+organ, the gift of a benevolent lady of Hamburg, who spent
+some months<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> of the year 1843 at Cape Town in search of
+health, and took an opportunity of visiting the Moravian
+brethren at Genaaden Dal. One of the missionaries sat in the
+middle of the chapel at a table covered with green cloth,
+and gave out, verse by verse, a hymn in the Dutch language,
+which was afterwards sung, with accompaniment by the organ,
+by the entire community assemble in the edifice. The men and
+women sat apart from each other, on smooth wooden benches,
+the former on the left, the latter on the right of the
+officiating minister. The chapel was only illuminated with a
+few tallow candles; but the devotional feeling of the
+community seemed to gain by this simple unostentatious
+ritual, and the mysterious solemn obscurity of their place
+of congregational worship.</p>
+
+<p>Next morning, 12th October, some of the brethren paid us the
+attention of examining in our presence the scholars of the
+Seminary for Teachers, so that we might personally satisfy
+ourselves of their progress in the various branches of
+education. This academy for the education of suitable
+instructors, was originally established in 1838, through the
+generous assistance of a Saxon nobleman, Count Schönburg,
+and year by year since, has been so liberally assisted by
+that benevolent nobleman, that its future prosperity seems
+fairly established. At present there are in the seminary 14
+pupils (Hottentots, Caffres, and half-breeds). Since the
+year of its establishment, 50 young persons in all have been
+sent out hence; of whom, however, only one half proved to be
+available for the duties of teachers. Up to the year 1856,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span>
+twenty-two pupils were already at work in the service of the
+community, fourteen had been rejected as unsuitable, and
+fourteen were still in the institute. They entered at from
+ten to fifteen years of age, remained within its walls six
+years for instruction, when they were clothed and
+maintained, and thereafter, without further obligations to
+the society which had educated them, were dispatched into
+the most remote districts of the colony as teachers and
+apostles of Christianity. The examination of the pupils of
+the seminary took place at the Library Hall, which boasts a
+portrait of a highly meritorious brother, the venerable C.
+J. Latrobe, who, in the year 1815-16, visited South Africa
+as a missionary, and, two years later published, in London,
+his very remarkable book of travels. The examination
+commenced with a performance on the piano by a Mestizo lad
+of about sixteen, son of a Mulatto father by a Hottentot
+mother. This youth displayed a decided talent for music,
+coupled with truly admirable execution; and besides the
+piano, played the organ, the violin, and the violoncello.
+Next, a variety of questions in geography and history were
+put to the pupils present. These consisted chiefly of easy
+intelligible questions, principally relating to England.
+Those examined were surprisingly well acquainted with the
+history of Liverpool, London, Manchester, Dublin, &amp;c., and
+could enumerate many particulars about the Thames and
+Westminster Abbey. What proved most disagreeable, was the
+singular custom that prevailed, of all the pupils answering
+at once, each hoping, by out-clamouring his fellow, to prove
+his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span> intimate acquaintance with the subject under
+discussion. The examiner, for example, put a question to a
+scholar, whereupon all the pupils yelled out the reply in
+chorus. But it was, on the whole, astonishing, and indeed
+eminently suggestive, to hear Hottentots, Caffres, and
+negroes, at the extreme southernmost part of Africa,
+speaking of England, and her influence over the destinies of
+humanity, as a commercial, maritime, and industrial power.
+Already the youth of the settlement are thoroughly
+interpenetrated with esteem and affection for the mother
+country and its mighty people. As a <i>finale</i>, the assembled
+pupils sang a Dutch <i>Bergmann's Gruss</i>, "The Miner's
+Welcome," and one of Mendelssohn's delightful songs.</p>
+
+<p>Before we quitted Genaaden Dal we breakfasted with the
+missionaries. They are all married, and manage their
+households in common, and accordingly partake of their
+various meals together, each with his family, all seated at
+one table, one of their wives attending to change dishes and
+wait at the table. Nowhere are any particular qualifications
+to be remarked, and it is difficult to conceive more
+thorough harmony than exists among the unpretending, yet
+zealously religious missionaries of Genaaden Dal.</p>
+
+<p>As we were preparing for our departure, Dr. Roser
+unexpectedly packed up a number of objects of natural
+history and scientific interest, which he kindly presented
+to the Imperial expedition as a <i>souvenir</i> of Genaaden Dal.
+Besides these, there were also given to us two valuable
+little books,&mdash;one a small work upon the Nicobar Islands,
+written about the beginning of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> this century by a Moravian
+brother of the name of Gottfried Hensel; the other a
+treatise composed by the excellent Dr. Roser himself, upon
+the pharmaceutics and natural history of Genaaden Dal. With
+respect to the various substances chewed as stimulants, or
+intoxicants, by the Hottentots, in order to deprive
+themselves of sensation, or rouse themselves to a state of
+high excitability, we found the following particulars in
+this interesting essay. That most in use is composed of the
+bruised leaves of the "<i>Leonotis Leonurus</i>." This plant,
+which grows in great quantity in and beyond the Genaaden
+Dal, is called by the natives "Dagga," as also frequently,
+"Tacha or Takka," and this variation in pronunciation is
+very probably the reason that we find in Berghaus's "<i>Völker
+des Erdballs</i>" (Races of the Globe), this celebrated
+smoke-weed, marked as "Donha." What the same author says of
+certain stimulating properties of the plant may well be
+considered as an exaggeration. It is curious how the
+properties of this plant seem to be inextricably mingled
+with the destinies of the Hottentots. In many places it has
+been extirpated, in order more readily to wean the
+aborigines from the practice of chewing: at other places
+again, "<i>Leonotis Leonurus</i>" is expressly planted in order
+to attract the Hottentots, and so supply any deficiency in
+hands for labour, reckless of the moral consequences.
+Another narcotic, and the most widely prevalent, is the wild
+hemp (<i>Canabis Sativa</i>), the dried leaves of which are
+smoked by the natives. Dr. Juritz, one of the most
+respectable apothecaries in Cape Town, assured us he had
+been compelled, during a previous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> residence at
+Stellenbosch, where he was engaged in his business, to keep
+always on hand in his store a large quantity of wild hemp
+for sale to the natives.</p>
+
+<p>The poison with which the Bushmen tip their arrows,
+rendering them such dangerous and terrible weapons, is
+extracted from the "<i>Cestrum venenatum</i>."<a name="Anchor-53" id="Anchor-53"></a><a href="#Footnote-53" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 53.">[53]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-53" id="Footnote-53"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-53">[53]</a> The Dyaks of Borneo poison their arrows with
+the juice of <i>Strychnos Tieuté</i> and <i>Antiaris Toxicaria</i>
+(Upas).</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the animal products of Genaaden Dal of importance in a
+scientific point of view is Hyrazeuma, a substance obtained
+from the urine of the Cape Marmot (<i>Hyrax Capensis</i>). It is
+of a dark-brown colour, somewhat tenacious, and nearly hard,
+of a very penetrating odour, and is found in cavities
+resembling a molehill. This article is made use of with much
+effect in hysterical complaints by the Hottentots. Dr. Roser
+is of opinion, that this Cape Marmot is in all probability
+the same animal which Martin Luther, in Leviticus, c. xi, v.
+5, and Proverbs, c. xxx, v. 26, has translated by the word
+"<i>kaninchen</i>" (conies).</p>
+
+<p>On our way from Genaaden Dal to Caledon, to which there is
+an excellent level road, we perceived a large number of
+silver poplars, with pendent nests of finches. On a single
+tree we counted more than forty such pendent nests,
+constructed in a very singular manner.</p>
+
+<p>Caledon is a cheerful, ambitious little town, important as
+the centre of the wool trade, as also for the thermal
+springs in the neighbourhood. These, situated about two
+English miles outside<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span> the town, on a rising ground, in a
+romantic and highly attractive neighbourhood, are
+impregnated with iron, and of a considerable temperature.
+Even in the bath-house, distant about a mile from the source
+of the spring, a thermometer held in a stone trough, filled
+to overflowing, marked from 100°·4 to 104° Fahr. At their
+respective sources the one spring has a temperature of
+116°·6 Fahr. and the other 114°·8 Fahr. The colour of the
+water is ochre yellow. From the terrace of the bath-house a
+rather extensive landscape opens to the view, backed by a
+splendid range of mountains, including the Tower of Babel,
+as the inhabitants have christened the highest peak in this
+vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>Caledon has 600 inhabitants. About twenty years ago there
+were not more than ten bales of wool grown in the entire
+district. At present about 800,000 lbs. are shipped
+annually. One Merino sheep supplies from 1 lb. to 1&frac12; lb.
+of wool, worth from 1<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> sterling per
+pound. Besides Caledon, the principal wool districts of Cape
+Colony are Swellendam, Beaufort, and Graaf-Reinet. All these
+districts united produce yearly about 15,000,000 lbs. of
+wool, worth about <i>£</i>1,000,000 sterling. Within two years
+the wool produce of the entire colony has increased 30 per
+cent., and during last year a strenuous and very costly
+experiment has been made to introduce the Angora breed, with
+the intention of increasing the wool-producing powers of the
+less fleecy race by a judicious cross with the native
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The road to Somerset-West leads over the high and
+picturesque<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> Hauw-Hoek Pass and Sir Lowry's Pass; the latter
+is very steep, and parts of it are hardly, if at all,
+inferior in extent and variety of landscape to those
+presented by the Styrian Alps. At the culminating point of
+the latter pass, which surpasses even Paine's Kloef in
+height and width, one stands as upon the ruins of a lofty
+tower, from which the eye can range at will over the entire
+country beneath. South-east and eastward towers the
+Hauw-Hoek Pass, while southwards and westwards the charming
+Lowry's Vale, and far in the distance the smiling settlement
+of Somerset-West come into view, while all around, farther
+than the eye can reach, are luxuriant pasturages, that only
+wait to be settled and cultivated in order to produce
+magnificent returns.</p>
+
+<p>Somerset-West, a prettily-built, and very charmingly
+situated settlement, already supports so considerable a
+traffic with the capital that a daily omnibus has proved a
+remunerative speculation to the promoters.</p>
+
+<p>We now proceeded to Zandvliet, the property of one of the
+oldest and most highly considered families in the colony,
+named Cloete, where we spent the night. With these genial
+kindly people we soon felt ourselves as entirely at home as
+if with our own families; we sang, laughed, and frolicked,
+till far into the night.</p>
+
+<p>The following morning we drove to a hill, about a mile and a
+half distant from Zandvliet, known as Macassar Downs, on
+which is the spot of interment, (Krammat or Brammat), of a
+Malay prophet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 502px;"><a name="illu303" id="illu303"></a>
+<img src="images/illu303.jpg" width="502" height="585" alt="A long stairway up to a big tomb on the hilltop." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TOMB OF A MALAY PROPHET AT ZANDVLIET.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This individual, so honoured in death, was, if we are to
+believe the Malays, a direct descendant of Mahomet, named
+Sheikh Joseph, who, expelled from Batavia by the Dutch
+Government for political reasons, settled in the colony
+about a century and a half ago, and died and was buried in
+the neighbourhood of Zandvliet. An especial deputation came
+over from Malacca to Cape Colony to fetch away the corpse of
+the defunct prophet, for conveyance to the land of his
+birth; but at the disinterment it happened that the little
+finger of the prophet, in spite of the most persevering
+research, could nowhere be found. This circumstance appeared
+to those simple believers sufficient reason for erecting a
+monument<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> over the spot in which the finger of a Malay
+prophet lay hid from view. Even to this day the Malays from
+time to time perform a pilgrimage to the Colony and
+celebrate their religious ceremonies at the Mausoleum. Four
+followers of the prophet are buried with him, two of them
+Mahometan priests, who are regarded with much veneration by
+the Malays. An extensive flight of stone steps leads to the
+tomb, the exterior of which is very insignificant, and, but
+for a small pointed turret, hardly differs from an ordinary
+dwelling-house. On entering, a low-roofed vault is visible,
+a sort of front outhouse, which rather disfigures the
+façade, and much more resembles a cellar than the portal of
+a Mausoleum. Above the arch of this vault an Arabic
+inscription has been engraved with a stylus; but this is so
+painted over in brick colour that it has already become
+almost illegible. Judging by the few words that have been
+deciphered, it seems to consist of the first propositions of
+the Koran.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"><a name="illu305" id="illu305"></a>
+<img src="images/illu305.jpg" width="352" height="280" alt="Interior of the mausoleum." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The inner room, provided on two sides with modern glazed
+windows at irregular intervals, is about the size of an
+ordinary room of 12 feet long, 9 wide, and 7 high. In the
+middle rises the monument, to which access is had by some
+more brick steps. Immense quantities of unwashed white linen
+cloth are heaped upon it, which seem occasionally sprinkled
+with a brown odoriferous liquid (<i>dupa</i>). As at the head of
+Sheikh Joseph, so at his feet several figures, resembling
+those in enamel used to ornament tarts, are drawn upon the
+linen cloth with the overflowings of the unguent. These have
+undoubtedly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span> been formed accidentally, and it appears wrong
+and unfair to attribute to them any more recondite
+significance. The monument rests upon four wooden pillars,
+with pyramidal pinnacles or ornaments, and is richly
+decorated with fine white muslin, which gives to the whole
+very much the appearance of an old-fashioned English
+"fourposter," with its costly drapery and curtains. While
+the curtains are spread out all around, several small green
+and white bannerets stand at the upper and lower end of the
+sarcophagus. The whole interior is, as it were, impregnated
+with the incense which devout Malay pilgrims from time to
+time burn here, especially after the forty days' fast
+(Ramadan), or leave behind upon the steps of the tomb in
+flasks or in paper-boxes. On such occasions, they always
+bring wax-candles and linen cloth as an offering, with the
+latter of which they deck the tomb afresh, so that a perfect
+mountain of white linen rises above the stone floor. During
+their devotions they unceasingly kiss this white mass of
+stuff, and as they are continually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> chewing tobacco, this
+filthy habit produces disgustingly loathsome stains.</p>
+
+<p>On the same hill which boasts the tomb of Sheikh Joseph,
+there are also, in ground that is common property, nine
+other graves of eminent Malays, enclosed with
+carefully-selected stones, and likewise covered over with
+large broad strips of bleached linen cloth, protected by
+stones from any injury by weather or violence. At the head
+and foot of each individual interred, is a single stone of
+larger size. Formerly the black inhabitants of the
+neighbourhood made use of this store of linen cloth to make
+shirts for themselves, without further thought upon the
+propriety of the matter. Latterly, however, a shrewd Malay
+priest spread a report that one of these ebony linen
+stealers had lost all the fingers off one hand, since which
+the graves of those departed worthies remain inviolate and
+unprofaned.</p>
+
+<p>At the foot of the hill are some small half-fallen-in
+buildings, near a large hall, painted white, red, and
+yellow, consisting of a small apartment and a kitchen, the
+whole in a most dirty, neglected, and desolate condition. At
+this point the Moslems must have accomplished certain
+prayers, before they can climb the hill and proceed to visit
+the tomb. Over the door of this singular house of prayer
+some words are likewise engraved in the Arabic character,
+which, however, are now entirely illegible.</p>
+
+<p>On quitting the Malay Krammat, we next undertook a tolerably
+difficult walk to the Downs or sand-dunes, which at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span>
+point extend along the entire coast line, on which the
+wax-berry shrub, as already mentioned, grows wild in vast
+quantities, and visibly prevents the further encroachments
+of the moving sand. The Eerst Rivier (First River) may be
+regarded as the limit of demarcation between the sand-dunes
+and the soil adapted for vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>The same evening the naturalists of the Expedition left
+hospitable Zandvliet, though not till after they had been
+presented by Herr Cloete with a splendid collection of
+fruits indigenous to Port Natal. Having been everywhere
+received with distinction, and enjoyed every sort of
+assistance in our researches, we set out on our return so
+richly freighted with objects of natural history, that the
+waggon, as we drove through the wide streets of Cape Town,
+presented such a various and substantial assortment of each
+as spoke volumes for the success of our journey. Every
+available corner was called into requisition to dispose of
+our prizes&mdash;even between the open windows hung suspended the
+bottle-shaped nests of the finch, and the slender sticks
+that supported the tilt were entwined with gigantic festoons
+of flowers. In a word, the whole waggon, with its variegated
+contents, resembled a holiday-van on its return from a
+country excursion, so gaily and cheerfully was it decorated.</p>
+
+<p>During our residence in the Cape colony, severe depression
+existed among the agricultural inhabitants of the Western
+and Eastern districts, in consequence of an epidemic which,
+within two years, had carried off 64,850 horses (draught
+horses,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> mares, and foals), of the value of £525,000
+sterling.<a name="Anchor-54" id="Anchor-54"></a><a href="#Footnote-54" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 54.">[54]</a> Many landowners in consequence entirely gave up
+rearing horses, and turned their attention almost
+exclusively to the breeding of sheep. The visitations of
+this malady are by no means of late introduction, but
+hitherto they had made their appearance at such long
+intervals, that but little attention was paid to them and
+people regarded their return without much alarm. This
+disease of the horse, usually endemic in Cape Colony,
+assumed every twenty years, owing to some inexplicable
+causes, an epidemic character, and on those occasions
+extended over an extensive area, as happened with
+extraordinary regularity in the years 1780, 1801, 1819,
+1839, and 1854. Hitherto no further precaution was taken,
+than, so soon as the disease appeared, to drive the horses
+from the grass pastures to their stables or covered sheds,
+and there supply them with fodder, the night dew being
+considered a main cause of the complaint. A resident in
+Stellenbosch, indeed, maintained that the dew which was
+deposited during the continuance of the disease tasted quite
+bitter, and was of an unusual brownish tinge. Singular to
+say, not the slightest symptoms of illness manifested
+themselves in the swine, dogs, and birds of prey which
+devoured the carcases of horses that died of the disease,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>
+while the consumption, whether boiled or roasted, of mutton
+which was ever so slightly tainted with the mere germ of
+this malady, never failed to produce the most mischievous
+consequences on the human species. According to Dr.
+Livingstone the same malignant ulcerous imposthumes were
+produced, if even sound portions were used of the carcase of
+an animal that had died of this complaint. These
+observations, founded on innumerable examples, run counter
+to the opinion of the French physicians and physiologists,
+that the malignity of the poison in such cases becomes
+neutralized by the process of cooking. Considering the
+importance of the subject to a land-holding colony, it could
+hardly fail that numerous individuals should devote
+themselves to elucidating the causes of this devastating
+epidemic; but it must ever remain a striking and significant
+fact, illustrative of the high standard of cultivation in
+Cape Colony, that within a very few years 112 different
+authors published treatises respecting this complaint among
+the horses. The result of these numerous researches was,
+that the malady is epidemic, but not contagious; that horses
+driven into the stable before sunset, and not permitted to
+go out to pasture till the dew has evaporated off the grass,
+are as a rule exempted from attack; that those horses which
+are kept at night in open pounds, or in places where there
+are heaps of dung, take the disease in a milder form than if
+suffered to roam at large day and night; lastly, that horses
+for which no covered shelter can be provided, may with great
+advantage be sent to hilly localities and dry runs of land.
+The practical remedy which was most resorted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> to, consisted
+in immediate and prolonged bleeding, pushed to actual
+exhaustion of the animal, in the first stage of the malady,
+as also the exhibition of 1 drachm of tartar emetic and 2
+drachms of calomel, or, at a later stage, of 30 grains of
+tartar emetic twice a day.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-54" id="Footnote-54"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-54">[54]</a> At the same time 92,793 head of cattle (draught
+oxen, cows, and calves) fell a sacrifice to a disease of the
+lungs, and we were assured that the original cause of this
+terribly fatal malady (<i>Pleuropneumonia</i>) is attributable to
+a bull having been imported from Holland, in the year 1854,
+in a diseased state. The English public will remember the
+severe panic under which Continental graziers, and others
+connected with the cattle trade, laboured during the years
+1854-55 and the commencement of 1856.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 335px;"><a name="illu310" id="illu310"></a>
+<img src="images/illu310.jpg" width="335" height="280" alt="Overhead drawing of specimen." title="" />
+<span class="caption">TSETSE FLY.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another appalling scourge of the settlers in the south-west
+district of Cape Colony is a minute, almost imperceptible
+insect, of terrible omen, the <i>tsetse-fly</i> (<i>Glossina
+morsitans</i>), a puncture from which produces such terrible
+destruction among horses and cattle, that several runs of
+land are uninhabitable&mdash;nay, even the mere passing through
+districts which they frequent, proves fatal to the draught
+beasts of the caravans. This insect is principally
+encountered in copses and brushwood, very seldom in the open
+country, and is about the size of a common house fly, but
+with wings a little longer. In colour it resembles the honey
+bee. The tsetse is uncommonly active, and usually escapes
+all attempts to catch it with the hand; but in the cool of
+the morning or evening it is less active and quick in its
+movements. The poison which it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> carries is so powerful that
+the bite of three or four individuals is sufficient to kill
+the most powerful ox. Many animals, especially such as
+appear perfectly sound or in the best condition, die
+speedily after being bitten, but the majority are ill for an
+entire week, and usually become blind before death. One
+remarkable circumstance is that the bite of these insects is
+fatal to dogs, even when fed with milk, while calves and
+other young animals, so long as they are sucking, remain
+perfectly exempt from the malefic powers of the tsetse. It
+is especially noticed that the danger seems to be confined
+to domesticated animals, while such as are wild or only half
+reclaimed, such as buffaloes, zebras, jackals, oxen, horses,
+and wild dogs, have not the slightest occasion to dread this
+insect; nay more, it attacks man himself without the least
+ill consequences. The sensation which their bite produces on
+the hand, or other portion of the human frame, would be
+confounded by any one travelling in the tsetse district,
+with that of another minute and most troublesome, though by
+no means dangerous insect, the flea. Fortunately the
+tsetse-fly has an appointed circuit to range in, in the
+south-west of the Cape Colony, which it never changes or
+extends. The landowner may erect his cattle-pound on one
+side of the stream in perfect security, although the
+opposite bank may resound with the hum of swarms of these
+insects. When the natives, who are acquainted with the
+localities in which the tsetse-fly abides, are compelled, as
+they constantly are, to shift their ground, and, in changing
+their pastures, to transgress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> upon the district of the
+tsetse, they usually select the moonlight nights of winter,
+when the insect, during the quiet hours of the cold season,
+is not likely to molest their charge.</p>
+
+<p>Many travellers whose draught oxen and horses have been
+killed by the ravages of this insect, are annually not
+merely frustrated in their journey, but, it appears, have
+their personal safety seriously imperilled by being deprived
+of all means of locomotion. Anderson, in his admirable work
+upon "Lake Ngami," relates that some twenty aborigines of
+the Griqua race, who had been elephant-hunting in the
+north-west of that lake, and were provided with three large
+waggons and numerous oxen and horses, found, on their return
+to their encampment, that they had lost the whole of their
+cattle-team by the bite of the tsetse. So, too, Dr.
+Livingstone, during a short journey over a district
+frequented by the tsetse, lost forty-three strong and useful
+oxen, although by dint of great vigilance scarcely twenty
+flies had been able to settle among the entire herd. We have
+dwelt at length on the description of the ravages caused by
+this so much dreaded insect, with the view of pointing out
+the numerous and amazing difficulties which present
+themselves to the traveller or settler in certain
+localities, and how often not only wild and rapacious
+animals, but even small, hardly perceptible insects endanger
+the life of the wanderer, and render large tracts of lands
+valueless for settlement.<a name="Anchor-55" id="Anchor-55"></a><a href="#Footnote-55" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 55.">[55]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-55" id="Footnote-55"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-55">[55]</a> Most valuable comprehensive details, as to the
+natural history of the tsetse-fly, its ravages, and its
+migration into the districts which it frequents, are to be
+found in the "Transactions of the Royal Society," Volume
+XX., page 148; "Proceedings of the London Geological
+Society," page 217; Charles John Anderson's "Lake Ngami; or,
+Explorations and Discoveries during Four Years' Wanderings
+in the Wilds of Western Africa," London, 1856; Dr.
+Livingstone's "Missionary Travels and Researches in South
+Africa," London, 1857. The agent of the London Missionary
+Society at the Cape of Good Hope, the estimable, highly
+respected Dr. Thompson, gave us a small piece of a root
+called <i>fly-root</i>, which is considered to grow from a
+parasite, and a decoction of which is reckoned by the
+aborigines an antidote to the bite of the tsetse-fly.
+Unfortunately the requisite material was not in sufficient
+quantity to admit of determining the plant itself, or of
+instituting further researches with it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>No stranger can well leave Cape Town without having visited
+Constantia, the chief seat of the wine cultivation of the
+country. Accordingly we had a day of exceedingly pleasant
+relaxation while visiting High Constantia. Mr. James
+Mosenthal, the very hospitable Austrian Consul, had
+carefully selected the most beautiful spot in the immediate
+vicinity of Cape Town, the charming residence of his friend
+Mynheer Van Reenen, at which to get up a splendid <i>fête
+champêtre</i> on an extensive scale, in honour of the visit of
+this the first man-of-war that had borne the flag of our
+country into these remote seas. The entire staff of our
+frigate was invited, and over a hundred guests, comprising
+the flower of the fair sex of Cape Town, took part in the
+festivities. Immense four-horse coaches conveyed the company
+in the forenoon to the hill of Constantia. The company
+wandered at leisure under the gigantic oak trees, or in the
+beautifully laid-out garden of this extensive domain, and
+after a sumptuous <i>déjeuner</i>, the majority set to dancing. A
+small orchestra of stringed instruments played alternately
+with the ship's band in the garden, and in the tastefully
+decorated apartment. Those who did not care to dance, or
+whom a burning afternoon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> sun prevented from walking in the
+open air, might escape into cool and most elegant cellars,
+where our hospitable entertainer had stored large quantities
+of "spiritual treasures." The costly nectar which the Cape,
+and especially High Constantia, produces, finds its way but
+seldom to European tables, because the quantity produced is
+very much below the demand; for although the first
+cultivation of the grape for wine dates in Cape Colony so
+far back as 1668, the wine manufacture has only of late
+years expanded in a marked degree,&mdash;viz., 45 per cent. from
+1855 to 1856, and 70 per cent. from 1856 to 1857, so that at
+present the entire quantity produced of red and white Cape
+wine (Pontac and Frontignac) may be stated at 24,000 pipes,
+worth £380,000 sterling.</p>
+
+<p>At the conclusion of the <i>fête</i> we sat down to a splendid
+banquet in the open air, in a shady avenue, so as to admit
+of all the guests sitting at one long table. At the upper
+end, under the umbrageous boughs of some venerable oaks,
+that towered like a canopy overhead, fluttered the flags of
+England and Austria. The mayor of Cape Town occupied the
+chair; the toasts customary on such occasions were given and
+responded to, allusion being made to the pleasure felt at
+the arrival of an Austrian man-of-war, as also to the
+gratitude of the members of the Expedition for the hearty
+welcome prepared for them, and expressing an earnest hope
+that both Governments may ever continue faithfully allied,
+as both nations are, by descent, sympathy, and intellectual
+pursuits. A few days after this splendid entertainment, we
+returned to Simon's Bay,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> whence the <i>Novara</i> was already
+preparing to sail. The several weeks' stay of the frigate at
+the little settlement of Simon's Bay, together with a
+certain quantity of repairs, had called forth a most
+unwonted briskness of business. Amid so circumscribed a
+population, the sudden influx of more than three hundred
+additional consumers, with their varying wants, speedily
+made itself perceptible in every class of the community, the
+more so as most of the heavy stores for the voyage were
+bought here, so that the sum set in circulation during these
+few weeks amounted to some £2,000. At the same time the
+Expedition were readily permitted to contribute a mite
+towards building the Catholic Church in Simon's Town, and to
+present some priests' garments, altar cloths, and church
+fittings, which had been intended by the Austrian Government
+for distribution among four Catholic Missionaries in the
+various quarters of the globe visited.</p>
+
+<p>Some members of the Expedition also set out on an excursion
+some thirty nautical miles, to where the peninsula of the
+Cape stretches out to the real Cape of Good Hope itself&mdash;a
+longer, more difficult, but also more interesting
+expedition, which gave fresher impressions, and conveyed a
+pretty accurate and more just idea of the physical features
+of the Peninsula of the Cape, its vegetation, zoology, and
+geological structure, than could be obtained by a cursory
+examination, of the natural features of a large portion of
+South Africa. For whoever has clambered up the torn, broken,
+rocky masses of Table Mountain, worn out and eaten away by
+the atmosphere, and has scrambled among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> its wild hollows,
+with its forests of the greyish green <i>Pratea Gargentea</i> at
+his feet, amid its far extending rocky plateaux, full of
+stagnant water-pools; whoever has strayed thence among the
+wine-producing terraced hills of Constantia, with their rich
+vegetation; over the sandy table-lands backed by rocky
+ridges, over streams of copper-coloured water, and the boggy
+tracts that extend to the extreme south-west point, as far
+as the Sandstone rocks, 800 feet high, which, descending
+sheer into the tempest-tossed, fearsome, boiling ocean,
+constitutes the actual Cape of Good Hope&mdash;obtains a
+tolerably just and correct idea of the appearance of
+Southern Africa for one hundred miles into the interior, and
+along the coast line, 400 English miles in length, which
+stretches from St. Helena Bay as far as the River Samtoos,
+west of Algoa Bay. All is sandstone or clay-slate, with
+occasional granitic knobs cropping out; no trees, but such
+as are planted in clumps around the sparsely scattered
+farms, conspicuous from an immense distance; while, on the
+other hand, in spring, an indescribable flush of blossoms
+and flowers, and instead of trees, millions of ant-hills,
+with their regularly shaped cones from three to four feet
+high, impart a peculiar character to the landscape of South
+Africa. But on the so-called Lowlands of Algoa Bay, beyond
+the River Samtoos, Nature assumes an entirely different
+character in her forest vegetation. Unfortunately, the
+original designs of the geologists of the Expedition, of
+Examining the petrified treasures of this renowned district,
+fell through, which was all the more to be regretted as this
+geological Eldorado promised a great accession to our
+collection.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During our stay at Simon's Town, we also experimented with
+our astronomical instruments, which, at our next station,
+St. Paul's Island, were to be brought fully into requisition
+for the first time. On this occasion, as on many others, the
+unfailing courtesy and kindness of the renowned astronomer
+and director of the Observatory of Cape Town, Mr. Thomas
+Maclear, assisted us most materially in the observations for
+comparison with our own physical instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate325t" id="plate325t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate325t.jpg" width="350" height="179" alt="Novara's track." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE IV.&mdash;FROM THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE TO ST.
+PAUL&#39;S ISLAND.</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate325.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 26th October it fell calm, changing to
+variable breezes and light puffs of wind, that made it
+doubtful whether we could sail that day, as we needed a
+catspaw from the West in order to weigh anchor. From the
+English line of battle-ship <i>Boscawen</i>, there floated across
+the bay as we worked out, the Austrian National Anthem,
+played as a farewell&mdash;a graceful mark of recognition&mdash;which
+was replied to by our band performing the sister hymn, "God
+Save the Queen."</p>
+
+<p>We steered between Noah's Ark and Roman Rock, coasting along
+till we made Whittle Rock, but the wind shifting, we were,
+ere long, compelled to tack. Had we not seized the
+favourable moment to get away, it would, a couple of hours
+later, have been impossible to put to sea, as the wind
+sprang up from the S.E. and blew fresh. Towards sundown, the
+sky cleared up, and we once more caught sight of the
+serrated outline of the southernmost point, with its
+desolate, worn, hollowed-out, rocky masses, which, however,
+with the <i>souvenirs</i> of the hearty reception that had been
+accorded us in Cape Town<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> seemed on this occasion much more
+home-like and habitable. All of us, indeed, carried with us
+in our breasts the most cordial and agreeable reminiscences
+of the Cape of Good Hope.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of many drawbacks and deficiencies of physical
+requisites, which oppose the rapid development of its
+natural resources, Cape Colony possesses in its healthy
+climate its valuable indigenous products, and its free
+political institutions, a guarantee for its perhaps gradual,
+but on that account more substantial, progress. It is a
+favourable specimen of a prosperous agricultural colony able
+to maintain itself, whose inhabitants, seeking in the
+peaceable cultivation of the soil their sole reward, are
+exposed to none of those ruinous reverses of fortune, which
+make life in those lands that are rich only in a metallic
+currency so stormy and uncomfortable, and render their
+future so problematical.</p>
+
+<p>A colony, which already employs annually, in its commerce
+all over the world, a thousand ships, which has a trade
+valued at nearly £2,000,000 sterling, and before long will
+be in a position to export 30,000,000 lbs. of wool a year,
+besides an unlimited quantity of wines already in great
+demand, whose soil, owing to its prolific nature, returns,
+under human cultivation, crops of one hundred-fold, while in
+its unexplored districts as many additional vegetable and
+mineral treasures lie unavailable as yet&mdash;such a colony
+carries in itself the germs of a splendid development into a
+great and most enviable future. Provided with laws of a most
+liberal scope, and institutions corresponding to the spirit
+of our times, which leave each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span> colonist entirely at liberty
+to develope his powers and capabilities in whatever
+direction he pleases, Cape Colony must, ere long, stand
+forth as the pattern colony for all others in the different
+countries beyond sea,&mdash;a majestic monument of the reward so
+justly due to the English nation for its policy in promoting
+the moral and material progress of mankind in the most
+remote corners of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>We lay a southerly course in order to strike the regular
+Westerly winds, which we might hope to fall in with in the
+neighbourhood of 40° S., and already we again saw our old
+friends, the albatross, the cape pigeon, and the stormy
+petrel, in innumerable quantities.</p>
+
+<p>By the evening of the 28th we had attained our limit in the
+South-west, but the West winds had not yet made their
+appearance, so that we had to contend till 1st November with
+baffling light winds alternating with calms. At length in
+37° 30&#8242; S. and 18° 4&#8242; E., we encountered Westerly breezes,
+which, ere long, freshened, veered to the southward, and
+compelled us to shorten sail. We were at this time not quite
+as yet in the zone of West winds, but had to do with
+variable winds; which, however, as the prevailing winds must
+be west or south, could generally be made available to
+enable us to lay our course for St. Paul. Although in the
+month corresponding to May in the southern hemisphere, we
+found ourselves shivering with cold, the thermometer barely
+reached 18° Cent. (64°·4 Fah.) during the day in the open
+air, and our bodies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> accustomed of late to a milder
+temperature, felt as though it were twice more rigorous than
+it actually was, in consequence of the wind coming from the
+ice-bound antarctic regions.</p>
+
+<p>On the afternoon of 4th November, a great excitement arose
+on board; a violent shower filled the lifeboats with water,
+and a large black object was observed swimming in the sea.
+Fortunately, it was not a man, though it proved to be a
+great favourite that had fallen overboard. Bessy, an ape,
+had got loose from her chain, and while being chased, fell
+in her eagerness into the sea, which fortunately was
+tolerably smooth. The droll little brute had quickly made
+itself such a favourite with the crew from its comical
+attractive ways, that its sudden fall overboard awoke
+universal sympathy. A boat was lowered, and Bessy rescued,
+who speedily recovered from her fright, and although
+dripping wet, proceeded to consume an orange that was handed
+her with an expression of entire satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching 40° S., 31° E., the West winds became more
+steady, with a perceptible increase of motion, giving an
+average of 33 feet as the height of the waves, while the
+frigate rolled heavily. Sometimes several "Rollers" would
+follow one after the other, which made the ship heel over
+from 20° to 25° on either side. At each roll, streams of
+water poured in upon the gun-deck. The cannon-shot kept up a
+deafening dance from one side to the other, while stools,
+tables, chests, and in short everything that could move,
+were unmistakably "lively." The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> temperature of the air
+during the night fell to 41° Fahrenheit, and was felt yet
+more keenly in squalls accompanied by rain, which made our
+life on board anything but agreeable, although the certainty
+that we were proceeding favourably with the so-called
+"<i>Fair</i>" Westerly winds indemnified us in some degree for
+the discomfort.</p>
+
+<p>On 14th November, in 40° 44&#8242; S., 60° 8&#8242; E., we availed
+ourselves of a dead calm and smooth sea to try a cast of
+Brooke's Patent Deep-sea Lead.</p>
+
+<p>While at Rio, we had been supplied, through the kindness of
+Don José de Barnabé, Commander of the Royal Spanish Frigate
+<i>Bilbao</i>, with a large quantity of lead-line, after an
+unsuccessful attempt to purchase it there. Unfortunately,
+however, the line had become somewhat decomposed by
+moisture, and gave way at 6,170 fathoms (37,020 English
+feet) while still running out, so that on this occasion
+also, we could only tell that bottom had <i>not</i> been reached
+with the portion of the line paid out.</p>
+
+<p>The times occupied by the line in running out were as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>1st</td><td>1000</td><td>fathoms</td><td>15</td><td>minutes</td><td>36</td><td>seconds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>2nd</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>26</td><td>"</td><td>59</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>3rd</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>34</td><td>"</td><td>20</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>4th</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>43</td><td>"</td><td>25</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>5th</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>61</td><td>"</td><td>5</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>6th</td><td>"</td><td>"</td><td>75</td><td>"</td><td>55</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>And the last</td><td>170</td><td>"</td><td>11</td><td>"</td><td>40</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>____</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>______</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>______</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total</td><td>6,170</td><td>"</td><td>4 hours</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>29 minutes.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To the apparatus two 30-lbs. shot were attached, and the
+first 100 fathoms of line were doubled. By this observation
+we satisfied ourselves that such soundings are only
+successful when none but the best materials are employed,
+and, moreover, that the line becomes deteriorated in an
+extraordinary degree by long stowage on boardship, so that
+it is better in long voyages not to take such large supplies
+of line, but to adopt most stringent measures to prevent its
+being weakened by damp. Very probably a light coating of tar
+over the line would tend to keep it in good preservation,
+and it also seems advisable proportionately to strengthen
+the first 500 or 1000 fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th November the look-out man descried from the main
+topgallant mast-head the Island of St. Paul, the goal of our
+wishes, the object which had so long occupied our thoughts,
+and on which our scientific capabilities were to be called
+into enviable activity. The necessary arrangements were
+completed for facilitating astronomical observations, the
+instruments and other necessaries taken out and got in
+readiness to be conveyed to the island, and the various
+stations and duties of the different members specified, so
+as to admit of the observations being completed in the
+shortest possible time.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th November, at daybreak, we found ourselves close
+in with St. Paul's Island, while on our port-side the
+outline of New Amsterdam was visible in the shape of two
+lofty peaks on the horizon. As the wind blew from the N.W.,
+we kept the ship's course past the north promontory of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span>
+island, and ranged along the eastern side to the selected
+anchoring ground. As we doubled the northernmost point, the
+conical-shaped Nine-Pin Rock came into view, while the high
+and precipitous margin of the island in the N.E. with the
+entrance into the crater became visible. How great, however,
+was our astonishment, when we observed some neatly laid-out
+terraces, of a fresher green hue than were observed in the
+upper table-lands of the island! These were evidently spots
+cultivated by former or present residents in the island. But
+no traces of habitation were seen, whether of mankind or of
+the seal. Only flights of albatrosses, bryons, ospreys, and
+sea-swallows, with now and then the protracted screams (like
+human groans) of immense flights of penguins, those
+singular-looking sea-birds, which awaken so deep an interest
+alike for their striking appearance as by their mode of
+life.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the rock of the island showed layers of
+black lava, alternating with yellow and red tufa, which
+seemed stratified regularly from the rim of the crater to
+the extreme circumference of the island. "Thirty fathoms,
+and no bottom," sung the wearied leadsman; and presently,
+"Thirty fathoms,"&mdash;and a few minutes before 9 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> the
+anchor rattled out, on the 24th day after we left Simon's
+Bay, after retracing our steps Eastward some 3000 miles. Our
+anchorage, as we afterwards became aware, was not the best
+possible, as we ought to have lain closer in to the island.
+But when one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span> anchors nearer the land in a less depth of
+water, one is by no means more protected from storms
+sweeping in from seawards, to which the entire eastern half
+of the island lies exposed. Only on the west side does the
+island, with the steep margin of the crater some 700 or 800
+feet high, afford any protection against the west winds,
+which, however, seldom blow here.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 690px;"><a name="illu324" id="illu324"></a>
+<img src="images/illu324.jpg" width="690" height="381" alt="Harbor view." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ARRIVAL AT ST. PAUL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+width: 582px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu326.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu326" id="illu326"></a>
+<a name="VII" id="VII"></a>
+<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">VIEW OF<br />ST. PAUL.</span></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 582px; height: 351px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 185px; height: 349px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">VII.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">The Islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam,</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">In The South Indian Ocean.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+Former History.&mdash;Importance of the situation of St.
+Paul.&mdash;Present inhabitants.&mdash;Preliminary observations.&mdash;To
+whom does the Island belong?&mdash;Fisheries.&mdash;Hot
+springs.&mdash;Singular
+experiment.&mdash;Penguins.&mdash;Disembarkation.&mdash;Inclement
+weather.&mdash;Remarks on the climate of the Island.&mdash;Cultivation
+of European vegetables.&mdash;Animal life.&mdash;Library in a
+Fisherman's hut.&mdash;Narrative of old
+Viot.&mdash;Re-embarkation.&mdash;An official document left
+behind.&mdash;Some results obtained during the stay of the
+Expedition.&mdash;Visit to the Island of
+Amsterdam.&mdash;Whalers.&mdash;Search for a Landing-place.&mdash;Remarks
+on the Natural History of the Island.&mdash;A
+Conflagration.&mdash;Comparison of the two islands.&mdash;A
+<i>rencontre</i> at sea.&mdash;Trade-wind.&mdash;Christmas at sea.&mdash;"A man
+overboard."&mdash;Cingalese canoe.&mdash;Arrival at Pont de Galle, in
+Ceylon.
+</div>
+
+<p>The visit of the Austrian frigate <i>Novara</i> to the Islands of
+Amsterdam and St. Paul, so long confounded with one
+another,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> was one of the cherished objects of interest to
+the immortal Alexander von Humboldt.</p>
+
+<p>Although St. Paul has been in very recent times visited and
+surveyed by illustrious English navigators,<a name="Anchor-56" id="Anchor-56"></a><a href="#Footnote-56" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 56.">[56]</a> and although
+the doubt hitherto existent as to the precise discoverer,
+and the correct application of the names of the two islands,
+has been set at rest by the discovery of the original log of
+Antonio Van Diemen, kept on his voyage from the Texel to
+Batavia (16th December, 1632, to 21st July, 1633), by which
+it is made plain, beyond possibility of contradiction, that
+that renowned navigator passed for certain on 17th July,
+1633, between both islands, and conferred on the northern
+the name of New Amsterdam, and on the southern that of St.
+Paul;<a name="Anchor-57" id="Anchor-57"></a><a href="#Footnote-57" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 57.">[57]</a> yet the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> two islands still continue to present
+points of great interest on closer examination and
+observation. Of the various ships which, since the discovery
+of those islands, have visited them for scientific purposes,
+hardly any have remained long enough to be in a position to
+acquire a thorough acquaintance with the various objects of
+natural history and scientific interest that present
+themselves. Even the visit paid by the naturalist attached
+to the expedition on board the English ship <i>Lion</i> and
+<i>Hindostan</i> which, on the 2nd of February, 1793, touched at
+St. Paul, <i>en route</i> to China, and to whom we are indebted
+for the first detailed account of this island, erroneously
+spoken of as Amsterdam (following the example of former
+English navigators), did not come within the original design
+of that Ambassadorial expedition. It was the result rather
+of accident that, as the <i>Lion</i> and <i>Hindostan</i> were passing
+close in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> with St. Paul, two human beings were descried on
+the shore, waving in the air a piece of canvas fastened on
+poles, who apparently were anxious to convey to the
+expedition their desire to communicate with their ships. It
+was supposed these were shipwrecked mariners, stranded on
+this dangerous coast, who regarded the arrival of the <i>Lion</i>
+as an unexpected means of rescue. To save these
+fellow-creatures from so desperate a position, the Captain
+of the <i>Lion</i> declared to be a pleasing duty assigned by
+Providence, and rejoiced to have been selected as the
+instrument of their deliverance. When, however, the boat of
+the British man-of-war, which was despatched to take off the
+castaways and bring them on board ship, had landed on the
+island, the crew speedily discovered the singular delusion
+which all had laboured under. The men, whom motives of
+humanity had intended to rescue from this inhospitable
+place, turned out to be anything but involuntary residents
+on the island, being seal-hunters, who for five months had
+dwelt here, and purposed remaining ten months longer, with
+the intention of completing a cargo of 25,000 seal-skins,
+for which at that time there was a very considerable and
+lucrative demand in the Chinese markets,<a name="Anchor-58" id="Anchor-58"></a><a href="#Footnote-58" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 58.">[58]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> the signals
+which had first attracted their attention, it now appeared
+were for no other object than to enable them to feel
+themselves once more, after such an interval, in the company
+of their fellowmen.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-56" id="Footnote-56"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-56">[56]</a> Captain C. P. Blackwood, of H.M.S. <i>Fly</i>, 1842,
+and Captain Denham, C.B., of H.M. Surveying Ship <i>Herald</i>,
+1853. M. Tinot "<i>capitaine du long cours</i>," who visited St.
+Paul in the summer of 1844, published likewise some
+interesting memoranda relating to that island, in the
+"<i>Nouvelle Annales de la Marine et des Colonies</i>," for
+November, 1853.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-57" id="Footnote-57"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-57">[57]</a> Previous to the resuscitation, after
+considerable difficulty, of this important, indeed decisive
+document, by Mons. L. C. D. Van Dyk, among the archives of
+the East and West India Company of Amsterdam, of which he
+was Librarian, the utmost uncertainty prevailed as to the
+discovery, name, and geographical position of the two
+islands. Now, William Van Flaming, a Dutch navigator, was
+supposed to be the discoverer,&mdash;now, the hardy Van Diemen.
+Atlases, charts, and books of travels, spoke of the name St.
+Paul belonging, here to the northern island, there to the
+southern. This long-continued confusion of names had
+naturally left ample space for the most contradictory
+statements as to the position, conformation, and geological
+conditions of both islands. One traveller, for instance,
+describes Amsterdam as an island with good anchorage on the
+North side, and an extinct crater, into which ran a fissure,
+forming a natural link with the ocean; while, on the other
+hand, he described St. Paul as a desert island, with steeply
+sloping shores, which make it matter of difficulty, if not
+utterly impracticable, to effect a landing; while other
+voyagers, again, give directly contrary accounts of both
+islands. Compare the following:&mdash;"An authentic account of an
+Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of
+China, together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on
+the occasion by H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>, and the ship <i>Hindostan</i>,
+E.I.C.N., to the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pekin, as well as of
+their return to Europe, taken chiefly from the papers of
+H.E. the Earl of Macartney, &amp;c., by Sir George Staunton,
+Bart. (London, 1797), vol. I., pp. 205-27."&mdash;"Rélation du
+Voyage à la recherche de <i>La Pérous</i> fait par l'ordre de
+l'Assemblée constituante pendant les années 1791-92, et
+pendant la 1<sup>re</sup> et la 2<sup>de</sup> année de la République
+Française. Par le citoyen La Billardière, Correspondent de
+l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Au VIII. de le République
+Française. Tome I. pp. 120-123."&mdash;"Johnston, A.K., General
+Gazetteer of the World (London, 1855)."&mdash;"Hamburgh, James,
+India Directory; or, Directions for Sailing to or from the
+East Indies, China, Australia, and the adjacent parts of
+Africa and South America (London, 1855). 7th Edition, vol.
+I., p. 101."&mdash;"Voyage to the South Pole, and Round the
+World, by Captain Jas. Cook, R.N. (London, 1777)." An
+interesting and tolerably circumstantial treatise on these
+islands is also to be found among the transactions of the
+Imperial-Royal Geographical Society of Vienna for the year
+1857, second division, pp. 145-56, by Mr. A. C. Zhishman,
+Professor of Geography and History, in the I. R. Nautical
+Academy at Trieste.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-58" id="Footnote-58"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-58">[58]</a> "It seems," says Lord Macartney, "that the
+Chinese possess remarkable skill in the dressing of
+seal-skins, by which they remove the long coarse hair, so as
+to leave merely the soft tender skin, and simultaneously
+manage to render the hide thin and pliant. Only the prospect
+of some such enormous profit could at any time induce human
+beings to pass fifteen months at a stretch on so ungenial a
+spot, which, moreover, their occupation must render yet more
+loathsome. They killed the seals as they basked in the sun
+on the rocks along the shore, and around the broad natural
+rock basins. As only the skins were of any value to them,
+they left the flayed carcases exposed to rot on the ground,
+and these lie heaped together here in such masses that it
+was difficult to avoid treading on them, when one reached
+the shore of the island. At every step some disgusting
+spectacle presented itself, while an unutterably nauseous
+smell of decaying matter poisoned the surrounding
+atmosphere. In the summer months the seals flock hither, all
+at the same period, in herds sometimes numbering 800 to
+1000, of which usually only about one hundred are killed at
+a time. This is the utmost number that five men can skin in
+the course of a single day, it being necessary to peg them
+together on the spot, on account of the drying up of the
+skin. For want of the requisite vessels only an
+inconsiderable quantity of the train-oil, which these
+animals contain, is collected. A portion of the best of the
+blubber is melted, and serves these people in lieu of
+butter. The seal which frequents these islands is the
+Southern or Falkland seal (<i>Arctocephalus Falclandicus</i> of
+Gray&mdash;<i>Phoca fusilla</i> of Schreber). The female weighs
+ordinarily from seventy to one hundred and twenty pounds,
+and is from three to five feet long, the male usually
+considerably larger. In their natural state these animals
+are not particularly timid; sometimes, indeed, they plunge
+all together into the water when any one approaches them;
+but quite as often they remain sitting quietly on the rocks,
+or raise themselves erect with a menacing growl. A sharp
+blow on the snout with a stick seems sufficient to kill
+them. Most of those that approach the shore are females, the
+proportion they bear to the males being about thirty to one.
+This apparent disproportion between the sexes, according to
+observation hitherto, is explained as follows:&mdash;The Southern
+seal at certain periods often undertakes distant wanderings
+from one tract to another; and certain of these tracts, such
+as the Cape of Good Hope and the islands of St. Paul and
+Amsterdam, are only frequented by the females when about to
+bring forth, and by the younger males of the school. In
+winter the huge snouted seal, or Sea Elephant
+(<i>Macrorhinus</i>, "long snout," <i>elephantinus</i> of Gray&mdash;<i>Phoca
+leonina</i> of Schreber), which sometimes attains a length of
+twenty-five or even thirty feet, comes in great numbers to
+these islands, where they herd together like sheep in the
+natural coves which the coast is broken into, in which the
+males announce the presence of a herd by a vehement
+growling, deepening into a loud roar."</p></div>
+
+<p>Owing to the important situation of St. Paul, midway between
+the southernmost point of Africa and the Australian
+continent (from each of which it is about 3150 miles
+distant),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span> a complete, accurate survey of the island seemed
+of great importance, not merely to the scientific world, but
+also in the interests of navigation; as most of the ships
+bound for China, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as the
+East India liners, pass pretty close to these islands,
+especially during the winter season. Many captains trading
+in the Indian ocean see in St. Paul an advantageous haven
+for recruiting the strength of their scurvy-stricken crews,
+while the ships of others, shattered almost to the point of
+foundering in the storms of a tract of ocean where for
+thousands of miles there is no other land, can find here
+their only prospect of preservation.</p>
+
+<p>For the voyagers on board the <i>Novara</i>, an interest of an
+entirely personal sort attached to their visit to the
+island. Among the unfortunates, who on the 24th August,
+1853, suffered shipwreck on the shores of New Amsterdam, in
+the British ship <i>Meridian</i>, was a native of Brienz, in
+Switzerland, named Pfau. This person, together with the
+captain, Richard Hernamann, and a Frenchman had disappeared,
+leaving no trace, when, on the following morning, the
+surviving passengers of the wrecked ship were rescued by a
+whaler that happened to be cruising in the neighbourhood. It
+was supposed that the three unfortunate men had endeavoured
+to reach the adjacent island of St. Paul in a small boat,
+and probably were still living there. The father of the
+Swiss made application, through an indirect channel, to the
+chief of the Expedition, earnestly requesting him on his
+visit to the island to institute some enquiries with the
+view of finding some trace of his ill-starred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span> son, still
+unwilling to renounce all hope that he might yet be found
+living at St. Paul.</p>
+
+<p>We hove to about one mile and a half distant from the great
+crater-basin, in whose eastern buttress a natural
+communication has been opened with the sea through a breach
+in its side. When the Dutch captain, William Van Flaming,
+cast anchor before the island in 1697, the wearing action of
+the waves had not yet completed this breach, there existing
+at that period a dam of some five feet high between the sea
+and the cavity of the crater. At present small boats can, at
+any hour of the day, pass into the crater-basin, protected
+from the swell of the ocean by two natural barriers, which
+leave between them a passage of about 300 feet wide. Our
+last admeasurement gave a length of 600 feet for the
+southern barrier, and 1002 feet for that in the north; while
+the intervening water passage measured 306 feet in breadth,
+with a depth of 9.6 feet at high water, and from 2 to 3 feet
+at ebb tide. On the north side of the entrance to the
+straits stands a lofty pyramidal rock, called Nine-Pin Rock,
+round which circle innumerable sea-fowl, which to all
+appearance brood among the chinks and crannies of the rock,
+while in the water below crowds of sharks lash the water
+into foam. It must be highly dangerous hereabouts to be
+capsized in a boat, as there would be little possibility of
+any one being rescued, no matter how speedily assistance
+might be rendered.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely were we anchored, ere we in the ship perceived a
+boat approaching from the island, which rapidly neared the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>
+frigate, with three men who had taken up their abode in even
+this desolate wilderness. Our imagination deluded us with
+the pleasing idea that these three forlorn, forsaken figures
+might be the long lost men wrecked in the <i>Meridian</i>, whom
+pitying billows might have wafted to this solitary island.</p>
+
+<p>Presently there stepped on deck by the side-ropes a grizzly
+figure, with deeply-furrowed features and long, grey beard,
+clothed in a blue blouse and coarse linen trowsers, that
+seemed to have weathered many a winter's storm. This
+primitive-looking old man proved to be a Frenchman named
+Viot, who had lived here for a considerable time as overseer
+of a fishing establishment on the island. Our first question
+had reference to the missing men from the <i>Meridian</i>. But
+how sore was our disappointment when the old sailor in the
+blouse told us he knew all the particulars of the
+catastrophe of the ship, but that he had never come across
+the slightest trace of the three unfortunates whom we had
+enquired about. Viot had visited the island regularly every
+year since 1841, except that in which the <i>Meridian</i> had
+been lost. The fate of these three shipwrecked men must
+therefore remain for ever undetermined, although,
+considering the tempestuous weather which usually prevails
+in the Indian Ocean in the month of August, it is highly
+improbable that a boat of such small dimensions as that to
+which the captain and his two unhappy fellow-travellers
+committed themselves, could reach St. Paul, which was
+distant 42 miles from the spot at which the ship was
+wrecked.</p>
+
+<p>About 11.30 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> the naturalists, accompanied by the
+officers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> appointed to assist in the scientific operations,
+proceeded in two boats to the shore, for the purpose of
+making some preliminary observations. When we reached the
+bar there opened to our view, covered with luxurious grass
+growing in tufts, the walls of a majestic crater, the
+exquisite regularity of the cavity of which left the exact
+impression of an enormous natural amphitheatre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 688px;"><a name="illu334" id="illu334"></a>
+<img src="images/illu334.jpg" width="688" height="314" alt="Distant view of crater-basin of St. Paul." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DISTANT VIEW OF CRATER-BASIN OF ST. PAUL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On either side the ground rises nearly perpendicularly to a
+height of about 800 feet, which probably is likewise the
+average height of the walls of the crater. On the north side
+of the basin, a kind of terrace was seen low down, with huts
+thatched with straw, while on the shingle of the bar was
+planted a not very perpendicular flagstaff, on which, in
+honour of the arrival of a ship of war, old Viot had run up
+the French ensign. As the <i>Novara's</i> boat swept into the
+crater-basin, he saluted with the proverbial courtesy of his
+nation, which not even the rough occupation of a
+whale-fisher had been able to rub out of him. Viot had last
+come hither in the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span> March, with a mulatto and a
+negro on board of a fishing craft, named the <i>Alliance</i>, of
+45 tons, in which he had sailed from St. Denis, on the
+Island of Bourbon, anew to take charge of the little fishing
+station here, which is at present the property of M.
+Ottovan, a French gentleman domiciliated in St. Denis.</p>
+
+<p>While at Cape Town we were informed, in reply to our
+enquiries, by the first authority in the country, that the
+Island of St. Paul belonged to England, and was a dependency
+of the Mauritius; here, to our astonishment, we on the other
+hand learned from the inhabitants that St. Paul at present
+was under the protection of the French Government, and, in
+fact, was an appendage of the Island of Bourbon, the
+governor of which long previously had ordered the French
+flag to be hoisted, with all the naval formalities, by a
+detachment of French soldiers who had been landed from a
+French ship of war. According to Viot&mdash;who is to all
+appearance a thoroughly trustworthy man, but on whom,
+however, we throw the responsibility of the correctness of
+the following information,&mdash;the island seems, in fact, to
+have been, some twenty years since, the property of a French
+merchant of St. Denis, named Camin, who somewhat later
+entered into partnership with a person named Adam, a Pole by
+birth, to whom he ultimately resigned the entire island.<a name="Anchor-59" id="Anchor-59"></a><a href="#Footnote-59" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 59.">[59]</a>
+Adam, who was described to us as a man of exceedingly fierce
+and determined character, did wonders for the cultivation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>
+of the island. He left a number of Mozambique negroes, whom
+he compelled to work through the entire year, exposed to the
+severest privations, and employed in hewing stone from the
+rocks, with which huts were erected, in preparing a
+landing-quay on the north side of the basin, and in sowing a
+number of plots of ground along the lower margin of the
+crater with European vegetables.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-59" id="Footnote-59"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-59">[59]</a> According to Captain Denham, who visited this
+island in 1853, the present proprietor called this fishing
+station, Marie Heurtevent, and said he had bought it about
+five years previously for 6000 dollars from a Polish
+merchant of St. Denis, where he himself also resided.
+(<i>Nautical Magazine</i>, pp. 68, 75).</p></div>
+
+<p>About eight or ten years since, Adam (who afterwards, in the
+course of a voyage from Bourbon to New Zealand, met a
+disgraceful death, having been thrown overboard for his
+cruelty by the black crew of a small vessel, whom he had
+driven to desperation) sold the islands to their present
+possessor, M. Ottovan, a ship-chandler of St. Denis, who
+since then has twice each year, during the fine season,
+despatched a small craft of some 30 to 45 tons, manned by
+from 15 to 18 fishermen, from St. Denis to St. Paul Island,
+so as to turn to advantage the unusual abundance of this
+fishing-ground. This vessel leaves St. Denis regularly every
+November on its voyage of from 24 to 30 days to St. Paul.
+The return voyage to St. Denis takes place during the
+prevalence of the South-East Trades, and occupies a much
+shorter time, rarely exceeding 14 to 16 days. The fishing
+sloop, during its stay at the island, anchors inside the
+basin of the crater, so as to discharge her provisions for
+the fishermen, and to facilitate the freighting for the
+homeward voyage with the fish that have been caught, as also
+to guard her against sudden changes of weather, which in
+these latitudes, as we ourselves experienced, is, even
+during the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span> season, very stormy and dangerous. The
+fishermen use the excellent whaleboats (or <i>baleinières</i>),
+so admirably suited to the heavy swell of the Indian Ocean,
+in which they go out in the morning, returning to the shore
+at nightfall. The species of fish which is found in greatest
+numbers, and is caught exclusively by the hook, is usually
+called by the fishermen, "Indian Cod:" it is by no means,
+however, of the <i>genus</i> Haddock, and very slightly, if at
+all, resembles the codfish of northern waters, or common
+stock-fish, but seems to belong to the class of finger fish
+(<i>cheilo-dactylus-fasciatus</i>), which is usually classed
+among the crow fish (<i>sciænæ</i>). These are salted, dried in
+the open air, packed in casks, and dispatched in large
+quantities to the markets of St. Denis. It is calculated
+that the number thus sent off in the course of each year
+amounts to about 40,000. which are sold in the market of St.
+Denis by the hundred, for from 40 to 60 francs (£1 12s. to
+£2 8s.&mdash;total £640 to £960). The expenses of maintaining the
+settlement is very small.&mdash;Viot has 57 francs a month (£2
+6s.); his two companions 40 francs and 25 francs
+respectively (£1 12s. and £1); the men engaged in the
+fishery receive 25 to 30 francs a month, besides provisions.
+The second voyage of the vessel ordinarily takes place in
+January or February, so as to return in April or May, with a
+similar cargo. It often happens that the owner of the vessel
+finds some more profitable employment for it, when it only
+returns during the second year, and their provisions, as
+meal, rice, biscuit, tobacco, &amp;c., get rather short. The
+settlers, however, employ what leisure time remains after
+their work is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span> done, in cultivating a number of plots of
+ground with cereals and vegetables, potatoes especially
+returning from time to time an excellent yield. Of these
+useful tubers, which grow with remarkable luxuriance in the
+turf-soil of the island, they raise from 60 to 80 cwt.
+annually. Fresh vegetables being articles in great request
+are more particularly made available by the inhabitants of
+St. Paul, by way of barter, when trafficking with the
+whalers, from 20 to 30 of which touch here in the year, to
+exchange their salt fish, rice, tobacco, cheese, brandy,
+&amp;c., for the fresh provisions grown on the island. The
+number of vessels that pass within sight of St. Paul in the
+course of a year may be reckoned at from 100 to 150, of
+which, however, only a very few, except the whalers, visit
+the island.<a name="Anchor-60" id="Anchor-60"></a><a href="#Footnote-60" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 60.">[60]</a> In the year 1857, for example, it occurred
+only twice (one case being an English man-of-war), that
+passing ships sent boats to the island, five months of the
+year having elapsed in the first instance, and two in the
+second.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-60" id="Footnote-60"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-60">[60]</a> All the Dutch Indiamen on the home voyage from
+Batavia, during the months of October till May, have been
+for many years in the habit of running south till they
+sighted St. Paul, so as to catch the S. E. Trades. But it
+has never been the policy of the Dutch to attract attention
+to the eastern seas, and accordingly no information found
+its way to Europe respecting these interesting islands, till
+the period mentioned in the text.</p></div>
+
+<p>When the take of fish in the immediate vicinity of the
+island does not seem sufficiently remunerative, the
+fishermen occasionally launch out to greater distances. They
+then bring out from the basin of the crater the barque that
+brought them from Bourbon to St. Paul, and remain at sea for
+several days,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span> or make for the adjoining island of
+Amsterdam, the shores of which are even more frequented by
+the fish than those of St. Paul.</p>
+
+<p>As already remarked, our first movements were directed
+solely towards an examination of its physical features. We
+were accompanied on this tour of inspection by Ferdinand, an
+active, intelligent Mulatto, with thoroughly French manners.
+The French stock has this peculiarity as compared with the
+German, that it remains unmistakably French, even when mixed
+with two-thirds African blood. Ferdinand was for the first
+time in St. Paul, having been conveyed hither in the
+<i>Alliance</i> in the previous March, to work for M. Ottovan.
+Family troubles had been the cause of his banishment to this
+dismal island. Although only 24 years of age, he was already
+the father of two children, whom, he informed us, he had
+placed at school in St. Denis; and in sheer despair at the
+worthless conduct of their mother, had hired himself hither
+as a labourer at 40 francs a month, paid by the owner of the
+island. He proposed returning to St. Denis in the next ship
+that left St. Paul, in the hope that peace might be by that
+time restored in his family.</p>
+
+<p>At various spots in the lower rim of the crater-basin,
+within which Ferdinand acted as guide, we perceived heavy
+volumes of smoke emerging from the shallow parts of the
+water, which obviously implied the existence of hot springs.
+The two most active and largest in circumference were on the
+north side of the crater-basin, and were known, the one as
+the Bath, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> other as the Drinking Fountain. Moreover, at
+several points on the north bar, hot water bubbles up from
+the soil, of such a temperature that the same person who,
+with a hook and line had caught a fish in the cold water
+basin, might, with the same motion of his hand, let them
+drop into the hot adjoining spring, where, in fact, it is
+boiled within a few minutes and fit for eating! We have
+ourselves made this experiment, which is also mentioned by
+Lord Macartney, and found the fish thus prepared exceedingly
+palatable.</p>
+
+<p>At high water the whole of the hot springs become mingled
+with the brine of the ocean, and thus indicate a temperature
+which is barely perceptibly higher than that of the latter.
+Adjoining the landing-place, several late visitors to the
+island have endeavoured to perpetuate the record of their
+fleeting presence on some compact granite blocks of rock,
+which are scattered in the path to the hot springs. Thus, on
+one of those stones, fast becoming obliterated by the
+weather, may be read:&mdash;"Savouret, 1841"&mdash;"J. D. Rogers,
+1855, Mars."&mdash;On a second huge block:&mdash;"Hte. Rogers, 1852 to
+1857;" and lastly, these names, with difficulty
+decipherable, "Pallefournier-Emile, Mazarni-Denoyarez,
+Grenoble, Canton de Sassenage, Département de l'Isère,
+1844." In general we found none of the inscriptions on the
+island that can be recognized.</p>
+
+<p>On reaching the plateau above, which is reached by a narrow,
+steep, and in many places rather fatiguing path, from the
+settlers' huts on the north side of the basin of the crater,
+we came to a breeding-place of the yellow-tufted "Crested or
+Hopping-Penguin"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span><a name="Anchor-61" id="Anchor-61"></a><a href="#Footnote-61" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 61.">[61]</a> (<i>apterodytes chrysocome</i>) in which we
+found at the lowest estimate from 500 to 600 of these
+singular creatures, which are adorned with grey-yellow tufts
+of feathers arranged in a semicircle above the eyes, and
+which, as was well remarked by the naturalist attached to
+the <i>Lion</i>, with the peculiar plumage and the almost scaly
+covering of their fin-like wings, suggest a remote
+resemblance to the form of a fish. Living part of the year
+in the water, and passing most of the remainder on land,
+Nature has, in a manner, adapted them for these widely
+differing modes of life. The dirty greyish-brown attire of
+the young contrasts so strongly with the gay plumage of the
+old penguin, that at the first glance they hardly seem to
+belong to the same species. The females lay only one or two
+eggs, usually in October, so that at the time of our visit,
+the young were only about a month-and-a-half or so old.
+These penguins, so graceful and nimble in the water, as if
+it were their proper element, are very awkward on land, so
+as to be easily caught, or knocked down with a stick. Only
+in so doing it is necessary to be on one's guard against a
+blow from their long sharp bills, with which they can
+inflict on their pursuer a by no means trifling wound. In
+the course of centuries, during which they have paid
+undisturbed visits to this island, they have trodden a
+well-marked path from their breeding-place to the edge of
+the sea; and it is a proof of the wonderful instinct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span> of
+this creature, that this place is almost the only point on
+the entire island, at which it would be possible for it to
+reach the sea. A flock of these hopping penguins presents an
+odd and peculiar appearance, as, after leisurely bathing in
+the sea, and providing a sufficient supply of food for their
+young, their elegant heads emerge from the water, when
+carefully calculating the effect of the breakers, they ride
+their crest and allow themselves to be deposited on the
+beach; or, after hopping from stone to stone, the plumes on
+their heads nodding to and fro, suddenly plunge headforemost
+into the sea, like so many somersault-throwers! Not less
+diverting are the movements of these animals when, returned
+from their laborious wanderings, which they undertake two or
+three times a day in search of food for their young, they
+bend their tottering steps back to the roosting-place,
+waddling in their walk like ducks. One always leads the way
+as guide and forager-in-chief, and the rest, usually from
+ten to fifteen in number, follow him in a column; on
+reaching the roosting-place, a piece of level winding
+ground, they give a shrill cry, and comport themselves
+anything but peaceably towards their neighbours, especially
+if these have possessed themselves of their accustomed
+seats. Continual squabbling and disputing go on, and their
+croaking and screaming are prolonged far into the silence of
+night. They show much tenderness for their young, shelter
+them with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> great care, and defend them with extraordinary
+courage and pertinacity against the southern hawk gull<a name="Anchor-62" id="Anchor-62"></a><a href="#Footnote-62" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 62.">[62]</a>
+(<i>stercorarius antarcticus</i>), which frequently swoops upon
+the breeding-ground, and even ventures within reach of man,
+from whom it defends itself by violently striking and biting
+with its beak. Always at war under ordinary circumstances,
+they are nevertheless the most faithful of allies in moments
+of common danger or necessity. The flesh of the old penguin
+has so rank a smell that it is only used by those
+frequenting the island in case of the most extraordinary
+necessity; that of the young, on the other hand, has a far
+more agreeable flavour.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-61" id="Footnote-61"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-61">[61]</a> Called also the "<i>Jumping Jack</i>" by the English
+sailors, from its custom of jumping quite out of the water,
+like a porpoise, on its encountering the slightest
+obstacle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-62" id="Footnote-62"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-62">[62]</a> Called by the English sailors "Port Egmont
+Hens" from their frequenting Port Egmont in the Falkland
+Isles. They seem to be identical in species with the "skua,"
+or "bonxie" of the Shetlands.</p></div>
+
+<p>The breeding-place of the penguin is about 300 feet above
+the level of the water in the basin of the crater.<a name="Anchor-63" id="Anchor-63"></a><a href="#Footnote-63" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 63.">[63]</a> Four
+hundred feet more of laborious, steep scrambling, brings the
+adventurer to the plateau at last, from the highest peaks of
+which he readily obtains a view of the greater part of the
+island, which is utterly treeless. At many places we found
+the ground quite warm, and at one slimy tract, about 600
+feet wide, which was noticed by the naturalists on board the
+<i>Lion</i>, there was positive danger of sinking several feet
+into the hot, yielding soil, if we did not advance with
+great care. On the other hand, the fierce tongues of flame,
+which Lord Macartney alleged were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> visible at night from the
+deck of the ship, and which greatly resembled the celebrated
+nocturnal fires of Pietra Mala, in the mountains between
+Florence and Bologna, were nowhere visible, at least during
+the time we were on the island.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-63" id="Footnote-63"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-63">[63]</a> A second breeding-place, somewhat larger, but
+much more inaccessible than that described, occurs on the
+north-west side of the island. There among rugged
+fantastically broken masses of rock, these extraordinary
+creatures can sun themselves undisturbed, and have hardly
+anything to dread from the destroying hand of man, who could
+only get thither with much difficulty, and not without peril
+to life, by clambering along the face of a precipitous wall
+of rock.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the north-west side of the islands, facing the sea, two
+lofty pinnacles of scoriæ, with truncated summits, rise in
+cones of such exquisite regularity of form as speedily
+attracted the attention of our geologist, and became
+somewhat later the chief scene of his activity. In the
+immediate vicinity, many traces of lava-streams are visible,
+which plainly show the direction in which their currents had
+flowed. From the upper edge of the great basin of the crater
+the ground slopes gradually to the sea, ending abruptly in a
+precipice, descending sheer 150 or 200 feet into the sea.</p>
+
+<p>In order to avoid retracing our steps by the same path, we
+directed our guide, the ever active Ferdinand, to conduct us
+back to the shore by some other track than that by which we
+had clambered up to this point; whereupon he stopped at a
+point of the upper rim of the crater, where the ground fell
+suddenly away quite perpendicular, grasped the rich
+luxuriant grass hand over hand, and having proceeded a few
+steps, invited us to follow. At the first glance we
+involuntarily recoiled at the bare idea of descending into
+the abyss by such a route, but presently we found our
+advance less dangerous and appalling than had at first
+appeared, when it was found we might, without any misgiving,
+let ourselves down by the long tough grass, the strong
+stalks of which supplied a safe means of descent.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In less than three-quarters of an hour we had descended from
+the upper margin of the crater to the settlement, and at
+once proceeded on our return to the frigate. A pretty fresh
+N.W. breeze had sprung up in the meantime, which rendered
+our re-embarkation in our small short boats, totally
+unsuited to the tremendous swell of the Indian Ocean,
+exceedingly uncomfortable. Arrived at the ship's side, the
+sea ran so high, and had so increased the difficulty of
+laying the boats alongside, that we at first endeavoured to
+reach the deck by the Jacob's ladders suspended at the poop.
+When, however, one of the sailors (who confessedly have much
+greater readiness in clambering than ordinary mortals),
+while holding on to one of the ladders, was reached by a
+tremendous wave, and half his body being in the water, ran a
+risk of being carried off by a shark, the scientific
+gentlemen in the boats preferred making for the starboard
+side of the ship, whence they reached their haven of refuge
+by the man-ropes.</p>
+
+<p>Although this accident sufficiently manifested the
+impracticability of our original plan of returning every
+evening on board, and of being able to remain beside the
+ship during the carrying out of the objects of our visit, no
+man supposed as yet that, at this season, the summer of St.
+Paul's, the weather might suddenly become so stormy and
+generally unfavourable, as thus early to necessitate our
+re-embarkation, and that the ship would be compelled, with
+all speed, to leave her anchorage, and put to sea for a week
+under most uncomfortable circumstances.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On 20th November, about 6 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, the officers and
+naturalists, together with a portion of the crew, 32 in all,
+left the frigate with a large quantity of instruments,
+scientific apparatus, and baggage. This little expedition
+was supplied with provisions and water for six days, there
+being no springs of fresh water on the island, the
+frequenters of which are compelled to depend for their whole
+supply of drinking-water, partly on the rain-fall, partly
+during long-continued dry seasons on the water of one of the
+hot brackish springs which occur on the north side of the
+lower circuit of the crater. Long accustomed to these fluids
+and to their peculiar taste, the inhabitants feel no evil
+results from their employment, which very probably would not
+be the case with those persons who visit the island for the
+first time, and whose arduous exertions necessitate their
+drinking daily large quantities of water.</p>
+
+<p>On a small eminence, about 150 feet high, above the
+fisherman's huts on the north side of the crater-basin, a
+small wooden cottage was erected for the protection of the
+astronomers; and at a distance of about 40 feet, a second
+for the magnetic instruments, both of which, with their
+contents, were entrusted to Lieutenant Robert Müller.
+Lieutenants Batlogg and Eugen Kronowetter, were respectively
+entrusted with the observations by theodolite, and with the
+surveying board. To the last-mentioned gentleman were also
+confided the observations with the meteorological
+instruments, the researches with the tide-gauge, the
+instruments for measuring the velocity of currents, as also
+the soundings in the basin, and on either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span> side of the
+bar,&mdash;to assist him in the execution of which Cadet Count
+Borelli and Head Quartermaster Cian were detached. We
+quartered ourselves as well as we could in the wretched
+filthy huts which, in summer, serve the fishermen from St.
+Denis as a shelter. In one of these hung several
+pictures&mdash;one representing Napoleon I. riding the inevitable
+white horse, the majority consisting of female portraits and
+scenes of Parisian life, so that the whole place had quite a
+Frenchified appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly had the instruments, apparatus, men, and baggage been
+placed under shelter, when once more a strong north wind
+came on, which, during the night between the 20th and 21st,
+increased to such a height, that it blew down the two huts
+intended for the observations, which had not been quite
+finished, and in which, fortunately, the instruments had not
+yet been placed&mdash;exposing the work already begun to very
+considerable interruption.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the morning, a whaler approached the island, and
+sent one of her boats off for fresh provisions. She proved
+to be the <i>Herald</i>, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, U. S., out
+27 months, and expecting to require to remain out 11 months
+longer, in order to complete her lading of oil and
+whalebone. She was last from St. Augustin's Bay
+(Madagascar), which place she had left two months
+previously. When the captain, who chanced to be in the boat,
+saw the activity of the scientific corps, the results of
+which were already beginning to be visible in the hitherto
+deserted island, he said that one of his crew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> had fallen
+from the mast a few days previously, and severely injured
+himself, and forthwith asked whether we could render him any
+surgical assistance. Considering the precarious
+circumstances under which we ourselves were on the island,
+we judged it more advisable to receive the unfortunate
+whaler on board the frigate, where we could give him all
+necessary assistance. As we afterwards learned, the surgeon
+of the frigate, Dr. Ruschitztha, notwithstanding the
+inclemency of the weather, was ordered from the frigate, and
+had the satisfaction of rendering valuable assistance to the
+invalid.</p>
+
+<p>The foul weather continued all day, and during the night of
+the 21st, it became so tempestuous that the frigate was at
+last compelled to put to sea. About 3.30 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> she began to
+labour heavily with an unusually high sea and frequent
+shifts of wind, accompanied by showers of rain, after a
+heavy blow from the N.W., so that at first it was thought on
+board that one of these furious gusts, which for several
+hours past had followed each other at regular intervals, had
+sprung the cable, and that the anchor would be lost. The jib
+accordingly was hoisted, and the fore-topsail set with four
+reefs in it, and an attempt made to weigh anchor. This
+operation, at all times laborious, was now especially so,
+and seemed as though it would never have an end. Although
+the capstan was manned, as already said, at 3.30, it was not
+till past seven, or four hours later that the anchor hove in
+sight. It was the port anchor that had been weighed, and it
+was now perceived that one of the flukes had given way, and
+was entirely broken off. In such stormy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span> weather it seemed
+very uncertain whether the anchor could be brought on board,
+as it struck with much force against the ship-side, in
+consequence of her severe rolling, and it was only secured
+at great risk to the life of the men employed. The cable was
+unbent, and the anchor slipped, so as to relieve the ship
+(for which the anchor still on board was sufficient in the
+meantime), from the vehement thumping. The frigate now had
+to encounter a regular North-wester, and only after three
+days of the most furious rolling or pitching, was she able,
+aided by northerly breezes, again to reach her former
+anchorage. The members of the Expedition, left at St. Paul
+to prosecute their scientific labours, occasionally
+experienced a somewhat peculiar feeling when the frigate,
+owing to the severity of the weather, remained invisible
+during these three long days; and fancy involuntarily
+depicted themselves in the position of men whom the stormy
+waves of destiny had cast away on this lonely island in the
+Indian Ocean, there perhaps to languish for weary months out
+of reach of assistance or means of rescue.</p>
+
+<p>Old Viot, who had come for the sixth time to the island,
+alleged that such rainy tempestuous weather at this season
+of the year was quite an unusual phenomenon,&mdash;an opinion
+which somewhat later was confirmed by the reports of several
+North American whalers. Ordinarily the fine season commences
+at the beginning of November, at which period the South wind
+is the most prevalent, the sky often remaining clear and hot
+for weeks together. The hottest month of the year is
+January,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> the coldest June. From May to October it is
+exceedingly difficult to land with boats on the island, and
+cases not unfrequently occur during the continuance of the
+stormy season resembling that which is instanced by the
+historiographer of Lord Macartney's embassy to China, in
+which, during September, 1792, a ship anchored on the east
+side of the island, was only able twice, during the lapse of
+eight weeks, to send a boat to the island with provisions.
+On this station the fishery is confined to the fine season
+(from November to April), while for the rest of the year the
+various huts of the fishermen are entirely abandoned, being
+only inhabited by a couple of men, in whose charge are left
+the few but by no means valueless implements and apparatus
+of the island. These men lead a very monotonous life, though
+not one of privation, for the crater-basin supplies the
+whole year round the most delicious fish, and craw-fish of
+the finest kind.</p>
+
+<p>Our sailors used to hang a basket with bait close to the
+edge of the crater-basin, sunk a few feet in the water,
+which they would draw out every time full of lobsters. In a
+few hours they frequently caught from eighty to one hundred
+pounds' weight of these large and extremely delicate species
+of shell-fish. An excursion which was got up one morning to
+the South side of the island, in a fisherman's boat, was
+rewarded in a few hours with some fifty different sorts of
+denizens of the deep, some of which weighed twenty to
+twenty-five pounds each.</p>
+
+<p>According to Viot's account, snow does not fall often in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span>
+winter, and in consequence of the heat inherent in the
+volcanic soil, never lies long on it. On the other hand,
+hail is a tolerably frequent visitant. Rain is of constant
+occurrence, and sometimes falls in immense quantities. Viot
+was never weary of expressing his astonishment at the
+enormous size of the drops of rain which for many a year he
+had seen fall at St. Paul. The cold is often pretty severe;
+while the almost entire want of firing on the island (for
+the dung of animals is not obtainable in sufficient
+quantities to make its storing worth the requisite labour),
+deprives the poor residents of the comfort of a fireside.
+"If the last storm had not blown down our hut, we should for
+long have had to do without fuel," was the naïve remark on
+one occasion of the old Frenchman, as he lay stretched out
+on a dirty bed, carefully rolled up in his rough woollen
+blanket. Winter begins in May and ends in September. During
+this period the Northerly winds are often very strong. On
+27th June, 1857, there blew for six or eight hours here so
+terrific a tempest that the inhabitants of St. Paul did not
+venture outside of their huts for fear of being rapt away by
+the wind. These storms of winter occasionally rage to such a
+degree that they drive before them into the basin of the
+crater huge masses of water, which they whirl in wild
+confusion to an enormous height, showing that the tract in
+the Southern Ocean traversed by the hurricanes which
+occasionally do such damage about Mauritius and Rodriguez,
+occasionally embraces the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam.
+In November, at the commencement of the fine season, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>
+winds are rather variable, and so continue to the end of
+March, when the N. and N.W. winds begin once more to blow
+regularly; these bring heavy rains and foul weather, after
+which, except that it is cold when the wind changes to West
+with a Southerly tendency, a warmer and drier climate is
+experienced. During our stay we frequently had an
+opportunity of verifying by observation the steady return of
+certain winds in regular succession. For instance, after the
+N.E. wind had prevailed for some days, it veered to N.N.W.
+whence it invariably went to W. by S., where it usually
+stayed some little time, after which it once more went to
+N.E.&mdash;a phenomenon which went through its phases every six
+days with surprising regularity.</p>
+
+<p>There are heavy mists during autumn, but thunder on the
+other hand is far from frequent, nor is it particularly
+violent when it occurs. During a residence of eighteen days
+we never saw the centigrade thermometer stand higher than
+66°·2 Fahr., or lower than 53°·6 Fahr. Lord Macartney gave
+62° Fahr. as the average of the thermometer during his visit
+in February, 1793.</p>
+
+<p>As for earthquakes, a phenomenon whose occurrence at St.
+Paul would possess an uncommon interest, Viot averred that
+during sixteen years that he had visited the island, off and
+on, he neither himself had perceived any indications of one,
+nor had he at any time heard of any such having been
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, Ferdinand (who, nevertheless, had lived but
+eight months on the island) affirmed that his predecessor,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>
+Rosemond, had told him of shocks, comparatively slight it is
+true, which he (Rosemond) had felt during his several years'
+abode here. Considering the small circumference of the
+island, and the violent surf on its shores, slight
+oscillations may not improbably be felt, which are caused by
+other than volcanic agencies. Moreover, on the outer margin
+of the crater-basin, the island presents at those numerous
+points, from which at ebb-tide roll volumes of smoke and
+steam, so many natural vents for the escape of the confined
+subterraneous gases, that in their ordinary state, and so
+long as they continue open, in future, there is no especial
+reason to suppose there will be any upheavings of the
+earth's crust in consequence of volcanic agencies. The
+earthquake of 14th August, 1857, which was pretty severely
+felt in Cape Town and the vicinity, does not seem to have
+included St. Paul within the circle of its influence. The
+present inhabitants of St. Paul, at all events, unanimously
+assert that they cannot recall having perceived, either on
+the 14th August, or at any time about that period, any
+shocks of earthquake whatever, or to have observed any
+unusual appearances either in the surface of the earth or in
+the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>We purposely say "at any time about that period," because
+the inhabitants of the island do not avail themselves of
+that assistance so universal now-a-days of a printed
+calendar, but trust to memory for keeping a reckoning of the
+flight of time. That mistakes should frequently occur with
+such a method of computing time is rendered the more
+probable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> that not one of the three denizens of the island
+can write. For instance, we once remarked to our worthy Viot
+that by his own reckoning he had marked one day more than he
+had actually lived. "We always get into a mess with these
+confounded months of thirty-one days!" was the good-humoured
+reply of the ancient wanderer from Nantes.</p>
+
+<p>Although the volcanic soil of St. Paul is everywhere
+especially adapted for scientific study, it nevertheless
+presents few objects with which to enrich collections of
+natural history. An island, on which not a single tree or
+bush is to be found, and on whose tufa soil, though well
+adapted for fruit, only a few grasses, ferns, and mosses
+thrive, must, so far as regards the value of his researches,
+prove as little interesting to the botanist as the
+zoologist, who, as we shall see more circumstantially
+further on, came across but few representatives here of the
+animated kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>At several places, the practical gardener who accompanied
+the frigate was ordered to plant a number of European
+vegetables and anti-scorbutic plants, such as cabbage,
+horse-radish, turnips, of various assorted species, celery,
+garden-cress, and spoonwort,<a name="Anchor-64" id="Anchor-64"></a><a href="#Footnote-64" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 64.">[64]</a> it is to be hoped with
+favourable results. At all events, we had the satisfaction
+during our stay, of seeing the tender shoots of some of the
+vegetables already sprouting through the surface of the
+earth. At that time there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> not above a dozen or so
+cultivated spots on the Island; if, however, these are
+carefully cultivated, they can always furnish enough
+excellent nourishing provision for from 80 to 100 men. A
+quantity of potatoes, from 6 to 8 sacks, planted in June,
+yield, in January or February, a crop of from 60 to 80 casks
+of 100 lbs. each, or between 3 and 4 tons.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-64" id="Footnote-64"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-64">[64]</a> The vegetables planted were as
+follows:&mdash;<i>Brassica rapa</i> (rape); <i>Brassica oleracea
+capitata</i> (sea kail); <i>Brassica rapa alba</i> (white turnip);
+<i>Brassica rapa flava</i> (yellow turnip); <i>Raphanus sativus</i>
+(radish); <i>Lepidium sativum</i> (dittandu); <i>Cochleæia
+officinalis</i> (scurvy grass).</p></div>
+
+<p>Wheat, maize, and barley, also thrive at St. Paul, and their
+cultivation has only been discontinued, in consequence of
+their conversion into bread requiring a much larger amount
+of fuel than is at the command of the residents. On the
+other hand, all attempts to cultivate beans and peas have
+utterly failed hitherto. All kinds of nutritive plants give
+but one crop in the year. So also several kinds of trees,
+which promised to grow well, considering the resemblance
+between the climate here and that to which they were
+indigenous&mdash;such as <i>Pinus maritima</i>, various kinds of
+<i>Protea</i>, &amp;c., and the successful rearing of which would
+ultimately prove an extraordinary benefit to all who
+frequent the island, in consequence of the great scarcity of
+firewood&mdash;were planted as seedlings by the gardener attached
+to the Expedition, in the vicinity of the two huts used for
+the observations. Assuredly it will not be one of the least
+important benefits of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition, which it will
+have conferred on St. Paul, if the growth of the seedlings,
+planted in its soil with such a noble purpose in view,
+should result in the gradual and at all events partial
+clothing of the island in the forest.</p>
+
+<p>As to the Fauna of St. Paul, there appears to be one kind
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> sea-swallow (<i>storna</i>) not hitherto described, the bill
+and feet of which are of a coral-red colour, and delicate
+silver-grey plumage, undoubtedly the most beautiful of the
+feathered inhabitants, as the penguin is the most
+extraordinary and peculiar creature on the island. Besides
+these there is also a pretty grey diver (<i>Prion Vittatus</i>),
+which builds its nest among the rocks; also a brown gull
+(<i>Stercorarius antarcticus</i>), as also three kinds of
+albatrosses (<i>Diomedea exulans</i>, <i>D. fuliginosa</i>, <i>D.
+chlororhinchos</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Crater-basin was somewhat less unproductive than the dry
+land. The depth is from 100 to 175 feet. Close to the edge,
+the sounding line gave a depth of 10 fathoms (60 feet).
+Experiments with the dredging-net, although frequently made,
+gave by no means satisfactory results. On the other hand,
+the rod and line brought up many an interesting addition to
+our collection, and frequent strolls at ebb-tide along the
+barely uncovered masses of rock that skirted the basin of
+the crater were rewarded with numerous discoveries of
+specimens of conchology. In the centre of the basin we came
+upon slimy ground at a depth of 204 feet; near the hot
+springs (about 100 feet distant), 19 fathoms (114 feet); and
+at a third point, on the south side, 23 fathoms (138 feet).
+Viot said, that after repeated soundings at different
+points, he had found the depth of the basin varied from 10
+to 35 fathoms (60 to 210 feet). The seals (<i>Arctocephalus
+Falclandicus</i>) of which, according to Macartney, at the end
+of last century, thousands daily came to the coast of the
+island to bask in the sun, have almost entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span>
+disappeared, so that these animals are very rarely seen or
+captured by the inhabitants. Even of the skeletons of these
+marine mammals, which, when the naturalists of the <i>Lion</i>
+were roaming through the island, used to lie about in such
+numbers that one could almost walk upon bones all round the
+crater, not a vestige is left, and one can hardly realize
+that formerly hundreds of thousands of these animals were
+slaughtered at this island.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all the quadrupeds of the island are domestic animals
+that have been brought hither from Europe and the French
+colonies&mdash;such as swine, goats, cats, rabbits&mdash;which at
+present live here in a wild state. The goats, which were
+first introduced in 1844, are most numerous on the N.W. of
+the island; the swine, on the contrary, are not so
+frequently met with. During our residence, a boar and a wild
+cat were killed; a few days after, the five young of the cat
+were found, having been compelled to emerge from their lair
+in search of food. A female hare, which we had brought from
+Cape Town, was also set free on the island, and it was
+fortunate for the propagation of these useful animals that
+there was already a male hare on the island. A pair of geese
+was also presented to the colonists, which perhaps have
+continued to breed there.</p>
+
+<p>As we thought the island was uninhabited, it was originally
+our intention to leave several kinds of domestic animals of
+different sexes with a view to propagation; and with that
+object, when at Cape Town had made various purchases of
+useful animals; but, under the circumstances, we
+relinquished this intention, as there seemed but little
+chance of their being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> left undisturbed sufficiently long to
+secure the desired object. Occasionally cows would be landed
+from the whalers for the sake of the fresh fodder, and taken
+away again after the lapse of a month or two.</p>
+
+<p>The projected scientific operations of the Expedition might
+easily have been carried out within eight days, had we not
+been so obstinately persecuted with unfavourable weather.
+Violent north winds, which rendered it impossible to make
+any use of the surveying-board in the open air, alternated
+in an extraordinary manner with rainbows. Our astronomical
+observations were as yet nothing to speak of. Observations
+with the barometer, thermometer, current-measurer, and
+tide-guage, could alone be prosecuted, the last of which
+especially gave the following interesting result, that the
+hour of high water, both at full moon and new moon, is not
+11 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, as given by Horsburgh (7th edition, Vol. I. p.
+102), but at 1.10 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span><a name="Anchor-65" id="Anchor-65"></a><a href="#Footnote-65" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 65.">[65]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-65" id="Footnote-65"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-65">[65]</a> According to Lord Macartney, the tide rises at
+full and new moon, between 8 and 9 feet perpendicular. A
+northerly wind always causes the highest tide, the current
+of which is from S.E. by S. to N.W. by N., and has a
+velocity of about 3 miles an hour.</p></div>
+
+<p>The proper carrying out of the objects of the geognostic
+enquiries was hampered by unforeseen obstacles and
+difficulties. One day the rain would be so heavy, that the
+slight covering of our apartments would be insufficient to
+protect us any longer from the beating of the rain which
+fell in bucketsfull, and began to leak through innumerable
+seams and cracks on to the beds, tables, and floor. Did any
+one think to shelter himself in the hut of a neighbour?&mdash;ere
+long there commenced a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span> regular emigration, which very
+speedily came to a conclusion, by each and all having the
+melancholy satisfaction of perceiving that Fortune had set
+to work with rigorous impartiality, and had resolved to let
+each one of us feel the weight of her displeasure. And so we
+passed the long dreary hours in our comfortless huts, that
+gave free entrance to wind and rain, with umbrellas
+outspread or wrapped in our India-rubber cloaks, gazing
+moodily at the numerous cases full of valuable instruments,
+which, instead of being serviceable to science, were, by the
+loss of so many splendid opportunities, doomed to
+inactivity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 699px;"><a name="illu359" id="illu359"></a>
+<img src="images/illu359.jpg" width="699" height="498" alt="Occupants under roof and umbrella." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RAINY DAY AT ST. PAUL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fortunately, all showed themselves animated by the utmost
+zeal for the undertaking and its successful issue; and, in a
+word,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> each fresh avalanche of difficulties, which sought to
+thwart our exertions and impair our forces, served only to
+reawaken the energies and reanimate the confidence of each
+and all amid all our calamities.</p>
+
+<p>So soon as the hovel we inhabited, which had enabled us to
+make observations upon the direction and strength of the
+wind rather than secured us any accommodation for sleep, had
+been in some degree restored to its original condition, we
+availed ourselves of the slight improvement in the weather,
+to examine a tolerably numerous collection of very
+beautifully bound books, which were found stowed away in one
+of the recesses for books running into the four partitions,
+and had in all probability much to dread from the rain-water
+trickling through the covering of the roof. These had been
+brought hither by a former proprietor of the island, and
+when it was sold were transferred with the rest of the stock
+of tools, &amp;c., to M. Ottovan, who occasionally resided at
+St. Paul for a month or two, but seemed, so far as the
+condition of the books went, rarely to meddle with them. It
+was curious enough, however, to encounter in a lone desert
+island, so many evidences of the most refined civilization,
+so we shall cite in a note some of the most interesting of
+this library of about 150 different works, which deserved a
+better fate than to moulder away undisturbed till they fell
+into dust.<a name="Anchor-66" id="Anchor-66"></a><a href="#Footnote-66" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 66.">[66]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-66" id="Footnote-66"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-66">[66]</a> Among these were the works on Natural History,
+by Charles Bonnel (Neufchâtel, 1783); J. S. Laharpe's
+"Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale des Voyages, Paris, 1816;"
+Dacier's "Translation of Horace into French, with Notes and
+Critical Remarks. Paris, 1816;" "De la Félicité Publique;
+ou, Considérations sur le sort des Hommes dans les
+Différentes époques de l'Histoire: A. Bouillon: from the
+Printing Establishment of the Typographical Society, Paris,
+1776;" "Essay on the Life of the Great Condé, by Louis
+Joseph, Prince de Condé, at present in England, London, 1st
+May, 1807;" "Précis des Journées 15, 16, 17, and 18 Juin,
+1815, ou Fin de la Vie Politique de Napoleon Buonaparte, par
+M. Giraud, auteur de la "Campagne de Paris en 1814;" Paris,
+1815, 1st vol. 8; "Histoire des Guerres des Gaulois et des
+Français en Italie, avec le tableau des évènemens civils et
+mílitaires qui les accompagnèrent et leur influence sur la
+civilisation et les progrès de l'esprit humain." "Depuis
+Bellevise jusqu'à la mort de Louis XII., par lex
+Adjutant-Général Auguste Jubé, tribun." "Depuis Louis XII.,
+jusqu'àu Traité d'Amiens, par Joseph Servan, Général de
+Division. Dediées à S. M. l'Empereur. Paris, an. XIII.
+(1805)." "Manuel des habitans de St. Dominique, contenant un
+précis de l'histoire de cette isle depuis sa découverte,
+etc., par S. J. Duc&oelig;urjoly, ancien habitant de St.
+Dominique; Paris, 1800, an. X, 2 vols.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Less fortunate were we in our researches for any document
+which could in any way throw any light, direct or indirect,
+upon the former history of St. Paul. The only piece of
+writing which we found that had reference to the island, was
+a licence drawn up during the reign of Louis Philippe, dated
+20th February, 1846, to M. Adam, of St. Denis (in the Island
+of Bourbon), to proceed to carry out a certain undertaking
+in the schooner "<i>La Mouche</i>," 30 tons' burthen, under the
+protection of the French flag. "<i>La Mouche</i>," is the same
+boat in which Viot had made so many voyages to and fro
+between St. Denis and St. Paul. This document, which the
+poor old Frenchman drew out one evening from a drawer
+thickly strewn with dust, insensibly led the conversation to
+the quondam owners of St. Paul, and thence naturally to an
+enquiry, on our part, as to the number of graves which
+dotted this romantic offshoot of Père la Chaise. "The
+climate is far too healthy, and the island far too little
+frequented, to admit of there being many graves in St.
+Paul," replied Viot. Of the blacks, whom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> M. Adam had once
+worked so unmercifully on the island, very many perished
+here owing to the severity of their treatment, but no one
+knows where their bodies lie;&mdash;very possibly their bones lie
+scattered about the island, like the remains of the much
+persecuted petrel (<i>prion turton</i>), which the predatory gull
+throws carelessly from him after he has stripped off the
+flesh, and gorged himself on the most delicate morsels. Only
+two graves are known to the present residents,&mdash;one is the
+resting-place of an Englishwoman, who died on board a
+merchant-ship which happened to be near the island, and
+whose grave was dug in the earth on the north side of the
+crater-basin; the second covers the body of a ship captain,
+who was accidentally drowned in the basin by the upsetting
+of a small boat, as he was approaching the bar in heavy
+weather. His grave is at a short distance behind the huts of
+the colonists, and bears traces to this day of the solemn
+feelings with which it was erected; an enclosure of large
+stones neatly arranged, make the site and its object at once
+recognisable.</p>
+
+<p>Shipwrecks are unheard of at St. Paul; at least, none such
+have been known to occur since it has been occupied by man.
+On the other hand, they are of more frequent occurrence at
+the sister island, as has very lately been evidenced by the
+catastrophe of the <i>Meridian</i>. However, the elements are not
+always to blame for such lamentable occurrences. Ships are
+sometimes dashed to pieces on the shores of Amsterdam in the
+finest weather, so that one is almost induced to believe
+that these misfortunes are occasionally resorted to
+intentionally, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> as to realize some high insurance on a
+vessel which has probably already become half unseaworthy&mdash;a
+not very conscientious method of doing business, of which,
+however, some of the natives of Greece and the borders
+thereof are not unfrequently guilty. In February, 1855, a
+North American whaler struck upon the north-east side of
+Amsterdam in a calm, and with a clear sky overhead, so that
+the entire crew, 30 in number, were able to secure the
+provisions and their kits. The captain, with one of the
+ship's small boats, made for the Island of St. Paul, 42
+miles distant, in the hope, probably, of getting assistance
+thence. A lucky destiny so willed it, that (the accident
+having occurred in the finest season of the year), a vessel
+of M. Ottovan's, which by a strange coincidence was named
+<i>L'Ange Gardien</i> (the Guardian Angel), lay at anchor inside
+the crater-basin, loading with fish. The shipwrecked crew
+were indebted to his circumstance that, within 14 days more,
+they found themselves at Mauritius. A report circulated
+among the residents of St. Paul that the captain of the
+stranded ship had landed with some of his companions in a
+boat on the N.E. of Amsterdam, with the intention of
+searching for a sum of several thousand dollars which a
+previous visitant to this island was said to have buried
+there for some mysterious reasons. While the captain was on
+shore, vainly searching for a considerable time after the
+buried treasure, the shipmaster left in charge in his
+absence came too near the island, whereupon the vessel had
+been lost upon one of the numerous reefs which lie off the
+shore. A part, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> was added, of the buried money had, in
+fact, been recovered. According to Viot, the captain had dug
+up 1000 dollars (above £200), and one of his companions 300
+dollars.</p>
+
+<p>At last, on the morning of 3rd December&mdash;the fifteenth of
+our stay at the island&mdash;the sky shone so brightly that one
+could, with more probability than hitherto, cherish the hope
+that the various operations we had been compelled to lay
+aside might finally be brought uninterrupted to a successful
+conclusion. However, the very wet day was again exceedingly
+unfavourable for open-air observations, especially
+astronomical, inasmuch as a pretty strong North-east wind
+incessantly drove over the island clouds of rain, the very
+heaviest of which, attracted by the mass of the island,
+broke right over our heads. Fortunately this spell of bad
+weather did not last as long as the first; and when, on 6th
+December, the <i>Novara</i> once more made her appearance at the
+island, and enquired by signals as to the progress made in
+our appointed work, we were so fortunate as to be able to
+reply by the same means, that the most important portion had
+been completed, and that the officers and naturalists were
+ready to re-embark.</p>
+
+<p>About 9 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, the frigate anchored in 25 fathoms, close to
+the spot where the English ship <i>Fly</i>, Captain Blackwood,
+lay in 1842. It was the third time that the <i>Novara</i>
+anchored off St. Paul. Twice before had she experienced
+unusually tempestuous weather, which compelled her to sheer
+off from such a perilous coast, and expose herself to be
+lashed for days together by the raging giant waves of the
+infuriated element.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One of the boats sent by the frigate to take us off to the
+ship, brought at the same time some presents, in memory of
+the Expedition, for the residents of the island, who had
+been so hospitable and obliging during our stay. The
+presents consisted of ship biscuit, salted meat, and various
+other edibles, wine, a musket, woollen blankets, clothes,
+shoes, tools, medicines, vinegar, oil, &amp;c. The simple,
+modest fellows were immensely pleased with these unexpected
+presents, and Viot especially seemed overjoyed on seeing a
+number of tools, for want of which many of the repairs
+necessary in the interior of their anything but air-tight
+wooden habitations, were daily becoming more apparent.</p>
+
+<p>We left a book on the Island of St. Paul, in which the
+principal memoranda of what we had achieved were set forth
+in three languages (German, English, and French), with the
+view of supplying to future scientific visitors, data for
+further researches and observations, and at same time incite
+them to prosecute these we had ourselves made.</p>
+
+<p>We insert here this document, which will yet give witness,
+probably, of the scientific activity of the Austrian
+Expedition at the Island of St. Paul in the Indian Ocean, at
+a period when those engaged in it will long since have
+voyaged to</p>
+
+<div class="poem" style="padding-left: 50%; margin-left: -6em;"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"That undiscovered country from whose bourne<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No traveller returns."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>"The Imperial Austrian Frigate, <i>Novara</i>, 44, under the
+command of Commodore the Chevalier von Wüllerstorf-Urbair,
+engaged in a voyage round the globe for scientific
+purposes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> anchored at nine in the morning of 19th November,
+1857, on the Eastern side of St. Paul, with the purpose of
+prosecuting astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, and
+geodesical observations and measurements, and at same time
+examine thoroughly the natural history of the island.
+Extremely unfavourable weather in great measure delayed the
+expedition; and, after having successfully carried out a
+series of observations and researches, the results of which
+will in due time be published, the officers and naturalists
+in charge of the various departments, on the 6th December of
+the same year, quitted St. Paul, each bearing with him the
+most pleasing reminiscences of that interesting island, and
+of its three poor, but eminently kind inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>"For the guidance of future observers the following
+memoranda may prove useful:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I. That the spot at which observations were taken was on a
+small eminence, north of the huts of the colonists, and
+which may be recognized by a small pyramid of stones, on
+which the Austrian Expedition marked the observed latitude
+38° 42&#8242; 55&#8243; S., and the longitude 77° 31&#8242; 18&#8243; E. of
+Greenwich.<a name="Anchor-67" id="Anchor-67"></a><a href="#Footnote-67" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 67.">[67]</a> Further that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-67" id="Footnote-67"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-67">[67]</a> The time, which we took from the Cape
+Observatory by four excellent chronometers, gave, on our
+voyage between the Cape and St. Paul, a period of forty-six
+days, a difference of 3 h. 56 min. 11 sec., which the island
+was E. of the Cape, so that adding the Longitude of the
+latter East of Greenwich (by nautical almanack), 1 h. 13
+min. 55 s., we have the Longitude of St. Paul 5 h. 10 min. 6
+s. East of Greenwich (77° 31&#8242; 30&#8243; E.) Between Madras and
+St. Paul, during a long passage of sixty-seven days, and
+with six chronometers somewhat less accurately set than the
+preceding, St. Paul was found by observation to be 0 h. 10
+min. 51.8 sec. West of Madras (2° 42&#8242; 55&#8243; W.) By the
+longitude of the Observatory of Madras, 5 h. 20 min. 57 sec.
+East of Greenwich (80° 14&#8242; 15&#8243; E.), as furnished by the
+Director of the Observatory, Major Jacobs (whereas the
+nautical almanack gave 5 h. 21 m. 3.77 sec. = 80° 16&#8242;
+0&frac12;&#8243;). The longitude of St. Paul would be 5 h. 10 m. 5.2
+s. East of Greenwich (77° 31&#8242; 23&#8243; E.) The average of the
+two measurements gives as the average 5 h. 10 m. 5.6 sec.,
+or 77° 31&#8242; 26&#8243; E. to be assumed as the final longitude of
+St. Paul, while the latitude was taken from the various
+means of the height of the sun at the meridian on an average
+of days. An additional computation in which allowances were
+made for the various corrections, gave, as the latitude, 38°
+42&#8242; 47&#8243; S.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>"II. That the direction of the true meridian line drawn from
+this point to the nearest opposite shore of the South side
+of the crater-basin was marked by an oblique (St. Andrew's)
+cross.</p>
+
+<p>"III. That the tidal-gauge was situated on a rock near the
+landing-place, and that the rise of the tide above the mean
+level of the water (3 feet 5 inches), was marked on a slab
+of rock smoothed for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>"IV. Lastly. The magnetic observations were taken in a hut
+erected for that express purpose on the little plateau
+behind the settlers' huts, where at the same time various
+sorts of useful trees were planted by the Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>"The names of the officers and naturalists who, under the
+superintendence of the commander of the Imperial Expedition,
+took part in the various scientific operations were:&mdash;for
+Astronomy and Terrestrial Magnetism, Lieutenant Robert
+Müllar; Botany, Dr. Edward Schwarz and M. Jellinck; Geodesy
+and Meteorology, Lieutenant Eugen Kronowetter; for the
+Trigonometrical Measurement of the Crater-basin, Lieutenant
+Gustavus Battlogg; for Geology, Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter;
+Ethnology and Physical Geography, Dr. Karl<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span> Scherzer;
+Zoology, G. Frauenfeld and J. Zelebor; Draughtsman and
+Artist, Joseph Sellemy."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 193px;"><a name="plate404t" id="plate404t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate404t.jpg" width="193" height="350" alt="Novara's track." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE V.&mdash;TRACK FROM ST. PAUL TO POINT DE GALLE.
+(CEYLON).</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate404.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Towards 5 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> the last boat came off with the measuring and
+levelling instruments, and various articles of baggage.<a name="Anchor-68" id="Anchor-68"></a><a href="#Footnote-68" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 68.">[68]</a>
+The embarkation was finally completed. Half-an-hour later
+the <i>Novara</i> weighed anchor, and we steered, favoured with
+most splendid weather and full of pleasing anticipations,
+for the adjacent island of New Amsterdam. Not without sundry
+twitches of sadness did we remark the sharp crater of St.
+Paul gradually fade away like a vision in the gloom of
+approaching night; and many undying memories must attach to
+our residence on that lonely, world-forsaken island.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-68" id="Footnote-68"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-68">[68]</a> Remembering how many bottles and glass tubes
+were shattered, we have not thought it beyond our province
+to recommend future scientific travellers to bring with them
+a good supply of duplicates of all instruments liable to
+breakage, as it is very difficult to get such insignificant
+articles replaced out of Europe, and we frequently found on
+this occasion the want of some such little instrument
+interposed an obstacle to the further usefulness of the
+instruments.</p></div>
+
+<p>And now, at the moment of our departure from the island, be
+it permitted us to cast a retrospective glance at the
+various results obtained by the Expedition of the <i>Novara</i>
+during her stay at St. Paul.</p>
+
+<p>Never hitherto on this island, so important by its
+geographical position for ships trading with China, the East
+Indies, Australia, and New Zealand, have astronomical and
+magnetic observations and geodesical measurements been so
+thoroughly ascertained as by the <i>Novara</i> expedition. Upon a
+carefully measured base-line, various points of the upper
+and lower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span> margin of the crater were accurately laid down by
+means of the Theodolite, and the whole island submitted to a
+geometric network of angles. At the same time the geologist,
+with the aid of the compass and the patent levels, prepared
+a chart originally intended for geological purposes only,
+while the draughtsman of the expedition added to its value,
+by skilfully sketching in from these given points the
+configuration of the coast-line of the island. By their
+united efforts there has been published a chart of St. Paul,
+which gives even to the minutest details an entirely correct
+and accurate representation of the form and surface of the
+island. This minute chart, or plan, was prepared on a scale
+of 132 Vienna fathoms to one Vienna inch, or <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>9504</sub> of the
+natural size. Moreover, it is intended preparing, from this
+map and from the various outlines and views taken on the
+spot, a plastic model of the island after Nature, which,
+moulded in gypsum, will give scientific inquirers the most
+accurate conception of its singular structure. Not less
+interesting for navigators in the Indian Ocean will be the
+publication of the various observations which, during our
+stay of 18 days, were made with the barometer, thermometer,
+tide-gauge, and gauge of the velocity of currents, taken at
+certain fixed hours, day and night, as also the soundings in
+the crater-basin, and on both sides of the bar. Although the
+complete publication of these <i>data</i> must await the
+appearance of the nautical portion of the present work, we
+shall give here the most important of these results. The
+extreme length of the island from N.W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span> to S.E., is three
+nautical miles; the superficial area is 1,600,000 Vienna
+square klafter&mdash;1 Vienna klafter = 1 fathom = 6 English
+feet&mdash;100 English square feet = 92&nbsp;<sup>986</sup>&frasl;<sub>1000</sub> Vienna square
+feet. The highest point of the crater-basin is 846 feet; the
+greatest diameter of the upper rim of the crater is 5490
+feet; the least 4590 feet; the greatest diameter of the
+basin at the level of the sea is 3984 feet, and the least
+3444 Vienna feet.</p>
+
+<p>The observations on the state of the weather, taken with
+much difficulty, are not intended to include the regular
+observations on the exterior of the island, and in like
+manner some of those taken in the harbour, or basin of the
+crater, must be accepted with a certain limitation. For
+similar reasons, we were unable to fix the rate of the
+current setting from the sea into the basin, although we
+secured most extraordinary results considering the
+circumstances. The amount of specimens of natural history
+which was procured, was very limited, but on that account
+was the more valuable. To the geologist, it must be of the
+very highest interest to find that St. Paul has been
+classified, with scientific precision, and by dint of
+personal examination and research, in one of the four main
+divisions in which, according to the scheme of Alexander Von
+Humboldt, the volcanic formations of the earth may be
+divided. Measured by the latest distribution of the volcanic
+strata by the description of stone found, as laid down by
+the greatest of German naturalists, St. Paul belongs to the
+same class as Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Teneriffe, &amp;c.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> in
+a word, to what is known as the Chimborazo formation. A
+section of the east-side, taken in profile, lays bare its
+entire geological history, and forms one of the most
+instructive means of coming to direct conclusions as to its
+geological structure.</p>
+
+<p>The birth of this island from the bosom of the deep,
+combined with eruptions of lava and scoriæ, was the last
+effort of the subterranean forces. Since that period it has
+been subject wholly and solely to the various terrestrial
+influences, although the lapse of centuries has not been
+able to extirpate the last traces of the volcanic fire which
+once poured forth its currents of molten lava. A large
+proportion of the level ground is hot, and at the lower edge
+of the rim of the crater appear several hot springs, the
+temperature of which, as already remarked, is so high that
+fish, eggs, potatoes, &amp;c., can be cooked on them in a few
+minutes. The highest point of St. Paul rises 870 feet above
+the basin of the crater. Its walls rise abruptly at an angle
+of about 85°, while the upper surface of the island (with
+the single exception of a small plateau of about 400 feet on
+the north side) stretches, at first level from the periphery
+of the upper margin of the crater, gradually falling away
+towards the sea-coast, at an angle of about 13°. On its
+North-west coast, where it is from 100 to 200 feet in
+perpendicular height, the island presents several small
+pyramids of pumice, like parasitic warts on the principal
+mass.</p>
+
+<p>Like the geologist, the botanist also found in this wild
+spot an unusual opportunity of acquiring accurate
+information as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> the occurrence and propagation of certain
+kinds of plants in a primitive soil. Six grasses and one
+reed (<i>cyperaceæ</i>) form the vegetation of the island, one
+rush and three or four of the grasses forming the majority.
+The botanist having ascended to the plateau found there two
+grasses, both of which grew to a certain height only, and at
+certain places; the one (in the immediate vicinity of the
+settler's huts,) the oat, or <i>avena</i>; the second a
+<i>digitaria</i>, in the neighbourhood of the terraced fields,
+directly opposite the entrance to the crater, in warm
+positions, which, so soon as the earth is a little
+disturbed, emit jets of steam. It is still uncertain whether
+the other kinds of grass, <i>Poa</i> and <i>Setaria Holcus</i>, belong
+exclusively to St. Paul, or are to be included in the more
+general group of geographical plants known as that of the
+islands of Edward's Island, Kerguelen's Island, and St.
+Paul.</p>
+
+<p>Among the grasses there spring up here and there, but on the
+whole very sparsely, some wild vegetables which have been
+planted by previous chance visitors.<a name="Anchor-69" id="Anchor-69"></a><a href="#Footnote-69" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 69.">[69]</a> In the crater there
+are also <i>Sonchus arvensis</i> and one <i>Plantago</i> (Plantain).
+On the south margin of the crater are <i>Cerastium</i> (maize-ear
+chickweed), and <i>Stellaria media</i> (chickweed); both grow on
+a small piece of ground, and are far from thriving. Of
+<i>Cryptogamia</i> the botanist found four sorts. Two
+<i>Parmelias</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> one <i>Evernia</i>, and one <i>Cladonia</i>, the
+first-named overrunning the blocks on the edge of the crater
+with great luxuriance.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-69" id="Footnote-69"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-69">[69]</a> Such as <i>Rumex acetosella</i>, <i>Cynara Scolcymus</i>
+(artichoke); <i>Solanum tuberosum</i> (species of nightshade);
+<i>Daucus carotta</i> (carrot); <i>Petroselinum sativum</i> (parsley);
+<i>Brassica oleracea</i> (sea-kail); <i>Raphanus sativus</i>
+(horse-radish).</p></div>
+
+<p>Of <i>Algæ</i> there were found 33 species. The stones rolled
+backwards and forwards by the action of the waves, as also
+those surfaces which remained covered at lowest tide, were
+entirely covered with <i>Dicurella flabellata</i>. Most numerous
+was <i>Gigartina radula</i>, just in a state of fructification.
+Every movement of the water calls up slender, delicate
+<i>confervæ</i>, and pale and coloured <i>luminariæ</i>. The breakers
+have crowned the stones with festoons of the <i>Macrocystis
+pyrifera</i>. Of Liverworts there were found <i>Marchantia</i> and
+<i>Jungermania</i>; of foliaceous mosses, <i>Sphagnum</i> (bog-moss),
+and two kinds of <i>Bruym</i>. Two ferns, just beginning to bear
+fruit, were found on the plateau, and one <i>Lycopodium</i>
+(club-moss), which thrives pretty well, and frequently grows
+on the <i>Sphagnum</i>. On the whole, the botanist of the
+expedition found on the island, 11 <i>Phanerogamia</i>, 4
+<i>Lichens</i>, 33 <i>Algæ</i>, 2 ferns, 2 Liverworts, 3 foliaceous
+mosses, 1 <i>Lycopodium</i>. In this enumeration are included the
+European vegetables cultivated by the residents, as also
+some untended plants, which apparently have been introduced
+with the vegetables, or have been brought hither by previous
+visitors. The stony substratum of this island is barely
+covered with a plastic vegetable substance, which fills the
+cracks. The walls of the crater, as also the entire plateau,
+present to view a plain, unrelieved expanse of grass; not,
+however, like fields clothed with sward, but single tufts
+pressing one upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> other, which seem like the
+grave-mounds of a hundred bygone generations of plants.
+Frequently, at the foot of a block of pumice, all overrun
+with grasses of all sorts, one comes upon a moss or a stem
+of fern on one of the pieces of lava that has been washed
+up, or perceives with amazement in some out-of-the-way
+place, and utterly neglected, good old acquaintances from
+Europe, such as carrots, parsley, potatoes, &amp;c., which
+apparently have been begun to be cultivated on some of the
+terraces, whence they have propagated themselves in a wild
+state all over the island. But not a tree, or bush, is to be
+met with throughout the island.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, although the zoologist seemed to have but a
+poor prospect at St. Paul, it presented materials for most
+satisfactory speculation to the attentive naturalist. Only
+one of the grasses is infested by an insect, which appears
+in great numbers, a very tiny <i>cicada</i> (cricket), the
+<i>Delphis hemiptera</i>, of which, according to the zoologist of
+the expedition, it is hard to say whether it became
+indigenous to St. Paul before, or contemporaneous with the
+arrival of man. Among other insects that have certainly been
+introduced here, the zoologist found the common
+bluebottle-fly, a gnat, the universally found cockroach, the
+book-tick (<i>acarus eruditus</i>), one kind of earwig, and the
+flea; besides the <i>Isopodis</i>, our common barrel-worm,<a name="Anchor-70" id="Anchor-70"></a><a href="#Footnote-70" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 70.">[70]</a> in
+almost fabulous quantities. These animals invariably follow
+man wherever he plants his foot, living upon garbage or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span>
+decaying organic matter. With the exception of the
+clothes-moth, which has probably been introduced among the
+wool-stuffs, there are in the island no butterflies, none of
+the been tribe, no <i>Neuroptera</i>. Mites also need scarcely be
+reckoned, since the only representative, the common
+cheese-mite, is more apt to become extinct than to thrive;
+on the other hand, there are two kinds of spiders, for which
+the enormous number of flies furnish sufficient food.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-70" id="Footnote-70"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-70">[70]</a> These loathsome animals cover the island in
+such quantities that one of the naturalists reckoned them at
+6,000,000,000, counting 100 as the minimum to each square
+foot of the island.</p></div>
+
+<p>The species belonging to the sea are somewhat more
+plentifully represented, although, with few exceptions, very
+small and insignificant. The largest shell fish, a
+<i>Tritonium</i>, only attains a length of 3 inches; <i>Patella</i>,
+which is very plentiful all round the island, is only 1 inch
+long; several sorts of snails (such as <i>Buccinum</i>,
+<i>Defrancia</i>, <i>Mangelia</i>, <i>Paludinella</i>, <i>Adeorbis</i>,
+<i>Janthina</i>, <i>Fissurella</i>, <i>Scutellina</i>, <i>Lepidopleurus</i>,
+<i>Bulla</i>, <i>Asteronotus</i>, <i>Doto</i>), are barely a few lines in
+length, or even less.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Brachiopoda</i> are represented by a very inferior member,
+the <i>Terebratulina</i>, only two lines long, which, however, is
+a giant compared with one of the two only kinds of mussel,
+<i>Kellia</i> and <i>Lima</i>, which are occasionally met with here,
+and are only half-a-line in length.</p>
+
+<p>Among the <i>Vertebratæ</i>, the fishery of which is the
+principal object of the visits annually paid to the island,
+one, the <i>Cheilodactylus</i>, a spinous-finned fish, which is
+extraordinarily abundant all round the island, supports an
+important fishery, while <i>Thyrsites Atun</i> were frequently
+caught with rod and line from the frigate.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of <i>Amphibiæ</i>, there is not a vestige to be found on the
+island; the birds belong for the most part to the
+powerful-winged web-footed birds that frequent the open
+ocean, as, for example, the <i>Diomedea exulans</i> (great
+albatross or man-of-war bird), <i>D. chlororhynchus</i>
+(yellow-billed albatross), <i>D. fuliginosa</i> (a new one not
+determined), <i>Lestris catarractes</i>, <i>Storna sp: Prion
+Vittatus</i>, of which the four last-named, at the time of our
+visit, had both eggs and young. Of birds with fin-shaped
+wings, there was the golden-crested penguin (<i>Apterodytes
+chrysocoma S.</i>), living in two distinct colonies among the
+precipitous overhanging cliffs, with innumerable young,
+already of a pretty good size.<a name="Anchor-71" id="Anchor-71"></a><a href="#Footnote-71" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 71.">[71]</a> We also remarked several
+other winged denizens of the deep, which had alighted on our
+ship during the last few days immediately preceding our
+arrival at St. Paul. According to the fishery-people, the
+other birds of the island quit it altogether so soon as
+their young have grown sufficiently, and only return when
+the next breeding season comes round.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-71" id="Footnote-71"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-71">[71]</a> One of the zoologists, Mr. Zelebor, endeavoured
+to kill two penguins that had been caught alive in the
+island, the one with arsenic, the other with chloroform. Of
+the latter, a quantity was administered enough to have
+killed a man, but which scarcely affected the penguin, who,
+in a quarter of an hour after, seemed quite restored to
+himself. The second, which had swallowed two tea-spoonsful
+of arsenic, died eight hours later.</p></div>
+
+<p>In contradistinction to the sea-birds, M. Frauenfeld
+remarked but one single land-bird, a swallow, whose
+movements seemed to indicate that he was watching a breeding
+female. A stray bird on this lonely spot of earth, nearly
+3000 miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> away from the main land! Hundreds of questions
+suggested themselves on thus unexpectedly coming upon so
+well-known a wanderer. What could have condemned him to this
+self-imposed exile? Was he a straggler? Was it the first
+time he had selected this island for a home? Had it been his
+own cradle? And would he at some future period find
+companions to visit with him, and ultimately share these
+solitary desolate abodes?</p>
+
+<p>There were no seals visible,&mdash;they have retreated before the
+attacks and stratagems of their insatiate pursuer the
+seal-hunter, and for a long period have ceased to frequent
+the island. Indeed, St. Paul furnishes not a single specimen
+of mammal peculiar to itself; for all the members of this
+great natural division at present on it,&mdash;such as goats,
+swine, cats, &amp;c.,&mdash;having become wild, must necessarily be
+classed, however unusual, with rats, mice, and the like. In
+other respects, all these have not varied in the slightest
+from the type of the domesticated animal (although they have
+probably lived wild for a hundred years past), except that
+they are very shy and avoid the presence of man.</p>
+
+<p>While upon these various points, the stay of the Imperial
+Expedition at St. Paul gave many splendid results by means
+of observations and scientific collections, it was also
+productive of a number of important practical benefits for
+seafaring people. The geodesical results, for instance,
+obtained by the Expedition, demonstrate that there is formed
+by the basin of the crater at St. Paul's, despite the small
+extent of its coast-line, a secure natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> haven which
+would afford substantial facilities for ships, to which, on
+their voyage to China, Australia, or anywhere in the East
+Indies, any accident has happened, necessitating complete
+and speedy repair, or which might require fresh provisions
+for their crews, stricken with scurvy after a long voyage.
+For, although the depth of the basin of the crater in the
+centre is very considerable, and although the squalls of
+wind from the N.W. are often very violent, the ship can
+always make fast to the land, and so ensure the requisite
+security. How far the assistance so cheerfully rendered by
+science may have been called for, or how far the route at
+present traversed by sailing vessels makes that assistance
+desirable, must be left to the judgment of those nations,
+such as the English, French, and Dutch, which, as having
+possessions washed by the Indian Ocean, have a direct
+interest in the future condition of such a harbour of
+refuge, situate equidistant from Asia, Africa, and
+Australia.</p>
+
+<p>The morning after our departure from St. Paul, that is to
+say, on 7th Dec., we found ourselves not more than ten miles
+distant from Amsterdam. The first view of the island greatly
+resembles that of St. Paul, and the hypothesis gained
+constantly in probability that the geological formation of
+Amsterdam is nearly identical with that of St. Paul.</p>
+
+<p>A whaler was cruising in the neighbourhood of the island,
+while one of his slim whaleboats was pursuing a school of
+sperm whales, which sported about in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Towards 7 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, a boat approached from the whaler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span>
+<i>Esmeralda</i>, Captain Pierce, of New Bedford, Massachusetts,
+to ask for surgical assistance for a sailor who, while
+engaged a few days previously in hauling a captured fish
+alongside, had had his left hand so severely injured by one
+of the lines, that amputation had seemed the sole remedy.
+The Captain had, in genuine Yankee fashion, assumed the
+duties of surgeon, and performed the operation himself. Now
+that it was over, and when neither praise nor censure could
+benefit the patient, he was anxious to know whether he had
+done right or wrong. While one of the ship's surgeons was
+getting ready, as requested by the captain, to proceed to
+the bedside of his patient, the whaler informed us he had
+already been absent from his family in the States five
+months, and would proceed hence to the Sandwich Islands and
+the Northern grounds, and finally return home round Cape
+Horn. If the take of fish proved good, he hoped to complete
+the voyage within two years. Whale-fishing, in truth, is not
+only a very dangerous and laborious, but also a most
+precarious pursuit. Occasionally a ship gets loaded within a
+brief space with oil and whalebone, by which, of course, the
+owner or charterer makes a splendid profit, and the entire
+crew obtain a handsome share. But frequently does it happen
+that, after a voyage of fifteen months and more, there is
+not a single fish taken, in which case the hardy sailors,
+who are entirely dependent for their pay upon a share of the
+spoil, have had all their labour and undergone all their
+privations in vain, while the freighter is poorer by a good
+round sum. The bare chance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> however, of a rich haul is
+sufficient to raise to 8000, the number (probably on the
+increase) of the ships of varying tonnage and nationality,
+which at present encounter the anxieties, dangers, and
+hardships attaching to the whale-fishery. It is calculated
+that, were it possible to anchor them within signalling
+distance of each other, they would form a complete girdle
+round the earth at the Equator. In other respects, the
+incessant activity of the whaler is not without its
+advantages for science, since the observations and
+communications of many of the captains connected with the
+whaling business have essentially contributed to extend our
+acquaintance with atmospheric phenomena, especially in high
+latitudes, on both sides of the Equator.</p>
+
+<p>The loquacious captain, an uncommon quality in a Yankee,
+could not conceal his astonishment at encountering an
+Austrian man-of-war in such a latitude in mid-ocean, and
+adverted to this unexpected phenomenon. Captain Pierce
+further complained bitterly of the weather, and said that,
+as long as he had sailed the Indian Ocean, he had never at
+this season experienced such tempestuous weather as during
+the last week; which was further confirmed by several other
+whalers, regular visitors to these waters. Respecting
+Amsterdam, Captain Pierce, unfortunately, could give us but
+very little information. He had never set foot on the
+island, nor did he know whether it was accessible at all.
+But he spoke highly of the availability of the coasts for
+valuable fish. Nowhere in the Indian Ocean, the Captain
+remarked, was there such an abundance of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span> fish of all
+descriptions as at the Southernmost point of this
+little-known island. Consequently most whalers, on their
+course Southwards, approach this island, and send out boats
+to bring in supplies of fish suitable for the table. Usually
+the boat is filled in a few hours with delicious food caught
+with the rod and line, when the fish are forthwith salted,
+in sufficient quantities to supply the crew for several
+weeks.</p>
+
+<p>Is Amsterdam really a sister-island of St. Paul? Is it, too,
+of volcanic origin, upheaved by the same subterranean
+energy, and does it still show similar traces of
+long-continued activity? These questions pressed on us for
+solution all the more vividly as we neared this inaccessible
+island, when we recalled to mind the mysterious phenomena
+which D'Entrecasteaux had observed here in March, 1792, and
+which have remained unexplained to this day.<a name="Anchor-72" id="Anchor-72"></a><a href="#Footnote-72" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 72.">[72]</a> The French
+Expedition saw, it is true, clouds of smoke emerging
+alternately from a subterranean opening close to the shore,
+but without being able to satisfy themselves whether the
+vegetation had been set on fire by the hand of man or by
+volcanic action, the wind which blew direct from the island
+making it impossible to land, unless one was prepared to run
+the risk of being suffocated by the rolling masses of smoke.
+There was, therefore, to be solved, at Amsterdam, the
+mystery as to whether the pillars of smoke, which were
+observed by the naturalists of the French Expedition of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span>
+1792, issuing from the soil adjoining the sea, were produced
+by an actual eruption, or were caused by subterranean fires
+in activity.<a name="Anchor-73" id="Anchor-73"></a><a href="#Footnote-73" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 73.">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-72" id="Footnote-72"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-72">[72]</a> La Billardière, Rélation du voyage à la
+recherche de la Peyrouse, fait par ordre de l'Assemblée
+Constituante pendant les années 1791-94, Paris, 1800. (Vol.
+I., pp. 112, 113.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-73" id="Footnote-73"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-73">[73]</a> Vide Alexander v. Humboldt's "Kosmos," Vol.
+IV., pp. 412 and 585; also Physical and Geognostic Remarks,
+by the same author, prefixed to this volume.</p></div>
+
+<p>About 11 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, the two jolly-boats of the <i>Novara</i> were
+lowered to look for a landing-place on Amsterdam, while the
+frigate stood off and on, under easy sail, at an offing of
+five or six miles. Our whaling informant had told us the
+most abundant fishing-station was at the south point of the
+island, while the best place for disembarking was on the
+N.W. shore. As, however, upon consideration, it was deemed
+advisable, looking to the probability of a N.E. gale
+springing up, to get to windward of the ship, so as to be
+able to fetch her more speedily on our return, the S.E. side
+was selected, and our course laid for it accordingly. Along
+the acclivities of the coast pyramids of loose stones were
+visible, resembling those on St. Paul, but more numerous and
+of larger dimensions, the entire island seeming altogether
+on a much larger scale, and more lofty. On the West side we
+observed rocky precipices of from 1000 to 2000 feet in
+height, fissured with deep clefts and rents, whereas on the
+South and S.E., these presented a more gradual slope.</p>
+
+<p>For above an hour we steered along the shore, which rose
+sheer out of the water, without being able to detect a
+single point at which it was at all practicable to
+disembark, so as to scramble up to the high ground. The
+entire Eastern side is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span> hemmed around with steep abrupt
+precipices of 150 to 200 feet high, not unlike
+skilfully-erected bastions, and clothed with long thick
+grass.</p>
+
+<p>As we drew near, we could plainly discern in the
+water-courses that descend upon the upper slope&mdash;radiating,
+as it were, from all sides of the highest peak, which was
+enveloped in clouds&mdash;numerous streams of water, each pouring
+through a rift like a thread of silver, after which,
+precipitating itself over the steep precipices on the shore,
+it washed like a small torrent over terraces and banks of
+lava, till it was lost in the sea. If these streams are
+swollen by the heavy rain in winter, they may form
+waterfalls, as mentioned by early navigators, which must
+impart a far less pleasing character to the landscape. Two
+small patches of dazzling white, like fresh fallen snow,
+which were visible high above the slope, we could not make
+out with the utmost power of our glasses. The green colour
+which enveloped the entire island seemed to indicate the
+existence of grass vegetation resembling that of St. Paul.</p>
+
+<p>At last, when we had got within two cables' length of the
+shore, we encountered enormous green flakes of floating
+sea-weed, which, becoming entangled with the rudder, made
+further progress possible only by dint of most strenuous
+exertions. This proved to be the same gigantic sea-tangle of
+the Southern hemispheres (<i>Macrocystis Pyrifera</i>), which
+likewise constitutes a barrier of <i>fucus</i> on the East side
+of St. Paul. The sea-calves mentioned by older describers
+were nowhere to be seen; but on the other hand we had an
+opportunity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span> satisfying ourselves as to the immense
+abundance of fish which frequent the coast of the island in
+a truly astonishing degree, although the American whaler had
+prepared us by his remarks. From bow and stern of the boat
+hooks and lines were hung out, and several of the crew were
+at once kept busy hauling in the lines, at the end of each
+of which there usually struggled a fish of some two or three
+feet long. These were chiefly umber fish, which are also
+very plentiful about St. Paul, where, from their delicacy,
+they formed a favourite dish at our otherwise very frugal
+repasts.</p>
+
+<p>We had now got so near, that we could distinctly perceive
+grass and the stems of ferns growing among the clefts of the
+rocks. However, although there was a dead calm, and the sea
+outside was as smooth as glass, the long ground-swell of the
+ocean, with its broad flat billows, caused such a heavy surf
+on the rock-bound stony beach, that the attempt to pass it
+was not to be thought of. The further we advanced along the
+coast in a northernly direction, the more distant we got
+from the ship, and unluckily in an equal degree our hopes
+were disappointed of finding a spot at which we could land,
+and scramble from the strand up the steep bank to the level
+ground above. The south-easternmost point, which at a
+distance presented the appearance of a low headland jutting
+out into the sea, behind which we had hoped to find a good
+landing-place, now that we had got close to it, proved to be
+a small detached rock; while the shore, as far as the eye
+could reach, rose like a wall to a height of from 150 to 200
+feet. There now hove in sight five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span> whalers, who seemed
+hunting that most valuable of all the inhabitants of the
+deep, of the spots frequented by which Maury's renowned
+Whale Charts have lately supplied so interesting and useful
+a code of instruction. These charts, which are based on a
+vast number of observations, of the tracts of ocean and
+seasons of the year at which whales are most frequently
+seen, will at the same time greatly tend to a solution of
+the question as to the migration of these enormous mammals;
+for it has never yet been settled, whether these animals
+flee from the pursuit of man to remote seas, thus
+continually constraining their pursuers to seek their prey
+in new waters, or whether, (as is the most prevalent
+opinion), they are always entirely extirpated from one
+locality, and accordingly are only to be met with in any
+numbers in some different area, in which man has as yet only
+rarely, if ever, disturbed them.<a name="Anchor-74" id="Anchor-74"></a><a href="#Footnote-74" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 74.">[74]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-74" id="Footnote-74"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-74">[74]</a> Some very valuable and detailed particulars of
+the Whale fishery are to be found in Maury's incomparable
+work, "The Physical Geography of the Ocean," and in Dr.
+Hartwigs' "Popular Treatise on Animated Nature in the Ocean.
+(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.)"</p></div>
+
+<p>After an hour-and-a-half of continuous rowing, and when, in
+our very unsuitable boat, we had got about 7 nautical miles
+distant from the frigate, we at last found a smooth spot
+between two reefs, which projected above the level of the
+sea like a breakwater, and at once let go the boat's anchor.
+A regular landing-place, however, was not to be hoped for at
+this point. It was necessary first to make a spring to a
+block of rock, and thence, picking one's way among stones
+rendered slippery by being covered at flood-tide, endeavour
+to reach the beach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span> This we all succeeded in accomplishing
+over the rough rocks, without any mischance, and at last we
+stood on the firm soil of the Island of Amsterdam, at a spot
+which assuredly had never before been trodden by human feet,
+unless by some castaway. For only in consequence of the sea
+being perfectly calm, which at this season was quite
+unusual, were we able to reach the shore at this point.</p>
+
+<p>What a scene of wildest desolation, and inaccessible
+solitude now met our gaze! Around us nothing but huge blocks
+of basalt, some rolled about by the breakers, and so
+slippery with half-dry <i>algæ</i>, that one was in danger of
+falling at every stride; others with their angles and
+indentations as sharp, as when first violently torn from
+their original bed; and behind these gigantic blocks, a
+perpendicular wall of rock rising 200 feet sheer, composed
+of a schistus of basaltic lava lying regularly and
+horizontally one over the other, intermixed with red or
+brown slag, and yellow tufa. Immense holes and cavities in
+the rocky wall, as also the empty spaces between the broken
+blocks that had fallen down, and the vast air-holes scooped
+out in the lava beds, furnished an undisturbed
+nestling-place for flocks of a beautiful sea-swallow, with
+glossy black head, silver-grey body, and bill and feet of
+carmine red&mdash;the most elegant and attractive contrast of
+colours that can well be imagined upon any bird. These
+pretty creatures afforded great amusement to the sportsmen
+of our little party, while the geologist acquired a better
+idea and more information as to the mineralogy and geognosis
+of the island beneath the steep wall of rock, than he could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span>
+have obtained above, where all seemed to be covered with
+thick green grass. But the botanist and zoologist found but
+little to repay their search on the beach. The same <i>Algæ</i>,
+the same grasses, the same <i>patellæ</i> (limpets), as at St.
+Paul, even to the same caterpillars swarming upon every tuft
+of grass in numberless quantities. At several points, fresh,
+perfectly good, sweet spring-water trickled down from the
+heights, and we could thus confirm the relations of former
+explorers, that the island contains fresh water; but whether
+it can be got at, still remains a very uncertain question.
+As we were convinced, after several examinations and much
+exertion, that to ascend the precipice from this spot was
+impossible, it was resolved, after the men had rested, and a
+few observations had been made with the sextant, to
+re-embark and endeavour to find a more suitable spot for
+disembarking.</p>
+
+<p>We quitted this first spot about 2 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, and continued to
+steer along the coast in a N.E. direction. The character of
+the scenery remained almost unaltered. The steep shore wall
+indeed dipped somewhat occasionally, but it was never less
+than 100 feet above the level of the sea. At various points
+there appeared, as at St. Paul, between the tufa strata,
+black veins of basalt, and fragments of scoriæ, lying upon
+reddish-brown slag. Our curiosity, however, was especially
+excited by the appearance of small trees and low bushes. At
+first, while we were yet at some distance, we could barely
+distinguish a few dark, clear, green spots amid the
+universal dull olive appearance of the vegetation that
+covered the island; now that we were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span> keeping closer in, we
+plainly saw small trees, which seemed most to resemble
+forests of pine, as also what appeared to be thick close
+brushwood of a light green colour, with which large patches
+of the middle and lower slopes of the island were covered.
+In vain did we watch for some spot in this singular island
+at which we might land and climb; at length, after steering
+several miles further along the coast, and passing several
+promontories advancing from the island, and numerous
+isolated rocks, we came, towards 3.30 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, upon a number of
+lava-blocks that had fallen from above, and, forming a sort
+of dam or bulwark between the sea and the shore, seemed to
+render disembarkation possible. The boat's anchor was again
+dropped, and we proceeded to make for the shore by dint of
+jumping, as before, from rock to rock; a method of reaching
+land more agreeable and better suited to penguins than
+decorous philosophers!</p>
+
+<p>Among the rocks on the strand lie fragments of shipwrecked
+vessels&mdash;pieces of masts and yards&mdash;dumb witnesses of human
+disaster, and suffering, and death! At this point the shore
+was not very steep. The masses of rock piled here on each
+other in wild confusion, made our ascent more practicable
+than at our former landing-place, though perhaps they
+necessitated greater circumspection. Dr. Hochstetter and M.
+Zelebor, as also Lieutenant Kronowetter, and a sailor,
+started for the height. A ridge, grown over with grass and
+rushes, and forming a line of communication between the
+upper and lower portions of the island, seemed the most
+accessible point.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span> at which to mount to the high ground
+above. At first the path led over the colossal rampart of
+broken rocks and through the surf, after which came clumps
+of rushes and clods, in which the former grew, and thence
+upwards over masses of slag. It was a regular Sisyphean
+task. On the loose rolling <i>débris</i> beneath the feet, for
+every five feet forwards, one slipped four backward, so that
+to climb this height of little over 100 feet, took nearly a
+whole hour. At last the adventurous scramblers stood on the
+top of the island, on a small bare cone of scoriæ, whence
+they were able to overlook a portion of the ground. Dense
+rush-like grass, as high as a man, thickly covered the
+entire surface&mdash;half-withered, half of a lively green; here
+broken short off by wind and rain, there still standing
+erect. Further progress was not to be thought of, not even
+as far as the green clump of bushes which had already been
+observed from the boat, although it was scarcely a hundred
+paces distant, on the surface of the declivity, and although
+a closer examination promised to afford many interesting
+details as to the vegetation on the island. It would have
+been necessary to make one's way either through heaps of
+withered rushes, requiring to be broken down at every
+moment, or across thick, matted, fresh, slippery grass, in
+order to get anywhere near the copse that resembled the
+pinewood. Moreover, owing to the short allowance of daylight
+that remained, both were for the present inaccessible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span><a name="Anchor-75" id="Anchor-75"></a><a href="#Footnote-75" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 75.">[75]</a>
+Evening was coming on, and it was necessary to think of our
+return, as we were at a distance of at least eight miles
+from the frigate. With the help of pocket-handkerchiefs,
+which they had tied to the reeds, the explorers readily
+found again the place at which they had ascended, and now
+speedily returned to the improvised landing-place, where,
+meanwhile, the naturalists that had remained behind had
+occupied themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span> with collecting specimens on the beach,
+and amid the surrounding rocks. A singular spectacle now
+presented itself to the astonished view. A couple of lucifer
+matches that had been thrown aside without further thought,
+had burst into flames amid the parched rush beds, and dense
+volumes of black smoke forthwith rose upon the surface of
+the island. The fire speedily spreading among the thick dry
+grass, soon assumed a formidable breadth, and ere long a
+considerable portion of the east coast of the island was in
+a light flame. There was now presented to the members of the
+<i>Novara</i> expedition, the same spectacle as that witnessed by
+the naturalists of the <i>Recherche</i>, when D'Entrecasteaux
+passed here some sixty years before. It may safely be
+assumed that the fire, and the thick wreaths of smoke then
+visible were like those of to-day, the result of man's
+hands, and not of subterranean forces&mdash;in fact, kindled in
+all probability by fishermen, who were clearing this
+uninhabitable island of the close impervious brushwood that
+so greatly impedes locomotion, and were rendering it capable
+of being traversed, as well as susceptible of cultivation.
+During the night of 7th and 8th December, 1857, the sky was
+clear and cloudless, and the flames crackled and leaped high
+above the beach, in an elliptical area, which must have
+measured a couple of miles in its major axis. A dense,
+copper-coloured, luminous cloud of smoke rose straight into
+the air, where it spread out horizontally, till at last a
+long trail of smoke stretched in a S.E. direction to the
+farthest horizon, entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span> covering the upper part of the
+island. About 2 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, according to the report of the officer
+of the watch, the spectacle was still more grand and
+imposing. The conflagration at that time extended over an
+immense surface, so that the imagination might naturally
+enough be disposed to regard this as the bursting forth of
+the pent-up flames of a volcano, with the usual
+accompaniments of red-hot streams of lava, clouds of
+floating ashes, and pillars of flame mounting to heaven.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-75" id="Footnote-75"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-75">[75]</a> One of the shipwrecked crew of the <i>Meridian</i>,
+in an article in the <i>Nautical Magazine</i>, for 1854, p. 75,
+describes at some length the difficulties of access to this
+island. We quote it here as a supplement to our own
+experiences:&mdash;"After we had clambered up to the top by means
+of ropes, and after much exertion and considerable danger,
+we found the island for a space of two or three miles
+thickly covered with reeds, from 5 to 8 feet high; behind
+rose a lofty hill, also clothed with reeds. Fortunately,
+during our stay on the island, there was a sufficiency of
+fresh water, although in summer, in all probability, there
+is a great scarcity. So long as we remained, constant rain
+fell upon the summit of the mountain, and kept the numerous
+little brooks full of water. In order to signal our
+situation to any ship that might be passing, we set the
+reeds on fire; but the flames spread more furiously than we
+had anticipated, so that our lives were endangered. A
+considerable quantity of young birds were picked up, which
+had fallen victims to the flames. On the 29th August, to our
+great joy, a ship, the <i>Monmouth</i>, hove in sight, and
+observed our signal; but the surf was at this time so
+violent that no boat could reach us. At last, on 31st
+August, a boat came near enough to the shore to make us a
+signal to proceed eastward over the rocks. We set off at
+once, but found the path very rugged, and owing to the
+immense masses of rock lying around, excessively difficult.
+Besides reeds and brushwood, there were no other plants but
+parsley and endive (<i>cichorium intybus</i>). During the first
+half of the following day we found no water, but we found
+the hail very grateful, which day and night fell
+incessantly, alternating with rain. At the first
+watering-place we came upon an English sailor, whom the
+captain of the <i>Monmouth</i> had despatched to assist us. He
+informed us we must make for the north side of the island,
+as no boat could reach the shore at the spot where we had
+gone ashore. The south-coast is the worst part of the
+island; there the surf breaks continually against the
+iron-bound coast; there is nothing resembling a beach&mdash;only
+here and there enormous blocks of a hard species of stone,
+that have fallen from time to time from the cliffs above. On
+2nd September, we had neither provisions nor water. The
+following day, however, we found water, and a few
+cabbage-stalks, which several years before had been sown by
+some whalers, and fortunately had thrived. On 5th September,
+we reached what is called the Cabbage Garden, and the same
+evening arrived at the place where the boat was awaiting
+us."</p></div>
+
+<p>Fortunately, this gigantic conflagration must have done far
+more good than harm to this desolate island, covered as it
+was for the most part with reeds, since, without destroying
+any of the vegetation that could be of service to man, it
+will greatly facilitate examination by future voyagers, and
+adapt it for settlement by fishers and others, who at
+present seem to leave it utterly abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Towards 6 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, as it was already getting dark, our two
+boats set out on their return to the frigate, from which in
+the course of the day they had been distant about fifteen
+miles. However a fresh Northerly breeze having sprung up we
+were able to make sail, and at 7.30 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> once more reached
+the frigate, when we were received with a storm of
+questions, principally turning upon the mysterious
+far-visible conflagration,&mdash;which had been kindled by a
+couple of humble Vienna lucifers! During our visit to the
+island a variety of observations were also made on board the
+frigate, to obtain the position of Amsterdam, as also to
+determine the elevation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span> the most prominent peaks of the
+island, and the outline of the shore. The results of these
+gave the following: latitude 37° 58&#8242; 30&#8243; S.; longitude, 77°
+34,' 44&#8243; E. of Greenwich; elevation of the highest summit
+(nearly corresponding with previous observations), 2891
+English feet; of the second highest, 2651 feet; the length
+of the South coast, as measured from the frigate, 32,359
+feet; of the Western shore, 5507 feet.</p>
+
+<p>There was still some faint hope that we might visit the
+island next day. However, during the night the wind sprung
+up, the weather became variable, and we saw ourselves
+compelled to renounce our cherished desire to investigate
+the island thoroughly, the rather that, owing to the
+unpropitious weather during the last few weeks, the stay of
+the <i>Novara</i> in these latitudes had been prolonged so
+considerably beyond the period fixed, that no more time
+could be spared, if it were desirous to avoid sacrificing
+the objects of the Expedition with reference to other and
+more important departments of scientific enquiry, by
+engaging in them at a season in all probability highly
+unfavourable for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently our observations in Amsterdam remained most
+imperfect; although the geologist of the expedition was
+enabled to clear up the uncertainty hitherto prevailing as
+to the geological structure of the island, and to determine
+upon scientific data, that Amsterdam is an extinct volcanic
+cone, of precisely the same character, and belonging to the
+same order of volcanic formation as the sister island of St.
+Paul; that it probably contains on itself all the usual
+indications of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span> volcanic origin, and that its upheaval
+probably took place at the same period. On the other hand,
+the naturalist regretted to see slip the opportunity so
+rarely vouchsafed, of instituting a comparison between the
+respective vegetations of these islands, and of making
+evident how, simultaneously with the advance of a more
+luxuriant, and more multiform vegetable organization, there
+also appears an entirely new race of animals, and how
+closely allied in the economy of nature is the existence of
+individual specimens with certain fixed pre-existent types.
+In any case St. Paul, which we enjoyed an opportunity of
+examining in the utmost detail, is, of the two islands, the
+most important to the commerce of the world, not merely as a
+finger-post on the most frequented deep-sea route in the
+Indian Ocean, but also as a haven of refuge for ships and
+crews. Already the crater-basin of St. Paul has served in
+case of need as a desirable asylum for ships that are half
+unseaworthy. Not many years since an English man-of-war
+steamer came to St. Paul, after a severe storm in the Indian
+Ocean, during which her engine broke down, and her rudder
+was knocked away, after which she, for twelve days, was
+steered by a temporary rudder. The vessel, after discharging
+the heaviest part of her equipment, was easily brought into
+the interior of the crater-basin, and was there hove down
+for several months on the Northern barrier, undergoing
+repairs.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th December, about 4 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, only a dark cloud of
+smoke in the distant cloudless horizon indicated the
+position of Amsterdam. The island itself, properly speaking,
+was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span> actually out of sight, for a fresh N.W. breeze had
+driven us merrily along during the night. The last hope was
+now dissipated of being able to obtain a view of the North
+side of Amsterdam. We were now rapidly approaching the
+region of the S.E. Trades. The breeze freshened and crept
+gradually to the West, thence to the South, and finally to
+the Eastward. This veering of the wind proved to be a
+fore-runner of the Trades, which we got into on 14th
+December, in S. latitude 28° 1&#8242;, E. longitude 85°.</p>
+
+<p>On that day a merchantman hove in sight, which, with
+favouring breezes and all sail set, soon bore down on us.
+She came down without any flag, and stood right across our
+bows at so short a distance that we could plainly read her
+name&mdash;the <i>Bunker's Hill</i>, of Boston&mdash;on her stern.
+Thereupon we ran up our flag; and, as it is as gross a
+breach of the code of maritime politeness for a ship to pass
+across the bows of another in the open ocean without
+saluting, as for a man on land to brush quickly across
+another's path without apologizing, a blank shot was fired
+at this unmannerly American. To this manifestation etiquette
+lays it down that, as the hoisting of her flag by a
+man-of-war is a direct challenge for any merchantman that
+may be in sight to hoist its flag, any neglect of these
+universally recognized rules must involuntarily give rise to
+suspicions. After we had fired the blank shot, the American,
+by a telegraph of flag-signals, enquired the latitude and
+longitude, which in merchant ships in the open sea is pretty
+frequently resorted to, in order to know where precisely
+they are, as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span> are not able to make such frequent
+observations as ships of war. Before anything else, however,
+it was necessary to settle the question of saluting; and
+this the obstinate Yankee, in spite of the warning signal,
+seemed resolved not to notice, although he well knew the
+seriousness of his position, as was abundantly evident in
+the celerity with which several ladies and gentlemen, whom
+we could discern on deck, flew to seek shelter below! A
+second report, accompanied by a ball over his stern, at last
+brought this pertinacious captain to his senses, and the
+whistling of the shot had the desired effect. The "Stars and
+Stripes" were run up, upon which we signalled the required
+latitude and longitude. Probably it was but a petulant
+explosion of a silly national vanity, as also the
+consciousness of commanding a handsome crack "clipper," that
+could speedily run out of gun-shot, which led to this
+premeditated and persistent violation of one of the most
+ordinary rules of politeness. Indeed, even the vessels of
+the North American navy itself are frequently compelled in
+the open sea to treat their fellow-countrymen in a similar
+manner; and the captain of the war-steamer <i>Minnesota</i>,
+looking after the North American interests in China, was
+obliged, as we learned afterwards at Shanghai, to enforce a
+compliance with established sea usages on one of his
+seafaring compatriots, by dint of cannon-shot, in accordance
+with the undoubted practice of all maritime nations.</p>
+
+<p>The south-east Trade, which we had hoped would drive us on
+our destined course, was not so strong or so steady as we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span>
+had expected, chiefly perhaps in consequence of the
+influence exercised by the Australian continent, the
+temperature of which during this, the summer season of the
+Southern Hemisphere, is raised to an extraordinary degree by
+its sandy surface, that when the air has become thus warmed,
+it ascends and becomes more rarefied in its lower strata, in
+consequence of which its elasticity becomes so great as to
+drive back the surrounding colder atmosphere, and only admit
+it to contact with the heated air at its most remote limits.
+This occurs the more readily, that the heated air, after it
+has risen to the more rarefied tracts, expands on all sides,
+and at a certain distance from the lower level, begins to
+add to the pressure of the atmosphere. In this self-acting
+zone of increased atmospheric pressure, the winds, however,
+are naturally more faint, and, to observers who happen to be
+on the exterior of this zone, always appear to take their
+rise from the further side. For this reason, probably, we
+fell in with easterly breezes, so long as we had the
+Northern portion of Australia to the eastward of us.</p>
+
+<p>At any rate, the equilibrium of the air seemed to be
+disturbed, as we could plainly perceive from the weather and
+the confused sea. At last on 18th December, the heavens
+seemed somewhat more propitious, though the wind still
+continued easterly; indeed occasionally blew from the north,
+and frequent squalls of rain poured pitilessly down upon us.
+The more, however, we increased our distance from the
+Australian continent, that is, from all land to the
+eastward, the more steadily blew the south east Trade. And
+so we kept standing steadily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span> forwards, till at last, on the
+24th December, in 6° 4&#8242; S. Lat., and 82° 34&#8242; E. Long., we
+reached the eastern boundaries of the Trades and got into
+that of calms.</p>
+
+<p>The heat, which thus far had spared us, began now to be most
+oppressive, and was felt all the more owing to the air being
+extraordinarily damp and dense. Frequently in the afternoon
+a passing shower of rain, which would sometimes completely
+flood the deck, would cool the air for a few fleeting
+moments. Occasionally indeed we had westerly and more rarely
+north-westerly breezes, but these were never of long
+duration, and were incessantly broken by rains and squalls.</p>
+
+<p>And at this same season, at which in our distant Fatherland,
+palace and hut are decked out with unwonted attention, when
+golden fruits and elegant presents glitter from the green
+fir-branches of the Christmas Tree, all lit up with the neat
+little wax-tapers, when man's heart seems to overflow with
+cheerfulness and love of his fellow-creatures,&mdash;at this
+season we were languishing far from our dear ones, tormented
+with the intense heat, scarcely able to realize to
+ourselves, that at home it must now be snow and frost, while
+keen Boreas is whirling the snowflakes aloft, and howling a
+grim accompaniment the while! However, we promised ourselves
+the satisfaction of enjoying these pleasures at our own
+firesides, whereupon our recollections of home and dear
+friends imparted to our minds a wholesome stimulus, arising
+from the soul-inspiring conviction, that we too were present
+in their minds and hearts at this hallowed season. Nay,
+several of the officers of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition were
+surprised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span> when far at sea, in the very midst of the Indian
+Ocean, with Christmas gifts, which thoughtful friends had
+many months before entrusted to the care of discreet
+fellow-voyagers.</p>
+
+<p>After constantly struggling against calms and contrary
+winds, exactly at the first stroke of the New Year, at
+midnight of 31st December-1st January, we reached the
+Equator, which we were now crossing for the second time, and
+began the year 1858 in the Northern Hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>On this New Year's Day we had nearly had a great disaster. A
+lad who was coming down the shrouds fell overboard. The sea
+was perfectly calm and smooth, but already on the morning of
+this very day we had seen many sharks, those dreaded foes of
+man in the domain of ocean, so that the life of the
+unfortunate youth seemed seriously imperilled. The same
+instant in which the youth fell, saw a life-buoy thrown
+over, a boat prepared for lowering, and all usual appliances
+for a rescue made available. But although an excellent
+swimmer, he seemed to lose all presence of mind, probably
+through fear, and must undoubtedly have been drowned, had
+not the boatswain's mate, and two other sailors, leaped into
+the water and made all haste to his assistance. Meanwhile
+the boat had been got into the water, by which rescued and
+rescuers were got safe on board again.</p>
+
+<p>A few months later, the boatswain's mate, for his gallant
+conduct on this occasion, received, by the express orders of
+His Majesty, the silver cross of merit, while the sailors
+were advanced one grade.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The current, which runs northward along the coast of
+Australia, but turns off to the westward about the tenth
+degree of South latitude, so as to pass southward of Ceylon,
+directly along the Equator to the Coast of Africa, carried
+us far to the westward, in consequence of which we had
+overcast, uncertain weather, with, for the most part, calms
+or light breezes. As we found ourselves approaching the
+fourth degree of Northern latitude, a rather fresh N.E. wind
+sprung up, probably the trade wind of the Northern
+Hemisphere, which, however, as we neared Ceylon, again died
+away to a calm.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, in lat. 5° 32&#8242; N., 79° 5&#8242; E., we fell in
+with a current running more than two miles an hour. We had,
+as it turned out, got to the westward of the roadstead of
+Point de Galle, in Ceylon, and found some little difficulty
+in making headway against the current. On 7th January,
+toward 3.30 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, land was made to the eastward, and an hour
+later, a Cingalese canoe was perceived making for the
+frigate under sail. It was the pilot boat, whose crew,
+having been informed by a Hamburg brig that a large ship was
+in sight, had put to sea to meet us.</p>
+
+<p>At the first sight of this little canoe, it was hardly
+possible to refrain from amazement at the courage and
+hardihood with which the half-naked Cingalese boatmen could
+put off some 30 or 40 miles to sea in such a tiny, narrow
+boat, that barely gives them room to sit lengthwise. Two
+cross-bars, or outriggers, projecting on one side, where
+they are fastened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span> externally to a rather massive beam,
+which swims parallel with the boat, gave this canoe,
+apparently so fragile, such stability and seaworthiness,
+that it is at all times not less safe than a boat of
+European construction.<a name="Anchor-76" id="Anchor-76"></a><a href="#Footnote-76" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 76.">[76]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-76" id="Footnote-76"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-76">[76]</a> These canoes resemble very closely the "proas,"
+of the Polynesian Islands, carrying a beam on one side,
+which is quite straight, and always kept on the lee of the
+wind and sea, the change of course being effected by simply
+shifting the sail, and steering with the paddle from the
+opposite end.</p></div>
+
+<p>The natives steer with short paddles, and continue an
+incredibly long time at this most exhausting work, as we
+must conceive it to be. And yet they are to appearance a
+feeble race, except that the muscular system of the upper
+part of the body is remarkably developed.</p>
+
+<p>The dress of these people is remarkably simple, and usually
+consists only of a piece of coloured linen cloth or calico,
+which, worn short like a woman's petticoat, is thrown
+single-fold round the loins.</p>
+
+<p>The pilot, though he could only make himself intelligible in
+broken English, speedily came to a good understanding, and
+offered to sell us bananas, pine-apples, and cocoa-nuts, as
+also Ceylon jewels, the latter of which he carried on his
+person, secured in a parti-coloured cotton belt. This
+reminded us that we were nearing the shores of the country
+in which costly stones are found, but precisely on that
+account, as was natural, our speculative pilot found but a
+poor market for his wares.</p>
+
+<p>Off the coast we caught a shark 7 feet long, and 135 lbs.
+weight&mdash;a rather juvenile specimen&mdash;whose teeth, which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span>
+examined, were already strong and sharp enough to seize a
+man, and strip the flesh off him. Also a number of large
+dolphins and other fish, sported in the dead water under the
+frigate's stern, and provided plentiful employment for the
+harpoon and the rod. Presently we found ourselves within six
+miles of the land, when a large number of pirogues forthwith
+came swarming about us, all of a construction similar to the
+pilot boat, and each manned by four half-naked bronze
+natives. These offered fruits for sale, especially
+magnificent, gigantic clusters of banana. On one such
+cluster we counted, arranged in five rows, one over the
+other, not less than 175 bananas.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th January, we anchored in the unpicturesque haven
+of Point de Galle, surrounded by groves of cocoa-nut palms,
+directly opposite the lighthouse tower, and in a fine quartz
+sand bottom of 16&frac12; fathoms (103 feet English). All large
+ships, that only intend remaining a short time, anchor in
+the open roadstead, the entrance into the inner harbour
+being rather difficult, owing to numerous coral reefs. In
+the roads also lay the English frigate <i>Shannon</i>, from
+which, in the absence of her captain, the first lieutenant
+immediately came on board the <i>Novara</i>, and in the
+handsomest manner put his services at our disposal.</p>
+
+<p>As the only Austrian Consul on the island was resident in
+Colombo, M. Sonnenkalb, the Consul for Hamburg, had the
+courtesy to receive us with the most hospitable of welcomes,
+and proceeded to do us the honours of the place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the 10th we hauled the frigate into the small inner
+harbour, in order to facilitate the shipping of stores. The
+entrance is rather winding, owing to the numerous shoals,
+and it is with some little difficulty that one can find a
+comfortable, commodious berth among such a crowd of
+shipping. We only saluted the flag of the dominant
+nationality&mdash;a customary courtesy&mdash;and were replied to by
+the batteries on shore. An officer of the frigate was then
+dispatched to announce our arrival to the governor of the
+station&mdash;a major in the English army. This gentleman seemed
+not to think it incumbent on him to put himself in the least
+out of his way for us. Indeed, we even experienced some
+little difficulty in procuring a sufficient supply of
+drinking water for shipment as stores; but we must at the
+same time add, in justice to the representatives of England
+in distant countries, that during our entire voyage this was
+the one solitary instance in which English military official
+men did not display that universal readiness to oblige,
+which, to their credit, is so conspicuously and so kindly
+displayed by them in their intercourse with foreign nations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 464px;"><a name="illu403" id="illu403"></a>
+<img src="images/illu403.jpg" width="464" height="192" alt="Cingalese canoe under way." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CINGALESE CANOE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+width: 611px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu405.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu405" id="illu405"></a>
+<a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>
+<span style="position: relative; top:-2em;">VIEW OF ADAM&#39;S<br />PEAK FROM COLOMBO.</span></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 611px; height: 365px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 192px; height: 334px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">VIII.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Ceylon.</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Stay from 8th to 16th Jan., 1858.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English
+Government.&mdash;Better Prospects for the Future.&mdash;The
+Cingalese, their Language and Customs.&mdash;Buddhism and its
+Ordinances.&mdash;Visit to a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of
+Galle.&mdash;The sacred Bo-tree.&mdash;Other Aborigines of
+Ceylon.&mdash;The Weddàhs.&mdash;Traditions as to their Origin.&mdash;Galle
+as a City and Harbour.&mdash;Snake-charmers.&mdash;Departure for
+Colombo.&mdash;Cultivation of the Cocoa-nut Palm, a benevolent,
+Buddha-pleasing work.&mdash;Polyandria; or, Community of
+Husbands.&mdash;Supposed Origin.&mdash;Annual Exportation of
+Cocoa-nuts.&mdash;Rest-houses for Travellers.&mdash;Curry, the
+National Dish.&mdash;A Misfortune and its Consequences.&mdash;The
+Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makun, and Father
+Miliani.&mdash;Annoying Delays with restive Horses.&mdash;Colombo.&mdash;A
+Stroll through the "<i>Pettah</i>" or Black Town.&mdash;Ice Trade of
+the Americans with Tropical Countries.&mdash;Cinnamon Gardens and
+Cinnamon Cultivation.&mdash;Consequences of the Monopoly of
+Cinnamon.&mdash;Rise and Expansion of the Coffee Culture in
+Ceylon.&mdash;Pearl-fishery.&mdash;Latest Examination of the Ceylon
+Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+Results.&mdash;Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.&mdash;The
+Divers.&mdash;Pearl-lime, a Chewing Substance of wealthy
+Malays;&mdash;Annual Profit of the Pearl-fishery.&mdash;Origin of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">&nbsp;</a></span> the
+Pearl.&mdash;Poetry and Natural Science.&mdash;Artificial Production
+of the Pearl.&mdash;The Chank-shell&mdash;The Wealth of Ceylon in
+Precious Stones.&mdash;Visit to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.&mdash;The
+Cowry-shell, a Promoter of the Slave Trade.&mdash;Discovery of
+valuable Cingalese MSS. on Palm-leaves.&mdash;The heroic Poem of
+"Mahawwanso," and Turner's English Translation of
+it.&mdash;Hospitality of English Officials in Colombo.&mdash;A second
+Visit to Father Miliani.&mdash;Agreeable Reception.&mdash;The
+Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous Snakes.&mdash;Adventures
+on the Journey back to Galle.&mdash;Ascent of Adam's Peak by two
+Members of the Expedition.&mdash;The sacred
+Footprint.&mdash;Descent.&mdash;The "Bullock-bandy," or Native
+Waggon.&mdash;Departure from Galle for Madras.&mdash;The Bassos
+(shallows).&mdash;A Berlin Rope-dancer among the
+Passengers.&mdash;Nyctalopia; or, Night Blindness.&mdash;Fire on
+board.&mdash;Arrival in Madras Roads.
+</div>
+
+<p>The inquirer who becomes acquainted by personal examination
+with the important geographical position of the Island of
+Ceylon (called also Seilan or Singhala), her commodious
+harbours, her productiveness, and her marvellous climate,
+involuntarily wonders at the stepmother's part that England
+has hitherto played with respect to this renowned island of
+palms and spices, the Malta of the Indian Ocean, which of
+all the British possessions in distant parts of the earth,
+has, till recently, received the least care or attention.</p>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind, however, that Ceylon is an
+appanage of the British Crown, and it is not an independent,
+self-supporting colony. Those shortcomings of
+administration, for which the mother country is exclusively
+responsible, have been hitherto a complete drag upon her
+development. But the English people have this advantage over
+all other nations, that once anything has been recognized to
+be useful and imperatively required, they proceed to apply
+it with such energy, that they are enabled to make up for
+any neglect with giant strides. During late years many
+fetters have been knocked off which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span> formerly impeded the
+more active development of agriculture and commerce. The
+harbour of Point de Galle (also called only Galle for
+shortness) has become a central station for the steam-boat
+trade with the East Indies, the Burmese Archipelago, China,
+and Australia. A telegraphic wire will ere long stretch from
+Ceylon to England, such as even now unites the island with
+the Coromandel Coast and India; a railway is in course of
+construction between the most important commercial centres
+of the island, and so obvious are the fundamental benefits
+it must confer, that ere long the classical and incomparably
+beautiful island of Ceylon is destined to shine a star of
+the first magnitude in the azure of the Indian Ocean, one of
+the most prosperous, wealthy, and blest of islands!</p>
+
+<p>The scientific researches of all kinds, which have in modern
+days been instituted in Ceylon, have been attended with the
+most important results, bearing upon its history and its
+various tribes, as well as on its natural wealth; and the
+masterly and marvellous work Sir Emerson Tennent lately
+published on the isle of Ceylon, seems intended to
+compensate for many instances of neglect which Ceylon and
+its inhabitants have experienced from the English since they
+seized on it.</p>
+
+<p>Embracing all the three kingdoms of nature, and following up
+with learned accuracy the history of the inhabitants, from
+the obscure traditions attending their earliest settlement
+down to the present day, Sir Emerson Tennent's work is a
+perfect pattern of a monography, although upon this subject
+the German inquirer will involuntarily, and not without an
+emotion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span> of pride, recall to mind Carl Ritter's admirable,
+well-digested publication upon Ceylon, in his classical work
+on Eastern Asia, doubly meritorious by the very fact that
+the German scholar never set foot in the country itself.
+There are, however, indeed few spots on earth which present
+such inexhaustible subjects for the study of the historian
+as well as the inquirer into physical science, of the poet
+and the political economist, as this romantically-beautiful
+island, which we have been taught to regard as the Garden of
+the World, as indeed the special site of the Garden of Eden,
+the first abode of the progenitors of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>We have not to do here, as in most of the islands of
+southern seas, with a savage people, that have only, since
+the first appearance of Europeans, emerged from a state of
+barbarism, and been raised one step towards civilization,
+but rather find, as in the East Indies and China, a peculiar
+type of civilization, which, although widely differing from
+that of Europe, yet seems not less valuable and
+extraordinary. The whites (scarce 7000 in number, of whom
+2482 are females), who live scattered over an area of 24,700
+English square miles, have hitherto been too few in number
+to exercise any marked influence on the customs or mode of
+life of a native coloured population of 1,726,640 souls, and
+hence it is that Ceylon exhibits a more romantic and
+characteristic air than any other British settlement in
+distant parts of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>A people like the Cingalese, of such ardent imaginativeness,
+with a splendid history, and a religion professed in the
+various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span> realms of the East by more than 300 millions of
+people, gains in interest the more we become acquainted with
+them, and the more we make their traditions, their mode of
+life, and their customs, the object of special inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>The Cingalese, or indigenous natives (so named to
+distinguish them from the other inhabitants of the island,
+belonging to other stocks and amalgamated races, who at
+various periods had settled here, and who call themselves
+Ceylonese), were entirely the offspring of Hindoo emigrants,
+who, about five centuries before the birth of Christ, came
+from Hindostan to Ceylon, and imported their own mode of
+government, and system of caste, as also their arts,
+language, and religion, from the continent into the island.</p>
+
+<p>They constitute the germ of the present population, and
+early divided themselves into four leading castes:&mdash;1st,
+that of the royal family;&mdash;2nd, the Brahmins;&mdash;3rd, the
+merchants, peasants, and shepherds;&mdash;and 4th, the sixty
+inferior common castes. At present there exist in Ceylon
+only the two latter. The most numerous is that of the
+peasants, who, however, meddle but little with the
+cultivation of the soil, but have arrogated to themselves
+the exclusive and hereditary possession of all employments,
+lay or ecclesiastical. The dress of the Cingalese usually
+consists of a cloth wound turban-fashion round their head,
+and long white drapery. On festive occasions they wear
+richly-adorned tight-fitting jackets of velvet or wool, and
+on such occasions rank and power assert themselves by the
+number of garments, to such an extent that frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span> a
+wealthy man makes his appearance in several of these
+habiliments, worn one above the other. The Cingalese are
+shorter in stature than the Europeans, their average stature
+being 5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 5 inches, English. Their
+<i>physique</i>, though graceful and delicate, is powerful and
+muscular, with a brawny breast, broad shoulders, the muscles
+of the thigh strongly developed, but with disproportionately
+small hands and feet. Their colour is commonly a
+light-brown, their hair black and quite straight. The women
+are beautifully formed, but even when they can, like
+Asokamalla of historic fame, boast all the forty and six
+marks of the Cingalese ideal,<a name="Anchor-77" id="Anchor-77"></a><a href="#Footnote-77" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 77.">[77]</a> they must fall far short of
+the European standard of female beauty, with their bodies
+anointed with oil, and their mouths stained with the
+betel-nut. As the Cingalese girls usually marry so early as
+12 years of age, they speedily lose the bloom of youth, and
+frequently have the appearance of crones at 20. Another
+especially loathsome habit of the Cingalese is the chewing
+the betel-nut, a custom so universally prevalent among all
+Indian races, that not merely the men and women, but the
+very children exhibit an extraordinary predilection for it.
+The ingredients of this masticatory consist of the green
+tender leaves of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span> the Betel-pepper-shrub (<i>Piper betle</i>),
+the nut of the areca-palm (<i>Areca catechu</i>, or
+cabbage-tree), some lime made of calcined shells, and
+tobacco, which, according to the rank of the individual,
+they keep ready prepared by their side, in silver or brass
+boxes, resembling snuff-boxes. These corrosive substances at
+the same time stain the saliva so deep a red, that, after
+long use, the lips and teeth seem as though smeared with
+blood.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-77" id="Footnote-77"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-77">[77]</a> Of these forty-six perfections of womanly
+beauty we extract the following by way of example, from a
+Cingalese author:&mdash;hair, glossy as the tail of a peacock,
+and hanging in ringlets to the knee, eye-brows like the
+rainbow, eyes like sapphire, and the leaves of the manilla
+flower, a hawk nose, lips lustrous and red as coral, teeth
+small and regular, like the buds of the jasmine, neck thick
+and round, haunches broad, breast firm, and conical like the
+cocoa-nut, the figure slight, capable of being spanned by
+the hand, the limbs spindle-shaped, the sole of the foot
+without any hollow, the skin free from any prominence of the
+bones, sweeping in rounded curves, soft and tender.</p></div>
+
+<p>The language is an offshoot of the Sanscrit, copious,
+harmonious, and full of expression, with threefold grammar,
+and as many vocabularies, viz. for the royal tongue, the
+official or court tongue, and that of society at large. To
+these there must be added the Pali, the learned, but
+obsolete written language of the priestly caste, which the
+Cingalese have in common with the kingdoms of Siam and Ava,
+in the further Indies. In this language, itself but a
+dialect of the Sanscrit, all their sacred books, traditions,
+and poetry are written. In many parts of the island the
+knowledge of language and written lore are held in such high
+honour, that grammar and literature form the entire study of
+the inhabitants. Reading and writing are as common among the
+Cingalese as in England, except that in Ceylon the women
+take no part therein. They do not write as we do, with quill
+or steel pen upon paper, but engrave the characters with a
+fine-pointed iron graver, or <i>stylus</i>, upon the leaves of
+the Talipot palm-tree (<i>Corypha umbraculifera</i>), from which
+they slice a broad strip for the purpose about 2 feet long,
+and several inches broad. These require no further
+preparation than that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span> they must be well smoothed
+beforehand, and all inequalities removed. In order to render
+the writing more clear and legible, the Cingalese rub it
+with a mixture of cocoa-nut oil and fine pulverized
+wood-ashes, which imparts to it durability and prevents
+obliteration. Great numbers, however, use the leaves of
+another species of palm for writing upon, viz. the Palmyra
+palm (<i>Borassus flabelliformis</i>), but those of the Talipot
+are preferred to all others for their closeness of texture,
+and are alone used in important records and other documents.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of the Cingalese is Buddhism, which in Ceylon
+still flourishes in these times in all its pristine vigour.
+Buddha is not the name of the founder of this belief, who is
+called Gautama, or Sakja-Muni, but is only one of the
+numerous titles of honour invented by that personage, who in
+the Sanscrit figures so conspicuously as a sage. Gautama was
+born in the province of Maghada (now known as Reha), in
+Northern Hindostan, <span class="smcap">b.&#8201;c.</span> 624. His parents were Suddhodana,
+King of Magadha, and his consort Maja. Contemplating the
+degeneracy and misery of man, sunk in deepest woe, Gautama
+attacked the doctrine of Brahma, rejected the Vedas, or holy
+books, and founded the new faith, which consists of the
+following fundamental propositions:&mdash;The Creator and Ruler
+of the world is a supreme, invisible, purely spiritual (and
+for that reason obviously impossible to be figured) Being,
+almighty, wise, just, beneficent, and merciful. Man most
+fitly recognizes and honours the Deity by silent
+contemplation: by the practice of chastity, temperance, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span>
+virtue he attains to happiness. The complete fulfilment of
+all his duties confers on him here on earth the dignity of a
+Buddha, or sage, and after death consigns him to the
+beatific repose of <i>non-existence</i><a name="Anchor-78" id="Anchor-78"></a><a href="#Footnote-78" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 78.">[78]</a> (<i>Nirwana</i>). Condemned
+souls are born again in the forms of wild animals. According
+to Gautama's teaching a fresh Buddha always appears at
+certain epochs, whose existence is manifested by his
+extraordinary spiritual powers, by his deeds, and by his
+prophecies, selected by destiny for the purpose of
+enlightening the world as to the decrees of the Supreme
+Being, and to restore religion to her pristine purity. The
+death of a Buddha is also the commencement of a new
+reckoning of time. Gautama, who died about <span class="smcap">b.&#8201;c.</span> 542, or some
+2400 years since, was the forty-fifth and last Buddha that
+appeared to the Cingalese; his doctrine must continue to
+operate for 5000 years, when, according to the Cingalese
+traditions, the next Buddha, or Purifier, will appear.
+Gautama's belief, bequeathed by him to his disciple, the
+Brahmin Mahakaja, was immediately translated into Sanscrit,
+and speedily spread. Several hundred temples and monuments
+dedicated to him are scattered in various parts of the
+island, and remain to this day an evidence of the extent and
+influence of Buddhism.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-78" id="Footnote-78"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-78">[78]</a> The ten precepts of the moral code of Buddhism
+are as follows:&mdash;Kill no living creature&mdash;do not
+steal&mdash;follow no unclean occupation&mdash;tell no lies or
+untruths&mdash;drink no fermented liquors&mdash;live exclusively on
+vegetables&mdash;anoint neither the head nor the body&mdash;go to no
+singing parties or spectacles&mdash;do not sleep on a raised nor
+on a wide bed&mdash;eat but once a day, and before noon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 670px;"><a name="illu414" id="illu414"></a>
+<img src="images/illu414.jpg" width="670" height="488" alt="Temple among the palm trees." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BUDDHA TEMPLE NEAR GALLE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the day of our arrival we at once set off to visit one
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">354</a></span> these Buddhist temples, in the vicinity of Galle. The
+edifice is small and insignificant, only the carved woodwork
+of the door presenting any object of interest as a work of
+art. In the interior is a gigantic figure of Buddha, carved
+in wood, and in a reclining position; it is 20 feet long,
+and painted yellow and red, with long flaps to the ears, and
+a lotus flower on the head; while on the walls around,
+richly decorated with scrollwork, dragons and lions, part
+painted, part sculptured, various interesting episodes are
+represented in the history of Buddhism. Right in front of
+the figure are placed a number of offerings of the most
+miscellaneous description, beneath which are flowers and
+fruits; a small tin box is also particularly conspicuous,
+into which every stranger is expected to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span> drop a piece of
+silver by way of present. Adjoining such a temple are always
+to be found the <i>wiharas</i>, or residences of the priests
+(<i>hamaduruhs</i>), and the spot where preaching and teaching
+are carried on. The priests wear long wide vestures, yellow
+or white according to their rank, or else only a single
+yellow outer garment, which falls in the form of graceful
+drapery over the naked shoulders; their heads are shaved,
+and they walk about quite barefoot, with a parasol of
+Talipot palm in their hand, and observe with strangers a
+reserved, distrustful demeanour.</p>
+
+<p>We were conducted all round by a young priest, of about 20
+years of age, who spoke a little English, which is not a
+very common accomplishment, since the Buddhists have a great
+dislike for all that is foreign. Only at the conclusion of
+our visit did the old, grey, half-blind superior priest make
+his appearance, saluted us, but immediately left us to
+snatch from a boy a shaddock (<i>Citrus decumana</i>), which is
+especially prized by the Cingalese on account of the
+refreshing qualities of its juice.</p>
+
+<p>The priestly office, however, does not deter a native from
+indulging the disgusting habit of chewing the betel-nut, and
+this aged <i>hamaduruh</i> became much more sociable on receiving
+some.</p>
+
+<p>Adjoining the temple, which stands in a charming cocoa-nut
+grove, we first got an idea of the extraordinary luxuriance
+of the vegetation of this island. In a single enclosure, not
+much larger than an ordinary house-garden, we saw
+coffee-trees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span> cinnamon-bushes, clove-trees, nutmeg-trees,
+(<i>Areca catechu</i>), oranges, lemons, pine-apples, and
+bread-fruit trees (<i>Arctocarpus incisa</i>), flourishing in
+wildest profusion.</p>
+
+<p>A second temple, which we also visited, was the Dadále
+Panzela, the largest in the province, and the seat of the
+high-priest of the Buddhists. This worthy personage, a
+septuagenary, is named Nanalangara Seresumana
+Mahdamaradjigurù Ganatchari-Naikunangi, and is surrounded by
+a staff of priests of the temple who are reputed holy, and
+who apparently venerate him as a superior being. This temple
+did not differ much in construction and arrangement from the
+first; but the place set apart for instruction, where, at
+the time of our visit, some youths were busily engaged in
+copying the sacred books upon palm leaves, as also the
+residences of the priests, made a much more imposing
+impression, and spoke of a certain degree of opulence. In
+the midst of a piece of ground laid out like a garden was
+planted the sacred Bo-tree, which is looked upon as holy by
+the Buddhists, because, according to an ancient tradition,
+Buddha was in the habit of reposing under the shadow of its
+branches, as often as he visited the earth. Towering above
+everything wherever a Buddhist temple is raised, there a
+Bo-tree is planted; but the particular sacred tree, the
+original plant from which the legend took its rise, grows at
+Anaradnapura, in the northern part of the former kingdom of
+Kandi, whither it had been suddenly translated from a
+far-distant land, and spontaneously took root in the spot
+where it at present stands, in order to serve as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span> a
+protection and shelter for Buddha.<a name="Anchor-79" id="Anchor-79"></a><a href="#Footnote-79" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 79.">[79]</a> Ninety Cingalese
+monarchs are interred around it, all of whom, by the temples
+and statues they erected to Buddha, are deemed worthy of
+this pre-eminent mark of distinction.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-79" id="Footnote-79"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-79">[79]</a> The sacred Bo-tree (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>) of the
+Buddhists is frequently confounded with the Banyan Tree
+(<i>Ficus Indica</i>), held in such honour by the Brahmins, from
+which latter it differs in this, that it does not throw out
+from its branches numberless twigs which take root again in
+the earth. The incessant waving and rustling of the leaves
+and branches, which is common to both species of <i>Ficus</i>, is
+regarded by the faithful Buddhists as the effect of a
+fear-instilling scene of which the sage was once witness
+under the Bo-tree; just as the Syrian Christians deduce,
+from the fact that the Holy Cross was manufactured out of
+aspen-wood, that this tree is trembling, even in our days,
+with anguish and terror. Singular, what an important part
+the fig-tree seems to play in all religions, including the
+Christian and the Mahometan!</p></div>
+
+<p>The grey-headed high-priest permitted the library of the
+temple to be shown to us, which consists of a large number
+of Pali manuscripts, inscribed on Talipot leaves, each of
+which was enclosed between two elegant boards made of
+calamander wood (<i>Diopyrus hirsuta</i>), fastened with strings,
+and enveloped in numerous folds of cloth, the whole guarded
+with singular reverence, in lofty, broad, wooden cupboards,
+richly carved. When we returned, the chief priest requested
+us to give him our names, and that of the country we came
+from, upon which a young priest carefully wrote down with a
+goose quill on a sheet of paper, in Cingalese language,
+apparently with the view of showing us civility, some
+superficial remarks respecting the <i>Novara</i> Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the pure Cingalese, the island is also inhabited by
+Hindoos from the Malabar coast, Moors (the descendants of
+wandering Arabs and Mahometans from northern India, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span> at
+present carry on the greater part of the trade of the
+island), Malays, Javanese; then Portuguese, Dutch, British
+of the various nationalities comprised under that title;
+and, lastly, Negroes from Mozambique and Madagascar, who
+have formed alliances with the Cingalese, and are rearing a
+numerous mixed race.<a name="Anchor-80" id="Anchor-80"></a><a href="#Footnote-80" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 80.">[80]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-80" id="Footnote-80"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-80">[80]</a> What is related by various writers of the
+practice of "running a muck" (a custom that seems to recall
+the frightful blood-feuds of the Corsicans), long supposed
+to be peculiar to Ceylon, in which a Malay thirsting for
+revenge, and armed with a naked "<i>kreese</i>," or dagger,
+rushes through the streets like a madman, yelling "<i>Amock,
+Amock</i>" (kill, kill), and runs the fearful weapon through
+the body of the very first person he meets,&mdash;seems to be
+founded on a mistake. No one could give us any particulars
+on the subject from personal observation. Sir Emerson
+Tennant too, in his work on Ceylon, passes over this custom
+of "running a muck," without a syllable of mention.
+Evidently the custom is not naturalized in this island. It
+now prevails among the Malays of the Sunda archipelago,
+while in Ceylon no instance has occurred within the memory
+of man. That this tendency to murder is caused by the use of
+opium likewise appears improbable. Crawford, in his most
+excellent descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands,
+speaking of "running a muck," pretends it results frequently
+from a monomania taking this particular form, and
+originating in disorders of the digestive organs.</p></div>
+
+<p>Deep in the interior of the island, in the province of
+Bintang, N.E. from Kandi, and towards Trincomalee and
+Batacalva, in holes in the earth, or under the palm-leaves,
+reside the tribe of the Weddàhs or Veddàhs, the most savage
+race in the island, traditionally said to be the aborigines
+proper, who go about naked, with the exception of a girdle
+round the loins, and use only bows and javelins, which
+however they manufacture and handle with great dexterity.</p>
+
+<p>According to one of the various Cingalese traditions, these
+Weddàhs are the descendants of a very bloodthirsty, cannibal
+monarch, who, deposed by his people, was only permitted the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span>
+alternative of death, or of withdrawing with the ministers
+of his cruelty to roam for ever amid the solitudes of the
+forest. The dethroned king chose the latter alternative, and
+thus became the little-to-be-envied progenitor of this rude
+savage race. At any rate it seems worthy of note, that these
+Weddàhs, destitute though they are of the remotest traces of
+civilization, are still regarded as belonging to the
+privileged caste.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the shortness of our stay, we unfortunately had no
+opportunity of visiting the interior of the island, or of
+seeing these Weddàhs. With difficulty did we tear ourselves
+from the zone of the cocoa-nut growth, and therefore only
+got acquainted with two places on the island, Galle and
+Colombo, the latter the seat of government.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 683px;"><a name="illu420" id="illu420"></a>
+<img src="images/illu420.jpg" width="683" height="462" alt="Large columned porch." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT GALLE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Galle is, from its position, as also from its configuration,
+indisputably the best and most important harbour in the
+south and west of the island, as Colombo can only be
+regarded as an open, insecure roadstead. Founded in the
+sixteenth century by the Portuguese, conquered at a later
+period by the Dutch, and finally, at the peace of Amiens,
+transferred to the English, Galle displays singularly few
+traces of its different masters. The streets are narrow, but
+cleanly; the houses are for the most part constructed of
+earth, with verandahs, or airy colonnades towards the
+street, and rooms within, plastered to imitate stone, of
+spacious dimensions, as is desirable, considering the heat
+of the climate. As one enters from the roadway at once into
+the sitting apartment, and as the door stands wide open all
+day to admit a free current of air, a sort<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span> of open
+screen-work is usually put up before the entrance, to
+prevent a too minute inspection of the interior, by the
+prying eyes of inquisitive passers-by. At Galle we, for the
+first time, saw the "Punkah," a sort of fan peculiar to
+India, which stretches from one end of the roof of the room
+to the other, and being swung to and fro by a servant
+produces a refreshing coolness. Here, too, we first became
+acquainted with the "Gecko" (<i>Hemidactylus maculatus</i>), an
+elegant little house-lizard, which, with graceful agility,
+runs to and fro upon the walls, windows, and roofs, and
+speedily becomes as familiar with man as a pet-dog or
+kitten. They usually make their appearance towards evening,
+when, without the slightest symptoms of timidity, they begin
+their surprising evolutions, during which they catch gnats
+with astonishing dexterity, and although they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span> are
+disagreeable objects to all new comers, one speedily becomes
+accustomed to these harmless, innocuous, playful little
+animals, of which the Ceylonese are in the habit of relating
+many interesting and amusing anecdotes.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years, during which Galle has risen into
+considerable importance, as the converging point of the
+lines of steamers to Eastern India, China, and Australia,
+the number of substantial houses has greatly increased, and
+several large hotels are found here replete with every
+comfort. Like most European settlements in India, the Cape,
+and China, Galle possesses a fort in which, at an earlier
+period, the European colonists dwelt with their wives and
+families apart from the natives, and has also a "Pettah," or
+Black Town, a sort of Cingalese Ghetto, exclusively
+inhabited by the black population. At present this
+separation is not so strenuously enforced as in earlier
+times, but whoever would seek to form a more accurate idea
+of the various races of this population, its mode of life
+and its demeanour, must leave the so-called "Fort," and
+wander through the native or Cingalese quarter. Here are the
+fruit and vegetable markets; here all was devoted to buying
+and selling, which seemed to excite the otherwise listless
+little covetous disposition of the Cingalese; here jugglers
+and snake-charmers exhibit, who excite interest rather by
+the horrible nature and the foolhardiness of the
+performances, than by their executing any surprising feats.
+A belief is prevalent among the people that this singular
+class of men, greatly resembling our own gipsies, possess
+the art of depriving a poisonous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span> serpent of its venom, and
+rendering it innocuous. And, in fact, one does see them
+produce from a white cloth the dreaded Cobra di Capello, 4
+or 5 feet long, and exquisitely marked, irritate it
+violently, and go through all manner of unpleasant
+performances with it on their naked bodies. Frequently the
+serpent, weary of being constantly brought out for
+exhibition, endeavours to escape from its tormentor,
+whereupon a general scramble for escape takes place among
+the spectators. Every one hurries off to a safe distance,
+and the unfortunate charmer is left alone on the scene with
+his eminently intractable pupil, and has, into the bargain,
+given his exhibition in vain. As, however, it not
+unfrequently happens that the bite of the Cobra di Capello
+is followed by fatal consequences to the snake-charmer
+himself, it is highly probable that the whole mystery
+resolves itself into courage, and the shrewdness with which,
+availing themselves of the uncommon dread and aversion with
+which this animal is regarded, they are able at once to
+prevent him from making use of his deadly poison fang, and
+to put forth their own sleight of hand. This explanation
+seems also to account for the very remarkable fact that men
+have ventured to domesticate this dangerous reptile in more
+places than Ceylon. Indeed, within the experience of Major
+Skinner, a thoroughly trustworthy personage, who has resided
+for many years on the island, and to whom the naturalists of
+the Expedition are indebted for many acts of kindness, an
+instance actually occurred in the neighbourhood of Negombo,
+in which a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">363</a></span> wealthy man, who keeps large sums of specie in
+his house, bethought him of the singular precaution of
+having several deadly cobras to watch the treasure in lieu
+of dogs. Day and night they glide about, a terror to
+thieves, while they are quite harmless to the inmates who
+feed them and attend to them!</p>
+
+<p>In former times snake worship (<i>Nagas</i>) was universal
+throughout Ceylon, and, as in India, the cobra received
+divine honours from the natives, because it was supposed to
+be a metamorphosed king. This serpent, however, is so
+singularly and wonderfully endowed by nature, its appearance
+and motions are so peculiar, that an imaginative people like
+the Cingalese may well be excused for associating the idea
+of metempsychosis with its aspect of mystery.</p>
+
+<p>From Galle, an excellent road, following the coast-line the
+entire distance, leads to Colombo, the seat of government,
+75 English miles distant. Every morning there starts from
+Galle for that destination, the "Royal Mail" coach, an
+uncomfortable, somewhat dangerous, mode of conveyance, in
+which this distance is traversed in from 8 to 10 hours. In
+order to travel more at our ease, we engaged an extra
+waggon. In Ceylon people usually employ, on long excursions,
+but one horse, which is changed at distances varying from 6
+to 10 miles. We had some difficulty in reconciling this
+custom with our predilection for travelling at our leisure.
+The first few hours of our journey passed away very
+pleasantly; the road was excellent, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span> country
+magnificent and charming. We seemed as though driving
+through a park inhabited by thousands of men, and planted
+with cocoa-nut palms&mdash;amidst which occasionally the white
+dome of a Buddhist temple, or the minarets of a Mahometan
+mosque, shooting up above the summits of the palms, imparted
+an aspect of life to the landscape&mdash;while in the gay bazaars
+that fringed the road, the few necessaries of life required
+by the exceedingly frugal natives were exposed for sale,
+temptingly arranged on palm or plantain leaves. The whole
+south-western coast district is so populous that the huts of
+the natives were continually in sight, right and left, under
+the forest shade, and the scenery in consequence seemed as
+full of life and careless enjoyment as though the people had
+nothing else to do but walk about under palm-trees. This
+impression was the more strengthened, that we rarely
+perceived a man with anything else in his hand than a
+Talipot leaf, or a Chinese parasol, to protect himself
+against the burning rays of the sun, which shone almost
+directly overhead. Of the women, on whom for the most part
+fall all the troubles and hardships of life among the
+Cingalese, we only saw a few carrying to the city heavy
+baskets balanced on their heads.</p>
+
+<p>The luxuriant, widely-extending cocoa-nut forests, which on
+the south and west sides of the island stretch down to the
+sea-shore (whereas on the eastern coast they are altogether
+absent), seem independently of the necessity of paying all
+due care to the maintenance of one of the necessaries of
+life,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">365</a></span> to be specially indebted for their existence to the
+circumstance that additional planting of this tree, as also
+its careful cultivation, is one of the religious observances
+and duties of the servants of Buddha. Whoever plants a
+cocoa-nut, palm, or bread-fruit tree, performs a work
+agreeable to Buddha. At the birth of a son, or on any
+similar festive occasion, it is customary to plant a few
+cocoa-nut shoots in the earth. Cocoa-nut palms form a very
+important part of the property of a family. The father
+divides them as heritable property into equal portions for
+bequest to his children. Not one single palm but has an
+owner, though instances occasionally occur in which several
+families are supported by the produce of a single palm!</p>
+
+<p>This peculiar phenomenon has been followed by most
+remarkable results bearing upon the social condition of the
+native population. Increasing poverty, and the ever present
+grinding necessity of preventing any further subdivision of
+the joint property, have impelled the natives to resort to
+the unnatural remedy of the brothers of a family having but
+one wife among them! The fact that there are in Ceylon fully
+one-tenth more men than women, was the cause of the rapid
+spread of this custom, and upheld Polyandria, or plurality
+of husbands, as a desirable invention for remedying the
+deficient supply of females. Many a female has three, four,
+or even seven husbands, and all children that are born of
+such a wedlock have equal rights, and are (differing in this
+respect from the law of Hindostan, by which only the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span>
+children of the eldest brothers are registered, as the
+entire property belongs to him, while all the younger
+brothers serve him as vassals, and can be driven by him out
+of the house), the <i>lawful</i>, recognized heirs of the
+different fathers. In order to guard against the rise of
+law-suits respecting birth and heritage among the Cingalese,
+in consequence of their local customs, the British courts of
+justice, singular to say, find themselves constrained to
+recognize this disgraceful custom, and to interpret the law
+with reference to it. Although in the maritime provinces
+plurality of husbands has been signally on the decrease,
+owing to foreign influences, it still prevails to a great
+extent in the interior of the island. The submissiveness of
+the Cingalese to their superiors and their monarchs is
+assigned as the origin of this in other respects very
+ancient custom, which seems to have been universally in use
+among the various races of the mainland of India from time
+immemorial. Constrained to apply their own manual labour in
+cultivating the land of their tyrants, and frequently to
+accompany them on distant journeys, they thought they could,
+during their absence, most surely protect their own fields
+and crops against utter ruin, by apportioning wife and
+chattels among brothers and nearest relatives, and thence
+the family tie was gradually converted into a socialist
+community.</p>
+
+<p>The almost endless cocoa forests, which we were traversing
+by splendid, broad, level roads, not alone provide the
+native with, to him, the most important necessary for
+supporting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">367</a></span> existence, but the fruit itself forms at the
+same time so important and valuable an article of produce,
+that the cultivation of the cocoa-nut has been regularly and
+systematically carried on by European enterprise since
+1841&mdash;at present covering an area of 23,000 English
+acres&mdash;while the proportion of native land on which this,
+the most useful growth of the tropics, is cultivated,
+amounts to about 100,000 acres. Formerly, the nuts were
+shipped to foreign parts for the extraction of their oil;
+but for this purpose there are now on the island itself,
+especially in Colombo and Galle, a considerable number of
+manufactories, at which the oil already expressed from the
+nuts is usually at once put into casks for exportation. The
+quantity of oil thus exported annually is estimated at from
+1,000,000 to 1,500,000 gallons, worth from £100,000 to
+£150,000. Besides this, the elastic fibre of the outer husk
+of the cocoa-nut is used in the manufacture of ropes,
+door-mats, &amp;c., and, under the name of Coir, forms an
+important article of export, the annual consumption
+averaging between 30,000 and 40,000 quintals (centner
+weight), worth from £20,000 to £25,000.</p>
+
+<p>The first station on leaving Galle for Colombo is Bentotte,
+where, as is the custom all through the country, there is a
+"resting-house" open to all travellers, similar to the
+"Choultries" in India, the "Caravanserais," or lodgings for
+pilgrims, in Eastern countries, or the "Pasangrahans," of
+Java. These resting-houses, which all through the interior
+of the island are found on the highways and forest roads,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span>
+are among the oldest institutions of the country, and were
+formerly maintained at the expense of private individuals.
+The resting-houses, which have been erected under the
+English rule on the main roads of the island, are in all
+respects of a far higher class, and strongly resemble the
+waiting-rooms of our own (German) railroads. One is not
+merely provided in these with shelter, but also with food
+and drink, at a fixed tariff. A special committee (the
+Provincial Road Committee) is appointed to superintend the
+management of these resting-houses.</p>
+
+<p>Here we partook of a luxurious "tiffin," as the customary
+meal between breakfast and dinner is called in Ceylon, as
+well as throughout India; and in so doing, made acquaintance
+for the first time with the renowned Indian dish "Curry,"
+which consists of flesh or fish prepared with a powder
+compounded of spices. It tastes so hot that the European
+palate only gets accustomed to it by degrees; but in these
+countries it is looked on as the favourite dish, which must
+never be absent from any meal, because the cayenne pepper
+plentifully sprinkled over it, stimulates the stomach and
+promotes digestion. Hence the curry-powder is in immense
+request, and is largely exported. The assertion that this
+dish was first invented by the Portuguese is quite
+erroneous, as the chronicles of the country establish that
+it was in request in Ceylon in the second century before
+Christ.<a name="Anchor-81" id="Anchor-81"></a><a href="#Footnote-81" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 81.">[81]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-81" id="Footnote-81"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-81">[81]</a> According to Professor Wilson, "Curry" is but a
+corruption of the Carnatic term <i>Májkki-Kari</i>, a dish
+composed of rice, sour milk, spices, and red pepper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>As we mounted into our vehicle again, after a short halt at
+Bentotte, in order to resume our journey to Colombo with a
+fresh horse, we perceived that our driver, a negro, had been
+too free of his visits to the brandy-bottle, and
+occasionally took to rolling on the box. In the hope that he
+might become sober by the way, we ventured to proceed, but
+ere long he lost his balance, and fell to the ground,
+compelling us, to avoid further mishap, to retrace our steps
+on foot to the nearest village&mdash;thus reversing the order of
+matters, and, so to speak, escorting our horse, coach, and
+driver. This occurrence, unimportant and hardly worth
+mentioning in itself, was the occasion of an interesting
+adventure. As it was only with much difficulty that we could
+make ourselves intelligible to the natives, we resolved to
+apply to the authorities in the very first place we came to.
+It turned out that we were in the vicinity of the Catholic
+mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn, whose superior was a
+Benedictine from Rome. The church is situated amid the rich
+vegetation of the primeval forests, the gigantic trunks of
+whose trees, supporting a huge diadem of luxuriant foliage,
+are arched into a natural dome of the most graceful
+proportions. With curiosity whetted to the uttermost, we
+advanced along a beautiful path, beneath cocoa-palms,
+cabbage trees, bread-fruit trees, screw pines, tree-like
+ferns, and broad-leaved bananas, till we reached the
+dwelling-house of the Mission, and introduced ourselves to
+the missionary. Forthwith the latter, a tall, stately
+figure, with handsome features and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span> cultivated manners, and
+dressed in a woollen robe, ushered us into a darkened
+chamber opposite, and received us most cordially. This
+worthy priest, by the name of Miliani, was not less
+surprised at being visited at this solitary mission by
+Austrian travellers, and with the most lively satisfaction
+and the utmost readiness to oblige, offered us all the
+assistance in his power. In spite of our hurry, we had to
+take a cup of coffee <i>à la Romagna</i>, with our hospitable
+missionary, and to promise to visit him on our return
+journey. Father Miliani has already lived many years in this
+country, and ministers to a Christian community of more than
+1000 souls. Altogether there are in Ceylon about 50 Catholic
+missionaries under a Bishop whose residence is in Colombo.
+Our priestly host was greatly respected by the Cingalese,
+but he evidently was overjoyed at being able once more to
+express his thoughts and feelings in his native Italian.</p>
+
+<p>It was evening ere, with many a hearty shake of the hand, we
+tore ourselves away from the cordial hospitality of St.
+Sebastian de Makùn. Horse and driver this time gave hope of
+faster progress. But we were doomed once more to experience
+a severe disappointment, and although we were only about 10
+or 12 miles distant from Colombo, which was our destination,
+it took us five long hours to get over the ground. The night
+was very dark, but the road was continually illuminated with
+torches of palm, carried by the homeward plodding natives,
+which emitted a gloomy light alternating with showers of
+sparks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When at last we got to Colombo about midnight, pretty well
+knocked-up, we comforted ourselves with the reflection that
+the inconveniences attending personal transport between
+Galle and the seat of government, can by no means be classed
+among events of rare occurrence; since, in consequence of
+the inveterate obstinacy of the native horse, one must have
+recourse to the most incredible expedients to get the
+carriage under weigh. For instance, at every station the
+ears of the post-horse were twisted together and then
+suddenly relaxed in order to set the vehicle in motion; and,
+when this torture failed, a pole, or thick stick, was
+inserted under the tail of the recalcitrant, and rubbed up
+and down till the poor animal, smarting under this painful
+operation, took to the collar. Once the carriage is started
+in this extraordinary fashion, the coachman swings to and
+fro at the peril of his life, and endeavours by continually
+"pitching into" the horse, to keep him at the gallop. Thus
+between whooping and whipping the next station is reached,
+where the same trial of patience awaits the traveller, and a
+similar martyrdom for the next horse.</p>
+
+<p>Our first business the following morning was to take a walk
+through Colombo, which, like Galle, consists of "The Fort,"
+or White City, and the "Pettah," or Black Quarter, in the
+latter of which are situated the houses and shops of the
+natives, and where the chief traffic and the greatest
+activity are combined. Here one rarely encounters a white
+man, for even the soldiers and police belong to the brown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span>
+and black races. The natives, however, manifest, outwardly
+at least, a great respect for the whites, and everywhere
+draw aside reverentially when one makes his appearance.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the main street are some Buddhist temples.
+We were not, however, permitted to enter, unless we
+consented to take off our shoes. At several of the natives'
+houses the entrance porch and windows were gaily adorned
+with plantain leaves. On inquiring of our Cingalese
+attendant what was the occasion of this manifestation, he
+replied in broken English that the inmates were celebrating
+"Christmas," wishing probably to express that the natives
+celebrated a feast analogous to our Christmas.</p>
+
+<p>The filth and unsavoury odours which prevail in the Black
+Quarter, and the noise and yelling of the natives, speedily
+drive visitors back to the European portion of the city,
+which altogether, with its gloomy, decayed aspect, makes
+anything but a favourable impression. The public buildings,
+the houses of the mercantile community, the warehouses, and
+fortifications, all bear the impress of the Portuguese
+settlement of bygone centuries; and as its commerce is
+attracted more and more every year to Galle,<a name="Anchor-82" id="Anchor-82"></a><a href="#Footnote-82" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 82.">[82]</a> there
+remains but faint hope that this quaint type will not ere
+long be effaced by a new style of building, albeit the
+inhabitants of the capital promise themselves a restored
+reign of activity and energy, as the result of railway
+communication with Galle.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-82" id="Footnote-82"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-82">[82]</a> The value of the produce exported annually from
+the island (chiefly cocoa-nuts, coir, cinnamon, and coffee),
+is above £2,000,000, and the imports of European
+manufactures are about the same amount.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">373</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>During our random promenade through the streets of what is
+called the Fort, we perceived at a sugar-baker's in Chatham
+Street&mdash;the most select quarter of Colombo, and containing
+the most important warehouses, which, however, are far from
+elegant in their appearance&mdash;some rough ice offered for
+sale, which had a curious effect in a town so near the
+Equator, and presenting such few evidences of luxury in
+other respects. This ice is brought round the Cape of Good
+Hope from the United States, and is chiefly shipped from
+Boston. The daily consumption of iced-water, ices, and so
+forth, is estimated at about 1000 lbs., costing about one
+shilling the 8 lbs. It is impossible to repress a feeling of
+astonishment at these speculative Yankees who, despite all
+obstacles interposed by temperature, transport in all
+directions and over thousands of miles an article so
+perishable, so easily destructible as ice, and are able to
+drive a profitable business in it in the hottest and most
+diverse regions of the globe&mdash;in the West Indies and South
+America, in Asia, and in Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The traveller who visits Colombo will hardly fail to make an
+excursion to the Cinnamon Garden, in order to inhale the
+fragrant and peculiar aroma, and enjoy tasting the tender
+rind of this remarkable shrub, which plays so conspicuous a
+part in the history of Ceylon. During the palmy days of
+cinnamon culture, the five principal cinnamon plantations of
+the southern half of the island extended some 15 or 20
+miles. For this one lucrative product of the soil all
+others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span> on the island were abandoned, with most deplorable
+consequences. The cinnamon culture, a monopoly of the
+various governments which one after another conquered
+Ceylon, and domineered over its inhabitants, was carried on,
+especially by the Dutch East India Company, with terrible
+severity. The slightest embezzlement of cinnamon, or wilful
+damage to the plant, was visited with death. The
+unintentional breaking off of a twig of the cinnamon bush
+was punished with amputation of the offending member. Every
+cinnamon bush, even to those growing in the gardens of
+private individuals, was the property of the Government, and
+the cinnamon collector, or even cinnamon-peeler alone, had
+the right to strip off the rind when ripe. To destroy such a
+plant, or even to dispose of it to any one, was regarded as
+a crime affecting life. The labourers, who were employed in
+the cutting off, peeling, and preparation of the rind,
+belonged to the caste of Chalias, and constituted the lowest
+grade of that class. In like manner, under the English rule,
+the monopoly of cinnamon was at first continued, with such
+disastrous consequences to the trade that it was finally
+abandoned in 1832, and the merchants of Colombo and Galle
+were left to divide among themselves the exportation of this
+important article, under an exporting duty of 3<i>s.</i> per lb.
+These duties, however, were found much too high, as the
+highest price obtainable in Europe was from 6<i>s.</i> to 7<i>s.</i>;
+and this advance in the price to the trade of the genuine
+article, was the cause of foreign merchants turning their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span>
+attention to the supply of various species of
+cinnamon-bearing laurels and cassias, growing in
+Cochin-China and Java.</p>
+
+<p>When Government, recovering at last from its delusion of
+treating cinnamons, which at first had seemed indigenous to
+the island of Ceylon alone on the earth,<a name="Anchor-83" id="Anchor-83"></a><a href="#Footnote-83" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 83.">[83]</a> as a national
+monopoly, reduced the export duty to one shilling, and
+ultimately repealed it altogether, the various substitutes
+had already found their level in Europe, as affording a
+larger supply at a much more moderate rate, and the
+cultivation of the finer kinds became less and less each
+year. Prices fell, and the consumption was diminished. Only
+the coarser sorts repaid exportation. Nay, it even led to
+the interesting and curious result, that just as, previous
+to the high price under monopoly, the low-priced cassia
+displaced the finer sort of genuine cinnamon, at the present
+day the coarser sorts of cinnamon are beginning to oust the
+cassia from the English market, whence all the world are
+supplied. At present there are from 14,000 to 15,000 acres
+planted with cinnamon, chiefly in private hands, and
+producing annually from 800,000 to 900,000 lbs. of cinnamon,
+worth from £40,000 to £50,000 sterling.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-83" id="Footnote-83"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-83">[83]</a> Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work (vol. i. p.
+599), challenges the assertion that Ceylon is the native
+country of the cinnamon-tree. In no European or Asiatic
+chronicles is any mention made of cinnamon as a product or
+article of commerce in Ceylon up to the end of the
+thirteenth century. Although it was from the earliest times
+imported into Europe from Africa through Arabia, the natives
+trading with Ceylon first knew of the existence on the
+island of this important shrub about the twelfth or
+thirteenth century. Hence Sir Emerson looks upon Africa as
+the native country of the cinnamon-tree.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>The chalias, moreover, are no longer, as formerly under the
+Portuguese and Dutch, <i>adscripti glebæ</i> for life, or slaves
+that could be purchased with the soil, but free labourers,
+who are entitled to demand proportionate pay for the
+lightest services rendered.</p>
+
+<p>The Cinnamon Gardens in the neighbourhood of Colombo,
+although for the most part gone to decay, nevertheless
+impart to the whole scene a singularly cheerful, agreeable
+aspect. The bushes, from 4 to 6 feet in height, with their
+smooth, beautiful, light green leaves, resembling those of
+the bay-tree, and their pale, yellow flower-stamens shoot up
+doubly fresh and succulent, from the snow-white quartz soil
+in which they best thrive. The flowering season of the
+cinnamon is in January, and the fruit ripens in April, when
+the sap is richest in the shrub. In May the boughs are begun
+to be "barked," which process continues till October. The
+pruning and gathering of the yearling shoots, which are
+about the thickness of a man's thumb, is very laborious, and
+employs many hands. Each labourer cuts off as many as he can
+conveniently carry in a bundle, then, with the point of a
+crooked knife, made for the express purpose, strips the
+entire rind from the wood, carefully scrapes off the
+exterior corticle and innermost layer, and lays the
+stripped-off cinnamon rind, now reduced to the thickness of
+parchment, in the sun, where it dries and curls together.
+All round the hut, in which the peeling of the rind is
+carried on, is diffused a most exquisite aroma, caused by
+the breaking of the leaves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span> or twigs. What is related,
+however, by various travellers of the fragrance of the
+cinnamon forests, which they have scented at a great
+distance seaward, would seem to indicate that this delicious
+odour emanates from various other aromatic plants in which
+Ceylon is so rich, rather than the cinnamon groves, the
+aroma of which, indeed, is not perceptible beyond the
+immediate vicinity. The best description of cinnamon is not
+so thick as stout paper, and is fine-grained, flexible,
+light brown, or golden yellow, sweet and pungent; the
+coarser qualities are thick-skinned, dark brown, acrid,
+stinging, and leaves a bitter after-taste. In the
+warehouses, the cinnamon rinds and canes sorted for shipping
+are piled upon each other, packed in bales of about 90 lbs.
+weight each, and carefully sewed. In all cavities and spaces
+between each layer an immense quantity of pepper is strewn,
+to preserve the cinnamon during its sea-voyage, by which
+both spices are benefited, the black pepper absorbing all
+the superfluous moisture, and gaining by the fragrance of
+the cinnamon.</p>
+
+<p>Consequent on the diminution of cinnamon cultivation, which
+undoubtedly has resulted in great measure from the altered
+taste of mankind and the consequent extraordinary falling
+off in the demand for this once highly-prized spice, the
+cultivation of coffee in Ceylon has, during the last 20
+years, increased tenfold; and it is solely owing to the
+dearth of available labour that this branch of produce,
+considering the splendid profits it returns, is not even
+more extensively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span> carried on. In 27 districts there are 404
+coffee plantations, covering a surface of 80,950 acres, of
+which, however, only 63,771 acres are really productive.
+These produced last year, 347,100 cwt., or 5&frac12; centners
+per acre. To this must be added the quantity under
+cultivation by the natives, who possess about 36,000 acres
+of coffee plantations, and in the year 1859 alone, exported
+180,000 cwt. We may safely assume, therefore, that the
+cultivation of coffee is on the eve of transforming this
+island of Ceylon, from a mere military station of England,
+into one of the most flourishing colonies of the British
+Empire. Twenty years ago there were exported barely 60,000
+centners, worth £180,000. In September, 1858, the export
+exceeded 600,000 cwt., which represented on the spot a value
+of £1,500,000 sterling. "When capital and labour shall have
+become more plentiful," remarked to us a by no means
+over-sanguine resident, "Ceylon will have in its mountain
+districts 240,000 acres planted with coffee trees, yielding
+at the lowest estimate, 1,680,000 cwt. of coffee annually."
+Here, as among the high table-lands of Guatemala and Costa
+Rica, we have the reassuring evidence how one of the most
+important plants for the civilized man can be profitably
+cultivated, without having recourse to the blighting
+influences of slave-labour, at the same time making the
+lands in which it is produced both rich and prosperous.<a name="Anchor-84" id="Anchor-84"></a><a href="#Footnote-84" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 84.">[84]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-84" id="Footnote-84"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-84">[84]</a> The coffee-tree frequently suffers, especially
+in Ceylon, from an insect called the coffee-bug (<i>Lecanium
+Coffeæ</i>); as, however, this troublesome insect has only
+infested the coffee plantations since 1848, and this branch
+of cultivation has nevertheless increased so surprisingly
+since then, there seems no reason to dread that the coffee
+plant will suffer by these bugs, in the same manner or to
+the same extent as the vine by the ravages of the
+<i>fungus</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>While the cultivation of the coffee-plant has been followed
+by such splendid results, the repeated attempts to introduce
+the sugar-cane have been on the contrary as uniformly
+failures&mdash;so that of the numerous plantations established by
+Europeans, there are at present no more than five remaining.
+In all those localities where the temperature seemed adapted
+to the growth of the sugar-cane, the nature of the soil, and
+the too great humidity have prevented its thriving.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the island possesses two natural products
+in which but few spots on the globe are qualified to enter
+the lists with her, and which may be expected to increase in
+value and importance in proportion as science assumes her
+share in their exploration. These products are <span class="smcap">pearls</span> and
+<span class="smcap">precious stones</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The most productive pearl banks lie on the west coast of
+Ceylon, between the 8th and 9th degrees of North latitude,
+near the level, dreary beach of Condatchy, Aripo, and
+Manaar. The pearl fisheries are a monopoly, and, therefore,
+under the inspection of the Government. Former governors had
+counted too much on the abundance of this natural treasure,
+and in their blind haste to fill the coffers of the State,
+had so exhausted the banks, that suddenly, from a source of
+revenue they became an item of considerable deficiency, and,
+from 1838 to 1854, could no longer be dredged. From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span> a net
+annual return of £120,000 sterling, the yearly return had
+sunk to £10,000, of which nearly one-half was consumed in
+the attendant expenses. Now-a-days the work is gone about
+more circumspectly, a scientific examination having been
+made by a native naturalist, Dr. Kelaart, of all the oyster
+banks on the west coast. We had the pleasure, while at
+Colombo, of becoming personally acquainted with this very
+able, unassuming gentleman, who presented us with several
+memoirs of his own, touching upon the latest facts that had
+been ascertained with reference to the pearl oyster. One
+special result of his various researches has been the
+demonstration of two facts of the utmost importance to the
+pearl fishery, and which hitherto had not been fully
+ascertained&mdash;that this mollusc possesses locomotive powers;
+that its occasional disappearance is perfectly natural; and
+that, moreover, the pearl oyster may, without any injury, be
+transplanted from one locality to another&mdash;nay, even from
+salt to brackish water. The first-named observation explains
+the occasional disappearance of the pearl oyster from
+certain beds,<a name="Anchor-85" id="Anchor-85"></a><a href="#Footnote-85" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 85.">[85]</a> even when they have not been inordinately
+thinned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span> by too keen a quest after gain; the latter
+opens up the pleasing anticipation of the pearl oyster being
+susceptible of very extensive propagation, by a process
+similar to that of pisciculture, or artificial breeding of
+fish (such as the colonies of edible oysters which are met
+with in the South of France), by transplanting them to such
+places as seem best suited to the conditions necessary to
+their highest development. What a splendid conception it
+were to plant the sea-coasts of Ceylon with pearls, and thus
+throw the wealth of the island in precious stones into the
+shade, by the treasures she would possess in the depths of
+the sea!</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-85" id="Footnote-85"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-85">[85]</a> This singular property of the oyster, in virtue
+of which it can be fed to as confirmed obesity as a
+prize-ox, and admits of nearly as much dexterity in
+"crossing," if we are to trust the palates of "gourmets," as
+the Southdown and Leicester breeds of sheep, has received
+its most extraordinary development in the vicinity of New
+York, where the amount of capital sunk in the oyster trade
+considerably exceeds £1,000,000! The finest of these are
+transferred as spawn from the beds in the East River, or
+Long Island Sound, to the "nurseries," which are situated in
+the brackish water near the head of the tide-way, just below
+the "Highlands of the Hudson." Here they are carefully
+tended for some months, till, their education being
+completed, they are re-transferred to their native beds, and
+fed there with oatmeal daily; while, by some mystery of the
+craft, the spawning season is postponed, except in the case
+of those that are selected for propagating the race.</p></div>
+
+<p>Exactly at the period of our arrival at Colombo, the
+preparations were being resumed at Aripo for the take of the
+oysters, which commences at the beginning of February each
+year, and lasts about three weeks. It is, in fact, a sort of
+jubilee time for the people, at which the Governor and
+numbers of the wealthier classes mingle with the populace.
+Ordinarily this spot becomes at that season a rendezvous for
+the poor and the wretched, and a rallying point for all
+manner of abominable odours, filth, troublesome flies, and
+intolerable heat, despite which drawbacks the fishery is
+visited by thousands of boats, and hundreds of thousands of
+men, who flock hither with the alluring prospect of speedy
+and abundant wealth, or have been attracted from all parts
+of the Indian Continent by the singularity of the spectacle.
+Suddenly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span> as though evoked by the wand of a magician, a
+regular town starts into existence, of tents, or even neat
+huts, with bamboo and cabbage-tree palings, roofed over with
+palm-leaves, rice-straw, or coarse thick woollen cloth;
+booths for the sale of merchandise "rise like an exhalation"
+during the night to supply necessaries of all sorts to the
+converging multitudes from the interior, as well as the
+fleets of visitors from seaward; and last, not least, the
+divers themselves. Swindlers and mountebanks throng hither,
+adroit thieves creep stealthily about, all Indian customs
+and fashions are represented, all castes jostle each other.
+Priests, and the subordinate hangers-on of the various
+sects, hurry about, and jugglers and Nautch girls vie with
+each other in amusing the noisy multitudes.</p>
+
+<p>The result of numerous experiments has proved that no diving
+apparatus can replace the human machine, the cost of which,
+moreover, is a fixed definite quantity, viz., the fourth
+part of the pearls brought up, which is the diver's share.
+In each boat, or "Dhonie," are ten divers, each having an
+assistant. Before the divers proceed to descend, a number of
+quaint ceremonies are gone through, and incantations
+murmured, as well in the boats as on shore, by the so-called
+"shark-charmers;" indeed, the superstition of the divers,
+who for the most part come from the Coromandel coast, is so
+great, that not one of their number, Christian or idolator,
+would continue in this employment without the countenance of
+the sorcerer; and the Government finds itself compelled to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span>
+pay the impostors.<a name="Anchor-86" id="Anchor-86"></a><a href="#Footnote-86" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 86.">[86]</a> They levy a tribute of ten oysters
+upon each boat.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-86" id="Footnote-86"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-86">[86]</a> In 1857, the chief shark-charmer was a Roman
+Catholic!</p></div>
+
+<p>Accidents with sharks are of rare occurrence: the noise of
+1000 divers on the water at once seeming to scare the
+animals. Moreover, the dark colour of the skin of their
+bodies, acts as a considerable protection to the divers, so
+that there are numbers who blacken their legs, in order
+still more to alarm the monster.<a name="Anchor-87" id="Anchor-87"></a><a href="#Footnote-87" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 87.">[87]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-87" id="Footnote-87"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-87">[87]</a> An encounter in the water between a shark and
+an expert swimmer, armed only with a knife, is not so
+unequal an affair as might at first be supposed. The pearl
+fishers of the Gulfs of Panama and Nicoya only use a short
+stick, with which, if the sharks get <i>above</i> them, they stir
+up the mud, under cover of which they swim along the bottom
+for a little distance, and then shoot up to the surface. Of
+the equality in which a good swimmer armed with a knife
+feels himself in encountering a shark, there are numerous
+instances. Many years ago, when shipping was more plentiful
+in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, than at the present day,
+vessels had occasionally to put up with somewhat awkward
+berths, when they used regularly to "foul their anchors,"
+whereupon it became necessary, of course, to send some one
+down to free the cable. For this purpose, negro divers were
+employed, and one man attained a wide reputation from having
+himself, unscathed, slain in fair combat at different times,
+no less than five sharks! Ultimately the sharks steered
+clear of any black man who had a knife suspended round his
+neck.</p></div>
+
+<p>After these preliminaries, the divers go down into the
+water, each carrying a basket-shaped net, in which to bring
+up the oysters, when selected&mdash;a stone of from 15lbs. to
+25lbs. weight being fastened round the body, so as more
+readily to enable him to sink to the bottom. When at a depth
+of some 5 or 6 fathoms, the diver unfastens the stone, which
+is forthwith hauled up. He now throws himself forward on his
+face, and keeps himself as close as he can to the ground,
+while he rapidly rakes up and collects together all that is
+within his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span> reach, so as to fill his landing net. He crawls
+along in this manner during the minute of his submersion,
+over a space of from 40 to 50 feet; and so soon as he pulls
+the cord attached to his plaited basket-edge, it is
+immediately hauled up, and he himself speedily follows it to
+the surface.<a name="Anchor-88" id="Anchor-88"></a><a href="#Footnote-88" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 88.">[88]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-88" id="Footnote-88"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-88">[88]</a> The divers are mostly old men, vigorous and
+healthy in appearance, thus dispelling the general notion
+that deep-sea diving weakens the body and shortens life. We
+were told of one diver, employed during the year 1856, in
+the pearl fishery, who was so stout and fat, that in
+addition to the ordinary diver's stone, he had to make fast
+a considerable weight to his body, in order to sink himself
+in the water.</p></div>
+
+<p>The utmost depth at which the diver can safely remain seems
+to be about 40 feet, beyond which blood is apt to issue from
+the nose and ears. They seldom remain above 50 or 60 seconds
+under water, although cases occasionally occur in which the
+stay under water is protracted to 80 seconds. The diving is
+carried on for 5 or 6 hours without intermission, so that
+each of the ten divers can, in the course of a day, bring up
+from 1000 to 4000 oysters. By dint of good fortune, and
+close packing, about 150 oysters are brought up in each
+basket-net, while occasionally an unprolific bed does not
+give more than five or ten oysters. So soon as the oysters
+have been dragged to land, they are sorted in shares, of
+which one goes to the oyster fisher as his remuneration, and
+the remainder are sold in lots of 1000 each to the highest
+bidder. Now begins speculation. Chance presides here, quite
+as capriciously as at a lottery or another game of hazard.
+It often happens that a single oyster contains thirty or
+forty pearls, of which some may be worth a sovereign on the
+spot;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span> but it more frequently occurs that several hundred
+oysters do not yield a single pearl. The small, valueless
+pearls, called also "seed pearls," are burnt down, and sold
+as pearl-lime to the wealthy Malays, by whom it is used as a
+luxurious addition to the betel and cabbage nuts, as
+masticatories. The Ceylonese mix the lustreless pearls with
+other grains, with which they feed the poultry, in whose
+croops the pearls regain their former brilliancy after a few
+minutes' grinding. The croop is then slit up, and the
+glittering stones extracted, white as the most beautiful
+pearl-muscular tissue.<a name="Anchor-89" id="Anchor-89"></a><a href="#Footnote-89" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 89.">[89]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-89" id="Footnote-89"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-89">[89]</a> This method of procedure, which is adopted by
+the rest of the Indian races, and in which the lustreless
+pearls are swallowed by hens, pigeons, and ducks, so as to
+be polished up, after being subjected to the preliminary
+digestion of these birds, has been proved to be anything but
+beneficial to the pearls as regards loss by attrition.
+Careful observation has established, for example, that four
+pearls, weighing twelve grains, have lost four grains by
+undergoing this process during twelve hours, while eight
+others, weighing thirty grains, were reduced to twenty
+grains after a sojourn of two days in the gizzard of a
+duck.</p></div>
+
+<p>The pearl oysters caught on the coast of Ceylon are all of
+the same species (<i>Meleagrina Margaritifera</i>), uniformly
+oval in shape, and about 9&frac12; inches in circumference. The
+number taken in Ceylon annually must be numbered by
+millions. In the year of our arrival to Ceylon (1858), the
+pearl fishery yielded £24,120. According to the last
+returns, before us as we write, there were in the year 1859,
+1352 boats engaged during eighteen days in the pearl
+fishery, the gross take of which amounted to 9,534,951
+oysters, sold for £48,216. The divers' shares amounted
+together to 2,126,749 oysters.</p>
+
+<p>The wide-spread popular delusion, that the pearl in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span>
+oyster is but a produce of disease in the animal, has long
+been refuted by scientific research, and although the great
+German poet, Henry Heine, in his "Romanzero," sings,</p>
+
+<div class="poem" style="padding-left: 50%; margin-left: -6em;"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Those world-famed pearls,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They are but the wan mucus<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of a sad oyster,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dimly sickening in the depth of the sea!"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>it is rather a poetic fancy than a scientific fact. We have
+latterly been especially indebted to the German naturalist,
+Theodore von Hessling, for a very circumstantial and
+thoroughly exhaustive memoir on the natural history of the
+pearl oysters and their pearls,<a name="Anchor-90" id="Anchor-90"></a><a href="#Footnote-90" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 90.">[90]</a> in which the learned
+author seeks to establish that the enveloping matter of the
+germ of the pearl is identical with the covering of the
+animal, and that in the process of growth two influences are
+at work, an external and an internal. The first is called
+into play by the property peculiar to the hinge system that
+unites the double shell, of gaping wide open, in consequence
+of which extraneous substances rush in with the current of
+water, such as minute fragments of quartz, molecules of
+plants, &amp;c., which, being detained either circling in the
+cavity, or eddying round the hinges, are seized on in the
+course of their revolutions, and entangled in the parenchyma
+of the various organs, which is specially secreted from the
+mantle, till it becomes enveloped by layers of solid shell.
+On the other hand, the internal development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">387</a></span> is closely
+allied to the conditions of deposition and subsequent growth
+of the shell-matter. Molecules, either a single grain or
+congeries of grains, varying from 9.01 to 0.05 of a line
+(&frac34; of an inch down to the <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>240</sub>th of an inch), enclosed in
+the <i>epidermis</i> of the shell, constitute usually the
+<i>nuclei</i> of the pearls, which, to a certain extent, may be
+considered as nothing but a portion of the <i>epidermis</i> not
+applied to the formation of shell. The pearls also are
+simply independent concretions growing in the creature, and
+consisting of the substance of the shell, which are with
+difficulty discriminated from the various descriptions of
+growths which constitute the inner surface of the shell.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-90" id="Footnote-90"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-90">[90]</a> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Die Perlen-Muschel, und ihre Perlen,
+Naturwissenschaftlich und Geschichtlich mit Berücksichtigung
+der Perlen-gewässer Bayerns, beschrieben von Theodor von
+Hessling, Leipzig, 1859.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>The great importance of the pearl as an article of luxury
+and commerce, has naturally led to numerous attempts to
+manufacture them by artificial means, in the course of which
+extraneous bodies have been introduced between the mouth and
+shell of the animal, sometimes with, sometimes without
+injury to it. The Chinese especially are adepts at placing
+certain small bodies, specially prepared, in the shells of
+the pearl oyster, which, after a short time, becomes coated
+with mother-of-pearl, or nacre. This manufacture of
+artificial pearls is carried on on a large scale in the
+neighbourhood of Hong-Chow-Foo. During our stay at Hong-Kong
+and Shanghai respectively, we ourselves saw several
+mussel-shells, in which a mother-of-pearl covering had
+formed over small neatly carved figures, mostly sitting
+figures of Buddha,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span><a name="Anchor-91" id="Anchor-91"></a><a href="#Footnote-91" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 91.">[91]</a> the singular appearance of which
+would, at the first glance tend to make the observer suspect
+that the pearl had been fastened to the mussel by some
+adhesive substance. But we had so frequently an opportunity
+of satisfying ourselves by actually witnessing the entire
+process, that we could no longer doubt that the carved
+figures are with the utmost care introduced into the animal,
+and, after remaining a few days in the water, become
+attached to the mussel by a distinct membrane. This, their
+membrane, afterwards becomes interpermeated by the
+calcareous matter, till, finally, layers of mother-of-pearl
+are deposited all around the nucleus, the whole formation
+corresponding with the chalk-like concretions occurring in
+other creatures.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-91" id="Footnote-91"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-91">[91]</a> The antiquity of this experiment is proved by
+the fact that the <i>Topographia</i> of Ischikiang speaks of a
+pearl, which had been sent to the Imperial Palace at Pekin,
+490 <span class="smcap">b.&#8201;c.</span>, which resembled Buddha, and apparently must have
+been produced by this same method; although likewise the
+priests of Buddha, at that early epoch, might not have
+objected, in the interests of their religion, to make
+capital out of such a specimen of artistic skill.</p></div>
+
+<p>Besides the pearl-shells, the northern shores of Ceylon,
+especially between the Island of Manaar and Karativoe, are
+especially rich in beds of a volute mussel (<i>Turbinella
+rapa</i>, or <i>soluta gravis</i>), which are exported in great
+numbers to India, where the Hindoo women saw them into rings
+of all sizes, to be worn as ornaments on the arms, legs,
+fingers and toes. The chank-shell is likewise a chief
+instrument of the Buddhists, who, amongst other devout
+customs, blow three times a day on this sacred shell, to
+summon believers to worship.<a name="Anchor-92" id="Anchor-92"></a><a href="#Footnote-92" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 92.">[92]</a> It is also used as a festive
+ornament of the Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span> temples, as well as a donation to
+the dead, which, inspired by a religious feeling, the
+survivors place in the grave alongside of the corpse of
+their illustrious departed.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-92" id="Footnote-92"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-92">[92]</a> According to the most ancient annals of the
+Cingalese, the chank-shell is sounded in one of the superior
+heavens of the demigods (similar to the conk-blowing Tritons
+of Grecian mythology), in honour of Buddha, as often as the
+latter wanders abroad on the earth.</p></div>
+
+<p>The gems found on the island are distinguished, less for
+their intrinsic value than for the great variety of precious
+stones which are present. They are, with few exceptions,
+found to have been disengaged from the primitive rocks, and
+washed into the alluvial soil, especially in the outskirts
+of the mountainous districts, where they are rolled along
+the beds of the streams together with other pebbles, or are
+washed out of the alluvial deposits. Hitherto, they have
+only been searched for for purposes of trade, and then only
+in the most desultory and thriftless way, no one having as
+yet examined the rocks themselves, by the disintegration of
+which the valuable stones are disengaged. There was, indeed,
+no detailed information as to the wealth in precious stones
+of the island, until the researches of the English
+mineralogist, Dr. Gygax, who has very lately published on
+this subject many interesting observations and remarks. The
+locality in which precious stones are most abundant is, so
+far as present experience goes, the district of Saffragam,
+the capital of which in consequence takes the name of
+Ratnapoora, or Anarhadnaporra, "the city of rubies." They
+are also found at various other parts of the island; in the
+plains on the West coast, between Adams' Peak and the sea,
+at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">390</a></span> Nuwera Ellia, Kandy, Matelle, and Ruanwelli, near
+Colombo, as also in Matura, and the river courses on the
+eastern side, towards the ancient Mahagam. The geologist of
+the Expedition visited some mines of precious stones near
+Ratnapoora. These are situated on the Kaluga-Sella, a small
+tributary of the Kalu-Gunga, and lie, some in the very bed
+of the river, some on the steep bank. They are about thirty
+feet deep, but having been some time disused, they are full
+of water. The uppermost stratum of these pits or mines is a
+rich fertile yellow loam, exactly resembling our diluvial
+loams. This is succeeded, according to the report of the
+proprietor of the mines, by a slimy black clay, and clayey
+sand, beneath which again is a bituminous clay, holding
+numerous organic remains, such as leaves, trunks of trees
+converted into a substance resembling lignite, and not
+infrequently elephants' tusks and bones of animals;
+thereafter sand, and lastly a bank of rolled gravel, forming
+a species of conglomerate with red, yellow, and occasionally
+blue clay&mdash;being, in fact, what is known as stone-gravel.
+This bank of pebbles is the layer in which the precious
+stones occur, and these are most commonly found between the
+larger masses of agglutinated matter, that are always found
+especially to abound in gems, whenever they are superposed
+upon what is called malave, which appears to be a sort of
+greenish-coloured talc-like half-decomposed mica. The most
+valuable stones that are obtained from these mines are
+rubies and sapphires. In the Kalu-Gunga, also, precious
+stones are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">391</a></span> occasionally washed down, and as the
+geologist of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition was descending the
+river in a boat, from Ratnapoora to Caltura, he perceived at
+several places, more particularly at the various rapids, men
+standing in the water, provided with flat pan-shaped
+baskets, in which they sifted the sand and pebbles.</p>
+
+<p>The gems found on the island are rubies, sapphires topazes,
+amethysts, garnets, cinnamon-stone, and tourmaline. On the
+other hand, all the diamonds, emeralds, carnelians, agates,
+opals, and turquoises, which the natives offer for sale, are
+imported from India. One precious stone, on which the
+Cingalese set an exceedingly high value, because they
+erroneously believe that it is peculiar to the island of
+Ceylon, whereas it is also found on the southern shores of
+Hindostan, is the "Cat's-eye," a greenish transparent
+quartz, which, when polished in its natural shape, or "<i>en
+cabochon</i>," exhibits in its interior a varying reflected
+light, undoubtedly arising from the presence of fibres of
+asbestos, and which, in fact, bears some resemblance to the
+eye of a cat. The natives, as a rule, estimate the value and
+symmetry of this stone by the brilliancy and tenuity of the
+beam which it emits, and the clear olive-coloured ground
+upon which it shines in relief.</p>
+
+<p>A vast number of men give themselves up to the exciting but
+most uncertain occupation of searching for precious stones,
+and barter what they have found, chiefly to Mahometan
+merchants, for clothes and salt. As, however, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">392</a></span> natives
+themselves set a high value on jewels, in consequence of
+their small bulk admitting of their being readily concealed
+and easily carried about, the finer descriptions are readily
+disposed of at a good price, and, singular to say, it has
+frequently happened, as we ourselves found by personal
+experience, that precious stones are dearer in Colombo and
+Galle than in the European markets! The explanation of this
+paradox is probably that the steady copious influx into the
+London and Paris markets of precious stones from all parts
+of the earth where jewels are found, admits of by no means
+such excessive fluctuations in value as at Ceylon, where the
+supply actually on hand is so varying, and where the value
+of the article almost always depends upon the rank and
+wealth of the Indian purchaser. The foreign traveller very
+often cannot restrain a feeling of surprise at seeing the
+fingers of the stately Mahometan jewellers adorned with
+rings of costly gems, which are only offered for sale to
+himself at an exorbitant sum.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the precious stones of all sorts found in
+Ceylon in the course of a year is estimated by Sir Emerson
+Tennent at about £10,000, one-fourth, at least, of the
+entire quantity finding a market on the island, a full half
+being sent to the jewel-polishers of India, so that only the
+remaining fourth is exported to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The scant time allotted to us at Colombo was zealously
+occupied in seeing the utmost that we could of the many
+interesting objects that invited attention. Among others,
+we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">393</a></span> visited one of the largest industrial enterprises in
+Ceylon, known as Hultsdorf Mill, a cocoa-nut-oil factory,
+the proprietorship consisting in shares, of which the
+largest holder is David Wilson, Esq., the Austrian Consular
+Agent. Here are carried on all the various processes
+connected with the manufacture, the preparation of the
+oil-cake from the cocoa-nut, the expressure of the oil, &amp;c.,
+which are carried on by apparatus, partly sent out from
+England, partly put up in this country, all set in motion by
+steam-engines. The task assigned in these factories to the
+natives, of whom above a thousand are employed in the
+various departments, is, nevertheless, not the less
+important and significant, that, while machinery is used in
+those processes where it is necessary to use an agency far
+transcending the powers of mere human labour, all collateral
+products, such as soap, candles, perfumery, as also the
+implements and tools required for the works, and even the
+barrels and chests required for the transport of the
+manufactures, are prepared and used by handicraft labour.</p>
+
+<p>To the thoughtful visitor it is a scene of no ordinary
+interest to behold several hundreds of Cingalese, Hindoos,
+and Mozambique negroes, all thoroughly conversant with the
+management of the most magnificent invention of the
+nineteenth century. Here are a number of artisans employed
+at the hydraulic presses and iron turning-lathes; in another
+apartment the various parts of the different machines are
+being constructed or put together, which regulate the
+pressure of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">394</a></span> the steam supplied to the apparatus when in
+activity; in a third, persons are busy examining and testing
+the resulting products with scrupulous precision. With all
+its development, European industry has, in this quarter,
+exercised but an obscure influence; and, thus far, has been
+productive of but small results as a civilizing element
+among this population, which has hitherto shown itself so
+little disposed to accept the Christian form of
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In the large warehouse belonging to Mr. Wilson, we also saw
+huge heaps of "Kauris," or Cowries, (<i>cypræa moneta</i>), the
+renowned, or rather ill-reputed, species of mussel, which
+comes from the Maldive Islands, and plays so important a
+part in the commerce with the coast of Malabar and the
+interior of Africa; while here, it constitutes the sole
+medium of exchange, which is used by way of barter for
+almost all sorts of agricultural produce, chiefly among the
+blacks.<a name="Anchor-93" id="Anchor-93"></a><a href="#Footnote-93" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 93.">[93]</a> These mussels are sent from Ceylon to London, and
+thence back to the Eastern Coast of Africa, and thus
+indirectly uphold the slave-trade, as, the native merchants
+of that region barter these shells, so greatly sought after
+by all African tribes, as ornament, for negroes and
+negresses, who are in turn sold to the "speculators in human
+flesh." A ton of these shells, of which the smaller
+description are most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span> in request, and therefore the most
+valuable, costs in Ceylon about £70 to £75.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-93" id="Footnote-93"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-93">[93]</a> The Malay name for this mussel is "beya,"
+implying duty, toll, tax, thus leaving it open to conjecture
+that that nation, in their commerce with the Asiatic and
+African continents, have for untold ages employed the same
+principles of currency and expressions of value as
+ourselves.</p></div>
+
+<p>To the kindness and active interest in our objects of Mr.
+Wilson, in whose agreeable villa at Mootwall&mdash;the plan and
+method of construction of which reminded us of the beautiful
+planters' houses on the sugar estates of Louisiana&mdash;we spent
+the last night of our stay at Colombo, we are also indebted
+for a copy, with which he presented us, of the most ancient
+annals of Ceylon, inscribed with an iron graver upon Talipot
+palm-leaves in the highly-esteemed Pali language, and
+preserved between richly-carved boards of the costly wood of
+the Kalamander tree (<i>Diospyrus Hirsuta</i>). This
+carefully-preserved MS. includes, among others, the
+celebrated epic poem "Mahawanso," (an abbreviation
+"Mahantaman Wanso," "Genealogy of mighty men,") which
+recites under 100 heads, and in 9175 verses, the most
+important events connected with the interior constitution
+and history of the island, as also of all the battles fought
+by the inhabitants in foreign countries from <span class="smcap">b.&#8201;c.</span> 543 to the
+year 1758, <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;d.</span> Of these, the most renowned historic relics
+of the Cingalese, 38 chapters, of 262 pages 4to, were
+translated into English by George Tumour, Esq., an eminent
+Pali scholar, and printed at Ceylon, in the year 1837.
+Unfortunately, his earnest desire to publish the rest of
+this highly-interesting work was destined not to be
+gratified. The grave closed over him ere he could realize
+his wish. At present, however, there is a prospect of the
+translation of the "Mahawanso" being completed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span> by Mr. James
+de Alwis, a worthy follower in the footsteps of Mr. Turnour,
+chiefly through the munificence of Government and of the
+Scientific Institutes, which were invoked to supply the
+requisite assistance for the prosecution of an undertaking
+likely to prove so unremunerative.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the copy of the "Mahawanso," we also procured
+a number of other important Cingalese MSS. on Talipot palms,
+which were made use of by Tumour, partly in his translation
+of the "Mahawanso," partly in his other works upon Ceylon,
+and which embrace numerous valuable historical details not
+comprised in the "Mahawanso." This complete collection of
+the most antique annals of the Island of Ceylon, in the
+purchase of which we were kindly favoured with the advice
+and assistance of Mr. Wilson at Colombo, together with a
+variety of other Cingalese MSS. on palm leaves, collected at
+a subsequent date, now form part of the collection of
+valuable books in the Imperial Royal Library at Vienna.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Mr. Wilson, our very best thanks are due to the
+Colonial Secretary, Sir C. J. McCarthy, who had the kindness
+to provide several of the members of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition
+with the requisite letters of introduction to the
+authorities in the interior of the Island: also to Mr. John
+Selby, the very obliging proprietor of the <i>Examiner</i>; to
+Dr. Kelaart, physician and naturalist; to Charles P. Layard,
+Esq., the Government Agent for the Western Provinces; and to
+Captain Gosset, Surveyor-General, for their numerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span>
+attentions. The last-mentioned gentleman very kindly
+provided us with a pair of level-tubes which we urgently
+needed for one of our levelling instruments, and which, in
+this quarter of the globe, were more rare and difficult to
+be met with than pearls or precious stones.</p>
+
+<p>Our return from Colombo to Galle, was not less marked by
+misadventures than our journey thither. As far as Caltura,
+where our amiable Father Miliani was in waiting for us with
+his neat single-horse equipage, to convey us to the
+beautiful parsonage of St. Sebastian Makùn, all went
+tolerably smoothly with us. We arrived, as had been
+concerted, to breakfast with this hospitable shepherd of
+souls. On our way to the parsonage, we noticed that great
+respect was paid to the worthy Father, by such of the
+Cingalese as met us. Their usual salutation was to bend
+themselves to the earth, veiling their eyes at the same
+time, and bending forward the outstretched head as though to
+implore a blessing. Father Miliani, who held the reins in
+his left hand, while his right hand flourished a long heavy
+whip, slightly inclined his body upon the cabriolet, and so
+dismissed in peace the poor folk that besought his
+benediction. When we had now got pretty near the parsonage,
+we were suddenly brought to a halt by a couple of natives,
+of whom one implored the spiritual ministration of the
+Father for his wife, then lying almost <i>in articulo mortis</i>,
+while the other had brought with him, from the sacristy of
+Makùn, the Communion-plate required for the purpose. The
+priest, to whom this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">398</a></span> interruption seemed to come as a
+matter of course, stopped, apologized for the unexpected
+delay, threw the reins to one of the party, sprang from the
+waggon, and disappeared in the gloom of the forest. It was
+not for long, as it proved; for the stately, handsome figure
+of the priest of Makùn presently appeared between the
+cocoa-palms. He had found the woman much less dangerously
+ill than he had been led to expect by the report of the
+husband, the native converts to Christianity being very much
+given to requesting the administration of the rites of the
+Church, upon being attacked by the slightest indisposition,
+because they anticipate much more benefit from spiritual
+treatment than from the medicines of their body-curers. And
+now we proceeded on our way to the parsonage at a smart
+gallop, which, however, did not prevent a zealous,
+much-believing Cingalese from keeping up with the mettled
+horse, stride for stride, for the entire distance, keeping
+close to the waggon as he ran alongside. We were not then
+aware, indeed, whether this violent bodily exercise was
+undertaken as a matter of choice or as a penance, but it
+seemed to us, in any case, an act far less meritorious than
+prejudicial to health.</p>
+
+<p>In St. Sebastian de Makùn, the entire community were
+awaiting our arrival, and escorted us by a romantic hill,
+and through a delicious palm-forest, to the priest's abode.
+Here we found the porch of the house gaily adorned, and
+metamorphosed with tropical fruits and flowers into a
+smiling fragrant bower, with the feathery leaf of the
+cocoa-palm cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span> into thin strips. The inventive ingenuity of
+the Cingalese had endeavoured to represent the various birds
+found in tropical forests, which were suspended in
+ornamental baskets of green leaves among the festoons. Over
+the entrance to this bower, improvised out of materials
+supplied by the primeval forest, was placed a picture
+painted by the good Father himself, representing a large
+anchor, with the superscription in Italian "La speranza non
+confunde!" (Hope never disappoints!) This was evidently a
+delicate allusion of our kind-souled entertainer to the hope
+which he had expressed during our previous visit, that he
+should see us on our return from Colombo, "which had not
+been disappointed."</p>
+
+<p>In the interior of the arbour appeared an elegantly
+appointed table, that seemed ready to give way under the
+weight of good things spread upon it, around which were
+placed a number of arm-chairs, worked in tapestry, while the
+plastered floor was strewed with the glistening green leaves
+of the <i>Ficus religiosa</i>. As soon as we had taken our seats,
+the members of the community, consisting of more than a
+hundred tawny, half-naked Cingalese (principally men and
+children), arranged themselves in a circle, and some
+half-dozen dancers began to execute a very ordinary-looking
+dance to the sound of a drum. The entire figure consisted in
+their simply approaching each other from opposite sides,
+during which they struck the hollow-sounding instrument
+pretty sharply, holding it in their hand the while, after
+which they drew away from each other, and wound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span> up by
+dancing round in a circle in couples. A boy of eight, in
+glittering costume, next performed a dance, in which he was
+accompanied by a grown-up Cingalese who sung, occasionally
+accompanied by drum and fife. Frequently we enquired what
+was the meaning of the vocal accompaniment to the dance, but
+could get no information upon the subject. But we have
+always had occasion to remark among the various primitive
+races, that they are rarely able to give any connected
+account of the history of their dances or even their songs,
+but simply go through a set of mechanical figures which they
+have learned, or rehearse a set of words by rote, without
+being able to assign any signification to either. Over and
+over again have we put the question, only to receive the
+same stereotyped answer from Hindoos, Negroes, Chinese,
+Malays, and Polynesians, that they could tell us nothing
+more than that these songs and dances took their origin in
+the "olden times." Breakfast was served in the arbour by
+Cingalese boys. As often as the hospitable Father turned to
+apologize for his scanty means, which prevented him from
+ministering to our entertainment as he could wish, some new
+dish would be forthcoming, or some fresh kind of wine would
+be produced, till one knew not which most to admire, the
+variety of the entertainment, or its cost in preparation.</p>
+
+<p>On inquiring of Father Miliani, in the course of
+conversation, whether he had any acquaintance with the
+plants to which the natives ascribe healing properties, he
+sent for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span> phial containing an oily substance, which;
+according to the Cingalese herbalists, is composed of 57
+different roots and as many flowers, and has already been
+wonderfully efficacious in cases of persons bitten by
+poisonous serpents. It is called by the natives,
+<i>Visanili-Katail</i> (oil against poison); and the priest of
+Makùn remarked to us, he had himself had an opportunity of
+satisfying himself as to the marvellous curative qualities
+of this vegetable substance, in the case of persons who had
+been bitten by the most venomous snake in the whole island,
+the <i>Cobra di Capello</i>, who had entirely recovered by the
+copious use of this antidote. The application is very
+simple. The mouth is rinsed out with it, and the patient
+further takes from 15 to 20 drops of the oil internally.
+Unfortunately, we were not able to inquire more particularly
+as to the ingredients from which the Visanili-Katail is
+compounded, of which we eventually got a small quantity to
+carry away with us, after much entreaty; but by way of
+compensation, Father Miliani was able to give us much
+valuable information as to the manners, customs, and
+traditions of his flock. He regretted, however, that they
+were all of a highly impassioned strain, and that they
+constantly passed from one extreme to the other. The
+following trait, which was pointed out to us by the Father
+in the course of conversation, may serve to indicate the
+modes of thought and observation of the natives. When the
+Cingalese perceived how eagerly and with what warmth of
+friendship the Father received us, they inquired of him
+whether he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span> been previously an acquaintance of ours, as
+they were unable to conceive the existence of such hearty
+good-will between persons who were utter strangers to each
+other. The priest, readily appreciating the results which
+must flow from the reply he should give, in confirming the
+devout souls of his children, replied that the reputation of
+his name had long since penetrated to us, and we were
+unwilling to ride by without turning aside to salute him, to
+which he had readily expressed his assent, and had also long
+since been apprized of the important mission of the Austrian
+ship of war, whose commander was termed by the natives, with
+the bombast of their native tongue, "King of the Sea." At
+our departure, the kind Father presented us with several
+interesting articles, as <i>souvenirs</i> of Makùn, while we, on
+our part, left with him a donation in money to defray the
+expenses of erecting his church.</p>
+
+<p>Father Miliani, the band of musicians, consisting of ten or
+twelve wild-looking fellows, with all manner of barbarous
+musical instruments, of which they made not less barbarous
+use, together with a laughing, yelling, gesticulating crowd
+of half-naked Cingalese, with long raven locks floating over
+their shoulders, accompanied us to our travelling chariot.
+Here we took leave of the hospitable Father, the vehicle set
+out on its route, and the whole brown retinue at once
+dispersed.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly had we left the Mission of St. Sebastian Makùn behind
+us, ere our troubles began afresh. At almost the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span> very first
+station we came to, we had to hire a horse from a resident
+at an exorbitant rate&mdash;the animal belonging to the station,
+and which had been engaged for us, being utterly useless.
+This gave occasion for fresh delays. The party letting the
+horses was what is called a native doctor, who assumed the
+title of "native vaccinator," and bitterly complained, that
+for his attendance four days in every week, as required by
+the law, for the purpose of inoculation, he only received
+from Government a monthly salary of £2 5<i>s.</i> sterling.
+Whatever deficiency existed in his salary, he seemed
+determined to make up for in the hire of his horse, which he
+charged for at the rate of ten shillings for six miles! On
+the cash being forthcoming, our "native vaccinator" did not
+disdain himself to take the reins, and, with his own hands,
+apply the whip to his mare between the shafts of our
+vehicle. But this mark of distinction was destined, ere
+long, to cost us dear. Hardly had we proceeded a couple of
+miles under his care, when the hind-wheels of the vehicle
+sunk into a rut, whence our Æsculapian steed lacked the
+strength to extricate us. To complete the sum of our
+misfortunes, at the very moment we were using our utmost
+endeavours to replace the waggon on the regular track, it
+came on to rain heavily, and we were, in a twinkling, wet to
+the skin. Some thirty young Cingalese, in the full dress of
+Adam before the Fall, who were standing open-mouthed round
+the waggon, could only be roused by threats from their
+passive attitude; and when, finally, they lent a hand to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span>
+assist, they, in their ill-timed zeal, came near oversetting
+the waggon into the ditch on the opposite side. Next, we
+exchanged this stubborn brute for one that was blind. For a
+brief space we hoped the latter might probably be the more
+easily driven in consequence of his not seeing what was
+going on around him; but these anticipations were speedily
+dispelled, and in a rather unpleasant manner. The short
+distance that now separated us from our destination seemed
+as though it would never have an end; and, in a word, it was
+already verging on midnight ere we reached Galle, where we
+had been expected to dinner five hours before, by our
+hospitable friend, the Consul for Hamburg. Some of the
+invited guests had already left this agreeable house, while
+others were still seated at the whist-table, as, wearied and
+exhausted, we entered the drawing-room. The circumstances
+that had so seriously delayed our arrival were explained by
+way of apology, and proved the subject of some goodnatured
+quizzing on our misfortunes by the guests present; and in
+such agreeable society, and over a sumptuous supper, we
+speedily forgot the trifling annoyances of our latest
+experiences.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of a desultory agreeable conversation about
+the natural beauties of the island, many were the plans of
+more distant excursions which we projected this
+evening&mdash;which, however, upon more mature consideration, all
+proved impracticable, owing to the scanty time at our
+disposal. Thus we found ourselves, much against our wishes,
+compelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span> to forego a visit to Kandy, and its beautiful
+environs, in which is situated the renowned temple that
+enshrines the tooth of Buddha, the occupation of which by
+the English was, in the eyes of the Cingalese, the most
+manifest indication of their being the legitimate conquerors
+of the kingdom.<a name="Anchor-94" id="Anchor-94"></a><a href="#Footnote-94" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 94.">[94]</a> Neither were we able to take part in an
+elephant hunt, although these animals are found in the
+island in such quantities, that it is related, with every
+appearance of accuracy, of a single elephant hunter, the
+late Major Rodgers, who was struck dead by a flash of
+lightning a few years since in the midst of the forest, that
+he had, in the course of his life of active exercise, laid
+low fifteen hundred elephants with his own hand! But
+permission was granted by the commander of the Expedition to
+the geologist and one of the zoologists to remain in Ceylon,
+and rejoin the frigate at Madras by the steamer which runs
+fortnightly, so as to enable them to ascend the world-famous
+Adam's Peak, 7000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span> feet high, one of the loftiest peaks in
+Ceylon, where, according to tradition, the founder of the
+Buddhist doctrine, when last he visited the earth, in answer
+to the supplications of a priest, left behind the print of
+his footstep (<i>Sri-pada</i>), as a visible sign of his
+presence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-94" id="Footnote-94"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-94">[94]</a> The legend relating to these relics, about
+which so many wars were waged, goes back as far as the third
+century of the Christian era, when Mahasana, a true
+believer, having become King of Ceylon, purchased these
+teeth for numerous valuable presents, of one of his kindred,
+a Calinga king in Bengal, who sent them over by his princes.
+The tooth Dahata Wahansa immediately achieved a miracle&mdash;it
+illumined the entire island, and supplanted all heretical
+teaching. It was forthwith enveloped in a hundred cloths,
+and a temple erected to enshrine it, since which it has been
+regarded as the Palladium of Ceylon. When, in 1560, this
+tooth was transferred to the temple at Manaar by the
+Portuguese under Constantin de Braganza, the king offered
+the Portuguese bigots 600,000 pieces of gold by way of
+ransom. Braganza judged it more advisable to destroy the
+tooth. But he little knew the adroitness and subtlety of the
+Buddhist priesthood. The very next morning the tooth, that
+had been supposed to be destroyed was marvellously found in
+a Lotos leaf in the temple, where it had been deposited by
+Buddha himself!</p></div>
+
+<p>We cite, in the following extract, the most prominent
+features of this venture, as supplied by the two members of
+the Expedition who undertook it, so as to complete the
+description of the <i>Novara's</i> visit to Ceylon:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"On 13th January, 1858, we proceeded from Colombo to
+Ratnapoora, <i>en route</i>, to visit Adam's Peak, a tolerably
+long and tedious journey. On the margin of a river we
+encountered an elephant, who was engaged in assisting the
+labourers on the public roads in that vicinity. While our
+car and the baggage were being embarked here, and again put
+in order, this animal went through a number of tricks, such
+as swaying to and fro, lying down, raising his trunk, and
+trumpeting, the latter of which, at a sign from his driver,
+he did with a vengeance, and for so doing was rewarded with
+a few plantains. These exercises seem to constitute the
+first steps in taming, as they were gone through in a
+similar manner by all the elephants we afterwards saw,
+whether employed like this one in task-work, or maintained
+for show, or made use of in the Temple service.</p>
+
+<p>At mid-day we reached Ratnapoora, and as we were anxious to
+shorten as much as possible our next day's journey, we
+decided on pushing forward in the course of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span> the afternoon,
+as far as the little village of Gilli-Mali, seven miles
+further on. We had been provided by C. W. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent in Colombo, with letters of introduction to
+his deputy, Mr. Mooyart, at Ratnapoora, who, however, we
+unfortunately found was absent from home. Next day, however,
+we had unmistakable evidence that our letters had, very
+shortly after our departure, reached the hands they were
+intended for, by a variety of precautions which the
+hospitable gentleman must have at once arranged with a view
+to our greater comfort. While yet on the second-half of our
+road to Gilli-Mali, night overtook us, and we prosecuted our
+march by torch-light through the dense jungle. Our guides
+and porters had shown some reluctance to enter this jungle,
+partly on account of the swarms of land-leeches (<i>litchies</i>,
+as they are termed here, doubtless by a corruption of the
+English name), which are especially active during the night,
+partly from other causes of anxiety. Accordingly, they kept
+reciting Cingalese ditties, alternated with shrill yells, or
+shouted, so as to be heard at a distance; whether to drive
+away evil spirits, or to frighten the <i>chetah</i> or leopard,
+we could not ascertain. No long time elapsed ere we
+ourselves began to perceive traces of having been victimized
+by that most uncomfortable of guests, the land-leech. The
+naked Hindoos were incessantly occupied with pulling off
+these painful blood-suckers, and we had to call a halt from
+time to time, in order to loosen and carefully fling them
+away, as they had succeeded in reaching the skin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span> through
+the trousers immediately above the boot. They are found up
+to an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea on the mountains,
+chiefly in damp or wet localities, and are most active
+during the evening and night in the selection of a victim.</p>
+
+<p>At Gilli-Mali, we fell in with Mr. Braybrooke, an English
+engineer, who most hospitably invited us to his bungalow,
+and with whom we conversed upon topics relating to Ceylon,
+till far into the night.</p>
+
+<p>Next day we had to ascend the Peak itself; which is in so
+far a difficult undertaking on the side from which we
+approached it, that one has gained no vantage-ground at
+Gilli-Malli, our last night's resting-place, towards
+reaching the summit, so that one sees it in its entire
+colossal height of above 7000 feet directly in front;
+whereas, in ascending from Kandy, one has already, at
+Neuwera Ellia, attained an elevation of 4000 feet, which can
+be performed in a carriage. We set out at 7 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, and after
+an hour-and-a-half's march, gained the last village,
+Balahab-a-Dullu, in the Buddhist temple of which is kept a
+flat metal dish, adorned with silver <i>rosettes</i>, with which
+the imprint of the holy footstep is covered over at the
+season of the annual pilgrimage. On the table, before a
+colossal figure of Buddha, were strewn, as usual, a quantity
+of flowers presented by the faithful; these were the
+flower-shrubs of the <i>Areca palm</i>, <i>Hibiscus</i>, <i>Alamanda</i>,
+<i>Tagetes</i>; also, close to the wooden statue, are placed
+several small figures of silver or wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span> 3 or 4 inches
+long. The priest also showed us a magnificent manuscript of
+at least 1000 palm leaves, closely and beautifully engraved
+on both sides with Cingalese characters, which belonged to
+the temple, and was guarded with great care.</p>
+
+<p>At a solitary house on the road, we left our guides and
+porters to discuss their modest repast, which, in
+consequence of the strict ordinances of the Buddhist faith,
+consists of vegetable substances only. Reclining on a mat
+spread on the ground, each took a piece of green plantain
+leaf, scattered upon it a little rice which they had just
+brought with them, and some chili (red Spanish pepper), and
+thence conveyed their simple food to their mouth with the
+hand. This frugal meal was speedily concluded, and we once
+more pushed forward. From this point we had the dense covert
+of the high forest trees, the lofty foliage of which
+afforded a most agreeable shade, and kept us comparatively
+cool. The path, which consists simply of ravines, formed by
+the rush of torrents during the rainy season, is so steep
+that it seems like one uninterrupted flight of stairs, the
+steps of which seem partly constructed by Nature, partly by
+the hand of man. Frequently they are artistically chiselled
+in the solid rock; at one stupendous precipice a Cingalese
+monarch has had four flights, of 250 steps in all, hewn out
+of the living rock. Here and there, also, ladders have been
+contrived, the rounds of which are composed of pieces of
+bamboo bound together, by which one clambers up. The whole
+route bears marks of being much used, and is considerably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span>
+worn, the stones being rubbed quite smooth. Under the damp
+shade of the forest are found a vast quantity of the most
+beautiful ferns and <i>Lycopodium</i> (Club-moss; or Wolf's-claw,
+as it is called in Sweden, whence the Linnæan name); from
+the delicate beauty of the <i>Jungermania</i> (Star-tip), to the
+tree-like fern, <i>Filius Phyllophisidos</i>, which vies with the
+giants of the forest. The more deeply shaded spots are
+adorned here with beautiful balsams, a genus of plants
+which, besides being unusually luxuriant and beautiful in
+this district, exhibits certain peculiarities of form not
+usually met with.</p>
+
+<p>At one place, called Nihilabellagalla, there was pointed out
+to us, at a few paces to the side of the road, near a rugged
+projecting rock with a steep declivity in front, a narrow
+valley which seemed to be closed in by perpendicular walls
+of rock on the opposite side. This <i>cul de sac</i>, we were
+informed, was a favourite resort of numerous wild elephants.
+A shot fired at this point, with the gun directed towards
+the rocks opposite, returned a thundering echo.</p>
+
+<p>By 4 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> the last halt, or resting-place, was reached,
+above which the singular-looking cone towers sheer overhead,
+some 500 or 600 feet high. The vapours which, during the
+entire day, had been playing about the summit, from time to
+time lifted like a veil, as though to indulge us with an
+opportunity of beholding this sublime mountain-peak under
+the magical effect of twilight. Our native retinue, which
+had gathered fresh accessions of strength at every place we
+passed, and now consisted of from 24 to 30 persons, showed
+no inclination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span> to proceed farther, but appeared desirous of
+passing the night at the last halting-place, which was
+nothing but a sort of hovel. It was only by a resolute
+expression of our determination to reach the summit the same
+evening that they gave in. Their reluctance arose from an
+idea that no one could with impunity pass the night on the
+highest point of the mountain&mdash;which, indeed, is natural
+enough, since the sharp night-air at such an elevation may
+well be prejudicial to the health of those who are not
+sufficiently protected against its attacks.</p>
+
+<p>The last portion of the ascent is so steep, and so
+difficult, that all superfluous baggage was left behind, and
+we took with us only what was absolutely indispensable. Thus
+far we had seen occasional traces of elephants, sometimes so
+fresh, that they could not have been more than an hour old.
+According to a report of Major Skinner, the unmistakable
+marks of one of these animals was remarked in the year 1840
+quite close to the rock which bears the sacred footprint! At
+the steepest points, iron ladders have been made fast, by
+which the visitor has to scramble up. There were, also,
+innumerable chains fastened to the rock, of every
+description and variety of link, which swung to and fro by
+dozens on either hand, some eaten away with age and rust,
+some forged quite lately, it being considered a meritorious
+work to provide such as a protection against the occurrence
+of accidents. By 6 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, we at last reached the summit, and
+were rewarded with a panoramic view of indescribable
+magnificence. The mists were almost entirely dispersed, and
+in the clear, calm, evening light, the eye wandered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span> at
+pleasure over the vast, almost limitless, panorama at our
+feet, as far as the sea, barely visible in the grey
+distance. Bounding our view from north-west to east, the
+mountain ranges rose by three distinct terraces of hills,
+each behind the other, and in regular gradations, till they
+culminated in the highest peak on the island, the
+Pedro-talla-galla, which overtops Adam's peak by nearly 1000
+feet,<a name="Anchor-95" id="Anchor-95"></a><a href="#Footnote-95" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 95.">[95]</a> but presents no pre-eminent peak, similar to that
+on which we now stood. The remainder of the horizon was
+filled with low mountains, which gradually became more and
+more flat as they approached the coast. The followers of
+three religions,&mdash;Buddhists, Brahmins, and Mahometans, stand
+face to face with each other on this space of barely a few
+steps, in order to bow before these visible emblems, in
+sincere devotion to the invisible Deity. The highest
+surface, which is nearly level, is of an irregular oval
+form, and is about 60 or 70 feet in length, by from 36 to 40
+feet in breadth, and is inclosed within a wall 5 feet in
+height, with two entrances on the west and south, while the
+north-east corner is shut out by an artificially rounded
+rock, easily surmounted, however, by any one who ascends it.
+In the middle of this enclosure stands a block of rock some
+10 or 11 feet high, which, on the extreme top, has a
+depression, the divine <i>Sri-pada</i>, or Holy Footstep. The
+adoration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span> consists chiefly of offerings of flowers which
+are brought up hither, and presented with innumerable
+genuflections, invocations, and exclamations of "<i>Sadoo</i>,"
+which corresponds to the Christian Amen. The impressed
+foot-print is ascribed by the Buddhists to the last
+incarnation of Buddha, the gentle hermit Gautama; while it
+is regarded by the Brahmins as the footstep of Siva, and by
+the Mahometans as that of Adam, as being the spot on which
+the progenitor of the human race stood so long, doing
+penance after his expulsion from Paradise, until the
+Almighty pardoned him.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-95" id="Footnote-95"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-95">[95]</a> The precise relative elevations of the two
+mountains are, Pedro-talla-galla 8280 feet, Adam's Peak 7420
+feet. Two other peaks of the main range are also higher than
+Adam's Peak, viz. Totapella 7720 feet, and Kirrigal-potta
+7810 feet, while the plains, or table-lands, of Welinani and
+Neuwera Ellia are, respectively, no less than 6990 feet and
+6210 feet above the level of the sea.</p></div>
+
+<p>This depression, in which only the most unbridled
+imagination can see any resemblance to the human foot, is
+about 5 feet in length by 2&frac12; in breadth, and is set, as
+it were, in a level stratum of mortar, several inches in
+height, by six in breadth, shaped to resemble the outline of
+the human foot. At its anterior extremity, it presents a
+straight line, on which the five toes are artificially
+formed by several tolerably thick, narrow crevices, filled
+with mortar, and about 8 or 9 inches in length, which jut
+inwards, the great toe being on the right or east side, and
+thus indicating that it is a representation of the left
+foot. At the heel end the setting of mortar is somewhat
+narrowed and rounded off. Over the whole affair a wooden
+temple with balustrades open on all sides, has been erected,
+which is fastened by iron chains to the rock, and to beams
+of rhododendron fastened on the N.W. side, outside the wall,
+to prevent its being swept away by the storms which, on this
+lofty, exposed peak, occasionally rage with great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span>
+vehemence. These cables, as also several of the poles by
+which the temple was supported, were thickly hung with
+carved figures of Buddha enveloped in linen cloth, which,
+originally the votive offerings of pilgrims, and bleached by
+long exposure, fluttered in the breeze. On the front of the
+temple is erected a penthouse roof, shading a bench beneath,
+on which several of our porters, who regarded our impious
+presence, and still more impious admeasurements of the holy
+footprint, with a horror which they flattered themselves was
+unobserved, deposited their offerings of flowers, and humbly
+bent the knee. On the west side, under two small distinct
+roofs, were two bells, and quite apart, on the rock itself,
+and somewhat in the background, a smaller temple. Between
+the block of rock and the inner half of the enclosure, a
+small house has been erected, 12 feet long by 6 feet broad,
+which is used as a shelter at night by the priests who are
+on duty during the pilgrimage season,<a name="Anchor-96" id="Anchor-96"></a><a href="#Footnote-96" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 96.">[96]</a> in which we too
+took up our quarters. Suddenly, from the depths below there
+arose, through the unbroken silence of the night, a confused
+murmur, in which the sounds of human voices were plainly
+recognizable. The singularity of such a phenomenon produced
+a certain degree of excitement among our superstitious
+spectre-dreading followers, inasmuch as it had never
+happened that strangers undertook the ascent of the peak at
+night, seeing it gives trouble enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span> to reach the summit
+by daylight. By degrees we perceived a number of torches
+borne by natives, who, with loud and long-continued cheers,
+set about slowly ascending the ladders. To the inquiries of
+our followers they made no reply; and we had, in a word, to
+wait a considerable interval, until, indeed, the leading
+torch-bearer had reached the summit, ere we were enlightened
+as to the object of this mysterious nocturnal visit. How
+great, and let us add, agreeable was our surprise at finding
+ourselves suddenly surrounded by a choice array of wines,
+with food of various sorts, which the overflowing
+hospitality of Mr. Mooyart had dispatched after us to the
+summit of Adam's Peak, together with his card, the whole
+being conveyed in huge baskets by the supposed spectres! A
+cheerful fire speedily blazed up, at which our tea and
+provisions were cooked, and, as may well be supposed, while,
+enjoying our delicate fare, we thankfully toasted the kind
+and thoughtful donor.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-96" id="Footnote-96"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-96">[96]</a> The dry season, occurring in the south-west
+side of the island from January to April, is likewise the
+chief season of pilgrimage, at the end of which the entire
+amount of the offerings, annually averaging from £250 to
+£300 sterling, is handed over to the High-Priest of Buddha.</p></div>
+
+<p>Deep silence once more fell on all around, no cry of any
+wild beast reached us at this elevation, no hum of insect
+broke upon the awful stillness. Our coolies lay cowering
+together around the drooping blaze, seeking some shelter
+against the night air. One division stowed themselves away
+in a second sleeping-house for priests, which had been run
+up some twenty paces distant, in which we also were in the
+end fain to seek shelter from the ever-increasing keenness
+of the air, the temperature of which fell to 54°.5 Fahr.,
+where, with our wrappers drawn close around us, and
+stretched at full length on the bare rock, we awaited the
+approach of morning.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first faint glimmer of dawn invited us once more to the
+open air, in order to contemplate the wonderful aspect of
+Nature at this elevation. We had, after leaving Ratnapoora,
+taken barometrical and thermometrical observations, with the
+view of determining the elevation at nine different
+stations, which had been, wherever practicable, selected in
+such manner, that by means of them the various limits of
+certain classes of vegetation were indicated, which in many
+instances are marked out with extraordinary distinctness
+upon the perpendicular side of the peak. These series of
+observations, which were at the same time supplemented by
+investigations as to the temperature of the soil and of
+various springs, will be compared with the results of
+previous scientific visitors to the summit of Adam's Peak,
+and published in another form. The geology of the isolated
+pinnacle of Adam's Peak, so far as the dense covering of
+primeval forests permitted us to observe, is uncommonly
+simple and uniform. The chief directions of the lofty chain
+of mountains in Southern Ceylon, separated from each other
+by level plateau-like depressions, is from S.S.E. to N.N.W.,
+corresponding likewise with the chief directions of the
+strata of gneiss, of which these mountains are composed. The
+gneiss is uniformly of a species not often met with, studded
+with garnets, and between its strata are inserted single
+beds of hornblende-gneiss and splinters of pure hornblende,
+as also granulite-gneiss and pure granulite. The steep,
+final cone of the rock consists of a granulitic gneiss of
+varying texture from coarse to fine, and abounding in
+garnets. Everywhere,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span> even up to the highest summit, the
+gneiss is decomposed on the surface into laterit-like
+products. The huge blocks of brown ironstone, however, which
+are found near the summit, in the hollow path by which it is
+customary to ascend, owe their origin to the decomposition
+of the hornblende.</p>
+
+<p>After these interesting observations, admeasurements, and
+investigations, made at the summit of the most remarkable
+peak in the world, had been brought to a conclusion, we set
+out on our return to Gilli-Mali, which we reached late at
+night. Here we found, at the abode of our hospitable
+entertainer, Mr. Braybrooke, a fresh guest, who likewise
+intended to ascend Adam's Peak the following day. This was
+the well-known Count Medem, a Russian gentleman, who has
+frequently traversed both the old and new worlds, and was
+now about making a second visit to China.<a name="Anchor-97" id="Anchor-97"></a><a href="#Footnote-97" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 97.">[97]</a> The next day
+saw us at Ratnapoora, from which point we continued our
+return journey on the waters of the Kalu-Gunga, or Black
+River, as far as Caltura.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-97" id="Footnote-97"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-97">[97]</a> Count Medem died the same year at Shanghai.</p></div>
+
+<p>Our boat consisted of two trunks of trees hollowed out and
+fastened together, upon which was erected a semicircular
+tilt, covered with the leaves of the Fan Palm (<i>Borassus
+Flabelliformis</i>), under which one might sit or lie at
+pleasure, sheltered from the sun. As the mail-car that runs
+daily from Colombo to Caltura was already full, we were
+compelled, in order to pursue our journey to Galle, to make
+use of the native waggon, or bullock-bandy. This is a
+two-wheeled cart drawn by oxen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span> and covered with a
+semicircular tilt of palm-leaves, beneath which there was
+room for two persons to lie at full-length packed closely
+together. The oxen, of a breed that have humps and erect
+horns, are small, and walk with a quick, short tramp, while
+their entire bodies are tattooed with Cingalese characters
+and ornaments. The horns are usually adorned with metal
+tips, and frequently are dyed, the one red, the other green.
+The cross-piece of the pole is fastened to the neck instead
+of the customary yoke, and the cord for guiding the animal
+passes through the nose. The driver either strides along
+between the two oxen, or sits with his back to them on the
+pole. The rate of progression by this national conveyance is
+so slow, that the mail-car which left Colombo the day after
+overtook us long ere we reached our destination, and it was
+with some difficulty we reached Galle in time for the
+overland steamer which was to bring us to Madras."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"><a name="plate485t" id="plate485t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate485t.jpg" width="199" height="350" alt="Track of Novara." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE VI.&mdash;TRACK FROM POINT DE GALLE TO MADRAS.</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate485.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>At 6 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> of the 16th January, the <i>Novara</i> set sail from
+the roads of Point de Galle with light breezes off the land,
+and steered southerly in order to avoid the Basses or Baxos,
+a much-dreaded rocky shoal, traditionally alleged to be the
+remains of the island of Giri, swallowed up by the sea, and
+which, owing to the very strong current, require the utmost
+care to be observed, in order to avoid drifting right upon
+them.<a name="Anchor-98" id="Anchor-98"></a><a href="#Footnote-98" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 98.">[98]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-98" id="Footnote-98"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-98">[98]</a> A late survey, instituted with the intention of
+erecting a lighthouse on the "Basses," proved a failure, in
+consequence of the ground having sunk in while an
+examination was being made by the diver, and left nothing
+but holes filled with water, in which, according to the
+report of the fishermen, besides fish and molluscs,
+sea-snakes are occasionally seen, of a light-gray colour,
+and about 4 or 5 feet in length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>The evening before our departure, the Consul for Hamburg had
+requested from the Commander of the Expedition the favour of
+a free passage to Madras, on board our frigate, for a native
+of Berlin, named Neupert. This man had come to Ceylon a long
+time previously with a company of rope-dancers, and had at
+first made a good deal of money as an acrobat and juggler,
+despite the dangerous competition of the Indian
+practitioners, but had afterwards lost his all, and had been
+for some weeks in a pitiable plight. The request was at once
+acceded to, and Neupert came on board during the night. His
+luggage did not encumber him much. However, although the
+greatest part of his effects had disappeared in Galle, he
+fortunately had kept his various apparatus; and, by way of
+showing his gratitude for the free passage that had been
+accorded to him, professed his willingness, in the course of
+the voyage, to give us some specimens of his skill on deck.
+Accordingly, one fine afternoon, he gave us an entertainment
+out on the open ocean, which not alone hugely pleased the
+sturdy tars grouped together on the forecastle, but
+ultimately, in consequence of a collection set on foot for
+the unfortunate Berlin acrobat, procured him enough ready
+money to enable him to pass the first week after his arrival
+at Madras free from anxiety, besides supplying him with a
+fresh outfit.</p>
+
+<p>Within a few days after our departure from Galle, several
+severe cases occurred of hemeralopia, chiefly among members
+of the ship's band. Every evening, as darkness set in, these
+men lost all power of distinguishing objects, and had to be
+led<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span> about like blind men. In Vienna, we had been advised by
+various physicians there, with a view to the confirmation or
+refutation of the popular belief, to try the use of boiled
+ox-liver;<a name="Anchor-99" id="Anchor-99"></a><a href="#Footnote-99" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 99.">[99]</a> and, as one of the oxen shipped at Ceylon had
+been slaughtered, we were in a position to make the desired
+experiment, which, it must be confessed, proved eminently
+successful. This time, moreover, several of those thus
+afflicted were treated with cooked pig's-liver, which was
+given them to eat, while the steam rising from the dish was
+applied to their eyes. But we had, on our return voyage, the
+most convincing proof of the efficacy of the liver of
+animals of the ox tribe in cases of night-blindness, when
+above twenty of those afflicted, after frequent relapses
+during the voyage from Valparaiso to Gibraltar, were treated
+in the last-named port with ox-liver, and dismissed
+permanently cured.<a name="Anchor-100" id="Anchor-100"></a><a href="#Footnote-100" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 100.">[100]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-99" id="Footnote-99"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-99">[99]</a> This cure is likewise very much resorted to,
+even of late years, among the Highlands of Scotland!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-100" id="Footnote-100"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-100">[100]</a> During the entire voyage round the globe, there
+occurred 75 cases of <i>Hemeralopia</i>; the largest number of
+which, 60, occurred between Cape Horn and Gibraltar. The
+remainder were isolated cases, occurring at Rio, Ceylon, the
+Nicobar Islands, and on the voyage from China to Sydney.</p></div>
+
+<p>The voyage from Ceylon to Madras was, on the whole,
+monotonous and void of interest, with the exception of one
+single event, which no one on board is likely to forget for
+the remainder of his life. About 3.30 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> of the 2nd
+January, 1858, there suddenly resounded from the hold, the
+astounding cry of "Fire! fire!" Everyone rushed, in the
+utmost excitement, on deck. It turned out that a by no
+means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span> insignificant quantity of pure alcohol, which was
+stowed away in the hold for the preservation of specimens of
+natural history, had, from some unknown cause, caught fire.
+Forthwith the pumps were manned, the sails clewed up, all
+the portholes closed, so as to cut off the slightest
+draught, and all the hammocks of the crew trundled,
+<i>pêle-mêle</i> on deck anyhow, out of the quarter-nettings, in
+which they are stowed away during the day, there to be
+dipped in sea-water, and in that wringing-wet condition
+applied, partly in extinguishing the flames, partly in
+preventing the fire from spreading. In less than a quarter
+of an hour the worst danger was over, and our wonted quiet
+restored, despite the first terrible excitement. On a more
+searching investigation, several of the tin carboys in the
+hold, filled with spirits of wine, and kept between layers
+of sand in iron chests, were found to have been corroded
+till the liquor had oozed through, while the air, having
+free access to the sand, had become strongly impregnated
+with gas. This atmosphere, impregnated as it was with
+alcoholic fumes, took fire on one of the sailors carelessly
+entering the hold with a badly-fastened lantern, and in a
+moment the light flames which speedily enveloped the man in
+such a confined space, at once gave the alarm. The full
+carboys remained uninjured by the fire. Had such a
+catastrophe happened, and the whole quantity of spirit
+(about 40 gallons) taken fire, considering the immense
+quantities of combustible matter we had on board, among the
+rest a ton-and-a-half of gunpowder, the upshot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span> must have
+been of a far less agreeable nature. The extraordinary
+lightning-like activity displayed by the entire ship's
+company on this occasion was something wonderful. Each man
+seemed to have got wings. There was the most laudable
+emulation displayed by all hands in seeking to save the
+lives of themselves and others from such a terrible doom.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th January, at 7.30 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, we anchored in Madras
+Roads, so dreaded for their insecurity, about three nautical
+miles from the shore, and in 9 fathoms (56 feet English).
+Even in the calmest weather there is a tremendous surf on
+this coast, and from October to December, in which strong
+gales blow from the N.E., it is all but unapproachable. For
+this reason, so soon as the wind increases so as to endanger
+the ships in the roads, a flag is hoisted on a staff at the
+Master Attendant's office, that they may put to sea at once.
+On the second signal, all ships must quit the Roads for fear
+of being dashed through the surf upon the beach.</p>
+
+<p>From the city we heard a running fire of musketry and some
+salutes with cannon, which, considering the prevalence of
+warlike rumours and movements in the then circumstances of
+India, made us conjecture that the natives of the Coromandel
+coast were also in insurrection against the English.
+However, we learned afterwards that the musketry and salvoes
+proceeded from the troops stationed near the
+drilling-ground, who were receiving their general on his
+return from parade with a salute. The following day (Sunday,
+the 31st January, 1858)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span> the European community of Madras
+fell into a precisely similar error in consequence of our
+salute, which they, being at that hour assembled at worship,
+mistook for a much less peaceful and agreeable intimation,
+so that the majority, dreading an outbreak, hurried to their
+houses in deep anxiety.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"><a name="illu483" id="illu483"></a>
+<img src="images/illu483.jpg" width="463" height="189" alt="Boat with four oarsmen, one helmsman and passenger 'tent'." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MASULI BOAT AT MADRAS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">424</a></span></p>
+
+<div style="position: absolute; left: 12%;
+width: 550px; height: 700px; background-image: url('images/illu484.png');
+background-color: transparent;"><a name="illu484" id="illu484"></a>
+<a name="IX" id="IX"></a>
+<span style="position: relative; top:-1em;">VIEW OF MADRAS (AND PROPOSED PIER).</span></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 550px; height: 344px;"></div>
+<div class="ilbl" style="width: 179px; height: 353px;"></div>
+
+<h2 style="clear: none;">IX.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3" style="clear: none;">Madras.</div>
+
+<div class="c5" style="clear: none;"><span class="smcap">Duration of Stay from 30th January to 10th February, 1858.</span></div>
+
+<div class="ChapDescr">
+"Catamarans" and "Massuli" boats.&mdash;Difficulty of
+disembarkation, and plans for remedying
+it.&mdash;History.&mdash;Brahminism.&mdash;Festival in honour of
+Vishnu.&mdash;Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+Government.&mdash;Politics and Religion.&mdash;Laws of Brahminic
+faith.&mdash;The Observatory.&mdash;Museum of Natural History and
+Zoological Garden.&mdash;Academy of Fine Arts.&mdash;Medical
+School.&mdash;Infirmary.&mdash;Orphan Asylum.&mdash;Dr. Bell.&mdash;Lancastrian
+Method of Teaching Children first applied in
+Madras.&mdash;Colonel Mackenzie's Collection of Indian
+Inscriptions and Manuscripts.&mdash;The Palace of the former
+Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.&mdash;Journey by rail to
+Vellore.&mdash;<i>Fête</i> given by the Governor in Guindy
+Park.&mdash;Visit to the Monolithic Monuments of
+Mahamalaipuram.&mdash;Excursion to Pulicat Lake.&mdash;Madras
+Club.&mdash;<i>Fête</i> in honour of the members of the <i>Novara</i>
+Expedition.&mdash;"Tiffin" and dance on board.&mdash;Departure from
+Madras.&mdash;Zodiacal light.&mdash;Shrove Tuesday in the
+tropics.&mdash;Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.
+</div>
+
+<p>The morning after our arrival in Madras Roads, a native boat
+came alongside, of the sort known as "Catamarans,"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">425</a></span> having
+on board two natives, who brought off from the authorities
+of the port the customary papers to be filled up. This
+extraordinary and very primitive boat consists of merely two
+or three trunks of trees bound together raft-fashion, on
+which these daring boatmen kneel. As a great part of their
+body is necessarily under water, they carry the papers and
+letters entrusted to them for transmission to the ships in
+the Roads, in turban-like wrappings which envelope their
+heads. Ordinarily, these men are excellent swimmers, a most
+requisite accomplishment to enable them to regain their
+boats, in the event of being swept off by the waves, or to
+save themselves and others from the innumerable sharks,
+which frequent the entire Coromandel coast, and render it
+eminently dangerous. About noon, a larger boat approached
+us, manned by from 15 to 20 natives, who offered their
+services as caterers, washers, agents, servants, in short as
+"Dubashes" a sort of Hindoo <i>factotum</i>; while each
+individual, shrieking and vociferating at the top of his
+voice, held high in the air, with outstretched arm, a number
+of written testimonials of ship-captains that had already
+employed him. These boats, called "Massuli," or "Musli"
+boats (from <i>Muchly</i>&mdash;fish), about 36 feet long by 5 or 6 in
+width, and in which alone it is possible to bring passengers
+and goods to land, are light, as flexible as if made of
+leather, and are fastened together with the elastic fibres
+of the cocoa-nut, being in every particular specially
+adapted to yield to the tremendous blows of the heavy surf,
+which a boat of ordinary construction could not possibly
+live through. They are for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">426</a></span> most part pretty deep, and
+are usually manned with from 12 to 15 naked natives, who
+make use of an exceedingly smooth pallette-shaped paddle. In
+one of these boats, the officers of the frigate on leave,
+and the naturalists of the Expedition, were conveyed to land
+in the midst of a fresh breeze from the N.E. The more we
+approached the shore, the more formidable was the appearance
+of the tumultuous tempest-driven waves. Amid frightful yells
+and hurrahs, we passed in safety the first and second lines
+of surf. But we had yet to encounter the third, and by far
+the most furious. The boatmen spread a couple of cloths over
+our heads, to prevent our getting a soaking; the boat made
+several violent plunges forward, and was for an instant
+apparently covered by the tremendous foaming billows, but
+seemed to glide in a most extraordinary manner over these,
+and finally was neatly laid alongside the beach on the crest
+of the last breaker. This is the critical moment, and the
+most disagreeable, because the boat is, by this
+manipulation, thrown on its side, and one feels disposed to
+rush out, ere the returning wave throws the boat high and
+dry on the sand. The noisy shrieks of the boat's crew and
+Coolies, or Lascars (Indian porters), with which the
+disembarkation is accompanied, combine to render it still
+more annoying and unpleasant. One feels a sensation of
+satisfaction at having gone through this remarkable, and to
+some extent wholly peculiar, experience; but no one was ever
+known to encounter it voluntarily a second time. The glowing
+picture, which numbers of travellers have drawn of the
+landing at Madras, might impress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">427</a></span> many readers with the idea
+that their representations were most probably tinged
+somewhat with a colouring of romance; but, in view of our
+own experience at what is confessedly the pleasantest season
+of the year, there can be at certain times no description,
+however vividly sketched, but what must lag behind the
+reality.</p>
+
+<p>There could hardly have been selected a more unsuitable site
+for a city, than that of Madras, and it is only the
+circumstance that the entire Coromandel coast presents no
+more eligible haven, as also the importance of the place as
+the chief city of the Carnatic, which alone has a population
+of 5,000,000, that has enabled Madras to boast a population
+of 700,000 inhabitants, and a commerce of such magnitude
+that 6000 vessels, British and foreign, are annually<a name="Anchor-101" id="Anchor-101"></a><a href="#Footnote-101" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 101.">[101]</a>
+cleared inwards and outwards, laden with upwards of 650,000
+tons of produce and goods of a total value of more than
+£8,000,000 sterling.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-101" id="Footnote-101"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-101">[101]</a> In the year 1857, the number of trading vessels
+was 6241, carrying 652,146 tons merchandise, of which 1438
+were square-sailed ships; and 4803 native boats and Chinese
+junks. The imports of goods and metals amounted to Rs.
+40,563,826 (about £4,050,000 in round numbers); the exports
+to Rs. 40,060,656 (about £4,000,000 in round numbers). We
+are indebted to the kindness of Dr. Balfour for a variety of
+interesting statistical <i>data</i>, the information contained in
+which must be transferred to the statistical portion of the
+<i>Novara</i> publications.</p></div>
+
+<p>The spot at which vessels anchor can by no stretch of terms
+be called a roadstead, being in fact nothing but an open
+strip of coast running nearly due north and south, so that
+during the N.E. monsoons, the sea that sets in is something
+extraordinary, and produces a tremendous surf. At no season
+of the year is it practicable to reach the shore by ordinary
+ship-boats,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">428</a></span> because the beach, being utterly unprovided
+with any artificial appliances, is left in its natural
+state&mdash;that is to say, covered with fine sand, which lies so
+level that the depth is only nine fathoms two miles out at
+sea! Singular to say, no steps have to this day been taken
+to carry out the proposition, made many long years ago, of
+remedying this difficulty in reaching land, by the
+construction of a mole or pier, although three or four plans
+have already been presented by distinguished engineers. The
+last and most feasible scheme, and the most likely to be put
+in execution, consists in constructing a mole 1000 feet in
+length and 60 feet in breadth, to be erected upon iron piles
+driven into the sand, and with a cross-piece at the seaward
+extremity&mdash;the mole construction resembling the letter <b>T</b>. On
+either side of the mole, tramways will be laid down to
+facilitate the transport of goods that have been discharged.
+The entire cost of this undertaking would be about
+£100,000&mdash;an entirely disproportionate, and, indeed,
+insignificant amount, when one takes into consideration the
+important consequences which must result to trade and
+passenger traffic on the completion of this erection.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest British settlement was at Armegon, about 36
+miles north of Pulicat (or about 78 miles N. by W. of
+Madras). The cession of a piece of land by the native Rajah
+of Besnayor induced the president of the old factory at
+Armegon, Mr. Francis Day, to abandon the latter, and in the
+year 1639, the Fort of St. George was erected at the
+newly-selected station, where formerly stood the little
+Hindoo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">429</a></span> village of Ischinapatam. This fort formed the
+nucleus, at a later period, of the city of Madras, which is
+built on the flat alluvial soil along the coast, and at
+present comprises an area of about 30 (English) square
+miles. Its extent along the beach from north to south is
+about 9 miles by an extreme width of 3&frac34; miles. Madras,
+like all the rest, consists of a White town, exclusively
+inhabited by Europeans, and a Black town, or <i>Pettah</i>, in
+which the natives and all coloured residents carry on
+business.</p>
+
+<p>The White town, which, however, presents none of the
+carefully laid-out streets and compact blocks of houses
+involuntarily suggested by the word "town," but rather
+resembles a gigantic park, in which are situated a vast
+number of comfortable ornamental villas, rises at its
+highest point 20 feet above the sea; whereas the Black town,
+at several points&mdash;for instance, Popham's Broadway&mdash;is
+hardly 8 feet above the level of spring floods.</p>
+
+<p>While in Ceylon we had had an opportunity of becoming
+acquainted with the influence exercised by Buddhism over the
+political and social condition of the island; here we, for
+the first time, found ourselves confronted with the
+followers of Brahmah. At the moment of our arrival, the
+principal festival of the year was being celebrated in
+honour of Vishnù, one of the three godheads of the
+Brahminical faith. It lasted fourteen days, and was
+celebrated with much pomp. Temples were improvised, and some
+dancing platforms erected for the female servants of the
+temple and "<i>bayadères</i>." In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">430</a></span> one of these dancing saloons,
+adorned in the most marvellous manner, a sort of altar rose
+in the background, richly hung with gold filagree work and
+stained cut-glass, and fringed with singular representations
+of the god. In the doorway stood, on the left hand side, a
+copy of the statue of the Venus de' Medici; on the right, of
+the Apollo Belvedere; on a small table were visible
+butterflies, fire-flies, and conchs, in ornamental glass
+cases. On the walls, of plain deal boards, were suspended on
+one side, adjoining the portrait of Anthony da Padua, a
+number of representations of voluptuous Oriental
+"<i>odalisques</i>;" on the other, near an engraving in copper of
+Carlo Barromeo, all sorts of obscene engravings, such as are
+offered for sale only in the most abandoned quarters of
+Paris and London, and then under the cover of night. For
+that matter, we believe that the Hindoo priests, who
+superintended the erection of this hall consecrated to the
+worship of Vishnù, gave themselves less anxiety respecting
+the subjects treated of in the pictures suspended round,
+than that the walls should appear richly decorated with
+engravings and pictures. Adjoining this half-open dancing
+booth for the women in attendance on the temple, rises the
+chief Hindoo temple in Madras, a stately edifice of blocks
+of syenite, and surrounded by a lofty wall painted with the
+usual white and red streaks; and on which a fleecy-coated
+long-tailed baboon was performing his antics. Two gloomy
+pyramidal towers shoot up from the wall of the temple, and a
+beautiful colonnade leads to the entrance porch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">431</a></span> A huge
+tank, almost resembling a pond, in which the Hindoos thrice
+daily performed their ceremonies, and went through their
+ablutions, lies in front of the temple, surrounded on its
+remaining sides by buildings for various purposes, while a
+stately elephant, specially consecrated to the service, is
+kept on the side next the temple, which carries up a pitcher
+of water every forenoon from the pool in front of the
+pagoda, one of the servants attached to the temple sitting
+on his back holding it, while a second, seated behind him,
+keeps waving a fan in either hand. The elephant is first
+conducted round the temple and then inside, in order to
+present the water to the god. This elephant (which animal it
+seems is itself an incarnation of Vishnù) had the
+distinguishing mark of the sect, as also several other
+indications of a similar nature richly tatooed upon his huge
+broad forehead. Every evening during the continuance of the
+fourteen days' festival, the various temples and dancing
+booths were brilliantly illuminated with wax tapers and oil
+lamps, but admission was refused to the profane, and in the
+eyes of Brahmah, unbelieving Europeans, a rule which was
+everywhere enforced with much politeness but unvarying
+firmness. Moreover, everything that the hand of a European
+has touched is unclean to the Hindoo. Only the <i>Pariah</i>, or
+"outcaste," the very lowest class of the people, eats any
+food that has been prepared in the kitchen of a Christian.</p>
+
+<p>The most substantial part of the festival, however, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">432</a></span>
+fortunately not confined to the interior of the temple, but
+took place in the streets, through which, during the period
+the festival lasted, immense processions of Hindoos,
+praying, singing, and dancing, used to pass every evening
+about 11 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span> on their way from one temple to another, so
+that we were in no want of picturesque objects. First, a
+band of musicians would lead the way, with the peculiar
+little drum or tom-tom, whining pipes, and blaring
+clarinets. It was more like the noise of a lot of children's
+instruments than music. Next came a Hindoo riding on a
+gaily-bedizened ox, after whom appeared a number of girls
+and "<i>Bayadères</i>," dressed in white clothes, their hair
+richly dressed, and with rings through their nostrils, while
+the flaps of their ears were adorned with richly-gemmed
+ear-rings hanging down to the neck, and moving both hands
+and feet as they danced before the sacred figure, which was
+drawn along by 24 sturdy believers in Vishnù. The image was
+placed on a daïs thickly overspread with flowers, filagree
+work, and small mirrors, approached by steps, and with a
+parasol outspread overhead; in a vehicle in front was a sort
+of figure dressed up in flowers. On either side a multitude
+of torch-bearers strode along, with sulphurous lights and
+other means of illumination, or iron frames, on which were
+disposed in pyramidal form or like a bow, from 7 to 13
+fireballs, which, let off at intervals alternately with
+Bengal lights and rockets, formed a veritable ocean of
+light. A tub filled with cocoa-nut oil was dragged behind,
+from which the cotton wicks were kept constantly
+replenished, so that the flames continued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span> unintermittently.
+Wherever the procession passed the by-standers stood with
+hands reverentially folded. Many had the thresholds of their
+houses gaily adorned with flags and illuminated with paper
+lamps, others let off sky-rockets. From time to time, the
+procession halted for a moment, the female dancers formed
+two rows, and some of their number went through a sort of
+dance, in which they performed a set of stereotyped motions
+with their hands, and chanted the praises of the god in a
+most monotonous chorus. Thousands upon thousands of Hindoos
+joined the procession, so that we could hardly make way
+through the crowds. The yelling, heat, odour of oil, and
+stink of sulphur were absolutely intolerable. As often as
+the procession paused, the noise was redoubled, the
+confusion became tenfold. Itinerant confectioners, who
+offered for sale all sorts of sweetmeats, prepared either
+from the kernel or milk of the cocoa-nut, drew back
+reluctantly when the eye of a stranger was directed towards
+their piled-up delicacies, through dread lest a mere glance
+from him should blight their stock in trade. On the other
+hand, we remarked some of these vendors pressing forward
+with eagerness to satisfy the curiosity of strangers by
+offering small samples of their eatables, so as the more
+easily to propitiate and get rid of these dangerous guests,
+and leave the poor Hindoo in peace and unharmed! As
+Christianity makes but slow progress among the Hindoos, and
+as the tendencies of the English residents in India do not
+point, as of yore among the Spaniards in America, towards
+the violent conversion of the heathen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">434</a></span> natives with the
+alternative of annihilation, but rather towards political
+and commercial influences, we find the British Government
+regarding with placid indifference the abominations of
+Hindoo worship, which, even to this hour, take the form of
+laceration of the flesh and self-immolation, rather than, by
+ruling with the strong hand, fan the religious fanaticism of
+the multitude, without the possibility of Christianity
+becoming a gainer. Among the thousands upon thousands who
+were celebrating the festival of Vishnù in such a heathenish
+fashion, there undoubtedly were many who are in the employ
+of Government, which has no scruples about appointing
+Hindoos of all sorts to the various posts in the public
+service. The English State Church which held that such
+appointments tended, not very indirectly, to support
+heathenism,<a name="Anchor-102" id="Anchor-102"></a><a href="#Footnote-102" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 102.">[102]</a> earnestly remonstrated against the practice,
+but the Government becoming daily more convinced that the
+doctrines and homilies of the Christian faith continued to
+be entirely a dead letter among the Hindoos, seems to hold
+fast to a policy of seeking gradually to introduce
+Christianity and European civilization among the Indian
+races, by means of equality of rights and assimilation of
+laws, by a system of well-organized national, trade, and
+industrial education, and, above all, by the influence of
+personal example. This, to be sure, is a very slow and
+arduous method of conversion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">435</a></span> inasmuch as a life of
+religious observances is more deeply intertwined with the
+very foundations of the social system in India than in any
+other country of the globe, and fairly blocks the way
+against the expansiveness of European civilization. For as
+simple as the Hindoo religion appears in its primitive
+principles, the proper observance of its various rites is
+proportionately difficult, and full of subtle distinctions
+for the sincere Hindoo believer.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-102" id="Footnote-102"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-102">[102]</a> The East India Company even undertook the
+maintenance of the Hindoo temples, and defrayed the receipts
+of the annual festival in honour of Vishnù out of the
+revenues. There exist in the Presidency of Madras alone 8292
+Hindoo temples, with an annual revenue of about £100,000,
+all under the protection and control of the Company. (See
+"India, Ancient and Modern," by David O. Allen, Boston,
+1856.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The worship of Brahma, according to the doctrines enunciated
+by Brahma's own lips in the Vedas, or holy books, took its
+rise in the adoration paid to the powers of nature, regarded
+as so many divinities, especially in the exalted
+transcendentalism of their ideas respecting the sun, the
+moon, the stars, and the firmament. Thence was readily
+developed the belief in a sole, eternal, Almighty Creator
+and Ruler of the world, Brahma, represented as having four
+faces looking to the four quarters of the globe, and
+reposing on a swan. This simple monotheistic belief was
+gradually developed into the divine manifestation of Brahma
+as a Triune divinity, namely, as the Creating power
+(Brahma), the preserving power (Vishnù), and the destroying,
+and at the same time renewing, energy of nature (Siva).</p>
+
+<p>Although the revelation of Brahma has long since been
+completed, while Vishnù and Siva are still active agencies
+in the world as Supporter and Augmenter respectively, Brahma
+is assigned a very inferior rank in the worship of the
+masses, although, according to the lawgiver Menù, the Moses
+of India,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">436</a></span> he created the Brahmins out of the substance of
+his head, to guide and instruct man; from his arms the
+Chetriyas, to protect and defend him; from his trunk the
+Veisigas, to nourish and support him; and, lastly, from his
+feet the Sadras, to serve and be the property of all the
+other castes.</p>
+
+<p>To Brahma, the fulness of whose existence no earthly notions
+can embrace, there are no temples dedicated, these being
+rather erected in honour of Vishnù, the Intercessor and
+Supporter, who manifests himself in the atmosphere and in
+water, and Siva the destroyer and regenerator of the various
+races, as also to the other divinities whom the Hindoo
+religion numbers by millions, although the majority of these
+have several names, and the lower classes are simply
+Avatars, that is incarnations or manifestations, of the
+superior deities. This peculiarity of the Hindoo religion
+makes it impossible correctly to classify or define Indian
+mythology. The god Rama, for example, is frequently named
+for Krishna, and the latter again for Vishnù. Vishnù, on his
+part, sometimes figures as Rama, when he is to destroy
+Ravana, the tyrant of Ceylon, or as Buddha, in order to
+found Buddhism. Like the Proteus of Grecian fable, the
+Hindoo mythology assumes a thousand different shapes,&mdash;it
+is, in short, Pantheism in its most perfect development.</p>
+
+<p>A zealous Hindoo requires about four hours of each day to
+get through his religious ceremonies, these being performed
+at different periods, as he must bathe in the morning, at
+noon, and again at night, in a tank or pool before the
+temple, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">437</a></span> recite certain prayers. For purposes of
+recognition, the two chief castes wear special marks, the
+worshippers of Vishnù having a trident painted on the
+forehead in either white or yellow, while those of Siva, on
+the other hand, sport three horizontal stripes, or one round
+spot marked with the ash of burnt sandal-wood. Many Hindoos
+write on their foreheads the distinguishing insignia of both
+Vishnù and Siva, and look thus the more strange and
+peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>After every ablution these marks are painted afresh, and
+with much care upon the forehead, so that paint and
+rouge-boxes play an important part in a native household. No
+Hindoo can partake of his exclusively vegetable nutriment,
+if cooked in a European kitchen, such being entirely
+contrary to the principles of his faith. Every servant,
+therefore, leaves his master regularly at noon, in order to
+partake of his simple meal of rice and vegetables, either
+with his family or in one of the numerous Hindoo cook-shops.
+The frequent holidays of the Hindoos, of which there are
+twenty-one within two months, seriously interfere with trade
+among the natives, and still more with the instruction of
+the young.</p>
+
+<p>Hindooism, however, appears to have lost much of its
+originality by constant contact with Europeans, and by the
+various political revolutions, and although many of these
+ceremonies are still kept up, and the bodies of their dead
+are still burned on pyres, yet the modern Hindoo has so far
+relaxed from his ascetic austerity, as to admit of his being
+employed in the various pursuits of active life. And it is
+not a little surprising<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">438</a></span> to see these handsome, tall, brown
+figures, with their insignia of Vishnù or Siva marked on
+their foreheads, and dressed in their sweeping plaited togas
+of pure white, employed on the telegraph, the railway, the
+arsenal, and even the observatory, all which employments
+demand the utmost exactness and punctuality, and thus afford
+the most gratifying evidence of the adaptability of the
+Hindoo race to be impressed and to benefit by European
+civilization. With the exception of Major Jacob, the
+director of the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the
+whole of the <i>employés</i> are natives, who are not indeed
+employed in making the actual observations, but are found
+perfectly competent to compute the various calculations, and
+make the requisite reductions. The institution itself is at
+present of but little importance as a place of scientific
+observation, in consequence of the small support it
+receives, but it is to be provided with a meridian circle,
+similar to that in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good
+Hope, when it must become an important station. Strange to
+say, here, as at the Cape, there are no observations made on
+the Sundays, which in the course of a year gives rise to
+lamentable deficiencies, especially when some natural
+phenomenon of rare occurrence happens to fall upon a Sunday.</p>
+
+<p>We were greatly surprised at the flourishing condition of
+the Central Museum, with which is united a Zoological
+Garden, both set on foot in 1851. In the spacious rooms of
+this stately edifice are ranged costly Indian antiquities
+and sculptures, inscriptions in Sanscrit, in stone, or
+marble slabs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">439</a></span> antique fragments of Indian monuments,<a name="Anchor-103" id="Anchor-103"></a><a href="#Footnote-103" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 103.">[103]</a> as
+also an instructive collection of technical and
+ethnographical subjects, models of fortresses, ships,
+agricultural implements, instruments, tools, machines, and
+native forts. The geological department of the Museum is the
+weakest and poorest department; and as spirits of wine and
+glass jars are expensive articles in India, the greatest
+number of the animals, even the fish and snakes, are simply
+stuffed. In the garden which surrounds the museum buildings
+are a considerable number of cages inclosing living animals,
+such as monkeys, panthers, bears, giraffes, stags, gazelles,
+cobras, Indian hens, pigeons, marsh-birds, and
+singing-birds. In addition there were <i>Aquaria</i> with fishes
+arranged in groups at various spots all round the garden. Of
+objects of special interest there was a powerful baboon
+(<i>Pithecus Satyrus</i>), above 5 feet high, fastened to a chain
+in a large monkey-house, around whom were gambolling a
+number of smaller species, as also a number of cobras in a
+large box with glass sides, so that one could examine them
+at leisure on every side. Here we witnessed the
+uncomfortable spectacle of a native engaged in cleaning the
+panes inside the cage and directly beneath these formidable
+animals, which thronged around him in such numbers that he
+was continually compelled with one hand to resist their
+importunate caresses. Anyone not aware of the fact that
+these animals have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">440</a></span> rendered harmless by the extraction
+of their poison-fangs, must experience a feeling of terror
+and astonishment at the sight of this brood of malign,
+stealthy-moving, hissing serpents, with a naked Hindoo in
+their midst!</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-103" id="Footnote-103"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-103">[103]</a> These important inscriptions are explained and
+described in the Selections from the Records of the Madras
+Government, Report on the Elliot Marbles (p. 191) by R. W.
+Taylor, Madras, 1857.</p></div>
+
+<p>Most astonishing and gratifying is the immense number of
+casual visitors that frequent this institution for advancing
+education. The book for inscribing names lying in the
+Museum, showed for a single month no less than 36,522
+visitors, mostly natives, and this it seems has been about
+the average number since the foundation of the Museum. There
+is also a small, valuable library, which, by means of
+purchases, gifts, and exchanges, is being visibly added to
+with each year, and is accessible to visitors of all
+classes, the custodian and inspectors being all natives.</p>
+
+<p>The Madras Literary Society, an offshoot of the Royal
+Asiatic Society in London, and now reckoning but a small
+number of associates, publishes from time to time the most
+valuable information as to the latest achievements of
+science in India, and serves in a measure as a medium by
+which to compare the intellectual progress of Asia and
+Europe. To the members of this society the naturalists of
+the <i>Novara</i> Expedition are specially beholden for their
+great attention during their stay in Madras, as also for
+their hearty participation in the objects of the Imperial
+Expedition as evidenced by their sending copies of their own
+various and useful publications.</p>
+
+<p>There are in Madras numerous institutes devoted to the
+diffusion of useful knowledge among the masses, part
+founded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">441</a></span> and maintained by Government, part by private
+enterprise, and this liberality is the more praiseworthy
+that the European community of Madras does not comprise much
+more than 1600 persons, of whom only a very few settle any
+length of time. The Europeans resident here are chiefly
+military men and merchants, who leave the country after
+remaining five or ten years, as almost every one regards his
+stay in this hot, sandy capital of the desert Coromandel
+coast, as purely provisional, and views it as a
+stepping-stone towards attaining some better post, or
+becoming suddenly wealthy by some favourable conjuncture of
+circumstances. That the majority of these institutions have
+more practical objects in view admits of ready proof, and is
+but one instance the more of the moulding power of
+surrounding circumstances. In the school of arts for
+instance, under Dr. Hunter's superintendence, there are 20
+pupils, mostly Hindoos, who are receiving instruction in
+drawing, sculpture, lithography, woodcutting, etching, and
+photography. But in order to reduce, as far as possible, the
+expenses of this institution, there is also included a
+manufacture of earthenware, the proceeds arising from the
+sale of which are applied to the support of the school.</p>
+
+<p>Another eminently useful institution, the Medical College,
+which, as well as most of the other professional
+foundations, we visited in the company with our hospitable
+and influential friend, Dr. Kelly, possesses one division,
+in which such of the natives as purpose to set up as
+apothecaries, are at the same time so far educated as to be
+able, in case of necessity, to perform a few of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">442</a></span> the minor
+surgical operations. Of the hundred of an auditory who at
+the period of our visit were attending a lecture on
+chemistry, the majority were half-blooded Indians, dressed
+in the European fashion, with a sprinkling of barely 9 or 10
+Hindoos in their white robes, and with the Vishnù or Siva
+marks on their forehead. We frequently heard the professors,
+among whom are several gentlemen of high scientific
+attainments, such, for instance, as Messrs. Evans, Lorimer,
+Mudge, Montgomery, Mayr, &amp;c., express their regret at the
+severe check which the development of science sustained by
+the outbreak of the late revolt. Plans for a new university,
+a hospital, and a medical school to correspond are all
+ready, and but for that ruinous catastrophe would have been
+by this time in working order.</p>
+
+<p>In other respects the present Infirmary is an ugly and
+unsuitable building, making up about 100 beds for patients.
+Several of these were occupied by soldiers, who had been
+severely wounded under Havelock at the storming of Delhi.
+The introduction of punkahs, or wind-fans, into the wards
+has proved so salutary, that there is an intention to have
+them worked without intermission day and night, by means of
+water power, instead of by manual labour as hitherto. In
+order to be able to estimate the boon conferred by such an
+improvement upon the condition of the poor invalids, we must
+call to mind that the average annual temperature of Madras
+is about 94° Fahr., which is slightly in excess of the
+average temperature at the equator, although Madras is 10
+degrees north of the line.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span> Under such climatic conditions,
+it is no wonder that the invigorating wholesome breeze is
+known at Madras as "The Doctor."</p>
+
+<p>Among the benevolent institutions visited by us, we found
+the twin asylums for male and female orphans of soldiers
+well worthy of notice in many particulars. These are for the
+most part the offspring of European soldiers married to
+native women, and are known as "half-castes," or
+"Mestizoes." In the Military Female Asylum, there were at
+this time 216 girls, who were brought up to all manner of
+female work, as well as taught reading, writing, and
+arithmetic, and remained in the institution until suitably
+provided for in marriage. The marriage outfit, as also a
+small wedding present of Rs. 50 (£5), for each girl is
+provided by Government, and the entire working expenses,
+which amount to about Rs. 30,000 (£3000) annually, are
+defrayed by a Government grant of Rs. 1000 (£100) a month,
+together with the interest of the funded capital, upon which
+Government pays 8 per cent. interest.</p>
+
+<p>The Military Male Orphan Asylum was founded in 1788 by means
+of voluntary contributions, supplemented by a Government
+Subvention, and possesses a special historical interest from
+the circumstance that it was here that Dr. Bell, who held
+the post of Head-Master in the establishment, first
+projected and put into execution the method of imparting
+elementary instruction, afterwards so widely renowned as the
+Lancastrian method of teaching, which since that period has
+traversed the globe, and has been introduced into every
+capital in Europe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">444</a></span> The course of instruction of the
+institution includes writing, reading, arithmetic, grammar,
+geography, history, English, Tamil, and music. The capital
+of the institution is vested by Government in the 4 per
+cent. stocks, paying 8 per cent. interest, which, with the
+large amount realized within the establishment itself, is
+sufficient to defray all expenses without any further
+assistance. The number of boys is about 242. The head
+teacher, who obligingly conducted us over the whole
+establishment, which is very handsome, called a dozen boys
+forward just as we were leaving, who played a few simple
+pieces on wind instruments, on which they performed a
+variety of national airs with great precision. The music
+master was a German.</p>
+
+<p>Among its casual attractions, Madras has occasionally flower
+shows, and exhibitions of industry, and it is exceedingly
+gratifying to observe how European science is even here
+called in to elicit the treasures of nature, and administer
+to the necessities of mankind. The catalogue of the
+industrial exhibition of 1857 shows, <i>inter alia</i>, 17 sorts
+of spices, 20 varieties of resin, 64 plants suitable for the
+distillation of oil, and 41 different drugs, and Dr.
+Kirkpatrick, a physician in Mysore, has taken the trouble to
+enumerate, by their botanical and Indian names, 240 native
+drugs, which had been sent to the Madras exhibition, as also
+their market value, and at the same time has subjoined the
+modes in which the natives use them.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most remarkable private museums which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">445</a></span> have been
+formed at Madras for the illustration of the history and
+monuments of the southern provinces of the Deccan, must
+undoubtedly be included the collection of native
+inscriptions and manuscripts of the well-known Colonel
+Mackenzie, which first attracted the attention of all
+friends of Oriental science, as also the British Government,
+through a memoir<a name="Anchor-104" id="Anchor-104"></a><a href="#Footnote-104" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 104.">[104]</a> of Alexander Johnston, Esq. It is a
+magnificent testimony to the conservative spirit of the
+British resident among heathen nations, as compared with the
+barbarous spirit of destruction that characterized the
+Spanish colonists. From an erroneous idea that they were in
+so doing promoting the interests of Christianity, these
+Romanist conquerors destroyed all sculptures and monuments
+of the pagan Indian races, and, by this fanatical Vandalism,
+at the same time prevented the hand of science from
+unfolding, as it might have done from these important
+vestiges, the history of these very remarkable races from
+the most remote ages.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-104" id="Footnote-104"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-104">[104]</a> On Colonel Mackenzie's Collection, in the
+Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain.
+London, 1835, p. 4, vol. ii.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the immense old palace, surrounded by adjacent edifices
+and gardens, once occupied by the King of the Coromandel
+coast, the renowned nabob of the Carnatic, the offices of
+the English Government <i>employés</i> are at present located.
+The last of these sovereigns died a few years since, and his
+former minister receives from the British Government a
+pension of Rs. 1300 (£130) a month. Great men who have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">446</a></span>
+fallen do not ordinarily like to be sought out or gazed at.
+There is, however, on the contrary, no difficulty in
+obtaining access to the last minister of the last monarch of
+the Coromandel coast, who seems to feel flattered by a visit
+from strangers. On our entering, the venerable old gentleman
+rose from a rich thick carpet, on which he was sitting
+cross-legged, held out his hand in the most affable manner,
+and did us the honour of accompanying us through the palace.
+He had a long white beard, and wore a white turban on his
+head, while his person was enveloped in white linen. A
+splendid staircase conducted to a council-room, adorned with
+a portrait of the late nabob, life-size, executed in London.
+A second room has a likeness of George Augustus Frederick,
+Prince of Wales, dedicated to his friend, Omadal-Omrah,
+nabob of the Carnatic, 1st January, 1797, and of Lord
+Cornwallis, arm in arm with a nabob, the former represented
+as walking among pines, the latter among palms. In the
+harness-room and coach-house adjoining, our obliging
+attendant revealed to us an endless array of golden howdah
+trappings, gilt with cunning hand, which seemed to have
+formerly borne the mighty nabob, when riding on his
+elephant. As we emerged from this lumber room, filled with
+dust and mud, we perceived in the square before us an
+immense dust-cloud, which approached nearer and nearer in
+its gyrations, and gradually assumed the shape of an
+elephant. It was a gigantic and magnificent specimen, and
+proved to be the favourite elephant of the last nabob,
+which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">447</a></span> like the minister himself, was reduced to eat the
+bread of charity. His enormous tusks were sawn half off, for
+which his attendant assigned the singular reason that the
+tusks of an elephant must be cut, just as we pair our nails!
+This pensioner-elephant, however, seemed to find himself in
+very good quarters, and was a carefully-tended gentle
+creature, who carried about his chain with his proboscis,
+and knelt down at the word of command.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other spacious apartments of this deserted palace
+was the banquetting hall, as it is called, which was
+represented by various writers as one of the largest rooms
+in the world, which, however, is a transparent fallacy. It
+is hard to believe that above a thousand persons could find
+room in it. At the period of our visit this apartment was
+used as a barrack for the English troops, in consequence of
+which the splendid full-length pictures already mentioned
+were carefully covered. One of the soldiers, anxious to show
+them to us, tore away the covering of one before we could
+interfere, when we found it to be a splendid likeness,
+painted in London, of Sir Thomas Monroe, a former governor
+of Madras.</p>
+
+<p>In the first few days of our stay in Madras, we made an
+excursion to the fort of Vellore, distant about 80 miles
+(English) from Madras, formerly a renowned native fort,
+which is now reached in a few hours by rail. This line
+passes through a flat uninteresting country, which is barely
+relieved here and there by a couple of solitary palms or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">448</a></span> a
+Hindoo temple, and altogether presents a strongly African
+character in its scenery. Only at those points, at which
+there are tanks, or artificial basins, either excavated or
+formed by damming the water, does there occur a luxuriant
+green vegetation covering the parched, brown, dusty soil.
+These tanks are filled in the rainy season, and during the
+dry season, which continues for months, supply the
+rice-fields with water for irrigation, the culture of that
+plant requiring an unusually large supply of water.</p>
+
+<p>If English railroads are proverbially comfortable in the
+mother-country, they certainly fall off lamentably in that
+particular in the cars used in India. This deficiency is the
+more provoking and remarkable, considering the various other
+appliances for comfort which are to be found in this
+country. The conductor, as well as the other servants of the
+Company, was a Hindoo. On the entire line we saw but five or
+six white men employed. The fares are pretty moderate, that
+for the entire distance, 80 miles, being Rupees 7&frac12;
+(15<i>s.</i>), for first-class, and Rupees 3 (6<i>s.</i>), second
+(about 2&frac14;<i>d.</i> and 1<i>d.</i> per mile, respectively). The line
+is to be extended from Bejapoor, so as to unite the eastern
+and western coasts of the peninsula. There are also lines
+projected from Madras to Bombay by Poonah and Bellary, and
+from Madras to Calcutta. The Governor, who (the evening
+previous to our departure, as we were being entertained at
+his summer residence, Guindy Park,) had been apprized of our
+intention to visit Vellore, was so attentive as to order the
+commandant to be informed by telegraph of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">449</a></span> projected
+excursion at a late hour of the evening, and when we reached
+Vellore at 11 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, Captain Stevens was awaiting us at the
+station, to greet the voyagers by the <i>Novara</i> in the name
+of the commandant of the fort, and convey them to the fort,
+three miles off, in a waggon drawn by oxen, as is the custom
+of the country. The waggon was about as large as an ordinary
+sized sitting-room, and contained several arm-chairs and
+cane stools, the position of which could be altered at
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Vellore was once one of the strongest fortresses in India,
+the wells of which were formerly rendered inaccessible by
+numerous colonies of alligators. These Hindoo fortifications
+have, however, lost their military importance for Europeans,
+as they are on all sides "overcrowed," as Rittmeister Dugald
+Dalgetty would say, by eminences, from which they could
+easily be cannonaded. Within the fort itself are several
+extraordinary buildings, once pagodas and houses of
+entertainment for priests and pilgrims (<i>choultries</i>). The
+former sanctuary, now used as an arsenal, is a
+<i>chef-d'&oelig;uvre</i> of architectural skill, with splendid
+<i>relievos</i> and figures sculptured in granite blocks. Most of
+the divinities have four arms, symbolical of the
+universality of their power. The various edifices seem to
+have been once an abode of Brahmins, a sort of Hindoo
+monastery in which, in addition to the pagoda, there were
+ranged all round, a temple, colonnades, and halls for the
+residence of the priests. In some of the smaller apartments
+there still are openings for windows, with a finely carved
+grating hewn out of the solid granite, the workmanship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">450</a></span> of
+which even the stone-cutters of our own days might feel
+proud of. Captain Mitchell, an English officer stationed at
+Madras, had hit upon the idea of photographing the most
+interesting of these monuments.</p>
+
+<p>The fortress of Vellore has been fortified for about 1000
+years! Captured by the English at the close of the last
+century, the then Nabob, a Mussulman, was taken prisoner,
+and his descendants have ever since inhabited the fort as
+State prisoners, without ever being permitted to leave it.
+We inquired of the officer who accompanied us, whether the
+Nabob was permitted at least to make use of the space within
+the fortress for exercise in the open air. "The Mussulmen,"
+replied the cautious Englishman, "do not care to show
+themselves in public; they prefer taking their exercise in
+the court in front of their residence, or in the garden."
+Accordingly, the aged prince is rarely known even to take an
+airing in a palanquin. The town of Vellore itself is, in a
+great measure, another place altogether, whose inhabitants
+are Mahometans, about 80,000 in number, chiefly engaged in
+rice culture.</p>
+
+<p>We originally intended to return the same day to Madras, the
+length of the journey, as well as the distance of the fort
+from the railway station, having been represented to us as
+much shorter than was actually the case. Accordingly, we
+telegraphed to the Austrian Consul, M. Campbell, Esq., an
+exceedingly courteous gentleman, that we should not return
+till the following morning. How great was our astonishment
+to find that the telegraph <i>employés</i> at Vellore, both in
+the transcribing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">451</a></span> department, and in the management of the
+apparatus, which was on Morse's system, were Hindoos, with
+their curious marks upon their foreheads, and their
+old-fashioned costume! They went, however, through the
+duties connected with this modern invention with great
+adroitness. The telegraph is already in operation to Bombay,
+and in this direction has two separate lines. There are,
+moreover, other lines in course of construction,&mdash;along the
+coast to Calcutta,&mdash;along the coast to Pondicherry by Adam's
+Bridge,<a name="Anchor-105" id="Anchor-105"></a><a href="#Footnote-105" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 105.">[105]</a> from Madras to Point de Galle, and from Madras to
+Hyderabad, Bangalore, and Bellary.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-105" id="Footnote-105"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-105">[105]</a> Adam's Bridge&mdash;called by the Hindoos Rama's
+Bridge,&mdash;is a bank extending between Ceylon and the mainland
+of Hindostan, by the islands of Manaar and Ramisseram. It is
+about 30 miles in length, running in a N.W. by W. direction,
+about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and principally
+composed of shelving sand, through which are three main
+openings or channels, that admit the passage of boats of
+very light draught.</p></div>
+
+<p>In proceeding from the fort to the town of Vellore, which is
+charmingly situated and regularly laid out, and is inhabited
+by numerous pensioners of the East India Company, we must
+cross the river Palaar (or Peliar), which, during the rainy
+season, is a headlong dangerous torrent, while in the dry
+season its bed, 1000 feet wide, is but a bare expanse of
+sand. It is only by dint of strenuous exertions that the
+traveller is able to pass this sand waste in a waggon, as it
+sinks at some points above the hubs of the wheels. We had
+four buffalo oxen yoked, and even then had to be propelled
+at certain points by the assistance of some 30 coolies or
+Indian porters besides. This serious inconvenience was
+shortly after our visit to be remedied by the erection of a
+splendid bridge of solid masonry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">452</a></span> which was to span the
+river by 42 arches, and will reduce the time of transit from
+the station from 1&frac14; hour to 20 minutes. Hereabouts oxen
+are usually employed for draught, which are of the same
+humped species as those we had previously seen in Ceylon.
+These animals trot with uncommon swiftness, so that the
+rapidity of transport may stand comparison with that where
+horses are employed.</p>
+
+<p>A few miles distant from Vellore, and visible from the hills
+around, lies Arcot (Arucati), the residence of the nominal
+nabob of the Carnatic, who has long been a pensioner of the
+British. The population of Arcot are mostly Mahometans, who
+speak a dialect of Hindustani, and drive a very active
+trade.</p>
+
+<p>At Vellore we resided in the house of the hospitable
+Lieut.-Colonel McCally, who, in the absence of the
+Commandant, did the honours of the Fort to the members of
+the <i>Novara</i> Expedition. Here we experienced a most cordial
+reception, and passed a few most delightful hours in the
+domestic circle of his amiable family. In the evening we
+made out an excursion to an adjoining eminence, 1400 feet
+above sea-level, 300 above Vellore, from which there is a
+commanding view over the town and neighbourhood. Seen from
+this point, the Fort looked charming, presenting itself to
+us, surrounded as it is by moats and watercourses, like an
+island in the foreground. On the top of this hill is the
+bungalow or country-seat of the collector of revenue, W. A.
+Sulivan, Esq., where we revelled in the enjoyment of the
+exquisite natural scenery, and partook of refreshment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">453</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the evening a number of officers, with their wives, met
+us at dinner at Lieut.-Colonel McCally's house. The gaieties
+were prolonged till far in the evening, music and songs
+alternating with round games and dancing, so that we had
+hardly composed ourselves to sleep ere we were awakened by
+the servants, in order to avoid missing the train, which
+leaves Vellore for Madras at 6.30 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> By 11 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, we were
+once more in the chief city of the Carnatic.</p>
+
+<p>The same afternoon the officers of the <i>Novara</i>, and the
+naturalists of the Expedition, were invited to an Indian
+fête, which Lord Harris gave every year at this season in
+his palace at Guindy Park, and to which it was customary to
+invite the majority of the European residents at Madras,
+together with their families,&mdash;military, civil service, and
+mercantile community, all being honoured with cards. This
+festival originated in a children's entertainment, which the
+governor had been in the habit of giving on the birthday of
+his son; the latter had long since gone to an English
+University, but the custom had survived, and the day was
+equally carefully observed this year also, having been
+looked forward to for months before by the "white" young
+folks of Madras. The entertainment still retains the
+character of a children's party, inasmuch as on the present
+occasion there were assembled above 250 children of both
+sexes, varying from 5 to 12 years of age. The total number
+of guests who, in addition to these, shared in the
+festivities was probably more than a thousand. The fête
+began with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">454</a></span> the performances of some 30 Indian jugglers and
+acrobats, on a large lawn in the park. These, as may be
+conceived, had been selected from among the most athletic
+and skilful. They presented a singularly-picturesque
+appearance, from the diversities of age, agile boys,
+athletic young men, slender voluptuous-looking <i>Bayadères</i>,
+old grey-headed men, and marvellous-looking old hags, with
+streaming white hair, and dark, piercing, gleaming eyes,
+recalling in their manners and appearance our own gipsies.
+All played at once, and performed with the most astonishing
+precision a succession of breakneck feats, that set the
+spectator's hair on end. It was a spectacle entirely <i>sui
+generis</i>, thoroughly Indian in short, to behold these
+wild-looking brown figures, unawed by the presence they were
+in, going through their various performances and feats of
+agility. In front of us knelt an old man who played with a
+dozen knives, which he kept circling around him with wild
+yells, apparently without looking at them, till he finally
+turned them in such a manner that it seemed as though the
+sharp points of the knives had transfixed his hand. Next
+youthful acrobats sprang through paper balloons set on
+fire,&mdash;girls in boys' dresses climbed up bamboo poles 100
+feet high, in the midst of continual yells,&mdash;boys executed
+on the damp meadow ground the most extraordinary feats of
+agility and contortions of the limbs, while one old fellow,
+to the intense astonishment of the assembled children,
+swallowed swords, as also tow and other combustible matter,
+whereupon flames<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">455</a></span> presently seemed to issue from his month.
+These, indeed, are feats of conjuring which have been
+performed in Europe, <i>usque ad nauseam</i>, but here all was
+done with such precision and dexterity (each man especially
+playing entirely <i>con amore</i>, evidently not to impress the
+spectators, but because he felt a pleasure in it himself),
+that the whole exhibition left quite a different impression
+from anything of the sort elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>After this introductory amusement, the children invited were
+regaled with a refection under an enormous tent. This was
+for the grown-up guests another source of great amusement.
+More than 300 children took their seats at a long
+well-covered table, while their fathers, mothers,
+governesses, &amp;c., stood behind the benches, and took special
+care to supply the little watering mouths with a sufficient
+supply of the many delicacies before them.</p>
+
+<p>A distribution of souvenirs to the various children present
+succeeded the repast, the various articles being fastened to
+a gigantic tree under a tent. The tree was profusely hung
+with elegant paper lamps, and although there were no
+pine-branches, only palm leaves, the "<i>tout ensemble</i>," bore
+a strong resemblance to a genuine Christmas tree. Fathers
+and mothers expressed to us their own feelings of pleasure
+at beholding the glee of their children, and, indeed, seemed
+to think this the most entertaining part of the fête. The
+distribution lasted a considerable time, and many of the
+children affected to coquette disparagingly with the
+presents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">456</a></span> of their neighbours, which these latter held fast
+with both hands, till at length the whole joyous train were
+dismissed homewards, thoroughly pleased with the day's
+proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>After this interlude there were fireworks on the lawn for
+the grown-up children, which seemed intended to serve merely
+as a stop-gap to while away the time between the
+distribution of the presents to the children and the supper,
+which was laid out in the brilliantly-illuminated
+dining-room of the palace. The fine band, which a few days
+previously had so pleased us by its performances during
+dinner at Guindy Park, drew up on the large lawn fronting
+the ball-room, and during this interval played a few select
+pieces with admirable precision. At last, supper was
+announced by a flourish of trumpets. Despite the spacious
+proportions of the apartment, the company was too numerous
+to admit of all sitting down at once. We calculated the
+number of guests still remaining at at least 500. The ladies
+supped first, and afterwards the gentlemen&mdash;the Governor,
+Lord Harris, doing the honours in person, in the most
+courteous and kindly manner. After supper the party
+proceeded in couples to a splendid ball-room, where dancing
+speedily began, while over their heads an omnipresent
+punkah, of rich tapestry-paper, and elegantly adorned with
+beautiful arabesques, swung to and fro, and kept the
+half-breathless dancers continually fanned by its currents
+of air.<a name="Anchor-106" id="Anchor-106"></a><a href="#Footnote-106" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 106.">[106]</a> In spite, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">457</a></span> of this artificial
+ventilating machine overhead, one must have had an
+extraordinary love for the dance to find pleasure in a polka
+or galop at a temperature of 86° of Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-106" id="Footnote-106"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-106">[106]</a> In many English families in India there
+prevails a sort of punkah mania, so that there is a regular
+hurricane incessantly blowing over their heads. Undoubtedly
+these artificial gales are particularly agreeable in
+apartments where, a large number of persons being assembled,
+the atmosphere becomes intolerable&mdash;as, for instance, courts
+of justice, churches, hotels, and hospitals. Under such
+circumstances, they are, indeed, a most valuable
+contrivance. But their application is entirely overdone; and
+there are persons who, even while they are sleeping, have a
+Hindoo servant continually working the punkah, which, under
+such circumstances, is usually worked from an adjoining room
+by means of silken cords, so that the motive power is not
+visible from the apartment, but only the effect felt.
+Strangers at first find these artificial currents very apt
+to superinduce headache, until continued residence makes him
+regard the punkah as a most necessary article of furniture.</p></div>
+
+<p>Lord Harris had taken measures for ensuring our proceeding
+direct from his residence in Guindy Park upon the favourite
+excursion from Madras&mdash;that, namely, to the Seven Pagodas.
+We had accordingly provided ourselves with only what was
+indispensable in the way of luggage; and towards 1 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, we
+left the ball-room, and proceeded on our way to the renowned
+Hindoo Temples to the south of Madras. A waggon conveyed us
+to the Adyar bridge, where a Government boat was in waiting
+for us, together with some Hindoo servants of the Governor,
+who were to be our guides to the Seven Pagodas. One of these
+<i>peons</i>, as they are called in India, named Iritschapa,
+presented us with a document, in which he was commissioned
+to place himself at our disposal during the whole period we
+were absent, and anticipate all our requirements without
+further authorization, to the best of his ability, so as to
+ensure our comfort and assist the objects we had in view.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">458</a></span>
+The Government boat was supplied with everything that could
+minister to our comfort, a second boat following us
+exclusively for the conveyance of our heavy baggage,
+personal effects, tents, and provisions. Towards 2 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span>, we
+embarked on the Eastern Coast Canal, which goes as far as
+Sadras, and by which we reached the Seven Pagodas, called
+also Mahamalaipuram, the city of the Great or Holy Mountain,
+at 9 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 685px;"><a name="illu519" id="illu519"></a>
+<img src="images/illu519.jpg" width="685" height="360" alt="The Holy Mountain." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE HOLY MOUNTAIN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These singular and majestic specimens of architecture are
+about 3 miles from Sadras, being situated on the coast
+northwards, and about 500 paces from the canal. They consist
+of temples, grottoes, bas-reliefs, cisterns, stone-benches,
+and thousands of sculptures in long ranges of bas-reliefs,
+which afford an abundant store of antiquarian research. They
+go by the name of the Seven Pagodas (from <i>Baghavati</i>&mdash;Holy
+House, whence the European corruption, Pagoda), from the
+circumstance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">459</a></span> that there are, upon the very brink of the
+ocean, seven temples hewn out of one piece of rock. The
+Brahminical legends speak of an entire city having existed
+here, of which only the fragments are now washed by the sea.
+But, according to Babington's and Heber's minute researches
+in this neighbourhood,<a name="Anchor-107" id="Anchor-107"></a><a href="#Footnote-107" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 107.">[107]</a> there seems no doubt that there
+never existed any large city here, but that the whole was a
+mere myth of the Brahmins, who procured a royal gift, an
+Agrabaram in this neighbourhood, and with subtle forethought
+left here a caste of stone-cutters, who from time to time,
+under the guidance of their priests, executed these
+sculptures for the adornment of their sanctuary, which are
+justly the objects of wonder to their descendants. To this
+day, even, there dwell here certain families of
+stone-cutters, who work these singular rocks as granite
+quarries, and make money by the trade. The Seven Pagodas,
+specially so-called, are monolith temples, hewn on the spot
+out of massive blocks of rock. The mountain itself, a huge
+block of granite, to which the entire locality owes its
+reputation as a site of works of art, is covered, behind as
+well as in the front slope, with innumerable figures.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-107" id="Footnote-107"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-107">[107]</a> Benjamin Guy Babington. An Account of the
+Sculptures and Inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, illustrated
+by Plates I.-XVIII., in the Transactions of the Royal
+Asiatic Society of Great Britain, London, 1819, p. 258.
+Bishop Heber's Narrative, London, 1828, Vol. III., p. 216.</p></div>
+
+<p>After our arrival, we made a hasty circuit through the
+place, so as first of all to be able to identify them, and
+be in a position to recognize the various sculptures and
+bas-reliefs cut out in the solid granite rock. The greater
+number of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">460</a></span> sculptures represent either the one or the
+other descriptions of the Avatars (the incarnations or
+transfigurations) of Vishnù, to whom the larger proportion
+of the temples is dedicated. In one of these temples, we
+perceived the god Vishnù in the fifth, or Dwarf Incarnation,
+in the course of which he had, under the guise of a
+Brahminical dwarf, begged of King Balitscha-Kravathi&mdash;who,
+by his piety, had acquired so much power over the gods, that
+they had to transfer to him the dominion of sea and land,
+and had in consequence waxed arrogant&mdash;as much soil as he
+could traverse in three steps! The wealthy Rajah made no
+objection to complying with the apparently moderate request
+of the pigmy being before him. On the opposite wall of the
+temple we now see, in a large admirably executed bas-relief,
+how Vishnù, represented on this occasion with eight arms, at
+once embraced heaven and earth with his left foot, and as
+there was thus no more room left for the next step, Vishnù
+released the haughty Rajah from his promise, on condition
+that he should descend to the infernal regions. From this
+feat, Vishnù bears the name of Triwikrama and Tripadas
+(thrice-stepper).</p>
+
+<p>In the next rock grotto we came to, we beheld the Life of
+Krishna, the shepherd-god, represented, first as tending his
+sheep, surrounded by cows, goats frisking about, &amp;c. Walter
+Elliot names this representation "Krischna's Choultry," or
+the abode of the priests. The temple has a frontage of 50
+feet, is from 30 to 40 feet in depth, and has about twenty
+figures.</p>
+
+<p>From this spot, our guide, a Brahmin, brought us to what is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">461</a></span>
+called the Ganeza Temple, a monolith Pagoda. When we
+expressed a wish to touch the face of Ganeza (a son of
+Siva), cut in stone and plentifully besmeared with oil and
+lard, one of the Hindoo attendants hurried forwards to
+prevent us from being guilty of insult to this much-beloved
+divinity. The inscription to the right, in front of the
+niche in which Ganeza, hewn out of a single block of
+granite, is represented in a sitting posture, consists of
+verses and prayers to Siva, written in Sanscrit.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 190px;"><a name="illu522" id="illu522"></a>
+<img src="images/illu522.jpg" width="190" height="323" alt="The God Ganeza." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE GOD GANEZA.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We also remarked, on our way to the village, an ellipsoidal
+block of rock, 68 feet in circumference, by 25 in height,
+which, from its very peculiar position, seems to shift every
+moment, and presents a very extraordinary appearance.</p>
+
+<p>As we were proceeding to the beach, we came upon the Pagoda
+of Kovulgobrom, which is at present in use (first
+constructed in the days of Rajah Apatsch, 400 or 500 years
+since), situated on a large oblong plot of ground, which is
+surrounded by a wall from 6 to 8 feet high. We were not
+permitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span> to cross the threshold of the pagoda, the door of
+which always stands wide open, and the minor apartments of
+which, so far as we could discern at a little distance away,
+were quite empty. We could just descry a few sculptures on
+the walls.</p>
+
+<p>The whole village contains at present about 400
+inhabitants,<a name="Anchor-108" id="Anchor-108"></a><a href="#Footnote-108" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 108.">[108]</a> who reside in eighty small dwellings. Of
+these, three, built of bricks and with tiled roofs, belong
+to the caste of Brahmins, thirty to the Pariahs, five to
+families occupied in fishing, and two mere hovels of
+palm-wood to the Willis, the lowest and most wretched caste
+of all. The families of stone-cutters reside outside the
+village. One remarks here that the walls of the houses are
+hidden by heaps of cow and horse-dung, which the
+inhabitants, as in Egypt, use for fuel, and which they pile
+up to dry against those of the walls which are most exposed
+to the sun. The <i>peon</i> of the settlement, by name
+Randghajaneik, a sort of overseer, gave us a drawing of the
+various groups of houses, their inhabitants, and also the
+names of the various castes in Tamil, engraved as usual with
+an iron tool upon palm-leaves, and very elegantly rolled up
+in a small envelope. Among the customs and fashions of the
+inhabitants which attracted our notice, we were informed
+that they always burn their dead from four to five hours
+after life has departed&mdash;usually four hours and forty
+minutes&mdash;alleging that the released soul takes that length
+of time to reach heaven! The bones are collected and thrown
+into the sea. Widows are no longer required, on the death
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span> their husbands, to ascend the pyre with them.
+Accordingly, the mortality upon this score is small enough
+in Mahamalaipuram. All seem hale and hearty, although for
+the most part they live upon rice and fruits, tasting flesh
+but seldom, as it is never used by the Brahmin caste. The
+Brahmins will not even eat eggs, because they are the
+produce of hens; nor drink milk because it is procured from
+cows! The girls generally marry at thirteen. They are,
+however, usually betrothed from the time they are two or
+three years of age, the bridegroom-elect taking the
+bride-elect to reside with himself.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-108" id="Footnote-108"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-108">[108]</a> Of these inhabitants 50 belong to the Brahmin
+caste, 250 to the Malabar, Sentù, and Siva castes, and 100
+are Pariahs.</p></div>
+
+<p>All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write,
+but the Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite
+unintelligible to them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telùgu,
+and Malabar. The greater number had their foreheads painted
+according to the caste they belonged to. Those worshipping
+Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver
+amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed.
+The adherents of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no
+distinguishing mark upon the forehead, except that those
+that are married wear a five-ply cord (<i>panul</i>), tied
+obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not,
+however, attach too much faith to these varieties of
+external markings, since many tattoo their foreheads with
+red, or yellow, or ashen-gray punctures, which usually have
+no special signification, but simply imply that on account
+of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence, they
+have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing
+insignia of their caste properly designed. According<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">464</a></span> to the
+natives, the yellow colour is procured from the crushed,
+yellow-tinted root of the <i>Curcuma longa</i>, (a species of
+spice), the red from the Cardomum (<i>Amomum repens</i>),
+citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from
+common chalk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 684px;"><a name="illu525" id="illu525"></a>
+<img src="images/illu525.jpg" width="684" height="207" alt="Large and, separately, small tents arrayed near the beach." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BIVOUAC AT MAHAMALAIPURAN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most
+admirable arrangements for our accommodation while at the
+Seven Pagodas. When, after our first survey of the locality,
+we came down to the beach, we found two large and two small
+tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected round a
+fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our
+astonishment, on entering the first tent, to find it spread
+with carpets, with an elegant sleeping-apartment with two
+large commodious bedsteads, and fitted up with all the usual
+necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage which
+ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two
+immense baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate
+our exhausted frames! Ere we had recovered from our
+surprise, we were advised of the voice of the Government
+Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second
+tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">465</a></span> reception
+room, and was also furnished with every conceivable
+appliance to promote our comfort. His lordship was even so
+attentive as to send his own travelling canteen for our use
+on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls,
+with a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with
+blue, by means of which the glare of the sun and of the
+blinding white sand was rendered less painful and more
+tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were employed in
+sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained
+sand, which produced a most refreshing coolness all around.
+The Government Peon, as also the chief of police of the
+district, wore their best uniforms of white, with bran new
+bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red scarves,
+with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate,
+with the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number
+of men and children ran hither and thither,&mdash;in a word, the
+whole village seemed in an uproar to see the strange
+gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of
+receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, the
+thermometer suspended within the tent marked 84° Fahr.,
+although a gentle breeze was blowing from seaward through
+the fragrant luxuriant grass (<i>Kus-kus</i>, or <i>Vetiveyr</i>),
+which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an
+exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant <i>Kus-kus</i>,
+(<i>Andropogon muricatum</i>) in the manufacture of mats, which
+are intended to be suspended in the entrance-halls of
+houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon the
+penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine
+damp texture,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">466</a></span> which thus at once tempers the heat, and
+fills the air with perfume.</p>
+
+<p>Towards 5 <span class="smcap">p.&#8201;m.</span>, the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled
+to the Five Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our
+encampment. The prevalent tree in this locality is the
+<i>Palmyra</i> palm, which, though it does not boast the majestic
+proportions of the <i>Oreodoxia Regia</i>, or the cocoa-nut palm,
+presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance.
+Generally speaking, however, the district is quite bare and
+destitute of trees; and, in short, like all the rest of this
+coast, has very much the appearance of the flat coasts of
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the
+brothers of Vishnù, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and
+Sawadewen, the fifth being excavated in honour of Dubrotis,
+the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend relates that the
+four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality of
+husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species
+of Amazon. All these temples are tolerably sculptured,
+which, indeed, constitutes their chief claim to attention;
+but they are far from showing the artistic finish of the
+bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy
+Mount.</p>
+
+<p>Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not
+the most important of these artificial grottoes. The
+sculptures here are incontestably the most highly-finished.
+The upper portion, to which access is obtained by some steps
+cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite block, known
+as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">467</a></span> one
+piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed
+allegories.</p>
+
+<p>Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga,
+Siva's wife, riding on a lion (according to the natives, on
+a tiger), and bending her bow in conflict with Mahishasura,
+a giant with the head of a buffalo, who brandishes a club.
+According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this
+represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and
+heroine, Donga, the representative of active virtue, and the
+bull-headed Mahishasura, the personification of brute
+strength and animal passion. Over the head of either figure,
+a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread,
+giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"><a name="illu528" id="illu528"></a>
+<img src="images/illu528.jpg" width="471" height="310" alt="Donga riding the lion in battle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">BAS-RELIEF ON ONE OF THE MONOLITH TEMPLES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnù
+(Rhanganatha), 9&frac12; feet high, apparently representing the
+idea of the Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five
+heads, encircles his head. At his feet one perceives two
+rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in a praying
+attitude, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">468</a></span> uplifted hands, only the bust being
+represented. In one of the niches at Swami are two busts,
+life-size, of Siva, and his wife Paravathi, the latter
+holding an infant at the breast, his offspring Supramanión.
+Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from
+the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma,
+on the left Vishnù, each with four arms, symbolical of their
+power and dominion.</p>
+
+<p>The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of
+platform of loose stones accurately fitted to each other
+without mortar, so as to make an ornamental whole. The
+interior is adorned with much more highly-finished specimens
+of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing
+penance, annually climb, with great difficulty, into this
+part of the building, and make their way into the unfinished
+interior apartments. While we were giving free scope to our
+surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed in our
+contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of
+flowers, wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players
+(<i>Pulanpolen</i>) who were passing, made their appearance to
+give us a specimen of their musical skill. One old man, of
+whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnù, neatly carved
+in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there
+was in the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a
+manuscript, known as the <i>Istálam-purànam</i> which gave the
+history of the Seven Pagodas, written in Tamil.</p>
+
+<p>The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter
+Elliot, who formed an extensive collection of the various
+valuable Hindoo manuscripts and inscriptions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">469</a></span>
+Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a translation of
+them,<a name="Anchor-109" id="Anchor-109"></a><a href="#Footnote-109" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 109.">[109]</a> told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil
+Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give
+one single reliable particular as to the history of the
+Seven Pagodas.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-109" id="Footnote-109"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-109">[109]</a> Journal of the Madras Literary Society, 1846,
+Nos. 30 and 31.</p></div>
+
+<p>In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and
+surrounded by a modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on
+the exterior of the Temple, an inscription in Tamil, which
+is, however, utterly unintelligible to the natives. This
+inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a
+donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and
+gives the most complete detail, together with signature of
+the donor. The name Mahamalaipur,<a name="Anchor-110" id="Anchor-110"></a><a href="#Footnote-110" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 110.">[110]</a> the "City of the Sacred
+Hill," occurs frequently in it.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-110" id="Footnote-110"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-110">[110]</a> Dr. Elliot writes Mamallaipuram; the natives
+call the place Mahawalipuram, obviously a mere corruption of
+the customary mode of spelling.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo
+followers, we remarked that they made no difference between
+a "kovül" or praying-house, in which the divinities are
+never produced, but are guarded under lock and key, and a
+pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they
+can be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it
+is that a pagoda is more readily accessible than a kovül,
+the sanctity of which it is forbidden him to violate.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the
+Brahmins, was permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (£3), to break
+away the partition which divided the inscriptions into two
+portions, in order to prepare three copies, and have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">470</a></span> them
+translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these translators
+was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The
+inscription contains the history of two donations, on the
+enlargement and laying the foundation-stone of the temple,
+accomplished by the "Kanattan" of the village, and, lastly,
+a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin Paramesvara-Mahavara,
+on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept constantly
+burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073.
+It results from this interpretation that the inscription was
+put up towards the end of the 11th century, thus supplying
+some clue to the age of this rock temple, which, according
+to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed a thousand
+years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 673px;"><a name="illu531" id="illu531"></a>
+<img src="images/illu531.jpg" width="673" height="452" alt="Entrance to one of the temples." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ENTRANCE TO ONE OF THE TEMPLES.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole
+history, the natives wander regularly every morning, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">471</a></span>
+sometimes two or three times during the day, to offer
+flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight of steps cut
+in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is
+an excellent view over these monumental edifices.</p>
+
+<p>That fancy has been called in to invest these unique
+unfinished sculptures with the character of
+pleasure-grottoes, baths, &amp;c., &amp;c., of historical
+personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the
+guide does not fail to point out to the stranger a sort of
+stone cistern hewn out of the solid rock, traditionally
+reported to have been once the plunge-bath of Dubrotis. This
+colossal basin has about 2&frac12; feet water during the rainy
+season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use.
+The water, tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves
+a mark behind on the stone sides, which naturally becomes
+very visible during the dry season. This the natives
+maintain marks the height of the water as often as Dubrotis,
+(Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another
+similar block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch,
+and is called Dharma Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which,
+near the head, a tiger is crouched to guard it. This
+gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as though
+balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor
+made to oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock
+piled up above the grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so
+forth. All these spots, however, have in reality not the
+slightest historic significance; it is only the present
+generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">472</a></span>
+and interpretations, which assuredly never were in the
+intention of the constructors.</p>
+
+<p>On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of
+sculptures of remarkable beauty, representing the history of
+Tapasa, or the deep penitence of Ardschuna. On the right
+hand, close to the figure of the penitent Ardschuna, one
+perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as large as
+life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half
+woman half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have
+seen, is a huge sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in
+height, comprising hundreds of figures, with an idol in the
+centre, to which from all sides worshipping deities, men,
+and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory attitudes; along
+the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The
+colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal,
+tends still more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder
+doubt whether he is looking upon sculptures or upon living
+elephants. Elliot and others who have described these rock
+temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a
+comparatively small antiquity. They are representations
+borrowed from the poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo
+mythology. The five roundish temples to the south of the
+village are beyond all question the oldest of these
+monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed;
+solid, and here and there showing marks of work, but only
+adorned externally, the interiors being masses of unhewn
+granite; each of these temples is 30 feet in length by 20 in
+breadth and height. Thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">473</a></span> far, the inscriptions have been
+ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are
+as yet undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to
+decipher them, or at all events to find the key by which to
+decipher them. The most important has been copied and
+interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the various
+representations give the slightest historical clue as to the
+object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to
+establish the fact, that in the 17th century this district
+was inhabited by the Corumbas, a half-civilized race of the
+Dschaina religion. About this period, or a little later, in
+the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals
+were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced
+to this neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however,
+their nature, and the immense expense incurred, all point to
+a long-continued influence of the Brahmins. Most of these
+temples seem to have been first erected in the 17th century,
+under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several
+even a much later date.</p>
+
+<p>As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old
+pyramidal pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the
+sea, peering up from amid the furious foaming surf, it seems
+to be altogether a myth, so that such enquirers as Ellis,
+Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo
+traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble
+of searching for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of
+seeking to recover the ruins of the submerged city. Several
+writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea on the
+Cormandel coast is retiring; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span> this appears to be a
+mistake, for here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is
+the case at Fort St. George, which 80 years ago was at some
+distance from the sea-shore, whereas its walls are at
+present washed by the tremendous surf.</p>
+
+<p>But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden
+and extensive as to have swallowed up an entire city,
+without leaving any traces. Not one of the natives to whom
+we spoke in the place could say for certain, that the sea
+had materially gained upon the land within the memory of
+man. Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a
+city. One can safely assert that there never existed such a
+city at Mahamalaipuram, but that it has always been a mere
+abode of priests, with temples, sanctuaries, &amp;c., without
+any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan, Quirigua,
+or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more
+artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of
+the artist. The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at
+Mahamalaipuram is too low, to admit of our supposing that
+since their erection the greater part had been swallowed up
+in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to
+any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they
+are all susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo
+mythology, with the aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata,
+all referring to Vishnù and his world of deities.</p>
+
+<p>While some of the <i>Novara</i> expedition were visiting
+Mahamalaipuram, others made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake,
+near the shore, northwards from Madras. About 40 or 50
+miles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">475</a></span> on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or Blue
+Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the
+gray horizon to the N.W., the height of which may be about
+1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow bulwark or quay of unequal
+breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles, separates this
+salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some
+narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters.
+The lake varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about
+60 to 70 miles long. The level of its bed is so remarkably
+regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5 feet, that when the
+wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be pushed
+along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked
+inhabitants of the coast standing in the very middle of the
+water, with their landing or drag-nets, or busily occupied
+with rod and line! Being but a few hours distant from
+Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial
+canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets,
+carefully faced with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining
+land into lagoons, in which during the rainy seasons the
+strongly brackish water enters, and is used to make
+sea-salt.</p>
+
+<p>In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by
+fishing-boats, as by those laden with wood and fruit, which
+they convey to the city for disposal. Most especially
+remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds, which
+frequent its shores and all around it. At several places
+where the shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere
+swamps with barely a foot of water, they are literally
+covered with myriads of curlews, which fly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">476</a></span> about in flights
+of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long
+rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the
+earth, seeking their food in the mud; far as the eye can
+reach, one saw whole ranks of these birds blending with
+storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in the water
+itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the
+sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in
+the air. As evening came on, the naturalists of the <i>Novara</i>
+were sailing as though in a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish,
+as they sprang out of the water, left a fiery wake behind
+them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured ever-widening
+circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again.
+Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round
+the boat, united with the singular melancholy cry of the
+jackal, which resounded from the shore, while overhead
+flights of birds flew restlessly about in the air, whirring
+in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.</p>
+
+<p>From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the
+artificial canals, which unite this basin of water at
+various points and in different directions with the
+surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta
+Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a
+sort of underwood or brush, which grows again within the
+extraordinary short space of ten to twelve years. <i>Sisyphus
+vulgaris</i> (<i>Rhamnea</i>), <i>Gardenia Ficus</i>, tamarinds, and
+several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the
+forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of
+climbers. The wood is cut by the natives, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">477</a></span> have
+constructed huts in the jungle, into pieces of about 2 feet
+in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the shore,
+whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.</p>
+
+<p>When the members of the <i>Novara</i> Expedition had returned,
+greatly pleased, from their various excursions, the Madras
+Club gave a grand banquet in honour of the captain and
+staff, to which the <i>élite</i> of Madras society were invited.
+Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the
+club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific
+members of the Expedition upon the free list of the club
+during the ship's stay. The Madras Club-house, though not so
+luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of London, fairly
+surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in fact,
+a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds
+assembled all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable
+mode of existence; parlours, with wide arm-chairs and
+American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms, in which are all the
+best journals and an excellent assortment of the best and
+newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine
+in either the English or French style; billiard-rooms,
+shower and plunge-baths, and a large swimming-bath. Members
+from the country, or strangers, can be accommodated with
+lodging as well.</p>
+
+<p>At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at
+which above 200 persons sat down, the chair was taken by the
+Chief Justice Sir Christopher Rawlinson&mdash;next to the
+Governor, the most influential person in the community. The
+extremely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">478</a></span> friendly disposition manifested on that occasion
+found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few,
+but appropriate words, welcomed the foreign guests; while,
+on the other side, they gave unmistakable evidence of the
+admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by the <i>Novara</i>
+carried away with them from the hospitable shores of
+Madras.<a name="Anchor-111" id="Anchor-111"></a><a href="#Footnote-111" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 111.">[111]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-111" id="Footnote-111"></a><a class="label" title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-111">[111]</a> After the customary official toasts had been
+proposed by the chairman, and thanks returned by the
+Commander-in-chief of the Expedition, the health was also
+proposed of the scientific staff, on which occasion one of
+the naturalists present expressed his thanks for this
+honour, in his name and that of his colleagues, in the
+following speech, which may be permitted to find a place
+here, as best showing with what impression the members of
+the Expedition left Madras.</p>
+
+<p>"Gentlemen,&mdash;It is not without some feeling of anxiety that
+I am rising, for I have so many things to say, and yet it is
+but the thousandth part of what I, of what my fellow
+travellers all feel! Surely, it is always flattering to a
+man to be distinguished by his fellow-men; but such a
+distinction becomes the more honouring if those who concur
+to distinguish him are&mdash;as this is the case with you&mdash;a most
+estimable part of the <i>British</i> nation! Of a nation, which
+has done more than any other on the globe for the
+propagation of Christianity, the diffusion of knowledge, the
+advancement of science, for the progress of civilization,
+industry, and commerce. I do not intend, gentlemen, to
+return with the shiny currency of flattery the many proofs
+of attention and kindness which all the members of the
+Expedition have witnessed during our short, but most
+pleasant, ever-remembered stay in this city, the birth-place
+of hospitality! What I say is but truth! Every page in
+modern history certifies my words! Which nation has done
+more for the propagation of Christianity among savage tribes
+all over the world? Some years ago, when I was rambling in
+British America, and along the north shores of Lake
+Superior, I often found villages of 300 or 400 Indians, and
+but one single white man amongst them. And who was that
+white man, who voluntarily shared their misery, their wants,
+and their privations? He was an <i>English missionary</i>!</p>
+
+<p>"And again! Which nation has made greater and more serious
+efforts to suppress the slave trade, and to abolish slavery
+in all countries where it still exists, a shame to the
+nineteenth century?&mdash;Slavery! that hideous leprosy on the
+limb of the gigantic body, called the United States! Who is
+even now anxiously engaged to open, with the heartblood of
+its noblest sons, a vast empire&mdash;the Chinese kingdom&mdash;to
+civilization, to Christianity, to the traffic of all
+seafaring nations of the globe!</p>
+
+<p>"And is not this very city, Madras, where we have been so
+heartily welcomed, the best proof of the energy and
+perseverance of the political and commercial greatness of
+the British nation? Nothing but English steadiness and
+English perseverance could succeed to build on this barren,
+inhospitable, and even most perilous coast, a vast,
+flourishing city, rivalling in size and the number of
+inhabitants the largest capitals in Europe! And what is
+still more pleasing and satisfactory, is the intellectual
+and physical condition in which one finds the Indians,
+especially if compared with the condition of the natives in
+North and Central America, &amp;c. There he meets a population,
+rapidly dying away, in proportion as the axe of civilization
+is resounding from the backwoods. One may almost determinate
+the day when the last of the red men will have disappeared
+from the North American Continent, the land of his
+ancestors! Here in India, on the contrary, the traveller
+meets with a thriving, industrious population. Who can see
+Hindoos, Malabar, Sentus, &amp;c., occupy most important
+employments at the observatory, at the telegraph offices, at
+the railroad, in any branch almost of the public service,
+and still believe the Hindoo race like the Indians of North
+America to be a <i>doomed</i> people&mdash;to be a people that has no
+future? No, it <span class="smcap">has</span> a future, and, under the wise and humane
+government of the British Crown, I am sure the coloured race
+of India will even have a most <i>glorious</i> future!</p>
+
+<p>"These are the impressions and feelings, gentlemen, with
+which we part from Madras, with which I and my scientific
+colleagues bid you all a most sincere and heartfelt
+farewell."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">479</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish,
+notwithstanding the difficulties of getting out to, and back
+from the roads, to visit our ship, the commodore invited
+some forty guests, shortly before our departure, to a
+"tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty
+heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the
+company of some twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After
+"tiffin," which was served on the poop, under a tent
+improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt
+sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck,
+our band of music being called into requisition for
+quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes; and, indeed, our guests
+paid so little attention to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">480</a></span> the approach of night, that
+their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of
+which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our
+pleasant guests homewards with Bengal lights.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="plate542t" id="plate542t"></a>
+<img src="images/plate542t.jpg" width="350" height="203" alt="Novara's track." title="" />
+<span class="caption">PLATE VII.&mdash;TRACK FROM MADRAS TO THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.</span><br />
+<a href="images/plate542.jpg" target="_blank">Larger.</a>
+</div>
+
+<p>At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set
+sail. As the frigate was perceived, from Fort George to
+weigh anchor, a thundering salute was fired of 21 guns&mdash;an
+extraordinary honour and mark of attention, to which we
+responded by a similar salute. In consequence of calms and
+light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and
+it was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our
+voyage. For several evenings after, that magnificent, and as
+yet unexplained, phenomenon, the Zodiacal light, which is
+conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age, to be the
+beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving
+in the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was
+visible with much regularity. What was afterwards observed,
+however, of this remarkable zone of light, during the course
+of our voyage, will be found detailed in the meteorological
+portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather
+accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar
+Islands, our next station. But although, as was rendered
+necessary by the climate so near the Equator, we were
+clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was nothing to
+remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our
+sailors did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without
+celebrating that day, to be marked with a white stone, by
+masking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">481</a></span> and dancing according to ancient custom. Jack has
+an especially good memory for the return of such junketings,
+and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of
+the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near
+the line also, not because he had any pleasure therein, but
+because it has always been his custom to do so at
+carnival-time!</p>
+
+<p>The state of health of the ship's company was excellent,
+there being but eight on the sick list, of whom only two
+were seriously ill.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22nd February towards 10 <span class="smcap">a.&#8201;m.</span> the Island of
+Kar-Nicobar hove in sight, and towards afternoon we found
+ourselves but a few miles distant. The land seemed for the
+most part level, only a low eminence thickly covered with
+frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown
+with cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three
+Malay boats at anchor. On the beach were some huts of
+beehive-like shape, in and out of which naked brown figures
+were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous lights
+glimmered from the shore.</p>
+
+<p>The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we
+anchored off the N.W. side of the island, in 14&frac12; fathoms
+coral sand, about 2 miles distant from the shore, and just
+between the two villages of Mosse and Sàui, each consisting
+of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4 cable-lengths
+of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay
+bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies
+covered in the most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European
+clothes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">482</a></span> approached the frigate while she was being
+secured, in small but elegant canoes, and called out
+anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive
+tone and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we
+interpreted into an inquiry as to whether they had anything
+to fear, and whether we were disposed to be friendly. When,
+however, we did not immediately throw them a rope to make
+fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our numerous
+guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;"><a name="illu544" id="illu544"></a>
+<img src="images/illu544.jpg" width="472" height="198" alt="An ocean view of a low mountain island." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ARRIVAL AT KAR-NICOBAR.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center" style="font-size: 0.9em">
+END OF VOL. I.
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">483</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a>APPENDIX A.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3">LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE "NOVARA" EXPEDITION.</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col style="text-align: right" /><col style="text-align: left" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Commodore&mdash;</td><td>B. v. Wüllerstorf-Urbair, Commander-in-Chief.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Captain&mdash;</td><td>Frederick Baron Pöck.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>First Lieutenant&mdash;</td><td>Bela Saal de Gyula.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lieutenants&mdash;</td><td>Maurice Monfroni de Montfort.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Alexander Count Kielmansegge.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>William Lund.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Robert Müller.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ernest Jacoby.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eugen Kronowetter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Gustavus Battlogg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Purser&mdash;</td><td>Antonio Basso.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Principal Surgeon&mdash;</td><td>Dr. Francis Seligmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Assistant Surgeons&mdash;</td><td>Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Dr. Edward Schwarz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Charles Ruziczka.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chaplain&mdash;</td><td>Edward de Marocchini.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Midshipmen&mdash;</td><td>Henry Fayenz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Joseph Natty.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Gustavus v. Semsey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Richard Baron Walterskirchen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Louis Meder.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Alexander Kalmar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Augustus Baron Skribanek.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Andreas Count Borelli.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Francis Baron Cordon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Frederick Baron Haan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Edward Latzina.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Michal de Mariassi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eugen Prince Wrede.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Joseph Berthold.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Engineer&mdash;</td><td>Wenceslas Lehmann.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;"><i>Naturalists.</i></div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col style="text-align: right" /><col style="text-align: left" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Geology&mdash;</td><td>Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Botany&mdash;</td><td>Dr. Edward Schwarz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Mr. Anthony Tellinek, horticulturist.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Zoology&mdash;</td><td>Mr. George Frauenfeld.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Mr. John Zelebor.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ethnography&mdash;</td><td>Dr. Charles Scherzer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Artist&mdash;</td><td>Mr. Joseph Selleny.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The entire crew, including sailors, marines, gunners,
+servants, and the ship's band, amounted to 352 men.</p>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">484</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a>APPENDIX B.</h2>
+
+<div class="c5"><i>List of the various Provisions and Stores furnished to the Frigate "Novara"
+before her departure from Trieste.</i></div>
+
+<div class="center" style="padding-top: 1em;">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col style="text-align: left;" />
+  <col span="3" style="text-align: center;" />
+  <col span="1" style="text-align: left;" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Coals&mdash;23 tons (at 260 pounds daily consumption)</td><td>for</td><td>198</td><td>days</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Water&mdash;86 tons (the daily consumption was furnished by the distilling apparatus)</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Biscuit&mdash;50,965 pounds (Vienna weight)</td><td>"</td><td>145</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Wine&mdash;(light red Istrian wine), 8777 mass (= 3510 gallons)</td><td>"</td><td>50</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Rum&mdash;7913 mass (= 3165 gallons)</td><td>"</td><td>226</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Salt Beef&mdash;17,800 pounds</td><td>for</td><td>105</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">days</td><td rowspan="3">Meat (boned)</td><td rowspan="3">"</td><td rowspan="3">264</td><td rowspan="3">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Preserved Meat (in tins)</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>122</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pork&mdash;5760 pounds weight</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>87</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rice&mdash;6850 pounds</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>77</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">days</td><td rowspan="2">(for Soup)</td><td rowspan="2">"</td><td rowspan="2">135</td><td rowspan="2">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Essence&mdash;3184 pounds</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>58</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mélanges d'Equipage, 40,000 rations</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>114</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">days</td><td rowspan="4">Vegetables</td><td rowspan="4">"</td><td rowspan="4">298</td><td rowspan="4">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sour-crout, 16,000 rations</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>46</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cabbage, 16,000 rations</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>46</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Potatoes, 32,000 rations</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>92</td><td style="border-right: 1px solid black;">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Cocoa&mdash;10,290 pounds (Vienna weight)</td><td>"</td><td>610</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Sugar&mdash;3494 pounds</td><td>"</td><td>156</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Salt&mdash;1000 pounds</td><td>"</td><td>100</td><td>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5">Vinegar&mdash;831 mass (= 332&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>5</sub> gallons)</td><td>"</td><td>95</td><td>"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">485</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a>APPENDIX C.</h2>
+
+<div class="c3">SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURE</div>
+
+<div class="c5">DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE "NOVARA."</div>
+
+<div style="width: 30em; margin: auto; text-align: left;">
+<ul style="list-style-type: none">
+  <li>    KEY:</li>
+  <li>A - Pay of Commodore, in Austrian currency.</li>
+  <li>B - Pay of Staff.</li>
+  <li>C - Pay of Naturalists, and incidental Expenses of this department.</li>
+  <li>D - Pay of Crew, including extras.</li>
+  <li>E - Victuals for Crew and Hospital (Sick).</li>
+  <li>F - For Sundries, Repairs, and Ship's Material.</li>
+  <li>G - Purchase of Books, Instruments, and Medicines.</li>
+  <li>H - Pilots and Tug Steamers.</li>
+  <li>I - Pay of Servants, including extras.</li>
+  <li>J - Boat-hire, Postages, Travelling Expenses of the Staff, &amp;c.</li>
+  <li>K - Totals.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<colgroup><col style="text-align: right;" /><col style="text-align: left" /><col style="text-align: center" /><col span="22" style="text-align: right;" /></colgroup>
+<tr style="text-align: center;"><td colspan="3" style="text-align: center">Period of Expenditure.</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">A</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">B</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">C</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">D</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">E</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">F</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">G</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">H</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">I</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">J</td><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">K</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td class="bl" style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td><td style="text-align: center">Fl.</td><td class="br" style="text-align: center">Kr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">April to June,</td><td>1857</td><td class="bl">2,112</td><td class="br">..</td><td>5,413</td><td class="br">51</td><td>1,744</td><td class="br">53</td><td>7,522</td><td class="br">52</td><td>133</td><td class="br">55</td><td>146</td><td class="br">7</td><td>37</td><td class="br">10</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>811</td><td class="br">34</td><td>5,277</td><td class="br">59</td><td>23,200</td><td class="br">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>III.</td><td>Quarter</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">2,327</td><td class="br">10</td><td>8,214</td><td class="br">10</td><td>3,302</td><td class="br">40</td><td>10,562</td><td class="br">37</td><td>2,316</td><td class="br">40</td><td>362</td><td class="br">47</td><td>16</td><td class="br">28</td><td>28</td><td class="br">..</td><td>363</td><td class="br">53</td><td>186</td><td class="br">18</td><td>27,680</td><td class="br">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td>IV.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,261</td><td class="br">20</td><td>9,604</td><td class="br">50</td><td>4,816</td><td class="br">57</td><td>10,560</td><td class="br">50</td><td>27,344</td><td class="br">29</td><td>2,839</td><td class="br">3</td><td>644</td><td class="br">49</td><td>356</td><td class="br">26</td><td>435</td><td class="br">9</td><td>2,027</td><td class="br">31</td><td>61,891</td><td class="br">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td>I.</td><td>ditto</td><td>1858</td><td class="bl">3,118</td><td class="br">..</td><td>9,377</td><td class="br">..</td><td>4,073</td><td class="br">..</td><td>10,557</td><td class="br">49</td><td>2,099</td><td class="br">39</td><td>646</td><td class="br">10</td><td>36</td><td class="br">34</td><td>85</td><td class="br">53</td><td>397</td><td class="br">28</td><td>96</td><td class="br">22</td><td>30,487</td><td class="br">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td>II.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,212</td><td class="br">..</td><td>10,542</td><td class="br">30</td><td>4,358</td><td class="br">5</td><td>10,755</td><td class="br">39</td><td>21,514</td><td class="br">37</td><td>2,170</td><td class="br">53</td><td>349</td><td class="br">54</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>1,144</td><td class="br">43</td><td>814</td><td class="br">25</td><td>54,764</td><td class="br">46</td></tr>
+<tr><td>III.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">5,102</td><td class="br">30</td><td>9,638</td><td class="br">30</td><td>5,421</td><td class="br">17</td><td>10,245</td><td class="br">24</td><td>17,443</td><td class="br">32</td><td>5,925</td><td class="br">48</td><td>338</td><td class="br">14</td><td>645</td><td class="br">50</td><td>566</td><td class="br">8</td><td>1,351</td><td class="br">46</td><td>56,678</td><td class="br">59</td></tr>
+<tr><td>IV.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">2,217</td><td class="br">10</td><td>6,931</td><td class="br">50</td><td>5,272</td><td class="br">56</td><td>10,020</td><td class="br">6</td><td>5,762</td><td class="br">30</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>212</td><td class="br">34</td><td>2,197</td><td class="br">55</td><td>29</td><td class="br">24</td><td>651</td><td class="br">59</td><td>33,296</td><td class="br">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td>I.</td><td>ditto</td><td>1859</td><td class="bl">4,914</td><td class="br">20</td><td>16,958</td><td class="br">20</td><td>9,578</td><td class="br">23</td><td>10,840</td><td class="br">43</td><td>30,715</td><td class="br">17</td><td>18,185</td><td class="br">34</td><td>2,286</td><td class="br">40</td><td>647</td><td class="br">54</td><td>1,592</td><td class="br">30</td><td>1,258</td><td class="br">51</td><td>96,978</td><td class="br">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td>II.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,227</td><td class="br">16</td><td>11,008</td><td class="br">..</td><td>4,090</td><td class="br">20</td><td>11,151</td><td class="br">56</td><td>3,179</td><td class="br">24</td><td>767</td><td class="br">4</td><td>23</td><td class="br">2</td><td>94</td><td class="br">23</td><td>200</td><td class="br">5</td><td>1,258</td><td class="br">32</td><td>35,000</td><td class="br">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>III.</td><td>ditto</td><td>"</td><td class="bl">3,117</td><td class="br">7</td><td>10,911</td><td class="br">41</td><td>3,857</td><td class="br">14</td><td>11,009</td><td class="br">29</td><td>11,444</td><td class="br">..</td><td>7,551</td><td class="br">15</td><td>306</td><td class="br">24</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>1,910</td><td class="br">..</td><td>793</td><td class="br">..</td><td>50,900</td><td class="br">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td>IV.</td><td>ditto</td><td>(not full)</td><td class="bl">984</td><td class="br">18</td><td>2,564</td><td class="br">5</td><td>1,990</td><td class="br">5</td><td>3,314</td><td class="br">16</td><td>2,163</td><td class="br">40</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>33</td><td class="br">30</td><td>...</td><td class="br">..</td><td>269</td><td class="br">46</td><td>5</td><td class="br">..</td><td>11,324</td><td class="br">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="bl">&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td><td>&mdash;&mdash;</td><td class="br">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Grand Total</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="bl">33,593</td><td class="br">11</td><td>101,164</td><td class="br">47</td><td>48,505</td><td class="br">50</td><td>106,541</td><td class="br">41</td><td>124,009</td><td class="br">43</td><td>38,594</td><td class="br">41</td><td>4,285</td><td class="br">19</td><td>4,056</td><td class="br">21</td><td>7,720</td><td class="br">40</td><td>13,721</td><td class="br">43</td><td>482,193</td><td class="br">56</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Thus the Expenditure, during the voyage, amounting to
+483,193 florins 56 kreuzer, Austrian currency, which,
+calculated at the rate of 10 florins to a pound sterling at
+par, is equal to about £48,219 sterling. To this sum must be
+added the outfit and armament of the frigate for the
+purposes of the voyage, amounting to about £6000 sterling,
+and the expenses for four months' provisions, taken in at
+Trieste before our departure, and estimated at about £4500
+sterling, so that the entire Expenditure of the Expedition,
+from the time of starting till its return, amounted to about
+£58,000 sterling.</p>
+
+<div><a name="ADS" id="ADS"></a></div>
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div class="center" style="font-size: 0.8em; line-height: 1.5em;">
+LONDON:<br />
+PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,<br />
+ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div style="text-align: right">66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, W.</div>
+
+<div class="center" style="line-height: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Messrs.</span> SAUNDERS, OTLEY, &amp; Co.'s<br />
+LITERARY ANNOUNCEMENTS.</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE VOYAGE OF THE NOVARA ROUND THE WORLD. The
+Circumnavigation of the Globe, by the Austrian Frigate
+Novara. English Edition. Containing an Unpublished Letter
+from Baron Humboldt. With numerous wood engravings.
+Dedicated, by special permission, to Sir Roderick Murchison.
+3 vols., 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE MARQUIS OF DALHOUSIE'S ADMINISTRATION of BRITISH INDIA.
+By Edwin Arnold, M.A., of University College, Oxford.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE POLITICAL LIFE of the EARL of DERBY.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LIFE of the RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN DISRAELI, M.P.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES of the LORD BISHOP of OXFORD from
+1841 to the Present Time. Edited by the Author. 1 vol., 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LIVES of the SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. By
+William Nathaniel Massey, Esq., M.P., author of "The History
+of England," and Chairman of Ways and Means.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LATITUDINARIANS. A Chapter of Church History, from the
+Accession of Archbishop Tillotson in 1691, to the Death of
+Archdeacon Blackburne, in 1787. By Edward Churton, M.A.,
+Archdeacon of Cleveland.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LIFE OF THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. 1 vol.,
+8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+ECCLESIA RESTITUTA. By F. C. Massingberd, M.A., Prebendary
+of Lincoln and Rector of Ormsby.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+SEVEN ANSWERS to the 'ESSAYS and REVIEWS,' BY SEVEN WRITERS
+IN SEVEN SEPARATE ESSAYS.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE HISTORY OF THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY, from the Defection of
+Sir Robert Peel to the Present Time. 1 vol., 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, from the Death of
+Elizabeth to the Present Time. By the Rev. Geo. G. Perry,
+M.A., Rector of Waddington, late Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln
+College, Oxford. 3 vols., 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CHURCH RATE A NATIONAL TRUST. By the Venerable Archdeacon
+Denison. 1 vol., 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST. By the Rev. George Williams, B.D.,
+Senior Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 1 vol., 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE AMERICAN CHURCH and the AMERICAN UNION. By Henry
+Caswall, D.D., of Trinity College, Connecticut, and
+Prebendary of Sarum. 1 v., post 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+PHILOSOPHY; or, THE SCIENCE of TRUTH, being a Treatise on
+First Principles, Mental, Physical, and Verbal. By James
+Haig, Esq., M.A., of Lincoln's Inn.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+RECOLLECTIONS OF GENERAL GARIBALDI; or, TRAVELS FROM ROME TO
+LUCERNE, comprising a Visit to the Mediterranean Islands of
+La Madalena and Caprera, and the Home of General Garibaldi.
+1 vol. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF DR. WOLFF, the Bokhara
+Missionary. 2d. edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+AN AUTUMN TOUR IN SPAIN. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">R. Roberts</span>, B.A., of
+Trinity College, Cambridge, and Vicar of Milton Abbas. With
+numerous Engravings. 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE SUCCESSORS OF ST. PATRICK AND
+ARCHBISHOPS OF ARMAGH. By James Henthorne Todd, D.D.,
+F.S.A., President of the Royal Irish Academy, Treasurer of
+St. Patrick's Cathedral, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the
+University, and Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. 2
+vols., 8vo.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LIFE OF GEORGE FOX, The Founder of the Quakers. From
+numerous original sources. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE PRIVATE JOURNAL OF THE MARQUESS OF HASTINGS,
+Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in India. Edited by
+his Daughter, <span class="smcap">Sophia</span>, the Marchioness of Bute. Second
+Edition, 2 vols. post 8vo, with Map and Index. 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+NAPOLEON THE THIRD ON ENGLAND. Selections from his own
+writings. Translated by <span class="smcap">J. H. Simpson</span>. 5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE HUNTING GROUNDS OF THE OLD WORLD. By H. A. L. (the Old
+Shekarry). Second Edition. 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+HIGHLANDS AND HIGHLANDERS; As they were and as they are. By
+<span class="smcap">William Grant Stewart</span>. First and Second series, price 5s.
+each; extra bound, 6s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA. With numerous Woodcuts. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+LECTURES ON THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. By the Rev. <span class="smcap">R. J.
+M'Ghee</span>. Second Edition. 2 vols, Reduced price, 15s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+PRE-ADAMITE MAN; or, THE STORY OF OUR OLD PLANET AND ITS
+INHABITANTS, TOLD BY SCRIPTURE AND SCIENCE. Beautifully
+Illustrated by Hervieu, Dalziel Brothers, &amp;c. 1 vol, post
+8vo, 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+LOUIS CHARLES DE BOURBON: THE "PRISONER OF THE TEMPLE." 3s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+A HANDY-BOOK FOR RIFLE VOLUNTEERS. With 14 Coloured Plates
+and Diagrams. By Captain W. G. Hartley, author of "A New
+System of Drill." 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+RECOLLECTIONS of a WINTER CAMPAIGN IN INDIA, in 1857-58. By
+<span class="smcap">Captain Oliver J. Jones</span>, R.N. With numerous illustrations
+drawn on stone by Day, from the Author's Sketches. In 1 vol.
+royal 8vo, 16s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+TWO YEARS IN SYRIA. By <span class="smcap">T. Lewis Farley</span>, Esq., Late Chief
+Accountant of the Ottoman Bank, Beyrout. 12s. Second
+Edition.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+DIARY OF TRAVELS IN THREE QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. By an
+<span class="smcap">Australian Settler</span>. 2 vols, post 8vo, 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+RECOLLECTIONS of the COURT of NAPLES in OUR OWN TIMES.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+MOUNT LEBANON AND ITS INHABITANTS: A Ten Years' Residence
+from 1842 to 1852. By Colonel <span class="smcap">Churchill</span>, Staff Officer in
+the British Expedition to Syria. Second Edition. 3 vols,
+8vo, £1·5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+FROM SOUTHAMPTON TO CALCUTTA. Sketches of Anglo-Indian Life.
+10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE TABLETTE BOOKE of LADYE MARY KEYES, OWNE SISTER TO THE
+MISFORTUNATE LADYE JANE DUDLIE. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+TRAVEL and RECOLLECTIONS of TRAVEL. By Dr. <span class="smcap">John Shaw</span>. 1 vol,
+post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+LETTERS ON INDIA. By <span class="smcap">Edward Sullivan</span>, Esq., Author of
+'Rambles in North and South America;' 'The Bungalow and the
+Tent;' 'From Boulogne to Babel Mandeb;' 'A Trip to the
+Trenches;' &amp;c. 1 vol. 7s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CAMPAIGNING IN KAFFIRLAND; or, SCENES AND ADVENTURES IN THE
+KAFFIR WAR OF 1851-52. By Captain <span class="smcap">W. R. King</span>. Second
+Edition. 1 vol. 8vo, 14s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE RELIGIOUS TENDENCIES OF THE AGE. 6s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A HORSE. By <span class="smcap">Sir
+George Stephen</span>. With illustrations by Cruikshank. New and
+cheaper Edition, 5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, Elegant Gift Book for the Season.
+Beautifully bound in green watered silk, with coloured
+plates. Containing the Art of Conveying Sentiments of Esteem
+and Affection. Eleventh edition, dedicated, by permission,
+to the late Duchess of Kent. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES; With a description of the "Ladies'
+Safety Hive." By <span class="smcap">Samuel Bagster</span>, Jun. 1 vol., illustrated.
+7s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE HANDBOOK OF TURNING, With numerous plates. A complete
+and Practical Guide to the Beautiful Science of Turning in
+all its Branches. 1 vol. 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+TEXTS FOR TALKERS. By <span class="smcap">Frank Fowler</span>. 3s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE SUMMER TOUR of an INVALID. 5s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+ARMY MISRULE: BARRACK THOUGHTS. By a <span class="smcap">Common Soldier</span>. 3s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="c3">Fiction.</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+WHY PAUL FERROLL KILLED HIS WIFE. By the Author of "Paul
+Ferroll." Third Edition. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+OUR NEW RECTOR. Edited by the Author of 'Mr. Verdant Green.'
+10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE RECTOR'S DAUGHTERS. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. A Novel. By <span class="smcap">Marguerite A. Power</span>. 3
+vols., 31s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+AN M.P. IN SEARCH OF A CREED. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+ROTTEN ROW. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CRISPIN KEN. By the Author of 'Miriam May.' Dedicated, by
+special permission, to the Right Hon. Sir E. B. Lytton,
+Bart., M.P. 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+WHO SHALL BE DUCHESS? or, THE NEW LORD OF BURLEIGH. A Novel.
+2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE LIGHTHOUSE. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE SKELETON IN THE CUPBOARD. By Lady Scott. 2 vols., 21s.
+Cheaper Edition, 5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+TOO LATE! By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Dimsdale</span>. 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+HELEN. A Romance of Real Life. 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE CASTLE and the COTTAGE in SPAIN. By Lady Wallace, Author
+of 'Clara; or, Slave Life in Europe.' 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CYRUS. By Lady Julia Lockwood.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+GERTRUDE MELTON; or, NATURE'S NOBLEMAN. A Tale. 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+RUTH BAYNARD'S STORY. 1 vol., 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+VANITY CHURCH. 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+MY WIFE'S PINMONEY. By <span class="smcap">E. E. Nelson</span>, a grand niece of the
+great Lord Nelson. 5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE EMIGRANT'S DAUGHTER. Dedicated, by permission, to the
+Empress of Russia. 5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+MIRIAM MAY. 4th Edition. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+WHISPERING VOICES OF THE YULE. Tales for Christmas. 5s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE SENIOR FELLOW. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+ALMACK'S. A Novel. Dedicated to the Ladies Patronesses of
+the Balls at Almack's. New Edition, 1 vol, crown 8vo, 10s.
+6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+NELLY CAREW. By <span class="smcap">Miss Power</span>. 2 vols, 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+MEMOIRS OF A LADY IN WAITING. By the Author of 'Adventures
+of Mrs. Colonel Somerset in Caffraria.' 2 vols, 18s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+HULSE HOUSE. A Novel. By the Author of 'Anne Gray.' 2 vols,
+post 8vo, 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE NEVILLES OF GARRETSTOWN. A Historical Tale. Edited, and
+with a Preface by the Author of 'Emilia Wyndham.' 3 vols,
+post 8vo, 31s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CORVODA ABBEY. A Tale. 1 vol, post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE VICAR OF LYSSEL. The Diary of a Clergyman in the 18th
+century. 4s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+GOETHE IN STRASBOURG. A Dramatic Nouvelette. By H. Noel
+Humphreys. 7s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+SQUIRES AND PARSONS. A Church Novel. 1 vol. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE DEAN; or, the POPULAR PREACHER. By <span class="smcap">Berkeley Aikin</span>,
+Author of 'Anne Sherwood.' 3 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CHARLEY NUGENT; or, PASSAGES IN THE LIFE OF A SUB. A Novel,
+3 vols, post 8vo. 31s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+PAUL FERROLL. By the Author of 'IX Poems by V.' Fourth
+Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+LORD AUBREY; or, WHAT SHALL I DO? By the Author of 'Every
+Day.' A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE IRONSIDES. A Tale of the English Commonwealth. 3 vols.,
+31s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+AGNES HOME. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+LA CAVA; or, RECOLLECTIONS OF THE NEAPOLITANS. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+ANSELMO. A Tale of Modern Italy. 2 vols., 21s.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+THE DALRYMPLES; or, LONG CREDIT AND LONG CLOTH. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+INSTINCT; or, REASON. By Lady <span class="smcap">Julia Lockwood</span>. 5s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+CARELADEN HOUSE. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+</div>
+
+<div class="c3">Poetry.</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton's Eva, AND OTHER POEMS.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+Sacred Poems. By the late Right Hon. Sir Robert Grant, with
+a Notice by Lord Glenelg.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+Eustace; An Elegy. By the Right Hon. Charles Tennyson
+D'Eyncourt.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+Oberon's Empire. A Mask.
+</div>
+
+<div class="ads">
+The Shadow of the Yew, AND OTHER POEMS. By Norman B. Yonge.
+</div>
+
+<hr class="ChapterTopRule" />
+
+<div class="c3">MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.'S</div>
+
+<div class="c2">EAST INDIA ARMY AND COLONIAL
+AGENCY.</div>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">66, Brook Street, Hanover Square,
+London, W.</span></div>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>In the immediate vicinity of the New East India House and
+the Oriental Club.</i>)</div>
+
+<p>Messrs. <span class="smcap">Saunders, Otley</span>, and Co. beg to invite the attention
+of Regimental Messes, Officers, Members of the Civil
+Service, and other Residents in India, Australia, and the
+Colonies to their East India Army and Colonial Agency, and
+to the advantages it offers.</p>
+
+<div class="c4">BANKING DEPARTMENT.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pay, Pensions, Fund Allowances, Dividends, &amp;c.</span>, drawn and
+remitted with regularity. <span class="smcap">Sales</span> of, and <span class="smcap">Investments</span> in,
+Government Stock, Foreign Securities, &amp;c., effected. Every
+other description of <span class="smcap">Financial Business</span> transacted.</p>
+
+<div class="c4">SUPPLY DEPARTMENT.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Supplies of every description</span>, including
+Provisions, Wines, Plate, Jewellery, Books, Guns, Band
+Instruments, Clothing, &amp;c., carefully selected and
+despatched by Overland Route, or Sailing Ship, to Regiments
+and Messes in India, Australia, and the Colonies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Private Orders</span> from Officers, Members of the Civil Service,
+and Residents in India, Australia, and the Colonies
+generally, are executed with care, economy, efficiency, and
+promptitude.</p>
+
+<p>All orders should be accompanied by full and detailed
+directions.</p>
+
+<div class="c4">PERSONAL AGENCY DEPARTMENT.</div>
+
+<p>The Constituents of Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. may
+depend upon receiving every attention to their requirements
+and instructions. Every assistance will be afforded to their
+Constituents and their Families on their arrival in England,
+with the view to relieve them from every possible
+inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>Charge, when required, will be taken of children coming from
+India and the Colonies, and arrangements will be made for
+their education in England.</p>
+
+<p>To those going out to India, Australia, and the Colonies,
+Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. offer their services to
+secure passages Overland, or by Ship, and to afford them all
+necessary information connected therewith.</p>
+
+<p>All Letters, Parcels, &amp;c., will be received by Messrs.
+Saunders, Otley, and Co., for their Constituents (whether in
+England, India, or the Colonies), to whom they will be
+forwarded regularly.</p>
+
+<div class="c4">TERMS.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">No Commission charged</span> on the execution of Orders, whether
+from Regimental Messes or Private Individuals, <span class="smcap">WHEN
+ACCOMPANIED BY A REMITTANCE</span>, and a small Discount at all
+times allowed.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<div class="center">
+LITERARY AND POLITICAL NEWSPAPER FOR INDIA
+AND THE COLONIES.
+</div>
+
+<div class="c3">THE ORIENTAL BUDGET,</div>
+
+<div class="center" style="padding-bottom: 1em"><span class="smcap">Price One Shilling (Post Free).</span></div>
+
+<div class="center">Published on the First of every Month by Saunders, Otley, and Co.,
+66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London.</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 100%" />
+
+<div><a name="Changes" id="Changes"></a></div>
+<pre>
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: Blank pages have been deleted. The title page has been
+rearranged to meet accessibility requirements. Illustrations may have been
+moved. Tags at the beginning of the work going directly to the table of
+contents etal were added to ameliorate the effects of an Internet Explorer
+7 bug and for convenience of the reader. To the table of illustrations
+have been added entries for the preceding illustrations. Discovered
+publisher's punctuation errors have been corrected. The publisher's
+corrections listed at the end of Volume III have been applied. In
+addition, the following changes were made:
+
+xxvii: analagous[analogous] to the mountain chains
+xv: Crossing the Breede Rivier[River].
+169: to be reaped from European emigation[emigration]
+171: Namely: 9159 Portuguese[Two footnotes were improperly swapped]
+191: we were still able vividly to recal[recall]
+203: If any one desires [to] see a veritable
+226: towards the end of the rainy reason[season],
+252: their bite produces on the the[del 2nd the] hand
+264: that such soundings are only succesful[successful] when
+294: they cannot recal[recall] having perceived,
+308: Terrestrial Magnetism, Liuteenant[Lieutenant] Robert Müllar;
+320: of New Bedford, Massachussets[Massachusetts],
+322: pendant les annés[années] 1791-94
+331: there there[del 2nd there] is nothing resembling a beach
+358: custom that seems to recal[recall] the frightful
+420: This time, morever,[moreover]
+433: and chaunted[chanted] the praises
+459: all to be able to indentify[identify] them,
+462: thirty to the Parias[Pariahs],
+Lit. Announcements: Ry[By] T. Lewis Farley, Esq.,
+Lit. Announcements: effected. Every other descripion[description]
+
+Also, the publisher on one occasion confused the degrees Réaumur and
+Fahrenheit used in measuring temperature with degrees and minutes used to
+determine lattitude and longitude:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as 24°
+5&#8242;, (87° 12&#8242; Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72° 5&#8242; to
+74° 75&#8242; Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39&#8242; S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13° 8&#8242; to 10° 5&#8242; (63°·05 to 5° 62&#8242;
+Fahr.); between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from
+18° 8&#8242; to 9° 2&#8242; (74° 3&#8242; to 52° 7&#8242;).
+
+The corrected paragraph is as follows:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to
+74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39&#8242; S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to
+9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).]
+
+</pre>
+
+<div><a href="#Start">Start of text.</a><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="fig" style="width:100%;">
+<a name="illu061"></a> <a href="#illuref061">back</a>
+<img src="images/illu061.jpg" width="1200" height="373" alt="Illustration:" />
+<p class="caption">VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE NOVARA.<br /><br /></p>
+<table summary="" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto">
+<tr><td align="right">a.</td><td align="left">Spare Spars.</td><td align="right">hh.</td><td align="left">Officers' Mess or Ward-room.</td><td align="right">n.</td><td align="left">Powder Magazine.</td><td align="left">v.</td><td align="left">Boatswain's Cabin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">b.</td><td align="left">Captain's Cabin.</td><td align="right">h'.</td><td align="left">Commodore's Stores.</td><td align="right">o.</td><td align="left">Preserve fresh provisions in tins.</td><td align="left">w.</td><td align="left">Painters' Stores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c.</td><td align="left">Commodore's Apartment.</td><td align="right">iii.</td><td align="left">Officer's Cabins.</td><td align="right">p.</td><td align="left">Pantry.</td><td align="left">x.</td><td align="left">Coal-cellar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">c'.</td><td align="left">Captain's Apartment.</td><td align="right">i'i'i'.</td><td align="left">Officers' Lockers.</td><td align="right">p'.</td><td align="left">Store-room for Rice, Cocoa, and Dried Vegetables.</td><td align="left">y.</td><td align="left">Tins of fresh provisions for the crew.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">d.</td><td align="left">Gun-room (also used as Reading-room.)</td><td align="right">j.</td><td align="left">Half-deck (for Crew.)</td><td align="right">q.</td><td align="left">Spirit Room.</td><td align="left">z.</td><td align="left">Iron Water-tanks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">e.</td><td align="left">Cabins of Naturalists.</td><td align="right">k.</td><td align="left">Sergeants' Cabins.</td><td align="right">r.</td><td align="left">Salted Provisions.</td><td align="left">z'.</td><td align="left">Tank for the Distilling Apparatus(f').</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">f.</td><td align="left">Pumps.</td><td align="right">k'.</td><td align="left">"Sick bay."</td><td align="right">s.</td><td align="left">Buckets, Holystones, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">f'.</td><td align="left">Kitchen, with Distilling Apparatus.</td><td align="right">l.</td><td align="left">Shot-hold.</td><td align="right">t.</td><td align="left">Sail-room.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">g.</td><td align="left">Side-board &amp; Lockers of Officers.</td><td align="right">m.</td><td align="left">Bread-lockers.</td><td align="right">uu.</td><td align="left">Tool Room, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of
+the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38456-h.htm or 38456-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38456/
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu000.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu000.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f1e2fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu000.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9900674
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu000t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu001.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b8cb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu001.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu005.png b/38456-h/images/illu005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..229261c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu005.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu006.png b/38456-h/images/illu006.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84ee95e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu006.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu020.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu020.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92077b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu020.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17be3f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu020t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu055.png b/38456-h/images/illu055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a944a61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu055.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu058.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu058.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..151b755
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu058.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu061.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu061.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..adc2a20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu061.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..570c551
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu061t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu065.png b/38456-h/images/illu065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e130e02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu065.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu067.png b/38456-h/images/illu067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7816e04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu067.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu072.png b/38456-h/images/illu072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed51274
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu072.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu077.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu077.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..65381e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu077.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu084.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu084.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df2c2c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu084.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu085.png b/38456-h/images/illu085.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bacca45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu085.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu090.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu090.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1a6f7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu090.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu094.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu094.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e6a1db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu094.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu104.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu104.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a326dc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu104.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu108.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu108.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad3ec69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu108.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu113.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu113.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cae3261
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu113.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu114.png b/38456-h/images/illu114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..115b211
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu114.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu127.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu127.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f19360
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu127.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu147.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu147.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..756556f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu147.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu151.png b/38456-h/images/illu151.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..085f31a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu151.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu153.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu153.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..383fafb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu153.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu155.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu155.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38509d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu155.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu157.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu157.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11c97e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu157.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu160.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu160.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c49a45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu160.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu176.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu176.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3959f14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu176.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu178.png b/38456-h/images/illu178.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efbfa00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu178.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu213.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu213.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..221bad8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu213.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu252.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu252.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af82475
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu252.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu253.png b/38456-h/images/illu253.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b5b955
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu253.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu276.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu276.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6af3d56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu276.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu278.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu278.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84cd6fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu278.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu279.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu279.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0a7d28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu279.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu284.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu284.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e167771
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu284.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu285.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu285.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d9b5b68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu285.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu291.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu291.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2353f1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu291.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu295.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu295.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf866b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu295.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu303.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu303.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f52af14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu303.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu305.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu305.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c003728
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu305.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu310.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu310.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..409082a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu310.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu324.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu324.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7f2bda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu324.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu326.png b/38456-h/images/illu326.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..035497f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu326.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu334.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu334.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bdfb2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu334.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu359.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu359.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df8084c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu359.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu403.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu403.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18550d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu403.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu405.png b/38456-h/images/illu405.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9355dfe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu405.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu414.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu414.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78721a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu414.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu420.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu420.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4bb9b32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu420.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu483.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu483.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..456a22a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu483.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu484.png b/38456-h/images/illu484.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab76482
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu484.png
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu519.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu519.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..223743d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu519.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu522.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu522.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..413ad5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu522.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu525.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu525.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c96d2f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu525.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu528.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu528.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a4b661
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu528.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu531.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu531.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ebe7d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu531.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/illu544.jpg b/38456-h/images/illu544.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06bb1a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/illu544.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate066.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate066.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a731485
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate066.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..67e540b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate066t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate177.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate177.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78d9d0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate177.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32d767a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate177t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate254.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate254.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4afd5fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate254.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..745ebd3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate254t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate325.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate325.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51f4590
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate325.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..afb2853
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate325t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate404.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate404.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..657abbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate404.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb2f992
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate404t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate485.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate485.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd09d3d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate485.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33829b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate485t.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate542.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate542.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56a74f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate542.jpg
diff --git a/38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg b/38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..afa8ebe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38456-h/images/plate542t.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a1512e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #38456 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38456)
diff --git a/old/38456-8.txt b/old/38456-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..041df40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/38456-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,14412 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the
+Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I
+       (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order
+       of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859,
+       Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the
+       Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the
+       Austrian Navy.
+
+Author: Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+Commentator: Alexander von Humboldt
+
+Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38456]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been faithfully
+replicated except as listed near the end of this document under another
+Transcriber's Note. Italicized words are indicated _like this_. Bold words
+are indicated =like this=. Fractions are indicated like this:
+3-14159/100000. The oe ligature is indicated like this: man[oe]uvre.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: CHART OF THE TRACK OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE NOVARA
+ON HER VOYAGE ROUND THE GLOBE _In The Years 1857, 1858 & 1859._]
+
+
+
+
+                               NARRATIVE
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                     Circumnavigation of the Globe
+
+                        BY THE AUSTRIAN FRIGATE
+
+                                NOVARA,
+
+                 (COMMODORE B. VON WULLERSTORF-URBAIR,)
+
+             _Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government_,
+
+                     IN THE YEARS 1857, 1858, & 1859,
+
+           UNDER THE IMMEDIATE AUSPICES OF HIS I. AND R. HIGHNESS
+
+                   THE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND MAXIMILIAN,
+
+               COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+                          DR. KARL SCHERZER,
+
+                 MEMBER OF THE EXPEDITION, AUTHOR OF
+                 "TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA," ETC.
+
+                               VOL. I.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                               LONDON:
+
+                      _SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO._
+
+                   66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE.
+
+                                1861.
+
+                 [THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.]
+
+
+                               LONDON:
+                    PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
+                      ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+
+
+                                  TO
+
+                     SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON,
+
+      G.C.S.ST., M.A., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., G.S., L.S., F.R.G.S.,
+
+ DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
+
+                     TRUST. BRIT. MUS., ETC., ETC.,
+
+              THE GREAT PROMOTER OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE,
+
+                 These Pages are respectfully Inscribed,
+
+              IN RECOGNITION OF HIS VALUABLE EXERTIONS IN
+                   ADVANCING THE SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS
+                      OF THE AUSTRIAN EXPEDITION,
+
+                              AS WELL AS
+
+  IN GRATITUDE FOR THE HOSPITABLE RECEPTION SECURED TO THE NAVIGATORS
+
+                 THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES,
+
+           WHEREVER IT WAS THEIR GOOD FORTUNE TO CAST ANCHOR,
+
+                                  BY
+
+                 THE AUTHOR OF THE FOLLOWING NARRATIVE.
+
+
+[Illustration: LETTER.]
+
+[Illustration: LETTER CONTINUED.]
+
+
+
+
+                     PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+
+A member of the scientific corps attached to the Expedition, which, under
+the auspices of that enlightened friend of science and liberty, the
+Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, was despatched on a voyage round the globe,
+the high honour has been conferred upon me of having entrusted to my care
+the publication of the Narrative of our Cruise.
+
+In this not more difficult than enviable task, I have been most liberally
+assisted by my eminent fellow-labourers--the whole literary material
+collected during the voyage having been kindly placed at my disposal. The
+comprehensive journals and reports of the venerable Commander-in-Chief of
+the Expedition, Commodore Wullerstorff-Urbair, as well as the various
+memoranda of the other members of the Scientific Commission, contributed
+materially to the elucidation of my own general notes, as well as my
+observations upon special subjects, which latter chiefly referred to the
+Geography, Ethnography, and general Statistics of the various countries
+visited.
+
+While preparing the details of our voyage for publication in my own
+language, the idea perpetually presented itself that a translation of this
+narrative into English might prove not unacceptable to the British public.
+And although fully aware that a voyage round the globe, in the course of
+which little more than the coasts were visited of the various countries we
+touched at, could not pretend to offer much new information to the
+greatest of maritime nations, it seemed, nevertheless, that it might
+interest a people so eager in the pursuit of knowledge as the English, to
+know the impression which has been made upon travellers of education by
+the Colonies and Settlements of Britain throughout the world.
+
+The English language, moreover, being spoken more or less over the greater
+part of the earth's surface, geographically speaking, the author who
+addresses his readers in that tongue is sustained by the flattering
+conviction that he will be understood by the majority of the nations of
+the globe! For it is not alone the educated classes of all countries that
+seek to master a language which possesses such a grand--all but unrivalled
+literature! The political and commercial development which Great Britain
+enjoys under the benign influence of liberal institutions, has made
+English the medium of intercourse among almost all sea-faring nations;
+nay, even barbarous tribes find it their obvious interest to get a slight
+inkling at least of the language of a people whose civilizing and
+elevating energies they may not, it is true, understand, far less
+appreciate, but whose imposing power inspires them with awe, while they
+are more closely attached by the tie of material advantage.
+
+The following narrative describes the most important occurrences and most
+lasting impressions of a voyage during which we traversed 51,686 miles,
+visited twenty-five different places, and spent 551 days at sea, and 298
+at anchor or on shore.
+
+As the purely scientific results of the Expedition will be published
+separately under the supervision of Commodore Wullerstorf and the other
+members of the scientific corps, I shall, in this place, only attempt to
+place before the reader a general outline of the countries and races
+visited during our cruise in different regions of the world.
+
+In relating simply and concisely what was seen and experienced, I have
+endeavoured to avoid incurring the reproach, so frequently launched by
+English critics against German works of travel, of dryness and minute
+detail, such as render them distasteful to the English reader, and make it
+almost impossible to enlist his attention or evoke his sympathy.
+
+If, as is specially the case with respect to natural science, many a
+doubtful point still remains undecided--if the ingenious "Suggestions" of
+the immortal Alexander von Humboldt (for the translation of which I feel
+particularly indebted to that profound scholar, my learned and esteemed
+friend Mr. Haidinger, whose name will be familiar to the scientific world
+in Great Britain), could not be acted upon to the extent and in the
+effectual manner each of us could have wished, the reason for such
+deficiencies will be found in the peculiar mission of the Expedition, and
+in the arrangement of our route, which was specially laid out with
+reference to the numerous and widely different objects, which it was
+specially intended to keep in view throughout the voyage.
+
+Among the more prominent of these, may be specified the opportunity thus
+afforded for the practical instruction of our young and rapidly-increasing
+navy; the unfurling of the Imperial flag of Austria in those distant
+climes, where it had never before floated; the promulgation of commercial
+treaties; the aid afforded to science in exploration and investigation, as
+well as by the collection of those objects of Natural History, the
+acquisition of which is all but impossible to the solitary naturalist,
+owing to the expense and difficulty of transport,[1] and the establishment
+everywhere of friendly correspondence between our own scientific
+institutions and those in remote regions, I have considered it necessary
+to invite the attention of the British reading public to these
+circumstances, in order to make them more intimately cognisant of our
+various and manifold tasks, and thus make them the more readily disposed
+to overlook the deficiencies and discrepancies of this book, which I now
+respectfully commit to their perusal.
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding the short period at our disposal at each
+port, which concomitant necessity militates so much against the practical
+utility of a circumnavigation of the globe as compared with an expedition
+solely directed to one single centre of scientific observation, the
+collection of objects of Natural History made during the cruise are very
+extensive, and unusually rich in new or rare species. The zoological
+department alone embraces above 23,700 individuals of different kinds of
+animals: viz. 440 mammalia, 300 reptiles, 1500 birds, 1400 _Amphibiæ_,
+1330 fish, 9000 insects, 8900 Molluscs and _Crustaceæ_, 300 birds' eggs
+and nests, besides numerous skeletons. The botanical collection consists
+of _Herbaria_, seeds of useful plants, special regard being had to those
+best adapted for the various climates of the respective Austrian
+provinces, drugs, specimens of dye-woods, and timber, fruits preserved in
+alcohol, &c. The Geological and Palæontological Museums of our country
+have likewise been enriched with various rare and valuable specimens,
+particularly in consequence of Dr. Hochstetter, the geologist of the
+Expedition, having prolonged his stay in New Zealand, where, at the
+special request of the Colonial Government, he explored the province of
+Auckland. The Ethnographical and Anthropological collection consists of
+above 550 objects, among which are 100 skulls, representing the craniology
+of almost all the races of the globe.]
+
+Before concluding, I beg leave to express my hearty thanks to all those
+who have contributed in such various ways to aid my humble efforts--to
+specify some were invidious, as in so doing I must wrong others. To each
+and all I return the most heartfelt gratitude.
+
+May the indulgent reader peruse the following pages with an approving
+eye--may they afford him as much satisfaction and as much interest as I
+experienced in committing to paper the descriptions and impressions
+therein set forth, since in so doing, I, so to speak, made the delightful
+voyage for the second time, and in thought visited once more the different
+localities, from every one of which I, and my fellow-travellers, brought
+away none but the most friendly and agreeable recollections.
+
+It inspires a _German_ traveller with a peculiar and lofty feeling of
+pride and delight that he can look upon himself as belonging to a race, to
+whom seems to have been reserved the diffusion of a New Life over the
+earth--whose special mission it appears to be to make even the most
+primitive tribes in the remotest corner of the world acquainted with the
+blessings of Christian civilization, of political liberty, of intellectual
+culture, and, standing triumphant on the ruins of slavery and despotism,
+to proclaim to the great family of universal mankind, the advent of a new,
+a vernal era of Faith, Freedom, and Happiness!
+
+                                           DR. KARL SCHERZER.
+
+TRIESTE, _18th March, 1861_.
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                      PREPARATIONS FOR THE VOYAGE.
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+   Approval of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+     Voyage round the World.--Object of the Expedition.--
+     Appointment of a Scientific Commission.--Preparations.--
+     Fitting out the Frigate _Novara_ at Pola.--Departure for
+     Trieste.--Visit of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian on board.      1
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                      FROM TRIESTE TO GIBRALTAR.
+
+   Departure.--Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.--A Man lost and found
+     again.--Passage through the Straits of Messina.--The Steamer
+     _Sta. Lucia_ returns to Trieste.--Regulations and Instructions
+     for further Proceedings.--A Day on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Sunrise.--Cleaning the Ship.--Mental and Physical Occupation.--
+     Moonlight at Sea.                                                  11
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III.
+
+                              GIBRALTAR.
+
+   Political Significance of the Rock.--Courtesy of the British
+     Authorities.--Fortifications.--Signal Stations.--The only
+     Place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.--Calcareous Caves.--
+     Chief Entrances into the Town.--Shutting the Town Gates.--
+     Public Establishments.--Inhabitants.--Elliott's Gardens.--The
+     Isthmus, or Neutral Ground.--Algeziras.--Ceuta.--Commerce and
+     Navigation.--Excellent Regulation in the English Navy relative
+     to Officers' Outfit.--Small-pox appears on board the
+     _Caroline_.--Departure from Gibraltar.--A Fata Morgana.--The
+     _Novara_ passes the Straits.--Takes leave of Europe.--Voyage
+     to Madeira.--Floating Bottles to ascertain the Currents.--
+     Arrival in the Roads of Funchal.                                   29
+
+
+                             CHAPTER IV.
+
+                               MADEIRA.
+
+   First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the
+     Island.--History.--Unfavourable Political Circumstances
+     connected with the Cultivation of the Ground.--Aqueducts.--
+     First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its
+     Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a Compensation for its Loss.--
+     Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence
+     for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the
+     Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress
+     among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--
+     Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--
+     Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent
+     Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--
+     Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent
+     of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to
+     Funchal.--Departure.                                               58
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                           RIO DE JANEIRO.
+
+   Brazil the Land of Contrasts.--Appearance of the City of Rio and
+     its Environs.--Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and the
+     Tejuca Waterfalls.--Germans in Rio.--Brazilian Literary Men.--
+     Assacú (_Hura Brasiliensis_.)--Snake-bite as an Antidote
+     against Leprosy.--Public Institutions.--Negroes of the
+     Mozambique Coast.--The House of Misericordia.--Lunatic
+     Asylum.--Botanical Garden.--Public Instruction.--
+     Historico-Geographical Institution.--_Palæstra Scientifica._--
+     Military Academy.--Library.--Conservatory of Music.--Sanitary
+     Police.--Yellow Fever and Cholera.--Water Party on the Bay.--
+     Chamber of Deputies.--Petropolis.--Condition of the Slave
+     Population.--Prospects of German Emigration.--Suitability of
+     Brazil as a Market for German Commerce.--Natural Products, and
+     Exchange of Manufactures.--Audience of the Emperor and
+     Empress.--Extravagant Waste of Powder for Salvoes.--Songs of
+     the Sailors.--Departure from Rio.--Retrospect.--South-east
+     Trades.--Cape Pigeons.--Albatrosses--Cape Tormentoso.--A Storm
+     at the Cape.--Various Methods of Measuring the Height of
+     Waves.--Arrival in Simon's Bay.                                   121
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                          CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
+
+   Contrasts of Scenery and Seasons at Cape Colony.--Ramble through
+     Simon's Town.--Malay Population.--The Toad-fish, or
+     Sea-devil.--Rondebosch and its delightful Scenery.--Cape
+     Town.--Influence of the English Element.--Scientific and other
+     Institutions.--Botanical Gardens.--Useful Plants.--Foreign
+     Emigration.--A Caffre Prophet and the Consequences of his
+     Prophecies.--Caffre Prisoners in the Armstrong Battery.--Five
+     young Caffres take Service as Sailors on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Trip into the Interior.--Stellenbosch.--Paarl.--Worcester.--
+     Brand Vley.--The Mission of Moravian Brethren at Genaadendal.--
+     Masticatories and intoxicating Substances used by the
+     Hottentots.--Caledon.--Somerset West.--Zandvliet.--Tomb of a
+     Malay Prophet.--Horse Sickness.--Tsetse-fly.--Vineyards of
+     Constantia.--_Fête Champétre_ in Honour of the _Novara_.--
+     Excursion to the actual Cape of Good Hope.--Departure.--A Life
+     saved.--Experiments with Brook's Deep-sea Sounding Apparatus.--
+     Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South Indian Ocean.      196
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII.
+
+    THE ISLANDS OF ST. PAUL AND AMSTERDAM, IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN.
+
+   Former History.--Importance of the Situation of St. Paul.--
+     Present Inhabitants.--Preliminary Observations.--To whom do
+     the Islands belong?--Fisheries.--Hot springs.--Singular
+     Experiment.--Penguins.--Disembarkation.--Inclement Weather.--
+     Remarks on the Climate of the Island.--Cultivation of European
+     Vegetables.--Animal Life.--Library in a Fisherman's Hut.--
+     Narrative of old Viot.--Re-embarkation.--An official Document
+     left behind.--Some Results obtained during the Stay of the
+     Expedition.--Visit to the Island of Amsterdam.--Whalers.--
+     Search for a Landing-place.--Remarks on the Natural History of
+     the Islands.--A Conflagration.--Comparison of the Two
+     Islands.--A _Rencontre_ at Sea.--Trade-wind.--Christmas at
+     Sea.--"A man overboard!"--Cingalese Canoe.--Arrival at Point
+     de Galle, in Ceylon.                                              267
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                                CEYLON.
+
+   Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English Government.--
+     Better Prospects for the Future.--The Cingalese, their
+     Language and Customs.--Buddhism and its Ordinances.--Visit to
+     a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of Galle.--The sacred
+     Bo-tree.--Other Aborigines of Ceylon.--The Weddàhs.--
+     Traditions as to their Origin.--Galle as a City and Harbour.--
+     Snake-charmers.--Departure for Colombo.--Cultivation of the
+     Cocoa-nut Palm a benevolent, Buddha-pleasing work.--
+     Polyandria; or, Community of Husbands--Supposed Origin.--
+     Annual Exportation of Cocoa-nuts.--Rest-houses for
+     Travellers.--Curry the national Dish.--A Misfortune and its
+     Consequences.--The Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn,
+     and Father Miliani.--Annoying Delays with restive Horses.--
+     Colombo.--A Stroll through the "_Pettah_," or Black Town.--Ice
+     Trade of the Americans with Tropical Countries.--Cinnamon
+     Gardens and Cinnamon Cultivation.--Consequences of the
+     Monopoly of Cinnamon.--Rise and Expansion of the Coffee
+     Culture in Ceylon.--Pearl-fishery.--Latest Examination of the
+     Ceylon Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+     Results.--Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.--The Divers.--
+     Pearl-lime, a chewing Substance of wealthy Malays.--Annual
+     Profit of the Pearl-fishery.--Origin of the Pearl.--Poetry and
+     Natural Science.--Artificial Production of the Pearl.--The
+     Chank-shell.--The Wealth of Ceylon in Precious Stones.--Visit
+     to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.--The Cowry-shell, a Promoter
+     of the Slave Trade.--Discovery of valuable Cingalese MSS. on
+     Palm-leaves.--The heroic Poem of "Mahawanso," and Turnour's
+     English Translation of it.--Hospitality of English Officials
+     in Colombo.--A second Visit to Father Miliani.--Agreeable
+     Reception.--The Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous
+     Snakes.--Adventures on the Journey back to Galle.--Ascent of
+     Adam's Peak by two Members of the Expedition.--The Sacred
+     Footprint.--Descent.--The "Bullock-bandy," or Native Waggon.--
+     Departure from Galle for Madras.--The Bassos (Shallows).--A
+     Berlin Rope-dancer among the Passengers.--Nyctalopia; or,
+     Night Blindness.--Fire on Board.--Arrival in Madras Roads.        345
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX.
+
+                                  MADRAS.
+
+   "Catamarans" and "Masuli" Boats.--Difficulty of Disembarkation,
+     and Plans for remedying it.--History.--Brahminism.--Festival
+     in Honour of Vishnù.--Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+     Government.--Politics and Religion.--Laws of Brahminic Faith.--
+     The Observatory.--Museum of Natural History and Zoological
+     Garden.--Academy of Fine Arts.--Medical School.--Infirmary.--
+     Orphan Asylum.--Dr. Bell.--Lancastrian Method of Teaching
+     Children first Applied in Madras.--Colonel Mackenzie's
+     Collection of Indian Inscriptions and MSS.--The Palace of the
+     former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.--Journey by Rail to
+     Vellore.--_Féte_ given by the Governor in Guindy Park.--Visit
+     to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.--Excursion to
+     Pulicat Lake.--Madras Club.--_Féte_ in Honour of the Members
+     of the _Novara_ Expedition.--"Tiffin" and Dance on Board.--
+     Departure from Madras.--Zodiacal Light.--Shrove Tuesday in the
+     Tropics.--Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.                   424
+
+
+
+
+                       LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+                               VOL. I.
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+         The Track Of The Austrian Imperial Frigate
+           Novara.                            _frontispiece_
+
+         Letter.                                         iii
+
+         Letter Continued.                                iv
+
+         Notes.                                          xvi
+
+         Departure.                                        1
+
+         Gun-room of the _Novara_.                         4
+
+         Plate: Vertical Section of the Frigate
+           "Novara".                                       7
+
+         Geodetical and Astronomical Instruments.         10
+
+         Look-out Man.                                    11
+
+         Track from Triest To Madeira.                    11
+
+         "Palinurus".                                     16
+
+         Seamen off duty.                                 21
+
+         View of Gibraltar from Seaward.                  28
+
+         Rock of Gibraltar.                               29
+
+         Rock Cavern in Gibraltar.                        34
+
+         South Gate, Gibraltar.                           38
+
+         Inhabitant of Frangola.                          47
+
+         Cape Trafalgar.                                  52
+
+         Loo Rock (Madeira).                              57
+
+         Scene in Madeira.                                58
+
+         Bridge over the Ribeiro Seco.                    70
+
+         Carapuça, or Cap worn by the Natives of
+           Madeira.                                       91
+
+         Cathedral of Madeira.                            95
+
+         Sleigh party in Madeira.                         97
+
+         Village of Fayal.                                99
+
+         "El Homem em pié".                              101
+
+         Erica Trees.                                    103
+
+         Track From Madeira to Rio Di Janeiro.           107
+
+         Cape Frio.                                      120
+
+         The Quay at Rio.                                121
+
+         Island of Paquità, Bay of Rio.                  156
+
+         Track from Rio Di Janeiro to the Cape
+           Of Good Hope.                                 182
+
+         Cabo Tormentoso.                                195
+
+         Cape Town.                                      196
+
+         Rifle Volunteer _Fête_ at Stellenbosch.         217
+
+         Paine's Kloef as it was.                        220
+
+         Paine's Kloef as it is.                         220
+
+         Crossing the Breede River.                      226
+
+         Hot Springs of Brand Vley.                      227
+
+         Hottentot Huts at Genaadendal.                  233
+
+         Church and Mission Houses of the Moravian
+           Settlement at Genaadendal.                    237
+
+         Tomb of a Malay Prophet at Zandvliet.           245
+
+         Interior of the Mausoleum.                      246
+
+         Tsetse Fly.                                     252
+
+         Track from the Cape Of Good Hope to St. Paul's
+           Island.                                       259
+
+         Arrival at St. Paul.                            266
+
+         View of St. Paul.                               267
+
+         Distant view of Crater-Basin of St. Paul.       275
+
+         Rainy day at St. Paul.                          300
+
+         Track from St. Paul to Point De Galle (Ceylon). 309
+
+         Cingalese Canoe.                                344
+
+         View of Adam's Peak from Colombo.               345
+
+         Buddha Temple near Galle.                       353
+
+         Interior of a House at Galle.                   359
+
+         Track from Point De Galle To Madras.            418
+
+         Masuli Boat at Madras.                          423
+
+         View of Madras (and Proposed Pier).             424
+
+         The Holy Mountain.                              458
+
+         The god Ganeza.                                 461
+
+         Bivouac at Mahamalaipuran.                      464
+
+         Bas-relief on one of the Monolith Temples.      467
+
+         Entrance to One of the Temples.                 470
+
+         Track from Madras to the Nicobar Islands.       480
+
+         Arrival at Kar-Nicobar.                         482
+
+
+[Illustration: LETTER.]
+
+Transcriber's Note: The text of the letter above, along with supplemental
+address information, are in the first volume of the German edition:
+
+  Sr. Hochwohlgeboren
+  dem Herrn Oberst von Wüllerstorf,
+  kais. kön. Linienschiffs-Capitän,
+  Befehlshaber S. Maj. Fregatte Novara,
+  Ritter hoher Orden &c. &c. &c.
+  in
+  Triest.
+
+
+               Hochwohlgeborener Herr,
+
+             Hochzuverehrender Herr Oberst, k. k. Linien-Schiffs-Capitän.
+
+Ew. Hochwohlgeb. wollen, als Befehlshaber Sr. Maj. Fregatte Novara, die zu
+einem großen, edeln, das deutsche Vaterland und die Wissenschaft ehrenden
+Unternehmen durch kaiserliche Huld bestimmt ist, den Ausdruck meiner
+Verehrung nachsichtsvoll empfangen, indem ich, von der Zeit naher Abfahrt
+in halber Genesung bedrängt, es wage, Ihnen einige _physikalische_ und
+_geognostische Erinnerungen_ ganz gehorsamst vorzulegen, von denen Einiges
+vielleicht den ausgezeichneten Gelehrten, die die Expedition zu begleiten
+das Glück haben, von Nuzen sein kann. Ich würde dies Wenige nicht
+angeboten haben, wenn eine so genädige und liebenswürdige Aufforderung Sr.
+kaiserl. Hoheit des Herrn Erzherzogs Ferdinand Maximilian mich nicht dazu
+bestimmt hätte. Was ich Nautisches über Richtung und Temperatur der
+Meeresströhmungen, über die magnetischen Curven eingeflochten habe, muß
+ich besonders _Ihrer_ Nachsicht empfehlen. Wenn man erinnert, scheint man
+belehren zu wollen, und von dieser Anmaßung bin ich weit entfernt. Da kein
+Entwurf, keine Abschrift meiner, wenigstens fleißigen, mit Zahlen
+überladenen Arbeit existirt, so wäre es vielleicht vorsichtig, sie von
+Jemand, der der behandelten Gegenstände kundig ist, abschreiben zu lassen.
+Meine gelehrten und mir lieben Freunde Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter, Dr. Karl
+Scherzer und Dr. Robert Lallemant, der mich bei seiner letzten Durchreise
+durch Berlin, um mir sein wichtiges Werk über das Gelbe Fieber in der
+Tropenzone zu geben, verfehlt hat, wage ich dringend Ihrem besonderen
+Schuze und Wohlwollen zu empfehlen.
+
+Mit der innigsten Verehrung und den heißesten Wünschen für den Erfolg
+eines so schön vorbereiteten Unternehmens
+
+                              Ew. Hochwohlgeboren
+
+                                               gehorsamster
+                                               Al. Humboldt.
+
+Berlin, den 7. April 1857 Nachts.
+
+
+
+
+                 PHYSICAL AND GEOGNOSTIC SUGGESTIONS,
+
+                                 BY
+
+                       ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT.
+
+
+In compliance with the gracious invitation which H.I.H. the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian was pleased to address to me from Trieste (December
+12th, 1856), and as yet barely recovered from an indisposition, I jot down
+these hasty notes, without presuming to give definite instructions, such
+as those I drew up, conjointly with M. Arago, for the guidance of the
+French expeditions, or for Lord Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty,
+on the occasion of the Antarctic Voyage of Discovery of Sir James Ross
+(1840-43). The following pages consist simply of hints which may possibly
+prove serviceable to the distinguished and highly informed gentlemen, who
+have the good fortune to sail on board the Imperial Frigate, _Novara_,
+under the command of Commodore von Wüllerstorf. With two of these savans,
+Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter and Dr. Karl Scherzer, I have had the pleasure,
+here in Berlin, to agree verbally on various subjects.
+
+As I do not exactly know what course it is intended the _Novara_ shall
+follow in navigating the Atlantic, nor in what meridian it is proposed to
+cross the Equator, (in conformity with the sound and useful directions of
+my friend Lieut. Maury, of Washington), on her voyage to Rio de Janeiro,
+nor how near she shall keep to Cape San Roque and Fernando de Noronha, I
+must content myself with inviting the attention of the voyagers in a
+general way to the temperature of the sea, as also to the variations and
+aberrations of the magnetic curves, and their currents.
+
+A lower degree of temperature is usually observed W. of the Canaries, and
+Cape Verde Islands, commencing with the Salvages, the thermometer
+indicating as low as 72°·7 Fahr. This has been already ascertained by Mr.
+Charles Deville, in his chart of temperature on the voyage "aux Antilles,
+à Ténériffe et à Fogo." I consider this diminution of temperature results
+from the North Guinea current, bringing with it cold water from the north
+southwards as far as the Bight of Biafra and the River Gaboon, at which
+point it is encountered by an opposite current flowing northwards along
+the south-western coast of Africa from Loando and Congo.
+
+In 1825, Captain Duperrey had accurately laid down the point of
+intersection of the magnetic, with the terrestrial equator. In 1837, we
+learned from Sabine's investigations of magnetic inclination near the
+Island of St. Thomas (on the Equator, adjoining the above portion of the
+coast of Africa), that this point of intersection had already shifted
+four degrees to the westward. A period of twenty years having elapsed
+since Sabine's expedition for determining observations with the pendulum,
+it would be most desirable that fresh investigations should be made in
+that neighbourhood, for the purpose of verifying the secular changes of
+all magnetic curves, especially with regard to their variation. In 1840,
+the line of no declination in America began 9° 30' E. of South Georgia,
+whence it ran to the S.E. coast of Brazil, near Cape Frio, thus traversing
+the mainland of South America only between the latter point and the
+parallel of 0° 36' S., when it leaves the continent a little to the east
+of Gran Parà, near Cape Tigioca, cutting the terrestrial equator again,
+but in 50° 6' W. According to Bache's Map of Equal Magnetic Declination,
+it reaches the coast of North America near Cape Fear, to the south-west of
+Cape Lookout. This line, along which the magnetic declination is _nil_,
+extends to a point in Lake Erie, 2° 40' W. of Toronto, where the
+declination is already 1° 27' W.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Wherever, in this paper, it is not precisely expressed to the
+contrary, the scale of the Centigrade Thermometer, the longitude from the
+Meridian of Paris, the French foot (_pied du roi_=12·79 inches English),
+and the geographical mile, 15 to a degree of the Equator, measuring 3807
+"toises," are meant.]
+
+It is evident from the observations of Captains Beechey and Findley, and
+still more particularly from those of the French Captain Kerhallet, that
+the remarkable subdivision of the main equinoctial current, flowing from
+east to west into two branches, one directed to the N.W., the other to the
+S.S.W., commences at a considerable distance from the Capes of St. Roque
+and St. Augustin. This bifurcation has always, and with good reason, been
+ascribed to the protruding convexity of the South American continent at
+these two promontories. It would be an important step gained in verifying
+the theory of currents, could the precise distance be ascertained by
+chronometer. It is apparently like an "_actio in distans_," probably a
+phenomenon of what is known as "packing." As the frigate, on leaving Rio
+de Janeiro is to make for the Cape of Good Hope, the opportunity will
+present, should she steer sufficiently southerly, for many interesting
+observations with respect to the _connecting current_ W.N.W. and E.S.E.
+which encounters that from Madagascar and Mozambique, close to the Cape,
+more especially with regard to the temperature of the sea.
+
+If the frigate is intended to approach the small cluster of islands of
+Fernando de Noronha, E. of Pernambuco (Lat. 3° 50' S.), I would recommend
+to that excellent geognostic, Dr. Hochstetter, the hornblendic phonolithe
+rock found there, far from a volcanic crater, but with trachytic dykes and
+basaltic amygdaloid. The flat little island of St. Paul (Peñedo de San
+Pedro), 1° N. Lat., singular to say, is not volcanic at all, containing,
+like the Malouin or Falkland Islands, slaty green-stone passing into
+serpentine.
+
+Should the frigate alter her course and cross the Equator more to the
+eastward, without touching at Rio de Janeiro, she might possibly fall in
+with the Marine Volcanic region, (Lat. 0° 20' S., Long. 22° W.), which
+has quite lately become famous again by the U. S. Expedition of the Brig
+_Dolphin_ (1854), commanded by Lieutenant Lee. On 19th May, 1806, columns
+of black smoke were seen issuing from the sea by Krusenstern, and volcanic
+ashes were gathered, after a singular bubbling of the sea from 1748 to
+1836, according to careful investigations by Daussy.
+
+As the frigate is commissioned to visit Ceylon and the Nicobar Islands,
+she cannot sail direct from the Cape to Australia; and the hope must
+therefore be abandoned of her visiting the small basaltic islands, known
+as Prince Edward's (47° 2' S., 38° E.), and Possession (46° 28' S., 47°
+30' E.), belonging to the Crozet's Group, or the two islands, long
+confounded with each other, of Amsterdam (Lat. 37° 48' S.) and St. Paul
+(Lat. 38° 38' S.) The latter island, the more southerly of the two, (a
+very characteristic drawing of which was given by Willem de Vlaming so far
+back as 1696), is supposed to be volcanic, not only by its form, which
+will at once remind the geologist of Santorin, Barren Island, and
+Deception Island, (one of the New Shetland group), but also in consequence
+of the eruption of steam, and the flames occasionally observed there.
+
+As for Amsterdam, which consists of a single densely-wooded mountain, the
+puzzle remains for solution as to how, during the expedition of
+D'Entrecasteaux in 1792, the whole island seemed, during two entire days,
+enveloped in smoke; whereas, on landing there, the naturalists of that
+expedition were satisfied that the mountain was not an active volcano,
+and that the columns of steam issued out of the ground near the shore! As
+yet, the phenomenon remains entirely unexplained.
+
+If we examine any map of the Indian Ocean, we may trace the continuation
+of the Sunda group from Sumatra, N.W., through the Nicobar, and Great and
+Little Andaman Islands, and thence through the volcanoes of Barren Island,
+Narcondam and Cheduba, nearly parallel with the coasts of Malacca and
+Tenasserim, all on the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The minor
+volcanoes just enumerated will present valuable opportunities of
+geological enquiry.
+
+Along the coasts of Orissa and Coromandel, the western portion of the Bay
+of Bengal is quite free of islands, Ceylon, like Madagascar presenting
+rather the type of a continent.
+
+Off the W. coast of the peninsula of India, (that is opposite the
+Neilgherrie hills, and the coast of Canara and Malabar), there is a series
+of three archipelagoes, extending from 14° N. to 8° S., viz., the
+Laccadives, the Maldives, and the Chagos, which appears, as it were,
+continued through the banks of Sahia di Malha, and Cargados Carajos, to
+the volcanic group of the Mascarenhas and Madagascar. As the first-named
+archipelagoes, so far as is yet known, consist solely of coral, and are,
+consequently, true "atolls," or reef-lagoons, the bottom of the ocean
+should be examined over a large extent, adopting the ingenious hypothesis
+of Darwin, that it is to be considered _as an area of subsidence_, rather
+than an elevated region.
+
+It would also be a matter of great importance to get observations
+respecting terrestrial magnetism, particularly so as to define the
+position of a given segment of the magnetic equator. Capt. Elliott, as the
+result of his comprehensive studies, (1846-49), ascertained that the
+magnetic equator passes through the north end of Borneo, and thence nearly
+due W. to the northern extremity of Ceylon. In this region the curve of
+minimum intensity is nearly parallel to the magnetic equator, which
+intersects the Continent of Africa near Cape Guardafui--according to
+Rochet d'Héricourt, in lat. 10° 7' N., long. 38° 5'. E. Between this point
+and the Bight of Biafra nothing is known.
+
+The South Asiatic islands comprise Formosa, the Philippines, the Sunda
+group, and the Moluccas. The great and little Sunda Islands and the
+Moluccas embrace 109 volcanoes, with fiery eruptions, and 10 what are
+called mud-volcanoes. This is not a mere estimate, but is the result of an
+enumeration by Junghuhn, who, within the last year (1856), has returned to
+Java, and thoroughly equipped by M. Pahud, Governor-General of the Indian
+Netherlands, will be of great assistance to the Imperial Expedition.
+
+An exact mineralogical determination of the volcanic rocks (trachytes) is
+unfortunately wanting everywhere.
+
+The most active volcano of Sumatra is the Gunung Merapi (8980 feet), which
+must not be confounded with a volcano in Java, of the same name. That of
+Sumatra was ascended by Dr. L. Horner, and Dr. Korthals in 1834. We may
+pronounce Indrapura (11,500 feet, but this measurement is very uncertain),
+and Gunung Pasoman (9010 feet), the Ophir of our maps, to be utterly
+unknown geologically. The highest of the Java volcanoes is Gunung Semeru
+(11,480 feet), ascended by Junghuhn in 1844, 1220 feet higher than the
+Etna. The largest craters of the 45 which are disposed in a line along the
+shores of Java, are Gunung Tengger, and Gunung Raou. Dr. Junghuhn has
+recently given the outlines of each separate volcano in his splendid
+topographical and geological map of Java, in four sheets, published in
+1856, which does great credit to the Dutch Government.
+
+The following subjects are worthy of special attention while the frigate
+is at Java.
+
+1. The curious phenomenon of the ribbed surface. (_Vide_ Junghuhn, Java,
+Part II., p. 608.)
+
+2. The disposition, as yet unaccounted for, of a series of
+regularly-shaped hills, formed by the mud-streams ejected in the year 1822
+by the volcano of Gunung Galungung. (_Vide ut suprà_, pp. 127-731.)
+
+3. The ejection of water by the Gunung Idjen, on 21st January, 1817, (pp.
+707, and 717-121).
+
+4. The erroneousness of the assertion that the volcanoes of the Island of
+Java do not emit streams of real lava.
+
+It must be admitted that the mighty Javanese volcano, Gunung Merapi,
+already alluded to, has not, within the historic period, presented any
+coherent compact streams of lava, but mere fragments and boulders;
+although in 1837, lines of fire were seen running uninterruptedly from
+the top down the sides of the cones in eruption. But each of the three
+volcanoes, Tengger, Idjen, and Slamat, present examples of black lava
+currents, descending as far as the tertiary strata.
+
+Streams of stone-boulders, red-hot, similar to those of the Cotopaxi, but
+scarcely touching each other, flowed from Gunung Lamorgan on 6th July,
+1838.
+
+No active volcano is known in the island of Borneo. The highest mountain
+of the whole island, perhaps of the whole insular world of Southern Asia,
+is the Hina Baïlu (12,850 feet?) on the northern point of Borneo. It is as
+yet unexplored. According to Dr. Lewis Horner, son of the astronomer of
+the Krusenstern expedition, there occur among the syenite and serpentine
+mountain range of Rathus, on the S.E. of the island, deposits yielding
+gold (which has even been worked by diggings), diamonds, platinum,
+iridium, and osmium,--presenting, in fact, a similar association to those
+of the Ural mountains. No mention is made of palladium. Rajah (now Sir
+James) Brooke describes in the province of Sarawak in Borneo, a low hill,
+Gunung Api ("hill of fire" in Malay), the slags of which attest former
+volcanic activity. A visit to Borneo would be of very great service.
+
+There are eleven volcanoes in Celebes, and six in Flores, all active.
+
+It is still uncertain whether the conical mountain Wawari, or Atiti,
+which is more generally known as the volcano of the island of Amboyna,
+ever poured out anything except hot mud (1674), or whether it should be
+merely classed as a _solfatara_. The main group of the South Asiatic
+Islands is connected through the Moluccas and the Philippines with the
+Papua and Pellew islands, and the Caroline Archipelago of the South Sea.
+
+The most important geological fact to be remarked with reference to the
+island of Formosa, abounding in mineral coals, is the break in the line of
+direction of the open vents, when, instead of N.E. to S.W., the central
+line follows the meridian line, which it pursues nearly as far as 6° S.,
+passing through Formosa and the Philippine Islands (Luzon and Mindanao),
+respecting which deviation nothing certain is known, and in which region
+every mountain of conical shape, or outline is invariably set down as a
+volcano, even though there should be no indications of a crater. The
+Sooloo Archipelago forms the connecting link between the islands of Borneo
+and Mindanao, the long, narrow island of Palawan, constituting that
+between Borneo and Mindoro.
+
+The Island of Yesso, separated from that of Niphon by the Straits of
+Sangar, or Tsugar, and from the islands of Krafto (Saghalien) and Tschoka,
+or Tarakai, by the Straits of La Pérouse, connects, through its North
+Eastern Cape, with the archipelago of the Kuriles. From Broughton's
+Southern Vulcan Bay up to its northernmost point, Yesso is traversed by an
+uninterrupted range of volcanoes--a fact the more worthy of being
+recorded, as in the expedition of La Pérouse there were found red porous
+lavas, as well as wide areas, covered with slags, in the Baie des
+Castries, in the narrow island of Krafto (Saghalien), which is, as it
+were, merely a continuation of Yesso. In our own day these regions command
+a higher interest, from a political point of view, more especially since
+Russia, dissatisfied with the situation of Okhotsk, at the sanded mouth of
+the Amoor, was anxious, after the destruction of Petropaulowski, on the
+coast of Kamtschatka, to obtain, on the S.E. coast, a harbour suitable
+for a military station.
+
+Among the three islands which form the main portion of the Japanese
+Empire, six volcanoes are known to have had eruptions in the historic
+period. The volcano, Fusi Jama, in Niphon, province of Suruga (Lat. 35°
+18' N., Long. 136° 15' E., altitude 11,675 feet), is said to have risen
+out of the plain 286 years before the Christian era. Its last eruption was
+in 1707. The volcano, Asama Jama, in the district of Saku, between the
+meridians of the two capitals, Miaco and Jeddo, was last in eruption in
+1783. On the island of Kiusiu, adjoining the peninsula of Corea, four
+volcanoes are situated, from one of which, called Wanzen, there was a most
+destructive eruption in 1793.
+
+The beautiful work of Commodore Perry, U.S.N., detailing his mission to
+Japan, on the part of the United States Government, in 1852, containing
+excellent photographs of races, as also drawings by the Berlin artist,
+Wilhelm Heine, does not, as yet, comprise the scientific results of that
+expedition.
+
+Proceeding northwards, the volcanoes are more densely crowded, and are
+found arranged in series. Of the fifty-four which I enumerated as still in
+activity among the islands of Eastern Asia, there are thirty-four on the
+Aleutian, and ten on the Kurile Islands. The Peninsula of Kamtschatka
+contains nine volcanoes, which have been in activity within the historic
+period. Lying under the 54th and 60th degrees of northern latitude, we see
+a long strip of sea-bottom between two continents undergoing a perpetual
+process of destruction and re-arrangement.
+
+The South Sea, the superficial extent of which is one-sixth greater than
+that of the entire solid crust of our planet, actually presents a smaller
+number of active volcanoes, less vents for communication between the
+centre of the earth and its atmospheric envelope, than the single Island
+of Java! Out of 40 volcanic cones, including those which are extinct, only
+26 have been seen in eruption during the historic period. They are not
+scattered at random, but, on the contrary, as was pointed out by Mr. James
+Dana, the ingenious geologist of the great United States Exploring
+Expedition, under the command of Capt. Wilkes (1838-42), they have been
+thrown up, at widely extending clefts, communicating by submarine mountain
+systems. They are arranged in groups and distinct regions, analogous to
+the mountain chains of Central Asia and Armenia (in the district of the
+Caucasus), and belong to two quite distinct systems, one running S.E. to
+N.W., the other S.S.W. to N.N.E.
+
+In the Hawaiian Archipelago (or Sandwich Island group), we find Mauna Loa,
+according to Wilkes, 12,900 feet in height, which does not present any
+cone of volcanic scoriæ (resembling, in this particular, the volcanoes of
+the Eifel), but has emitted streams of lava. The lava basin of Killauea,
+13,000 feet in its greatest, by 4800 in its smallest diameter, is not a
+_solfatara_, but a true lateral vent on the flank of the powerful Mauna
+Loa itself, exactly resembling the less elevated sheet of lava of Arak.
+Mauna Kea is 180 feet higher than Mauna Loa, but is extinct. Tafoa and
+Amangura, in the Tonga group, are still in eruption, the last discharge of
+lava having occurred in July, 1847. The volcano of Tanna was in full
+eruption during Capt. Cook's Voyage of Discovery in 1774, as was also the
+volcano of Ambrym, west of Malicollo in the archipelago of the New
+Hebrides. At the south point of New Caledonia, lies Matthew's Rock, a
+small smoking rocky island. The volcano of Santa Cruz, N.N.W. of Tina
+Kora, with periodical eruptions occasionally occurring at intervals of 10
+minutes, had been already noticed as a volcano by Mendana, so far back as
+1595. In the Salomon Archipelago, there is found the volcano of Sesarga,
+while others are said to be in full activity in the Marianas or Ladrones,
+just like those of Guguan, Pagon, and El Volcan Grande de Asuncion, which
+appear to have broken forth along a line that follows the meridian. In New
+Britannia, three conical mountains were observed vomiting streams of lava,
+by Tasman, Carteret, and Labillardière. There are two volcanoes in full
+activity on the north-east coast of New Guinea, opposite Admiralty
+Islands, which themselves are so rich in obsidian. In New Zealand,
+numerous regions abound in basaltic and trachytic rocks. Of active
+volcanoes there are Puhia-i-Wakati (the volcano of White Island), and the
+lofty cone of Tongariro (5816 feet). To the absence of centres of volcanic
+agency in New Caledonia, where sedimentary formations and seams of coal
+have recently been discovered, is ascribed the vast development of coral
+reefs. Dana was the first to ascend the Peak of Tafua, in the Island of
+Upolu, one of the Samoa group, not to be confounded with the still active
+volcano of Tafoa, south of Amangura, in the Tonga Archipelago. Dana found
+in it a crater overgrown with thick forest. So, too, on the isolated Vaihu
+or Easter Island group, there is found a range of conical mountains with
+craters, but inactive.
+
+Of the volcanic groups of the South Sea, the most violent is the farthest
+east, adjoining the shores of the New World, viz., the archipelago of the
+Gallipagos, which consists of five considerable islands, very admirably
+described by Darwin. There are streams of lava down to the very shore of
+the sea, but no pumice. Some of the trachytic lavas are said to abound
+with crystals of albite. It is important to examine whether or not this
+is oligoclase, as on Teneriffe, Popocatepetl, and Chimborazo; or
+labradorite, as on Etna and Stromboli. Palagonite, exactly similar to that
+of Iceland or in Italy, was discovered by Bunsen in the specimens of tufa
+from Chatham Island, one of the Gallipagos.
+
+New Holland does not show any signs of recent volcanic activity, except at
+its most southern point (Australia Felix), at the foot of the Grampian
+Mountains. N.W. from Port Philip, as also towards the Murray River, there
+are numbers of volcanic cones and sheets or flows of lava.
+
+It would be of great interest and utility to observe the relative
+inclinations of the Magnetic and the Geographical Equators, by means of
+the dip of the magnetic needle, though this will be rendered more
+difficult, from the fact of the ship's course being easterly, that is,
+contrary, to the Equinoctial current. As regards the low temperature of
+the current, which I discovered in 1802, running up from 40° S. to the
+Gallipagos along the coast of South America, and then turning westward, it
+would be highly important to investigate whether in the eastern part of
+the South Sea in 7° N. and between 117° and 140° W., there really exists
+in every season a _counter current_ from west to east. But I need not
+enlarge upon this topic to such attentive navigators.
+
+The line of no inclination was crossed six times by Duperrey between 1822
+and 1825. When I first discovered, near Truxillo, the low temperature of
+the cold Peruvian current, it was 12°·8 Réaumur (60°·8 Fahr.). The
+temperature observed in the course of twenty years by Mr. Dirckinck von
+Holmfeld, in the neighbourhood of Callao, expressed in degrees of Réaumur,
+were as follows:--
+
+ September  1802     12°·8  (Fahr. 60°·8)  }  Thermometer in the air.
+ November    "       12°·4  (  "   59°·9)  }  13°·3 Réaumur.
+ December,  end of   16°·8  (  "   69°·8)  }  (61°·92 Fahr.)
+ January    1825     12°·7  (  "   60°·57)
+ February    "       15°·3  (  "   66°·42)
+ March       "       15°·7  (  "   67°·32)
+ April       "       14°·5  (  "   64°·62)
+
+The temperature of the sea I found to be 22° Réaumur (81°·5 Fah.) north of
+Cape Blanco, when on my way from Callao de Lima, at which point the cold
+current diverged towards the Gallipagos.
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to
+74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to
+9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).
+
+In sailing from the Sandwich Islands to the west coast of America, the
+Imperial Expedition will have to choose between the Ports of San Francisco
+or Acapulco. The first choice would be of great mineralogical advantage
+for those regions of the United States, lying North of the river Gila.[3]
+Parallel with the chain of the Rocky Mountains, which, according to
+Marcou, contains up to the present day several volcanoes in full activity
+in its northern part (Lat. 46° 12' N.), run single, and at certain points
+double ranges of coast chains from San Diego to Monterey, from 32° 15' N.
+to 46° 45' N. They begin with the coast range specially so-called, which
+is a continuation of the high ridge of the Peninsula of Lower or Old
+California; after which, farther to the North, there follow in succession,
+first the Sierra Nevada di Alta California, between 36° and 38° N. the
+lofty Shasty mountains, and the Cascade Range, nearly twenty six miles
+distant from the littoral, including many high and active volcanoes, and
+extending far beyond Fuca Straits. The following are still in
+eruption:--Mount St. Elias (46° 2' N.); Mount Regnier, or Rainier, (46°
+46'); and Mount Baker, (48° 48'.) These three active cones would be most
+conveniently visited by the geologist of the expedition from San
+Francisco, as would likewise the whole Cascade Range. We have as yet no
+certain intelligence as to the geology of the entire longitudinal
+auriferous valley of the Sacramento River, (where a trachytic crater, in
+a state of disintegration, is known as the Butt of Sacramento). Does the
+auriferous quartz occur in veins, and are these still _in situ_, or are
+they broken up? What description of rock is traversed by these veins? Does
+the wash-gold here contain occasionally, as in the Ural Mountains,
+fragments of vein-stones with isolated cavities, in which are found
+impressions of leaves and membranes, clearly proving that they have not
+been rolled, or transported by water, any great distance to the spot they
+now occupy? Have these been found, alongside of gold, diamonds, platinum,
+osmium, iridium, or mercury?
+
+[Footnote 3: The Gila falls into the Colorado about forty miles above the
+embouchure of the latter into the head of the Gulf of California.]
+
+Should the frigate steer for Acapulco, it may be assumed that there exists
+an intention to cross the Continent to Mexico and Vera Cruz, from the
+volcano of Colima (1877 toises) as it were, along the parallel of the
+range of volcanoes, and greatest heights rising in detached groups between
+the two seas, about the parallel of 19° N. New astronomical observations
+are greatly needed for determining the position of the volcanoes of Colima
+and Jorullo (667 toises). The volcano of Colima, with its twin peaks _de
+fuego_ and _de nieve_, should be carefully examined, as also the volcano
+of Jorullo, with the fragments of granite enclosed in its lava; the Nevado
+de Toluca (2372 toises), Popocatepetl (2772 toises), Itztaccihuatl (2456
+toises), Cofre de Perote (2098 toises), and the volcano of Tuxtla (18° 28'
+N.), on the eastern slope of the Sierra St. Martin, from which a column of
+flame shot up with great violence on 2nd March, 1793, a fair specimen of
+what the Spaniards term _Malpays_, the Sicilians _Sciarra viva_. The face
+of the country is covered over with boulders of lava, at San Nicolas de
+los Ranchos, at the foot of Popocatepetl, adjoining the city of Puebla de
+los Angeles, after which, on the road from Puebla to Vera Cruz, will be
+observed two narrow strips of boulders of cooled basaltic lava, rich in
+olivine. Similar examples will be found at Parage de Carros, near
+Tochtilacuaja and Loma de Tablas, between Cancas and the Casas de la Hoja.
+The mere ascension of volcanic cones is geologically of far less
+importance, than the bringing away numerous specimens, carefully selected,
+of various trachytic rocks, which, by their oryctognostical composition,
+are characteristic of each volcano. I would nevertheless recommend that
+the Pico del Fraile of the Toluca volcano (2372 toises) should be
+ascended, proper caution being used. From this very sharp peak, I brought
+away thin plates of trachyte perforated by lightning, and within the holes
+of a melted glassy surface, resembling those brought from Little Ararat.
+Both for the miner and geologist, an interesting and useful visit might be
+paid to the rich mines of Guanaxuato and the Mines de la Biscaina and
+Regla, on the road from Mexico to Real del Monte, so as to observe the
+close connection subsisting between the richer silver ores, occurring in
+trachytic porphyry without quartz, but with felspar, (glassy felspar?),
+and the thoroughly volcanic Cerro del Jakal, abounding in obsidian, and
+the Cerro de las Navajas (Razor Range), which remind one of the environs
+of Schemnitz, with the sole exception, that the trachytes "_porphyres
+meulières_" of Beudant, are wanting here.
+
+As it is highly desirable that considerable time should be devoted to the
+volcanoes of Quito, Peru, and Chili, it appears uncertain whether the
+course of the frigate, on leaving Acalpulco, will be shaped direct for
+Guayaquil, thus reversing the route taken by myself, or whether she will
+not touch at some of the central American ports--Realejo or Sonsonate. The
+crowded series of volcanoes in Central America, of which no less than
+eighteen, conical or dome-shaped, may be considered as still in active
+eruption, would yield a rich harvest of facts of all kinds in elucidation
+of the theory of volcanic action, such as have never hitherto been
+sufficiently taken advantage of. We are still in need of the mineralogical
+determination of the rocks, while the form and situation of the mountain
+masses have been well described by Squier, Oersted, and other modern
+travellers. The greater number, indeed, of the eruptions of scoriæ and
+slag were unaccompanied by streams of lava, as, for example, those of
+Mount Isalco, abounding in ammonia. But recently eye-witnesses have
+furnished us with quite different accounts regarding these eruptions, in
+the case of several volcanoes--as the Nindiri (a twin volcano with that
+called Massaya), on which Dr. Scherzer has lately shed much light; the
+Volcano el Nuevo, erroneously called Volcano de las Pilas, that of
+Coseguina, situated on the Great Bay of Fonseca, and that of San Miguel de
+Bosotlan, from which there flowed an extensive stream of lava in July
+1844. It would be most tempting to pass by land from Mexico southwards to
+Oaxaca, and thence to the Isthmus of Guasacualco or Tehuantepec, and
+Chiapas, so as to rejoin the frigate at Realejo or Sonsonate. Facts might
+be obtained, in such a journey, of great value in determining the
+dependence of geological phenomena on each other; but it is to be feared
+it would be attended with too much fatigue and loss of time. For similar
+reasons, it cannot be proposed that the scientific gentlemen attached to
+the Expedition, should leave the frigate for three or four months, when
+they reach Central America, in order to cross by rail the Isthmus of
+Panama, with the object of examining the Volcancitos of Turbaco and Gabra
+Zamba, both active, and thence ascend the Rio Magdalena from Carthagena de
+las Indias, as far as Honda, whence they could proceed by Bogotà and
+Popayan to Quitó.
+
+It will be also unavoidable to forego the examination of the sedimentary
+rocks, rich in fossils, between Honda, Bogotà and Ibagues, the Mastodon
+fields (_Campos del Gigante_), and the Salto de Tegumidama on the plateau
+of Bogotà, the wax palm (_Ceroxylon Andicola_), and the Azufrales of the
+Passo de Quindiu, the volcanoes of Tolima, measured by myself and ascended
+by Boussingault, and of Paramo de Ruiz (4° 15' N.), as also the two
+volcanoes of Popayan, the Puracé and the much more interesting but now
+extinct Sotará. As a middle course, I may suggest a disembarkation, not
+exactly at Guayaquil, but on the gold and platinum coast of the Choco,
+near San Buenaventura, so as to proceed thence to Popayan, and afterwards
+return to the volcanoes of the province of Pasto, which are highly
+important, and so on to Quitó, by way of Guachucal, Tulcan, and Villa de
+Ibarra, rejoining the frigate only at Guayaquil.
+
+I believe, however, it would be more advisable to select Quitó as the
+starting-point, whence to examine the important elevated volcanic region
+De los Pastos (between 2° 20' and 0° 56' N.), containing the volcano of
+the town of Pasto, the volcanoes of Tuguerres, Chiles and Cumbal, and the
+Azufral de Pasto, and not to land at any port of the Choco coast, not even
+from the Bahia de Cupica, which for half a century I have recommended in
+vain on account of its vicinity to the Rio Naipi, one of the tributaries
+of the Atrato. In drawing up a list of names of the volcanoes of the
+renowned lofty plateau of Quitó, I may include, Imbaburu, Cotocachi, Rucu,
+Pichincha, Antisana, the much-disputed question of the stony walls like
+streams of lava, on the east slope of Tana Volcan, and Reventazon de
+Ansango; Cotopaxi, with its strange inexplicable quarries of pumice, of
+Guapecho and Zumbalica, in the neighbourhood of Llactacunga and San
+Felipe, the pumice containing oligoclase, not glassy felspar, deposited in
+strata, like any rock _in situ_ for a considerable distance on all sides
+of Cotopaxi; Tunguragua (mica slate), studded with garnets, and beds of
+granite, which dip under the former, and have themselves been pierced by
+the trachytes of Tungurahua at Rio Puela and the Hacienda de Ganace; the
+hills of Moya, near the village of Pelilco, cast up in the celebrated
+earthquake of 7th February, 1797, and still in a state of activity; the
+Chimborazo, which M. Jules Rémy, accompanied by an Englishman named
+Princkley, was in the belief they had ascended, on the 3rd of November,
+1856, to the very summit, "_mais sans s'en douter_." Poggendorff, (Vol. X.
+p. 480), has clearly demonstrated that the boiling point given by Rémy for
+the summit, would not give 6544 mètres (little different from my own
+trigonometrical admeasurement of 6530 mètres), but fully 7328 mètres. As I
+distrust my own half-barometical measurements, I have vainly implored
+travellers, these fifty years past, to have a new series of
+trigonometrical observations made of the summit of Chimborazo. The merit,
+then, of settling this moot point, it also remains for the members of the
+_Novara_ Expedition to obtain.
+
+It would be important to examine the Sangay (16,068 feet)--which, like
+Stromboli, is in constant activity, yet without any traces of
+lava-streams--on account of the grains of quartz discovered by Wisse in
+the trachytic boulders ejected by the volcano, which is of such rare
+occurrence in the trachytes out of Hungary; and also on account of the
+close vicinity of beds of granite and gneiss, which are broken through by
+the Sangay trachyte, forming an island, as it were, of not hardly two
+miles in breadth. Still more deserving of attention is the extinct volcano
+El Altar de los Collanes (Capac Urcù) a sketch of which I presented in
+the atlas published in my "Kleine Schriften" (Plate V. p. 461), formerly
+higher than Chimborazo, and still (?) 16,380 feet. Not a single specimen
+of its trachyte has ever been deposited in a European museum. The Altar
+itself is readily accessible from Riobamba Nuevo. In its vicinity may also
+be seen mica slate and gneiss, cropping out at the Paramo del Hatillo near
+Guamote, and Teocaxas, which are so seldom fallen in with in the highlands
+of Quitó. Tradition relates that gold-mines were worked here during the
+days of the Incas, in the neighbourhood of volcanic trachytes. From the
+Altar the geologist might proceed, by way of San Luis, (Query, whether the
+primitive clay-slate found here be of the Silurian formation?) and
+Guamote, to Paramo del Assuay (2428 toises), and Cuenca, as far as Atausca
+(2° 13' S.), where an immense mass of sulphur, lying in a quartz seam is
+worked, forming a bed in the mica slate. Of what rock does the easily
+accessible Cayambe Urcù (18,170 feet) consist, crossing the Equator, S.E.
+of Otavalo? _En route_ from Quitó to Cayambe, the rich deposits of
+obsidian near Quinche should also be inspected, which furnished the large
+mirrors to the Incas, and farther to the north of which are the volcanoes
+of Los Pastos, which form a separate system by themselves.
+
+For examining the rocks and exploring the volcanoes of Southern Peru and
+Bolivia--respecting which see the last edition of Pentland's Maps, not
+those published between 1830 and 1848, in which the height of Sorata was
+indicated at 3949 toises (25,257 feet), and Illimani at 3753 toises
+(24,004), and accordingly both as much more lofty than Chimborazo, which
+is 3350 toises (21,426 feet)--the best starting-point would be the port of
+Arica, which may be reached, sailing the whole distance against the cold
+current, from Guayaquil, after a short stay at Callao de Lima. Of the
+volcanoes of Peru and Bolivia only three are now active.
+
+(_a._) The volcano of Arequipa, three miles N.E. of the town of the same
+name, which, according to Pentland and Rivero, is situated about 7366 feet
+above the level of the sea. The measurements of M. Dolley, of the French
+navy, which were published under my superintendence, give the summit of
+the volcano as 10,348 feet above the town of Arequipa, so that its total
+elevation above the sea would be 17,714 feet. In the table of heights for
+Mrs. Somerville's "Physical Geography," Mr. Pentland speaks of the summit
+as being 20,320 English feet in height, or 19,065 Paris feet, closely
+approximating to the old trigonometrical measurement (19,080 feet) given
+by Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian, who accompanied the expedition of
+Malaspina, in 1769. What a deplorable state for the science of hypsometry
+to be in! which the _Novara_ ought to put an end to. Samuel Anzon, a North
+American, in 1811, and Dr. Weddell, in 1847, have ascended the volcano of
+Arequipa.
+
+(_b._) Sahama (18° 7' S.), according to Pentland's new map of 1848, is 871
+feet higher than Chimborazo (which he gives as 20,970 feet), and is still
+active. The true heights of Illimani and Sorata, ascertained since 1848,
+are, instead of 3949 and 3753 respectively, only 3329 toises (21,266
+English feet), and 3307 toises (21,145 English feet).
+
+(_c._) Volcano Gualatieri, in the Bolivian province of Carangas (18° 25'
+S.), height 20,604 feet.
+
+The southern group of South American volcanoes, that, of Chili, presents
+the largest number of active fire-mountains--only second, indeed, to that
+of Central America, there being from eleven to thirteen. In order to
+increase the geological exploration of this region which has been so well
+prepared by the memorable expedition under Captain Fitzroy, in the ships
+_Adventure_ and _Beagle_, the excellent generalizing theories of Mr.
+Darwin, and the naval astronomical expedition of Mr. Gilliss, for 1849-51,
+the _Novara_ will probably land at Valparaiso. A great desideratum between
+Coquimbo and Valparaiso is an exact measurement of--
+
+_A_. The volcano of Aconcagua (32° 39' S.). Its height has been stated, in
+1835, by Captain Fitzroy, as 21,767 feet, Pentland's correction assigning
+22,431 feet; while Captain Kellet, of the frigate _Herald_, gives it as
+21,584 feet. Miers and Darwin are both of opinion that the Aconcagua is
+still in activity, which is denied by Pentland and Gilliss. The most
+recent measurement of Aconcagua--that by Pissis in 1854 (see Gilliss, Vol.
+I. p. 63)--makes the height 20,924 feet. M. Pissis has published, in the
+"Anales de la Universidad de Chili," for 1852, the geodetical elements of
+his survey, which is based upon eight triangles. Aconcagua being probably
+the highest mountain in the New World, a new measurement is eminently
+desirable. Neither Dhawalagiri, with his 4930 toises, nor Kintsinjunga,
+measured by Colonel Waugh, with his 4406 toises, are any longer considered
+the highest mountains in the Himalaya range, but the Deodunga (Mount
+Everest), which is 29,003 English feet, equal to 27,212 Paris feet, or
+4535 toises.
+
+_B._ The volcano Maipu (34° 17' S., height 16,572 feet), ascended by
+Meyen. The trachytic rock on the summit has broken through the Jurassic
+strata, in which Leopold von Buch has ascertained, from heights of 9000
+feet, the existence of _Exogyra couloni_, _Trigonia costata_, and
+_Ammonites biplex_. This volcano has no streams of lava, but only
+eruptions of volcanic slags. It would be most desirable that Dr.
+Hochstetter should examine this remarkable protrusion of dislocated
+strata.
+
+_C._ The volcano Antuco (37° 7' S.), the geology of which was described by
+Pöppig, is a lofty basaltic crater, having a trachytic cone rising up in
+its centre to an elevation of 8672 feet. It was observed in full activity
+by Domeyko in 1845. Gilliss gives an account of an eruption in 1853.
+According to Domeyko, a fresh-burning cone was thrown up on the 25th of
+November, 1847, which remained in activity for a whole year. Molina
+considers the Nevada Descabezado (35° 1' S.), ascended by Domeyko, to be
+the highest mountain in Chili; but its height is estimated by Gilliss at
+only 12,300 feet. The most southerly volcanoes are the still active
+Corcovado (43° 12' S.), 7046 feet; Yanteles (43° 29' S.), 7534 feet; and
+the Volcan de San Clemente, opposite the granite formation on the
+peninsula of Tres Montes. Still further south, in 51° 41' S., another, the
+Volcan de los Gigantes, is laid down on the old maps of South America, by
+La Cruz Olmedella, as opposite the archipelago of La Madre de Dios.
+
+Should the _Novara_ return to Europe through the Straits of Maghellanes,
+it would be very desirable the members of the Expedition should visit the
+locality from which Prince Paul of Würtemberg, after long zoological
+travels through North America, has, within the last year, brought back to
+Germany a very large collection of specimens.
+
+Altogether, I calculate the number of active volcanoes on the surface of
+the earth to be upwards of 225--one-third of which, or 75, are upon the
+various continents, and the remainder upon the insular world. The Western
+Continent has 53 active volcanoes--of which, North-Western America, north
+of the river Gila, has 5; Mexico, 4; Central America, 18; South America
+about 26. Viewing the globe as a whole, there presents itself an extensive
+oblique region in which volcanoes most abound, stretching from S.E. to
+N.W. in the more westerly part of the Pacific, between 75° W. and 125° E.
+of Paris, and between 47° S. and 66° N. In this region, the fused elements
+of the interior of our earth may be said to be most permanently in
+communication with the atmosphere.
+
+The greatest attention should be paid, with the view of improving them,
+to the sections and maps of Chili, contained in the work, "Buenos Ayres
+and the Provinces of Rio de la Plata," published in 1852 by Sir Woodbine
+Parish, and still more so, to that entitled "Map of the Republic of Chili,
+compiled from the Surveys of Gilliss, Pissis, Allen, Campbell, and Claude
+Gay, between 23° and 44° S., as contained in Gilliss' 'United States
+Astronomical Expedition, 1847-52 Washington, 1855.'"
+
+The chief object to be aimed at by the _Novara_, with respect to
+scientific enquiry, seems to me to be the formation of a collection in the
+Geological Institute of Vienna, in comparison to which all the collections
+which at present aspire to be considered rich in volcanic specimens, (such
+as those of Berlin, Paris and London), should appear to be insignificant.
+In all periods of history, travellers are only the representatives of the
+state of knowledge of their own time, and consequently, collections always
+present the readiest means of promulgating new discoveries by
+oryctognostical examination or chemical analysis. In order to set on foot
+a grand Volcanic Museum, it would be necessary to bring home from every
+one of the volcanoes visited, not less than 10 or 12, but still better 15
+or 18, specimens of the porphyritic trachytes, all carefully selected,
+well-shaped, containing crystals not disintegrated, and of sufficient size
+to admit of a fresh fracture being made. For such quantities, however,
+there cannot be provided on board ship, even with the kindest patronage of
+the commanding officer, sufficient space for the accumulations of two
+years' arduous efforts in forming a collection. The greatest part,
+therefore, should be sent by other conveyance to Trieste, the most secure
+channel being through the consuls of the Austrian Empire, or those of
+allied powers, or through the medium of British, Dutch or American
+mercantile establishments, or by the regular packets.
+
+Duplicates, say four or five specimens, from each volcano, should be taken
+on board the _Novara_ in boxes of about 3 feet long. It would be too
+disheartening to have any misgivings of the success of this glorious
+scheme for getting together a Museum of Volcanic Rocks in Vienna, of all
+the regions of the globe, arranged upon a regular geographical system,
+each labelled with its own name, so as to promote a general acquaintance
+with these branches of knowledge:
+
+   1. Europe.
+
+   2. Atlantic Islands.
+
+   3. Continent of Asia, South Coast of Arabia (Aden), Kamtschatka.
+
+   4. Islands of Eastern Asia and India.
+
+   5. The Indian Ocean.
+
+   6. The Pacific.
+
+   7. Continent of South America: Chili, Peru, Bolivia, Quitó and
+      New Grenada.
+
+   8. Central America.
+
+   9. Mexico, south of the river Gila.
+
+   10. North-Western America, north of the river Gila.
+
+   11. West Indies.
+
+Much of this work might be done on board the _Novara_. As to Nos. 3 and 4,
+Kamtschatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, the Red Sea, and the West
+Indies, it will not be difficult to procure specimens at some future
+period.
+
+Our piping times of peace are favourable to the execution of this project,
+which should be zealously kept in view throughout the Expedition.
+Travelling as I was, during the great wars, I did not dare shrink from the
+difficulty of having to carry along with me 44 large boxes, as I did on
+the road through Mexico from Acapulco to Vera Cruz, whence they were sent
+to Cuba, Philadelphia, and so to Bordeaux. The mechanical labour of having
+the collections carefully packed, keeping duplicates distinct, and sending
+away geological, botanical, zoological and ethnographical collections, is
+itself quite as important as the purely scientific work.
+
+The exhibition of comprehensive volcanic collections brings to light the
+strong analogy subsisting between the trachytes belonging to volcanoes,
+far distant from one another, while it indicates the existence of great
+differences in the mineralogical composition of volcanoes situated very
+near each other. My most excellent friend and fellow-traveller in Siberia,
+Professor Gustavus Rose, recently subjected the trachytes of the Berlin
+Museum, the greater number of which were collected by myself, to careful
+crystallographical and chemical investigation. He found oligoclase and
+pyroxene on the trachytes of Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Colima,
+Tunguragua, Puracé, Paramo de Ruiz, and the Peak of Teneriffe, which has
+recently been accurately examined by Mr. Charles Deville. The trachytes of
+Toluca, Orizaba, Gunung Barang, and Burung Agung, on the Island of Java,
+Argæus, in Asia Minor, Cuneguilla, south of Sta. Fé de Nuevo-Mexico, the
+Sièrra de San Francisco, west of the Rocky Mountains and Pueblo Zuni,
+consist of hornblende, oligoclase, and brown mica. The trachytes of
+Stromboli and Etna, those of the Siebengebirge (Drachenfels), and of Kara
+Hissar in Phrygia, consist of large crystals of glassy felspar, with
+numerous smaller crystals of oligoclase, some hornblende and mica.
+Oligoclase, having been mistaken for albite, led to the fantastic idea of
+a peculiar rock, the _Andesite_, prevailing in the Andes, and even led our
+great master, Leopold von Buch, to make some curious distinctions,
+(Déscription des Iles Canaries, 1836, pp. 186-87.)
+
+To ascertain the average height above the level of the sea, I propose that
+furrows should be cut in the rocks of the different regions along with
+inscriptions, which might carry information to unborn ages, as has been
+done, on my suggestion, now some 25 years ago, by the Academy of Science
+at St. Petersburg, on the Caspian Sea, while Sir James Ross, in his
+"Voyage of Discovery in the Southern and Antarctic Regions," 1839-43, Vol.
+II. p. 23, regrets not having done so, or, at least, of having only once
+adopted this plan.
+
+I would also, with all deference, suggest observations regarding the daily
+atmospheric variations or tides, so as to obtain tables of _maxima_ and
+_minima_. In order to obtain these, whenever the frigate is at anchor near
+any coast, but particularly within the tropics, hourly observations with
+the barometer and thermometer (the latter affixed to the barometer, and
+also freely suspended in the open air), should be made through several
+consecutive days and nights. During the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis
+(or Australis), attention should be paid to the perturbations of the
+magnetic variation, and the magnetic intensity of the horizontal needle.
+Boreal Auroras have been seen in the southern latitudes of the Peruvian
+Pacific, as low down as 12° 13' S.; but the occurrence of such phenomena
+there is of much less frequent occurrence than that of Austral Auroras in
+Scotland. It is important to keep an exact register of the intensity of
+blackness in the "coalbags," when the smallest stars surrounding them are
+still visible to the naked eye. The daily meteorological observations, as
+also those on the temperature of the sea, will probably be made on board
+ship, in conformity with the views of Lieutenant Maury, and the method
+agreed upon at the last nautical congress.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As I shall have long ceased to be numbered with the living, when the
+_Novara_ returns to Trieste, richly freighted with scientific treasures of
+all kinds, with fresh information relating to organic and inorganic
+nature, to the races of man, their habits and languages, I now pray to
+Almighty God that His blessing may rest upon this great and noble
+enterprise, to the honour of our common German Fatherland! And
+concluding, in this night, these oblique, illegible lines, I remember, not
+without emotion, and with very mingled feelings, that joyous period of my
+life when, fifty-eight years ago, in the beautiful gardens of Schönbrunn,
+preparing myself for a long journey, I was enjoying with grateful mind the
+friendly kindness of the venerable Jacquin and Peter Frank.
+
+                                                     A. v. HUMBOLDT.
+
+ Berlin, in the night of 7th April, 1857.
+
+[Illustration: DEPARTURE.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+                     Preparations for the Voyage.
+
+   Approbation of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+     Voyage round the World.--Object of the Expedition.--
+     Appointment of a Scientific Commission.--Preparations.--
+     Fitting out the Frigate _Novara_ at Pola.--Departure for
+     Trieste.--Visit of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian on board.
+
+
+In the autumn of 1856, His Majesty the Emperor was graciously pleased to
+approve of the proposal for a voyage round the world, as projected by his
+Imperial Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the head of the
+Austrian navy, and to commission the sailing frigate _Novara_ for that
+purpose, a vessel qualified to meet every requisite condition.
+
+The chief object of the Expedition--a circumstance which must not be lost
+sight of--was to afford the officers and cadets of the ship an opportunity
+of acquiring that practical acquaintance with naval affairs which, added
+to the theoretical knowledge previously attained, would render them
+thoroughly familiar with nautical routine, and thus materially contribute
+to the further development of the Austrian navy.
+
+This branch of the public service, placed since 1848 on an entirely new
+basis, has with difficulty worked its way through all those embarrassing
+circumstances inseparable from the organization of a new system; but the
+honest zeal and energy of the board appointed, supported by favour from
+the highest quarters, have succeeded in introducing many improvements, and
+in increasing by degrees the numerical strength of the men, thereby laying
+a secure foundation for the rising naval force, the importance of which,
+at this moment, every reflecting patriot will acknowledge.
+
+The intended Expedition offered, besides the advantages for the service,
+another not less important for the State, namely, the recognition of the
+Austrian flag in remote quarters of the globe, to which it had never
+hitherto penetrated; and by thus opening new channels for the outlet of
+our natural products and manufactured goods, to promote the industrial,
+commercial, and maritime interests of the empire.
+
+In order to satisfy the scientific requirements of the age, the
+illustrious head of the navy issued orders, that the officers on board
+should in every way assist in the researches to be made, connected with
+navigation and geography; and was, moreover, pleased to invite the
+Imperial Academy of Sciences to nominate two members, he himself naming a
+third, to accompany the Expedition for the purpose of observing and
+investigating phenomena pertaining to the different branches of physical
+science, as well as collecting rare specimens and interesting objects of
+natural history. To this commission were ultimately attached a botanist, a
+practical zoologist, an artist, and a flower-gardener.
+
+The Academy had, for the guidance of these gentlemen, drawn up
+instructions which, with a multitude of other papers containing useful
+hints and interesting queries, received from the Imp. Geographical,
+Geological, and Medical Societies, as well as from numerous foreign and
+native scientific men, formed a most valuable collection of materials for
+the purposes of the Expedition.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Of these instructions, "The physical and geognostical
+remarks," with which the Nestor of natural science honoured the voyagers
+of the _Novara_, being of a more general interest, are published at the
+end of this volume, together with the facsimile of an autograph letter of
+Baron von Humboldt to the commander of the Expedition.]
+
+Foremost amongst these _savans_ stood Alexander von Humboldt, that
+illustrious man, who up to the last moment of his existence was alive with
+youthful enthusiasm for every scientific enterprise. In England great
+interest in the success of the Expedition was evinced by Sir Roderic
+Murchison, Sir W. Hooker, Sir Charles Lyell, General Sabine, Admiral
+Smyth, Admiral Fitzroy, Professor Robert Owen, Professor Philips,
+Professor Bell, Professor W. A. Ramsay, Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh,
+W. J. Hamilton, Esq., Charles Darwin, Esq., L. Horner, Esq., James Yates,
+Esq., B. Davis, Esq., &c., &c. From the United States of North America, we
+received most valuable communications from Commander M. F. Maury, National
+Observatory, Washington, D. C.--Captain Rodgers, and others.
+
+Letters of introduction were received from Germany, and particularly from
+England, to influential parties and societies in a variety of places
+abroad, amongst which were many warm and friendly recommendations from the
+English Government and Admiralty, as well as the Directors of the then
+East India Company, to various administrative authorities in the British
+Colonies.
+
+[Illustration: GUN-ROOM OF THE _NOVARA_.]
+
+The frigate _Novara_ was laid up in the arsenal of Pola, where all
+requisite steps were taken to complete her outfit, and prepare her
+thoroughly for the voyage. The ventilation of the lower deck was improved,
+and the number of cabins increased in proportion to the number of
+individuals for whom accommodation was to be provided.
+
+The gun-room was, by command of the Archduke, converted into a
+reading-room, and provided with a well-selected library as well as with
+all the charts and maps necessary for the information of the officers, who
+here made their calculations and executed their drawings.
+
+The store-rooms for the sails and tackle were enlarged, so as to hold a
+double quantity.
+
+A distilling apparatus, the same as patented by M. Rocher, of Nantes, was
+fixed on the gun-deck, and being placed in connection with the ship's
+coppers, it was found that, during the few hours each day that the latter
+were used for cooking, enough sea-water was distilled to supply the entire
+ship's company with excellent water to drink. This distilled water, after
+having been kept in iron tanks for a month, was found pleasant to the
+taste, and agreed very well with the health. The excellent health enjoyed
+by all the crew throughout the voyage must, in a great measure, be
+ascribed to the circumstance, that scarcely any other but this distilled
+sea-water was used, so that the men were enabled entirely to forego
+drinking river or spring-water, which in the tropics are frequently found
+injurious.
+
+The use of such an apparatus permits a great diminution in the store of
+water usually carried by a vessel. The space gained by this diminished
+bulk of water, enabled us to take on board a larger cargo of coal and
+provisions, such as preserved beef and compressed vegetables. The sailors
+were not, however, particularly fond of the preserved beef, because in
+cooking it loses a great part of its flavour (though the broth is strong
+and good); nor does it seem as an article of diet to have had a
+particularly beneficial influence on the health, for the sanitary
+condition of the crew was equally satisfactory, and the number of
+scorbutic patients not materially increased when, towards the end of the
+voyage, the fresh stores were exhausted, and only salt and pickled rations
+were issued.
+
+Compressed dried vegetables were of great benefit to the health of our
+men, and cannot be sufficiently recommended. The so-called _melange
+d'équipage_ of Chollet, as well as _sauer kraut_, potatoes, and other
+vegetables, have an excellent taste, improve the soups when mixed with
+them, and are easily preserved, provided they be protected from the effect
+of damp. Hence it might be advisable to keep them enclosed in
+well-soldered tin boxes. The price of these vegetables is so moderate,
+that it is surprising they are not more generally employed.
+
+The long-continued satisfactory state of health of the crew must also
+partly be sought for in the constant use of shower-baths. For this
+purpose, apertures, three-quarters of an inch in diameter, were bored in
+the planks of both the deck and forecastle, under which a perforated disc
+could be screwed, and above which a pail of water was placed. By these
+simple means every one was enabled to enjoy the luxury of a bath; when,
+however, the desire for that refreshment became general, so that the
+arrangement above-mentioned was insufficient, a hand fire-engine was made
+use of, so as to accommodate as many at once as might present
+themselves--a process which found great favour with the jolly tars, as
+affording abundant opportunities for fun and merriment.
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE "NOVARA."]
+
+The frigate _Novara_ had been placed on the stocks in the arsenal of
+Venice in the month of February, 1845, and was launched in April, 1850.
+She was pierced for 42 guns, but during the voyage carried only thirty
+30-pounders,[5] and four of smaller calibre.
+
+[Footnote 5: The 30-pounder marine guns answer very nearly to the English
+32-pounders.]
+
+The principal dimensions of the frigate (Vienna measurement) are:--
+
+ Length between perpendiculars      165 feet  5-1/2 inches.[6]
+ Length of water line               156 "     5       "
+ Greatest breadth                    44 "     11-1/2  "
+ Greatest breadth on water line      43 "     2       "
+ Depth of hold                       19 "     3/4     "
+ Draught of water aft                18 "     9       "
+ Draught of water fore               17 "     5-2/3   "
+
+[Footnote 6: 96-423/1000 Austrian feet = 100 English.]
+
+The superficial area of the ship, or the load-water line, amounted to
+5685.35 square feet; quantity of water displaced 2107 Austrian, or 2630
+English tons. The superficial area of the principal sails amounted to
+18,291 square feet.
+
+The frigate proved herself to be an excellent sailer, as, of the various
+vessels which, throughout the voyage, sailed in company with us, only
+three clippers outstripped her.
+
+The question may here be asked, why, in the present state of navigation, a
+sailing-vessel was preferred to a steamer for this voyage? The principal
+consideration which decided this selection was the greater disposable area
+which a sailing-vessel offers in comparison with a steamer of the same
+dimensions, in which coal and machinery occupy so large a space. On the
+present occasion, it will be perceived that what was specially wanted was
+room for as great a number of officers, cadets, and men as possible, who
+were, as has been stated, to make this voyage for improvement in nautical
+affairs. Plenty of space was also required for the numerous instruments
+and bulky collections of objects of natural history; while in most parts
+of the ocean which we were to traverse, the winds blow so regularly, that,
+with very rare exceptions, sails form the best motive power. The expense
+of fuel requisite for a steamer, and the trouble of replacing it during
+the voyage, are thus saved; whilst, finally, the space occupied by the men
+employed in the management of the machinery, and that required for the
+stowage of special stores, would be withdrawn from more important objects.
+
+After the frigate had been properly fitted up in the arsenal of Pola, she
+sailed on the 15th March, 1857, for Trieste, where she cast anchor on the
+17th in the Bay of Muggia. H.I.M.'s corvette _Caroline_, likewise fitted
+out at Pola for a voyage to the coast of South America and Western
+Africa, followed in her wake, and it was now seen that the frigate was a
+better sailer than the corvette, a circumstance so much the more
+satisfactory, that the latter had hitherto been considered the swiftest
+ship in our navy.
+
+The unfavourable state of the weather interfered so much with the works
+which were to be finished at Trieste, that the embarkation of provisions,
+swinging the compasses, &c., &c., could only be proceeded with very
+slowly.
+
+At last, the members of the Commission arrived, and the vessel only waited
+for sailing orders.
+
+Before leaving on so interesting an enterprise, with which the most
+pleasing recollections of our lives will ever be associated, we had the
+gratification of being honoured by a visit on board from the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian. The commander of the Expedition introduced the
+officers and scientific gentlemen to his Imperial Highness, who addressed
+them in affecting terms, and concluded his remarks by expressing a hope
+that the frigate _Novara_ would, with God's help, return happily from her
+mission to her own honour and that of the country.
+
+The narrative of the voyage is now presented, and, probably, the results
+of the various scientific investigations will very shortly be offered to a
+discerning public, leaving it to them to judge how far we have succeeded
+in realizing the hopes of the illustrious Prince. But if we have not
+satisfied all the expectations entertained, it certainly was not from
+insufficiency of means; for everything was complete in that respect, and
+we owe it chiefly to the circumspection and kind care of the
+Commander-in-chief of our navy, that this enterprise had been so wisely
+planned, and its details brought in so short a time to such a degree of
+perfection that, during the whole voyage, it was not found necessary to
+make the slightest alteration in the original arrangements and
+regulations.
+
+[Illustration: GEODETICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.]
+
+[Illustration: LOOK-OUT MAN.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+                       From Trieste to Gibraltar.
+
+   Departure.--Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.--A Man lost and found
+     again.--Passage through the Straits of Messina.--The Steamer
+     _Sta. Lucia_ returns to Trieste.--Regulations and Instructions
+     for further Proceedings.--A Day on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Sunrise.--Cleaning the Ship.--Mental and physical occupation.--
+     Moonlight at sea.
+
+
+The departure of the frigate was fixed for the 30th April, 1857, and
+H.I.M.'s corvette _Caroline_, Captain Kohen, was ordered to accompany her
+as far as the coast of South America. H.I.M's steamer, _Sta. Lucia_,
+Captain von Littrow, received orders to tow both ships as far as the
+extremity of the Straits of Messina to avoid loss of time, such as
+frequently arises in the Adriatic during the spring, from calms and
+unfavourable winds.
+
+With the dawn of the day fixed for the departure of the ships, all was
+bustle on board; craft of all kinds hovered around, and relatives and
+friends had assembled in great numbers to take leave. The verdant and
+thickly-wooded slopes of the promenade to St. Andrea, near the shore, were
+thronged with spectators, and the fair and lovely picture of our native
+coast developed itself once more before our eyes, clad in all its charms
+of spring, as if to wish us a hearty farewell, an auspicious voyage, and a
+happy return!
+
+At 8 o'clock A.M. we weighed anchor, and the steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+approached the _Novara_ for the purpose of towing her from the Bay of
+Muggia into the roads of Trieste. She had all her colours displayed, and
+saluted the city of Trieste, Austria's chief and most important emporium,
+with 21 guns. The salute was answered from the castle, whilst the band on
+board struck up Haydn's beautiful hymn: "God preserve the Emperor!" The
+frigate moved out of the road-stead, accompanied by a great number of
+boats, and followed by the best wishes of the numerous crowds assembled on
+shore, and of all true patriots, who looked upon this Expedition as a
+cheering evidence that a new and energetic spirit of enterprise had arisen
+in their native country.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.--TRACK FROM TRIESTE TO MADEIRA.]
+
+The corvette _Caroline_, which was waiting outside the roads, was attached
+to the frigate, and soon Trieste appeared like a dim cloud on the distant
+horizon. The outlines of the Carinthian Alps became fainter, and the
+excitement of the parting scene was calmed by that busy activity required
+from every one embarking on a long voyage, if he desires to attain any
+degree of comfort, however little, in the cramped and limited space of a
+crowded ship.
+
+A perfect calm, a smooth sea, and a but-slightly-clouded sky,
+prognosticated fair weather, and promised leisure to complete those
+arrangements which had been left undone. The steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+performed her task of towing the two vessels most satisfactorily, and,
+favoured by the prevailing currents of wind and water, we made five miles
+an hour, and came, on the day of departure, in sight of the promontory of
+Pola.
+
+The passage down the Adriatic was on the whole most pleasant, with the
+exception of some showers of rain near the heights of Isola Grossa; which,
+however, on this occasion saluted us only with a slight puff of wind. The
+ship moved so gently and quietly on her way, that those occupying the
+lower cabins could scarcely have fancied themselves at sea, had they not
+been made aware of it by other impressions.
+
+On the 1st of May, the crew became highly excited by a man being missed,
+when the morning watch was called. Some thought he had, from fear of a
+slight punishment hanging over him, jumped overboard, but as nothing of
+the kind had been observed by the watch on deck, every corner was
+searched, but without success, upon which the man was given over as lost.
+When, however, the dinner hour arrived, and the tables and benches were
+being removed from the lower deck, how great was the surprise, when the
+culprit was discovered crouching among them! A peal of laughter roused the
+poor fellow, who this time was let off with the fright and the punishment
+of being made an object of ridicule by his comrades.
+
+On the 3rd of May, being clear of the Adriatic, the steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+was at midnight despatched to Corfu to complete her store of coal, whilst
+we sailed for Cape Spartivento, on the Calabrian coast, which had been
+assigned as our _rendezvous_. On the 5th, we sighted this the most
+southerly promontory of Italy, when, in consequence of a fresh breeze, the
+sea began to make itself rather disagreeably felt. The novices on board
+became somewhat alarmed. A feeble voice was even heard, which endeavoured
+to prove from this phenomenon that man is a creature made for _terra
+firma_, and not for the watery element; but this excellent idea came
+rather late; mankind are obliged to submit to existing circumstances, and
+this thought alone held out some hope, that a longer stay on board would
+prove the best cure for the evil. Such indeed was the case; though pale
+faces, want of appetite, and even worse effects, were produced, whenever
+the ship made a heavier roll than usual. But these slight inconveniences
+of sea life became rarer and rarer, till at last they appeared only in
+really stiff gales. On the 7th the steamer _Sta. Lucia_ returned and took
+us again in tow.
+
+The weather during our passage through the charming straits of Messina
+was delightful. The colossal Etna exhibited in all its glory its
+snow-capped summit, gilded by the rays of the rising sun, and Messina
+shone with all the attractions of its splendid situation. The coast of
+this part of Italy is mostly bare and rugged, the broken outlines of the
+mountains imparting to the landscape that characteristic peculiarity which
+makes so deep an impression on the mind. We passed the famous Charybdis,
+in which a multitude of dolphins were disporting themselves. The
+neighbouring coast formed a brilliant panorama, and we kept so close in
+shore as to be able to distinguish the movements of the people. The
+appearance of our three goodly ships seemed to have attracted the
+attention of the inhabitants, for they stood in groups in the streets and
+squares of Reggio and Villa San Giovanni, saluting us by waving their
+handkerchiefs. When towards the evening we had passed the straits, we
+could descry the Neapolitan coast as far as Monte Bulgario, in the Bay of
+Policastro, and distinguish the imposing Stromboli, with its volume of
+smoke, far on the Western horizon.
+
+The following morning found us in sight of the small island of Alicudi,
+situated on the north of Sicily. The estimable captain of the _Lucia_ came
+on board to take leave, on his return to Trieste. The steamer, being
+relieved of her burden, made her way briskly towards her destination; and,
+before an hour had elapsed, we could perceive nothing but a small streak
+of smoke in the haze of the horizon.
+
+With light breezes, we came, on the following day, in sight of the island
+of Ustica. Sea-gulls (_Thalassidroma pelagica_) enlivened the scene, as
+they, from time to time, flew after the garbage thrown from the ship, or
+sought for sea-nettles and other small inhabitants of the sea's surface.
+These birds much resemble our land swallows, and their movements are so
+graceful, that one cannot but admire them, especially when they lightly
+touch the agitated water with their little webbed feet, and directly, as
+if repelled, withdraw. The muscular power of these feathered creatures is
+truly wonderful; they follow the ship for entire days continually on the
+wing, ever on the watch to snatch at the little food which the sea seems
+but scantily to supply to them.
+
+[Illustration: "PALINURUS".]
+
+Whilst we were passing down the Mediterranean, a great deal of time was
+employed in drawing up regulations, and in digesting all those
+instructions which had reached the Commander of the Expedition from all
+sides, and by which we were to be guided in our future proceedings.
+
+The scientific gentlemen were the first who received certain rules for
+their guidance; for, life on board a ship, and especially of a man-of-war,
+is so entirely different from that on shore,--the etiquette and usages
+practised appear, to those unused to the sea, so vexatious and annoying,
+that it was absolutely necessary to inform them of the regulations which
+are essential in order to keep so singular an organization as that of a
+ship at sea in working order. Erelong every one perceived, that the
+matutinal annoyance of holystoning the decks, the daily cleaning of
+everything on board, &c., are measures of importance, which contribute
+materially to the preservation of the health of the crew, and that a
+strict observance of discipline is absolutely necessary to exercise their
+powers, and thus to fit them for all eventualities.
+
+For the better accommodation of the naturalists, a place on the lower
+gun-deck was fitted up for those operations which, on account of the
+limited space and noxious exhalations, could not well be performed in the
+cabins.
+
+We had a large quantity of alcohol on board, destined for the preservation
+of interesting objects of natural history. In order to prevent any
+calamity by fire arising therefrom, the whole quantity was put in a large
+iron tank placed in the hold, and covered over with sand. It will,
+however, be seen in the sequel, that even this precaution proved
+insufficient to protect the ship from the ignition of this
+highly-combustible substance.
+
+The meteorological observations, and those connected with the physical
+geography of the sea, were entrusted to four officers, who, like those
+attached to the watches, had alternately to be at their posts, and had, at
+prescribed hours, to observe the barometer, thermometer, and psychrometer,
+as well as the temperature of the surface of the sea, the state of the sky
+and the ocean, and to note down the obtained results. One of the junior
+officers was intrusted with the nautical observations on shipboard, as
+well as the astronomical and magnetical on shore.
+
+The midshipmen were at the same time trained by study and practice, so as
+to enable them to assist the officers in their duties. Besides the men on
+the look-out, one of the midshipmen was employed on the same service. In
+stormy nights, when the wind is howling, and rain or snow falling, this
+post is certainly not very pleasant, but is, as may readily be imagined,
+most important.
+
+Life in the limited space of a ship, completely cut off from the external
+world, is so peculiar and interesting to those unacquainted with the sea,
+that we will endeavour to describe a day passed on board the _Novara_,
+from the instant when at daybreak the bustle and activity begin, till the
+late hour when night reminds one of repose, those sweet moments which
+carry the voyager to his distant home on the wings of a dream.
+
+As the sonorous bell strikes the fifth hour of the morning, the crew are
+called on deck by the boatswain's whistle, the hammocks are slung up and
+stowed away, and the work begins.
+
+This is the busiest time of the day, and for the mere spectator the most
+uncomfortable. On all sides scouring, rubbing, sweeping are going on,
+floods of water are streaming along the decks, and he who is not as yet
+familiar with these cleaning processes, runs some risk of a ducking as
+soon as he makes his appearance outside his cabin. These morning ablutions
+are, however, indispensable evils on board ship, for cleanliness is a
+condition essential to the preservation of health, and even the quantity
+of humidity which penetrates the timber, and renders the air damp, appears
+to be less injurious than the omission of these daily scourings.
+
+When the cleaning of the various parts of the ship is finished, the
+idlers, and such of the officers as are off duty, appear on deck, whither
+people come to enjoy the fresh air, and to greet the opening day. It may,
+however, be permitted to observe, that a sunrise at sea, notwithstanding
+its various charms, is by far less imposing than the same scene on a lofty
+mountain, where the veil of night seems to vanish as if by magic, and
+luxuriant nature lies at our feet like a smiling infant awaking from a
+lovely dream. That wild majesty of scenery, that overpowering grandeur of
+gigantic mountain forms, such as one sees in the Swiss or Tyrolese Alps,
+is wanting at sea, where the rising sun pours his beams only over a
+boundless world of water.
+
+The sailors breakfast at 7, the officers at 8, and the Commander at 9. At
+the latter hour the bugle sounds the order to "clear the ship," when the
+cleaning of arms, guns, and all other articles of metal connected with the
+ship's armoury, begins. During this process the band plays cheerful airs,
+so that the work is done whilst keeping time with the music, which serves
+to lighten the labour. This duty requires to be completed within
+forty-five minutes, and terminates with an inspection of the men and their
+arms.
+
+This being over, officers and midshipmen off duty assemble together with
+the naturalists in the reading-room. Most of the books in the library
+referred to those countries likely to be visited by the Expedition, so
+that every one might previously obtain useful information relative to
+their physical, historical, and social conditions.
+
+The naturalists employ the greater part of the day in their cabins, noting
+down their observations, and preparing for those to be made in the course
+of the voyage. The crew are kept in activity by being drilled and
+otherwise occupied.
+
+The men dine at 12; the dinner of the officers is served up at 3, and that
+of the Commodore at half-past 3 o'clock P.M. The remainder of the
+afternoon is spent in prosecuting the labours begun in the morning. Thus
+steals on the evening, when a general assemblage takes place on deck, for
+air and exercise.
+
+[Illustration: SEAMEN OFF DUTY.]
+
+The occurrences of the day, the sunset, the curious formation of the
+clouds, or the bewitching beauty of a brilliant tropical sky at night,
+form interesting topics for lively discussion. It is, however, rather
+daring to institute a comparison between the splendour of the sky in the
+tropics and that of our higher latitudes. For, most men become more or
+less unjust towards the beauties of a new and foreign natural scenery, in
+consequence of their not being able to divest themselves of former
+impressions produced in them by phenomena of a similar nature. What
+impressions are, for instance, deeper in young and old, and excite more
+delightful recollections than the starry sky of home? And can it be
+disputed that the association of ideas has a most powerful effect upon
+the impressions made by those phenomena of nature which are so peculiarly
+attractive and so deeply fixed in the human mind?
+
+The conversation generally becomes more lively on those evenings when the
+moon, placid friend of the sailor, appears on the distant horizon,
+shedding her silvery beams over the unbroken expanse of water. The
+influence which she exercises on the state of the weather, even the
+prejudices and superstitions connected with our satellite, offer subjects
+of interesting debate; involuntarily the mariner looks with grateful
+feelings towards that heavenly luminary, the mild soothing light of which
+diminishes the number of his anxious nights, protects him in present,
+warns him of remote dangers, and influences so powerfully that vast
+element on which he passes the greater part of his life. Indeed he who has
+ever spent a dark and stormy night on the ocean, when the ship, lashed by
+the fury of the waves, and borne resistlessly along, stands in constant
+peril of coming in violent collision with a vessel similarly
+circumstanced, or of being dashed to pieces on some iron-bound coast of
+rugged rock, easily comprehends and will excuse the sailor who ascribes to
+the moonlight somewhat of a supernatural and mysterious power.
+
+In this manner, and notwithstanding the continued sameness, days and
+months glide away like hours, until we again cast anchor, and only the
+work accomplished gives an idea of the length of time which has been
+passed at sea.
+
+Sunday alone breaks the monotony of life on board, when, after the diurnal
+cleaning of the ship, and the inspection of the crew, the officers, and
+all the men who are not on duty, assemble for divine service on the lower
+gun-deck, where the chaplain says mass on a temporary altar, whilst the
+ship's band performs sacred music. In the afternoon the men off duty amuse
+themselves for a couple of hours with the "_tombola_," a game much liked
+by our sailors. Between 6 and 7 P.M. the band plays on deck, whilst the
+sailors are cutting grotesque figures to the music. The singular capers by
+which all evince their happiness; the good-humoured awkwardness with which
+each clings to the brawny arm of his companion; the mock graceful air
+those who enact the gentler sex assume in the dance, and, finally, the
+affected attitude with which the cavaliers bow to their partners as if
+they really were of the gentler sex--all this is most ludicrous and
+amusing. The playing the national dance "Monferina" always elicits a
+particularly hearty reception. There is a peculiar charm in national
+melodies, even though they awaken no political reminiscences like the
+Marseillaise, or the Rakoczy; they electrify alike the educated and the
+men of the people; a thousand pleasing recollections suddenly crowd into
+the memory, and when the well-known tunes strike the ear, the heart seems
+to live again in bygone times! As if touched by magic, the sailor from the
+Adriatic, as soon as the Monferina is struck up, seizes his neighbour by
+the arm with a noisy shout and hurls him about in wild hilarity; his
+thoughts seem as if flying towards his distant home, where, in the country
+inn, with a buxom lass on his shoulder, he has waltzed away many a happy
+hour. The whole village, with all its familiar faces, seems to revive in
+his memory during the playing of the melody,--now he fills his glass; now
+he clinks it merrily with that of his companion; now he presses his
+sweetheart more closely to his side: Lo! suddenly a shrill whistle pierces
+the air, the music ceases, the call is heard "to fall in," and the yet
+dance-stricken sailor, suddenly, as if awakening from a sweet reverie, is
+once more standing on the deck of the _Novara_!
+
+The frigate, in the Mediterranean also, maintained her superiority as a
+sailer. The corvette _Caroline_ was able to keep the prescribed distance
+from the _Novara_ only by the latter reefing some of her sails. As some
+magnetic observations were to be made at Gibraltar, and, as we had to
+ascertain the results of the various chronometers on board, on the 12th of
+May we signalled the corvette to take her own time and rejoin us at
+Gibraltar, as we were anxious to avoid unnecessary detention.
+
+The acquisitions of the naturalists had, as yet, been very scanty: to
+their great annoyance they could not even obtain any of the tortoises,
+which, from time to time, approached the ship, though they were repeatedly
+fired at, and on one occasion a boat was launched, in the hope of catching
+some of them. The specimens which we saw were from fifteen to twenty
+inches in diameter; they mostly floated quietly on the surface, and seemed
+sleeping or basking themselves in the sun.
+
+The night of the 16th May was exceedingly boisterous, and almost tangible
+darkness prevailed; thunder, lightning, and occasionally strong easterly
+squalls, raged furiously, and only subsided towards the morning, when it
+cleared up with fresh southerly breezes. Not being far from Cape de Gatt,
+on the Spanish coast, prudence required us to change course, and, during
+the continuance of stormy weather, to keep at a respectful distance from
+the shore. Here a merchantman, apparently an American, bore down so close
+upon us, that, in the darkness, an unpleasant collision seemed
+unavoidable. However, we tacked about, and thus, fortunately avoiding our
+dangerous neighbour, safely proceeded on our course.
+
+It is truly astonishing how often merchantmen, entirely forgetful of their
+own safety, from want of caution, or presumption, or it would occasionally
+seem, sheerly from acting upon peculiar and abnormal principles of
+navigation, wantonly expose ship, men, and cargo to many dangers, which
+might easily be avoided, particularly in cases where no tacking is
+required, and only a slight touch of the rudder would suffice to prevent a
+collision, which is always attended with danger to the smaller ship. In
+this respect the North Americans are very unpleasant neighbours on account
+of their national vanity, and the Dutch for their phlegmatic temperament
+and the indifference they evince on such occasions.
+
+On the 18th of May, the small rocky island of Alboran, in the narrow part
+of the sea between Africa and Spain, was observed; being flat and without
+vegetation, it is scarcely perceptible, and the land-fall during the night
+should be carefully avoided. The erection of a lighthouse on this island
+would certainly be regarded as a great boon by all who navigate the
+Mediterranean.
+
+On the 19th of May, the sea suddenly assumed a peculiar orange colour; a
+dust-like covering was observed on the surface of the water, and at some
+depth white points might be seen, mingling with each other in the wake of
+the ship. Clouds of this orange-like matter appeared spread upon the sea,
+which thereby lost its usual transparency. On closer examination this
+phenomenon appeared to arise from a mass consisting of myriads of minute
+animalculæ, which had a yellow opaque kernel, the gelatinous covering of
+which was transparent and colourless. A quantity of sea-water impregnated
+with this matter, having been brought into a dark room, gave out a light,
+and when agitated, such brightness proceeded from it, as justified the
+anticipation that, during the night, the whole sea would be illuminated.
+Accordingly the wake of the ship was illuminated by a wonderful stream of
+light, in the depths of which larger masses of luminous matter could be
+discerned, whilst on the surface there was a sparkling and glittering, as
+if all the stars of the firmament were reflected in the water.
+
+This phosphorescence of the sea, for the explanation of which we are
+chiefly indebted to Professor Ehrenberg, proceeds for the most part from
+the emanations of light from molluscæ of the genus _Medusa_, and other
+living phosphoric animalculæ; sometimes, however, as for instance in
+Venice, it arises from the putrescent fibres of decayed molluscæ, and
+other organisms in a state of decomposition.
+
+On the evening of the 20th the splendid Ceuta Light was seen, which, even
+at a distance of twenty miles, looks as if it were quite near. This
+lighthouse is of the utmost importance to ships emerging into the Atlantic
+from the Mediterranean, as the current is exceedingly powerful, and during
+the night is apt imperceptibly to carry a vessel out of her course. On the
+morning of the 21st, the ship lay in a calm before the rock of Gibraltar.
+Barren, gray, and gloomy rose now before our sight this rocky,
+gun-studded, colossal sentinel of that vigilantly-prudent, energetic, and
+jealous Power, which is so constantly seeking to extend her rule wherever
+her own interests are concerned, or where she thinks it advisable to make
+herself respected by other nations.
+
+A light breeze sprang up, and at half-past 3 P.M. the anchorage, eleven
+and a half fathoms in depth, was reached. The frigate now lay in front of
+the Alameda or public gardens of Gibraltar, situated near the town gate,
+called the Ragged Staff. This anchorage is tolerably safe at this season,
+but in autumn and winter, as well as generally in strong easterly winds,
+it is not to be recommended, it being preferable to haul further in
+towards the place where the merchant-vessels usually lie. We saluted the
+English flag on the fortress with twenty-one guns, which were immediately
+answered from the ramparts. There were no English men-of-war in the Roads,
+except the sloop _Curlew_, Capt. Horton. The following morning our
+consort, the _Caroline_, anchored in our vicinity.
+
+The first day of the arrival of a man-of-war in harbour is attended with
+much inconvenience, particularly if she carries the flag of the
+Commodore, or it happens that the mail packets are arriving or departing,
+or that there are many ships of war in the Roads. The latter was not now
+the case, but so many visitors, letters, and newspapers arrived at once,
+that neither the one nor the other could be thoroughly enjoyed.
+
+The local authorities, the governor, Sir James Fergusson, at their head,
+were extremely obliging and attentive; Mr. Falkland, an officer of the
+Engineers, was placed at our disposal; a specially-reserved site was
+assigned us for astronomical and magnetical observations; huts were
+erected by the workmen of the arsenal for the protection of the
+instruments, and in short everything, calculated to promote scientific
+labours, was provided. The Chancellor of the Austrian Consulate, Mr. John
+Frembly, himself a geologist, proved likewise to be of great service to
+our scientific men: and it was considered a fortunate omen to have found,
+at this our first anchorage, so much sympathy with the objects of the
+Expedition.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF GIBRALTAR FROM SEAWARD.]
+
+[Illustration: ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+                              Gibraltar.
+
+             STAY FROM THE 20TH TO THE 30TH MAY, 1857.
+
+   Political Significance of the Rock.--Courtesy of the British
+     Authorities.--Fortifications.--Signal Stations.--The only
+     place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.--Calcareous Caves.--
+     Chief Entrances into the Town.--Shutting the Town Gates.--
+     Public Establishments.--Inhabitants.--Elliott's Gardens.--The
+     Isthmus, or Neutral Ground.--Algeziras.--Ceuta.--Commerce and
+     Navigation.--Excellent regulation in the English Navy relative
+     to Officers' Outfit.--Small-pox appears on Board the
+     _Caroline_.--Departure from Gibraltar.--A Fata Morgana.--The
+     _Novara_ passes the Straits.--Take leave of Europe.--Voyage to
+     Madeira.--Floating Bottles to ascertain the Currents.--Arrival
+     in the Roads of Funchal.
+
+
+This remarkable promontory, which in our days has obtained so much
+political importance, the Calpe of the ancients, constituted of old, with
+the opposite Abyla,[7] the so-called pillars of Hercules, celebrated, at
+the same time, as the boundary of the then-known world. It derives its
+name from the corrupted Arabic _Gebel_ (mountain) and _Tarik_, the name of
+a Moorish conqueror, who had pitched his camp here (A.D. 711). Like a
+colossal giant, guarding the portal of Europe, and converted, by the
+energy and ingenuity of the British, into an almost impregnable outpost,
+this precipitous rock has, as regards the Mediterranean, the same high
+strategic importance for that great maritime people, as Heligoland for the
+German Ocean, Aden for the Red Sea, Ceylon and Singapore for the Indian
+Archipelago, Hongkong for the Chinese waters, or the Cape and St. Helena
+for the Atlantic Ocean.
+
+[Footnote 7: The present Apes Hill.]
+
+Gibraltar was already strongly fortified, when it belonged to the
+Andalusian kingdom, but its grandest fortifications date from the treaty
+of Utrecht (1713), when it became an appanage of the British crown.
+Stupendous and incomparable are the works which since that period have
+been executed on it, though the calcareous formation of the locality and
+its numerous caves may have considerably facilitated their construction.
+
+The English authorities, who so kindly assisted in the scientific
+researches, obligingly furnished each individual of the frigate's staff
+with a written permission to inspect the fortifications as often as they
+pleased, and thereby afforded them the particular gratification of being
+able to view and admire these vast structures in all their details.
+
+Excellent and well-kept roads lead to the principal fortifications, which
+only begin at an elevation of several hundred feet above the town. The
+galleries, hewn in the solid rock, forming a kind of casemates, are of
+such breadth and height that they may be conveniently traversed by a man
+on horseback with his hat on. They have been constructed at an immense
+expense of labour and money, and are designated by various names, as
+"Upper gallery," "Lower gallery," "Queen's gallery," "St. George's Hall,"
+and so on. Their extent is estimated at an English mile, but is probably
+much greater. Besides these galleries, passages run for miles in the
+interior of the rock, affording the garrison a thoroughly-protected
+connection with all points that may chance to be threatened.
+
+The grandest and most imposing of these marvellous excavations are the
+"Queen's gallery" and "St. George's Hall." According to carved
+inscriptions, most of them were begun and completed between the years 1783
+and 1789. At the period of our visit, there were mounted on the different
+fortifications 707 guns, about one hundred of which peeped out of the
+smaller embrasures. Since that date, however, the number is said to have
+been increased so as to amount now to about 1500.
+
+During the stay of the _Novara_, it fortunately happened that the birthday
+of Queen Victoria was celebrated, and thus an opportunity was offered of
+seeing the fiery mountain in full activity. Though the occasion was
+peaceable, yet the imposing spectacle gave a tolerable idea of the
+elements of destruction which Gibraltar could put in action if really
+attacked. The governor of the fortress, surrounded by a brilliant staff,
+in which the Spanish governor of Algeziras and his officers played but a
+sorry part, reviewed the garrison, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and
+artillery, to the number of from 5000 to 6000 men; and whilst the troops
+defiled in slow and quick step, lightnings and thunders issued from all
+the crevices and embrasures of the artificially-perforated rock; huge
+volumes of dense smoke followed, and a rolling subterraneous rumbling gave
+the mountain exactly the character of a volcano suddenly burst into
+action. The echo of these salvoes of rejoicing must have been heard, not
+only in the adjacent parts of Spain, but also on the more remote coast of
+Africa; and he who was ignorant of the real cause, might have supposed it
+a grand rehearsal of that fearful tragedy which the English seem
+determined to perform in the event of an attack. The supposition, however,
+that the guns of Gibraltar are able entirely to command the Straits is
+erroneous, for these, at their narrowest part, are 12-1/2 miles wide, and
+not even the Armstrong guns, with which the fortress has lately been
+furnished, have so extensive a range. The English are, however, able to
+command the Straits by a fleet, which would find in the Bay of Gibraltar a
+sufficiently safe and roomy anchorage.
+
+From the fortifications, a narrow and rather steep path leads to the
+telegraph station, at an elevation of 1300 feet above the level of the
+sea. Steamers and men-of-war, as soon as visible, are signalled from this
+point by means of immense balls and flags. It would be very difficult to
+signal merchantmen in the same way, as, during a prevailing westerly wind,
+multitudes of ships often appear to the eastward of the rock, anxiously
+waiting for a favourable easterly breeze to carry them through the
+Straits; in the same way the westerly horizon is sometimes crowded with
+ships, prevented by contrary winds from entering the Mediterranean.
+
+We found at the station an Aneroid-barometer, and a thermometer. The
+advantages for navigation and physical science of extensive meteorological
+observations, regularly made, are so evident, that it is astonishing to
+see how often opportunities are neglected for making them, such as are
+offered here.
+
+There was no opportunity for seeing any of those families of monkeys, the
+occasional appearance of which on the Rock of Gibraltar has given rise to
+tales found in books of travel of the existence of a submarine
+communication, through which this single representative of the genus in
+Europe has found its way to this rock from Africa. Sometimes, however,
+during easterly winds, single individuals are observed on the highest
+peaks on the eastern side of the rock, where it is completely
+inaccessible; probably the remnants of that species (_Inuus ecaudatus_),
+which at some former time, either by chance, or human agency, have found
+their way hither from the Moorish coast.
+
+The calcareous caves are very remarkable. That on the western side, called
+St. Michael's, situated at a height of 800 feet, is the most important. It
+contains beautiful stalactite formations, and seems to be of considerable
+extent; it has, however, not been closely examined hitherto, as only a
+small part is conveniently accessible. St. Martin's Cave, on the
+south-east, likewise about 800 feet above the level of the sea, is
+smaller, but its stalactites are of a purer whiteness. A third was
+discovered a few years since on the eastern side of the rock at a height
+of only 80 feet, the lower portion of which consists of accumulations of
+sand and recent shells. There have also been found bones and teeth of
+large herbivorous animals.
+
+[Illustration: ROCK CAVERN IN GIBRALTAR.]
+
+The characteristic vegetation of the mountain is Spanish broom (_Spartium
+junceum_), the yellow blossom of which strikes the eye pleasingly at a
+great distance. There is also one species of cactus, and one of the dwarf
+palm (_Opuntia vulgaris_, and _Chamærops humilis_), which grows in great
+abundance, and forms, on the south face of the rock, almost the only
+vegetation, whilst, on account of difference of temperature, it is
+altogether absent on the remaining sides.
+
+Gibraltar has little to attract strangers to settle; barracks, military
+store-houses, and fortifications, render the appearance of the place
+peculiarly monotonous, the more so that there are no elegant buildings, or
+fine shops, on the rock. There was nothing observed, however, to confirm
+the statement, in a celebrated geographical work, copied by all later
+compilers, that "most of the houses are painted black, to soften the glare
+of the sun, and prevent an attacking enemy having a distinct view of the
+place." The town, which is built in terraces on the side of the rock, is
+accessible only from three points. The greatest portion of the traffic
+passes through the so-called Old Mole at the north end, whilst the
+entrances on the south are generally used by men-of-war sailors only. All
+are opened at 5 in the morning, and, according to the season, shut between
+7 and 8 in the evening, precisely twenty-five minutes after the first
+signal-gun. This closing of the gate is attended with ceremonies verging
+on the comic. A broad-shouldered corporal, carrying in his hand a heavy
+bunch of immense keys, marches, visibly impressed with the importance of
+his mission, in measured steps, accompanied by a number of red jackets
+with fixed bayonets, towards the massive town-gate; the bridge is then,
+with much ado, drawn up, and the horribly-creaking gate, with great
+exertion, closed, bolted, and finally locked. After "gun fire" no one can
+leave the town by the Old Mole; at 10 P.M., however, and at midnight, a
+little postern is opened, through which those jolly stragglers, who have
+forgotten in merry company the measure of time, may slip out to return to
+their floating abodes. From this hour till morning all communication with
+the harbour is arrested, and the utter impossibility (except in
+extraordinary cases) of leaving the town _after_ this hour, has given rise
+amongst the people to the saying, "There is only _one_ thing more
+difficult than to get _out_ of the town after midnight, and that is to get
+_in_."
+
+There are in the city two Anglican churches, one Wesleyan, one
+Presbyterian, two Catholic chapels, and two synagogues. The garrison
+library, where likewise a great number of journals and magazines are kept,
+possesses 22,000 volumes, amongst them several very rare and costly works,
+especially of ancient Spanish literature. It was founded in 1793 by
+Captain Drinkwater, and has been hitherto kept up by private subscriptions
+and the profits arising from a printing-establishment attached to it.
+
+Gibraltar owes to the energy and public spirit of the governor, Sir James
+Fergusson, the foundation of several important establishments and
+undertakings. Since the beginning of his administration in 1856, the
+number of public schools has been considerably increased, the town
+supplied with gas, and well-arranged public baths established.
+
+The city does not possess a single well or spring; the water used is
+obtained from tanks, in which the rain is collected. The quantity of rain
+that fell during the twelve months of 1855 amounted to 78 inches; in 1856,
+it is said to have been only 24 inches. Nevertheless, there is at no time
+any scarcity of water. The Government have lately caused the erection of
+a distilling apparatus for making sea-water fit for domestic purposes,
+which, however, hitherto has not been used.
+
+The population of Gibraltar, including the garrison of 6000 men, amounts
+to about 20,000 souls, consisting of Spaniards, English, Italians (mostly
+Genoese), Portuguese, Moors, Turks, Greeks, and Jews; indeed, a mixture of
+races, customs, and manners such as scarcely can be found at any other
+place in Europe. The native residents call Gibraltar briefly _the rock_,
+and themselves, with a kind of pseudo-patriotism, _rock people_, though by
+the officers of the garrison and navy generally complimented with the name
+of "rock-scorpions."
+
+The permanent settling of foreigners, in consequence of its being a
+fortress, requires a number of formalities, which have the effect of
+limiting the population; and even the English portion must be considered
+migratory, as it consists chiefly of military and government officers,
+who, after the lapse of certain intervals, exchange in regular order.
+
+The only really beautiful walk in the place is Elliott's Gardens, situated
+at the south end of the town, laid out in a grand style, but disfigured by
+a tasteless bronze statue of General Elliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield),
+the heroic defender of Gibraltar in 1782. In the evenings, when one of the
+military bands is performing, the grounds are thronged by visitors on
+foot, horseback, and in carriages, whilst loving couples, of all races and
+grades, ramble in happy union through the shady avenues.
+
+Near the gardens, towards the south, is a second quarter of the city,
+which mostly consists of government buildings. On the lowest terrace,
+which juts furthest into the sea, stands the lighthouse, on the celebrated
+"Europa Point."
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH GATE, GIBRALTAR.]
+
+Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish continent by a sandy neck of land,
+called by the Spaniards _El Istmo_, and by the English "the neutral
+ground." It runs between the Mediterranean and the bay, one mile and a
+half in length and 2700 feet in breadth. This plain, which is not more
+than 10 feet above the water, owes its origin to the formation of a dune
+in the rocky bed of the ocean. Strong easterly gales seem by degrees to
+have accumulated the sand on this shallow run of the sea, which formerly
+separated Gibraltar from Spain.
+
+A similar sand formation, near Catalan Bay, has attained the enormous
+height of 1000 feet. The Government have caused a portion of the sand, at
+the point where the isthmus joins the rock, to be excavated, and the water
+of the bay to be let in, so that there only remains a narrow low dyke of
+firm ground, which probably in time of war may be completely submerged.
+The stagnant water of this cut must, however, during the hot season,
+considerably increase the amount of fever.
+
+From May till October the troops are encamped under tents on this isthmus,
+along which the neighbouring Spaniards come to market daily in crowds,
+with provisions of all kinds, displaying their rancour against the foreign
+intruders by endeavouring to make them pay the highest possible price for
+their produce.
+
+The adjacent Spanish settlements, Campamiento and St. Roque, are much
+resorted to by excursionists from Gibraltar, and, during the summer, are
+selected by numerous families for even a longer stay; for however little
+pleasure or interest a ride over this arid and sandy plain affords, once
+arrived at Campamiento, the rider enjoys a most charming prospect, while
+there is probably no other point from which the isolated rock appears more
+grand or picturesque than from this neat little village.
+
+In following the road that runs from Campamiento along the bay, the
+charming little town of Algeziras is reached. It lies on the western
+shore, exactly opposite Gibraltar, with which it is in regular
+correspondence by daily steamers.
+
+Algeziras, formerly a poor fishing-village, has greatly increased in
+extent and prosperity, through the smuggling trade. This clean and
+pretty-looking place has a population of 10,000 souls, and makes by
+contrast an extremely pleasant impression on coming from the dismal and
+gloomy fortress. Men and things here have quite an Andalusian appearance.
+The small but neat one-storied houses are mostly painted a bright white,
+and ornamented with green verandahs; at almost every window beautiful
+flowers are exhibited; and the public promenade, shaded by fine trees, is
+delightful. The principal square is likewise planted with trees, and the
+lower stories of its houses are occupied by apothecaries' shops,
+coffee-rooms, confectioners, and one by a bookseller even. The churches
+appear in every respect insignificant; the hospital of San Juan de Dios,
+however, is an ancient and noble structure, the management of which is
+admirable. One of the arrangements here was eminently characteristic of
+Spain: in the ward for male patients stands at the upper end, by the side
+of the beds for common patients, a large, broad, elegantly-polished
+bedstead, which, the porter told us, was intended for "_caballeros_."
+
+At a short distance from the town is the Amphitheatre Constantia, a large
+wooden booth, said to hold nearly 9000 spectators. It is chiefly used for
+bull-fights, which always attract a large audience. The aqueduct here,
+taken with the fine scenery around, forms an exceedingly picturesque
+object.
+
+The inhabitants of Gibraltar sometimes make excursions to the peninsula of
+Ceuta (the Sebta of the Moors), situated on the opposite coast of Africa.
+The lighthouse of this little promontory has been lately furnished with a
+Fresnel apparatus, throwing out a most intense light, which is visible at
+a greater distance than any other observed during our voyage. This place,
+which is used by the Spaniards as a penal settlement, numbers 6500
+inhabitants, and has a very indifferent harbour. The "rock people" also
+occasionally make excursions to Tangier, the most westerly town of the
+strait, and the most important as regards the commerce of Morocco.
+
+A great number of steamers on their various routes touch at Gibraltar, for
+discharging and embarking freight and passengers, and to coal. The
+quantity of the latter thus shipped is estimated at 30,000 tons annually,
+all imported from England. There is also a regular correspondence by
+sailing vessels with all the leading Italian ports, and those of the
+Levant, as well as with Constantinople, Corfu, and Trieste.
+
+Gibraltar being a free port, there are no customs' dues, except those on
+wines and spirits. All flags enjoy equal privileges, and in all disputes
+the English law decides. It is impossible to obtain a satisfactory
+statement of the amount of imports and exports, as no Custom-house exists,
+and the official reports merely give the number and nationality of the
+flags of the ships that arrive and depart. Smuggling is carried on to a
+great extent, and, being a lucrative trade, will continue to be so, as
+long as Spain retains her prohibitory duties on English goods.
+
+The principal items of commerce in Gibraltar are English cotton goods,
+which are exported to Barbary in considerable quantities. To compete
+successfully with the English in this branch of trade would be very
+difficult for any other nation; but there are a great number of other
+articles which might find a ready sale on the African coast, and which are
+produced cheaper in several States of the European continent than in
+England; a consideration of so much the more importance in trading with
+the Moors, that these people regard lowness of price rather than the
+quality of the goods.
+
+For this very reason, small but industrious Belgium has become a powerful
+competitor of mighty England. Thus, for instance, that country exports to
+Morocco, by way of Gibraltar, sugar, both in loaves and crushed,[8]
+hardware and cutlery, nails and screws, zinc, as well as all sorts of
+earthenware and glass. A portion of these articles goes into the
+neighbouring Spanish provinces.
+
+[Footnote 8: The superior quality and cheapness of Belgian sugars have of
+late in a great measure driven all others out of the market. It is also
+worthy of remark, that though Gibraltar is a British colony, all the
+accounts are kept in Spanish currency, and that there are more Spanish and
+French coins in circulation than English, which, when changed, even
+sustain a small loss. The Spanish measures and weights also are more in
+use than the English.]
+
+It is rather singular that the Belgian glass goods are in Gibraltar
+represented as of _German_ manufacture, and thereby obtain a readier sale.
+This seems to be a proof that German (_i. e._ Bohemian) glass articles
+have been patronized before the Belgian, and lost the market only through
+the importation of the latter.
+
+The intercourse between Gibraltar and Spain is carried on by coasting
+vessels, and by French as well as Spanish steamers, while the postal
+communication with Great Britain is conducted by the Peninsular and
+Oriental Steam Packet Company.
+
+Correspondence with Spain and other parts of the Continent is carried on
+overland, but is little to be relied upon, as, owing to the horrible
+condition of the Spanish roads, a delay of from six to eight days
+sometimes occurs in bad weather. Between Gibraltar and Cadiz, a distance
+of only sixty English miles, the letter-bag is said to have often been six
+days on its way.
+
+The narrative of our stay at Gibraltar would be defective if we omitted
+mention of the numerous proofs of hospitality we experienced on all sides.
+Invitations were repeatedly received from the Convent (Government House),
+as well as from private families, and everywhere we experienced the most
+cordial reception.
+
+We must in particular mention a visit paid to Captain Warden, the
+superintendent of the station and arsenal, as it afforded an opportunity
+of becoming acquainted with a feature in the English naval service, as
+practical as it is worthy of imitation. The superintendent of the arsenal
+inhabits a beautiful roomy house, belonging to the Government, situated in
+a large garden, well planted with splendid plane-trees, laurel, and
+orange-trees, and ornamented with most beautiful and odoriferous flowers.
+As a superintendent's income would not admit the outlay necessary properly
+to furnish so large an edifice, this is done by contractors, who let out
+the furniture at the rate of five per cent. annually on the value. This
+sum is deducted monthly from the pay. The same system is also adopted on
+board English men-of-war. The cabins of the officers are there furnished
+and provided with all the requisite comforts by contractors under the
+superintendence of the Admiralty. The value of each article is marked in a
+printed list deposited with the authorities. The captain pays a yearly
+rate of five per cent. on the valuation, and binds himself besides, in the
+event of the ship's being paid off, or of being appointed to another
+vessel, to return in good condition all the articles specified, and pay
+the value noted in the list for everything missing. This agreement is
+registered at the Admiralty, and the contractor receives the amount
+monthly. The advantage of such an arrangement to the commander of a ship
+will be more fully appreciated by those who, from personal experience, are
+aware of the expense attending an outfit, and the great loss which an
+officer transferred from one ship to another suffers through a sudden and
+forced sale of his property. The commander of a ship is moreover often not
+in a condition to spend for his personal outfit a sum of perhaps a
+thousand pounds sterling, but he can conveniently pay annually from £40 to
+£50 for the hire in monthly instalments; and it thus becomes easier for
+him to maintain the appearance due to his position.
+
+The commander and officers of the _Caroline_, which, after an absence
+since the 12th of May, had rejoined us on the 23rd, were, like ourselves,
+received in the kindest manner by all the authorities of Gibraltar.
+
+It had been arranged that we should make the voyage to Madeira in company
+with the _Caroline_, but an unexpected incident prevented it. The
+small-pox[9] made its appearance on board, and although in a mild form and
+in but a few cases, yet it was sufficiently alarming to interrupt, as a
+matter of precaution, all communication, and to postpone indefinitely her
+departure, as a great part of the crew might be overtaken with the disease
+whilst at sea, exposed to sudden changes of temperature, thereby causing
+the most serious consequences. Such is not the case with diseases which
+are in some degree localized, as cholera, yellow fever, dysentery, &c.,
+when it is even prudent to set sail, notwithstanding the presence of the
+malady, as a change of place and climate is frequently accompanied with
+beneficial results.
+
+[Footnote 9: As there has lately been some difference amongst the medical
+men of Europe as to the utility of vaccination, the following observations
+from the report of Dr. Wawra, the principal physician on board the
+_Caroline_, regarding the appearance and the course of this epidemic, may
+not be out of place:--"A day before our departure from Trieste a man
+complained of a slight fever and headache, and his skin was covered with
+spots which were judged at once to be indications of an approaching
+eruption of small-pox. The man was immediately sent on shore as a matter
+of precaution; but, nevertheless, eight days after our departure we had a
+second, and ten days after that a third case: the epidemic was on board,
+and though in a mild form, yet serious consequences were apprehended. The
+_re-vaccination_ of the men was therefore decided upon, and carried out,
+as far as the virus on board would admit. Only five individuals of the
+whole had not been vaccinated at all; some had undergone the operation in
+their childhood, a great part of them, however, had been vaccinated on
+board other vessels, from two to five years before. Only fourteen cases
+occurred. Most remarkable, and evidently in favour of those who advocate
+re-vaccination, is the fact, that amongst most of those who had been
+vaccinated in their childhood, the disorder was more severe than among
+those who had been re-vaccinated on board the ship. Among those who had
+_never_ undergone the operation before, the vaccination on board was most
+successful; not one of them caught the disorder. Among the _re-vaccinated_
+only four cases occurred, with slighter symptoms than among those who had
+been once only operated upon. We met with several instances of the kind at
+other places where we touched. At Buenos Ayres, where the vaccination laws
+are stricter than anywhere else, the small-pox is extremely rare. Among
+the Brazilians, who entertain an absolute prejudice against vaccination,
+the _variola_ is one of the most common and most frightful diseases. It
+prevails still worse amongst the negro slaves, among whom, from the
+ignorance and prejudice of their masters, vaccination is neglected. The
+white marks of the disease are particularly visible in the black skin, and
+are evident proofs how virulently it has raged amongst them."]
+
+After we had got through our duties at Gibraltar, an attempt was made,
+with the first favourable wind, to set sail and reach the Atlantic; the
+_Caroline_ remaining behind for the benefit of the sick on board. She was
+to follow only when the health of the crew no longer excited any
+apprehension.
+
+On the 30th May the wind changed to south, and as the current in the
+harbour was also favourable, we weighed anchor in the hope that in the
+Straits we might meet with an easterly wind. The _Novara_ passed the
+_Caroline_, which saluted with a round of cheers, when we tacked to clear
+the roads, after which all sail was hoisted to beat out against the
+western current in the Straits. The sea was covered with a mucous
+substance, which generally indicates that there is scarcely a chance of a
+fresh breeze; however, even the little we had, would have sufficed to
+carry us through the Straits, but towards 6 P.M. a perfect calm overtook
+us, and notwithstanding the press of sail, we were carried back towards
+the East, and about midnight found ourselves again in the Mediterranean,
+which did not seem disposed to part with us. There was no improvement next
+day, and at sunset we were exactly twenty-five miles east from the point
+we had occupied the preceding day. The clouds passed from West to East
+across the moon, and in the night from the 31st of May to the 1st of June
+the westerly wind became so fresh that we had even to reef the sails.
+
+Current, wind, sea, everything was against us; even tacking was of no
+service, as we lost ground visibly with each tack. When at last all hope
+of making the West had disappeared, we anchored, like many others of our
+companions in sorrow, on the 1st June, at 6 P.M., in the Bay of
+Frangerola, fifteen miles north of Malaga.
+
+Here were anchored nearly sixty merchantmen, all wind-bound. Behind the
+Punta Molinos, near Malaga, there must have been quite as many more. Fresh
+additions were constantly being made to the already considerable fleet,
+which had involuntarily collected together, whilst those merchantmen which
+with fruitless obstinacy kept on tacking about us, were getting more and
+more out of their course, as with every successive hour their position was
+changed for the worse.
+
+[Illustration: INHABITANT OF FRANGOLA.]
+
+In the hope of a favourable wind we were all a-taunto on the 2nd June,
+perfectly prepared for a start. Under these circumstances no one could go
+on shore, but an officer was despatched in a boat to make inquiries as to
+whether there were any sanitary board in the neighbouring village. A
+relative of the President of the Junta de la Sanidad came on board, and
+stated that, though as a rule only vessels clearing from Spanish harbours
+were permitted to have intercourse with the shore, an exception should be
+made in favour of ourselves. This Andalusian was very communicative, and
+amongst other things told us that the inhabitants were supported almost
+entirely by fishing. Many ships had now been waiting several weeks for a
+favourable wind to pass the Straits. Some had thrice attempted to sail
+towards the West, but in every case were driven back by wind and current.
+In 1847, a year of scarcity, Louis Philippe had caused several French
+steamers to be stationed in the Straits in order to take in tow ships
+coming from the Black Sea laden with grain, and thereby to facilitate
+their passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. In the afternoon
+we had a visit from about thirty inhabitants of Frangerola, who came on
+board in fishing-boats to view the ship. None of these people had ever
+seen so large a man-of-war, and they all therefore regarded the ship with
+great curiosity. The ship's band greatly delighted them, but the
+signal-gun at sunset seemed to terrify them and to hasten their departure.
+
+In the evening we felt from time to time some warm blasts of wind from the
+east, and enjoyed for nearly an hour the delightful spectacle of a "Fata
+Morgana." This phenomenon, as is well known, arises from two currents of
+air of a different density, separated by a distinctly-formed plane,
+generally produced when the temperature of the two currents happens to
+vary. When, for instance, as is frequently the case at sea, a considerably
+warmer current of air comes suddenly in contact with a colder current
+having a lower position, the plane of separation of the former becomes
+condensed, and forms a mirror for all those objects which are in the lower
+current, so that their image is inversely reflected. As this surface of
+separation is not level throughout, various contractions and distortions
+result, which impart to the whole a singular appearance. On land, as for
+instance in the deserts of Africa, where the warmer current of air is on
+the surface of the ground, the aërial mirror is formed beneath the eye of
+the observer, by which the same phenomenon is produced that results from
+the reflection of objects on the surface of the water.
+
+In the present case the temperature of the atmosphere was about ten
+degrees higher than that of the sea's surface at the point of
+observation. The surface of the current of warm air appeared like a light
+fog, inclining in the East towards the Spanish coast, and in the
+South-east to South towards the surface of the sea. Where it was highest
+it reached nearly five degrees above the horizon. The images of the ships
+at anchor near Malaga, and those at sea under sail, appeared reversed, and
+assumed curiously fantastic forms, particularly in those places where the
+reflecting surface became irregular, and inclined towards the horizon. The
+appearance of these distorted ships in the air, joining in the most
+singular way the real ones actually floating on the sea,--the warm vapour
+which is from time to time wafted on the face of the observer, as well as
+the perfect and almost death-like stillness which, under such
+circumstances, prevails both on the sea and in the atmosphere, may easily
+produce the belief in a mysterious power, among a people who are generally
+prone to ascribe to supernatural agencies every phenomenon they cannot
+understand or explain.
+
+This "Fata Morgana"[10] was not merely interesting in itself, but also gave
+reason to indulge in the hope of a favourable wind. A light easterly
+breeze accordingly sprang up towards midnight, the current became
+reversed, the anchor was weighed, and all sail made with this favourable
+wind towards Gibraltar, the rock of which was distinctly recognizable
+through the misty air, at a distance of nearly sixty miles.
+
+[Footnote 10: The name Morgana is of Breton origin, and signifies "sea
+woman," from _mor_, sea, and _gan_, a fine woman;--the fairy mermaid of
+English legendary tales.]
+
+A calm still prevailed near Europa Point, but as the day wore on, the
+easterly breeze blew strong through the Straits, and, in company with
+innumerable other ships, the Pillars of Hercules were at length passed.
+The wind freshened, and the frigate cracked merrily on down mid-channel;
+for, though the set of the current was dead against us, yet the wind
+proved more than a match for it, which in our case was the more apparent,
+that those merchantmen which sailed along the coast, not having the
+advantage of this wind, seemed as though left motionless in the rear.
+
+When towards noon the _Novara_ was off the place where the _Caroline_ had
+been anchored, that ship was no longer visible. She had probably set sail
+in the morning. We supposed her to be among the crowd of ships which were
+sailing in the fog, but did not discover her, even after we had overtaken
+and examined all of them. We now endeavoured to reach the Atlantic as
+speedily as possible, making from nine to ten knots an hour, and, with
+joyful sensations, sailed through those beautiful straits, on whose shores
+the ancient world unrolled its grand panorama, thanking Providence here,
+at the entrance of that vast ocean, which now shone so brilliantly, that
+we were permitted to carry the Austrian flag into distant regions.
+
+At 4 P.M., aided by the fresh evening breeze, we passed the most southerly
+point of Europe. We were just going to dinner when the last glimpse of the
+old world passed before the cabin windows, and we gazed once more with
+sorrowing eyes at the rapidly-disappearing coast, which, illuminated by
+the rays of the setting sun, seemed to wave us a last farewell in letters
+of fire. However beautiful, however inspiring the prospect of our task;
+however inviting the magnificent ocean that lay extended under our eyes,
+magically lit up by the silvery beams of the bright moon shining from a
+starry sky, yet the painful sensations of parting with that old world,
+with which so many pleasing associations--so many cherished recollections
+were bound up, had a powerful influence, and gave rise to melancholy
+impressions, of which we were only relieved by the comforting hope that we
+should one day return to all so dear to us.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE TRAFALGAR.]
+
+The night was delightful. Not a single cloud obscured the sky, and the
+ship, with all sails swelled by a fair wind, ploughed the dark waves,
+leaving a glittering track behind. We were now on the ocean! Below, blue,
+foam-crested billows; above, the sky studded with stars;--below, the wide
+desert of the sea; above, the infallible guides to lead us safely through
+it.
+
+We awoke to new activity on that great element, which conceals so many
+charms and so many hardships, where the continued alternations of hope and
+fear, of enjoyment and privation--where weariness and disappointment, and
+yet again the new strength imparted by returning success--so excitingly
+animate, and so gloriously manifest the innate power of the human mind.
+
+Life on board, the various excitements at sea, the different countries and
+people seen during a voyage, all tend to arouse feelings and sensations
+which are reserved for the mariner alone, and which render his life, if he
+knows how to use it properly, happy and most enviable. At sea the mental
+and physical eye gains strength, man there seeks to unravel Nature in all
+her phases, and to know and to admire more thoroughly her works. The
+seaman owes his energy, his straightforwardness, and his piety, to a life
+spent in the midst of nature, to his direct intercourse with creation.
+Between him and the Sovereign of the Universe there is, as it were, no
+mediator--he lives and labours uninterruptedly on the steps of the throne
+of his Creator and Preserver. In this great temple he directs to Him alone
+his complaints, his thanks, and his prayers. At sea he learns law and
+order from Nature herself in her constantly-recurring functions; here he
+admires the omnipotence and goodness of God in the sunrise after a stormy
+night, and in the brightness of the moon that lights up his path; here he
+learns by his actual experience the truth of that maxim of life, that "God
+only helps him who helps himself."
+
+The wind, hitherto easterly, chopped round to the North-east, which,
+according to Maury's excellent directions and charts, may be considered as
+a trade wind, and in this season might be called so. In fact, the trade
+winds are produced by a current of air, which is directed towards the
+Equator, and only in consequence of the earth's motion round its axis
+acquires a north-easterly direction to the north of the equator, and a
+south-easterly to the south of it. But the trade winds become perceptible
+at a certain distance from the equator, or rather from the hottest zone of
+the earth's surface; and it is clear, that when the zone assumes a greater
+breadth, the boundary of the trade winds is extended further towards the
+poles, as the position of this zone and its heat obtained from the sun are
+the causes of these phenomena.
+
+This is exactly the case in these waters; Africa, with its sandy deserts,
+presents a broader zone of the greatest heat than is possible on the sea,
+and the trade winds, accordingly, reach further towards the north. Its
+direction, however, cannot always be north-easterly, and depends
+necessarily on the direction of the northern boundaries of this zone of
+greatest heat. Accordingly, we at first had a more northerly wind, which
+in our progress towards Madeira became much more easterly. The weather
+continued on the whole beautiful, the sea was calm, and only the increased
+length of the waves showed the greater expanse of water we were now
+navigating.
+
+We overtook some other ships, which were sailing towards the west. As we
+saw nothing of the _Caroline_, we concluded that she was considerably
+ahead. The current, which near Gibraltar has a westerly direction, tending
+towards the Mediterranean, loses its power at a distance from the land,
+and half-way to Madeira it changes its direction in such a way that the
+ship is carried imperceptibly southwards, though only a few miles a-day.
+This current is a lateral branch of the great Gulf Stream, which from the
+Gulf of Mexico is directed towards England, but about the latitude of New
+York sends off a branch in a south-easterly direction, which passes round
+Madeira, and, near the Canaries, takes a parallel direction with the coast
+of Africa and forms the commencement of the Guinea current. The
+temperature of the sea water, which in the midst of this current is
+generally rather higher than that of the air, indicates to the mariner
+that he is in the Stream, and he must take care that his ship is not
+carried more to the south out of its course than he wishes. This shows
+clearly of what importance ocean-currents are to navigation; and it
+becomes evident that it is the duty of the scientific navigator not only
+to find out their direction and strength, but to use all means at his
+command, in order to ascertain their general movement in given districts
+of ocean.
+
+For this latter purpose, it is customary (as often as circumstances seem
+to render it advisable) to throw overboard, and commit to the mercy of
+these currents, a well-corked empty bottle, in which has been deposited a
+card with the name and position of the ship. The bottle thus prepared, and
+made conspicuous by a covering of white linen cloth, or some such
+material, wanders hither and thither with the current, until it is picked
+up by some other ship, or is stranded anywhere on _terra firma_. The fact
+of such a bottle having been picked up is usually published, together with
+the particulars enclosed, by means of which it is obvious that an estimate
+can be formed of the average strength and direction of the current.
+
+At 1 P.M. each afternoon, it was our custom to despatch one of these
+ocean-posts, under given conditions; but only rarely did we afterwards
+receive any information with respect to them. In each bottle was placed a
+card with the following particulars, written in German, English, French,
+Italian, and Spanish:--
+
+"H.I.M. frigate, _Novara_, such and such a day of the week and month, hour
+at which thrown overboard, Longitude from Greenwich, Latitude. Whoever
+finds this bottle, which is about being thrown overboard well-corked and
+in good order, is requested to forward for publication, to the nearest
+spot at which there is a newspaper, the day, hour, latitude and longitude,
+in which the bottle has been found, together with the particulars of a
+similar nature already enclosed."
+
+On the 7th June, towards evening, we were not more than 55 nautical miles
+distant from the E. point of Madeira, and as the wind was favourable and
+pretty fresh, it became necessary to shorten sail, so as to reach the
+anchorage by daybreak.
+
+About 2.30 A.M., a vessel was perceived, which, by its lights, was made
+out to be a man-of-war. We now burned a port fire which was not merely
+replied to, but accompanied by signalling the number of the _Caroline_.
+She was steering exactly our own course, and after having had to struggle
+with calms on nearing the coast, we cast anchor together, in the roads of
+Funchal, in 32 fathoms, sandy bottom, immediately South of the Loo Rock, a
+singular-looking, lofty, conical rock, which marks the best anchorage for
+large ships. The U. S. corvette, _Dale_, lay in our vicinity, and sent a
+boat on board with an officer to extend to us the usual greetings, after
+which she saluted the Commodore's standard with a salute of thirteen
+guns,[11] which, as is the etiquette, we returned, gun for gun. We now had
+the pleasure of hearing that the small-pox had entirely disappeared on
+board the corvette _Caroline_, those attacked being now in a fair way of
+convalescence, while on board the _Novara_, the health of the ship's
+company was eminently satisfactory.
+
+[Footnote 11: Commodores of other nations receive only eleven guns by way
+of salute.]
+
+[Illustration: LOO ROCK (MADEIRA).]
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN MADEIRA.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+                               Madeira.
+
+               FROM THE 8TH TO THE 17TH OF JUNE, 1857.
+
+   First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the
+     Island.--History.--Unfavourable political circumstances
+     connected with the cultivation of the ground.--Aqueducts.--
+     First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its
+     Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a compensation for its loss.--
+     Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence
+     for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the
+     Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress
+     among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--
+     Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--
+     Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent
+     Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--
+     Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent
+     of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to
+     Funchal.--Departure.
+
+
+Delightful and striking is the first impression of Funchal, its luxuriant
+gardens smiling with gorgeous flowers, and its mountain sides cultivated
+almost to their summits; and although the grander and more gigantic forms
+of true tropical vegetation are wanting, and the landscape displays rather
+the character of an island off the shores of Italy than of the torrid
+zone--still Nature exhibits herself here with such varied charms that
+imagination can scarcely conceive a sweeter or lovelier scene. The most
+beautiful plants of the temperate and sub-tropical zones meet here in
+their highest development, whilst some representatives of the tropics
+intermixed enhance the richness of the wonderful picture. Odoriferous
+magnolias, large flowering tulip trees, plane trees, laurels, myrtles,
+acacias, passion and trumpet flowers, tree-like fuchsias with immense
+blossoms, gaudy hortensias, sweet-smelling roses, blooming oleanders,
+aloes, 40 feet high, in full flower, imposing camellias with shining green
+foliage, covered with beautiful rose-like flowers, chestnut trees,
+Brazilian pines, cypresses--all delight the eye, together with
+pomegranates, tamarinds, bananas, sugar-canes, coffee-shrubs, gigantic
+dragon trees, pine-apples, mangroves, papayas, and aquacatés. Certainly,
+at a later date, we met in the primitive forests of the Nicobar islands,
+or in Java, Luzon, and the Caroline islands, with grander and more
+imposing scenery; but none that surpassed in fragrance, luxuriance, and
+loveliness the floral beauty of Madeira.
+
+The anchorage of Funchal[12] is merely an open, exceedingly unsafe
+roadstead, which affords so little protection to ships that often in
+southerly winds they are obliged to get under sail. This is especially the
+case in the winter, when the sea often rushes into the small unprotected
+bay with fearful violence. In October, 1842, five vessels were cast on
+shore within the space of a few hours, and another sank whilst at anchor;
+a similar violent gale from the south raged in December, 1848, when a like
+number of ships met with the same fate, and were dashed to pieces. The
+British sloop of war _Daphne_ only escaped by making the open sea in time.
+In order to run less risk of being surprised by such gales, sailing
+vessels generally cast anchor to the south of the Loo Rock, where there is
+tolerably safe anchorage at a depth of twenty-five to thirty fathoms. In
+that position they are clear of the rocky headlands, and can therefore
+more easily set sail before the sea rushes in with all its irresistible
+violence. Steamers, which are better able to resist the force of the waves
+than sailing vessels, generally cast anchor nearer the shore, so that
+passengers may be more easily landed, and coals shipped with greater
+facility.
+
+[Footnote 12: The Portuguese for fennel-field, because the first
+discoverers of the island found this plant in great abundance.]
+
+The Portuguese Government has done nothing to compensate for the
+shortcomings of nature with regard to safe landing-places in this island,
+otherwise so highly favoured. Though the rocky condition of the Funchal
+roads, (the only anchorage for larger ships which the island possesses,)
+offers sufficient means for the construction of a harbour for boats and
+small vessels, yet the Government has hitherto done so little, that the
+landing of passengers can only be effected by small, peculiarly-built
+boats, which, whilst tossed by the waves, have to be drawn on shore by the
+natives wading knee-deep in the water. If, therefore, the ship remains any
+length of time at Funchal, the communication with the land is attended
+with considerable expense. We laid out, in payments to the boatmen, during
+a stay of nine days, the sum of forty-five Spanish piastres[13] (£9 15s.
+sterling), although they had not over-charged us.
+
+[Footnote 13: Spanish piastre = 4s. 4d. at par.]
+
+The formalities at the custom-house, which strangers--even those belonging
+to a ship-of-war of a friendly Power--have to go through, are extremely
+annoying, and entail a great loss of time. Before landing, passengers'
+boats are boarded in the open roads by officers, who are stationed a few
+cable lengths from the shore. On landing, the stranger is obliged to
+repair to the custom-house, where even small and open packages are
+subjected to a second rigid examination. The time lost during this
+process, unnecessarily minute, is exceedingly unpleasant. The reason
+assigned for these vexatious regulations is the extent to which, of late,
+smuggling has been carried on in the island, and which, in the opinion of
+the Governor, required these measures of precaution. It seems, however,
+that this system rather promotes contraband trading, by making it very
+lucrative. The Austrian consul, Charles Bianchi, Esq., did all in his
+power to diminish the frequency of the continual examinations, and
+likewise, in all other respects, endeavoured to promote the objects of the
+Expedition.
+
+The greatest length of the island of Madeira, from Ponta Furado in the
+east, to Ponta do Pargo, in the west, amounts to 30 miles; its greatest
+breadth, from Ponta do Cruz in the south, to Ponta do Saõ Jorge in the
+north, is 12-1/2 miles, and its area is about 240 square miles. This
+volcanic and mountainous island is intersected by innumerable deep ravines
+and defiles, and its whole surface is so much broken and irregular, that
+the representation Columbus once gave to Queen Isabella, of the Island of
+Jamaica, when she asked him for a description of its configuration, might
+perfectly be applied to the aspect of Madeira also. The great navigator,
+after having crushed a sheet of paper in his hand, and partly opened it
+again, placed it on the table, saying, he could convey to Her Majesty no
+clearer idea of that island than that crumpled piece of paper afforded.
+
+A large portion of the island is not susceptible of cultivation; for the
+heathy region which constitutes nearly one-third of its surface, and rises
+to a height of about 2500 feet above the level of the sea, is extremely
+steep, and too much exposed to winds and rains in summer, to admit of any
+kind of cultivation, even that of grain; whilst another not less
+considerable tract is too rocky and precipitous for that purpose. In the
+south of the island, the highest limit of cultivation is estimated to be
+at a height of 2500 feet, though in several places rye and barley grow at
+2800 feet. In the north of the island, where a better system of irrigation
+prevails, the extreme boundary of cultivation reaches a higher altitude,
+and on the declivities of the Ribeiro Frio, it is met with at an elevation
+of above 3000 feet.
+
+The earlier history of the island has had such a great influence upon its
+present industrial and social condition, that a few remarks on the most
+important features of its history may find a place here.
+
+Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joaõ Gonsalvo da
+Camara[14] and Tristaõ Teixeira, and, about 1421, a colony of Europeans
+settled on the island. Camara obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the
+south-eastern, and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together
+with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was then the
+principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico that of Teixeira's.
+These two recipients (_donatarios_) enjoyed the exclusive privileges of
+erecting flour and saw mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for
+public baking (private baking being permitted to all); they, moreover, had
+the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims upon the tithes of the royal
+revenues, and were empowered to grant portions of the land to settlers.
+Every settler was required to erect within five years a house, a cottage,
+or barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these conditions, at
+the expiration of the fixed period, had not been complied with, the donor
+had the right of granting the land to some one else. These grants were
+hereditary, and lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event
+of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary privileges and
+immunities were deemed necessary in order to reconcile the holders with
+the dubious character of the early settlers in the island; for, though in
+those times the highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous
+expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison and convict
+hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had much more the character of
+a place of banishment for criminals than that of a colony of free
+emigrants.
+
+[Footnote 14: Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.]
+
+With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first settlers are
+said to have set on fire so large a portion of the primeval forests, that
+they were soon unable to check the conflagration. According to old
+writers, the fire, particularly in the south of the island, lasted several
+years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that many persons in
+order to escape from it, sought refuge on board the ships in the roads of
+Funchal.[15]
+
+[Footnote 15: The name _Madeira_, signifying in Portuguese "timber or
+wood," justifies the statement that the island was at one time richly
+wooded.]
+
+This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by ancient and
+modern authors, is being avenged even at present, though centuries have
+passed since the deed. The cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no
+longer to be found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old
+houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show the magnitude
+which this noble tree formerly attained in the island. Of the dragon tree
+(_Dracæna Draco_), which was once the ornament of the forests of Madeira,
+there are at present, in the whole island, only six or seven specimens in
+existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers. The Til-tree
+(_Oreodaphne f[oe]tens_), the Vinhatico (_Persea indica_), and the Folhado
+(_Clethra arborea_), formerly the most numerous representatives of the
+native flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with, and
+their places are occupied by plants and trees of the temperate zone,
+particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit of which furnishes the
+inhabitants with food, whilst the tree itself has served hitherto in the
+north of the island as a support to the vine. The destruction of the
+forests has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the
+modification of the climate in general, and to the diminution of humidity
+in particular. At the date of the discovery of the island, and a long time
+after, the Rio Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to
+have been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the sea; at
+present this river is quite insignificant, and almost dried up.
+
+The island remained for two centuries in the possession of the direct
+heirs of the original owners, and when at last, from want of legal
+successors, these privileges lapsed, the crown granted them to other
+favourites; but with some restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and
+saw mills was then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other
+privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the first
+settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable property in land,
+whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane, now very generally adopted, the
+introduction of negro slaves from Africa, and the foundation of large
+estates, contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants. The
+ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the island are even now
+mute witnesses of the opulence of their former occupants.
+
+This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the beginning of the
+last century, materially affected by the introduction of the so-called
+_vinculos_ or entails, which, introduced under the protection and in
+favour of the church, were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich
+proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in order to have
+masses said for the repose of their souls, and encumbered their lands with
+so many burdens, that only a small remainder fell to their heirs. So long
+as these claims were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases
+for a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on their
+lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a _morgado_ (entailed
+property). Under the severe but wise administration of the Marquis of
+Pombal, a law was passed which forbade the future creation of morgados
+(unless the property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and even
+then the special licence of the crown had to be obtained), declaring the
+whole system of entails "as contrary to the rights of property and the
+well-founded claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom
+Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe, as it allowed
+at the same time the abolition of single entails, the value of which was
+below 200 Spanish piastres annually, as well as that of every morgado,
+the annual value of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As,
+however, a great number of these entails exceed 200 piastres, these
+oppressive restrictions still weigh upon four-fifths of the land,
+notwithstanding the above-mentioned laws. Among the creditors who still
+have claims, there are three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar
+institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital of Funchal,
+and the Portuguese Government. The institution of these vinculos and
+morgados produced a kind of feudal dependency between the cultivator of
+the estates (_caseiro_) and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the
+occasion of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the
+caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land produced; when the
+landlord removed from the town into the country, the caseiro carried his
+litter and luggage; in conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as
+_meu amo_ (my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of these
+usages, and in various ways altered the relation between the caseiro and
+the landlord.
+
+Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the system of
+parcelling ground into small allotments, which has been continued up to
+the present time. The farms are in general extremely small. In the richer
+and more fertile parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent,
+very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not even the tenth
+part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho, the proprietor of nearly
+one-third of the whole island, had upwards of eight thousand tenants.
+Supposing that this mode of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds,
+there would be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or, taking
+the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth inhabitant would be a
+tenant farmer. This state of things is not to be wondered at, considering
+that almost every day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent
+of which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large garden bed, on
+which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs, peaches, sugar-cane, and
+sometimes even grain.
+
+In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has made more
+progress than in the south, rent is paid in money; generally, however, the
+system of paying in kind is still in existence, in which the harvest,
+(after deducting the _tithe_, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and
+not to the church,) is divided between the landlord and the tenants.
+According to this principle the landlord receives half of the produce of
+the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane, wine, fruit or vegetables, which are
+brought for sale, and not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes
+happens, however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on the
+ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in agriculture. They are
+diminutive and singularly unsightly, but of a very powerful breed, and
+furnish very good meat for the table. They are generally fed in stalls,
+but in the mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are
+only a few badly-fed sheep on the island, so that the mutton is almost
+unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are in abundance, and the rearing of
+poultry is generally the principal means of living possessed by the
+peasantry. What is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and
+boars to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few rabbits we
+saw were perfectly identical with the European species (_Lepus
+cuniculus_), and lead to the supposition that rabbits as well as pigs, now
+found in a wild state here and there on the island, are only the progeny
+of those which have formerly been introduced from Europe.
+
+The numerous open and walled water conduits (_levadas_), which are of
+considerable height, and lead to all parts of the cultivated land, are of
+particular importance. Each levada is placed under the superintendence of
+a committee, selected mostly from the landowners, who have a direct
+interest in them. Sometimes one person only, generally the most
+considerable landowner of the district, under the title of _juiz da
+levada_, is entrusted with the control of the water, and receives for his
+services the use of the water during twenty-four hours. The right of using
+these levadas is very strictly guarded, and often leads to law
+proceedings. Every piece of ground within a district through which such a
+conduit runs, is entitled to the use of the water by turns, during a
+certain number of hours (generally not more than twenty-four). These turns
+are different, according to the extent of the district, from fifteen to
+forty days. The distribution of the water is entrusted to a so-called
+_levadeiro_, who places himself at the upper end of the land through which
+the water is to flow, and with an hour-glass in his hand measures--a
+modern Saturn--the time during which the owner is entitled to the use of
+the beneficent element. After the expiration of the fixed period, the
+water is made to pass on to the ground of another proprietor. These
+conduits, so extremely important to the farmer, were constructed partly at
+the expense of the Government, and partly by the contributions of the
+landed proprietors. Those who have no other title may obtain the right to
+this privilege either by purchase or by government grant. For every
+twenty-four hours' use of the levadas 400 reis[16] are paid, which tax is
+employed to keep them in good order.
+
+[Footnote 16: 1000 reis or milreis=to one Spanish piastre, or about 4s.
+4d.]
+
+The high roads of Madeira are, with but few exceptions, in a deplorable
+condition. They are generally laid with small pointed stones, and at
+numerous places they have an inclination of from 23 to 27 degrees. Every
+adult male native is obliged to pay annually one Spanish piastre, or to
+give five days' labour for their repair. On account of the bad condition
+of the roads in the interior of the island, most of the natural produce is
+conveyed from one place to another in boats, or, as is the case with wine,
+is carried to the harbour in skins and casks, on the backs of the
+inhabitants.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE RIBEIRO SECO.]
+
+The first attempt at cultivation in Madeira was the planting of
+sugar-canes, introduced soon after the discovery of the island, through
+the instrumentality of Prince Henry of Portugal (son of John I.), which
+grew so abundantly, that for a considerable period the produce of the
+island sufficed for the supply of the whole kingdom of Portugal. In
+commemoration of this flourishing epoch, as regards the cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, two sugar-loaves were introduced into the arms of the island.
+In the year 1452 was erected the first sugar factory, near Machica, and at
+the end of the fifteenth century there existed as many as 120, in which
+slaves chiefly were employed. The Jesuit, Antonio Cordeyro, who wrote his
+_Historia Insulana Lusitana_ at the beginning of last century, makes
+mention of a considerable number of sugar factories, which had been
+erected in almost every part of the south coast. On the estate of the
+Genoese, Juan Esmeralda, half a league from Ribeiro do Taboa, there were
+annually manufactured 20,000 arrobas[17] of sugar. By degrees, however, the
+culture of the cane fell, into decay, whether through disease of the plant
+or its cheaper production in the Brazils and West Indies is not known, so
+that in the year 1840, only two sugar factories were at work in the whole
+island; and even these only produce molasses and rum, of which the latter,
+in the year 1856, amounted to 1500 pipes. The cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, however, has increased since the vine disease has fallen so
+heavily on the landowner. In the summer of 1857, there were eighteen
+factories again in activity on the island, though so late as 1855, the
+importation of sugar, for the consumption of the island, amounted to but
+31,176 arrobas.[18]
+
+[Footnote 17: One arroba = 32 arrateles or pounds. One pipe = 108 gallons.]
+
+[Footnote 18: From 64 lbs. of sugar-cane are obtained 4 galls. of juice,
+and from 4 galls. of juice are made 8 galls. of rum. The average price was
+2200 reis per gal. of sugar-juice. The rum of commerce (from 22 to 23
+degrees) is sold at one Spanish piastre the gallon.]
+
+The greatest elevation at which, in the south of the island, the
+sugar-cane can be grown, is, like that of the banana tree, about 1000 feet
+above the level of the sea. In the north, the cultivation of the cane
+would be remunerative only at those points where, as, for instance, at
+Fayal and San Jorge, ground and temperature are most favourable for it. To
+judge by the soil and climate, the cultivation of the cane in Madeira
+might, with care, even at the present time, prove advantageous. In the
+south-west part of Lousiana, where, in 1796, this plant was introduced
+exclusively for the manufacture of _Taffia_,[19] there exist at present as
+many as 1500 sugar factories, producing annually, on an average, 200,000
+hogsheads of sugar. The planter of Madeira is not, as in Lousiana, obliged
+by the frost to cut the cane before it is ripe; there it ripens
+thoroughly, blooms in January, and is harvested in March.
+
+[Footnote 19: A beverage resembling brandy in taste, much liked in the West
+Indies.]
+
+The motive power of the sugar-mills is mostly water and steam. There are
+also a dozen large distilleries at work, possessing the most modern
+English improvements. An acre of land, planted with sugar-cane, is said to
+yield from 100 to 120 Spanish piastres, a result for the landowner more
+profitable than that arising from the cultivation of the vine, even in its
+best days.
+
+As regards the culture of cotton, for which the climate and soil are
+peculiarly suitable, no attempt has as yet been made. The same remark
+applies to olive trees; though the Government ordered the latter to be
+planted so long ago as 1768. The cultivation of tobacco, however, is
+prevented from extending, being a government monopoly. As for wheat, it
+is not produced in sufficient quantity to meet one quarter of the
+consumption of the inhabitants. In the year 1854, wheat, to the amount of
+216,918 bushels, was imported from the north of Africa alone, a quantity
+nearly twice as great as that which the island produces. Wheat and maize,
+or Indian corn, are also imported from the Azores, and some ports of the
+Mediterranean; an importation which is likely rather to increase than
+decrease.
+
+The potato belongs to that small class of vegetables which grow at
+considerable elevations, and, by proper irrigation and dressing of the
+ground, three harvests may be obtained in the course of the year.
+
+The Inhame [not the Yam (_Dioscorea alata_) of the West Indies and South
+America, but a kind of grume (_Colocasia esculenta_)] grows in large
+quantities near to rivers and water conduits, where the ground is humid.
+It is much sought for by the people, on account of its cheapness, though
+rather a coarse kind of food, which, as Cordeyro naïvely says, "picao
+algum tanto na garganta" (scratches the throat).
+
+Sweet potatoes (_Convolvulus edulis_, Lin.), water-melons, gourds, as well
+as all kinds of European garden vegetables, are found throughout the year
+in the market, though not of a particularly good quality. Oranges, lemons,
+bananas, guavas, pine-apples, figs, apricots, and peaches, are abundant
+during the summer season, and on higher ground even apple and pear-trees
+are to be met with.
+
+On the "Desertas," three uninhabited little islands south-east of
+Madeira, and belonging to it, there grows on the rocks the orchilla
+(_Rocella tinctoria_), a species of lichen, celebrated for yielding a fine
+purple colour, much used in dyeing. Considering the great importance for
+industrial purposes of this lichen, it might, with some care, be
+advantageously grown in Madeira. Formerly there was a small quantity
+brought to market, and sold for 14,000 reis the quintal. At the present
+time the yield has entirely ceased, though it is found in large quantities
+in the neighbouring islands. It is considered not to be of such good
+quality as that of the Azores, where, as is the case with all lichens,
+that grow in more southern and warmer climates, it is of a better quality,
+and more highly esteemed.
+
+The product, however, which hitherto has yielded the largest profit to the
+natives, and made the name of Madeira famous and familiar, even to those
+who do not profess a particular interest in the beauties of nature in this
+romantic island, is its _wine_. Though this article of exportation has,
+through the vine disease, entirely lost its former importance, yet it may
+be of some interest to take a glance at its history and culture, in order
+the better to comprehend the magnitude of the calamities that have
+overwhelmed the people of Madeira, in consequence of the bad vintages of
+the last seven years.
+
+The vine was introduced from Cyprus, almost at the same time with the
+sugar-cane, under the auspices of Prince Henry of Portugal, in 1425, but
+its culture did not attain much importance till the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. Some authors even suppose that the wine of Madeira owes
+its reputation chiefly to those plants which were, at a much later date,
+imported by the Jesuits from Candia. This much is certain, that the
+produce grown on the estates of the Jesuits greatly surpassed in quality
+all others in the island, and maintained a higher price in the market even
+when those estates had changed hands. The grape ripens in the north at an
+elevation of 2700 feet, but such as are fitted for the manufacture of
+wine, grow only as high as the Curral das Freiras (2080 feet).
+
+Hitherto four sorts of vines have been cultivated in the island, namely,
+the _Bual_ and _Tinta_, both of which were brought from Burgundy, the
+_Sercial_ from the Rhine, and the _Malvasia_ or _Malmsey_ from Candia.
+There are four species of the last-mentioned, (_candila_, _roxa_,
+_babosa_, and _propea_); the delicious flavour of which by many people is
+considered to have a great similarity with the Hungarian _Tokayer_. The
+most esteemed sorts were grown west of Funchal, near Cama de Lobos, and
+Estreita. Excellent qualities were grown also at Santa Cruz, on the north
+side of the island, and the valleys near Ponta da Cruz; in general,
+however, the grape of the northern district proved to be of inferior
+quality, and was therefore only used in the manufacture of rum. In the
+north the vines were trained on chestnut trees, but in the south, as in
+Lombardy and the Tyrol, in festoons, supported by a kind of cane (_Arundo
+sagittata_), and tied up by a species of willow (_Salex rubra_),
+specially cultivated for that purpose.
+
+Though nearly a fifth of the cultivated portion of the island was thus
+planted, yet the individual vineyards were but small in extent, the
+largest of them not exceeding three or four acres. In the wine-growing
+countries of Europe fresh plants are set at least every twenty years; but
+in Madeira they are allowed to remain in the ground so long as they yield
+any fruit. The native growers do not relish improvements; of all the
+agricultural implements which some English landowners, settled near
+Funchal, wished to introduce, the garden-rake alone was adopted by these
+enemies of innovation. The vineyards of Madeira were usually let out to
+farmers (_caseiros_), and rarely cultivated by the proprietors themselves.
+The yield of an acre was estimated at from one to three pipes. In 1848 the
+cost of producing a pipe of Madeira amounted to from 12 to 40 Spanish
+piastres. In the same year the total production of the island amounted to
+30,000 pipes, of which only 10,000 were exported, as the inferior sorts,
+not keeping well, are not suited for the foreign markets. Of the wines
+exported, half went to Russia and the Baltic provinces, the other,
+comprising the best kinds, were sent to England, the West Indies, and the
+United States. Up to the year 1851, when the last good vintage occurred,
+the price of a pipe varied from 12 to 14 Spanish piastres. So late as
+1845, when the Danish corvette _Galatea_, on her voyage round the world
+for scientific purposes, put in at this island, the inferior sorts were
+so cheap that Captain Steen Bille considered it more profitable to supply
+the crew with wine mixed with water than beer. Since that time prices have
+become ten times higher, and the best quality now sells for from £110 to
+£150 a pipe, and will doubtless rise in proportion as the older stores are
+exhausted.
+
+Though the yield of the vine had been decreasing, year after year, for a
+considerable time, yet the actual vine disease only made its appearance in
+1852, when the leaves and fruit were covered with a kind of fungus
+(_Oïdium Tuckeri_),[20] like a white dust. The Portuguese Government sent a
+commission for the purpose of investigating the causes of the calamity.
+The report[21] is not decisive on the point, whether the fungus is the real
+cause or only a symptom of the disease, nor does it offer any advice as to
+how it may be checked. Dr. Hermann Schacht,[22] who resided during a period
+of 18 months in the island, and has published a valuable treatise, states
+that the vine-disease appears there in the same form as in Germany, even
+as regards the season, which is soon after the blossom disappears. At
+first the young leaf is covered with a whitish matter, chiefly on its
+lower side; it then assumes a crumpled appearance, becomes spotted, and
+at last decays. The young diseased grape likewise becomes covered with a
+white dust, at first partially, and then entirely, the green skin by
+degrees assuming a brown colour, the grape increasing at same time in
+size, until it as large as a currant, or a small cherry, when it becomes
+black, and perishes together with its diseased stock. In this decayed
+condition the grapes remain on the vine till late in the autumn. Dr.
+Schacht was successful in arresting the progress of the disease in its
+earlier stages, by washing all parts of the plant with a solution
+consisting of one part of glue to sixteen parts of water; an operation
+which had been likewise performed with good effect in the Royal hothouses
+of Sans-souci in Prussia. He rubbed the leaves and grapes infected by the
+fungus with this solution, and, where possible, dipped the grapes in it.
+The solution very soon dried, and gave the grapes and leaves a glossy
+appearance. All that had once been operated upon in this way remained in a
+healthy condition, and even those affected by the fungus recovered beneath
+the crust, the operation thus seeming to afford a protection against the
+fungus. The practice of strewing the plant over with powdered sulphur,
+which was so much lauded, seems to be of little use. At Teneriffe, Dr.
+Schacht found the fungus widely spread, notwithstanding the application of
+sulphur. Keeping the grape close upon the ground is also recommended as a
+protection against the disease, having proved very successful in the
+south.
+
+[Footnote 20: Vide Botanical Gazette of 1852, page 9; of 1853, page 583;
+and of 1854, page 137;--Fulasne, "Sur le Champignon, qui cause la Maladie
+de la Vigne."--_Comptes Rendus_, vol. xxvii. 1853;--Dr. Schacht on
+Madeira, pages 52 to 58.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Memoria primero sobre a mangra e doenza das vinhas nas ilhas
+da Madeira e Porto Santo, por Joao de Andrade Corvo. Lisbon. 1854.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Madeira und Teneriffa mit ihrer Vegetation, &c. Von Dr. H.
+Schacht. Berlin. 1859.]
+
+The pecuniary loss sustained since the first appearance of the malady
+amounted in the autumn of 1852 to 1,137,990 Spanish piastres, £190,000,[23]
+and after having waited in vain a period of five years, for a better state
+of things, the impoverished landowners entirely gave up cultivating the
+vine. A traveller who chances now to visit Madeira can scarcely believe
+that but a few years ago the greater portion of the island was covered
+with the plant. The cause of its disappearance must, however, not be
+ascribed entirely to the disease, but partly also to the utter neglect of
+its culture in favour of that of other products, so much so that of late
+it was scarcely possible to procure a sufficient quantity of grapes for
+invalids to whom they were medicinally prescribed. Moreover, the sugar
+plantations, which annually increase in extent, have contributed to the
+destruction of the vines, as the former require irrigation, which causes
+the roots of the latter to rot in the humid ground.[24]
+
+[Footnote 23: The quantity of wine produced amounted, in the year 1851, to
+10,374 pipes; in the following year (1852), only to 1413-1/2 pipes.]
+
+[Footnote 24: The vine disease seems, however, to have been already
+prevalent in Madeira at a former period. In an old lease, referring to
+land or property in the west of the island, there is a clause to the
+effect that "In the event of the young grape being covered with mildew
+(_mangra_), the contract would be null and void." In Portugal also, the
+disease is said to have existed more than fifty years ago, though not to a
+great extent.]
+
+The present situation of the people of Madeira claims alike the sympathies
+of the philanthropist and the attention of the political economist. We
+here behold a population of upwards of a hundred thousand souls, deprived
+at once of a product, which has been for more than three centuries the
+principal means of obtaining their living, and by which many an
+industrious grower made a considerable fortune.
+
+The farmer of Madeira, accustomed for generations to this branch of
+industry, is now forced to apply his energies to another, on the fortunate
+selection of which will depend his welfare for the future, or at least for
+years to come.
+
+Some of the wealthier growers have not entirely abandoned the culture of
+the vine, and have been assisted in their endeavours by the Consul of the
+United States in Funchal, the liberal-minded Mr. Marsh; experiments were
+made by engrafting and setting fresh and healthy plants, brought from the
+banks of the Ohio. They proceeded on the principle, that it is most
+advisable, and likely to be productive of the best success, to obtain
+young plants only from countries where the disease has never appeared. The
+choice fell upon the Isabella and Catawba grapes, which are indigenous to
+the United States; and, whatever may be the final success, the merit of
+transplanting, at a considerable expense, these two North-American grapes
+to Madeira, is due to Mr. Marsh. It is, however, a question, whether they
+will be able to replace those hitherto cultivated, the conditions of
+climate and soil being so different. As is well known, none of the
+European vines succeed in North America; and the two indigenous sorts,
+which are grown in great quantities on the banks of the Ohio and the
+Missouri, cannot stand a comparison with any of our finer kinds. The juice
+of the American grapes is best suited for the manufacture of what is
+called sparkling hock, which is very like the Austrian Schaumwein.
+
+Some of the wealthier landowners formed an association for the purpose of
+introducing the culture of cochineal, to supply the place of that of the
+vine. Several plantations of nopal, or cactus, were laid out, and the
+first harvest was gathered in 1858. The nopal (_Opuntia cochinillifera_)
+is the only kind of cactus on which the cochineal insect breeds, and the
+south of the island, up to an elevation of 500 feet, the only part adapted
+for its cultivation. An attempt was made to introduce the culture of
+cochineal in the island by Señor Miguel de Carvalho, as far back as 1836.
+But the indifference of the people, and their prejudices against
+innovation, as well as the limited spirit of enterprise possessed by the
+native merchants, rendered the attempt, in that instance, abortive. In
+consequence, however, of the vine disease, the idea of cultivating
+cochineal was resumed, without considering, as it would appear, the
+probable results in a mercantile point of view. At the time of our visit
+there were about thirty acres of land planted with cactus, and the "seed"
+of the cochineal insect was expected from the Canary Islands. One cannot
+but think the notion of substituting the cultivation of cochineal for that
+of the vine was not a lucky one, the large capital required, and the
+limited market for the article, holding out small chance of success. The
+entire consumption of cochineal in the whole world amounts to no more than
+about 30,000 quintals, and towards this quantity, Guatemala furnishes
+15,000, the Canary Islands 6000, Mexico 8000, Java and the Philippine
+Islands together 1000 quintals. There is little prospect, therefore, that
+the cochineal culture of Madeira will ever become an important source of
+gain, or advantageously compensate for the loss of the vine. Few
+landowners in the island seem to possess sufficient means to withstand the
+chances and fluctuations to which its culture is subject. To illustrate
+this, it may be mentioned, that during our visit to the highlands of
+Guatemala, in 1854, when the cochineal harvest was bad, the tercio (150
+lbs.) of cochineal cost 140 Spanish piastres. In the following year, when
+it was unusually productive, the price declined to 80 piastres. A tercio
+of dried cochineal costs the grower, or nopalero, about 50 piastres; a
+nopal plantation must lie fallow every third year, being consequently only
+productive during two years. Have the landowners of Madeira considered all
+these disadvantages, and will they be able to bear all the drawbacks
+peculiar to the culture of cochineal? The climate and soil seem to hold
+out far greater advantages for the cultivation of the sugar-cane, coffee,
+cotton, and tobacco.
+
+There are few spots on the earth's surface which possess a climate so
+delightful, and so little subject to extremes as Madeira, the mean annual
+temperature being 64 degrees Fahrenheit, or only 5 degrees higher than in
+the most southern parts of Europe. The lowest temperature during five
+years' observation was 50 degrees, the highest, 74. An invalid residing at
+Funchal, within his own doors, may always have a temperature not lower
+than 64, nor higher than 74 degrees. Violent siroccos occur in the course
+of the summer, which drive the thermometer up to 90 degrees in the shade;
+these storms, however, occur only twice or thrice a year, and rarely last
+longer than a couple of days. Dr. Renton, who lived in Madeira from 1825
+to 1831, only once during all that time saw the thermometer marking 90
+degrees, two hours after sunset. The rainy season, marked by west and
+south-west winds, begins at the end of September or the beginning of
+October. In November the weather clears up, and generally keeps fine till
+the end of December. At this period snow falls on the mountains, and rain
+at Funchal, accompanied by north-westerly winds, lasting till about the
+end of February, during which time the weather is wet. The remainder of
+the year is comparatively dry, the annual fall of rain at Madeira
+amounting, according to Sir James Clark,[25] to 36 inches, there being in
+all about 73 wet days,[26] whilst at Rome, for instance, it rains, on an
+average, during 117 days, though the amount of rain-fall is only 29
+inches.
+
+[Footnote 25: On the Sanative Influence of the Climate of Madeira. By Sir
+James Clark. London. 1841.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The fall of rain, according to Dr. Hoberdon's observations,
+is, on a seven years' average, 30·62 inches per annum. Dr. Mittermayr,
+from Heidelberg, states, on a three years' average, the rainy days to be
+95 per year. Johnston, in his Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, states
+the fall of rain on an average to be 29·82 inches, and the number of rainy
+days 100 per annum, viz. 48 in the winter, 17 in the spring, 4 in the
+summer, and 31 in the autumn.]
+
+In some respects the winter is warmer at Madeira than the summer, owing to
+the north-westerly winds and the regular sea-breezes of that season,
+which keep the atmosphere continually at an even temperature; and hence
+the island is the favourite resort of consumptive patients during the
+winter season. England, which seems to possess the very unenviable
+privilege of furnishing to the annual mortality in Europe the most
+numerous contingent of phthisical patients, provides this island likewise
+with the greatest number of this, the most to be pitied of all classes of
+patients. The climate of Madeira will, however, be of little benefit in
+advanced and decided cases; although it seems to have a curative effect on
+young people in the first stage of the malady, as well as in cases where,
+being hereditary, its presence is merely apprehended.
+
+The number of strangers who annually, during the winter, resort to Madeira
+for the benefit of their health, amounts to from 400 to 500, and the money
+thereby circulated in the island reaches the sum of about £30,000. The
+number of English alone in the year 1855 was 285. But in the winter of
+1856-57, the English invalids who came to Madeira scarcely reached 100.
+The reason of this was another calamity, the cholera, which suddenly made
+its appearance in Funchal on the 4th of July, 1856. Until this epoch, the
+island had been spared this devastating scourge of our time. The epidemic
+is said to have been introduced by a detachment of Portuguese troops,
+which shortly before had arrived from Lisbon, where cholera was then
+raging. The circumstances under which this epidemic appeared in Madeira
+leave little doubt of the correctness of this supposition, and seem to
+confirm the view of Professor Pettenkofer,[27] relative to the importation
+of the disease by ships, and its propagation by human excrements, a theory
+advanced by this learned German physician in his famous work, with as much
+soundness as sagacity.
+
+The first individuals attacked were four soldiers of the 1st battalion of
+infantry, and the first who fell a victim to the epidemic was a boatman,
+who had landed some of the soldiers from the steamer. He was attacked on
+the 7th of July, at 1 P.M., and nine hours afterwards was a corpse. A few
+weeks later the scourge had spread over the whole island, raging with
+fatal severity, in consequence of the poverty, distress, and helplessness
+of the inhabitants. We cannot forbear mentioning a phenomenon observed at
+the time of the first appearance of the pestilence by Major Dom Pedro de
+Azevedo, one of the most distinguished men in Funchal. According to the
+observations regularly made by him, during two years, with reference to
+the quantity of ozone[28] contained in the atmosphere, he found that, as
+long as the pestilence was raging, it scarcely amounted to 2, whilst,
+under normal circumstances, the quantity, according to the ozonometer of
+Schönbein, is said to reach 6 to 7.
+
+[Footnote 27: Dr. Pettenkofer's Investigations and Observations on the
+Spread of Cholera. Munich. 1855.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Ozone, or oxygen in an allotropic condition, is found in more
+perceptible quantity in pure localities than in those where great
+quantities of putrescent substances are accumulated, as the ozone
+disappears by oxidation. Observations on the quantity of ozone contained
+in the air during an epidemic are, therefore, of great interest, because
+they may throw a light on the influences of the atmosphere in the
+propagation of certain diseases.]
+
+In the beginning of October the malady gradually began to decrease, the
+last case which happened on the island occurring at Funchal, on the 16th
+December, 1856. It appears, from official reports, that out of a
+population of 102,837 souls, 7041 fell victims to the epidemic; other
+statements, that seem not less reliable, even raise the number of fatal
+cases to a much larger figure. A variety of local circumstances tended to
+heighten the fearful violence of the epidemic: the great distress among
+the people, arising from the deficiency of the vintages during several
+years; the potato disease, which occurred in the summer of 1856, and
+deprived the population, whilst suffering from other calamities, of one of
+their most important means of sustenance; and finally, to bring
+misfortunes to a climax, even that source of gain was dried up which the
+people derived from the temporary residence of numerous wealthy families.
+Terrified by the reports which were in circulation as to the ravages
+caused by the cholera at Madeira, hundreds altered their original plan of
+passing the winter there, and even resident strangers, horror-stricken,
+left the island, which had been so suddenly converted from a paradise into
+a burial-ground. The loss arising from the latter cause is estimated at
+£20,000, an immense sum at a time when pestilence and famine were raging
+so fiercely. The British Government, as well as English philanthropists in
+general, deserve the highest praise for the liberality with which they
+promptly and generously hastened to the assistance of the sufferers. Soon
+as intelligence of the great distress arrived in London, two steamers of
+war, the _Salamander_ and _Hesper_, with provisions, medicine, clothing,
+bedding, and money, were despatched to Funchal, where the former arrived
+on the 18th and the latter on the 31st of October, 1856. This assistance
+essentially contributed to the rapid extinction of the epidemic, as it
+sufficed to relieve the more pressing wants.[29] Considerable contributions
+arrived also from the United States; and, according to public statements,
+the relief that came from foreign countries amounted to £8895.
+
+[Footnote 29: Old chronicles report that Madeira has been visited by a
+pestilential disease, that raged within the years 1521 to 1535. But the
+cholera was never in the island before the year 1856. The yellow fever is
+altogether unknown.]
+
+The commerce of the island was, as a matter of course, seriously affected
+by such a train of calamities. The principal exports had hitherto
+consisted of wine, cattle, fruit, and wicker-work; the first and most
+important of these articles--wine--had, as already stated, all but
+entirely disappeared from the list for several years, the small quantities
+still exported being merely the remnants of old stocks.
+
+According to custom-house registers, the entire value of the produce
+exported in 1851 amounted to £164,960, of which £96,950 were shipped in
+English, £26,500 in American, and £16,650 in Portuguese vessels. The
+exports of 1855 were only £95,470, and in 1855, when the wine export had
+entirely ceased, the value did not exceed £2400!
+
+The imports were of a more numerous and varied description; calico, cotton
+and woollen goods, hardware, spices and provisions from England; timber,
+salt meat, and other articles from the United States; grain from the
+Mediterranean and the Black Sea; and sugar, coffee, oil, rice, and other
+colonial produce from Lisbon and the Portuguese settlements. The commerce
+is almost entirely in the hands of the English,[30] whose liberality during
+the cholera epidemic has much raised them in the estimation of the
+inhabitants.
+
+[Footnote 30: Three-fifths of the 50,000 tons annually imported are
+_English_ manufactures.]
+
+The absence of a regular banking establishment is much felt by the trading
+community, particularly in times of temporary distress. Singularly enough
+there are few Portuguese coins to be met with, and even these are not
+liked by the inhabitants. The moneys chiefly in circulation are English
+and American gold and silver coins, French five-franc pieces, and Spanish
+dollars. The sailing vessels in the roads of Funchal are mostly under
+English and American flags. The steamers which keep up the intercourse
+between Europe and the Brazils call regularly at Funchal for mails and
+passengers,[31] and a steam-packet arrives regularly every fortnight on its
+way from Europe to South America.
+
+[Footnote 31: An English coal depôt has been established in Funchal since
+1848.]
+
+The trade carried on under ordinary circumstances is, as we have seen, by
+no means inconsiderable, and by proper management might enable the people
+to extricate themselves from their present depressed position; but though
+not exactly lazy, they are entirely deficient in the energy requisite for
+effectively improving their condition. Whenever they have enough of yams
+and potatoes, they no longer think of exerting themselves or of acquiring
+a more comfortable or independent mode of existence. Neither in Ireland,
+nor in the Silesian mountains, nor even amongst the Indians in North or
+South America, have we witnessed such a degree of poverty and wretchedness
+as we beheld among the labouring classes in the mountainous districts of
+this island. On entering a village, shoals of haggard-looking beggars
+covered with rags were seen, whose features indicated their unhealthy way
+of living, and an utter lack of the most common necessaries of life. The
+calamities of the last five years have certainly contributed to this
+excess of misery, and a traveller who visited Madeira twenty years ago,
+may have carried away with him quite a different impression of its
+inhabitants.
+
+The race inhabiting the island, notwithstanding some favourable
+exceptions, is rather unprepossessing and decrepit, owing to the elements
+of which it is composed. The first settlers, as already stated, belonged
+by no means to the better classes of Portugal, but consisted of a motley
+assemblage of ruffians, who came to the newly-discovered island merely in
+search of adventure. The admixture which afterwards took place with the
+black race imported from Africa, materially contributed to deteriorate the
+people both physically and morally. Though there is not one single pure
+negro in the whole island, yet the features of a considerable proportion
+of the inhabitants denote their African descent. In the population of
+Punta da Sol, a village on the west side of the island, the negro type is
+said to be exhibited in its strongest character.
+
+The dress of the native is extremely simple; a pair of white trowsers, a
+shirt, and linen jacket, constitute the entire toilette; with a few rare
+exceptions we never saw shoes: but even the poorest of the poor wears a
+curiously-shaped small cloth cap (_carapuça_) of a blue colour, with red
+lining, terminating in an erect pointed tail, six inches long. This seems
+to be a remnant of a turbaned head-dress, worn formerly by the inhabitants
+of the African coast, with whom the first settlers, allured by the
+slave-trade, once carried on an active intercourse.
+
+[Illustration: CARAPUÇA, OR CAP WORN BY THE NATIVES OF MADEIRA.]
+
+Many of the inhabitants of Funchal obtain their livelihood by acting as
+guides to strangers. The roads being very steep, and formed of pointed
+stones, horses of an excellent breed are used in going even short
+distances; however fast the visitors may gallop, the guide follows the
+horses on foot, to which the natives are habituated from their earliest
+years. This practice is undoubtedly one of the principal causes of
+consumptive complaints, which are more frequently met with here than might
+have been expected considering the climate, though bad nourishment and
+unhealthy dwellings may have their part in causing the prevalence of the
+malady. The common people are mostly lodged in small low cabins of wood or
+timber, thatched with straw, the only opening being the door, through
+which air and light are admitted. Their sleeping-places are wooden
+benches, covered with straw, raised only one or two feet from a ground
+which, during nine months of the year, is damp.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to state that the wealthier classes offer a more
+pleasing aspect. They are extremely obliging, kind, and attentive towards
+strangers, and evidently endeavour to impress the visitor with favourable
+ideas of themselves and the island. To the hospitality of the Austrian
+Consul, as well as to Major P. A. de Azevedo and Don Juan Muniz, so
+deservedly celebrated for his knowledge of the flora of Madeira, the
+members of the _Novara_ expedition are indebted for many a happy and
+delightful hour.
+
+The population is perceptibly on the decrease. The causes are emigration
+to the British West Indies, and devastation by the cholera. The number of
+inhabitants in the two islands, in 1836, amounted to 115,446; in 1854, to
+103,296; and in 1855, to only 102,183. The emigrants during the last
+twenty-five years (1835 to 1860) are said to have amounted to 40,000, many
+of whom depart secretly, in order to avoid the heavy emigration tax.
+
+Numerous benevolent institutions indicate the charitable disposition of
+the inhabitants. The hospital, or Santa Casa de Misericordia, standing in
+a beautiful square, planted with planes and magnolias, can receive 104
+patients, and is exceedingly well managed. It appears, however, rather
+singular that the surgical are separated from the medical cases, whilst no
+separation exists amongst the patients who may happen to be labouring
+under contagious diseases. The most frequently recurring diseases are
+cutaneous, a circumstance which need excite no surprise in a country where
+the natives pay so little attention to the cleanliness of their bodies,
+and where Government itself favours as it were this carelessness by
+levying a considerable tax upon the importation of soap! Dysentery
+prevails throughout the year; intermittent fever and inflammatory diseases
+occur more rarely; but apoplectic cases are at times very numerous. The
+nominal amount of the funds of the hospital is estimated at £40,000; the
+annual income being about £1800 sterling.
+
+The hospital for lepers is fitted up for the reception of about forty
+patients, most of whom come from places in which the black has least mixed
+with the white race.
+
+The workhouse, for 230 paupers, was founded in 1847 by public
+subscription, and has an annual income of from 3000 to 4000 piastres.
+
+The nunnery of St. Isabel, for the reception of female orphans, was
+erected as early as 1726. Great care is taken of the education of the
+inmates, who are not permitted to leave the establishment, except in case
+of getting married or respectably employed.
+
+Foundlings, of whom, in one single year, 839 were maintained by the
+commune of Funchal, are given out to nurse; and there has been a most
+singular expedient adopted, in order to prevent abuse as regards obtaining
+the board money, which amounts to about one piastre a month, for each. A
+piece of tape is put round the infant's neck, the two ends of which are
+fastened with a lead seal, and stamped, so that, in the event of death, it
+cannot be taken off and put on another child's neck. The witnessing of the
+process of fastening and stamping this necklace is most unpleasant,
+although no real pain is inflicted on the child.
+
+In the year 1855 there existed in the entire island twelve elementary
+schools, attended by about 200 scholars, and likewise forty-nine Sunday
+schools, having about 2400 pupils. Funchal also possesses a college, with
+six professors and 120 students, an ecclesiastical seminary for
+twenty-four pupils, and a medical school, with four professors, which,
+however, during the year of our visit, had only seven students. Though the
+Government is very rigid in exacting the attendance of the children at
+school, yet only about a seventh part of the whole number living in the
+island really avail themselves of the benefit.
+
+A hospital for the consumptive is now in course of erection, at the
+expense of the Empress dowager of the Brazils, as a memorial of her
+daughter, who, in 1853, died of this disease on the island.
+
+There exist several public libraries and book societies at Funchal; and in
+several of the clubs a great many of the leading English, French, Spanish,
+Portuguese, and German journals, are to be found. Four weekly papers, in
+the Portuguese language, are published at Funchal. The first newspaper
+ever published there was the _Patriota Funchalense_, the first number of
+which appeared on the 2nd of June, 1821.
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF MADEIRA.]
+
+The public buildings offer little to attract notice; the churches are
+insignificant, and even the cathedral, a building in the Basilica style,
+is in no way remarkable otherwise than by the innumerable garlands and
+nosegays, offerings of pious devotees, which as it were transform its
+interior into a fragrant temple of flowers.
+
+That which was once a Jesuit monastery, has been now converted into a
+barrack, in which the whole garrison of the island, amounting to 400 men,
+are lodged. The daily pay of these soldiers amounts to 20 reis, or about
+one penny!
+
+An ordinary dwelling-house has lately been converted into a town gaol, in
+which the prisoners are very humanely treated. Passers-by may have an
+undisturbed talk with them through the lattice-work; and once we even
+observed a man who had thrust his foot through the iron bars, in order to
+have his measure taken by one of the inmates for a pair of shoes!
+
+The charms of beautiful walks, and a most enchanting neighbourhood,
+enhance the pleasantness of the climate of Funchal so much resorted to by
+invalids. In the interior of the town, not far from the sea-shore,
+splendid avenues of magnificent planes, large-flowered magnolias, and
+massive oaks, form delightful promenades, and afford repose and shade on
+numerous seats under the dense foliage of their wide-spreading branches.
+
+Seated on a gently-ambling steed, one may reach most pleasantly the
+summits of those lofty mountains, which rise close to Funchal, where a
+balmy fragrance perfumes the air, and the eye roams with delight in all
+directions over scenery of the most striking description.
+
+One of the favourite points from which such a view may be obtained in all
+its beauty, is the terrace in front of the church of Nossa Senhora de
+Monte, situated 1965 feet above the level of the sea, on a ridge of the
+Arrebantao mountain, reached in less than an hour by one or other of the
+existing conveyances; these are either horses, or hammocks and
+sedan-chairs, or sledges, covered with tasteful canopies, and drawn by a
+couple of small oxen.
+
+[Illustration: SLEIGH PARTY IN MADEIRA.]
+
+Though a vehicle, reminding one so strongly of a northern winter, appears
+rather odd in a climate such as that of Madeira, yet its practicability
+and convenience is very soon perceived, when comfortably sliding away over
+the smooth stones of Funchal. Wheel carriages, such as used in Europe, are
+unknown here.
+
+But he who has bodily strength and health enough to be able to wander
+through the interior of the island, will find spots which command
+landscapes by far more grand and sublime than that seen from Nossa Senhora
+de Monte. Cape San Lorenzo, with its petrified fauna;--the awe-inspiring
+Entroza pass, that wonderful sculpture of nature which bears so powerful a
+witness to the corroding action of water;--the lovely and solitary cascade
+of Rabacal;--the Pic Arrieiro, with its craggy rocks, offering to the
+geologist such a remarkable peep into the geognostical history of the
+island;--the numerous gigantic rocky skeletons of volcanic cones, on which
+the geologist is able to make the most interesting studies and
+investigations, just in the same manner as the anatomist on a corpse;--all
+these wonders of nature are calculated to awaken the reflection and excite
+the admiration of the beholder.
+
+The most delightful event during our stay in the island was an excursion
+of several days, made to the romantic localities of the northern coast. A
+stately cavalcade of twenty-two horsemen set out, early on a fine June
+morning, from Funchal to Nossa Senhora, and from thence over the Pic
+Poizo, through the glens of Metade to St. Anna. After a ride of two hours,
+the Casa de Abrigo was reached, a small house, situated about 4500 feet
+above the level of the sea, erected by the Government some years ago for
+the shelter of travellers. From this point the path runs through a hilly
+country covered with heath, from which the majestic Pico Ruivo, with the
+fantastic forms of its rugged volcanic walls bathed in gold by the rays of
+the rising sun, presents a most imposing sight. On the whole route only
+one small miserable village, called Fayal, was passed, consisting of a few
+straw thatched huts, exhibiting a picture of poverty and wretchedness,
+which can scarcely be paralleled in any part of the habitable globe.
+
+[Illustration: VILLAGE OF FAYAL.]
+
+At last, after a ride of eight hours, we reached St. Anna, an extensive
+village, with a large church and some brick buildings prettily situated in
+flower-gardens, the most stately of which was--the inn. The good cheer and
+repose found here for a few hours of the night, compensated in some degree
+for the fatigues of the past day, and prepared us for those to be
+encountered on the morrow.
+
+The frequent fogs prevalent in Madeira during the month of June, render it
+indispensable to start early in the morning, if the traveller wishes to
+enjoy the beauties of the scenery. At 2 A.M., therefore, our cavalcade
+set out, followed by a host of boys and porters carrying provisions and
+instruments for observations. Nature was still buried in sleep, the air
+quiet and motionless; the full moon, shedding her pallid light over sea
+and mountain, feebly shadowed forth the outlines of the hedges and bushes
+of roses, fuchsias, and hortensias, that lined the narrow path, and
+brought out dimly in faint relief the ghost-like white figures which,
+standing at the doors of their poor cabins, looked inquisitively at the
+riders, that were already so early on their way. The path led up to the
+mountains in steep and numerous windings, sometimes on soft ground through
+ravines, sometimes on solid basalt, or over the uneven surface of
+indurated lava. And when at last, emerging from deep glens, steep
+precipices, and rocky walls, all yet buried in the shades of night, the
+blue star-spangled sky burst upon us in all its beauty and grandeur, the
+effect was almost overpowering. A faint glimmer of light appeared on the
+distant horizon, masses of vapour moved over the ocean, and rising mists
+gathering into clouds, undulated like the surface of an agitated sea. It
+was only along the ridges of mountains and through the ravines, that one
+might glance between mist and land down to the calm boundless expanse of
+water at our feet.
+
+At 4 o'clock a halt was made near a solitary hut, called Choupana, at a
+height of 4400 feet, when the horsemen dismounted, and left their horses
+behind, preferring to reach on foot the termination of their journey.
+
+[Illustration: EL HOMEM EM PÉ.]
+
+We had just climbed up some steep basalt rock and reached an open spot,
+when the first rays of the sun tinged the eastern sky. Beaming in all his
+majesty on the sharply-defined clouds that hovered beneath, they sparkled
+like so many ice-capped peaks of Alpine glaciers; and when the great
+luminary ascended higher, distributing mingled light and shade in such
+gradations of tint as only Nature's cunning hand can mingle, the chaotic
+masses of vapour assumed the appearance of gigantic islands and lofty
+towering mountains, whilst a chorus of feathered songsters rung cheerfully
+out from the depths of the wooded valleys. The path wound along a
+precipitous declivity, grown over with tangled Til-trees, past a group of
+basaltic columns, which rose isolated to a height of 40 feet above the
+beautiful grassy carpet that clothes the ground, and in the crevices of
+which an old laurel, the last of its genus at this height, had taken root.
+The natives call this singularly-shaped group _Homem em pé_, or the man
+standing erect.
+
+Arrived at an open space of meadow ground, the Barreiro, or Encumiada
+Caixa, a gigantic rocky ridge, suddenly rises to a prodigious height, from
+a frightful abyss of almost fathomless depth. We now hastened across a
+plain covered with lava, to the rough basaltic summit of the Encumiada
+Alta. Safe on an eminence[32] above yawning gulfs, beneath a deep blue sky,
+in the brilliancy of a lovely morning sun, we abandoned ourselves to the
+thrilling impressions of the magnificent picture which nature here brought
+forth of earth, rock, and manifold vegetation. Towards the south an
+immense mountain ridge, with serried peaks (called Torres and Torinhas),
+rises to a height of 6000 feet, declining almost imperceptibly on the left
+hand, whilst on the right it descends abruptly in terraces, with
+perpendicular walls of rocks 1000 feet in height, connected by an
+inaccessible ridge with the imposing, stupendous, cupola-shaped summit of
+the Pico Ruivo. All this is disclosed to the eye within a radius of little
+more than two miles. Deep clefts and ravines run from the rocky crevices,
+and unite in a gloomy and profound abyss of 3000 feet, which forms the
+mouth of the ravine of Ribeiro Secco. Similiar chasms open to the right
+and to the left, and when they are too distant to be distinguished by the
+eye, dark shadows rising on the rocky walls indicate the deep crater-like
+basin of the Curral, and the gulfs of the Metade river, and the Ribeiro
+Frio. It would seem as if the whole island has, in a series of fearful
+convulsions, burst from a single central point in all directions; as if
+entire mountains had sunk into the deep, or had, by the action of torrents
+permeating their crevices, been converted into rubble, and carried as sand
+and fragments into the ocean.
+
+[Footnote 32: 5883 feet, according to the geologist's barometrical
+measurements.]
+
+The summits of the Torres and Torrinhas are nothing but barren naked
+rocks,--not a blade of grass, not a shrub, not a trace of vegetation is to
+be seen. At the highest points, strata nearly horizontal extend in
+remarkably regular layers, chiefly distinguished by the most manifold
+variety of colours and tints.[33] A dark grey schistus of volcanic ashes
+alternates with strongly-marked red, yellow, and violet layers of tufa,
+dross, and scoriæ, together with brown and grey conglomerates. Just as red
+predominates on the upper part of these _Torres_, green prevails on the
+lower. From the spot where the springs first issue out of the crevices of
+the basalt, everything seems covered with a dense green carpet. These are
+the celebrated "clefts" of Madeira, in which, even on rocks of 1000 feet
+high, not an inch is to be discovered bare; they afford a rich harvest to
+the botanist, whilst they fill the spectator with delight and admiration.
+
+[Footnote 33: The celebrated American geologist, Mr. Dana, mentions that
+these wild contorted masses of mountain reminded him of the crater-walls
+of the Kilauea at the Sandwich Islands.]
+
+[Illustration: ERICA TREES.]
+
+Generally speaking, the scenery of Madeira does not owe its character to
+the grandeur or magnitude of its trees; the peculiar charm of the
+landscape arises more from grasses, ferns, shrubs, and different kinds of
+moss, all of which grow so rank and luxuriant, that the rocks, chasms, and
+abysses overgrown with them, appear like so many swelling cushions, or as
+if laid with soft velvet carpets in all directions. The different shades
+of green indicate the characteristics of successive zones of vegetation.
+Through the lower parts of the valleys run the beds of those mountain
+waters which, though nearly dried up in the summer, swell in the winter
+into torrents. Along these are scattered the straw-thatched huts of the
+natives, surrounded by vineyards and fields planted with rye, barley,
+potatoes, yams, and in the lower parts with single bananas. These
+cultivated lands rise to a height of 2000 feet, and in many places even to
+3000. Wherever on the steep declivities there is the smallest shelf to be
+found, even if only a square yard in size, it is turned to account. Next
+to this region, in ascending, is that of the brush and laurel woods.
+_Vaccinias_ (blackberries), and different kinds of heath, often attaining
+a growth of five or six feet, occupy the whole of the ground, and in the
+month of June, when the broom is in full flower, a bright golden-coloured
+belt girts Madeira, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet. We beheld this
+golden girdle in its richest splendour, set off by the dark masses of
+evergreens in the clefts. Higher up is the true region of the _Erica
+arborea_, which, with its light-green and _paille_ tint, contrasted with
+the deeper colour of the laurel, represents the underwood of our secondary
+mountain ranges. The _Erica arborea_ attains here the height of a large
+tree, and, on some spots, 30 to 40 feet of its gnarled stems stretch along
+the ground. Thus it may be traced, in company with other heaths, to the
+summit of the Pico Ruivo.
+
+After having made some physical observations, and enjoyed a most
+delightful prospect, we re-packed our instruments, filled our boxes and
+pouches with plants and geological specimens, and prepared for our
+departure. The guides, despite their heavy burdens, marched steadily on,
+humming in plaintive cadence their native songs. We soon reached our
+horses, and, penetrating through layers of clouds, rapidly descended the
+steep mountain sides to St. Anna.
+
+A walk on the same evening towards Porto Santo Jorge was not less
+charming than instructive, especially as we gazed on those hardened
+streams of lava, so interesting as regards the geological history of the
+island, out of the numerous crevices of which grew luxuriant magnificent
+rosettes of _Sempervivum_. Fuchsias and heliotropes were gathered from the
+bushes, and each took a share, now with the geological hammer, now with
+the botanical box, or the butterfly-catcher, in the harvest of objects of
+natural history. We passed in this neighbourhood several houses
+delightfully situated, surrounded by hedgerows of luxuriant shrubs and
+splendid native flowers.
+
+In the fine garden of the inn, amidst myrtles, bignonias, euphorbias, and
+fuchsias, was a handsome _Camellia japonica_, which had attained the
+imposing height of 15 feet, with a diameter of 9 inches, the top spreading
+fan-like in numberless branches.
+
+The following morning we returned to Funchal, accompanied by a troop of
+ragged and diseased natives, pertinaciously appealing to our charity.
+Plenteous alms were given them, for where Nature is so prodigal of her
+gifts, the human mind becomes more sensitive and liberal. At noon, we
+again reached the beautiful terrace of Nossa Senhora de Monte, and here
+the excursion was wound up by a diversion of quite a peculiar character;
+for, instead of returning to Funchal on horseback, we slid down a mountain
+1500 feet high, right into the town, on small double-seated wooden
+sledges, thus travelling down what is probably the grandest natural
+_Montagne Russe_ in the world. A train of more than a dozen sledges
+started at the same time. These singular vehicles are guided on either
+side with admirable adroitness by two natives, who avoid slipping by
+moistening their shoes; and, notwithstanding the velocity of these
+conveyances, even slight accidents are unheard of. Sledge parties of this
+kind, being cheap, constitute the most favourite amusement of the people
+of Funchal.
+
+The whole company met together once more at a convivial dinner in the
+hotel, where, agreeably to the custom of the country, not only the room
+and table, but even every single dish served up, was adorned with garlands
+of fragrant flowers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.--TRACK FROM MADEIRA TO RIO DI JANEIRO.]
+
+On the 17th June we again weighed anchor. The intention had originally
+been to steer direct for Rio de Janeiro; but as we learned, two days
+before our departure, that the yellow fever, though on the decrease, had
+not yet entirely ceased, we were in no hurry to arrive at the capital of
+Brazil, and therefore determined to employ the time so gained, in
+investigating the nature of the winds and currents prevalent in these
+latitudes. For though the proper course of ships between England and North
+America has been admirably laid down, for nearly every month of the year,
+by the long-continued ingenious labours of Commander Maury, of the
+Washington Observatory, yet there still exists great difficulty in
+steering sailing vessels from Gibraltar or Madeira to South America, by
+the directions hitherto existing; the more so, as the seafarer in these
+latitudes, close to the limits of the north-east trade-wind, generally
+falls in with variable breezes and frequent calms, caused partly by the
+African coast and partly by the cluster of isles from the Azores to the
+Cape Verde Islands, and which are of still more frequent occurrence in the
+summer of the northern hemisphere.
+
+We kept Madeira, or rather the clouds which, during the summer, gather
+daily round the mountains, a long time in view; and on the 19th, at a
+distance of 120 miles from the island, some persons on board thought they
+could still distinguish them.
+
+We steered at first in a south-westerly direction, with light breezes and
+fine weather. Advancing, however, towards the limits of the trade-winds,
+showers became frequent, and the wind chopped about much oftener; a more
+southerly course was therefore taken, in order to come as soon as possible
+under the influence of the north-easterly trade-winds.
+
+There was now an opportunity of directing attention to the formation of
+the clouds, which, in these latitudes, assume at times very curious
+appearances. The _cirri_ disappeared by degrees, and the _cumuli_ towered
+up on the horizon in colossal masses. These latter are formed under the
+influence of the sun, when most powerful, and are therefore seen chiefly
+during the afternoon. As soon as they rise they vanish by absorption, just
+as fast as they are formed by evaporation from the sea. Rain very rarely
+proceeds from them. The alternation of their shades, tints, and colours,
+is beautiful in the extreme, particularly at sunset, when their outlines,
+as they stand out in bold relief on the clear blue sky, vary in hue from
+the deepest grey to the most brilliant golden yellow.
+
+The nearer the tropics are approached the more does ocean teem with
+animated orgasms. A net cast into it was immediately filled with an
+immense number of little living creatures. Pretty-looking blue cockles,
+sea-nettles, and various other inhabitants of the deep, all of the most
+minute size, lay rolled up in one lump with small sea-weeds of beautiful
+forms and tints, from which those tiny things endeavoured, with great
+exertion, to extricate themselves. The microscope discloses to the
+observer an entirely new world in the economy of nature, as displayed in
+the animal life of the surface of the sea. The entire oceanic creation,
+from the smallest infusoria to the huge whale, are all specially adapted
+to the element in which they exist, and organized to contribute to the
+preservation, as well as the further development, of the whole globe.
+
+This is beautifully illustrated by the operations of the zoophytes; the
+water of rivers dissolves the chalky substances of the land and carries
+them down to the ocean,--immense numbers of these form, for themselves,
+habitations from this matter;--by successive accumulation, produced
+through the action or the dead bodies of these creatures, the ground is
+raised gradually into the reefs, banks, and rocks, so dangerous to
+navigation; or into islands inhabited by man, who, in the development of
+his moral and physical powers, performs his mission in his high position,
+just as definitely as the imperceptible animalcuæ do in their narrow
+sphere.
+
+Exceedingly beautiful in the tropic seas are those small _physali_, a
+species of _Acalephæ_, known to sailors as "Portuguese men-of-war." They
+sail along by means of their large air-bags, exposed to the wind, whilst
+their numerous long, dark-blue tentacles, like fibres or roots, reach deep
+into the water, extending or contracting in order to secure their food.
+The fringes of these air-bags are of a violet colour, and resemble, when
+in sunshine, a splendid flower, floating about the sea in all directions.
+
+Approaching the zone of the trade-winds, the aspect of the sea is animated
+by flying-fish. It has been long a matter of doubt whether this fish
+really moves through the air by flying, or whether, being pursued by
+enemies, it merely darts from fear out of the water, and sustains itself
+in the air by means of its long pectoral fins, though the long distances
+it moves are out of all proportion to its size and probable muscular
+power. This doubt seems to have originated with those who never have had
+an opportunity of personally observing flying-fish; or who have merely
+seen these creatures in the Mediterranean, where they are so small as to
+render it rather difficult to decide in what the movement really consists.
+
+But in the tropics all doubt vanishes, for the fish here attains a length
+of from 6 to 8 inches, and its pectoral fins are so much developed that
+they may perfectly well be used as wings. By closely observing them, it is
+seen that these fins, or wings, have an oscillating or vibratory motion,
+like that of the grasshopper, by which they assist the oblique spring from
+the water, produced by muscular power; they move at a height of from two
+to three feet above the surface of the sea, to a distance of from 50 to
+100 yards, and at the same time change the direction of their flight in
+exactly the same way as grasshoppers.
+
+It seems, however, to be neither pleasure nor want of food that drives
+these creatures from their own element. They have numerous enemies, of
+which the principal is the bonita (_Scomber Palamy_); whenever flying-fish
+were seen the bonitas likewise made their appearance; we often saw the
+latter darting out of the water and snapping at a flying-fish, when, if
+they did not succeed, they were perceived hastening under water in the
+same direction that their prey was taking. But the flying-fish is quite
+aware of the movement of the enemy, and, therefore, sometimes turns back
+abruptly, evidently with a view of dodging his pursuer. The advantage of
+the wings is, however, more apparent than real, for whilst they escape by
+these means from the bonitas, dorados, and dolphins, they fall a sacrifice
+to the seagulls and man-of-war birds (_Tachypetes aquilus_), which reach
+them like arrows shot from a bow, before they are able to conceal
+themselves again in the ocean. Those which were seen on the north of the
+equator, were invariably of the smaller kind (_Exocætus volitans_); whilst
+in the south, also, the larger species (_Exocætus exulans_) made their
+appearance. They often drop during the night on the decks of small vessels
+with low bows, but on the _Novara_, which rose about 20 feet over the
+surface of the water, this was not possible; however, some fell upon the
+chains, which were caught and preserved in alcohol by the zoologists.
+
+On the 27th June, at midday, we had arrived in 27° 2' N. Lat., and 24° 7'
+W. Long., and lay in a perfect calm, the mirror-like aspect of the sea
+allowing us to take a deep-sea sounding with what is called Brooke's
+apparatus. This consists of a tube, which runs through a thirty-pound
+shot, fastened to a thin line. As the shot, however, cannot easily be
+drawn up after the sounding, there is an ingenious mechanism, by means of
+which, on touching the ground, it is detached from the tube, which may
+then be drawn up, the shot remaining in the sea. The tube has a
+funnel-shaped opening at its lower extremity, by which a portion of the
+ground may likewise be brought up for scientific examination.
+
+In the afternoon a boat provided with everything requisite for the
+sounding, was launched, and the operation began. Unfortunately there were
+only 4050 fathoms of line, as we did not find at Gibraltar the quality
+required for the purpose. The whole stock ran entirely out without
+reaching ground; we could therefore do nothing more than make the attempt
+to heave the tube without the shot. In this, however, we succeeded only in
+so far as regarded the first 2000 fathoms; then the line broke, and the
+remainder was lost. One of the causes of this accident was the sudden rise
+of the trade-wind which increased so much as to engross nearly our entire
+attention.
+
+To convey an idea of the time a ball of this kind takes to descend through
+the different strata of water, which increases in density in proportion to
+the depth attained, we annex the length of the different periods required
+in paying out the line during the experiment:--
+
+                                                       Minutes. Seconds.
+
+    The first 1000 fathoms occupied                       19      8
+ From 1000 to 2000  "                                     21      3
+   "  2000 to 3000  "                                     40      6
+   "  3000 to 4000  "                                     76      6
+   "  4000 to 4050  "                                      3      5
+                                                      ______________
+ Total time in running out the entire length     Hours 2  39     28
+
+As the winding up of the tube requires at least the same period, it may
+easily be conceived how great is the expenditure of time necessary for
+such an experiment, and on what chances the success of the whole operation
+depends. Though this trial was partially unsuccessful, yet so much is
+certain, that at this point, 24,300 feet of line were run off without
+reaching the ground. There is always, however, to be taken into
+consideration the under-current, which draws the line out of the
+perpendicular, and renders the result of the operation rather doubtful.
+
+We now sailed with a fresh and steady trade-wind towards the thirtieth
+degree of W. Long., and thence along that meridian to the southward.
+
+In the night, between the 29th to the 30th, we crossed the parallel of the
+sun's declination, upon which the direction of our shadows, already for
+several days scarcely perceptible, was of course changed from north to
+south.
+
+We soon crossed the belt of the north-eastern trade-wind, as we made daily
+from 180 to 200 miles. On the 3rd of July the wind became very unsteady,
+and on the 5th, in 8° 30' N. Lat. and 29° 30' W. Long., it entirely left
+us. The sky often became dark and threatening; indeed, its aspect changed
+at times with surprising rapidity, without any particular disturbance in
+the direction or strength of the wind; nor had we to complain of as much
+rain as might have been expected in these regions.
+
+The calms in the so-called "belt of calms" were fortunately not of long
+duration, for in 6° 43' N., and 28° 49' W., a fresh south-east wind sprang
+up. When we came within the influence of the south-east trade-wind, we
+endeavoured to approach the coast of South America, for the purpose of
+observing the currents in that latitude, this being one of the
+investigations suggested by the letter of instructions drawn up by
+Alexander v. Humboldt. The great oceanic stream, which, on leaving the
+western coast of Africa takes a westerly direction, is divided by the
+projecting American Continent into two branches, of which the stronger
+turns N.W. towards the Caribean Sea, while the weaker moves south-west
+along the coast of Brazil.
+
+We had already felt its influence whilst in the zone of calms, and it
+became still more perceptible the more the equator was approached. The
+continuance of the south-easterly trade forced us to cross the Line at a
+more westerly point than usual. This, however, causes no disadvantage to a
+good sailing ship; nay, Commander Maury has proved indisputably that ships
+make extremely short passages, which reach the Equator so far to the west
+that they run a risk of hugging the coast too closely. Those on the other
+hand, which, from over-anxiety to avoid the current, keep too far to the
+east, lose much time, being compelled to pass weeks in the zone of calms,
+which increases in breadth towards the east, whereas the others come very
+little in contact with it, and avail themselves of the changes of wind
+near the shore, to double the Cape of St. Roque on the American coast, so
+much dreaded by the former. We cannot here forbear expressing our high
+admiration of the great merits of Mr. Maury, whose classical work on the
+physical geography of the sea, as well as his inestimable wind and current
+charts, deserve the especial attention of all who navigate these seas.
+
+The nearer we approached the Line, the more striking became the aspect of
+the southern constellations. The light of the northern polar star grew
+fainter and fainter, its altitude diminished, and it at length entirely
+disappeared. But, on the other hand, the Southern Cross, the Magellan
+clouds, the ship Argo on the "coal-bags," or starless, dark spots of the
+southern hemisphere, became more elevated in proportion as the northern
+sky moved away, and for a moment we felt some difficulty in recognizing
+our old acquaintances of the northern hemisphere in their relation to the
+new stars.
+
+On the 15th, at 3 A.M., we crossed the Line in 33° 50' W.L. This event,
+which with all sailors forms a marked epoch in their seafaring life, had
+in this case the additional feature of being actually the first occasion
+of an Austrian man-of-war entering the southern hemisphere, and our crew,
+who had long before enjoyed, in anticipation, the merriment to which it
+would give occasion, had commenced the ceremony the preceding evening.
+Neptune, accompanied by an appropriate retinue of mermaids, tritons, and
+nereids, appeared at sunset, to announce with the utmost gravity to the
+Commodore, in a set speech, the astounding news that the vessel was
+entering his dominions, demonstrating the fact mathematically by an
+immense sextant, a chart, and pair of compasses a yard long, all
+manufactured by the ship's carpenter, and claiming his right to see the
+act of shaving and baptizing properly performed on all those who for the
+first time came into his kingdom. Amidst streams of water from the masts
+and fire-engines he made his exit down the rope ladder in a blaze of blue
+fire, followed by an ignited tar-barrel, which floated along like a globe
+of fire on the mirror-like surface of the sea.
+
+The real farce, however, took place the next afternoon, when Neptune
+re-appeared, accompanied this time by his good lady and a hopeful youth,
+all decked out in real sea-god-like attire, in a car drawn by six tritons,
+still accompanied by his farcical retinue blowing a flourish on their
+bugles, when, after a second set speech to the Commodore, the great ruler
+of the waves declared that the ceremony was now to begin.
+
+Every sailor was obliged, whether he would or no, to undergo a lathering
+with a nasty mixture of tar and grease, and submit to be scraped by an
+immense tin razor; which operation being performed, the unfortunate
+sufferer was thrown into a sail suspended by its four corners, and there
+deluged from head to foot from pails, pumps, hose, pots, dishes, and
+everything else that would hold water. The officers and other gentlemen
+escaped the ordeal by a contribution in money or wine towards the
+festivities.
+
+When the greater part of the sailors had undergone this process, and the
+scene, amidst formidable gushes of water, rioting, uproar, and excitement,
+had reached its highest point, behold! a voice thundered from the
+quarter-deck the words "two o'clock," and everything resumed its wonted
+aspect.
+
+Though the Line had been crossed at a more westerly point than usual, we
+were able, in the night from the 18th to the 19th of July, to pass
+easterly between the rocks Las Roccas and the island of Fernando da
+Noronha.[34] On the 20th July we were carried again by unfavourable winds
+to a distance of 100 miles from the Brazilian coast, where we parted from
+our faithful companion, the _Caroline_. She sailed for Pernambuco, whilst
+we kept out to sea in order to continue the observations on the westerly
+currents, and be able freely to double Cape St. Augustin. Bad weather,
+showers, and heavy swells prevented complete success in our task; it was,
+however, ascertained that the current close to the land is not so strong
+as at some distance from it, and that the extreme point of divergence is,
+at this particular season of the year, somewhat east of the south point of
+Fernando de Noronha. In the angle formed by the direction of the two
+currents between the point of division and the land, partial currents
+(according to circumstances and the strength of the wind), run towards one
+or the other side, of which the stronger tends towards the north-west.
+
+[Footnote 34: This island, situated 300 miles from Pernambuco, which
+supplies it with provisions, is at present used by the Brazilian
+Government as a penal settlement. It is extremely beautiful and fertile,
+but very little cultivated, and admirably suited for a coal depôt, and a
+place for ships obtaining stores, particularly when epidemics are
+prevalent in Rio de Janeiro.]
+
+On the 23rd July the weather cleared up; we approached the coast and came
+in sight of Cape St. Augustin, the first land descried since leaving
+Madeira. On the 1st of August a rock was announced ahead; as nothing of
+the kind was indicated in the charts, we were curious to know what this
+could be. A boat was manned, and we were soon made aware, by our olfactory
+organs, of the real nature of the object, which turned out to be the
+carcase of a dead whale in a state of putrefaction, over which a number of
+birds were hovering, whilst a troop of sharks feasted on the putrid mass,
+boring themselves into the body. This incident shows how many rocks marked
+in charts as doubtful may owe their origin to similar circumstances; for,
+had we not been convinced of the real nature of the object, we should have
+believed this carcase to be a rock, and thus augmented the number of
+"doubtfuls" and interrogations in the charts of the Atlantic.
+
+On the 3rd August we made Cape Frio, and after a rough and stormy night
+reached at last, on the morning of the 5th, the numerous small islands
+situated in front of the harbour of Rio. The _Sugar Loaf_, that remarkable
+black basaltic rock at its entrance, stood grandly forth, as we ran in.
+Unfortunately the gloomy state of the atmosphere prevented the enjoyment
+of the exquisite beauty of this so often described charming bay.
+
+Here we found an English, a French, and an American frigate, as also a
+dirty old Brazilian sloop of war. Besides these ships of war, a Spanish
+frigate and galliot lay in the mercantile dock for repair; they had
+shortly before their arrival lost their masts in a _pampero_,[35] which,
+however, had borne all the characteristic marks of a cyclone.[36] The
+occurrence of tornadoes in the South Atlantic has been so often and so
+decidedly denied, that the mariner does not readily believe the violent
+storms of those latitudes to be hurricanes. This Spanish frigate had
+accordingly sailed heedlessly into the storm, and, with only such
+precautions taken as referred to mast and sail, had without further
+concern proceeded on her course. She thus had got into the very heart of
+the cyclone, and escaped entire destruction only by a fortunate chance.
+Now, had her commander considered this storm to have been a real hurricane
+he would have undoubtedly steered a different course, and probably in that
+case would have reached the harbour in safety. But the notion of the
+non-existence of hurricanes in these waters is so pertinaciously
+maintained that it was no wonder the careful and able Spanish commander
+had also been misled. Our own opinion is, that any storm in the ocean may
+assume a revolving motion, and it is therefore highly advisable always to
+bear in mind the well-founded theory of cyclones, in order to act upon it,
+as circumstances may require. Were this always done, how many valuable
+lives and property might be saved from destruction!
+
+[Footnote 35: A squall of wind of the South American Pampas.]
+
+[Footnote 36: The following succinct statement of the characteristics and
+general laws of cyclones will be found useful by way of reference:--
+
+1. It has been fully ascertained that in both hemispheres the air in the
+cyclone rotates in a direction _contrary_ to that of the sun. Thus, in the
+N. hemisphere, the course of the sun being from E. to S., W., and N., the
+course of the hurricane is from N. by W., S., and E.; and in the S.
+hemisphere, the sun's course being from E. by N., W., and S., the
+hurricane runs from N. by E., S., and W.
+
+2. They originate in the space between the equator and the tropics, near
+the equatorial limit of the trade winds.
+
+3. There is no instance on record of a hurricane having been encountered
+on the equator, nor of any one having crossed the Line, although two have
+been known to be raging at the same time in the same meridian, but on
+opposite sides of the equator, and only 10° to 12° apart!
+
+4. Their movement, which is always oblique from the equator to the poles,
+is usually from E. to W. at first, and towards the end W. to E., which is
+but a development of the gyratory motion that forms their most essential
+characteristic.
+
+5. The "motion of translation" varies from so low as 9 miles an hour to 43
+miles an hour. There is no precise estimate of the velocity of the
+gyratory motion.
+
+6. They are liable to dilate and contract in area, the contraction always
+implying a great accession of violence. (See _post_, p. 183.)]
+
+[Illustration: CAPE FRIO.]
+
+[Illustration: THE QUAY AT RIO.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+                           Rio de Janeiro.
+
+   Brazil the land of contrasts.--Appearance of the city of Rio and
+     its environs.--Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and the
+     Tejuca Waterfalls.--Germans in Rio.--Brazilian literary men.--
+     Assacú (_Hura Brasiliensis_).--Snake-bite as an antidote
+     against leprosy.--Public Institutions.--Negroes of the
+     Mozambique coast.--The House of Misericordia.--Lunatic
+     Asylum.--Botanical Garden.--Public instruction.--
+     Historico-Geographical institution.--_Palæstra Scientifica._--
+     Military Academy.--Library.--Conservatory of Music.--Sanitary
+     Police.--Yellow Fever and Cholera.--Water Party on the bay.--
+     Chamber of Deputies.--Petropolis.--Condition of the Slave
+     population.--Prospects of German emigration.--Suitability of
+     Brazil as a market for German commerce.--Natural products, and
+     exchange of manufactures.--Audience of the Emperor and
+     Empress.--Extravagant waste of powder for salvoes.--Songs of
+     the sailors.--Departure from Rio.--Retrospect.--South-east
+     Trades.--Cape Pigeons.--Albatrosses.--Cape Tormentoso.--A
+     Storm at the Cape.--Various Methods of measuring the height of
+     waves.--Arrival in Simon's Bay.
+
+
+Brazil--situated on the ocean-highway to the South Seas and the shores of
+India, endowed by nature, over the greater portion of her territory, with
+a salubrious climate, and a soil of tropical fertility, very nearly as
+large as Europe, and ten times the size of France, and yet containing not
+above 8,000,000 souls--has, far beyond all other States of South America,
+concentrated on herself, during more than half a century, the interest of
+the naturalist, as well as of the political economist--of the merchant as
+well as of the emigrant. Indeed, we may say that there are few countries,
+beyond the limits of Europe, which in certain parts have already been more
+thoroughly explored than the Brazilian Empire, while at the same time it
+can boast the possession of a rich and valuable stock of literature,
+treating of its history, since its discovery by the Portuguese Admiral,
+Pedro Alvarez Cabral, on the 22nd of April, 1500, down to the present
+time.
+
+After so brief a sojourn as ours, we can hardly offer more to the reader
+than a short sketch of our own few experiences, and some remarks regarding
+the alterations which took place in the appearance of the city and in its
+social and political condition, since the period when Martius and Spix,
+Rugendas, Prince Neuwied, Helmreichen, Natterer, Pohl, d'Orbigny, Wilkes,
+Castelnau, Burmeister, and others visited Brazil, and so accurately
+delineated it both by pen and pencil.[37]
+
+[Footnote 37: Before we left Europe, the wish was repeatedly expressed to
+us that, during our stay in Rio, more accurate information should be
+obtained as to the fate of numerous scientific works and collections, by
+several German naturalists who died in Brazil in recent times, such as
+Frederick Sello, Dr. Müller (a companion of Castelnau), Dr. Engler, and
+others. Unfortunately, we can only give the little consolatory
+intelligence that, with the exception of the scientific memoranda left
+behind by Dr. Engler, chiefly relating to Itù in the province of St. Paul,
+there was nothing further to be hoped for. The collections have all been
+dispersed through want of care, and the manuscripts nearly all destroyed
+through ignorance of their value.]
+
+The magnificent scenery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro still continues to
+possess the same absorbing interest for the new comer, wherever it has not
+suffered by the expansion of the rapidly-increasing city, or the axe of
+the emigrant settler; it is but little one can add to or alter in the
+picturesque description which travellers, alive to its natural beauties,
+had already given, half a century ago, of the wonderful haven of the
+Brazilian metropolis! Very different, however, is the impression, when the
+stranger, on disembarking, sets foot on the new world, and has to make his
+way through narrow, steep, filthy streets, greeted by yelling crowds of
+blacks and whites, poor negro slaves, and wealthy planters, into the
+interior of this bustling port. An entirely altered state of affairs has
+sprung up since the separation of Brazil from Portugal, and he who has not
+seen Rio within the last ten years would hardly recognize the capital of
+the Brazilian empire. Along with the most conspicuous deficiencies, in
+numerous particulars, one finds such institutions as are not to be met
+with, in a similarly flourishing condition, in any other State of South
+America, or among the republics of the Isthmus. But Brazil is emphatically
+"The Land of Contrasts."
+
+When the traveller, stepping on shore from the anchorage for ships of war,
+(which is a little to the south of that for merchant vessels), has forced
+his way through the swarms of human beings at the landing stage, and in
+front of the hotel Pharoux, he finds himself on the Largo do Paço, or
+Palace Square. Here on his left rises the singular-looking Imperial
+Residence, and on his right, close to the shore, the Market Hall. A dense
+bustling crowd throngs the streets, while numerous vehicles, some drawn by
+horses, others by mules, as also omnibuses of all colours and dimensions,
+and crammed within and without, dash swiftly about, emulating the din and
+confusion of European capitals. Turning now to the right, into the Rua
+Direita, and thence a little further into the Rua do Ouvidor, the two most
+elegant but none the less most-neglected streets of Rio, there dazzles the
+eye, in the splendid, richly-decorated shops and arcades, the same profuse
+luxury as in Regent Street, or on the Boulevards. But how disagreeable the
+contrast with those cities, presented by the pools of stagnant water,
+which occur even in the most-frequented streets!
+
+The city proper presents the figure of a square of about one mile and
+three quarters each way, between the sea beach and the Campo da Santa
+Anna, and is divided with tolerable regularity by narrow streets built at
+right angles to each other. Except the most important public buildings,
+such as the National Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Military
+Academy, the Naval Arsenal, the Custom House, the Market Hall, the
+Imperial Palace, the Chamber of Deputies, and several of the churches,
+only shops and mercantile counting-houses are to be met with.
+
+From the city stretch the suburbs like long tentacles in every direction,
+on one side along the beach as far as St. Christoph, the winter palace of
+the emperor, and, in the opposite direction, as far as the charming Cove
+of Botafogo, while backwards they extend to the valleys leading to the
+Corcovado, to the suburbs of Larangeiras, Catumbý Grande, and in the
+direction of the Tejuca mountains, as far as Engenho Velho, and Andarahý.
+Elegant little villas, frequently built in the strangest and most
+_bizarre_ style of architecture, alternate in these suburbs with ordinary
+dwelling-houses, all having most beautifully laid-out gardens. The
+merchant, the manufacturer, in fact every individual in easy
+circumstances, remain in the city only long enough to transact daily
+business. Each has his residence in the suburbs, where his family lives,
+to whose quiet circle he returns every evening. Among these suburbs, those
+of Caminho Novo and Catete, along the road leading to the charming cove of
+Botafogo, are more specially the diplomatic quarter, and the residence of
+the moneyed aristocracy of the capital.
+
+Amid so much that calls for censure in Rio Janeiro, and of which the
+æsthetic perceptions of the visitor will apprize him in the course of a
+stroll in any part of the city, there are two improvements which deserve
+grateful acknowledgment. The first of these consists in the lighting of
+the city by gas (prepared from English coal), which had been introduced
+shortly before our arrival, and is now extended to the extreme outskirts
+of the suburbs; the second is the magnificent aqueduct, which provides
+every quarter of Rio with a lavish supply of excellent drinking-water.
+However ugly Rio may look in the daytime, the gas at night gives
+it a magnificent and splendid appearance, particularly from the
+harbour. When, the evening after our arrival, we gazed out upon the
+brilliantly-illuminated city that lay before us, we could not help
+thinking there must be some festive occasion for such a flood of light,
+ignorant as we then were of what we learned afterwards, that Rio is as
+fairy-looking by night as it appears gloomy by day.
+
+Not less surprising, and forming a strong contrast with the deficiencies
+and requirements in other particulars, are the stately fountains that
+adorn the squares. Close by the corner of each street, gushes out through
+metal cocks, a stream of clear, fresh spring-water, which has been
+conveyed by the great aqueduct a distance of 10 or 12 English miles from
+the slopes of the neighbouring Carioca or Tejuca mountain-chains. The
+water supply has been in existence for 120 years, but the present immense
+reservoir and various improvements in it have been introduced by the
+Brazilian Government. With the exception of the Croton aqueduct, near New
+York, which supplies that city with 40,000,000 gallons daily, we do not
+remember to have seen in any part of the world a similar work of such
+magnitude.
+
+The dreary, uncomfortable feeling left by the city, gives way to most
+enjoyable impressions so soon as one emerges from the suburbs of Rio, and
+seeks compensation for the absence of the appliances of European
+civilization in the eternal grace and majesty of Nature. Walks may be
+taken in every direction, each opening up a fresh point of view, while, if
+the visitor take horse or mule, he may in the course of an hour or two
+transport himself into the very midst of the most extraordinary features
+of tropical vegetation.
+
+Among the most charming of these is a ride to the rocky peak called
+Corcovado, 2300 feet high, the road to which runs through magnificent
+shady forests. On the highest pinnacle of this rocky cone, which rises
+rather abruptly on the side of the valleys of Clementi and Broca, a
+parapet has been erected within these few years, so that the traveller can
+gaze over the delightful panorama below with as much, or even more,
+comfort and security, than from the Righi or the great Winterberg in the
+Saxon Switzerland. In the south and south-east rise the two stern-looking
+mountains, Gavia and Dos Irmaos, both of considerable height, and
+encircled by the mirror-like lagoon, Rodrigo das Freitas, near which
+stands out, clothed in the most luxuriant verdure, a part of the botanical
+garden; thereafter follows the beautiful valley of Clementi and Broca,
+with the splendid Lunatic Asylum and the fort of Praya Vermelha; beyond
+which is the smiling cove of Botafogo, and the singular Sugar Loaf, which
+forms such a characteristic feature of the entrance of Rio harbour; close
+beside the latter is the fort of San Juan; and lastly, facing the entrance
+of the bay, that of Santa Cruz, the strongest in the empire. At our feet
+lay stretched out the city itself, with the beautiful valleys of
+Larangeiras, Engenho Velho, and Catumbý Grande. On the other side of the
+bay, just opposite Rio, is Praya Grande, the capital of the province, and
+in the background the lofty, spectre-like mountain-chain of the Organos--
+so called from the rocky peaks projecting like so many organ-pipes. What a
+wondrous prospect! It is scarcely possible to have, from a single point of
+view, a grander or more varied natural picture. We lingered here more
+than an hour, and tore ourselves away with reluctance from all those
+glories which Nature has shed with so profuse a hand over this enchanting
+landscape.
+
+One of our companions was the veteran Brazilian naturalist, the venerable
+Dom Antonio Ildefonso Gomez, who passed several years in Europe when a
+young man, and had, together with Humboldt, once attended the lectures of
+Cuvier at Paris. M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, during his visit to Rio, spent
+several months at Dom Ildefonso's hospitable abode. Although now a
+septuagenarian, the old physician is uncommonly hale in person, full of
+his pristine enthusiasm, indefatigable in the pursuit of knowledge, and
+able to pass an entire day on the back of his mule, so that he can ride to
+the most distant consultations without betraying any symptoms of
+exhaustion. He had brought with him a number of large oranges, some cheese
+and bread, and a bottle of excellent port wine, so that there was no want
+of wherewithal to recruit our strength; and there, on the summit of the
+Corcovado, our hearts swelling with rapture as the eye ranged over the
+marvellous landscape that lay unrolled at our feet, we drank to the
+prosperity of Brazil. Dom Ildefonso, a warm friend to all foreigners,
+remarked that within forty years Brazil will probably be more German than
+Brazilian or Portuguese, and expressed a hope it might be so, as only by
+that means, so far as his observation went, could his beloved native land
+hope for a prosperous future.
+
+We returned through most charming forest scenery by way of Larangeiras
+and Andarahý. Throughout the entire distance we rode amidst the most
+exquisite specimens of tropical vegetation, palms, ebony trees, bignonias,
+plantains, mangoes, papayas, and bread-fruit trees, mingling with which we
+could discern the various trees and shrubs of the Northern Hemisphere, and
+occasionally strange plants from China, Japan, and Australia, which had
+been planted here by the enterprising hand of foreign settlers.
+
+Not less charming is the excursion to the Falls of the Tejuca, to which a
+broad road leads through blooming flower-gardens, and past delicious
+country seats, extending far into the mountains, and surrounded and
+overshadowed by a wall as it were of verdure, consisting of the flowers of
+_Bignonia bella_, intermingling with the shining leaves of the gigantic
+_Bougainvillea_. The coral tree (_Erythrina coralliflora_), the indigenous
+magnolia, the fan-shaped _urania_, numerous species of palms, and lofty,
+carefully-tended screw-pines, plantains with gigantic fruits, bread-fruit
+trees, eugenias, casuarinas, and melon trees--such are the blooming
+odoriferous attractions that here adorn garden and field. Ever threading
+his way among such charming plantations, the traveller finally reaches the
+path which, hemmed in between two mountain ridges of moderate height,
+leads direct to the Tejuca mountains, while to the right branch off
+numerous narrow paths conducting to the various adjoining eminences, from
+which a view can be obtained of the small cascade. The tropical richness
+and profusion of vegetation, has here crowded together upon a few square
+feet of soil hundreds of plants of all kinds. They strike into the soil,
+or struggle upwards to the light, or give out roots from the stems or
+branches, and all twine and tangle with each other to such an extent that
+often in these tufts and thickets one sees the top of a fern, without
+being able to distinguish any part of its stem, or a passion-flower
+without any visible stalk or leaves, all suspended in mid-air, like so
+many elegant festoons.
+
+A short distance from this singular, thoroughly tropical landscape, is the
+second, known as the Great Cascade, which, however, owes its special
+attractions rather to the character of the surrounding vegetation than to
+the volume of water. The trees here grow on a sort of amphitheatre of
+rocks, all of colossal size, and the most widely different forms, no two
+of the same species adjoining each other, their stems and branches adorned
+with the most beautiful parasites and the blood-red leaves of innumerable
+creepers, which in their lavish luxuriance now stretch like garlands from
+tree to tree, now hang perpendicularly down from the very highest branch
+of the tree like a network of green lace, till they sweep along the
+ground.
+
+The water welling out from the granite rock, rushes into the abyss below
+after traversing a rocky declivity, somewhat resembling a sloping terrace
+of about twenty fathoms wide. Its track is indicated by the
+irregularly-shaped blocks piled upon each other, some of which at a little
+distance below, their huge wide ridges enclosed by retaining walls, serve
+as spots in which to dry in the sun the ripe berries of the coffee plant,
+which in many parts hereabout forms an almost impervious forest.
+
+As we prosecute our wanderings further, we finally emerge upon the green
+hills of the vicinity, and obtain a charming glimpse of the ocean; we have
+now arrived in front of the gigantic outline of the Gavia, and directly
+facing us lies the salt-marsh, known as Tejuca-Lake, in the midst of which
+rises an island, thickly overgrown with mango-trees, standing on their
+distorted hundredfold roots; melancholy-looking examples of the inactivity
+and absence of all attention of the Brazilian authorities, who permit such
+a hot-bed of poisonous miasma to remain in the immediate vicinity of the
+city, and leave these plants unchecked to carry on their pestiferous vital
+processes!
+
+Returning from such a delightful excursion to Rio de Janeiro, the stranger
+feels doubly uncomfortable and lonely in the dreary and sombre city. The
+Brazilians are in general neither very social nor hospitable, and only,
+after many years' acquaintance, is a familiar intercourse formed with
+strangers.
+
+In this respect they bear a strong resemblance to the Spanish-Americans,
+whom they also greatly resemble in many of their habits of life.
+Foreigners settled in Rio spend their evenings generally at their country
+seats, some distance from the town, so that the occasional visitor is
+deprived of the social intercourse that might otherwise be so accessible.
+We met with a most hospitable reception at the houses of the Austrian
+Minister, Chevalier de Sonnleithner, and our Consul-General, as well as
+from some German families, and also from the "Germania," a Club founded by
+twelve Germans as far back as 1821. This Society numbers now about 200
+members, and is well supplied with German newspapers and periodicals,
+besides possessing a well-selected library of several thousand volumes,
+and a reading-room, with _restaurant_, smoking, billiard, and
+dancing-rooms attached. Of the various nationalities represented at Rio,
+the Germans are the most respected by the Brazilians. They are about 3000
+in number, and as the majority are Protestants they have their own church,
+founded by three Germans in 1827, which now numbers 600 members, and has
+an annual income of 5000 milreis.[38] The community is under the protection
+of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council in Berlin, and accordingly, as often
+as public worship is joined in, prayers are offered up for the King of
+Prussia, as head of the church. Despite its existence for more than thirty
+years, the position occupied by the Evangelical church with reference to
+the State, has never been accurately defined, so that differences are
+constantly occurring. In connection with the congregation are a school,
+and a society for aiding distressed Germans, which numbers 200 associates,
+and has an annual income of from 6000 to 7000 milreis (£600 to £700). The
+objects of the association are the advance of money, pensions, payment of
+passage-money for transport, assistance to unemployed or sick German
+workmen, education of orphan children, and so forth. The German choral
+union had given a concert in aid of this humane society, which alone had
+realized 3100 milreis (above £300)!
+
+[Footnote 38: One milreis = 1000 reis = about 2_s._ English. The Brazilian
+milreis is of this small value as compared with that of the Portuguese (3
+to 7), in consequence of its being represented by paper-money of
+fluctuating value, which gradually became so depreciated that Government,
+when regulating the value in 1846, were not in a position to restore it to
+its par value of 3_s._ 4_d._ sterling.]
+
+It is not alone, however, as merchants, engineers, and artisans, that the
+Germans in Rio occupy a conspicuous position; they likewise contribute
+their mite to the advancement of art and science. For example, the most
+important literary enterprise in the empire is in German hands, viz. the
+printing and bookselling business of the brothers Laemmert. Their
+publications embrace two hundred and fifty works, chiefly of Portuguese
+(not Brazilian) authors, original or translated, treating of Brazilian
+legislation, history, medicine, public instruction, poetry, popular
+literature, works on religion, novels, romances, kalendars, and theatrical
+pieces. One publication due to the founder of the firm, Mr. C. Laemmert, a
+Bavarian by birth, has already proved of immense utility, the "_Almanak
+administrativo, mercantil, e industrial_," compiled by himself, first
+published in the year 1843. From a most defective little pamphlet at its
+start, this periodical publication has, in the course of time, become
+developed into an elegant, simply-classified octavo volume, 1400 pages
+thick, which, compiled carefully and kept constantly corrected to the
+latest moment, despite the most disheartening material difficulties, gives
+a very interesting insight into the entire internal organization of the
+empire, and at the same time supplies the most authentic information as
+to the scientific, commercial, and industrial activity of the city and
+province of Rio. Even more important as a medium for the diffusion of
+useful knowledge among the masses is a sort of popular kalendar, which is
+published in duodecimo form, under the title of "_Folinhas_" (Leaves), and
+for 320 reis (about 7-1/2_d._ English), gives upon 360 pages an immense
+amount of useful information. Of this publication 80,000 copies were sold
+throughout the empire in the year 1857. There are very few works of
+importance written by native authors, as they devote their energies
+chiefly to periodical literature. Of daily and monthly publications there
+are abundance, both in Rio and in the provinces, but they have only an
+ephemeral existence. The press enjoys the most unbounded freedom, and
+probably in very few continental cities would such language be tolerated
+as that of the _Courier du Brésil_, edited by a French refugee. If the
+influence of journalism in Brazil is as yet insignificant, it is in
+consequence of the prevailing ignorance, as four-fifths of the population
+are unable to read or write, and the papers published are consequently
+only in the hands of the upper classes.
+
+While we found but few opportunities of intercourse with Brazilian
+families, the public authorities received and treated us in the most
+obliging and distinguished manner. In this respect, we were particularly
+indebted to Dr. de Lagos, Dr. Schüch de Capanema, Dr. F. de Paulo Candido,
+and Dom M. de Portoalegre.
+
+These gentlemen took especial pains to make our stay in Rio as instructive
+as useful, and likewise gave us in reply to various scientific queries the
+most valuable information and practical hints. Thus, for example, we were
+favoured by Dr. de Lagos with the following particulars respecting the
+alleged efficacy of the milky sap of the assacú tree (_Hura
+Brasiliensis_), and of the bite of the rattlesnake as antidotes in cases
+of _Elephantiasis_, as also regarding the "Curaré," that celebrated poison
+with which the Indians of Brazil tip their arrows.
+
+The assacú had long been employed as a remedy for the frightful malady
+known as _Elephantiasis Græcorum_, and its use was occasionally followed
+by the happiest results, without any attempt having been made thoroughly
+to investigate the specific action of the juice, although, like that of so
+many other Brazilian plants, it would probably surrender, if
+scientifically analyzed, the therapeutical energies which enable it to
+overcome occasionally the most obstinate cases of disease. The assacú is a
+tree growing in the northern provinces of Pará, on making an incision into
+which there exudes a resinous sap, of a brownish or reddish-white colour,
+which coagulates, and gradually hardens. This inspissated substance is of
+a dark brown, rather resembling gum than resin, and readily soluble in
+water. When dissolved, it regains the colour and odour of the sap as it
+first trickles from the tree. A committee of physicians of Pará long ago
+presented to the Brazilian Government a memorandum as to the practical
+efficacy and peculiarities of the assacú in cases of the above malady,
+according to which it appears, that the symptoms of the patient improve in
+the most marvellous manner from the very first day on which the remedy is
+used; the illness seems to be suddenly arrested, or, at all events to make
+but very slight progress. The milky sap is exhibited internally, in the
+form of pills, and a decoction of the bark is also administered by way of
+a beverage for the patient,--externally an infusion of the bark is used
+for bathing purposes. Some of those affected, to whom this remedy was
+applied, felt a sensation as of formication, immediately on taking it,
+while others experienced a feeling as though they had been submitted to a
+series of shocks of electricity, only weaker and more equable.
+
+It is a well-established fact that in many parts of South America, a
+popular belief prevails that the bite of the deadly _Cobra de cascavel_,
+or rattlesnake, heals _Elephantiasis_, or pustular leprosy, in which
+disease, as is well known, the legs and feet of those attacked are covered
+with a scurf resembling the cuticle of the elephant. However, instances of
+the practical application of so terrible a remedy, which seems to be
+almost more dreadful than the disease it professes to cure, are in all
+probability of rare occurrence, and are therefore doubly important when,
+as in the case detailed to us, they occurred under the very eyes of a man
+of science, and are related by the observer himself.
+
+A native, named Marianno José Machado, from Rio Pardo, in the province of
+southern Rio Grande, fifty years of age, had long been afflicted with
+morphea (_Elephantiasis Græcorum_), and had already passed four years in
+the Lazarus Hospital at Rio, when one day, worn out with his loathsome
+malady, he resolved as a last chance of being delivered from his dread
+disease, to submit to the bite of a rattlesnake. All the warnings and
+representations of the physicians, who entertained well-founded doubts as
+to the remedial efficacy of so dangerous a remedy, were disregarded.
+Marianno betook himself to a house in the Rua da Imperatriz, the occupant
+of which possessed a living rattlesnake, and there in the presence of
+numerous witnesses declared, signing at the same time a document to the
+same effect, that what he was about to do he did of his own free will,
+without any influence on the part of strangers, and that he assumed to
+himself the entire responsibility of his own deed. Marianno was of
+middling stature and athletic build; his entire skin was covered with
+rugosities, but without any appearance of ulceration, while his face was
+frightfully disfigured. The points of his fingers, moreover, had entirely
+lost their form, the skin readily peeling off from them.
+
+The daring sufferer opened the box in which lay the deadly reptile, and
+roughly seized it; but it at first attempted to escape, as though it too
+was disgusted at the horrible object before it. When, however, it felt
+itself once more squeezed, the snake turned round in self-defence, and bit
+the man on the finger. Marianno was sensible neither of the puncture of
+the teeth, nor of the instantaneous activity of the injected poison, but
+it became ere long apparent that he had been bitten, from the blood making
+its appearance, coupled with a slight swelling of the hand. Several
+physicians watched by the bedside of the sufferer; almost every half-hour
+the observed results were circumstantially reported. When, however, the
+symptoms rapidly became worse, antidotes were applied, and every effort
+made to save the patient. Nevertheless, the result of the experiment was
+as anticipated--within twenty-four hours after the bite of the rattlesnake
+Marianno was a corpse.
+
+Several members of the medical society of Vienna laid great stress on our
+procuring a considerable quantity of the celebrated poison, "_curaré_,"
+used in South America for tipping arrows, with the view of instituting
+fresh experiments--similar to those already made, so as to elucidate its
+chemical and physiological properties. As the curaré is not to be procured
+in Rio, but comes thither from the northern province of Pará, where the
+natives procure it from the sap of the _Strychnos toxifera_, Dr. de Lagos
+promised he would take care to procure some, so as to transmit samples
+direct to the Vienna _savans_, and at the same time gave us much
+information as to the latest researches touching this substance, with
+whose remarkable properties Alexander v. Humboldt had made the scientific
+world acquainted, more than half-a-century previously, in his classic
+"Travels through the Equatorial Countries."
+
+One special peculiarity of the curaré consists in the fact that, like most
+other organic poisons, it is only active when absorbed into the
+circulating system, and proves entirely innoxious, nay in some cases even
+beneficial, when introduced into the body by other means.
+
+The more the faculty became acquainted with the terrific activity, and
+invariably fatal results of this poison, the more zealously did science
+bestir itself to discover some means of neutralizing the operation of the
+curaré. Quite recently the preparations of iodine-natron, when
+administered in certain proportions, have been recognized as antidotes;
+dissolved with the curaré they seem entirely to obviate its evil effects.
+Careful observation and a gradual acquaintance with the properties of the
+curaré, have further led to the conclusion that it may be regarded as a
+remedy in certain cases, and it has actually been administered with good
+results to animals affected with tetanic convulsions. May it be reserved
+to the physicians of our native country, to elicit from the quantity of
+this subtle and singular poison, which they may expect to receive through
+the kindness of Dr. de Lagos, such results as shall make its remedial
+properties available for man, instead of leaving its baleful energies as
+at present solely directed to the destruction of organic life!
+
+In the company of our Brazilian friends, already mentioned, we also
+visited the most interesting of the public charities and educational
+institutions of Rio.
+
+On the occasion of a visit we paid to the in part newly-erected Casa de
+Correçâo, which is managed on what is known as the Auburn system, we were
+shown three Mozambique negroes, who, in 1852, had been smuggled in a
+"slaver" from the east coast of Africa into Brazil, there to be sold as
+slaves, despite the interdicts against the introduction of slaves, then
+actually in force. The vessel was, however, captured by the Brazilian
+cruisers, and the negroes forthwith restored to liberty, when, in their
+own interest, and with the view of preventing their being a second time
+sold into bondage, they were removed to a quarter of the prison away from
+the rest, and specially set apart for what are called "free Africans,"
+where they had been carefully educated and instructed in various
+handicrafts, all at the expense of the State. As a vocabulary of the
+idioms spoken by the Mozambique negroes, was an especial desideratum of
+the class of philosophic history in our Imperial Academy of Sciences, and
+there seemed to be but little prospect of our expedition visiting the
+eastern coast of Africa, we gladly availed ourselves of this unexpected
+opportunity to compile the wished-for vocabulary, in which Professor
+Portoalegre, Director of the Academy of Fine Arts, materially assisted us.
+Two of these negroes, Camillo and Ventura, were born in Quillimani, and
+belonged to the Mananpi race; the third, Jeremias, was born about sixty
+days' journey from the coast, of the Maqua race, and spoke a dialect of
+the Mozambique idiom. Ventura, a youth of, at the outside, seventeen years
+of age, related that he could perfectly remember having been stolen one
+night from his parents in Quillimani, when he was brought to a
+slave-dealer named Jones, after which he was shipped off in a wretched
+leaky vessel to the coast of Brazil. On our asking these three swarthy
+fellow-labourers, hearty of aspect and neatly clothed, who had been so
+carefully tended by the State, and earned, one as a house-servant, the
+other two as stonemasons, thirty milreis (£3 3s.) a month, whether they
+did not feel themselves better off in Rio than in their own home,--they,
+with one accord, answered that they longed to return to Quillimani, where
+it is hardly requisite to work above six months, and the rest of the year
+may be consumed in a genuine "_dolce far niente_" existence, instead of
+being compelled, as in Rio, to work the whole year round!
+
+In spite of long-continued efforts, the vocabulary turned out much less
+complete than we wished, in consequence of the limited capacity of these
+negroes. We did not content ourselves, however, with merely transcribing
+the answers to our questions, but also endeavoured to obtain a more
+accurate idea of the precise meaning attached to each, by repeating each
+of the words of the Mozambique language, and translating into it from the
+questions put in Portuguese. This method seemed to be the most effectual
+for ensuring the correctness of the pronunciation, so as to permit of its
+being afterwards reduced to writing. In the arrangement of the vocabulary,
+we availed ourselves of what is known as Gallatin's method, as it appeared
+to us more complete and comprehensive than that sent to our academy by the
+celebrated naturalist and traveller, Dr. Martius, of Munich, with a
+request that it should have his list of Latin words translated into the
+various languages hitherto unknown, or such idioms as have been as yet but
+little examined and investigated.
+
+The race, to which these three negroes belonged, seems to have been
+already converted to Christianity. At least, they all had Christian names,
+but could give us no information either as to certain heathenish rites in
+their own country, or concerning an idol of carved ivory which we showed
+them, brought from the east coast of Africa, and the method of worshipping
+it.
+
+Two of the most elegant edifices of Rio Janeiro, worthy indeed of being
+placed side by side with the largest charitable establishments in Europe,
+are the immense palace-like Hospital of the Santa Casa da Misericordia, in
+which between 8000 and 9000 patients are received and treated annually,
+and the really splendid Lunatic Asylum (_Asylo dos Alienados_), in the
+cove of Botafogo. The latter institution, founded in 1841, which, whether
+as regards the tastefulness of its architecture or its munificent
+endowment, can hardly be rivalled anywhere, owes its existence to one of
+the most estimable benefactors of his native country, Don José Clemente
+Pereira, Minister of the Interior at the time of its erection. This
+genial, benevolent soul, deeply acquainted with the human heart and its
+weaknesses, hit, as we were told, upon the following eminently original
+and ingenious method of raising the sums required. All grades of the
+various Brazilian orders, as well as the titles of Baron, Count, and
+Marquis, were put up for sale at fixed prices, the proceeds resulting
+from which purposes were applied to the erection and endowment of the
+asylum! And thus arose, at the south end of the cove of Botafogo, a
+splendid palatial edifice--a monument less of humanity and love of our
+afflicted neighbours, than of the vanity and frailty of poor human nature,
+the tributes to which erected it. Unfortunately, in this establishment,
+mere succour is all in all, and the cure seems entirely lost sight of, the
+sanative treatment of the patients lagging far behind their careful
+supervision; in short, it being rather a place for the safe confinement
+than the recovery of those deprived of their reason.
+
+One of the most instructive examples of how little the inhabitants of Rio
+make use of the natural capabilities of the site of their capital, is
+incontestably furnished by a piece of ground immediately adjoining the
+Lunatic Asylum, which has been dignified with the name of the Botanic
+Garden. With the exception of a very fine alley of hundreds of graceful
+king-palms (_Oreodoxa regia_), which present a magnificent spectacle,
+growing as they do with such admirable regularity as to appear rather
+artificial columns than planted trees, the eye encounters nothing but
+uncultivated land, abounding with the commonest vegetation, alternating
+with badly-selected nursery plantations, although both in the climate and
+the soil every facility is at hand for enabling this garden to be made a
+means of representing the vegetation of every zone of the globe. Even a
+large tea plantation, for the cultivation of which 10,000 Chinese were
+imported at the cost of Government, and from which, if the experiment had
+proved successful, the most important results might have been anticipated,
+stood there uncared-for and untended, a melancholy witness of how things
+are inaugurated in Brazil, and then suffered to fall through. When we
+enquired how long the garden had been laid out, our guide, a witty
+Portuguese, replied with a sarcastic smile; "Since the beginning of the
+world!" In that part of the garden which adjoins the Lagune, called
+Rodrigo das Freitas, stands a common mud hovel, with broken windows, and
+doors hanging by the hinges. This was pointed out to us by a labourer as
+the spot at which the Emperor alights and reposes when he visits the
+Botanical Garden.
+
+Singular to say, Brazil possesses no regular university! The jealousy with
+which any one city invested with certain privileges and prerogatives is
+regarded by the rest, is the reason that induced the Government to
+separate the medical and juridical classes, so that each of the four chief
+cities of the Empire benefits by the presence of a certain portion of the
+students. Thus the medical schools are in Rio Janeiro and Bahia, while
+those of jurisprudence are held in St. Paul and Pernambuco. The entire
+number of students attending these establishments amounted of late years,
+on an average, to upwards of a thousand. Great prominence has been
+assigned by Government, especially of late, to the extension of public
+instruction. In March, 1857, there were throughout Brazil, 2452 schools,
+(765 private, and 1687 public,) in which instruction was given to 82,243
+children of both sexes.[39] A school of industry, having for its object the
+instruction of able-bodied persons, was opened in 1856, and classes for
+teaching natural philosophy and political administrative science, are in
+process of being introduced. Amongst the scientific establishments of the
+country, the Historico-Geographical Institute occupies the first place,
+the meetings of which are generally attended by the Emperor as honorary
+president. This institution, which occupies in Brazil about the same
+position as the Academy of Sciences in Vienna, directs its special
+attention to the publication of old documents and manuscripts relating to
+the history of Brazil and the aboriginal population; but investigations
+relating to natural history are also included in its domain of enquiry.
+The sittings are held every alternate Friday. The naturalists of the
+_Novara_ attended one of these meetings, which took place in one of the
+wings of the palace. At half-past 6 P.M., the Emperor entered the hall, in
+plain clothes, attended by two chamberlains. All the gentlemen present
+approached one after the other and respectfully kissed the hand of their
+sovereign. On this occasion we remarked that even ladies, when presented
+to the head of the State, were accustomed to kiss his hand. The Imperial
+Honorary President, whose simple apparel was relieved only by the star of
+some order worn on the breast, took his seat at the upper end of a long,
+wide table, covered with green cloth. The associates, with the exception
+of the Vice-President and Secretaries, seemed to have no fixed seats, but
+sat in the order of their arrival. During the sitting there was the most
+marked absence of ceremony, and the business was transacted in the freest
+and easiest manner.
+
+[Footnote 39: Among the higher class of educational institutions, the
+College of Pedro Segundo ranks foremost, and is at present attended by
+about 900 students.]
+
+The proceedings were uninteresting, the greatest portion of the time being
+occupied in reading over the minutes of the last sitting, and replying to
+certain strictures upon the incapacity of land-surveyors in Brazil. Sir
+Robert Schomburgk had, in one of his works published in 1843, upon the
+subject of New Guinea, made some disparaging observations as to the method
+of admeasurement pursued in Brazil, and one member of the society, Dr.
+Schüch de Capanema, seemed to consider it his duty in his double capacity
+as a Brazilian and an engineer, to protest--somewhat tardily it must be
+owned!--against these, according to his opinion, unjust remarks. After the
+discussion was over, a manuscript was next brought forward concerning some
+of the native tribes; His Majesty expressed a wish to have this treatise
+read. The secretary accordingly made the attempt, but the writing was so
+illegible, that he was obliged to abandon the task. At the conclusion of
+the meeting, which lasted upwards of three hours, His Majesty conversed
+very affably with the Austrian gentlemen, and presented each with a copy
+of a national poem, "Conferaçao dos Tamoyos," by a native poet, Gonçalves
+de Magalhaes, and recently printed at His Majesty's expense, which relates
+the wars of the Tamoyos with the Portuguese residents of San Vincente--
+the last struggle of that heroic Indian race, the founding of Rio, and the
+subjugation of the entire force, under Nictheroy, by the Portuguese.
+
+The _Palæstra Scientifica_ is a branch of this institution, the members
+being chiefly naturalists. The gentlemen of the _Novara_ Expedition were
+invited to one of the meetings, which was inaugurated by the secretary
+reading aloud an ancient manuscript upon the natural resources of various
+provinces in Brazil, according to explorations, which had been undertaken
+in 1798, by the directions and at the cost of the then Portuguese
+Government. There was also read a memoir upon the culture of linseed,
+formerly carried on in the province of St. Catharina, which, however, is
+now entirely discontinued. Dr. Schüch presented to the Society
+vocabularies of the Croado and Puris languages, compiled by M. R. F. de
+Senestes, a retired Belgian ship captain, now resident at Minas, who had
+long traded with these two Indian races. Dr. Schüch also exhibited a
+pigment, or dye-stuff, extracted from the wood of the Ipé-tree, a species
+of bignonia, extensively used in the manufacture of axles. State
+Councillor and Senator Candido Baptista de Oliveira, [formerly Minister
+and Ambassador at St. Petersburg, and at that time publisher and editor of
+the _Rivista Brasileira_ (Brazilian Review)], brought forward some
+meteorological tables, and explained his new method for measuring
+altitudes. The proceedings are usually conducted in the Portuguese
+language; but out of courtesy to the foreigners, French was principally
+spoken, and the President kindly proposed that Dr. Schüch de Capanema, who
+is thoroughly versed in German, should translate into that idiom the
+proceedings as carried on in Portuguese. At the close of the sitting, the
+commander of our Expedition and the various members of the scientific
+commission were named associates of the _Palæstra Scientifica_.
+
+This society had projected an expedition to explore the western provinces
+of the empire, and some of their members were appointed to draw up the
+plan for carrying it out. The arrangements for the enterprise were on the
+grandest scale. The requisite books and scientific apparatus were ordered
+from London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. Every branch of science had its
+representative,--an astronomer, botanist, zoologist, ethnologist, &c.,
+were to accompany the Expedition; each section had a number of assistants,
+the astronomical as many even as nine. When we arrived in Rio, the printed
+instructions for the use of the members were just being distributed; and
+it was asserted that nothing but the non-arrival of the instruments from
+Europe prevented the departure of the Expedition. In short, the
+preparations which were made in the year 1857, justified the hope that a
+most brilliant success would be the result of an undertaking got up on so
+expensive a scale. The only pity is, that up till now--more than three
+years later--the Expedition has had but little result, and, according to
+the latest intelligence from Rio, some of the members in the north-east of
+the province of Cearà cannot proceed any further for want of money (_por
+falta de dinhero_), and expect new funds in order to continue their
+explorations and their efforts in search of the wild tribes (_em busca das
+tribus selvaticas!_) in the interior of Maranhao.
+
+There is, generally speaking, in Brazil, as in all other South-American
+States peopled by the Roman race, much of good-will, and still more
+vanity, to follow in the wake of northern European civilization in
+everything pertaining to progress and investigation; but there is wanting
+that energy, that perseverance so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race,
+which are essential conditions in successfully carrying out any
+undertaking, however zealously entered upon. This probably is the reason
+why in Brazil so many things in science and social life are begun and
+never brought to a conclusion; there is nowhere more talk about _what is
+to be done_, than at Rio de Janeiro. Thus, for example, the Museum of
+Natural History at the Campo Santa Anna, is an elegant building, with
+magnificent apartments, and large elegantly fitted cases--which, however,
+contain as yet but few objects of natural history, even those being most
+unsystematically arranged.
+
+Another educational institution--the Military Academy--founded under John
+VI., in 1810, for the instruction of the engineers and officers of the
+various scientific corps, has, since then, undergone nine reforms, and was
+just about to undergo another one! In this establishment the highly
+objectionable practice still exists, of making every pupil acquainted with
+the chapter and verse of the subjects of examination twenty-four hours
+before it takes place.
+
+The Public Library, though little more than begun at the period of our
+visit, already comprised 86,000 volumes, and is annually increased by an
+addition of five or six hundred. This institution was, in 1856, visited by
+3407 readers, who perused 7717 volumes, mostly in Portuguese and French,
+consisting of 238 on theology, 1046 on political economy, 2879 on natural
+science, 153 on the fine arts, 1083 on history, and 2318 on
+belles-lettres, which furnishes a very fair criterion for estimating the
+education of those availing themselves of these advantages.
+
+Another institution, which is an evidence of the efforts now making by the
+Brazilians to gratify their national vanity, is the _Conservatorio da
+Musica_, a newly-established institution for the promotion of the _opera
+lyrica nacional_, the number of pupils attending which averages 100. A
+custom has lately prevailed of sending one or two of the most gifted of
+these annually to Europe to complete their musical studies. During a four
+years' residence there, each pupil has a stipend from the Imperial
+exchequer of 3000 francs per annum; and in the event of obtaining a prize
+abroad, he receives a gratuity of 1000 francs; his compositions, however,
+in that case become the property of the parent institution. By this means
+the Brazilians hope to render themselves entirely independent of foreign
+musical talent. "Why should we annually pay hundreds of thousands of
+francs to foreign singers and concert-givers?" said a Brazilian to us one
+day in all earnestness. "We shall soon have our own artists--Brazilian
+Thalbergs, Grisis, and Lablaches!" Confessedly the inhabitants of the
+United States have been vain enough in all conscience; but when we
+consider the wonderful advances made by that active, energetic people, and
+contemplate their surpassing qualities, such a national foible is readily
+overlooked. In Brazil, on the contrary, the contempt affected for
+everything foreign, the fretful impatience to become emancipated from the
+smallest resemblance to European customs, is exceedingly childish and even
+ludicrous in a country which can hardly yet be said to be able to stand
+alone, since the pressure of circumstances is daily making them more and
+more dependent on other countries, and where it is necessary to import
+from abroad not merely the evidences of high culture, but the very first
+necessaries of life, even to obtaining supplies of foreign labour. This
+overweening self-esteem has rather increased, since it has become the
+fashion of young Brazilians, of the better classes, to visit Europe for
+the completion of their studies, as will, perhaps, be best illustrated by
+the following laughable anecdote:--A young Brazilian, the son of a German
+father and a native lady, who had but recently returned from Europe,
+overheard one of his friends asking another if he could tell of what
+country he thought the fresh arrival to be, at the same time indicating
+the youth, who just came from the academy of Freiberg. "There can be no
+doubt on that point," was the reply; "the blue eyes, light hair, and fair
+complexion, distinctly indicate that the gentleman is a German." "God
+forbid!" (_Deu m'en guarda!_) exclaimed the young gentleman, who seemed as
+it were ashamed of his foreign descent, and to feel even more indignation
+than a full-blood Brazilian at such a mortifying imputation.
+
+Among the various institutions recently established in Rio, the
+introduction of which is intended to be made available in promoting the
+physical well-being of the people, the foremost place must indisputably be
+assigned to the Board of Health (_Junta Central de Hygiena Publica_). It
+owes its origin to the appearance of the yellow fever and the cholera,
+which had never been known before in the country. The former broke out on
+the 29th December, 1850, having been introduced by vessels that had
+cleared from Bahia, at which port it had been raging for some weeks. The
+ravages of this pestilence were fearful in Rio; out of a population of
+250,000 souls, as many as 120,000 were attacked, and upwards of 5000 fell
+a sacrifice to the disease.
+
+The first case of cholera occurred a few years later, on the 15th of July,
+1855; and during the months in which it prevailed, nearly the same number
+(to be more precise, 4826) of the inhabitants of the capital were carried
+off. The fatal cases throughout the empire from this epidemic during the
+eighteen months between May, 1855, and December, 1856, are said to have
+amounted to the enormous number of 107,093! Dr. Francisco de Paulo
+Candido, one of the most eminent physicians of Rio, and the principal
+member of the Board of Health, states, in a report to the Government,
+relative to the statistics of the cholera throughout the empire, that he
+had observed, during the prevalence of the epidemic, three phenomena,
+which seemed to stand in a certain relation to its appearance, increase,
+and decrease, viz., the almost entire disappearance of the ozon in July
+and following months, when the disease was on the _increase_; the gradual
+increase of that atmospheric agent, in proportion to the decrease of the
+disorder; and lastly, the influence exercised by humidity and sudden
+changes in temperature on the intensity of the disease. Dr. Candido has
+added to his highly instructive report some meteorological tables and a
+graphical representation of the presence and absence of ozon in the
+atmosphere, which will be published, in its proper place, in the medical
+section of the present work.
+
+The consequence of the ravages of these two scourges was, that a variety
+of other measures for securing the public health were inaugurated by the
+newly-established Board of Health. Among others, a hospital was set on
+foot in a charming part of the Cove of Jurujuba,[40] at the eastern
+extremity of the Bay of Rio, expressly for the reception of patients
+afflicted with yellow fever or cholera. Every morning since that attack,
+(and during the unhealthy season several times a day), a small Government
+steamer, fitted up for the purpose, plies round the bay, to take up any
+cases that may happen to occur on board the ships arriving, and convey
+them hither free of charge. Two medical men on board the steamer commence
+the treatment, by applying the necessary remedies, during the passage
+from the ship to the hospital. Any vessel at anchor in the bay with an
+epidemic on board, has, according to arrangement, simply to hoist a flag
+on the mainmast, whereupon the Government steamer immediately embarks the
+sick persons. In order more effectually to keep from all contact with the
+population of the town, such shipboard patients as are labouring under
+infectious complaints, another hospital has been established on the Island
+of Marica, situated beyond the bar.
+
+[Footnote 40: Pronounced Shooru-shooba.]
+
+In consequence of these recent epidemic attacks, much greater attention
+than formerly has of late been paid to the cleanliness of the capital of
+the Brazilian empire, though a great deal has yet to be done in this
+respect. Rio used to be, without exception, the dirtiest city in the
+world. As there were neither gutters nor sewers, all impurities
+accumulated during the twenty-four hours used, towards evening, to be
+carried by negroes on their heads, in pails and casks, to the bay, and,
+singularly enough, emptied in the immediate vicinity of the Imperial
+palace, whereby several quarters of the city, particularly in the hot
+season, were rendered entirely uninhabitable. The execution of proper
+drainage and sewerage works in a city such as Rio, which lies on a flat
+and is densely built near the water, must be at all times attended with a
+very large expenditure of money. But who would boggle at any amount for an
+object which concerns the bodily health, not merely of the present, but of
+all succeeding generations? At the period of our visit, the Government had
+entered into a contract with Messrs. Joaquim Pereira de Lima and J. F.
+Russell, by which, in consideration of a lease for ninety years of
+certain taxes specially levied, the two contractors have undertaken to
+introduce into the capital of Brazil a system of harbour and street
+purification, similar to that which has long been in general use
+throughout England. There had also been lately started a _Companhia
+Reformadora_, having for object the widening and beautifying of certain
+streets, and the improvement of the paving. One must have lived in Rio,
+where each street and open square is a hotbed of fever and sickness, to be
+able aright to estimate the importance of the two last-named associations.
+
+A war steamer was, by the command of H.M. the Emperor of Brazil, placed at
+our disposal, to afford us an opportunity of viewing more closely the most
+beautiful points in the magnificent bay of Rio. There were on board with
+us the Captain of the Port, Dom Francisco de Perura Pinto, the captains of
+the Brazilian men-of-war lying in the harbour, as also several members of
+the Historico-Geographical Institute. A military band enlivened the party
+by playing national airs during the day. We first visited the south-east
+part of the bay at the villages of San Domingo and Ponta da Armacao,
+opposite to Ponta da Aréa, whence steamers, for navigating the bay and
+adjoining coast, are run by an English company, which employs 667 hands,
+(of whom 298 are foreigners, 207 natives, and 162 negro slaves). Except a
+part of the funds advanced by native capitalists, the whole undertaking is
+carried out by foreigners. England furnishes the engineers and machinery,
+whilst the requisite timber is brought from Norway and North America. The
+value of the labour employed during 1856 amounted to nearly £90,000.--We
+proceeded hence past the islands of Salinas and Honorio, and between the
+island of Baretto and the eastern shore of the bay, as far as the
+luxuriant island of Paquetá, on the lovely shores of which we landed. It
+has a circumference of five miles, and is inhabited by 16,000 persons, who
+convert shells into chalk; nearly all the houses on shore are chalk-kilns.
+During the dry season this island is the favourite Sunday resort of the
+_fluminenses_, as the Rio de Janeirians delight to call themselves. From
+this sweet spot the steamer carried us to the north side of the bay. In
+the back-ground, the Organos mountains now appeared in all the majesty of
+their imposing outline, whilst on one of the projecting ridges, the church
+San Francisco de Croara forms an extremely picturesque object.
+
+[Illustration: ISLAND OF PAQUITÀ, BAY OF RIO.]
+
+The more the northern portion of the bay is approached, the more romantic
+becomes the panorama of the mountains: from this point stand out in their
+full grandeur the Serra da Estrella, the Serra da Tinguá (which is
+currently believed to be the highest mountain, not merely on the bay, but
+in Brazil), then the deep valley of Santa Cruz, next to which the
+mountain-chains of Suaratyba, and the Serra de Iguassoú, rise
+majestically, melting away into the charming Tejuca chain, the Gavia, and
+the world-renowned Corcovado, whilst the Sugar Loaf, that gigantic
+guardian at the entrance of the harbour, splendidly terminates this
+magnificent amphitheatre.
+
+We passed the largest of the islands in the bay, the Ilha do Governador,
+which has a circumference of upwards of seven miles, and is inhabited by
+about a hundred persons chiefly employed in the chalk-kilns, sail-cloth
+and soap manufactories; and touched at some wild spots that promised a
+harvest for our naturalists. Here and there, from the deep blue waters,
+sprang up islands of the most luxuriant vegetation, like tropical idylls
+of rock and forest, such as the eye marvels to rest upon, but the pen
+refuses to describe. Indelibly impressed on our minds remains in this
+respect the lovely islet of Catalán, with its beautiful flowers and palms.
+
+On approaching the capital, towards the east of the bay, passing the
+island Bom Jesus, with a magnificent Franciscan monastery, and the Ponta
+do Cajù, with charming country seats, a forest of masts, strikes the eye
+in bold contrast with the Sugar Loaf in the east, and the Morro de Viracao
+and the fort Pico in the west, which covers the position of Santa Cruz.
+Unfortunately we went down, just at this point, to a splendid banquet,
+etiquette requiring that we should exchange the quarter-deck for the
+state-room; for in Brazil also, upon such occasions, meals and
+speechifying play an important part, and greatly prejudice the special
+object of travel--the enjoyment of nature.
+
+We were not yet done, however, with our excursion. Again we turned towards
+the beautiful Cove of Jurujuba, where on the shore lay pretty little
+cottages embowered in the richest foliage, while, through a deep
+depression, appeared the masts of ships which were still on the bosom of
+the ocean outside, on the point of entering the harbour. As the vessel
+steamed in, the scenery changed character at every moment, like a fairy
+landscape, full of the loveliest, most enchanting glimpses of the
+surrounding country. At Jurujuba, we landed to visit the _Hospital
+Maritimo de S. Isabel_, erected in 1853, for the reception of sailors in
+ill-health of all nations and creeds. It proved of immense utility during
+the prevalence of epidemics. In the five years of its existence at the
+period of our visit, there had been admitted nearly 6000 cases of yellow
+fever.[41] For the excellent management of this fine hospital the utmost
+credit is due to the physicians in charge, Dr. Bento Maria da Costa, and
+Dr. José Teixeira da Souza.
+
+[Footnote 41: In the year 1856, 2452 patients were received into the
+hospital at Jurujuba Cove, of whom 175 died, 2195 were dismissed cured,
+and 82 remained under treatment. By comparison with former years, the
+number of sick seemed to have fallen off 13 per cent., while the expenses
+of management had increased 9 per cent.]
+
+The ground immediately surrounding the hospital has been reclaimed by the
+hand of man, and transformed into a garden, in which flourish, in
+solitary majesty, the shady _Aleurites triloba_ and the _Anda Gomesii_,
+growing in avenues or other regular groups, after all wild vegetation had
+been cut down. But at the first step beyond, the foot of the wanderer
+through these solitudes strikes into paths leading through the richest,
+densest forest scenery Casuarinas (_Anacardium occidentale_), with its
+luscious pear-shaped fruits, the Indian mango-tree, the various species of
+Eugenia, so rich in ethereal oil, the Figuera Branca (_ficus doliaria_),
+the canoe-tree, a gigantic species of _Bombax_, protected by sharp spines,
+and other lofty forest-children, reach to the very buildings; while, amid
+the dense underwood that grows unchecked, and a few paces distant only
+from the dwellings of man, lurk dangerously poisonous snakes, who find
+here a secure haunt. Within our own experience, as one of the botanists of
+the Expedition was placing a ladder against a primæval forest tree, the
+progenitor of numberless scions, he stumbled upon a poisonous Jacaraca,
+ready to defend from intrusion his accustomed resting-place.
+
+At the north-west entrance of Jurujuba Cove, rises a lofty island, with
+the appropriate name of Bom Viajem ("a happy voyage"), with its church of
+the Virgin of the same name, situate on the extreme summit, 400 feet in
+height. As, during our visit to the hospital, the twilight had crept
+stealthily on, we returned without further stoppage to Rio; when the
+company, landing at the usual landing-place of the arsenal, separated,
+full of the most pleasing impressions, arising from the beautiful scenery
+enjoyed during the day, and a deep sense of gratitude for the noble
+hospitality shown us by our amiable hosts.
+
+Another favour was conferred by Drs. de Lagos and Schüch, who formed a
+fishing-party on a grand scale, which was greatly enjoyed by all, though
+the gun proved more profitable to our naturalists than rod, line, or net.
+
+As the number of days at our disposal in Rio Janeiro began to diminish, we
+applied ourselves to seeing the utmost possible with the smallest
+sacrifice of time. The morning after our excursion on board the Santa
+Cruz, we attended a sitting of the Chamber of Deputies. The hall, oval in
+shape, is plainly, but comfortably fitted up. The members sit on benches
+in a semicircle. Opposite the president stand tables for the ministers of
+state; at the upper and lower end of the hall are galleries for the
+public, and one is specially assigned to the diplomatic body. Each member
+speaks from his place. Their language is very free and their behaviour
+still more so,--they sometimes carry this so far as not to allow a speaker
+to proceed; and in screaming, brawling, and violence, they excel even
+certain members of the late French Chamber of Deputies. There are said to
+be some very able speakers amongst the Brazilians. The subject of debate
+was a petition presented to the House for an inquiry into the conduct of a
+late minister of justice, who was accused of having tyrannically dismissed
+a government officer in the province of Maranhao. The subject had created
+great interest in the public mind, and the galleries were crowded to
+suffocation; we did not remain till the conclusion of the debate, but the
+minister is said to have justified the proceeding by proving that the
+officer had allowed himself to be bribed.
+
+On the same day we made an excursion to the Serra da Estrella and
+Petropolis, a place which has of late excited so much attention in the
+public journals, since the question of German emigration to Brazil, with
+its accompaniments of agitations by the Brazilian recruiting agents, began
+to assume its present remarkable proportions. Though the distance from Rio
+to Petropolis may be accomplished in four hours, yet three different
+vehicles are required:--in the first place, a steamer from Rio to the
+railway-station on the opposite side of the bay, then the railway to
+Fragosa, and lastly, a carriage to the final destination over an excellent
+road which runs through the mountains to Petropolis.
+
+This fine work, which was opened in 1848, is unfortunately the only one of
+its kind in the whole empire,[42] as are likewise the five miles of
+railway between Mauá and Fragosa; and yet how highly important would
+railway communication prove from the metropolis to the northern provinces,
+by means of which the excessive cost of carriage by mules might be so
+considerably reduced, benefiting alike the landowner and the merchant! As
+an illustration, the fact may be mentioned, that the cost of transit for
+an arroba (32 lbs.) of coffee from the coffee district of Vassouras to
+Rio, a distance of about 50 miles, amounts to from 700 to 800 reis (about
+1_s._ 8_d._). The trouble and expense connected with this miserable mode
+of conveyance, so much enhance the price of some kinds of natural produce,
+that it does not pay to transport them to the harbour of the capital.
+Several companies have latterly been projected, and money subscribed for
+constructing railways in the various provinces of the empire, and a few of
+these are already under weigh, as, for example, that of Dom Pedro Segundo,
+which will put the richest provinces in direct communication with Rio, and
+for which the amount of money required has been entirely subscribed. But
+in this, as in all other Brazilian enterprises, energy is wanting to make
+these good intentions bear fruit; and so long as there is not a greater
+admixture of foreign go-a-head-ativeness in the country, much must remain
+confined to the mere expression of patriotic wishes. And in this
+connection, foreign immigration, of which we shall treat further on, will
+prove of immense importance.
+
+[Footnote 42: This road is to be continued from Petropolis as far as
+Parahyba; and in various other directions also the building of roads for
+commercial traffic is being fostered by Government. The Brazilian
+Government are at the same time turning their attention to improving the
+existing means of transport by importing dromedaries for use. As it
+withstands variation of temperature, and thrives on almost any kind of
+nourishment, the dromedary is certain to do well, especially in the
+northern provinces, and will prove exceedingly serviceable in the
+transport of the products of that section of the country. The great heat
+and drought which prevail in Maranhao, Piauhy, Matto Grosso, and that
+direction generally, is eminently suitable to the dromedary, which does
+not thrive in hot _damp_ weather. It is calculated that a dromedary, which
+can carry an average weight of 700 pounds, (being six times what a horse,
+and four times what a mule will carry on his back), costs, in his own
+country, from £12 to £16; and after paying cost of transport to Brazil,
+will be worth £48. With the introduction of the "ship of the desert," that
+of the date-palm must go hand in hand, as that fruit constitutes the chief
+food of the dromedary, and will probably simultaneously effect a great
+change in the articles of consumption by the lower orders.]
+
+The journey by carriage through the Sierra from Fragosa to Petropolis is
+extremely beautiful. He who is not fortunate enough to enter deeper into
+the interior, at least obtains here an idea of what constitutes a primæval
+Brazilian forest. The wonders of tropical vegetation, as manifested not
+only by vastness of form but also by gorgeous and rank luxuriance, strike
+the eye at first-sight almost the same way as an overpowering chorus
+affects the ear. It requires time to collect the thoughts, so as to be
+able to appreciate and enjoy thoroughly the extraordinary beauties that
+impress the wondering mind.
+
+If the eye of the astonished traveller has been but in the most cursory
+manner directed to the vegetable phenomena that surround him, it must have
+rested on a climbing plant, which constitutes one of the chief marvels of
+the native woods. This singular creeper is the _Cipo matador_, a climbing
+plant of a very peculiar aspect, at once the most powerful and most
+destructive of all the Cipo tribe. It twines round the stems of lofty
+trees, which its flattened coils gradually constrict with almost life-like
+cruelty! Its aërial roots run out from all parts and embrace the tree like
+artificial clamps, forming in some places complete rings, and in others
+growing into the very bark. The tree, in consequence of this parasitic
+embrace, dies away by degrees, whilst its destroyer continues to grow
+gaily on the corpse of its victim, and spreads its leafy crown until it
+falls and perishes simultaneously with the support that had hitherto
+upheld it. To what profound reflections does the contemplation of this
+spectacle give rise! Involuntarily our thoughts fly from the wild
+Brazilian forest to the plains of civilization,--to the modern society
+where, likewise, many a noble human nature is slowly undermined by a
+treacherous Cipo matador of flesh and blood, till too surely he falls
+prone on the ground!
+
+Petropolis is, on account of its more temperate and healthy climate, a
+favourite residence of the wealthy Rio de Janeirians, and during the hot
+season, when the sultriness of the air, if not something worse, renders
+life almost unendurable, Petropolis is said to have the appearance of a
+European spa. It is at the same time the summer residence of the Emperor,
+and the only place in Brazil where an electric telegraph--uniting it with
+Rio de Janeiro--has been established. The town contains about 7000
+inhabitants; the streets, when completed, will be broad and handsome,--but
+only one has as yet been finished, the others being merely marked out,
+while even among the clean and neat houses already erected, there are
+frequent and wide gaps.
+
+The German colony, planned by a German engineer, Julius Friedr. Köhler, is
+at a little distance from Petropolis. The first colonists who arrived on
+the 30th of July, 1845, came mostly from Baden and the Rhenish provinces.
+The Government granted to each family a cottage, with a slice of forest
+near it, a cow, a dozen of chickens, and about £5 in money. Such at least
+was the information given us at Petropolis. Köhler soon afterwards met
+with a sad end at a newly-formed shooting ground. Many an emigrant family
+perished in misery; others, however, overcame the difficulties that beset
+them at the commencement; more emigrants arrived, and now one may walk,
+within a few hours, through the Rhine and Mosel valleys, Nassau,
+Darmstadt, Ingelheim, Bingen, the Palatinate and Switzerland, as the
+emigrants, in fond commemoration of their native homes, call their small
+settlements, which run some distance through the mountain valleys. The
+German origin of these settlements displays itself distinctly in the
+cleanliness and neatness of their log cabins, the affability of the
+people, the heartiness of their greeting, the fair hair, curly heads, and
+beautiful blue eyes of the children, as well as the language and music
+which is now and then heard.
+
+Petropolis is, however, not an agricultural colony in the real sense of
+the word, the majority of the 2500 Germans settled there obtaining a
+livelihood as artizans and labourers. The Government has done much to
+promote the growth of the colony, by making roads, and establishing
+schools. Still the people never become agriculturists, on account of the
+sterility of the soil; but as the road to the province of Minas Geraes
+runs through the place, the settlement will always retain some importance.
+For the cargoes of coffee which are conveyed by mules from the interior to
+the harbour, Petropolis is the last station, and will remain so for a long
+time yet, for the large outlay required renders it unlikely that the
+projected railway will soon be completed.
+
+Several attempts have been made to establish similar German colonies in
+various provinces of the empire, but, unfortunately, with as yet even less
+success than in the Serra da Estrella. However, the activity of the
+Brazilian emigration agents has much increased in different German ports;
+for the remarkable words of the Emperor, with which he opened the
+Chambers in May, 1854, at Rio,--"The necessity of a settled industrious
+population becomes more and more urgent,"--have become since then even
+more significant; in fact, the result of the endeavours on the part of the
+Government to increase the amount of labour by immigration, is now a
+question of life or death for the empire. Every disinterested person feels
+that, without an increase of labour, productive activity is impossible;
+nay, some even apprehend a considerable decrease in the producing
+capabilities of the country, in consequence of the effect to be
+anticipated in Brazil from the abolition of the slave-trade by the
+interference of England. Up to the year 1851, the importation of negro
+slaves continued undiminished, notwithstanding the treaty with England of
+1826, in which the abolition of the slave-trade forms one of the
+conditions on which the recognition of the Brazilian crown by the
+Government of Her Britannic Majesty was made specially contingent.
+According to a statement of the Foreign Office, there were from 1842 to
+1851 (despite the treaty) 325,615 negroes sold as slaves in Brazil, so
+that the amount of the slave population is now upwards of 2,000,000 souls.
+
+The condition of the black population in this country is materially
+different from that of the United States and the West Indies. The colour
+of the skin, which renders the life of even free and prosperous negroes
+almost intolerable in the northern states of America, where they are
+subject to so many humiliations, makes in Brazil no difference whatever.
+The question here is not whether white or black, but whether free or a
+slave. Free negroes may here occupy the highest places in the State, and
+even exercise a certain influence on the destiny of the white inhabitants.
+Slaves also are treated here with more humanity and less prejudice than in
+any other country visited by me, on which the curse of slavery yet rests;
+yet it must be confessed, without hesitation, that slavery, as beheld in
+Brazil, seems even a greater misfortune to the white population than to
+the black; for neither agriculture nor industry can thrive in a country
+where labour is not considered, as in free States, an honourable
+occupation--but rather as a disgrace--in consequence of its being
+performed by slaves. Not merely the blacks, who have no interest in being
+industrious, but their masters also are lazy, and approaching ruin becomes
+more and more certain. Free labour alone, by obtaining the upper hand in
+the country, can remedy these things. Slave labour cannot long compete
+with it. The intelligence, activity, and perseverance of 100,000 free
+white labourers will promote the prosperity and the happiness of Brazil,
+much more than the compulsory labour of two millions of negroes in
+bondage.
+
+In consequence of repeated and energetic remonstrances on the part of the
+British Government, the slave-trade has now ceased in Brazil, and "one of
+the grandest monuments of our century," as the celebrated declaration by
+the Congress of Vienna termed the entire suppression of the
+slave-trade,[43] may be considered by this circumstance approaching its
+termination.
+
+[Footnote 43: Déclaration des puissances sur l'abolition de la traite des
+nègres, du 8 Février, 1815. L. Neumann, Recueil des traités et conventions
+conclus par l'Autriche (Leipzig, 1856. Vol. II., p. 502).]
+
+As the Government became convinced that there was not the least hope of
+reaping any advantage from civilizing the aboriginal tribes, it had
+recourse to free immigration, and promoted it in every way.[44] It
+endeavoured, particularly in the warmer northern provinces, to replace the
+deficiency of negroes by Chinese Coolies, who were imported from different
+parts of China; but they could not stand the climate, and were not found
+capable of advantageously replacing the negro in his various and often
+very heavy labour. This partially arose from the indiscriminate selection
+of the immigrants, as the agents, when they could not obtain able-bodied
+men, did not scruple to make up their cargo with whatever came to hand.
+
+[Footnote 44: It may be useful, however, on many accounts to observe, that
+the Brazilian Government take considerable pains to adapt this doomed race
+for a civilized mode of existence. A law of 19th September, 1855, assigned
+an annual sum of £6000 for the proper execution of this humane project. In
+order to remedy the very marked deficiency of suitable missionaries, the
+Government, through its representative in Paris, invited a number of
+Catholic priests from France--men, whose rearing and zeal for their faith
+had effected such marvels among the Indians of Canada. But the aborigines
+of Brazil seem hopelessly degraded, and are destined, after having filled
+their appointed place in the history of nations, to make room for a more
+energetically endowed race.]
+
+The Government pays, therefore, the utmost attention to European
+immigration; it has agents in Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, and
+especially in Germany; and endeavours to organize associations that have
+for their object the settlement of industrious labourers in the country,
+and to support colonies already in existence, till they are in a position
+to maintain themselves. In Brazil, the conviction is pretty general, that
+only an emigration _en masse_ of white labour can save this splendid
+country from ruin, though there are individuals who entertain a different
+opinion, and think--perhaps not altogether without reason--that the energy
+and industry of European settlers might eventually--considering the
+indolent and careless disposition of their countrymen--prove destructive
+to the national element!
+
+The most striking proof of how thoroughly in earnest the leading members
+of the Brazilian Government are in their efforts to procure an immigration
+of foreign labour, may be found in the report of the Commission upon the
+new tariff, in which the following passage occurs, illustrative of the
+advantages which may be expected to be reaped from European emigration on
+a large scale:--"'These foreign labourers arrive here poor, and depart
+from the country laden with our gold and silver, and, like blood-suckers,
+absorb our natural riches!' is the remark of those who are ignorant of the
+true interests of Brazil. For to whom are we indebted for our capital, for
+the industry and commerce which we have? To whom belong those
+manufactories which the people want to protect, and in whose favour so
+much is said? Why, to foreigners! Foreign hands and foreign capital
+cultivate our soil, expand our trade and commerce, and promote the arts.
+The _results_ of their labour remain, though they may themselves quit the
+country! Foreigners man our ships, build our manufactories, and supply
+them with hands; foreigners buy our produce and carry it to distant
+markets; foreigners render our forests and rivers productive; they work
+our mines, uncover the metallic wealth of our country, and educate our
+children! Capital, practical science, instruments, and machines, with
+which we perform our labours, belong mostly to foreigners; and,
+consequently, these blood-suckers are just the very men who render our
+land productive, preserving, instead of, as some erroneously imagine,
+depriving us of our vitality. The money which they take back to their
+homes is amply replaced by the treasures they leave behind in the product
+of their labour, and in the branches of industry which they have
+introduced or improved."[45]
+
+[Footnote 45: Of the sixty-four manufactories and workshops, twenty-eight
+belong to foreigners; and there is not a single industrial establishment
+in which foreigners are not employed, either as managers, engineers, or
+labourers.]
+
+More explicitly and discerningly it was hardly possible for Government to
+speak, and to enumerate the glorious results which the country may expect
+from the introduction of foreign industry and foreign activity, although
+such an official avowal could not fail to wound the national pride of the
+Brazilians.
+
+Notwithstanding this strong language of the Government, and all the
+enticements and zealous activity of the Brazilian agents in the various
+ports of Europe, the emigration to that country, in 1856, amounted to
+only 13,800 souls.[46] Among this number there were but 628 agriculturists,
+all the others coming merely with the view of obtaining a livelihood in
+the capital as artizans and labourers. There are probably in all the
+Brazilian agricultural colonies, at this moment, not more than 40,000
+emigrants settled, that is to say, about as many as emigrate in the course
+of three months to the United States!
+
+[Footnote 46: Namely: 9159 Portuguese, 1822 Germans, and 2819 of other
+nations.]
+
+The number of Germans emigrating to Brazil is strikingly small, when
+compared with the total annual emigration from that country. Of 61,413
+individuals, who, in 1856, embarked from Hamburg and Bremen, only 1822
+went to Brazil. The cause of this may be that, simultaneously with the
+large promises held out by the agents, warning voices were heard depicting
+in the most gloomy colours the terrible trials that await the unfortunate
+immigrant on his touching Brazilian soil.[47] Of late such excellent works
+have been published concerning Brazil, that we may advise all who take a
+special interest in the condition of that empire to study these works, the
+more so as the views therein expressed exactly coincide with our own
+impressions.[48]
+
+[Footnote 47: Among these, the opposition of the late Consul-General for
+Brazil at Dresden, Mr. John Sturz, deserves special mention, as, despite
+the threats of losing his appointment, that gentleman was incessantly
+occupied in exposing the iniquities of the Parceria system (see _post_),
+and recommending the immigrant, so long as such a slavish system
+continued, to refrain from turning his steps towards Brazil. Mr. Sturz had
+recently the enviable misfortune of being sacrificed to his own strong
+sense of justice, and dismissed from all employment by the Brazilian
+administration, though not without carrying with him the respect and
+admiration of every friend of humanity. An excellent and circumstantial
+description of the present condition of the German colonies in southern
+Brazil will be found in Dr. Avé Lallemant's attractive "Travels through
+Southern Brazil in 1858." (Leipzig, 1859.)]
+
+[Footnote 48: H. Handelmann's "History of Brazil" (Berlin, 1860), a
+remarkably profound and instructive work, devotes a special section (p.
+933) to the subject of German emigration, and gives a very copious and
+complete insight into the various missions and works since 1819 to the
+present day, which treat of German emigration and colonization.]
+
+So long as the unoccupied lands are not surveyed, laid out in lots, and
+sold at a small rate to the settler, as, for instance, in the United
+States; so long as the immigrant is unable to improve for himself his own
+plot of ground, but must remain a mere field-labourer, working for some
+foreign master, according to the iniquitous _Parceria_, or half-profits
+system;[49] so long as the expense of transport of the emigrant is to be
+worked off by future payments out of his labour, so long must every friend
+of humanity strongly dissuade the emigrant from proceeding to the great
+South American Empire.
+
+[Footnote 49: The modern Brazilian system of _Parceria_ may be shortly
+stated as that by which a planter engages in Europe such of the poorer
+classes as are desirous of emigrating, and has them transported at his own
+cost to Brazil, where they are engaged as farmers, with half profits, upon
+the coffee and sugar plantations, and contracting to reimburse him, by
+their personal services and labour, for the outlay he has been at for
+their transport, maintenance, instruction, &c. Until all these have been
+repaid by the improvement in the rent or productive powers of the land,
+they must remain, as working out their emancipation from the lord of the
+soil, veritable "_adscripti glebæ_." After that has been attained they are
+free people, and may leave if they please, or may sink into the rank of
+"unattached labourers," which implies their assigning half of the net
+produce of the land to the ground landlord, the remaining half being their
+remuneration for labour. Proprietorship in the soil is never attainable by
+these farmers on half profits, inasmuch as the Parceria system can only
+exist where the soil is already exclusively vested in a planting
+aristocracy. (See Handelmann, etc., p. 568).]
+
+For Brazil, beautiful, fertile, and abounding in undeveloped natural
+wealth, two alternatives are alone open at present--either ruin to the
+producing power of the population through deficiency of industrial power,
+or the throwing open the land to foreign emigration by means of the most
+extensive concessions. The longer this is deferred, the more oppressively
+will the want of manual labour manifest itself; and the more advantages
+will foreign emigration secure.
+
+Once, however, these important stipulations are conceded, the German
+emigrants may forthwith bend their steps to the coasts of Brazil, where
+the glorious dawn of a magnificent future is surely breaking for them.
+While, in the United States, the problem to be solved by the German
+emigrants seems to be, to mingle German industry, German capacity, and
+German knowledge, with the keen spirit of enterprise and restless energy
+of the Anglo-Saxon race, and gradually to assimilate with it,--on the
+other hand, in the South American continent, it appears as though the
+German element were about gradually to gain the upperhand of the Latin
+stock, and permanently to conquer for German industry and German commerce,
+one of the fairest countries on the globe with the weapons of peace--the
+spade and plough.
+
+Brazil is, however, of great interest to Germany not merely on account of
+the prospects she holds out for its overflowing population. A market,
+teeming with the most important colonial products, with an area[50] of
+3,956,800 English square miles, and an annual consumption of nearly
+£10,000,000, must in the highest degree attract the attention and excite
+the most favourable anticipations of a country such as Germany, the
+majority of whose inhabitants are engaged in manufactures.
+
+[Footnote 50: According to the computation of the Historico-Geographical
+Institute of Brazil.]
+
+The chief article of Brazilian trade at present is coffee, the production
+of which, in consequence of the great profit of late years derived from
+it, has increased so much, that it has superseded the cultivation of all
+other produce; thus, notwithstanding the fertility and capability of the
+ground, even the commonest necessaries of life, as, for instance,
+potatoes, must be imported from abroad, the majority of the rural
+population being engaged in labour for the foreign market, and only very
+few for home consumption. This is the principal cause of the enormous
+prices which, even the most indispensable necessaries have reached in Rio
+de Janeiro.
+
+Brazil grows annually, in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and Santa
+Catharina, 5,190,000 quintals of coffee, consequently more than
+three-fifths of the entire amount produced on the whole earth, and of this
+the province of Rio de Janeiro alone yields two-thirds.
+
+The most important objects of export, besides coffee, are sugar, rice,
+cotton, hides, and dried meat, together with dye and cabinet woods. The
+progressive decrease of late years in these articles may probably be
+ascribed to the want of sufficient labour, as well as to the great extent
+to which the culture of coffee has been carried.
+
+Although the trade carried on between Brazil and Europe, and its great
+importance, will form the object of a special work, we cannot help
+noticing in this place as a very interesting fact, that among the
+importations, that of wheat-flour holds a very conspicuous place, above
+300,000 barrels of 200 lbs. each being annually consumed, of which
+seventeen twentieths are supplied by the United States, two twentieths
+from Trieste and Fiume, and the remaining one twentieth from Lisbon and
+Valparaiso. The flour from Trieste, by reason of its whiteness and
+superior quality, commands a high price, so as to necessitate its being
+mixed in baking with that from Baltimore. We were told it occasionally
+happens, that the best quality of the much-appreciated Trieste or Fontana
+flour reaches the price, altogether unapproachable by the finest American
+flour, of 64 to 66 shillings the barrel.
+
+As in the interior of the country the flour chiefly used is that called
+Mandioca, prepared from the root of _Jatropha Manihot_, it follows that
+the chief consumer of wheaten flour is Rio itself, the monthly consumption
+amounting to upwards of 16,500 barrels. The reason for the small sale of
+the Austrian manufactures in Brazil must be sought for, not so much in the
+deficient supplies of the articles required, as in the circumstance that
+the Austrian manufacturers have not hitherto found it much their interest
+to study the Brazilian market, so as to make the requisite alterations in
+the method of producing their fabrics, and thus render them suitable for
+that purpose. What little of our Austrian manufactures is at present
+exported for Brazilian consumption, seems at present to follow the, to all
+appearance, much less natural route northwards, and instead of proceeding
+from Trieste direct, is exported from Bremen or Hamburg as fabrics of
+Northern Germany.
+
+During our stay at Rio, Commodore Wüllerstorf, accompanied by Captain
+Pöck, and one of the members of the scientific commission, had the honour
+of being presented to the Emperor and Empress of Brazil, at a private
+audience. The reception took place at the winter residence of St.
+Christoph. It is an old unsightly building, and still unfinished, the
+central part especially having been for some years in a ruinous condition.
+The Emperor seems not to be partial to display, and a very characteristic
+anecdote in this respect, which does him great credit, is very generally
+reported. On the occasion of a visit to the splendid lunatic asylum of
+Botafogo, one of the ministers remarked to His Majesty that the inmates of
+the establishment were better and more elegantly lodged than himself. "It
+will always afford me great pleasure," was the reply, "to know that these
+unfortunate people are better provided for than I am."
+
+At the entrance of the palace at St. Christoph, the gentlemen of the
+Expedition were received by an ecclesiastic, who led them into an
+exceedingly plain ante-chamber, the furniture of which seemed to belong to
+bygone centuries. Several of the ministers of state, whose servants
+carried large portfolios, exchanged compliments with the Austrian
+minister, and entered the contiguous apartments. Chamberlains and
+domestics of the court looked stealthily at the strangers, and disappeared
+as rapidly as they had come. It seemed as though these presentations were
+of infrequent occurrence. At last, about half-past 6 P.M. the door opened,
+when His Majesty and the ministers walked through the room into the hall
+of audience, into which the gentlemen of the Expedition were soon
+afterwards conducted by a chamberlain. The Austrian minister presented
+each separately to His Majesty Dom Pedro II., who is the son of an
+Austrian Archduchess, and received the gentlemen in the uniform of an
+admiral, surrounded by all his ministers. He is a fine-looking man, of
+some 30 years of age, of stately appearance, but with a voice somewhat too
+thin for so robust a person. The portrait on the Brazilian coinage is
+remarkably like. The conversation was carried on in French; it is said,
+however, that the Emperor speaks German fluently. He conversed very
+affably and graciously with every one, and had something agreeable to say
+to each, expressing much interest in the _Novara_ Expedition. After
+several questions, the Emperor wished us success on our future voyage, and
+retired, upon which the audience was at an end.
+
+After the members of the Expedition had remained a short space in a corner
+of the audience chamber, they were conducted through a narrow boarded
+passage to the apartments of the Empress. In the ante-chamber we again
+encountered the Emperor, who had exchanged his admiral's uniform for plain
+clothes, and now stood before us in the undress black frock he usually
+wears.
+
+We were now ushered into the small and very plainly furnished
+reception-room of the Empress, in which there was nothing to attract
+attention except a couple of highly-finished portraits. Her Majesty, a
+sister of the late King Ferdinand II. of Naples, and of Queen Maria
+Christina of Spain, was in mourning owing to a death in the family. She
+was only attended by one lady in waiting, and received us with infinite
+grace. She is rather short in stature, and although still young, looks
+aged; in conversation she becomes however very animated, and thereby gains
+in gracefulness; her favourite theme was Italy, on which she dwelt with
+childlike fondness. Speaking of Naples, its charming bay, of the Vesuvius,
+and the lovely walk of Santa Lucia, near the sea, the tone of her voice
+became involuntarily more lively. Notwithstanding the tropical splendour,
+and an Imperial throne, the Princess seems to have a great longing for her
+native land. Alas! even an imperial crown is no protection against the
+yearning for home!
+
+During our stay here, the anniversary came round of the birth of our
+gracious Emperor, which was celebrated in the most festive manner. From
+early dawn the frigate appeared decked out in her gayest flags, which was
+similarly responded to by the English and French ships of war in the
+harbour. At 8 A.M., with the customary salutes of the ensign, a salute of
+twenty-one guns was fired, as also at mid-day and sunset. At 11 A.M., the
+crew were paraded and divine service was performed, to which our resident
+envoy and his family were invited, together with the acting
+Consul-General, the captain of an Austrian vessel, and a few Austrians who
+happened to be at that time in Rio. After service, the foreign guests and
+several officers of the staff were entertained by the commodore at
+breakfast. In the evening there was a banquet at the hotel of the envoy,
+at which were present several notabilities of the empire of Brazil, among
+others, Viscount Maranguapè, minister of foreign affairs, and the Senator
+Viscount de Uruguay. In the garden of the club the frigate's band of music
+played chiefly German and Austrian pieces, which awoke in the bosoms of
+many the most tender recollections.
+
+The frequent arrival of men of war in the bay of Rio gives rise to an
+almost continual firing; each vessel entering fires a royal salute, which
+is answered by the fortress and the other ships of war in the harbour.
+During our stay we discharged not less than 432 salvos, while all the men
+of war together fired at least 1500 salvos, thus making, within three
+weeks, about 5250 rounds of gunpowder, used merely in salutes.
+
+The 31st of August had been fixed as the date of our departure. During the
+latter days of our stay, there had been frequent collations on board to
+make some return to those who had shown us attention. Several of the sick,
+one midshipman and two sailors, had to be left behind in hospital, where
+they received the most careful treatment, while Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant,
+who, by the kind recommendation of Humboldt, had been permitted by the
+Archduke to accompany the Expedition with the rank of surgeon of corvette,
+for the purpose of prosecuting his studies of yellow fever, was, at his
+own request, put ashore at Rio, whence he afterwards undertook the journey
+through Southern Brazil already alluded to.
+
+The night previous, three sailors had deserted from a boat sent on shore
+to bring back some officers. The system of kidnapping, as is well known,
+flourishes in Rio, and many a ship is said to have lost, in this way, from
+thirty to forty men. The crimps, who make their living by this traffic in
+man, entice young and robust sailors to desert by means of all imaginable
+allurements and promises, making advances in money, and leading them into
+a dissolute life, in order that, when afterwards they find themselves in a
+desperate state, and without resources, they may be sold by the scoundrels
+to the captains of vessels, as sailors, or, what is worse, as white
+slaves, to the planters in the interior. This abominable trade is said to
+be carried on, on a great scale, by an Italian, in Catumbý Grande, and
+though the Brazilian police is perfectly cognizant of the haunts of the
+fellow, yet it seems not to be powerful enough to put a stop to the
+nuisance.
+
+These incidents did not, however, interfere with our departure at the
+specified hour, when we were towed out by the tug steamer _Perseverancia_,
+which we had hired for _£25_. Almost every large ship on leaving Rio is
+towed clear of the bay, so as to avoid having to tack between the islands,
+or perhaps have to anchor, so that the tug, which belongs to a private
+individual, and accompanied us eastward as far as the island of Razza,
+must be a source of considerable profit.
+
+On 31st August, at six A.M., we bade farewell to the splendid harbour of
+Rio. We had fortunately reached Rio after the visit of the yellow fever,
+but the almost continual rainy weather had spoiled many an excursion, and
+deprived us of the opportunity of more closely examining the environs of
+the city. Nor were we more successful in making ourselves at home here,
+notwithstanding the kind reception with which we were favoured by the
+Government and some private individuals. There is, in short, a great want
+of sociability, and we may add, almost utter indifference to scientific
+pursuits, which indeed appeal in vain to the great majority of the
+Brazilian population. Of course there are numerous and agreeable
+exceptions; but slavery, the mixture of races, the egotism and indolence
+of the wealthier classes, are all reasons why a European, just arrived,
+cannot feel himself comfortable. The white Brazilians bear, in some
+respects, a strong resemblance to the Italians, but they are deficient in
+their pleasing, insinuating demeanour, in their cheerful humour, quickness
+of perception, and lively imagination. They occupy a lower scale in social
+culture, without depth of thought or feeling, and seem almost incapable of
+persevering activity. This perceptible deficiency of hearty, energetic
+temperament, in addition to the confused intermingling of other foreign
+nations, which seem to regard the country as booty, to be abandoned so
+soon as success has crowned their labours, imparts to each new arrival a
+feeling of depression, which, so far from being weakened, is yet more
+keenly felt by those who have lived some time in the country, so that not
+merely among foreigners recently arrived, but with those also who have
+spent years at Rio, the desire to leave these shores becomes rather
+increased than diminished by a longer acquaintance.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.--FROM RIO DI JANEIRO TO THE CAPE
+OF GOOD HOPE.]
+
+At nine A.M., we cast off from the tug, not far from the little island of
+Razza, with its lighthouse, and spread our sails to the breeze, which
+gradually freshened, but blew from the N.E., which was foul for our
+course. However, we could still derive some advantage from even this as it
+was our intention to steer southerly from Rio, so as to be able to make
+almost exclusively a great circle course to the Cape of Good Hope, after
+we should have got further south than the Antarctic limit of the S.E.
+trades.
+
+The near termination of the winter quarter in this southern hemisphere,
+the approximation of the sun towards the south pole, and the consequent
+tendency of the zones of wind and currents of air to pursue the same
+direction, gave us reason to hope, that when approaching the limits of the
+trades, we should find a change of wind, which should shorten the voyage,
+or at all events keep us clear of storms.
+
+In the open ocean, where there are no hills or extraordinary conformations
+of land to break the uniformity of the earth's surface, and where the
+expanse of water is unbroken by any extensive group of islands, the
+disturbances in the atmospheric belt must necessarily be much less
+strongly marked than where continents are interposed, or in the narrow
+seas. The winds themselves, under such circumstances, display even in
+their shifts a certain amount of regularity, which is usually dependent
+upon the universal laws of nature.
+
+Once any one is so fortunate as to comprehend the latter in all their
+extent, so as to be cognisant of their results, it becomes a mere
+question of the study of local conditions in order to be able to declare
+how these universal laws operate, and to elucidate by the most simple
+explanations many of the phenomena of nature that have till now baffled
+science. Thus, when a wind hitherto steady shifts its direction, there
+must necessarily be, certain active causes for its doing so; if these
+causes perpetually recur in well-marked periodical intervals, the change
+of the wind must follow a definite law. Under certain circumstances the
+direction of the wind is well-defined; as, for instance, at certain
+seasons in the open ocean it remains always the same, or changes with a
+certain regularity, whence it becomes apparent that the causes must remain
+unchanging, and the recurrence of the phenomenon must accordingly admit of
+explanation.
+
+We know, for example, that in the case of hurricanes--those most terrific
+exemplifications of the tendency of the atmosphere to move in circles--the
+wind does not blow in straight lines, but rather in curves described round
+a central point, which again is not immovable, but has a regular
+progression along a definite curve. In that curved plane, however, which
+has been termed a _cyclone_, the wind always blows in one and the same
+direction, and in the Northern Hemisphere runs counter to the motion of a
+watch-hand, while in the Southern Hemisphere it, on the contrary, follows
+that motion.
+
+These facts once granted as accounting for such phenomena, it follows as a
+natural consequence of the general principles laid down, that they hold
+good in minor cases, and must remain of the same efficacy, whether it be a
+hurricane or a dust-whirl which may be under consideration.
+
+So, too, in conformity with those laws, light winds may be found subject
+to a variation in direction of a similar nature, such as may not perhaps
+be fully exemplified in every case, but simply serve to indicate the
+tendency of the wind to follow the same general direction as the
+hurricanes themselves.
+
+The importance of ascertaining such curvilinearity in the direction of the
+winds will be especially manifest at the limits within which the regular
+winds prevail, and when they must necessarily become intermingled with
+other regular currents of the atmosphere.
+
+Accordingly, as we neared the limit of the S.E. Trades, which always
+extend somewhat further south, as the sun's southern declination
+increases, we had to traverse regions where necessarily we encountered
+variable winds, owing to the increased area of the Trades. There are also
+found occasional spots at which a more rarefied atmosphere seems to fill
+the surrounding space, when there is seen a similar process to that in the
+case of hurricanes, first visible perhaps in the higher strata, but
+afterwards extending to those which are lower.
+
+The winds, then, shifted with much regularity, and with them the
+atmospheric pressure, just as in the case of cyclones, except that neither
+the wind nor the sea ever presented the characteristics of a tempest. The
+wind, which began to blow from the North-East, drew gradually to North,
+thence West and South, and returned to S.E., after short intervals of
+calm. We could thus perceive, on referring to the ship's log, that the
+entire cycle was completed in five or six days; so that it became quite
+possible, by examining the central direction of the daily variation, to
+foretell the wind which must be blowing twelve hours later, when, upon
+taking into consideration the path described by such central direction
+from day to day, it appeared that the wind described very nearly a
+parabolic curve.
+
+Even the aspect of the heavens, and the state of the weather, were only
+one degree less regular in their alternations than the hurricanes. With
+the S.E. wind, the sky was bright, but as soon as it began to veer round,
+towards afternoon, a few white belts of cirrhous clouds began to appear in
+the western heavens, constituting a well-marked division of the vault of
+the sky from one side quite to the other. As it drew still further round,
+and neared the line of centres, the weather grew foul, a driving scud
+covered the heavens, and a succession of splendid rainbows were seen, till
+the ship had reached the nearest spot to the storm-centre when there were
+sharp squalls of wind, accompanied by heavy showers of rain. The lower
+strata of clouds, mere vapour, drove before the wind, while those above
+moved in a directly contrary direction, generally that of the forthcoming
+wind. The atmospheric pressure, which at first would be considerable,
+gradually decreased as we approached the central line; as we drew away
+from that centre the barometer rose again, the weather improved, and the
+sky under the influence of southerly winds once more cleared.
+
+Unfortunately it is not practicable with a single ship to ascertain
+whether the veering of the wind follows an exact curve, as we can only say
+what is the direction at the spot where the observation has been made, and
+it is impossible to determine what it may be at other points. But it is at
+all events certain that the shifts of wind are amenable to the same
+general laws as hurricanes. A number of ships sent out for the special
+purpose of this branch of investigation, could render immense services to
+science and navigation, and achieve most interesting results.
+
+We availed ourselves of these general laws to traverse the ocean as
+speedily as possible, in order to reach early our next anchorage, and in
+so doing we experienced altogether three well-marked cycles of wind at
+short intervals. We cannot afford space to prosecute all the interesting
+consequences that result from these phenomena of nature, such
+investigations being more properly reserved for the meteorological section
+of the scientific portion of this work. Here, however, the facilities for
+observation of a sea-faring life have been directed towards an object of
+inquiry, which must prove of immense utility in navigation and commerce.
+And, perhaps, even landsmen may not find it uninteresting, that even that
+proverbially fickle element, air, obeys certain fixed laws, a more
+accurate acquaintance with which must be of the utmost importance to the
+denizen of _terra firma_, as well as those "that go down to the sea in
+ships, that do business in great waters."
+
+On this passage from the American to the African coasts, we were
+continually accompanied by our winged friends, the sea-birds, which,
+notwithstanding the unkind treatment they received at the hands of the
+zoological sportsmen, followed us with the utmost pertinacity, probably
+attracted by the numerous fragments of provisions thrown overboard.
+
+The Cape pigeons (_Procellaria sp._), those prettily-marked sea-birds,
+about the size of doves, the albatrosses, (_Diomedea sp._) the largest of
+the ocean feathered tribe, with their quiet majestic flight, stormy
+petrels of all sorts and sizes, from the smallest swallow to the largest
+of its kind; all these winged inhabitants of the sea's surface followed
+the frigate in motley groups, and seemed never to weary in their active
+search for food.
+
+Sometimes they alighted, rested on the surface of the water, and were left
+far behind; but they collected again with great rapidity as soon as
+anything eatable appeared, and overtook the frigate in a swift flight from
+the remotest point of the horizon. This singular attachment to ships very
+probably arises from their being accustomed to follow whalers, from which
+such a large quantity of garbage is thrown overboard, very much affected
+by these aërial parasites, whence they learn to expect from all vessels
+their favourite food.
+
+They possess a remarkable capacity for remembering the exact time when
+they are likely to receive a large quantity of eatables from on board.
+Every day, about noon, the vicinity of the ship became animated, and
+towards one o'clock, after the crew had finished dinner, these lively
+creatures were close behind, and even fought for the pieces of tow with
+which the coppers had been cleansed. The boldest amongst them was the Cape
+pigeon, which pounced, with the utmost avidity, upon the dainty morsels
+thrown overboard, raising a loud scream, swimming round its prey, diving
+for sinking fragments, or snatching from each other those they had
+secured. Then came the black and brown-spotted and white albatrosses. As
+soon as one of these colossal birds appeared on the scene of strife, the
+uproar of the screaming pigeons at once became still; they kept themselves
+at a respectful distance from the voracious albatross, which quietly
+consumed its lion's share. In a few moments, yet greater numbers of these
+assembled, of which the black ones (_Ph[oe]betria fuliginosa_), like the
+large petrels, are extremely shy, and rarely approach the ship within
+gun-shot. The other large-sized petrels acted similarly, the brown
+spectacled-petrel, so named from two singular-looking black rings round
+the eyes, being the most numerous. Along with these were several small
+Mother Carey's Chickens, and flights of other winged creatures swarming
+over the sea. The darker the sky, the more agitated the sea, the more
+actively do the Cape pigeons tumble and toss behind the ship; it appears
+that in rough stormy weather they see less distinctly and find food with
+difficulty, in consequence of which they are in a famished state. Only
+under these circumstances, and when the ship is moving slowly, can they
+be caught with a line. To angle for birds may appear rather odd to the
+reader, and yet it is common enough in the Southern Ocean, amusing the
+sailor, and providing the zoologist with means of obtaining these birds
+alive. For this purpose, however, circumstances must be comparatively
+favourable; that is to say, the weather must be rough, the sea agitated,
+and the ship making but little headway. When the sky is serene, and the
+sea calm, even the Cape pigeons do not think it worth their while to throw
+a glance at the bait; and if the ship is moving fast, they have not speed
+enough to catch it, because they only swim, and the ship outspeeds them.
+The line, moreover, must be of tolerable length, so as, in the event of
+any bird evincing a desire to snap, to allow as much to be paid out as is
+necessary to leave the bait precisely in the same spot, without towing it
+through the water. It sometimes also occurs, particularly after sunset,
+that these birds, continually following in the wake of the ship, do not
+see the line, strike against it, and entangle themselves so that they may
+be easily drawn on board. The scream of the storm-pigeon when caught,
+makes it betray its fate even before those on board have an idea that it
+has been captured.
+
+For the albatross, it is of course necessary to use a stronger hook, which
+it is best to attach to a copper wire, because this being thinner than
+line, is not so readily perceived. In order that the whole apparatus may
+swim on the surface of the water, a few cork floats are also made fast.
+
+When an albatross has hooked itself, the full strength of a man is
+requisite to draw it on board, for the bird, in its despair, dives and
+keeps its wings spread under water, so that the resistance is very
+considerable, and frequently even the strongest lines are broken. This
+cannot be wondered at when their size is considered, as they measure from
+10 to 14 feet across the extended wings, while their weight amounts to
+from 10 to 18 lbs.
+
+Arrived on deck, none of these sea-birds are able to fly away; they move
+very clumsily on their webbed feet, and can only rise after a slanting
+spring, which, however, they cannot accomplish on firm ground; if in the
+water these birds want to rise into the air whilst swimming, they flutter
+their outspread wings for a little, and use their webbed feet in a kind of
+rowing motion, in order to acquire the requisite impetus. The albatross
+defends itself with its bill, which is often four to five inches long, and
+care must be taken to avoid being wounded in catching them. We also
+remarked that the Cape pigeons, in their rage at being captured, vomited
+up a slimy greasy substance.
+
+The latter bird was of course new to us, and afforded us much amusement.
+Many were knocked over with the fowling-piece, especially when, in their
+inquisitiveness, they came too near the boats, which, as often as our rate
+of progress admitted, were launched with the view of adding to our
+collection of objects of natural history.
+
+In shooting an albatross large shot must be used, as, at a distance of 15
+or 20 feet, small shot do not penetrate the feathers and the down of the
+bird. What is most remarkable as regards these birds is the numerous
+parasites that live upon their bodies. It is most extraordinary how
+certain of these birds (as for instance, the _Puffins_ and _Procellariæ_)
+are infested by insects, their plumage sometimes swarming with small
+specimens of _Crustaceæ_.
+
+On the 26th of September, the famous Table Mountain of the Cape was
+visible, after we had, the evening previous, at a distance of fourteen
+miles, sighted the lighthouse of Table Bay.
+
+The twenty-six days of our voyage hither had flown quickly past, and we
+were still able vividly to recall the impressions made by Brazil, and the
+scenes we had gone through in mid-ocean, as the southernmost point of
+Africa came in sight with its characteristic hills, and our eyes and our
+thoughts were directed to another quarter of the globe. On the one hand,
+excited with the prospect of new scenery, and on the other, anxious to
+complete our elaborate observations upon Brazil, so as to be able to send
+them home from the Cape, we found ourselves in a frame of mind which kept
+us alternately hard at the desk, or drove us on deck to admire the
+remarkable outline of Cape Colony. We did not, at the present season,
+think it advisable to run right into the bay, so as to anchor near Cape
+Town, but resolved to double the Cape, and proceed to Simon's Bay, the
+usual anchorage for ships-of-war. We were, however, sadly disappointed in
+the hope of soon reaching it, as the south-east wind freshened so much
+that on the 27th it had become a gale, which forced us out to sea again.
+The world-known swell off the Cape began under the ever-increasing wind to
+run high, and we were soon involved in one of those famous Cape storms
+which justified the Portuguese in calling the promontory of South Africa,
+"Cabo Tormentoso," or the Cape of Storm.[51]
+
+[Footnote 51:
+
+    "Through such mad seas the daring Gama fought,
+    Incessant toiling round the stormy Cape."
+                        (_Lord Strangford's Camoens._)
+]
+
+The wind and spray roared and lashed through the rigging: higher and
+higher rose the huge mountains of water, with their white crests, that
+tossed the ship like a plaything from side to side. The waves foamed in
+through the port-holes on the gun-deck, while masts, cordage, timbers,
+every part of the ship groaned and creaked, a perfect medley of sights and
+sounds, including woful destruction of crockery, and the heavy rolling of
+erratic cannon-shot that had broken loose from the rack, and were rushing
+about the deck--above all which was heard the shrill whistle of the pipe
+of the boatswain's mate. The scene fairly baffled all powers of
+description, and must have been eminently impressive for those who for the
+first time experienced what is meant by "a gale at sea," especially at
+night, when the moon, struggling through the flying vapours, lit up the
+appalling scene with a livid supernatural tint.
+
+On the afternoon of the 28th the gale reached its highest point, and raged
+fearfully for some hours. The frigate proved herself, in this turbulence
+of the waters, to be thoroughly seaworthy. At the same time the sun shone
+brilliantly, the sky was clear and beautiful, and only here and there some
+feathery clouds were to be seen. There was a curious sense of dualism in
+this serenity of the sky, in contrast with the fury and agitation of the
+waves. Gradually the wind chopped round towards the east, which gave some
+hope that the gale would abate, but, nevertheless, the ship was tossed
+about worse than ever.
+
+The waves, like gigantic ridges, mounted, according to measurement, to the
+height of from 30 to 35 feet above the mean level of the sea, and
+occasioned that terrible rolling of the ship, and those fearful lurches,
+which, once experienced, are not readily forgotten.
+
+Hitherto the altitude of a wave has been generally measured merely by the
+eye, so that the result depended too much on the accuracy of individual
+observation to admit of its being exactly ascertained; and it is for this
+reason that the statements relative to the maximum height of the ocean
+wave are so various that they cannot be considered reliable, for whilst
+some observers estimate them to be from 60 to 70 feet, others reckon them
+only at from 30 to 40 feet.
+
+On board the _Novara_ the following method of admeasurement was adopted:
+we first determined, by a chronometer, the time that a wave takes to pass
+from one end of the ship to the other, whereby the velocity of the
+progressive motion of the wave could be calculated in relation to the
+ship's course and speed, regard being had to the direction and velocity
+of the ship against it. With this velocity ascertained, we were in a
+position to determine and fix the average distance between two consecutive
+waves. Lastly, the height of the wave was ascertained from the angle at
+which the frigate rose and fell in the line of its keel, by the influence
+of each successive wave and by means of the ascertained distance from the
+trough of the sea to the crest of the wave. Though this method, likewise,
+has many difficulties and deficiencies, yet it appears well suited to make
+correct comparisons between the different waves; and, under certain
+favourable conditions, it yields so accurate a result, that at any rate it
+is to be preferred to mere guess-work, besides that the experiment itself
+is susceptible of many improvements. It seems safe to assume that waves
+scarcely ever attain an elevation of more than 40 or 45 feet.
+
+The gale had driven us a long distance out, and only after great trouble
+did we again near the land. On the 1st of October the Cape came once more
+in sight; we tacked, in order to get into the wide gulf termed False Bay,
+by which in some respects the peninsula of the Cape is formed, being
+separated only by a low sandy plain from the Atlantic. Whittle's rock
+renders tacking in its neighbourhood in so far more difficult, as the
+existing charts of the bay are not sufficiently exact to be implicitly
+relied on. Buoys have often been fixed in that quarter, but every new gale
+carried them away again; so that the position of the rock is not
+indicated. An English pilot now came on board, who brought papers, and
+intelligence that a number of letters were waiting for us. Our impatience
+became stronger when towards evening the light breeze entirely ceased, and
+we thereby were forced to bring up at a distance of a mile and a half from
+the actual anchorage. About the same time an officer arrived from the
+British line-of-battle-ship _Boscawen_, under the flag of Rear-Admiral
+Grey, in order to serve as a guide should no pilot have boarded us.
+
+On the 2nd of October, at 7 A.M., the anchor was let go in Simon's Bay, a
+spacious but gloomy-looking sheet of water. Here ships ride much more
+secure than in Table Bay, from which, in a stiff westerly or
+north-westerly breeze, vessels are often forced to run out to sea to avoid
+being driven on shore. The communication with the land is thus sometimes
+interrupted for days. From Simon's Bay to Table Bay, round the Cape the
+distance is forty miles, whilst by land the journey to the capital of the
+colony is, with good horses, performed in three hours.
+
+[Illustration: CABO TORMENTOSO.]
+
+[Illustration: CAPE TOWN.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  VI.
+
+                          Cape of Good Hope.
+
+                   STAY FROM 2ND TO 26TH OCTOBER, 1857.
+
+   Contrasts of scenery and seasons at Cape Colony. Ramble through
+     Simon's Town.--Malay Population.--The Toad-fish, or
+     Sea-devil.--Rondebosch and its delightful scenery.--Cape
+     Town.--Influence of the English element.--Scientific and other
+     Institutions.--Botanical Gardens.--Useful plants.--Foreign
+     Emigration.--A Caffre prophet and the consequences of his
+     prophecies.--Caffre prisoners in the Armstrong Battery.--Five
+     young Caffres take service as sailors on board the _Novara_.--
+     Trip into the interior.--Stellenbosch.--Paarl.--Worcester.--
+     Brandvalley.--The Mission of Moravian Brethren at
+     Genaadendal.--Masticatories and intoxicating substances used
+     by the Hottentots.--Caledon.--Somerset West.--Zandvliet.--Tomb
+     of a Malay Prophet.--Horse Sickness.--Tsetse-fly.--Vineyards
+     of Constantia.--_Féte champêtre_ in honour of the _Novara_.--
+     Excursion to the actual Cape of Good Hope.--Departure.--A life
+     saved.--Experiments with Brook's deep-sea sounding apparatus.--
+     Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South Indian Ocean.
+
+
+There can scarcely be a landscape more gloomy and desolate than the
+sterile, rocky mountains, and white sandy plains, which, like
+snow-fields, inclose Simon's Bay. Coming from the charming coast of
+Brazil, with its luxuriant verdure, the contrast becomes doubly
+unpleasing. A narrow green strip of land, running along from a small fort,
+forms a refreshing sight and a resting point for the eye fatigued with
+looking at these grim masses of stone. The traveller who merely touches at
+Simon's Bay without pushing into the interior, or who visits the Cape in
+the winter of the southern hemisphere (from April to September), can
+scarcely form an idea of the voluptuous loveliness which reigns during
+spring and summer in the interior of the colony, and will regard as
+fictitious those brilliant descriptions of its natural beauties, related
+by travellers who have been fortunate enough to visit this point of South
+Africa at those genial seasons.
+
+Had we left the Cape without seeing anything else than the melancholy
+neighbourhood of False Bay and the dull little settlement of Simon's Town,
+on its left bank, we should have carried away very different impressions
+and ideas to those entertained after having during spring passed some
+weeks in the delightful interior, and obtained at the same time an insight
+into the social condition of the colony.
+
+On the very day that we cast anchor in the bay, we took a stroll (our
+first footfall upon the soil of Africa) through Simon's Town, which
+consists of a single street of about forty clean, neat, and tidy-looking
+houses, straggling along the shore. The principal buildings are the
+Arsenal, the residence of the admiral of the station, five churches (one
+of which belongs to Roman Catholics), and two tolerably large hotels.
+
+It is hardly possible to conceive any town occupying a more dreary dismal
+site, with the exception, perhaps, of some of the Peruvian settlements on
+the west coast of South America. While the eye, below this row of houses,
+beholds nothing but granite rocks thickly strewn with shells, the main
+street is overhung by steep sandstone rocks, which, despite the marvellous
+richness of the blooming flowers, that well repay the researches of the
+naturalist, have a naked gloomy aspect, viewed from a distance, and are
+environed right and left by waste patches of white sand.
+
+The favourite walks of this small place seem to be along the shore, or on
+the road to Cape Town, into the soft sand of which the foot of the
+traveller is continually sinking. A number of ladies and gentlemen whom we
+met walking appeared to be somewhat surprised at the unusual appearance of
+an Austrian man-of-war, the flag of which was gaily fluttering in the
+gloomy bay. The residents in Simon's Town, amounting to about 800 souls,
+are mostly Malays, descendants of those numerous compulsory emigrants,
+who, during the period of Dutch ascendency at the Cape, had been
+transported from Java and other islands of the Indian Archipelago, owing
+to the want of labour or for political causes. For the Dutch used to send
+to the Cape Colony, as a place of banishment, many wealthy and influential
+Malay families, by whom the first germs of Mohammedanism were introduced
+into South Africa. It would even seem that the religious opinions of the
+Malay population exercise some influence on the habits of the Christian
+settlers of Simon's Town, as no butcher, for instance, would venture to
+kill and sell pigs for fear of giving offence to his Mohammedan customers.
+
+On a fine spring morning we started in a handsome vehicle from Simon's Bay
+to Cape Town. The road runs close along the seashore, which, seen from a
+distance, apparently consists of nothing but sand and rock, but, on more
+near acquaintance, exhibits at various points delightful nooks decked with
+most beautiful flowers. Everything indicated, by its glorious blooming
+garment, the bursting forth of spring.
+
+One hour's ride led us to a neat little fishing hamlet where an immense
+number of fish were hanging up to dry in the sun. The bones of whales are
+used by the inhabitants for all sorts of purposes; they fence their fields
+and gardens with the ribs, build walls with the vertebræ, make steps and
+stairs of the shoulder bones, and use the large jaw-bones as arches at the
+entrances of their huts. One of the owners of this fishing station was
+kind enough to offer us, as a particular dainty, a piece of flesh cut from
+the jaw of a whale and boiled in fat; but we were not exactly of the same
+opinion after having, from curiosity, tasted a few mouthfuls. The bay is
+very rich in the snook-fish (_Thyrsites Atun_), of which several hundred
+tons are pickled here annually and sent to the Mauritius.
+
+Another fish caught here is said to be extremely injurious to health, and
+even to endanger life--the small toadfish (_Tetraodon Honkenyi_), which
+exists in shoals, and may easily be caught with a line. One of the harbour
+regulations consists of a special paragraph warning seamen against using
+this poisonous "sea-devil." Foreign sailors who have eaten of it have died
+a few minutes after.
+
+On leaving this fishing station the road, leaving the coast, proceeds in a
+straight line over the plain which unites the Cape with the continent. The
+mountains recede, and the eye of the traveller gazes, charmed and
+surprised, on the mountain range of the peninsula, the celebrated Table
+and Devil's Mountains. The plain, which, during the dry season, is nothing
+but an arid desert, was now seen in its fullest beauty, like a flowery
+carpet, on which innumerable blossoms of varied hues and forms were
+interwoven. On the left lie the renowned vineyards of Constantia, and to
+the right stands what is called Halfway-house, the property of a native of
+Würtemberg who, some twenty years before, came to the Cape a poor
+emigrant, and is now a wealthy and respected man, known far and wide,
+holding several official appointments, and showing himself a warm patron
+of his German countrymen. Being a zealous sportsman, and intimately
+acquainted with the locality, Mr. Rathfelder was of great service to our
+zoologists, who took up their residence at this place.
+
+From the Halfway-house to Cape Town the character of the landscape
+completely changes. The road leads through a park-like country; charming
+wood plantations, pines and oaks, stretch on either hand to the extreme
+limits of an undulating plain, intersected by long shady paths, the
+vistas terminating with elegant villas built in the Dutch or English
+style. Here are Cape waggons, drawn by ten to twenty oxen, side by side
+with elegant two or four-horse carriages and densely-packed omnibuses,
+such as one may see in Cheapside. We have now arrived in the charming
+Rondebosch, a village that might well aspire to the dignity of a town,
+chiefly inhabited as a summer residence by the wealthier inhabitants of
+Cape Town. The impression made by this beautiful road will never be
+obliterated from the memory of any one who has ever ridden over it in the
+spring. We were as much delighted by the sight of this smiling and verdant
+landscape as we had been depressed by the sandy plains of Simon's Bay.
+There, extended in charming variety before the fascinated eye, lay Table
+Bay with its ships, Cape Town, and the gigantic rocky wall of the Table
+Mountain resting on its granite base, and rising nearly perpendicular to
+an altitude of 3500 feet, together with the Lion's Head and the Devil's
+Peak. The distant background on the other side of the plain is bounded by
+the precipitous face of high, rugged, and broken mountain walls, the
+summits of which were covered with snow.
+
+Convenient and comfortable quarters were found in the Freemasons' Hotel,
+situated in the Parade, a large square planted with pines. Here, to our
+surprise, we met an Austrian, attending as waiter, who had been driven by
+the wild waves of the late revolution into the wide world, until he met
+with a peaceful existence at the Cape of Storms!
+
+Favoured by introductions to the most eminent men of science, who received
+us in the most friendly way, we succeeded, in the course of a few weeks,
+in acquiring rich and valuable scientific collections, and forming
+important connections for the future supply of our museums. A most cordial
+reception was accorded us by Mr. Julius Mosenthal, the Austrian Consul,
+and the head of one of the leading mercantile firms of the colony. In his
+hospitable house, German music and German song made us entirely forget
+that we were sojourning thousands of miles from home at the southernmost
+point of Africa.
+
+Cape Town is oblong in plan, with long wide streets, intersecting at right
+angles. It is destitute of imposing buildings; a commercial place, with
+pretty dwelling-houses, built in the English style and comfortably
+furnished, all of a light brown hue, owing to the dust, which, in
+south-east or north-west winds, envelopes the town in whirling clouds, and
+may indeed be considered the only plague of this healthy delightful
+climate. The English element, which, with the stereotyped customs of its
+life and its equitable laws, possesses, wherever it obtains a footing, so
+powerful an influence, has almost entirely superseded the Dutch, which
+continues to exist only in the lonely farmhouses far in the interior.
+There is scarcely anything remaining to indicate that Cape Town was
+founded by the Dutch; and were it not for the yellow Malay faces, with
+their gaudy head-coverings or umbrella-shaped straw hats, and the tawny
+mestizoes, who remind us of the aboriginal inhabitants, and give a
+completely foreign colouring, one might easily fancy one's self to be in
+an old English provincial town. Generally speaking, any one arriving here
+with preconceived notions of finding himself amongst Hottentots and
+Bushmen, or in a state of society differing materially from that of
+Europe, will soon discover that he has been entirely mistaken. The
+aborigines whom Jan van Riebeck found, when, with three Dutch ships, he
+landed in 1652 at Table Bay, and in the name of the Dutch East India
+Company established a settlement, have now almost entirely disappeared
+from the capital. If any one desires to see a veritable Hottentot or
+Bushman, he must undertake a troublesome journey, of weeks' duration, into
+the inhospitable interior. In Cape Town this singular race is only now and
+then to be met with in prisons or hospitals, and even then of a mixed
+breed.
+
+The colony has now a population of 280,000 white and coloured inhabitants,
+of whom about 30,000 live in Cape Town; half of these are whites, and
+probably not more than 1000 form the higher and influential class. There
+can be no doubt that when, in 1815, the English took possession of the
+Cape, a firm foundation had been laid already by the Dutch 150 years
+before; but the real progress of the country, and the development of its
+natural resources, date only from the commencement of British rule, by
+which those shackles were thrown off with which the narrow-minded colonial
+policy of the Dutch had fettered this settlement, like all others that
+owned their sway.
+
+The Cape Colony since 1850 has possessed a Legislative Council of 15
+members, and a House of Assembly of 40 deputies. The executive power rests
+in the hands of the Governor-General, appointed by the British Government.
+All bills passed by this parliament require the royal assent before they
+become law.
+
+It is impossible to speak in too high and eulogistic terms of Sir George
+Grey, whom we had the happiness at the time of our stay to find in the
+important position of Governor-General of the colony. Owing to the wisdom
+with which Sir George governed this important colony, he gained for
+himself the love and admiration of the people to such an extent that,
+after the expiration of the regularly fixed period of his office as
+Governor, they petitioned the Queen of England for his re-appointment. Sir
+George is not only an able statesman, but also a sound scholar, possessing
+a most complete collection of books and manuscripts on the Australian,
+Polynesian and African languages, and he is a most zealous patron of the
+numerous scientific institutions of the colony.
+
+The astronomical observatory, under the superintendence of Mr. Maclear,
+has preserved the celebrity which it attained by the great work on the
+constellations of the southern hemisphere, the materials for which were
+collected by Sir John Herschel during his residence here some twenty years
+since. There is now a transit instrument, which in accuracy excels even
+that of the Observatory at Greenwich, and which is said to have cost
+upwards of _£_2000.
+
+The South African Museum, containing collections of natural history, is
+now under the superintendence of Mr. L. Layard (brother of the celebrated
+investigator of Nineveh). This institution, as well as the South African
+public library, the literary, scientific, and mechanics' institutions,
+besides nearly fifty other establishments and societies for religious,
+benevolent and industrial purposes, owe their foundation and flourishing
+condition to the public spirit and the charitable disposition of the
+inhabitants of the colony. In 69 schools scattered over its surface,
+upwards of 18,000 pupils are educated according to a system introduced in
+1841 by Sir John Herschel.
+
+The Botanical Gardens, likewise founded and kept up by private
+subscription, are not only a most agreeable resort, but also afford much
+instruction, arising from the many interesting and useful plants gathered
+here from all quarters of the world. To those which are adapted for
+cultivation in the sandy plains of the Cape, great attention is devoted.
+Some of them have been found available in forming as it were vegetable
+walls of protection against the inroads of the sand, so destructive to all
+cultivation. As particularly serviceable for this purpose, were mentioned
+to us _Fabricia variegata_, a sea-shore shrub of from 6 to 10 feet high;
+_Protea myrtifera_; the so-called Hottentot fig: _Mesembryanthemum
+edulis_; and the Cape wax-myrtle _Myricacordifolia_;--all these are found
+to thrive in the sand without cultivation, put a stop to its ravages, and
+in some respects may be considered as the pioneers of all other plants,
+which do not thrive before the sandy soil has been prepared for them. Nay,
+singularly enough, some of these (as for instance the Hottentot fig),
+become extinct as soon as others make their appearance, just in the same
+way as the pioneer of civilization, the backwoodsman in the west of the
+United States, leaves his lonely blockhouse and hurries on as soon as
+overtaken by the peaceful settler. The wax-berry shrub is also otherwise
+useful to the inhabitants; from its berries a substance is prepared well
+suited for making candles. According to a treatise on its culture two
+workmen are able to realize with a defecator daily 100 lbs. of white wax
+from the berries gathered by six persons. The expense of labour, &c., does
+not exceed 18_s._ per 100 lbs., or about 2_d._ per pound. A large quantity
+of this vegetable substance has lately been sent to London, where it is
+said to have met with a profitable market. In the Botanical Garden of Cape
+Town we first met the two celebrated grasses known as _Holcus Caffrorum_
+and _Holcus saccharatum_, which, by their usefulness in domestic life,
+have more extensively, and perhaps quickly, than any other plant, spread
+over the world. We are indebted to the Secretary of the Board of Public
+Roads, W. De Smidt, Esq., for some seeds of these and other plants, as
+also to Mr. McGibbon, manager of the Botanical Gardens, for similar
+favours.
+
+Considering the deficiency of labour, and the large sections of fertile
+land as yet uncultivated in the colony, Sir George Grey has directed great
+attention to the immigration of German emigrants of respectable
+characters, of all trades, as well as those attached to agricultural
+pursuits. The plan adopted is an excellent and thoroughly honest one.
+Every emigrant, if single, obtains from the Government thirty acres of
+good land, and, if married, fifty; five for each child above one, and ten
+for every one exceeding ten years of age. The rate of the land is to be
+fixed by Government at a fair and reasonable sum, and, together with the
+passage-money, to be paid four years after the location of the emigrant,
+in five annual instalments. From the moment the colonist steps on African
+ground he is an independent owner of land, although not entitled to sell
+his property until his obligations to the Government are liquidated. The
+local parliament has granted a sum of _£_50,000 to promote emigration. The
+Cape probably offers to an industrious emigrant a more advantageous field
+for active energy than any other country in the world. Some of the German
+colonists, the remnant of the British Legion engaged in the Crimean war,
+who, under General Stuttersheim, have settled in British Caffraria, are
+thriving prosperously. They are the first pioneers of the German element
+in South Africa, and, under the protection of a liberal and free
+government, are increasing in number annually in consequence of the
+favourable reports which they transmit to their native country.
+
+An emigration of a peculiar kind has unexpectedly taken place. An impostor
+amongst the Caffres, who had assumed the character of a prophet,
+pronounced the end of the world as imminent, in consequence of which large
+numbers of them slaughtered their cattle and left their fields
+uncultivated. Being thus, in a short time, reduced to a state of perfect
+destitution, not less than 19,000 of starving Caffres sought help and an
+asylum in the British territory during the year 1857, and before its close
+the number had increased to 30,000. The colonial Government, out of
+consideration to the welfare of the colonists, admitted only those Caffres
+who bound themselves to act as servants, for at least one year, at
+reasonable wages, and in order to prevent any danger arising from being
+congregated in too large numbers, they were located by the Government
+officers in various detached parts of the colony.
+
+A very active society of philanthropists exists here, under the title of
+"The Committee of Emigration from Holland." Its object is to bring over
+orphans and children of the poor from the overpopulated Dutch provinces.
+These useful emigrants are partly located as apprentices to farmers, and
+remain until they are of age under the care of the Committee. During our
+stay a party of seventy boys and girls just arrived from Holland
+assembled, with their conductors, in one of the large avenues of the
+Botanical Garden, to be inspected by the Governor-General. They all looked
+healthy and cheerful, and seemed to have but little suffered from the
+fatigues of a long voyage. When Sir George Grey made his appearance the
+children sang the English National Anthem, translated into Dutch, and
+afterwards the sweet, affectionate song, "When the swallows homewards
+fly." Some young emigrants, who, two years ago, had come under similar
+circumstances from Holland, had already obtained good situations, and
+greeted their little compatriots most heartily. Being asked if they wished
+to return to Holland, they replied, without the slightest hesitation, in
+the negative, declaring that they felt very happy where they were,--an
+announcement of course peculiarly agreeable to the new-comers.
+
+An interesting opportunity was afforded to us of seeing a large number of
+Caffres, of both sexes, who had been brought in as prisoners in
+consequence of having made predatory incursions into the British
+territory. They all arrived in a state of nudity, and in most wretched
+plight, but were immediately provided with European clothes--blue striped
+shirts, sheepskin trousers, shoes, a Scotch cap, and a blanket which
+served during the day as a cloak, and at night as a covering. Their food
+was tolerably good, but their abode during night, in the damp casemates of
+the fort, seemed not to agree with them, and many were visibly in a
+diseased state of health. Nearly all were muscular, and some were really
+specimens of manly beauty. Not one of them knew his age. Their only mode
+of calculating is by certain important events, as by the death of a
+chieftain, or the various wars with the English. The superintendent, Mr.
+Walsh, a very obliging Irishman, had the kindness to cause them to perform
+some of their national dances, wild exercises which served the purpose of
+exciting their warlike spirit. The first dance they performed they called
+"Ukutenga." Six handsomely-built dancers advanced, whilst about thirty men
+closed in a circle around them, and, by their howlings and clapping of
+hands, formed as it were a musical accompaniment to this singular
+performance. The dancers sighed, groaned, hissed, and made the most
+extravagant grimaces and contortions, in order to arouse in themselves an
+artificial excitement. One, a lad twelve years of age, engaged so
+earnestly in the sports, that he perspired from his whole body. There is
+another dance, called "Tklombo," performed in the presence of diseased
+persons whilst the quack doctor practises his deceptive remedies; and a
+third, called "Umduta," which is only practised at weddings and other
+festive occasions. This last seemed to be the most characteristic. The
+semi-nude, slender men hopped, their arms clung together, in ranks of six,
+hissing with scorn, occasionally uttering a cry, then suddenly separating
+and marching one after the other in slow time, in a circle, uttering the
+most singular sounds. Now they bent forward the whole upper part of the
+body, and then back again, each of them making the same violent gestures
+as in the former dance, and pronouncing some words to excite their
+companions, such as, "Be active!" "Be alert!" until they all trembled and
+became fearfully and feverishly excited. The surrounding Caffres, who were
+at first mere spectators, by degrees were seized with this singular
+dancing mania, till at last the entire number, as if stung by a tarantula,
+lashed themselves into a wild and apparently ungovernable frenzy. The
+great difference in the colour of the skin of these Caffres was
+particularly striking, as they evidently belong to one and the same race.
+From the blackness of coal to bronze, all tints and shades were observed,
+and one of them, called "Ngduba" (Sea-shell), appeared to be even of a
+reddish yellow. He belonged to the tribe of the Fingoes, and said that
+both his parents were of the same colour.
+
+The governor permitted five young Caffres to be engaged on board the
+_Novara_, with their own consent, as apprentices, and although they were
+prisoners sentenced for several years, yet the Government took every care
+to secure their welfare. An agreement was signed to provide that their
+return, should they desire it, might be facilitated in every possible way.
+Faithful subjects could not be cared for with more anxiety than were these
+legally-sentenced Caffre prisoners by the colonial Government. Two of them
+went one day on shore, during our stay at Auckland, in New Zealand, and
+never came back; the other three made the whole voyage with the _Novara_,
+and are now sailors on board the imperial yacht _Fancy_. They, of course,
+understood, at their embarkation, only their own singular mother-tongue;
+yet the chaplain of the expedition, the Rev. E. Marochini, after having
+made himself acquainted with their idiom, succeeded in instructing these
+black youths, by means of their own language, in the doctrines of
+Christianity, and, by degrees, imparted some knowledge of the Italian and
+German languages, the happy results of these endeavours being a complete
+vocabulary and a small catechism in the Caffre language, which the
+reverend gentlemen composed during the voyage; and such progress did his
+three pupils make, that, on our return to Trieste, they were so far
+prepared as to be fit for reception, by baptism, into the Christian
+community.
+
+In the house of correction there were a number of female Caffres who had
+been made prisoners at the same time with their brothers and husbands,
+some belonging to the family of chiefs. One, the sister of the chieftain
+Sandilli, was a handsome, tall and slender woman, with mild features and
+piercing small black eyes; another, by the name of Mnovenkeli, the sister
+of the chieftain Mkoseni, was an imposing and earnest-looking figure.
+Several of these women bore a long stripe tattooed on their breasts as an
+ornament. Several were deficient of a little finger of the left hand: this
+mutilation is the effect of superstition, as it often occurs that, in case
+of the severe illness of the child, the distressed mother causes a finger
+of her offspring to be cut off and sacrificed to the evil spirit, in order
+that the rest of the body may be saved and permitted by the evil spirit to
+recover.
+
+One of these young Caffre women had her child wrapped up in a piece of
+linen tied to her back, and endeavoured to lull it to sleep by continually
+moving the left elbow, by which the baby was kept in a swinging motion,
+and an effect was produced like that of a cradle. Various questions were
+put, through an interpreter, to several of these females, who, after their
+timidity was overcome, answered with great readiness. Polygamy is said to
+prevail amongst them. Many women have from ten to twelve children. The
+children are suckled sometimes from two to three years. A numerous progeny
+is the pride of a family. As a proof of the legitimacy of a child, there
+is said to exist a kind of milk trial. Notwithstanding considerable
+trouble in endeavouring to procure information, we were unable to obtain a
+very lucid idea of this singular experiment: it consists in the father
+giving the infant, in the bottom of his hand, directly after its birth,
+some cow's milk to drink, and if the child refuses the draught it is
+considered illegitimate. Caffre women very rarely salute their husbands
+with a kiss, except after a long separation, and even then only on the
+cheek--never on the lips.
+
+In the ethnographical part a detailed description will be presented of
+this most peculiar race, of whom the Bushmen are evidently only a decrepid
+branch. Here it will suffice to observe that a girl, only sixteen years of
+age, was noticed, whose father was a degenerate Hottentot, and whose
+mother was a Bushwoman. The girl measured 4 feet 6 1/2 inches, and weighed
+75lbs. Another Bushwoman, thirty years of age, measured 4 feet 9 inches.
+All the individuals we saw of this race were remarkable for their
+exceedingly small hands and feet.
+
+One week of our stay at the Cape was devoted to an excursion into the
+interior. On the 1st October, early in the morning, we left Cape Town in a
+light two-wheeled vehicle, drawn by four horses--a turn-out which
+certainly seemed better suited for a drive in Hyde Park than a journey,
+however short, in South Africa: for who would suppose that the principal
+roads on the southernmost point of the most unknown quarter of the globe,
+are, in consequence of English civilization and the geognostic nature of
+the ground, in a better condition than most bye-roads in the civilized
+states of Europe? For a country where labour is so deficient and
+expensive, such enormous works could only be executed by means of
+compulsory labour: in this respect the high-roads and mountain passes of
+the Cape afford the most evident proofs of how much more beneficially and
+usefully convicts may be employed in colonial works than in allowing them
+to rot within prison walls, alike a burden to themselves and to society.
+
+Only ten years ago the streets of Cape Town looked at least highly
+dangerous, and the steep rugged old roads, which sometimes run parallel
+with the new ones, evince very clearly the great difference between bygone
+days and the present, as regards the internal communications of the
+colony. The uncultivated state of the country formerly, which indeed, in
+some parts, continues even yet to exist, is the cause of the ancient
+custom having been retained of placing before every vehicle, however
+lightly laden, sixteen to twenty powerful oxen, even on perfectly level
+roads. All longer journeys into the interior are undertaken in heavy
+waggon-like vehicles, exclusively drawn by oxen. As a family is sometimes
+compelled to take up abode in such waggons for weeks together, they are
+completely covered and provided with all possible conveniences; indeed, it
+is a sort of locomotive house. The waggon, which much resembles the
+goods-trucks used on European railways, is at least 18 feet long, and the
+entire length of the set-out, including the oxen, embraces not less than
+from 120 to 180 feet. It may readily be imagined how such a custom impedes
+speedy intercourse, and how much more usefully a great part of the animal
+power might be employed. On the excursion from Cape Town to Stellenbosch,
+a small place only ten miles distant, we met more than 100 waggons, of
+which not one had less than ten, and many double that number of oxen, so
+that at least 1500 heads of cattle were employed in a work which might
+easily have been performed by a third part of the number.
+
+The coachman was a Malay, and wore that singular screen-formed straw hat,
+which so peculiarly distinguishes the male population of his race. These
+men have the reputation of being particularly skilful drivers, and thus
+form a considerable portion of the coachmen of the place. The Malay driver
+had an assistant by his side, who seemed, however, chiefly to serve as
+ballast, in order that our two-wheeled vehicle might not lose its
+equilibrium; for the disconsolate condition of the horses rendered the
+fear of their running away quite superfluous. Our charioteer drove his
+horses, which now and then were rather restive, with so much adroitness,
+that we arrived as early as nine o'clock in that charming settlement
+Stellenbosch, which Wilkes, the American Commodore, even in 1839,
+designated as the loveliest and most beautiful in the whole colony. It has
+completely preserved the aspect of a little Dutch town; the streets are
+straight and wide, adorned with avenues of oaks, many centuries old; the
+houses are extremely tidy and clean, and are built in the genuine Dutch
+style. There is no trace of English influence perceptible. Its 4000
+inhabitants mostly speak Dutch, and cultivate the vine, grain, and fruit.
+No country town seen in the whole course of our long voyage made a deeper
+impression, or left more pleasing recollections, than Stellenbosch. The
+occasion of our visit was certainly of an uncommonly cheerful and festive
+character. On the day of our arrival the Governor was about to review a
+corps of volunteers, raised in Cape Town and its neighbourhood, to supply
+the place of the regular troops about to be dispatched to the Indian
+battle-fields. Extraordinary enthusiasm and interest was manifested
+everywhere in the military movements. Thousands of visitors had assembled
+even from great distances to witness this novel national spectacle. The
+Governor had proclaimed the day as a general holiday; all shops were
+closed; the streets presented an extremely animated appearance, and in
+front of every house was a crowd. The Austrian Consul had been kind enough
+to favour us with a letter of introduction to one of the first families in
+the place; but, taking into consideration the general bustle and continual
+arrival of strangers, we were much afraid of being, at this moment, very
+unwelcome guests, as every nook and corner would already be occupied; for
+in this colony visitors do not come, as with us, for a short time, and
+without encumbrance, but with waggons, horses, servants, household and
+all, regularly to settle down for an indefinite period.
+
+Our own party consisted of five persons provided with four horses, and we
+were now, for want of other lodgings, about to claim the hospitality of
+Mynheer Van Schultze. A pretty, youthful, rosy-cheeked lady, who appeared
+at the door, took--not without some embarrassment--our letter of
+introduction, and disappeared with it into the interior of the stately
+house. We were requested to enter, and were shown into a suite of very
+neat rooms, and were received, not merely with great politeness, but with
+the heartiest welcome.
+
+At ten o'clock we drove out with our hospitable friend, Mynheer Van
+Schultze, to the review, which took place on the common in the
+neighbourhood of the village. The number of spectators was probably twenty
+times greater than that of the volunteers; they had surrounded the ground
+with a wall of carriages, on the tops of which women and children were
+grouped in every picturesque attitude. The rifle volunteers marched, with
+the Governor, Sir George Grey, at their head, and preceded by a band, to
+the ground. There might have been about 300 cavalry and 200 infantry, with
+several pieces of artillery. They all looked very well; their uniform was
+plain and remarkably suitable for the purpose, consisting of tunics and
+trousers of black cloth with metal buttons, and a common cap with a silver
+ornament. They went through the usual man[oe]uvres, whilst a good deal of
+gunpowder was expended. The evolutions of the cavalry were executed with
+wonderful precision, a result due chiefly to the circumstance that, at the
+Cape, every inhabitant is a good equestrian, and is trained from childhood
+to manage a horse.
+
+[Illustration: RIFLE VOLUNTEER _FÊTE_ AT STELLENBOSCH.]
+
+The review finished, a breakfast was served at the Drosdy, or
+Municipality, on long tables, in a magnificent avenue of oak trees;
+nearly 600 volunteers and many other guests sat down, whilst in the
+back-ground a large number of ladies and gentlemen were present as
+spectators. The presence of some members of the Novara Expedition at the
+festival led the Burgomaster, after the toast of the Queen was given, to
+propose the health of the Emperor of Austria, prefacing it with various
+laudatory remarks on the Expedition. The toast was most heartily received,
+the whole company raising their glasses, whilst the band performed the
+Austrian national anthem. The officer to whose lot it fell to return
+thanks, said:--"That he felt deeply gratified with the honour done to his
+country and nation by the enthusiasm with which the health of his
+sovereign had been received by so distinguished an assembly, and that he
+could not forbear expressing his admiration and delight in observing the
+prosperous condition of this fine country, which, like all others where
+the Anglo-Saxon race was predominant, was blessed with freedom, with the
+spirit of progress, and the blessings of Christianity;" and he concluded
+by proposing "Old England for ever."
+
+On the day after the review the journey was pursued early in the morning
+to the village of Paarl (Pearl), about four hours distant. We had come as
+strangers to the hospitable Stellenbosch, and left as old friends, the
+entire family accompanying us to the carriage, and the worthy old mother
+of our amiable host, a thoroughly genuine Dutch matron, was visibly
+touched on taking leave of those whom, in all probability, she would never
+see more.
+
+On the route to Paarl several immensely large ant-hills were met with,
+some of which measured from two to two-and-a-half feet in diameter, by
+about three feet high. The insects were partly black and partly of a
+greyish-brown colour, and must be very troublesome to the farmers.
+
+Paarl, an extremely neat village, consists of a single long street, and
+contains nearly 4000 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in the growth of the
+vine. They are the descendants of those French Protestants who, at the
+close of the 17th century, left their native country in consequence of
+religious persecution. All the detached farm-yards were extremely neat,
+and bore evidence of the wealth of their owners. Nothing reminds one of
+Africa and the neighbourhood of Hottentots, Bushmen, or Caffres. The
+landscape becomes grander the more the mountains, 4000 to 5000 feet high,
+are approached. Among them lies the little town of Wellington, charmingly
+situated; though but a few years in existence, and numbering only 2000
+inhabitants, it has already a joint-stock bank with a capital of £45,000,
+several schools, and some neat places of worship. While taking an evening
+stroll, we passed a well-lighted Reformed Dutch Church, from the interior
+of which the devotional tones of a pious Christian congregation floating
+through the night air, died away among the mountains.
+
+Singular to say, the small, and, one would think, essentially prosaic and
+practical little town of Wellington boasts a quack doctor, named Brabna,
+whom the common people, far and near, come to consult, more, one would
+imagine, to be relieved of their money than their ailments.
+
+[Illustration: PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT WAS.]
+
+[Illustration: PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT IS.]
+
+The route to Worcester, whither we set out the following morning, leads
+at first through the wide, highly-cultivated Waggonmakers' Valley, adorned
+with numbers of rich farm-steads (so named from a number of artisans of
+this handicraft having settled here in former times), after which it
+passes over the difficult pass called Paine's Kloef, 4000 feet high, which
+frequently recalled the well-known road over the Sömmering Alp, or that at
+Optschina. This mountain-pass, first completed in 1853, by the engineer,
+Mr. Paine, greatly facilitates the traffic between Cape Town and this
+fertile district, which previously was quite inaccessible, and whose
+immense natural resources are only now beginning to be developed.
+
+When we reached the highest point of the pass we found a strong south-east
+wind blowing. The thermometer marked 55° F., and when plunged in a spring
+that issued from the mountain close at hand, 48°. South-east winds are
+especially prevalent here, particularly in summer, when they frequently
+cause serious damage; hence all the upper branches of the trees incline to
+the north-west.
+
+We now came to the finest bridge in the country, named Darling Bridge,
+after a late governor, which is thrown across the broad stream called by
+the Dutch, Breede River, and by the English, Broad River, a frequent
+source of error. The English colonists are bent upon driving out the Dutch
+names of rivers and localities, and supplying them with new names of
+English origin. The Dutch, however, hold on obstinately to the names they
+have been accustomed to, and continue to use the ancient nomenclature.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Darling Bridge is a farm where the traveller can
+be comfortably accommodated, and from which, being a post-station, letters
+can be forwarded to all parts of the country. It has regular communication
+with the rest of the colony three times a week. The vehicle, however, in
+which the letters and packets are forwarded, in consequence of the
+wretched roads in the interior, and with the view of expediting the
+transmission of mail matter, is simply a light, open, eminently
+uncomfortable, two-wheel waggon, in which but one passenger can be taken
+each trip. Day and night, up hill and down dale, it continues its journey,
+changing driver and horses every two hours, only the unfortunate
+passenger being condemned to remain glued to the jolting uncomfortable
+car, until he has attained the end of his journey. We were told of an
+English captain, who once travelled on urgent business 400 miles in fifty
+hours in this fashion, and arrived at his destination in such a pitiable
+plight, that he had to be lifted from the car and put to bed forthwith,
+which he kept for several weeks, before he was able to get about again.
+Unfortunately, we were not told whether this unlucky passenger returned to
+Cape Town by a similar conveyance.
+
+In the dining-room of the farm we made acquaintance with several families
+from Graaf Reinet, in the north of the colony, who were _en route_ for
+Cape Town, and had been already three weeks on the road, during which they
+must have passed every night in their unwieldy waggon, or under tents.
+There was also among the assembled travellers a Quaker Missionary, of
+Worcester, who was on his way to the opening of the Spiritual Synod at
+Cape Town, and who was so kind as to furnish us, on the spot, with some
+introductions to his friends in Worcester, a lovely little town, which we
+reached towards the evening. There are places which charm at the first
+glance, just as there are many men who take us by storm as it were.
+Worcester is one of these; so neat, so clean, with a pretty garden in
+front of each little house, every wall of which was entwined with roses,
+and in the back-ground all around, bare, but picturesque groups of lofty
+hills of a blueish-grey tint, which imparted to the entire landscape a
+peculiar and almost magical colouring. Worcester, a creation of
+yesterday, has about 4500 inhabitants, chiefly employed in vine growing
+and sheep pasture. There are some of the peasantry here who own flocks of
+3000 to 4000 sheep! The rich vegetation of the valley has an eminently
+northern character. Alongside of oaks, pines, poplars, willows, will
+appear a tree of Australian origin, of the order of Myrtaceæ, the blue
+gum-tree (_Eucalyptus Globulus_), which, on account of its rapid growth,
+is planted before each door for the purpose of shade. One of these trees
+was shown to us of but four years' growth, the stem of which was already
+twenty feet high! The leaves have a highly aromatic odour, and must be
+especially suitable for the extraction of oil, as the rind is full of
+camphor; as yet, however, the tree is not used by the colonists for any
+other purpose than to supply shade to their gardens.
+
+It is surprising what comfort the traveller encounters among these new
+settlements, from which, even already, all traces have been eradicated of
+the difficulties that originally beset the colonist; so that at every turn
+one meets with evidences of the highest European civilization. Whenever,
+indeed, he finds himself at a settlement, he will remark that it is not
+merely provided with the necessaries of life, or the mere products of the
+soil, but that it sparkles with numerous objects of luxury and refined
+taste; such as handsome furniture, pianos, and other musical instruments,
+engravings, English classics, besides telescopes, barometers,
+thermometers, and other similar evidences of high cultivation. At the
+hotel at Worcester, we met with a degree of comfort such as is found only
+in the chief cities of Europe. Several of the inhabitants, among others
+Dr. Esselin, a missionary of the Moravian brotherhood, and Dr. Meynard, of
+the Episcopal Church, laid us under particular obligations by their
+participation in the objects of our inquiry. The latter gentleman sought
+us out at our hotel, and, after a hearty welcome, remarked that he
+possessed, in his collection, several highly interesting petrifactions
+from Beaufort, about 400 miles north-west of Worcester. We satisfied
+ourselves, however, by a visit which we paid to Dr. Meynard at his own
+house, that his collection was far from possessing the interest he claimed
+for it. In all probability, however, judging by what we heard, Beaufort
+must be a classic soil for the palæontologist, as there are numberless
+fossils in that district, especially of reptiles. In like manner, the
+stalactite grottoes, known as "The Congo Caves," 300 miles from Worcester,
+have never yet been scientifically examined or described.
+
+Dr. Esselin, who is a native of Hesse, was so kind as to accompany the
+naturalists of the Novara Expedition to the hot springs of Brand Vley the
+following morning. The road thither, which lies through a valley partly
+overflowed towards the end of the rainy season, was exceedingly trying to
+the horses, and, but for the kind offices of Dr. Esselin, who was
+acquainted with the difficulties of the route, and undertook the guidance
+of the waggon through the constantly recurring swamps and morasses, we
+should in all probability have had to retrace our steps halfway, or even
+have stuck fast, which would have been a still more serious matter. Only
+after unspeakable exertions did we succeed in threading the valley of
+Worcester as far as the shores of Breede (or Broad) River. Several times
+we were compelled, in order to lighten the waggon, to dismount, and wade
+up to our knees in water. Once the quag was so deep, that to avoid sinking
+in it we had to be carried, one by one, on the back of our Malay driver.
+
+[Illustration: CROSSING THE BREEDE RIVER.]
+
+On the bank is the cottage, (_boeren plaats_), of a peasant who avails
+himself of his proximity to convert the stream into a source of profit, by
+ferrying travellers, who have occasion to pass here during the floods,
+across the river in a small skiff, the waggon and horses being swum across
+afterwards. In summer, on the contrary, the stream is readily forded on
+horseback, and is indeed dry at several points. At the period of our visit
+(in October, 1857), towards the end of the rainy season, this Breede River
+was about 150 feet wide, and about 28 feet deep, and we accordingly found
+ourselves compelled to call in the assistance of the ferryman. Under his
+superintendence the work was gone about quite systematically. First of
+all the four horses were swum across, by a halter round the neck; after
+which the luggage was transported to the opposite bank in a small boat.
+Last of all came the waggon, with the travellers therein. It was thought
+that the upper portion of the waggon might be towed across, swimming on
+the surface of the water, by fastening an empty water-tight cask between
+the wheels; the cask, however, proved unequal to the weight. As the waggon
+left the shore it sank deeper and deeper in the water, till about
+mid-current it fairly capsized, hardly a spoke of the left wheel reaching
+the opposite bank.
+
+Amidst our perplexities, a violent shower of rain came on, making the
+waggon leak in every corner, just as we succeeded, after great trouble, in
+getting it to land, and were busy repairing it. Fortunately, every
+requisite precaution had been taken to remedy any such disaster occurring
+at this dangerous spot; so that the whole affair, though sufficiently
+uncomfortable at the time, left only the recollection of a pleasant
+adventure.
+
+[Illustration: HOT SPRINGS OF BRAND VLEY.]
+
+At last, towards noon, we reached the hot springs of Brand Vley, or Brand
+Valley. This hot spring, which is quite exposed, like a pond or tank, and
+even at the least accessible points is adorned with rich vegetation, is
+about 100 feet in circumference, and is of a triangular shape, rounded off
+at the corners. Among bananas, ferns, and cacti of all sorts, spring up
+numerous specimens of _Calla Ethioptica_, silver poplars, pines, reeds,
+and canes, in wild profusion. Many fruits even, such as pine-apples,
+mangoes, rose apples, &c., which as a rule do not flourish at this
+elevation, grew all round the edges of the basin. Some twigs of a rose
+tree, which, growing luxuriantly in the warmth and moisture, spread across
+the spring, like a green canopy, must have been a second growth of the
+same year. We in fact enjoyed the unusual spectacle of seeing one portion
+of the tree in the flush of its utmost beauty, while the upper and more
+distant branches had not as yet put forth their leaves. The water at the
+hottest point reached 145° F., while the temperature of the air was 75° F.
+It is remarkably clear, has not the slightest taste, and in many
+particulars greatly resembles the springs of Wildbad Gastein. The number
+of patients during the season (October to April) does not exceed from 100
+to 150, the waters being chiefly used in chronic maladies, rheumatic
+affections, scrofula, erysipelas, cutaneous eruptions, and similar
+complaints. Immediately adjoining is a small brook, with a temperature of
+68° F., which rises at the foot of a neighbouring eminence, and has water
+enough during the entire year to keep a mill in constant work.
+
+The only animal inhabiting the spring is the larva of a _Tipularia_, which
+frequents one quarter of the pool where the temperature of the water does
+not exceed 113°.
+
+On the 14th of August, 1857, two shocks of an earthquake were felt in
+rapid succession in Brand Valley, of such violence as to arouse the
+inhabitants out of their sleep, when several of the smaller houses were
+found to have rents and fissures in their walls. The proprietor of the
+bath alleged that the shocks in Brand Valley were much more severe than at
+Worcester, although that town is but six miles distant.
+
+At Brand Valley we took leave of our hospitable companion, Dr. Esselin,
+who presented us with several books on leaving, and set out on an
+excursion to the mission of the Moravian Brethren in Genaaden Dal, in the
+district of Caledon. _En route_ we encountered several families, who came
+from far in the interior of Cape Colony, driving before them enormous
+herds of oxen, some of which were yoked to the waggons that formed the
+caravan, these being fitted up something like dwelling-houses on wheels.
+As night fell, a halt would be called at some selected spot, when the
+draught oxen were unharnessed, a fire lit in the open air, and the evening
+repast prepared. Horses are very rarely used on long journeys, although
+these are in consequence seriously lengthened thereby, especially as it is
+the custom all over the country to unyoke every two or three hours, so as
+to allow the beasts to enjoy a roll on the ground, if only for a few
+minutes at a time.
+
+As neither of our drivers was acquainted with the road we were now to
+pursue, we hired a black guide from Brand Valley, who accompanied us on
+horseback as far as the next farm-house, where we were to pass the night.
+Just as one requires a pilot to take a ship into an insecure or unknown
+harbour, so we now had to avail ourselves of the services of this limber
+young negro, who was an excellent rider, in piloting us through the
+endless morasses and pools of water. Renden was the name of the solitary
+farm (the property of Mr. Pretorius, a landed proprietor, to whom we had
+letters of introduction), where we were to pass the night.
+
+As we approached, we were saluted with the loud barking of a hound that
+had been unchained, and who seemed ready to rush upon his unexpected prey,
+so that we hardly dared to advance one step. At last a man made his
+appearance at the door of the house, with a lantern in his hand, speedily
+followed by the whole family, anxious to learn who could be in the
+neighbourhood at so late an hour. We handed him the letter, which we
+begged him to read, and requested to know whether we could be received for
+the night. We were at once admitted, and speedily found a most cordial
+welcome. We were shown into apartments very plainly furnished, but neat,
+and scrupulously clean, after which we were invited to join the household
+at supper. It was a very numerous family. The father and mother, genuine
+Dutch figures, sat at the head of a long table; next to whom sat the
+son-in-law, who had married the eldest daughter, and then commingled with
+each other, the sons and daughters that were as yet unmarried. They all
+seemed hearty and healthy, and their indurated hands were the best
+diploma of their industry. The youngest son said a short prayer; after
+which venison, potatoes, mutton, vegetables, bread, butter, and cheese
+were set down in huge dishes, besides which two bottles of Cape wine, of
+their own manufacture, went the round of the table. Although this place
+had been only settled four years previously, an immense deal had been
+already accomplished by this stirring, cheerful family to make the soil
+thoroughly productive, and render the house habitable. Even a small garden
+had been laid out in front of the dwelling-house.
+
+The chief article of cultivation in the valley is the grape, for wine
+manufacture, which must in this place return a very handsome profit.
+
+From Renden to Genaaden Dal is a four-hours' journey. The road passes by
+Donker's Hoek, a tolerably high mountain, to ascend the summit of which
+cost our horses some strenuous exertion, although we marched a
+considerable distance on foot. A wide belt of sandstone formation
+presented a marvellous display of flowers, and gave us in little an idea
+of the South African Karroos, a series of terraced clay-patches, estimated
+at from 3000 to 4000 feet high, which, hard and steppe-like in the dry
+season, are speedily transformed in the rainy season into smiling,
+flower-bespangled plains, quite sponge-like under foot, and rich in
+alkaline products.[52] We advanced some six hours before reaching another
+farm-house. This was known as Kleene Islea Plaats (Little Island Farm),
+near which flows the Zonderend River (River Without End), the property of
+a kind and hospitable family of French extraction, whose parents emigrated
+hither from France during the revolution in 1793. As it was Sunday, the
+servants had gone to church, so they could only offer us cold mutton,
+syrup, butter, and bread. Before and after our repast, the devout old lady
+of the house put up a short petition.
+
+[Footnote 52: The English appellation "Karroo" seems to be derived from
+_Karusa_, signifying "hard" in the Hottentot language, and to refer to a
+quality appertaining to the clayey substance of which these terraces are
+composed, by virtue of which the red clay, strongly impregnated with iron,
+and mixed with sand, becomes in the dry season as hard as burnt clay.]
+
+Here, too, we remarked that those born in the country of European parents
+are called Africans: only the English form an exception to this rule, and
+remain with persistent patriotic obstinacy, "Englishmen."
+
+The journey from Kleene Islea Plaats to Genaaden Dal is extremely
+picturesque. One first catches sight of this retired Moravian settlement
+only when actually entering the place itself, embowered as it is among
+lofty trees. What a surprise, when, still fancying one's self at a
+considerable distance from the village, on reaching the end of a beautiful
+valley at the entrance to Bavian's Kloef, one sweeps by a circuit into the
+very heart of the settlement. We alighted at what is called "The
+Lodgment," a house set apart for visitors, and conducted by a brother, in
+conformity with the laws of the community.
+
+The dwellings of the Hottentots lie scattered among the rising grounds in
+the neighbourhood, and with their poverty-stricken aspect impart a
+somewhat melancholy impression. These are built of loam, low in the roof,
+as though intended for a stunted race of men, and rarely have windows, so
+that the door is, generally speaking, the largest aperture in the entire
+building. Our Malay driver laughed at them, and called them _oete kripp_
+(oxen stalls).
+
+[Illustration: HOTTENTOT HUTS AT GENAADENDAL.]
+
+There seem to be three distinct kinds of these dwellings, which apparently
+indicate so many grades of social and pecuniary consideration among the
+resident Hottentot families. The first sort, which consists simply of a
+single apartment, serving at once for kitchen, work-shop, and sleeping
+place, and receiving air and light through a narrow, low-pitched door-way,
+is that most usually met with, and may not unaptly be compared to a
+bee-hive. The next class is of a better description, and may at once and
+definitely be distinguished from the first-mentioned, in so far as it
+possesses a second room, which, if dark and windowless, is at any rate
+partitioned off, and serves as a sleeping apartment. Finally, the third
+kind, which can only be said to be the least poor-looking, consists of
+one large, almost empty chamber, for occupation during the day, with wings
+on either side, one of which is used as a kitchen, the other as a
+bed-room. The wretched ventilation, and damp, moist location of these
+habitations, combined with the bad quality of food, may be regarded as the
+main causes of the unfavourable state of health of the coloured portion of
+the inhabitants of Genaaden Dal, among whom, especially as regards the
+female portion, pulmonary complaints are rife.
+
+We were provided with letters of introduction to the Superintendent of the
+Community, Dr. Köbling, as also to the Physician and Pharmaceutist, Dr.
+Roser, a Würtemberger by birth, and experienced a most cordial reception.
+We availed ourselves of the last hours of declining day to make an
+excursion to the hills, in the country immediately adjacent, so as to
+command at a glance the entire colony. The principal buildings, the
+Church, the school, the workshops, the warehouses, and the dwellings of
+the missionaries, are assembled in a quadrangular open place, to which a
+number of lofty, massive, leafy, venerable oaks impart a sombre, but
+poetical, appearance, eminently characteristic of the community. All the
+buildings are of a uniform dingy-grey tint. Close in the rear of these
+buildings is a large garden, which reaches as far as what is called
+"Bavian's Kloef" (defile), in which, even at present, apes, antelopes, and
+zebras, abound. Near the kitchen-garden is the cemetery of the community,
+which seems to be used by meditative brethren as a favourite resort and
+promenade.
+
+This settlement, situated at the entrance of a mountain defile, at the
+foot of an immense sandstone range, of from 3000 to 4000 feet high, was
+founded in the year 1787, by a brother of the persuasion, named George
+Schmidt, from Moravia, who settled fifty-five miles east of Cape Town,
+near Sargent's River, with a number of Hottentots, whom he began to
+convert to Christianity, and called the station "Bavian's Kloef." From the
+year 1806, the settlement assumed the beautiful name of "Genaaden Dal"
+(Vale of Benevolence), so exquisitely correspondent with the benevolent
+exertions of the brotherhood. It at present numbers 3100 souls, mostly a
+race crossed between Hottentots and Mozambique negroes, of the latter of
+whom a considerable number have settled here since the Slave Emancipation
+Act of 1826. The settlers are partly proprietors of the land, partly
+artisans, cutlers, waggon-makers, tanners, carpenters, millers, &c. In the
+workshops the most exemplary cleanliness and neatness are imperatively
+insisted on. At the Great Exhibition, held in London in 1851, the
+wood-work of the Hottentot carpenters of Genaaden Dal received "Honourable
+Mention," and this elegant testimonial in recognition of their efforts now
+hangs, framed and glazed, in the library hall of the community. It
+somewhat surprised us that the cutlers did not receive, in their section,
+a similar distinction, since, in that department of industry, the
+Hottentots produce articles, which, so far as concerns quality and
+cheapness, are really astounding. The workpeople receive a fixed weekly
+payment, which they may expend as they please. The net proceeds, however,
+of the various articles manufactured belong to the community, and are
+expended in defraying the expenses of, and supporting, the mission. The
+inhabitants of Genaaden Dal are closely connected, by religious ties, with
+the community; and only those who profess the principles of the Moravian
+brotherhood are permitted to settle among them.
+
+The field-labourers, who hire themselves out to labour elsewhere, are
+frequently absent from the settlement for months at a time, and return to
+Genaaden Dal immediately after the completion of seed-time or harvest. It
+is significant that these labourers regard this period of emancipation, as
+a sort of relaxation from the severe discipline and rules to which they
+are subjected in the religious community.
+
+The principal articles of food of the inhabitants consist of maize, beans,
+pumpkins, rice, fruits, tea, coffee, and occasionally mutton. Wine is
+strictly prohibited throughout the settlement, and when a member of the
+_Novara_ Expedition, never imagining that this interdict extended to
+strangers as well, desired the attendant at the house we were occupying to
+fetch a bottle of sherry, that individual regarded him with as
+horror-stricken an air as though he had asked him to participate in some
+crime.
+
+Although the first settlers in Genaaden Dal were pure Hottentots, not more
+than five or six at present speak the idiom of their fathers, the rest
+knowing only the Dutch tongue. The Superintendent had the kindness to
+allow an old blind man, of the name of Sebastian Hendrik, to be presented
+to us, born in the colony in 1775, of Hottentot parents, "_een opregt
+Hottentot_" (an out-and-out Hottentot), as he called himself, and who
+still could speak a number of phrases in his mother tongue, with its
+extraordinary "clicking" sounds; but, on the other hand, no longer had the
+slightest recollection of the customs, usages, or proverbs of that nation
+to which he belonged by birth. In the library of the community, where this
+conversation took place, there were also shown to us numerous sketches by
+Hottentot and Caffre lads, which gave great hope of future excellence. It
+is an especially gratifying indication of intellectual progress, that
+several works of natural history are to be found on the shelves of the
+library.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH AND MISSION HOUSES OF THE MORAVIAN SETTLEMENT AT
+GENAADENDAL.]
+
+We also found time to listen to the singing in the church, quite a plain
+wooden building, erected in 1800, with white-washed walls, a spacious
+gallery, and an elegant organ, the gift of a benevolent lady of Hamburg,
+who spent some months of the year 1843 at Cape Town in search of health,
+and took an opportunity of visiting the Moravian brethren at Genaaden Dal.
+One of the missionaries sat in the middle of the chapel at a table covered
+with green cloth, and gave out, verse by verse, a hymn in the Dutch
+language, which was afterwards sung, with accompaniment by the organ, by
+the entire community assemble in the edifice. The men and women sat apart
+from each other, on smooth wooden benches, the former on the left, the
+latter on the right of the officiating minister. The chapel was only
+illuminated with a few tallow candles; but the devotional feeling of the
+community seemed to gain by this simple unostentatious ritual, and the
+mysterious solemn obscurity of their place of congregational worship.
+
+Next morning, 12th October, some of the brethren paid us the attention of
+examining in our presence the scholars of the Seminary for Teachers, so
+that we might personally satisfy ourselves of their progress in the
+various branches of education. This academy for the education of suitable
+instructors, was originally established in 1838, through the generous
+assistance of a Saxon nobleman, Count Schönburg, and year by year since,
+has been so liberally assisted by that benevolent nobleman, that its
+future prosperity seems fairly established. At present there are in the
+seminary 14 pupils (Hottentots, Caffres, and half-breeds). Since the year
+of its establishment, 50 young persons in all have been sent out hence; of
+whom, however, only one half proved to be available for the duties of
+teachers. Up to the year 1856, twenty-two pupils were already at work in
+the service of the community, fourteen had been rejected as unsuitable,
+and fourteen were still in the institute. They entered at from ten to
+fifteen years of age, remained within its walls six years for instruction,
+when they were clothed and maintained, and thereafter, without further
+obligations to the society which had educated them, were dispatched into
+the most remote districts of the colony as teachers and apostles of
+Christianity. The examination of the pupils of the seminary took place at
+the Library Hall, which boasts a portrait of a highly meritorious brother,
+the venerable C. J. Latrobe, who, in the year 1815-16, visited South
+Africa as a missionary, and, two years later published, in London, his
+very remarkable book of travels. The examination commenced with a
+performance on the piano by a Mestizo lad of about sixteen, son of a
+Mulatto father by a Hottentot mother. This youth displayed a decided
+talent for music, coupled with truly admirable execution; and besides the
+piano, played the organ, the violin, and the violoncello. Next, a variety
+of questions in geography and history were put to the pupils present.
+These consisted chiefly of easy intelligible questions, principally
+relating to England. Those examined were surprisingly well acquainted with
+the history of Liverpool, London, Manchester, Dublin, &c., and could
+enumerate many particulars about the Thames and Westminster Abbey. What
+proved most disagreeable, was the singular custom that prevailed, of all
+the pupils answering at once, each hoping, by out-clamouring his fellow,
+to prove his intimate acquaintance with the subject under discussion. The
+examiner, for example, put a question to a scholar, whereupon all the
+pupils yelled out the reply in chorus. But it was, on the whole,
+astonishing, and indeed eminently suggestive, to hear Hottentots, Caffres,
+and negroes, at the extreme southernmost part of Africa, speaking of
+England, and her influence over the destinies of humanity, as a
+commercial, maritime, and industrial power. Already the youth of the
+settlement are thoroughly interpenetrated with esteem and affection for
+the mother country and its mighty people. As a _finale_, the assembled
+pupils sang a Dutch _Bergmann's Gruss_, "The Miner's Welcome," and one of
+Mendelssohn's delightful songs.
+
+Before we quitted Genaaden Dal we breakfasted with the missionaries. They
+are all married, and manage their households in common, and accordingly
+partake of their various meals together, each with his family, all seated
+at one table, one of their wives attending to change dishes and wait at
+the table. Nowhere are any particular qualifications to be remarked, and
+it is difficult to conceive more thorough harmony than exists among the
+unpretending, yet zealously religious missionaries of Genaaden Dal.
+
+As we were preparing for our departure, Dr. Roser unexpectedly packed up a
+number of objects of natural history and scientific interest, which he
+kindly presented to the Imperial expedition as a _souvenir_ of Genaaden
+Dal. Besides these, there were also given to us two valuable little
+books,--one a small work upon the Nicobar Islands, written about the
+beginning of this century by a Moravian brother of the name of Gottfried
+Hensel; the other a treatise composed by the excellent Dr. Roser himself,
+upon the pharmaceutics and natural history of Genaaden Dal. With respect
+to the various substances chewed as stimulants, or intoxicants, by the
+Hottentots, in order to deprive themselves of sensation, or rouse
+themselves to a state of high excitability, we found the following
+particulars in this interesting essay. That most in use is composed of the
+bruised leaves of the "_Leonotis Leonurus_." This plant, which grows in
+great quantity in and beyond the Genaaden Dal, is called by the natives
+"Dagga," as also frequently, "Tacha or Takka," and this variation in
+pronunciation is very probably the reason that we find in Berghaus's
+"_Völker des Erdballs_" (Races of the Globe), this celebrated smoke-weed,
+marked as "Donha." What the same author says of certain stimulating
+properties of the plant may well be considered as an exaggeration. It is
+curious how the properties of this plant seem to be inextricably mingled
+with the destinies of the Hottentots. In many places it has been
+extirpated, in order more readily to wean the aborigines from the practice
+of chewing: at other places again, "_Leonotis Leonurus_" is expressly
+planted in order to attract the Hottentots, and so supply any deficiency
+in hands for labour, reckless of the moral consequences. Another narcotic,
+and the most widely prevalent, is the wild hemp (_Canabis Sativa_), the
+dried leaves of which are smoked by the natives. Dr. Juritz, one of the
+most respectable apothecaries in Cape Town, assured us he had been
+compelled, during a previous residence at Stellenbosch, where he was
+engaged in his business, to keep always on hand in his store a large
+quantity of wild hemp for sale to the natives.
+
+The poison with which the Bushmen tip their arrows, rendering them such
+dangerous and terrible weapons, is extracted from the "_Cestrum
+venenatum_."[53]
+
+[Footnote 53: The Dyaks of Borneo poison their arrows with the juice of
+_Strychnos Tieuté_ and _Antiaris Toxicaria_ (Upas).]
+
+Among the animal products of Genaaden Dal of importance in a scientific
+point of view is Hyrazeuma, a substance obtained from the urine of the
+Cape Marmot (_Hyrax Capensis_). It is of a dark-brown colour, somewhat
+tenacious, and nearly hard, of a very penetrating odour, and is found in
+cavities resembling a molehill. This article is made use of with much
+effect in hysterical complaints by the Hottentots. Dr. Roser is of
+opinion, that this Cape Marmot is in all probability the same animal which
+Martin Luther, in Leviticus, c. xi, v. 5, and Proverbs, c. xxx, v. 26, has
+translated by the word "_kaninchen_" (conies).
+
+On our way from Genaaden Dal to Caledon, to which there is an excellent
+level road, we perceived a large number of silver poplars, with pendent
+nests of finches. On a single tree we counted more than forty such pendent
+nests, constructed in a very singular manner.
+
+Caledon is a cheerful, ambitious little town, important as the centre of
+the wool trade, as also for the thermal springs in the neighbourhood.
+These, situated about two English miles outside the town, on a rising
+ground, in a romantic and highly attractive neighbourhood, are impregnated
+with iron, and of a considerable temperature. Even in the bath-house,
+distant about a mile from the source of the spring, a thermometer held in
+a stone trough, filled to overflowing, marked from 100°·4 to 104° Fahr. At
+their respective sources the one spring has a temperature of 116°·6 Fahr.
+and the other 114°·8 Fahr. The colour of the water is ochre yellow. From
+the terrace of the bath-house a rather extensive landscape opens to the
+view, backed by a splendid range of mountains, including the Tower of
+Babel, as the inhabitants have christened the highest peak in this
+vicinity.
+
+Caledon has 600 inhabitants. About twenty years ago there were not more
+than ten bales of wool grown in the entire district. At present about
+800,000 lbs. are shipped annually. One Merino sheep supplies from 1 lb. to
+1-1/2 lb. of wool, worth from 1_s._ 2_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._ sterling per
+pound. Besides Caledon, the principal wool districts of Cape Colony are
+Swellendam, Beaufort, and Graaf-Reinet. All these districts united produce
+yearly about 15,000,000 lbs. of wool, worth about _£_1,000,000 sterling.
+Within two years the wool produce of the entire colony has increased 30
+per cent., and during last year a strenuous and very costly experiment has
+been made to introduce the Angora breed, with the intention of increasing
+the wool-producing powers of the less fleecy race by a judicious cross
+with the native species.
+
+The road to Somerset-West leads over the high and picturesque Hauw-Hoek
+Pass and Sir Lowry's Pass; the latter is very steep, and parts of it are
+hardly, if at all, inferior in extent and variety of landscape to those
+presented by the Styrian Alps. At the culminating point of the latter
+pass, which surpasses even Paine's Kloef in height and width, one stands
+as upon the ruins of a lofty tower, from which the eye can range at will
+over the entire country beneath. South-east and eastward towers the
+Hauw-Hoek Pass, while southwards and westwards the charming Lowry's Vale,
+and far in the distance the smiling settlement of Somerset-West come into
+view, while all around, farther than the eye can reach, are luxuriant
+pasturages, that only wait to be settled and cultivated in order to
+produce magnificent returns.
+
+Somerset-West, a prettily-built, and very charmingly situated settlement,
+already supports so considerable a traffic with the capital that a daily
+omnibus has proved a remunerative speculation to the promoters.
+
+We now proceeded to Zandvliet, the property of one of the oldest and most
+highly considered families in the colony, named Cloete, where we spent the
+night. With these genial kindly people we soon felt ourselves as entirely
+at home as if with our own families; we sang, laughed, and frolicked, till
+far into the night.
+
+The following morning we drove to a hill, about a mile and a half distant
+from Zandvliet, known as Macassar Downs, on which is the spot of
+interment, (Krammat or Brammat), of a Malay prophet.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB OF A MALAY PROPHET AT ZANDVLIET.]
+
+This individual, so honoured in death, was, if we are to believe the
+Malays, a direct descendant of Mahomet, named Sheikh Joseph, who, expelled
+from Batavia by the Dutch Government for political reasons, settled in the
+colony about a century and a half ago, and died and was buried in the
+neighbourhood of Zandvliet. An especial deputation came over from Malacca
+to Cape Colony to fetch away the corpse of the defunct prophet, for
+conveyance to the land of his birth; but at the disinterment it happened
+that the little finger of the prophet, in spite of the most persevering
+research, could nowhere be found. This circumstance appeared to those
+simple believers sufficient reason for erecting a monument over the spot
+in which the finger of a Malay prophet lay hid from view. Even to this day
+the Malays from time to time perform a pilgrimage to the Colony and
+celebrate their religious ceremonies at the Mausoleum. Four followers of
+the prophet are buried with him, two of them Mahometan priests, who are
+regarded with much veneration by the Malays. An extensive flight of stone
+steps leads to the tomb, the exterior of which is very insignificant, and,
+but for a small pointed turret, hardly differs from an ordinary
+dwelling-house. On entering, a low-roofed vault is visible, a sort of
+front outhouse, which rather disfigures the façade, and much more
+resembles a cellar than the portal of a Mausoleum. Above the arch of this
+vault an Arabic inscription has been engraved with a stylus; but this is
+so painted over in brick colour that it has already become almost
+illegible. Judging by the few words that have been deciphered, it seems to
+consist of the first propositions of the Koran.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM.]
+
+The inner room, provided on two sides with modern glazed windows at
+irregular intervals, is about the size of an ordinary room of 12 feet
+long, 9 wide, and 7 high. In the middle rises the monument, to which
+access is had by some more brick steps. Immense quantities of unwashed
+white linen cloth are heaped upon it, which seem occasionally sprinkled
+with a brown odoriferous liquid (_dupa_). As at the head of Sheikh Joseph,
+so at his feet several figures, resembling those in enamel used to
+ornament tarts, are drawn upon the linen cloth with the overflowings of
+the unguent. These have undoubtedly been formed accidentally, and it
+appears wrong and unfair to attribute to them any more recondite
+significance. The monument rests upon four wooden pillars, with pyramidal
+pinnacles or ornaments, and is richly decorated with fine white muslin,
+which gives to the whole very much the appearance of an old-fashioned
+English "fourposter," with its costly drapery and curtains. While the
+curtains are spread out all around, several small green and white
+bannerets stand at the upper and lower end of the sarcophagus. The whole
+interior is, as it were, impregnated with the incense which devout Malay
+pilgrims from time to time burn here, especially after the forty days'
+fast (Ramadan), or leave behind upon the steps of the tomb in flasks or in
+paper-boxes. On such occasions, they always bring wax-candles and linen
+cloth as an offering, with the latter of which they deck the tomb afresh,
+so that a perfect mountain of white linen rises above the stone floor.
+During their devotions they unceasingly kiss this white mass of stuff, and
+as they are continually chewing tobacco, this filthy habit produces
+disgustingly loathsome stains.
+
+On the same hill which boasts the tomb of Sheikh Joseph, there are also,
+in ground that is common property, nine other graves of eminent Malays,
+enclosed with carefully-selected stones, and likewise covered over with
+large broad strips of bleached linen cloth, protected by stones from any
+injury by weather or violence. At the head and foot of each individual
+interred, is a single stone of larger size. Formerly the black inhabitants
+of the neighbourhood made use of this store of linen cloth to make shirts
+for themselves, without further thought upon the propriety of the matter.
+Latterly, however, a shrewd Malay priest spread a report that one of these
+ebony linen stealers had lost all the fingers off one hand, since which
+the graves of those departed worthies remain inviolate and unprofaned.
+
+At the foot of the hill are some small half-fallen-in buildings, near a
+large hall, painted white, red, and yellow, consisting of a small
+apartment and a kitchen, the whole in a most dirty, neglected, and
+desolate condition. At this point the Moslems must have accomplished
+certain prayers, before they can climb the hill and proceed to visit the
+tomb. Over the door of this singular house of prayer some words are
+likewise engraved in the Arabic character, which, however, are now
+entirely illegible.
+
+On quitting the Malay Krammat, we next undertook a tolerably difficult
+walk to the Downs or sand-dunes, which at this point extend along the
+entire coast line, on which the wax-berry shrub, as already mentioned,
+grows wild in vast quantities, and visibly prevents the further
+encroachments of the moving sand. The Eerst Rivier (First River) may be
+regarded as the limit of demarcation between the sand-dunes and the soil
+adapted for vegetation.
+
+The same evening the naturalists of the Expedition left hospitable
+Zandvliet, though not till after they had been presented by Herr Cloete
+with a splendid collection of fruits indigenous to Port Natal. Having been
+everywhere received with distinction, and enjoyed every sort of assistance
+in our researches, we set out on our return so richly freighted with
+objects of natural history, that the waggon, as we drove through the wide
+streets of Cape Town, presented such a various and substantial assortment
+of each as spoke volumes for the success of our journey. Every available
+corner was called into requisition to dispose of our prizes--even between
+the open windows hung suspended the bottle-shaped nests of the finch, and
+the slender sticks that supported the tilt were entwined with gigantic
+festoons of flowers. In a word, the whole waggon, with its variegated
+contents, resembled a holiday-van on its return from a country excursion,
+so gaily and cheerfully was it decorated.
+
+During our residence in the Cape colony, severe depression existed among
+the agricultural inhabitants of the Western and Eastern districts, in
+consequence of an epidemic which, within two years, had carried off 64,850
+horses (draught horses, mares, and foals), of the value of £525,000
+sterling.[54] Many landowners in consequence entirely gave up rearing
+horses, and turned their attention almost exclusively to the breeding of
+sheep. The visitations of this malady are by no means of late
+introduction, but hitherto they had made their appearance at such long
+intervals, that but little attention was paid to them and people regarded
+their return without much alarm. This disease of the horse, usually
+endemic in Cape Colony, assumed every twenty years, owing to some
+inexplicable causes, an epidemic character, and on those occasions
+extended over an extensive area, as happened with extraordinary regularity
+in the years 1780, 1801, 1819, 1839, and 1854. Hitherto no further
+precaution was taken, than, so soon as the disease appeared, to drive the
+horses from the grass pastures to their stables or covered sheds, and
+there supply them with fodder, the night dew being considered a main cause
+of the complaint. A resident in Stellenbosch, indeed, maintained that the
+dew which was deposited during the continuance of the disease tasted quite
+bitter, and was of an unusual brownish tinge. Singular to say, not the
+slightest symptoms of illness manifested themselves in the swine, dogs,
+and birds of prey which devoured the carcases of horses that died of the
+disease, while the consumption, whether boiled or roasted, of mutton
+which was ever so slightly tainted with the mere germ of this malady,
+never failed to produce the most mischievous consequences on the human
+species. According to Dr. Livingstone the same malignant ulcerous
+imposthumes were produced, if even sound portions were used of the carcase
+of an animal that had died of this complaint. These observations, founded
+on innumerable examples, run counter to the opinion of the French
+physicians and physiologists, that the malignity of the poison in such
+cases becomes neutralized by the process of cooking. Considering the
+importance of the subject to a land-holding colony, it could hardly fail
+that numerous individuals should devote themselves to elucidating the
+causes of this devastating epidemic; but it must ever remain a striking
+and significant fact, illustrative of the high standard of cultivation in
+Cape Colony, that within a very few years 112 different authors published
+treatises respecting this complaint among the horses. The result of these
+numerous researches was, that the malady is epidemic, but not contagious;
+that horses driven into the stable before sunset, and not permitted to go
+out to pasture till the dew has evaporated off the grass, are as a rule
+exempted from attack; that those horses which are kept at night in open
+pounds, or in places where there are heaps of dung, take the disease in a
+milder form than if suffered to roam at large day and night; lastly, that
+horses for which no covered shelter can be provided, may with great
+advantage be sent to hilly localities and dry runs of land. The practical
+remedy which was most resorted to, consisted in immediate and prolonged
+bleeding, pushed to actual exhaustion of the animal, in the first stage of
+the malady, as also the exhibition of 1 drachm of tartar emetic and 2
+drachms of calomel, or, at a later stage, of 30 grains of tartar emetic
+twice a day.
+
+[Footnote 54: At the same time 92,793 head of cattle (draught oxen, cows,
+and calves) fell a sacrifice to a disease of the lungs, and we were
+assured that the original cause of this terribly fatal malady
+(_Pleuropneumonia_) is attributable to a bull having been imported from
+Holland, in the year 1854, in a diseased state. The English public will
+remember the severe panic under which Continental graziers, and others
+connected with the cattle trade, laboured during the years 1854-55 and the
+commencement of 1856.]
+
+[Illustration: TSETSE FLY.]
+
+Another appalling scourge of the settlers in the south-west district of
+Cape Colony is a minute, almost imperceptible insect, of terrible omen,
+the _tsetse-fly_ (_Glossina morsitans_), a puncture from which produces
+such terrible destruction among horses and cattle, that several runs of
+land are uninhabitable--nay, even the mere passing through districts which
+they frequent, proves fatal to the draught beasts of the caravans. This
+insect is principally encountered in copses and brushwood, very seldom in
+the open country, and is about the size of a common house fly, but with
+wings a little longer. In colour it resembles the honey bee. The tsetse is
+uncommonly active, and usually escapes all attempts to catch it with the
+hand; but in the cool of the morning or evening it is less active and
+quick in its movements. The poison which it carries is so powerful that
+the bite of three or four individuals is sufficient to kill the most
+powerful ox. Many animals, especially such as appear perfectly sound or in
+the best condition, die speedily after being bitten, but the majority are
+ill for an entire week, and usually become blind before death. One
+remarkable circumstance is that the bite of these insects is fatal to
+dogs, even when fed with milk, while calves and other young animals, so
+long as they are sucking, remain perfectly exempt from the malefic powers
+of the tsetse. It is especially noticed that the danger seems to be
+confined to domesticated animals, while such as are wild or only half
+reclaimed, such as buffaloes, zebras, jackals, oxen, horses, and wild
+dogs, have not the slightest occasion to dread this insect; nay more, it
+attacks man himself without the least ill consequences. The sensation
+which their bite produces on the hand, or other portion of the human
+frame, would be confounded by any one travelling in the tsetse district,
+with that of another minute and most troublesome, though by no means
+dangerous insect, the flea. Fortunately the tsetse-fly has an appointed
+circuit to range in, in the south-west of the Cape Colony, which it never
+changes or extends. The landowner may erect his cattle-pound on one side
+of the stream in perfect security, although the opposite bank may resound
+with the hum of swarms of these insects. When the natives, who are
+acquainted with the localities in which the tsetse-fly abides, are
+compelled, as they constantly are, to shift their ground, and, in changing
+their pastures, to transgress upon the district of the tsetse, they
+usually select the moonlight nights of winter, when the insect, during the
+quiet hours of the cold season, is not likely to molest their charge.
+
+Many travellers whose draught oxen and horses have been killed by the
+ravages of this insect, are annually not merely frustrated in their
+journey, but, it appears, have their personal safety seriously imperilled
+by being deprived of all means of locomotion. Anderson, in his admirable
+work upon "Lake Ngami," relates that some twenty aborigines of the Griqua
+race, who had been elephant-hunting in the north-west of that lake, and
+were provided with three large waggons and numerous oxen and horses,
+found, on their return to their encampment, that they had lost the whole
+of their cattle-team by the bite of the tsetse. So, too, Dr. Livingstone,
+during a short journey over a district frequented by the tsetse, lost
+forty-three strong and useful oxen, although by dint of great vigilance
+scarcely twenty flies had been able to settle among the entire herd. We
+have dwelt at length on the description of the ravages caused by this so
+much dreaded insect, with the view of pointing out the numerous and
+amazing difficulties which present themselves to the traveller or settler
+in certain localities, and how often not only wild and rapacious animals,
+but even small, hardly perceptible insects endanger the life of the
+wanderer, and render large tracts of lands valueless for settlement.[55]
+
+[Footnote 55: Most valuable comprehensive details, as to the natural
+history of the tsetse-fly, its ravages, and its migration into the
+districts which it frequents, are to be found in the "Transactions of the
+Royal Society," Volume XX., page 148; "Proceedings of the London
+Geological Society," page 217; Charles John Anderson's "Lake Ngami; or,
+Explorations and Discoveries during Four Years' Wanderings in the Wilds of
+Western Africa," London, 1856; Dr. Livingstone's "Missionary Travels and
+Researches in South Africa," London, 1857. The agent of the London
+Missionary Society at the Cape of Good Hope, the estimable, highly
+respected Dr. Thompson, gave us a small piece of a root called _fly-root_,
+which is considered to grow from a parasite, and a decoction of which is
+reckoned by the aborigines an antidote to the bite of the tsetse-fly.
+Unfortunately the requisite material was not in sufficient quantity to
+admit of determining the plant itself, or of instituting further
+researches with it.]
+
+No stranger can well leave Cape Town without having visited Constantia,
+the chief seat of the wine cultivation of the country. Accordingly we had
+a day of exceedingly pleasant relaxation while visiting High Constantia.
+Mr. James Mosenthal, the very hospitable Austrian Consul, had carefully
+selected the most beautiful spot in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town,
+the charming residence of his friend Mynheer Van Reenen, at which to get
+up a splendid _fête champêtre_ on an extensive scale, in honour of the
+visit of this the first man-of-war that had borne the flag of our country
+into these remote seas. The entire staff of our frigate was invited, and
+over a hundred guests, comprising the flower of the fair sex of Cape Town,
+took part in the festivities. Immense four-horse coaches conveyed the
+company in the forenoon to the hill of Constantia. The company wandered at
+leisure under the gigantic oak trees, or in the beautifully laid-out
+garden of this extensive domain, and after a sumptuous _déjeuner_, the
+majority set to dancing. A small orchestra of stringed instruments played
+alternately with the ship's band in the garden, and in the tastefully
+decorated apartment. Those who did not care to dance, or whom a burning
+afternoon sun prevented from walking in the open air, might escape into
+cool and most elegant cellars, where our hospitable entertainer had stored
+large quantities of "spiritual treasures." The costly nectar which the
+Cape, and especially High Constantia, produces, finds its way but seldom
+to European tables, because the quantity produced is very much below the
+demand; for although the first cultivation of the grape for wine dates in
+Cape Colony so far back as 1668, the wine manufacture has only of late
+years expanded in a marked degree,--viz., 45 per cent. from 1855 to 1856,
+and 70 per cent. from 1856 to 1857, so that at present the entire quantity
+produced of red and white Cape wine (Pontac and Frontignac) may be stated
+at 24,000 pipes, worth £380,000 sterling.
+
+At the conclusion of the _fête_ we sat down to a splendid banquet in the
+open air, in a shady avenue, so as to admit of all the guests sitting at
+one long table. At the upper end, under the umbrageous boughs of some
+venerable oaks, that towered like a canopy overhead, fluttered the flags
+of England and Austria. The mayor of Cape Town occupied the chair; the
+toasts customary on such occasions were given and responded to, allusion
+being made to the pleasure felt at the arrival of an Austrian man-of-war,
+as also to the gratitude of the members of the Expedition for the hearty
+welcome prepared for them, and expressing an earnest hope that both
+Governments may ever continue faithfully allied, as both nations are, by
+descent, sympathy, and intellectual pursuits. A few days after this
+splendid entertainment, we returned to Simon's Bay, whence the _Novara_
+was already preparing to sail. The several weeks' stay of the frigate at
+the little settlement of Simon's Bay, together with a certain quantity of
+repairs, had called forth a most unwonted briskness of business. Amid so
+circumscribed a population, the sudden influx of more than three hundred
+additional consumers, with their varying wants, speedily made itself
+perceptible in every class of the community, the more so as most of the
+heavy stores for the voyage were bought here, so that the sum set in
+circulation during these few weeks amounted to some £2,000. At the same
+time the Expedition were readily permitted to contribute a mite towards
+building the Catholic Church in Simon's Town, and to present some priests'
+garments, altar cloths, and church fittings, which had been intended by
+the Austrian Government for distribution among four Catholic Missionaries
+in the various quarters of the globe visited.
+
+Some members of the Expedition also set out on an excursion some thirty
+nautical miles, to where the peninsula of the Cape stretches out to the
+real Cape of Good Hope itself--a longer, more difficult, but also more
+interesting expedition, which gave fresher impressions, and conveyed a
+pretty accurate and more just idea of the physical features of the
+Peninsula of the Cape, its vegetation, zoology, and geological structure,
+than could be obtained by a cursory examination, of the natural features
+of a large portion of South Africa. For whoever has clambered up the torn,
+broken, rocky masses of Table Mountain, worn out and eaten away by the
+atmosphere, and has scrambled among its wild hollows, with its forests of
+the greyish green _Pratea Gargentea_ at his feet, amid its far extending
+rocky plateaux, full of stagnant water-pools; whoever has strayed thence
+among the wine-producing terraced hills of Constantia, with their rich
+vegetation; over the sandy table-lands backed by rocky ridges, over
+streams of copper-coloured water, and the boggy tracts that extend to the
+extreme south-west point, as far as the Sandstone rocks, 800 feet high,
+which, descending sheer into the tempest-tossed, fearsome, boiling ocean,
+constitutes the actual Cape of Good Hope--obtains a tolerably just and
+correct idea of the appearance of Southern Africa for one hundred miles
+into the interior, and along the coast line, 400 English miles in length,
+which stretches from St. Helena Bay as far as the River Samtoos, west of
+Algoa Bay. All is sandstone or clay-slate, with occasional granitic knobs
+cropping out; no trees, but such as are planted in clumps around the
+sparsely scattered farms, conspicuous from an immense distance; while, on
+the other hand, in spring, an indescribable flush of blossoms and flowers,
+and instead of trees, millions of ant-hills, with their regularly shaped
+cones from three to four feet high, impart a peculiar character to the
+landscape of South Africa. But on the so-called Lowlands of Algoa Bay,
+beyond the River Samtoos, Nature assumes an entirely different character
+in her forest vegetation. Unfortunately, the original designs of the
+geologists of the Expedition, of Examining the petrified treasures of this
+renowned district, fell through, which was all the more to be regretted as
+this geological Eldorado promised a great accession to our collection.
+
+During our stay at Simon's Town, we also experimented with our
+astronomical instruments, which, at our next station, St. Paul's Island,
+were to be brought fully into requisition for the first time. On this
+occasion, as on many others, the unfailing courtesy and kindness of the
+renowned astronomer and director of the Observatory of Cape Town, Mr.
+Thomas Maclear, assisted us most materially in the observations for
+comparison with our own physical instruments.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.--FROM THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE TO ST. PAUL'S ISLAND.]
+
+On the morning of the 26th October it fell calm, changing to variable
+breezes and light puffs of wind, that made it doubtful whether we could
+sail that day, as we needed a catspaw from the West in order to weigh
+anchor. From the English line of battle-ship _Boscawen_, there floated
+across the bay as we worked out, the Austrian National Anthem, played as a
+farewell--a graceful mark of recognition--which was replied to by our band
+performing the sister hymn, "God Save the Queen."
+
+We steered between Noah's Ark and Roman Rock, coasting along till we made
+Whittle Rock, but the wind shifting, we were, ere long, compelled to tack.
+Had we not seized the favourable moment to get away, it would, a couple of
+hours later, have been impossible to put to sea, as the wind sprang up
+from the S.E. and blew fresh. Towards sundown, the sky cleared up, and we
+once more caught sight of the serrated outline of the southernmost point,
+with its desolate, worn, hollowed-out, rocky masses, which, however, with
+the _souvenirs_ of the hearty reception that had been accorded us in Cape
+Town seemed on this occasion much more home-like and habitable. All of
+us, indeed, carried with us in our breasts the most cordial and agreeable
+reminiscences of the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+In spite of many drawbacks and deficiencies of physical requisites, which
+oppose the rapid development of its natural resources, Cape Colony
+possesses in its healthy climate its valuable indigenous products, and its
+free political institutions, a guarantee for its perhaps gradual, but on
+that account more substantial, progress. It is a favourable specimen of a
+prosperous agricultural colony able to maintain itself, whose inhabitants,
+seeking in the peaceable cultivation of the soil their sole reward, are
+exposed to none of those ruinous reverses of fortune, which make life in
+those lands that are rich only in a metallic currency so stormy and
+uncomfortable, and render their future so problematical.
+
+A colony, which already employs annually, in its commerce all over the
+world, a thousand ships, which has a trade valued at nearly £2,000,000
+sterling, and before long will be in a position to export 30,000,000 lbs.
+of wool a year, besides an unlimited quantity of wines already in great
+demand, whose soil, owing to its prolific nature, returns, under human
+cultivation, crops of one hundred-fold, while in its unexplored districts
+as many additional vegetable and mineral treasures lie unavailable as yet--
+such a colony carries in itself the germs of a splendid development into a
+great and most enviable future. Provided with laws of a most liberal
+scope, and institutions corresponding to the spirit of our times, which
+leave each colonist entirely at liberty to develope his powers and
+capabilities in whatever direction he pleases, Cape Colony must, ere long,
+stand forth as the pattern colony for all others in the different
+countries beyond sea,--a majestic monument of the reward so justly due to
+the English nation for its policy in promoting the moral and material
+progress of mankind in the most remote corners of the earth.
+
+We lay a southerly course in order to strike the regular Westerly winds,
+which we might hope to fall in with in the neighbourhood of 40° S., and
+already we again saw our old friends, the albatross, the cape pigeon, and
+the stormy petrel, in innumerable quantities.
+
+By the evening of the 28th we had attained our limit in the South-west,
+but the West winds had not yet made their appearance, so that we had to
+contend till 1st November with baffling light winds alternating with
+calms. At length in 37° 30' S. and 18° 4' E., we encountered Westerly
+breezes, which, ere long, freshened, veered to the southward, and
+compelled us to shorten sail. We were at this time not quite as yet in the
+zone of West winds, but had to do with variable winds; which, however, as
+the prevailing winds must be west or south, could generally be made
+available to enable us to lay our course for St. Paul. Although in the
+month corresponding to May in the southern hemisphere, we found ourselves
+shivering with cold, the thermometer barely reached 18° Cent. (64°·4 Fah.)
+during the day in the open air, and our bodies, accustomed of late to a
+milder temperature, felt as though it were twice more rigorous than it
+actually was, in consequence of the wind coming from the ice-bound
+antarctic regions.
+
+On the afternoon of 4th November, a great excitement arose on board; a
+violent shower filled the lifeboats with water, and a large black object
+was observed swimming in the sea. Fortunately, it was not a man, though it
+proved to be a great favourite that had fallen overboard. Bessy, an ape,
+had got loose from her chain, and while being chased, fell in her
+eagerness into the sea, which fortunately was tolerably smooth. The droll
+little brute had quickly made itself such a favourite with the crew from
+its comical attractive ways, that its sudden fall overboard awoke
+universal sympathy. A boat was lowered, and Bessy rescued, who speedily
+recovered from her fright, and although dripping wet, proceeded to consume
+an orange that was handed her with an expression of entire satisfaction.
+
+On reaching 40° S., 31° E., the West winds became more steady, with a
+perceptible increase of motion, giving an average of 33 feet as the height
+of the waves, while the frigate rolled heavily. Sometimes several
+"Rollers" would follow one after the other, which made the ship heel over
+from 20° to 25° on either side. At each roll, streams of water poured in
+upon the gun-deck. The cannon-shot kept up a deafening dance from one side
+to the other, while stools, tables, chests, and in short everything that
+could move, were unmistakably "lively." The temperature of the air during
+the night fell to 41° Fahrenheit, and was felt yet more keenly in squalls
+accompanied by rain, which made our life on board anything but agreeable,
+although the certainty that we were proceeding favourably with the
+so-called "_Fair_" Westerly winds indemnified us in some degree for the
+discomfort.
+
+On 14th November, in 40° 44' S., 60° 8' E., we availed ourselves of a dead
+calm and smooth sea to try a cast of Brooke's Patent Deep-sea Lead.
+
+While at Rio, we had been supplied, through the kindness of Don José de
+Barnabé, Commander of the Royal Spanish Frigate _Bilbao_, with a large
+quantity of lead-line, after an unsuccessful attempt to purchase it there.
+Unfortunately, however, the line had become somewhat decomposed by
+moisture, and gave way at 6,170 fathoms (37,020 English feet) while still
+running out, so that on this occasion also, we could only tell that bottom
+had _not_ been reached with the portion of the line paid out.
+
+The times occupied by the line in running out were as follows:--
+
+         1st 1000  fathoms  15 minutes 36 seconds.
+         2nd   "      "     26    "    59    "
+         3rd   "      "     34    "    20    "
+         4th   "      "     43    "    25    "
+         5th   "      "     61    "     5    "
+         6th   "      "     75    "    55    "
+ And the last 170     "     11    "    40    "
+             ____           ______________________
+      Total 6,170     "     4 hours    29 minutes.
+
+To the apparatus two 30-lbs. shot were attached, and the first 100 fathoms
+of line were doubled. By this observation we satisfied ourselves that such
+soundings are only successful when none but the best materials are
+employed, and, moreover, that the line becomes deteriorated in an
+extraordinary degree by long stowage on boardship, so that it is better in
+long voyages not to take such large supplies of line, but to adopt most
+stringent measures to prevent its being weakened by damp. Very probably a
+light coating of tar over the line would tend to keep it in good
+preservation, and it also seems advisable proportionately to strengthen
+the first 500 or 1000 fathoms.
+
+On the 18th November the look-out man descried from the main topgallant
+mast-head the Island of St. Paul, the goal of our wishes, the object which
+had so long occupied our thoughts, and on which our scientific
+capabilities were to be called into enviable activity. The necessary
+arrangements were completed for facilitating astronomical observations,
+the instruments and other necessaries taken out and got in readiness to be
+conveyed to the island, and the various stations and duties of the
+different members specified, so as to admit of the observations being
+completed in the shortest possible time.
+
+On the 19th November, at daybreak, we found ourselves close in with St.
+Paul's Island, while on our port-side the outline of New Amsterdam was
+visible in the shape of two lofty peaks on the horizon. As the wind blew
+from the N.W., we kept the ship's course past the north promontory of the
+island, and ranged along the eastern side to the selected anchoring
+ground. As we doubled the northernmost point, the conical-shaped Nine-Pin
+Rock came into view, while the high and precipitous margin of the island
+in the N.E. with the entrance into the crater became visible. How great,
+however, was our astonishment, when we observed some neatly laid-out
+terraces, of a fresher green hue than were observed in the upper
+table-lands of the island! These were evidently spots cultivated by former
+or present residents in the island. But no traces of habitation were seen,
+whether of mankind or of the seal. Only flights of albatrosses, bryons,
+ospreys, and sea-swallows, with now and then the protracted screams (like
+human groans) of immense flights of penguins, those singular-looking
+sea-birds, which awaken so deep an interest alike for their striking
+appearance as by their mode of life.
+
+An examination of the rock of the island showed layers of black lava,
+alternating with yellow and red tufa, which seemed stratified regularly
+from the rim of the crater to the extreme circumference of the island.
+"Thirty fathoms, and no bottom," sung the wearied leadsman; and presently,
+"Thirty fathoms,"--and a few minutes before 9 A.M. the anchor rattled out,
+on the 24th day after we left Simon's Bay, after retracing our steps
+Eastward some 3000 miles. Our anchorage, as we afterwards became aware,
+was not the best possible, as we ought to have lain closer in to the
+island. But when one anchors nearer the land in a less depth of water,
+one is by no means more protected from storms sweeping in from seawards,
+to which the entire eastern half of the island lies exposed. Only on the
+west side does the island, with the steep margin of the crater some 700 or
+800 feet high, afford any protection against the west winds, which,
+however, seldom blow here.
+
+[Illustration: ARRIVAL AT ST. PAUL.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 VII.
+
+                 The Islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam,
+
+                      IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN.
+
+   Former History.--Importance of the situation of St. Paul.--
+     Present inhabitants.--Preliminary observations.--To whom does
+     the Island belong?--Fisheries.--Hot springs.--Singular
+     experiment.--Penguins.--Disembarkation.--Inclement weather.--
+     Remarks on the climate of the Island.--Cultivation of European
+     vegetables.--Animal life.--Library in a Fisherman's hut.--
+     Narrative of old Viot.--Re-embarkation.--An official document
+     left behind.--Some results obtained during the stay of the
+     Expedition.--Visit to the Island of Amsterdam.--Whalers.--
+     Search for a Landing-place.--Remarks on the Natural History of
+     the Island.--A Conflagration.--Comparison of the two islands.--
+     A _rencontre_ at sea.--Trade-wind.--Christmas at sea.--"A man
+     overboard."--Cingalese canoe.--Arrival at Pont de Galle, in
+     Ceylon.
+
+
+The visit of the Austrian frigate _Novara_ to the Islands of Amsterdam and
+St. Paul, so long confounded with one another, was one of the cherished
+objects of interest to the immortal Alexander von Humboldt.
+
+Although St. Paul has been in very recent times visited and surveyed by
+illustrious English navigators,[56] and although the doubt hitherto
+existent as to the precise discoverer, and the correct application of the
+names of the two islands, has been set at rest by the discovery of the
+original log of Antonio Van Diemen, kept on his voyage from the Texel to
+Batavia (16th December, 1632, to 21st July, 1633), by which it is made
+plain, beyond possibility of contradiction, that that renowned navigator
+passed for certain on 17th July, 1633, between both islands, and conferred
+on the northern the name of New Amsterdam, and on the southern that of St.
+Paul;[57] yet the two islands still continue to present points of great
+interest on closer examination and observation. Of the various ships
+which, since the discovery of those islands, have visited them for
+scientific purposes, hardly any have remained long enough to be in a
+position to acquire a thorough acquaintance with the various objects of
+natural history and scientific interest that present themselves. Even the
+visit paid by the naturalist attached to the expedition on board the
+English ship _Lion_ and _Hindostan_ which, on the 2nd of February, 1793,
+touched at St. Paul, _en route_ to China, and to whom we are indebted for
+the first detailed account of this island, erroneously spoken of as
+Amsterdam (following the example of former English navigators), did not
+come within the original design of that Ambassadorial expedition. It was
+the result rather of accident that, as the _Lion_ and _Hindostan_ were
+passing close in with St. Paul, two human beings were descried on the
+shore, waving in the air a piece of canvas fastened on poles, who
+apparently were anxious to convey to the expedition their desire to
+communicate with their ships. It was supposed these were shipwrecked
+mariners, stranded on this dangerous coast, who regarded the arrival of
+the _Lion_ as an unexpected means of rescue. To save these
+fellow-creatures from so desperate a position, the Captain of the _Lion_
+declared to be a pleasing duty assigned by Providence, and rejoiced to
+have been selected as the instrument of their deliverance. When, however,
+the boat of the British man-of-war, which was despatched to take off the
+castaways and bring them on board ship, had landed on the island, the crew
+speedily discovered the singular delusion which all had laboured under.
+The men, whom motives of humanity had intended to rescue from this
+inhospitable place, turned out to be anything but involuntary residents on
+the island, being seal-hunters, who for five months had dwelt here, and
+purposed remaining ten months longer, with the intention of completing a
+cargo of 25,000 seal-skins, for which at that time there was a very
+considerable and lucrative demand in the Chinese markets,[58] and the
+signals which had first attracted their attention, it now appeared were
+for no other object than to enable them to feel themselves once more,
+after such an interval, in the company of their fellowmen.
+
+[Footnote 56: Captain C. P. Blackwood, of H.M.S. _Fly_, 1842, and Captain
+Denham, C.B., of H.M. Surveying Ship _Herald_, 1853. M. Tinot "_capitaine
+du long cours_," who visited St. Paul in the summer of 1844, published
+likewise some interesting memoranda relating to that island, in the
+"_Nouvelle Annales de la Marine et des Colonies_," for November, 1853.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Previous to the resuscitation, after considerable difficulty,
+of this important, indeed decisive document, by Mons. L. C. D. Van Dyk,
+among the archives of the East and West India Company of Amsterdam, of
+which he was Librarian, the utmost uncertainty prevailed as to the
+discovery, name, and geographical position of the two islands. Now,
+William Van Flaming, a Dutch navigator, was supposed to be the
+discoverer,--now, the hardy Van Diemen. Atlases, charts, and books of
+travels, spoke of the name St. Paul belonging, here to the northern
+island, there to the southern. This long-continued confusion of names had
+naturally left ample space for the most contradictory statements as to the
+position, conformation, and geological conditions of both islands. One
+traveller, for instance, describes Amsterdam as an island with good
+anchorage on the North side, and an extinct crater, into which ran a
+fissure, forming a natural link with the ocean; while, on the other hand,
+he described St. Paul as a desert island, with steeply sloping shores,
+which make it matter of difficulty, if not utterly impracticable, to
+effect a landing; while other voyagers, again, give directly contrary
+accounts of both islands. Compare the following:--"An authentic account of
+an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China,
+together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on the occasion by
+H.M.S. _Lion_, and the ship _Hindostan_, E.I.C.N., to the Yellow Sea and
+Gulf of Pekin, as well as of their return to Europe, taken chiefly from
+the papers of H.E. the Earl of Macartney, &c., by Sir George Staunton,
+Bart. (London, 1797), vol. I., pp. 205-27."--"Rélation du Voyage à la
+recherche de _La Pérous_ fait par l'ordre de l'Assemblée constituante
+pendant les années 1791-92, et pendant la 1^{re} et la 2^{de} année de la
+République Française. Par le citoyen La Billardière, Correspondent de
+l'Académie des Sciences de Paris. Au VIII. de le République Française.
+Tome I. pp. 120-123."--"Johnston, A.K., General Gazetteer of the World
+(London, 1855)."--"Hamburgh, James, India Directory; or, Directions for
+Sailing to or from the East Indies, China, Australia, and the adjacent
+parts of Africa and South America (London, 1855). 7th Edition, vol. I., p.
+101."--"Voyage to the South Pole, and Round the World, by Captain Jas.
+Cook, R.N. (London, 1777)." An interesting and tolerably circumstantial
+treatise on these islands is also to be found among the transactions of
+the Imperial-Royal Geographical Society of Vienna for the year 1857,
+second division, pp. 145-56, by Mr. A. C. Zhishman, Professor of Geography
+and History, in the I. R. Nautical Academy at Trieste.]
+
+[Footnote 58: "It seems," says Lord Macartney, "that the Chinese possess
+remarkable skill in the dressing of seal-skins, by which they remove the
+long coarse hair, so as to leave merely the soft tender skin, and
+simultaneously manage to render the hide thin and pliant. Only the
+prospect of some such enormous profit could at any time induce human
+beings to pass fifteen months at a stretch on so ungenial a spot, which,
+moreover, their occupation must render yet more loathsome. They killed the
+seals as they basked in the sun on the rocks along the shore, and around
+the broad natural rock basins. As only the skins were of any value to
+them, they left the flayed carcases exposed to rot on the ground, and
+these lie heaped together here in such masses that it was difficult to
+avoid treading on them, when one reached the shore of the island. At every
+step some disgusting spectacle presented itself, while an unutterably
+nauseous smell of decaying matter poisoned the surrounding atmosphere. In
+the summer months the seals flock hither, all at the same period, in herds
+sometimes numbering 800 to 1000, of which usually only about one hundred
+are killed at a time. This is the utmost number that five men can skin in
+the course of a single day, it being necessary to peg them together on the
+spot, on account of the drying up of the skin. For want of the requisite
+vessels only an inconsiderable quantity of the train-oil, which these
+animals contain, is collected. A portion of the best of the blubber is
+melted, and serves these people in lieu of butter. The seal which
+frequents these islands is the Southern or Falkland seal (_Arctocephalus
+Falclandicus_ of Gray--_Phoca fusilla_ of Schreber). The female weighs
+ordinarily from seventy to one hundred and twenty pounds, and is from
+three to five feet long, the male usually considerably larger. In their
+natural state these animals are not particularly timid; sometimes, indeed,
+they plunge all together into the water when any one approaches them; but
+quite as often they remain sitting quietly on the rocks, or raise
+themselves erect with a menacing growl. A sharp blow on the snout with a
+stick seems sufficient to kill them. Most of those that approach the shore
+are females, the proportion they bear to the males being about thirty to
+one. This apparent disproportion between the sexes, according to
+observation hitherto, is explained as follows:--The Southern seal at
+certain periods often undertakes distant wanderings from one tract to
+another; and certain of these tracts, such as the Cape of Good Hope and
+the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam, are only frequented by the females
+when about to bring forth, and by the younger males of the school. In
+winter the huge snouted seal, or Sea Elephant (_Macrorhinus_, "long
+snout," _elephantinus_ of Gray--_Phoca leonina_ of Schreber), which
+sometimes attains a length of twenty-five or even thirty feet, comes in
+great numbers to these islands, where they herd together like sheep in the
+natural coves which the coast is broken into, in which the males announce
+the presence of a herd by a vehement growling, deepening into a loud
+roar."]
+
+Owing to the important situation of St. Paul, midway between the
+southernmost point of Africa and the Australian continent (from each of
+which it is about 3150 miles distant), a complete, accurate survey of the
+island seemed of great importance, not merely to the scientific world, but
+also in the interests of navigation; as most of the ships bound for China,
+Australia, and New Zealand, as well as the East India liners, pass pretty
+close to these islands, especially during the winter season. Many captains
+trading in the Indian ocean see in St. Paul an advantageous haven for
+recruiting the strength of their scurvy-stricken crews, while the ships of
+others, shattered almost to the point of foundering in the storms of a
+tract of ocean where for thousands of miles there is no other land, can
+find here their only prospect of preservation.
+
+For the voyagers on board the _Novara_, an interest of an entirely
+personal sort attached to their visit to the island. Among the
+unfortunates, who on the 24th August, 1853, suffered shipwreck on the
+shores of New Amsterdam, in the British ship _Meridian_, was a native of
+Brienz, in Switzerland, named Pfau. This person, together with the
+captain, Richard Hernamann, and a Frenchman had disappeared, leaving no
+trace, when, on the following morning, the surviving passengers of the
+wrecked ship were rescued by a whaler that happened to be cruising in the
+neighbourhood. It was supposed that the three unfortunate men had
+endeavoured to reach the adjacent island of St. Paul in a small boat, and
+probably were still living there. The father of the Swiss made
+application, through an indirect channel, to the chief of the Expedition,
+earnestly requesting him on his visit to the island to institute some
+enquiries with the view of finding some trace of his ill-starred son,
+still unwilling to renounce all hope that he might yet be found living at
+St. Paul.
+
+We hove to about one mile and a half distant from the great crater-basin,
+in whose eastern buttress a natural communication has been opened with the
+sea through a breach in its side. When the Dutch captain, William Van
+Flaming, cast anchor before the island in 1697, the wearing action of the
+waves had not yet completed this breach, there existing at that period a
+dam of some five feet high between the sea and the cavity of the crater.
+At present small boats can, at any hour of the day, pass into the
+crater-basin, protected from the swell of the ocean by two natural
+barriers, which leave between them a passage of about 300 feet wide. Our
+last admeasurement gave a length of 600 feet for the southern barrier, and
+1002 feet for that in the north; while the intervening water passage
+measured 306 feet in breadth, with a depth of 9.6 feet at high water, and
+from 2 to 3 feet at ebb tide. On the north side of the entrance to the
+straits stands a lofty pyramidal rock, called Nine-Pin Rock, round which
+circle innumerable sea-fowl, which to all appearance brood among the
+chinks and crannies of the rock, while in the water below crowds of sharks
+lash the water into foam. It must be highly dangerous hereabouts to be
+capsized in a boat, as there would be little possibility of any one being
+rescued, no matter how speedily assistance might be rendered.
+
+Scarcely were we anchored, ere we in the ship perceived a boat approaching
+from the island, which rapidly neared the frigate, with three men who had
+taken up their abode in even this desolate wilderness. Our imagination
+deluded us with the pleasing idea that these three forlorn, forsaken
+figures might be the long lost men wrecked in the _Meridian_, whom pitying
+billows might have wafted to this solitary island.
+
+Presently there stepped on deck by the side-ropes a grizzly figure, with
+deeply-furrowed features and long, grey beard, clothed in a blue blouse
+and coarse linen trowsers, that seemed to have weathered many a winter's
+storm. This primitive-looking old man proved to be a Frenchman named Viot,
+who had lived here for a considerable time as overseer of a fishing
+establishment on the island. Our first question had reference to the
+missing men from the _Meridian_. But how sore was our disappointment when
+the old sailor in the blouse told us he knew all the particulars of the
+catastrophe of the ship, but that he had never come across the slightest
+trace of the three unfortunates whom we had enquired about. Viot had
+visited the island regularly every year since 1841, except that in which
+the _Meridian_ had been lost. The fate of these three shipwrecked men must
+therefore remain for ever undetermined, although, considering the
+tempestuous weather which usually prevails in the Indian Ocean in the
+month of August, it is highly improbable that a boat of such small
+dimensions as that to which the captain and his two unhappy
+fellow-travellers committed themselves, could reach St. Paul, which was
+distant 42 miles from the spot at which the ship was wrecked.
+
+About 11.30 A.M. the naturalists, accompanied by the officers appointed
+to assist in the scientific operations, proceeded in two boats to the
+shore, for the purpose of making some preliminary observations. When we
+reached the bar there opened to our view, covered with luxurious grass
+growing in tufts, the walls of a majestic crater, the exquisite regularity
+of the cavity of which left the exact impression of an enormous natural
+amphitheatre.
+
+[Illustration: DISTANT VIEW OF CRATER-BASIN OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+On either side the ground rises nearly perpendicularly to a height of
+about 800 feet, which probably is likewise the average height of the walls
+of the crater. On the north side of the basin, a kind of terrace was seen
+low down, with huts thatched with straw, while on the shingle of the bar
+was planted a not very perpendicular flagstaff, on which, in honour of the
+arrival of a ship of war, old Viot had run up the French ensign. As the
+_Novara's_ boat swept into the crater-basin, he saluted with the
+proverbial courtesy of his nation, which not even the rough occupation of
+a whale-fisher had been able to rub out of him. Viot had last come hither
+in the preceding March, with a mulatto and a negro on board of a fishing
+craft, named the _Alliance_, of 45 tons, in which he had sailed from St.
+Denis, on the Island of Bourbon, anew to take charge of the little fishing
+station here, which is at present the property of M. Ottovan, a French
+gentleman domiciliated in St. Denis.
+
+While at Cape Town we were informed, in reply to our enquiries, by the
+first authority in the country, that the Island of St. Paul belonged to
+England, and was a dependency of the Mauritius; here, to our astonishment,
+we on the other hand learned from the inhabitants that St. Paul at present
+was under the protection of the French Government, and, in fact, was an
+appendage of the Island of Bourbon, the governor of which long previously
+had ordered the French flag to be hoisted, with all the naval formalities,
+by a detachment of French soldiers who had been landed from a French ship
+of war. According to Viot--who is to all appearance a thoroughly
+trustworthy man, but on whom, however, we throw the responsibility of the
+correctness of the following information,--the island seems, in fact, to
+have been, some twenty years since, the property of a French merchant of
+St. Denis, named Camin, who somewhat later entered into partnership with a
+person named Adam, a Pole by birth, to whom he ultimately resigned the
+entire island.[59] Adam, who was described to us as a man of exceedingly
+fierce and determined character, did wonders for the cultivation of the
+island. He left a number of Mozambique negroes, whom he compelled to work
+through the entire year, exposed to the severest privations, and employed
+in hewing stone from the rocks, with which huts were erected, in preparing
+a landing-quay on the north side of the basin, and in sowing a number of
+plots of ground along the lower margin of the crater with European
+vegetables.
+
+[Footnote 59: According to Captain Denham, who visited this island in 1853,
+the present proprietor called this fishing station, Marie Heurtevent, and
+said he had bought it about five years previously for 6000 dollars from a
+Polish merchant of St. Denis, where he himself also resided. (_Nautical
+Magazine_, pp. 68, 75).]
+
+About eight or ten years since, Adam (who afterwards, in the course of a
+voyage from Bourbon to New Zealand, met a disgraceful death, having been
+thrown overboard for his cruelty by the black crew of a small vessel, whom
+he had driven to desperation) sold the islands to their present possessor,
+M. Ottovan, a ship-chandler of St. Denis, who since then has twice each
+year, during the fine season, despatched a small craft of some 30 to 45
+tons, manned by from 15 to 18 fishermen, from St. Denis to St. Paul
+Island, so as to turn to advantage the unusual abundance of this
+fishing-ground. This vessel leaves St. Denis regularly every November on
+its voyage of from 24 to 30 days to St. Paul. The return voyage to St.
+Denis takes place during the prevalence of the South-East Trades, and
+occupies a much shorter time, rarely exceeding 14 to 16 days. The fishing
+sloop, during its stay at the island, anchors inside the basin of the
+crater, so as to discharge her provisions for the fishermen, and to
+facilitate the freighting for the homeward voyage with the fish that have
+been caught, as also to guard her against sudden changes of weather, which
+in these latitudes, as we ourselves experienced, is, even during the best
+season, very stormy and dangerous. The fishermen use the excellent
+whaleboats (or _baleinières_), so admirably suited to the heavy swell of
+the Indian Ocean, in which they go out in the morning, returning to the
+shore at nightfall. The species of fish which is found in greatest
+numbers, and is caught exclusively by the hook, is usually called by the
+fishermen, "Indian Cod:" it is by no means, however, of the _genus_
+Haddock, and very slightly, if at all, resembles the codfish of northern
+waters, or common stock-fish, but seems to belong to the class of finger
+fish (_cheilo-dactylus-fasciatus_), which is usually classed among the
+crow fish (_sciænæ_). These are salted, dried in the open air, packed in
+casks, and dispatched in large quantities to the markets of St. Denis. It
+is calculated that the number thus sent off in the course of each year
+amounts to about 40,000. which are sold in the market of St. Denis by the
+hundred, for from 40 to 60 francs (£1 12s. to £2 8s.--total £640 to £960).
+The expenses of maintaining the settlement is very small.--Viot has 57
+francs a month (£2 6s.); his two companions 40 francs and 25 francs
+respectively (£1 12s. and £1); the men engaged in the fishery receive 25
+to 30 francs a month, besides provisions. The second voyage of the vessel
+ordinarily takes place in January or February, so as to return in April or
+May, with a similar cargo. It often happens that the owner of the vessel
+finds some more profitable employment for it, when it only returns during
+the second year, and their provisions, as meal, rice, biscuit, tobacco,
+&c., get rather short. The settlers, however, employ what leisure time
+remains after their work is done, in cultivating a number of plots of
+ground with cereals and vegetables, potatoes especially returning from
+time to time an excellent yield. Of these useful tubers, which grow with
+remarkable luxuriance in the turf-soil of the island, they raise from 60
+to 80 cwt. annually. Fresh vegetables being articles in great request are
+more particularly made available by the inhabitants of St. Paul, by way of
+barter, when trafficking with the whalers, from 20 to 30 of which touch
+here in the year, to exchange their salt fish, rice, tobacco, cheese,
+brandy, &c., for the fresh provisions grown on the island. The number of
+vessels that pass within sight of St. Paul in the course of a year may be
+reckoned at from 100 to 150, of which, however, only a very few, except
+the whalers, visit the island.[60] In the year 1857, for example, it
+occurred only twice (one case being an English man-of-war), that passing
+ships sent boats to the island, five months of the year having elapsed in
+the first instance, and two in the second.
+
+[Footnote 60: All the Dutch Indiamen on the home voyage from Batavia,
+during the months of October till May, have been for many years in the
+habit of running south till they sighted St. Paul, so as to catch the S.
+E. Trades. But it has never been the policy of the Dutch to attract
+attention to the eastern seas, and accordingly no information found its
+way to Europe respecting these interesting islands, till the period
+mentioned in the text.]
+
+When the take of fish in the immediate vicinity of the island does not
+seem sufficiently remunerative, the fishermen occasionally launch out to
+greater distances. They then bring out from the basin of the crater the
+barque that brought them from Bourbon to St. Paul, and remain at sea for
+several days, or make for the adjoining island of Amsterdam, the shores
+of which are even more frequented by the fish than those of St. Paul.
+
+As already remarked, our first movements were directed solely towards an
+examination of its physical features. We were accompanied on this tour of
+inspection by Ferdinand, an active, intelligent Mulatto, with thoroughly
+French manners. The French stock has this peculiarity as compared with the
+German, that it remains unmistakably French, even when mixed with
+two-thirds African blood. Ferdinand was for the first time in St. Paul,
+having been conveyed hither in the _Alliance_ in the previous March, to
+work for M. Ottovan. Family troubles had been the cause of his banishment
+to this dismal island. Although only 24 years of age, he was already the
+father of two children, whom, he informed us, he had placed at school in
+St. Denis; and in sheer despair at the worthless conduct of their mother,
+had hired himself hither as a labourer at 40 francs a month, paid by the
+owner of the island. He proposed returning to St. Denis in the next ship
+that left St. Paul, in the hope that peace might be by that time restored
+in his family.
+
+At various spots in the lower rim of the crater-basin, within which
+Ferdinand acted as guide, we perceived heavy volumes of smoke emerging
+from the shallow parts of the water, which obviously implied the existence
+of hot springs. The two most active and largest in circumference were on
+the north side of the crater-basin, and were known, the one as the Bath,
+the other as the Drinking Fountain. Moreover, at several points on the
+north bar, hot water bubbles up from the soil, of such a temperature that
+the same person who, with a hook and line had caught a fish in the cold
+water basin, might, with the same motion of his hand, let them drop into
+the hot adjoining spring, where, in fact, it is boiled within a few
+minutes and fit for eating! We have ourselves made this experiment, which
+is also mentioned by Lord Macartney, and found the fish thus prepared
+exceedingly palatable.
+
+At high water the whole of the hot springs become mingled with the brine
+of the ocean, and thus indicate a temperature which is barely perceptibly
+higher than that of the latter. Adjoining the landing-place, several late
+visitors to the island have endeavoured to perpetuate the record of their
+fleeting presence on some compact granite blocks of rock, which are
+scattered in the path to the hot springs. Thus, on one of those stones,
+fast becoming obliterated by the weather, may be read:--"Savouret, 1841"--
+"J. D. Rogers, 1855, Mars."--On a second huge block:--"Hte. Rogers, 1852
+to 1857;" and lastly, these names, with difficulty decipherable,
+"Pallefournier-Emile, Mazarni-Denoyarez, Grenoble, Canton de Sassenage,
+Département de l'Isère, 1844." In general we found none of the
+inscriptions on the island that can be recognized.
+
+On reaching the plateau above, which is reached by a narrow, steep, and in
+many places rather fatiguing path, from the settlers' huts on the north
+side of the basin of the crater, we came to a breeding-place of the
+yellow-tufted "Crested or Hopping-Penguin"[61] (_apterodytes chrysocome_)
+in which we found at the lowest estimate from 500 to 600 of these singular
+creatures, which are adorned with grey-yellow tufts of feathers arranged
+in a semicircle above the eyes, and which, as was well remarked by the
+naturalist attached to the _Lion_, with the peculiar plumage and the
+almost scaly covering of their fin-like wings, suggest a remote
+resemblance to the form of a fish. Living part of the year in the water,
+and passing most of the remainder on land, Nature has, in a manner,
+adapted them for these widely differing modes of life. The dirty
+greyish-brown attire of the young contrasts so strongly with the gay
+plumage of the old penguin, that at the first glance they hardly seem to
+belong to the same species. The females lay only one or two eggs, usually
+in October, so that at the time of our visit, the young were only about a
+month-and-a-half or so old. These penguins, so graceful and nimble in the
+water, as if it were their proper element, are very awkward on land, so as
+to be easily caught, or knocked down with a stick. Only in so doing it is
+necessary to be on one's guard against a blow from their long sharp bills,
+with which they can inflict on their pursuer a by no means trifling wound.
+In the course of centuries, during which they have paid undisturbed visits
+to this island, they have trodden a well-marked path from their
+breeding-place to the edge of the sea; and it is a proof of the wonderful
+instinct of this creature, that this place is almost the only point on
+the entire island, at which it would be possible for it to reach the sea.
+A flock of these hopping penguins presents an odd and peculiar appearance,
+as, after leisurely bathing in the sea, and providing a sufficient supply
+of food for their young, their elegant heads emerge from the water, when
+carefully calculating the effect of the breakers, they ride their crest
+and allow themselves to be deposited on the beach; or, after hopping from
+stone to stone, the plumes on their heads nodding to and fro, suddenly
+plunge headforemost into the sea, like so many somersault-throwers! Not
+less diverting are the movements of these animals when, returned from
+their laborious wanderings, which they undertake two or three times a day
+in search of food for their young, they bend their tottering steps back to
+the roosting-place, waddling in their walk like ducks. One always leads
+the way as guide and forager-in-chief, and the rest, usually from ten to
+fifteen in number, follow him in a column; on reaching the roosting-place,
+a piece of level winding ground, they give a shrill cry, and comport
+themselves anything but peaceably towards their neighbours, especially if
+these have possessed themselves of their accustomed seats. Continual
+squabbling and disputing go on, and their croaking and screaming are
+prolonged far into the silence of night. They show much tenderness for
+their young, shelter them with great care, and defend them with
+extraordinary courage and pertinacity against the southern hawk gull[62]
+(_stercorarius antarcticus_), which frequently swoops upon the
+breeding-ground, and even ventures within reach of man, from whom it
+defends itself by violently striking and biting with its beak. Always at
+war under ordinary circumstances, they are nevertheless the most faithful
+of allies in moments of common danger or necessity. The flesh of the old
+penguin has so rank a smell that it is only used by those frequenting the
+island in case of the most extraordinary necessity; that of the young, on
+the other hand, has a far more agreeable flavour.
+
+[Footnote 61: Called also the "_Jumping Jack_" by the English sailors, from
+its custom of jumping quite out of the water, like a porpoise, on its
+encountering the slightest obstacle.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Called by the English sailors "Port Egmont Hens" from their
+frequenting Port Egmont in the Falkland Isles. They seem to be identical
+in species with the "skua," or "bonxie" of the Shetlands.]
+
+The breeding-place of the penguin is about 300 feet above the level of the
+water in the basin of the crater.[63] Four hundred feet more of laborious,
+steep scrambling, brings the adventurer to the plateau at last, from the
+highest peaks of which he readily obtains a view of the greater part of
+the island, which is utterly treeless. At many places we found the ground
+quite warm, and at one slimy tract, about 600 feet wide, which was noticed
+by the naturalists on board the _Lion_, there was positive danger of
+sinking several feet into the hot, yielding soil, if we did not advance
+with great care. On the other hand, the fierce tongues of flame, which
+Lord Macartney alleged were visible at night from the deck of the ship,
+and which greatly resembled the celebrated nocturnal fires of Pietra Mala,
+in the mountains between Florence and Bologna, were nowhere visible, at
+least during the time we were on the island.
+
+[Footnote 63: A second breeding-place, somewhat larger, but much more
+inaccessible than that described, occurs on the north-west side of the
+island. There among rugged fantastically broken masses of rock, these
+extraordinary creatures can sun themselves undisturbed, and have hardly
+anything to dread from the destroying hand of man, who could only get
+thither with much difficulty, and not without peril to life, by clambering
+along the face of a precipitous wall of rock.]
+
+On the north-west side of the islands, facing the sea, two lofty pinnacles
+of scoriæ, with truncated summits, rise in cones of such exquisite
+regularity of form as speedily attracted the attention of our geologist,
+and became somewhat later the chief scene of his activity. In the
+immediate vicinity, many traces of lava-streams are visible, which plainly
+show the direction in which their currents had flowed. From the upper edge
+of the great basin of the crater the ground slopes gradually to the sea,
+ending abruptly in a precipice, descending sheer 150 or 200 feet into the
+sea.
+
+In order to avoid retracing our steps by the same path, we directed our
+guide, the ever active Ferdinand, to conduct us back to the shore by some
+other track than that by which we had clambered up to this point;
+whereupon he stopped at a point of the upper rim of the crater, where the
+ground fell suddenly away quite perpendicular, grasped the rich luxuriant
+grass hand over hand, and having proceeded a few steps, invited us to
+follow. At the first glance we involuntarily recoiled at the bare idea of
+descending into the abyss by such a route, but presently we found our
+advance less dangerous and appalling than had at first appeared, when it
+was found we might, without any misgiving, let ourselves down by the long
+tough grass, the strong stalks of which supplied a safe means of descent.
+
+In less than three-quarters of an hour we had descended from the upper
+margin of the crater to the settlement, and at once proceeded on our
+return to the frigate. A pretty fresh N.W. breeze had sprung up in the
+meantime, which rendered our re-embarkation in our small short boats,
+totally unsuited to the tremendous swell of the Indian Ocean, exceedingly
+uncomfortable. Arrived at the ship's side, the sea ran so high, and had so
+increased the difficulty of laying the boats alongside, that we at first
+endeavoured to reach the deck by the Jacob's ladders suspended at the
+poop. When, however, one of the sailors (who confessedly have much greater
+readiness in clambering than ordinary mortals), while holding on to one of
+the ladders, was reached by a tremendous wave, and half his body being in
+the water, ran a risk of being carried off by a shark, the scientific
+gentlemen in the boats preferred making for the starboard side of the
+ship, whence they reached their haven of refuge by the man-ropes.
+
+Although this accident sufficiently manifested the impracticability of our
+original plan of returning every evening on board, and of being able to
+remain beside the ship during the carrying out of the objects of our
+visit, no man supposed as yet that, at this season, the summer of St.
+Paul's, the weather might suddenly become so stormy and generally
+unfavourable, as thus early to necessitate our re-embarkation, and that
+the ship would be compelled, with all speed, to leave her anchorage, and
+put to sea for a week under most uncomfortable circumstances.
+
+On 20th November, about 6 A.M., the officers and naturalists, together
+with a portion of the crew, 32 in all, left the frigate with a large
+quantity of instruments, scientific apparatus, and baggage. This little
+expedition was supplied with provisions and water for six days, there
+being no springs of fresh water on the island, the frequenters of which
+are compelled to depend for their whole supply of drinking-water, partly
+on the rain-fall, partly during long-continued dry seasons on the water of
+one of the hot brackish springs which occur on the north side of the lower
+circuit of the crater. Long accustomed to these fluids and to their
+peculiar taste, the inhabitants feel no evil results from their
+employment, which very probably would not be the case with those persons
+who visit the island for the first time, and whose arduous exertions
+necessitate their drinking daily large quantities of water.
+
+On a small eminence, about 150 feet high, above the fisherman's huts on
+the north side of the crater-basin, a small wooden cottage was erected for
+the protection of the astronomers; and at a distance of about 40 feet, a
+second for the magnetic instruments, both of which, with their contents,
+were entrusted to Lieutenant Robert Müller. Lieutenants Batlogg and Eugen
+Kronowetter, were respectively entrusted with the observations by
+theodolite, and with the surveying board. To the last-mentioned gentleman
+were also confided the observations with the meteorological instruments,
+the researches with the tide-gauge, the instruments for measuring the
+velocity of currents, as also the soundings in the basin, and on either
+side of the bar,--to assist him in the execution of which Cadet Count
+Borelli and Head Quartermaster Cian were detached. We quartered ourselves
+as well as we could in the wretched filthy huts which, in summer, serve
+the fishermen from St. Denis as a shelter. In one of these hung several
+pictures--one representing Napoleon I. riding the inevitable white horse,
+the majority consisting of female portraits and scenes of Parisian life,
+so that the whole place had quite a Frenchified appearance.
+
+Hardly had the instruments, apparatus, men, and baggage been placed under
+shelter, when once more a strong north wind came on, which, during the
+night between the 20th and 21st, increased to such a height, that it blew
+down the two huts intended for the observations, which had not been quite
+finished, and in which, fortunately, the instruments had not yet been
+placed--exposing the work already begun to very considerable interruption.
+
+Early in the morning, a whaler approached the island, and sent one of her
+boats off for fresh provisions. She proved to be the _Herald_, of New
+Bedford, Massachusetts, U. S., out 27 months, and expecting to require to
+remain out 11 months longer, in order to complete her lading of oil and
+whalebone. She was last from St. Augustin's Bay (Madagascar), which place
+she had left two months previously. When the captain, who chanced to be in
+the boat, saw the activity of the scientific corps, the results of which
+were already beginning to be visible in the hitherto deserted island, he
+said that one of his crew had fallen from the mast a few days previously,
+and severely injured himself, and forthwith asked whether we could render
+him any surgical assistance. Considering the precarious circumstances
+under which we ourselves were on the island, we judged it more advisable
+to receive the unfortunate whaler on board the frigate, where we could
+give him all necessary assistance. As we afterwards learned, the surgeon
+of the frigate, Dr. Ruschitztha, notwithstanding the inclemency of the
+weather, was ordered from the frigate, and had the satisfaction of
+rendering valuable assistance to the invalid.
+
+The foul weather continued all day, and during the night of the 21st, it
+became so tempestuous that the frigate was at last compelled to put to
+sea. About 3.30 A.M. she began to labour heavily with an unusually high
+sea and frequent shifts of wind, accompanied by showers of rain, after a
+heavy blow from the N.W., so that at first it was thought on board that
+one of these furious gusts, which for several hours past had followed each
+other at regular intervals, had sprung the cable, and that the anchor
+would be lost. The jib accordingly was hoisted, and the fore-topsail set
+with four reefs in it, and an attempt made to weigh anchor. This
+operation, at all times laborious, was now especially so, and seemed as
+though it would never have an end. Although the capstan was manned, as
+already said, at 3.30, it was not till past seven, or four hours later
+that the anchor hove in sight. It was the port anchor that had been
+weighed, and it was now perceived that one of the flukes had given way,
+and was entirely broken off. In such stormy weather it seemed very
+uncertain whether the anchor could be brought on board, as it struck with
+much force against the ship-side, in consequence of her severe rolling,
+and it was only secured at great risk to the life of the men employed. The
+cable was unbent, and the anchor slipped, so as to relieve the ship (for
+which the anchor still on board was sufficient in the meantime), from the
+vehement thumping. The frigate now had to encounter a regular
+North-wester, and only after three days of the most furious rolling or
+pitching, was she able, aided by northerly breezes, again to reach her
+former anchorage. The members of the Expedition, left at St. Paul to
+prosecute their scientific labours, occasionally experienced a somewhat
+peculiar feeling when the frigate, owing to the severity of the weather,
+remained invisible during these three long days; and fancy involuntarily
+depicted themselves in the position of men whom the stormy waves of
+destiny had cast away on this lonely island in the Indian Ocean, there
+perhaps to languish for weary months out of reach of assistance or means
+of rescue.
+
+Old Viot, who had come for the sixth time to the island, alleged that such
+rainy tempestuous weather at this season of the year was quite an unusual
+phenomenon,--an opinion which somewhat later was confirmed by the reports
+of several North American whalers. Ordinarily the fine season commences at
+the beginning of November, at which period the South wind is the most
+prevalent, the sky often remaining clear and hot for weeks together. The
+hottest month of the year is January, the coldest June. From May to
+October it is exceedingly difficult to land with boats on the island, and
+cases not unfrequently occur during the continuance of the stormy season
+resembling that which is instanced by the historiographer of Lord
+Macartney's embassy to China, in which, during September, 1792, a ship
+anchored on the east side of the island, was only able twice, during the
+lapse of eight weeks, to send a boat to the island with provisions. On
+this station the fishery is confined to the fine season (from November to
+April), while for the rest of the year the various huts of the fishermen
+are entirely abandoned, being only inhabited by a couple of men, in whose
+charge are left the few but by no means valueless implements and apparatus
+of the island. These men lead a very monotonous life, though not one of
+privation, for the crater-basin supplies the whole year round the most
+delicious fish, and craw-fish of the finest kind.
+
+Our sailors used to hang a basket with bait close to the edge of the
+crater-basin, sunk a few feet in the water, which they would draw out
+every time full of lobsters. In a few hours they frequently caught from
+eighty to one hundred pounds' weight of these large and extremely delicate
+species of shell-fish. An excursion which was got up one morning to the
+South side of the island, in a fisherman's boat, was rewarded in a few
+hours with some fifty different sorts of denizens of the deep, some of
+which weighed twenty to twenty-five pounds each.
+
+According to Viot's account, snow does not fall often in winter, and in
+consequence of the heat inherent in the volcanic soil, never lies long on
+it. On the other hand, hail is a tolerably frequent visitant. Rain is of
+constant occurrence, and sometimes falls in immense quantities. Viot was
+never weary of expressing his astonishment at the enormous size of the
+drops of rain which for many a year he had seen fall at St. Paul. The cold
+is often pretty severe; while the almost entire want of firing on the
+island (for the dung of animals is not obtainable in sufficient quantities
+to make its storing worth the requisite labour), deprives the poor
+residents of the comfort of a fireside. "If the last storm had not blown
+down our hut, we should for long have had to do without fuel," was the
+naïve remark on one occasion of the old Frenchman, as he lay stretched out
+on a dirty bed, carefully rolled up in his rough woollen blanket. Winter
+begins in May and ends in September. During this period the Northerly
+winds are often very strong. On 27th June, 1857, there blew for six or
+eight hours here so terrific a tempest that the inhabitants of St. Paul
+did not venture outside of their huts for fear of being rapt away by the
+wind. These storms of winter occasionally rage to such a degree that they
+drive before them into the basin of the crater huge masses of water, which
+they whirl in wild confusion to an enormous height, showing that the tract
+in the Southern Ocean traversed by the hurricanes which occasionally do
+such damage about Mauritius and Rodriguez, occasionally embraces the
+islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam. In November, at the commencement of the
+fine season, the winds are rather variable, and so continue to the end of
+March, when the N. and N.W. winds begin once more to blow regularly; these
+bring heavy rains and foul weather, after which, except that it is cold
+when the wind changes to West with a Southerly tendency, a warmer and
+drier climate is experienced. During our stay we frequently had an
+opportunity of verifying by observation the steady return of certain winds
+in regular succession. For instance, after the N.E. wind had prevailed for
+some days, it veered to N.N.W. whence it invariably went to W. by S.,
+where it usually stayed some little time, after which it once more went to
+N.E.--a phenomenon which went through its phases every six days with
+surprising regularity.
+
+There are heavy mists during autumn, but thunder on the other hand is far
+from frequent, nor is it particularly violent when it occurs. During a
+residence of eighteen days we never saw the centigrade thermometer stand
+higher than 66°·2 Fahr., or lower than 53°·6 Fahr. Lord Macartney gave 62°
+Fahr. as the average of the thermometer during his visit in February,
+1793.
+
+As for earthquakes, a phenomenon whose occurrence at St. Paul would
+possess an uncommon interest, Viot averred that during sixteen years that
+he had visited the island, off and on, he neither himself had perceived
+any indications of one, nor had he at any time heard of any such having
+been observed.
+
+On the contrary, Ferdinand (who, nevertheless, had lived but eight months
+on the island) affirmed that his predecessor, Rosemond, had told him of
+shocks, comparatively slight it is true, which he (Rosemond) had felt
+during his several years' abode here. Considering the small circumference
+of the island, and the violent surf on its shores, slight oscillations may
+not improbably be felt, which are caused by other than volcanic agencies.
+Moreover, on the outer margin of the crater-basin, the island presents at
+those numerous points, from which at ebb-tide roll volumes of smoke and
+steam, so many natural vents for the escape of the confined subterraneous
+gases, that in their ordinary state, and so long as they continue open, in
+future, there is no especial reason to suppose there will be any
+upheavings of the earth's crust in consequence of volcanic agencies. The
+earthquake of 14th August, 1857, which was pretty severely felt in Cape
+Town and the vicinity, does not seem to have included St. Paul within the
+circle of its influence. The present inhabitants of St. Paul, at all
+events, unanimously assert that they cannot recall having perceived,
+either on the 14th August, or at any time about that period, any shocks of
+earthquake whatever, or to have observed any unusual appearances either in
+the surface of the earth or in the atmosphere.
+
+We purposely say "at any time about that period," because the inhabitants
+of the island do not avail themselves of that assistance so universal
+now-a-days of a printed calendar, but trust to memory for keeping a
+reckoning of the flight of time. That mistakes should frequently occur
+with such a method of computing time is rendered the more probable that
+not one of the three denizens of the island can write. For instance, we
+once remarked to our worthy Viot that by his own reckoning he had marked
+one day more than he had actually lived. "We always get into a mess with
+these confounded months of thirty-one days!" was the good-humoured reply
+of the ancient wanderer from Nantes.
+
+Although the volcanic soil of St. Paul is everywhere especially adapted
+for scientific study, it nevertheless presents few objects with which to
+enrich collections of natural history. An island, on which not a single
+tree or bush is to be found, and on whose tufa soil, though well adapted
+for fruit, only a few grasses, ferns, and mosses thrive, must, so far as
+regards the value of his researches, prove as little interesting to the
+botanist as the zoologist, who, as we shall see more circumstantially
+further on, came across but few representatives here of the animated
+kingdom.
+
+At several places, the practical gardener who accompanied the frigate was
+ordered to plant a number of European vegetables and anti-scorbutic
+plants, such as cabbage, horse-radish, turnips, of various assorted
+species, celery, garden-cress, and spoonwort,[64] it is to be hoped with
+favourable results. At all events, we had the satisfaction during our
+stay, of seeing the tender shoots of some of the vegetables already
+sprouting through the surface of the earth. At that time there were not
+above a dozen or so cultivated spots on the Island; if, however, these are
+carefully cultivated, they can always furnish enough excellent nourishing
+provision for from 80 to 100 men. A quantity of potatoes, from 6 to 8
+sacks, planted in June, yield, in January or February, a crop of from 60
+to 80 casks of 100 lbs. each, or between 3 and 4 tons.
+
+[Footnote 64: The vegetables planted were as follows:--_Brassica rapa_
+(rape); _Brassica oleracea capitata_ (sea kail); _Brassica rapa alba_
+(white turnip); _Brassica rapa flava_ (yellow turnip); _Raphanus sativus_
+(radish); _Lepidium sativum_ (dittandu); _Cochleæia officinalis_ (scurvy
+grass).]
+
+Wheat, maize, and barley, also thrive at St. Paul, and their cultivation
+has only been discontinued, in consequence of their conversion into bread
+requiring a much larger amount of fuel than is at the command of the
+residents. On the other hand, all attempts to cultivate beans and peas
+have utterly failed hitherto. All kinds of nutritive plants give but one
+crop in the year. So also several kinds of trees, which promised to grow
+well, considering the resemblance between the climate here and that to
+which they were indigenous--such as _Pinus maritima_, various kinds of
+_Protea_, &c., and the successful rearing of which would ultimately prove
+an extraordinary benefit to all who frequent the island, in consequence of
+the great scarcity of firewood--were planted as seedlings by the gardener
+attached to the Expedition, in the vicinity of the two huts used for the
+observations. Assuredly it will not be one of the least important benefits
+of the _Novara_ Expedition, which it will have conferred on St. Paul, if
+the growth of the seedlings, planted in its soil with such a noble purpose
+in view, should result in the gradual and at all events partial clothing
+of the island in the forest.
+
+As to the Fauna of St. Paul, there appears to be one kind of sea-swallow
+(_storna_) not hitherto described, the bill and feet of which are of a
+coral-red colour, and delicate silver-grey plumage, undoubtedly the most
+beautiful of the feathered inhabitants, as the penguin is the most
+extraordinary and peculiar creature on the island. Besides these there is
+also a pretty grey diver (_Prion Vittatus_), which builds its nest among
+the rocks; also a brown gull (_Stercorarius antarcticus_), as also three
+kinds of albatrosses (_Diomedea exulans_, _D. fuliginosa_, _D.
+chlororhinchos_).
+
+The Crater-basin was somewhat less unproductive than the dry land. The
+depth is from 100 to 175 feet. Close to the edge, the sounding line gave a
+depth of 10 fathoms (60 feet). Experiments with the dredging-net, although
+frequently made, gave by no means satisfactory results. On the other hand,
+the rod and line brought up many an interesting addition to our
+collection, and frequent strolls at ebb-tide along the barely uncovered
+masses of rock that skirted the basin of the crater were rewarded with
+numerous discoveries of specimens of conchology. In the centre of the
+basin we came upon slimy ground at a depth of 204 feet; near the hot
+springs (about 100 feet distant), 19 fathoms (114 feet); and at a third
+point, on the south side, 23 fathoms (138 feet). Viot said, that after
+repeated soundings at different points, he had found the depth of the
+basin varied from 10 to 35 fathoms (60 to 210 feet). The seals
+(_Arctocephalus Falclandicus_) of which, according to Macartney, at the
+end of last century, thousands daily came to the coast of the island to
+bask in the sun, have almost entirely disappeared, so that these animals
+are very rarely seen or captured by the inhabitants. Even of the skeletons
+of these marine mammals, which, when the naturalists of the _Lion_ were
+roaming through the island, used to lie about in such numbers that one
+could almost walk upon bones all round the crater, not a vestige is left,
+and one can hardly realize that formerly hundreds of thousands of these
+animals were slaughtered at this island.
+
+Almost all the quadrupeds of the island are domestic animals that have
+been brought hither from Europe and the French colonies--such as swine,
+goats, cats, rabbits--which at present live here in a wild state. The
+goats, which were first introduced in 1844, are most numerous on the N.W.
+of the island; the swine, on the contrary, are not so frequently met with.
+During our residence, a boar and a wild cat were killed; a few days after,
+the five young of the cat were found, having been compelled to emerge from
+their lair in search of food. A female hare, which we had brought from
+Cape Town, was also set free on the island, and it was fortunate for the
+propagation of these useful animals that there was already a male hare on
+the island. A pair of geese was also presented to the colonists, which
+perhaps have continued to breed there.
+
+As we thought the island was uninhabited, it was originally our intention
+to leave several kinds of domestic animals of different sexes with a view
+to propagation; and with that object, when at Cape Town had made various
+purchases of useful animals; but, under the circumstances, we relinquished
+this intention, as there seemed but little chance of their being left
+undisturbed sufficiently long to secure the desired object. Occasionally
+cows would be landed from the whalers for the sake of the fresh fodder,
+and taken away again after the lapse of a month or two.
+
+The projected scientific operations of the Expedition might easily have
+been carried out within eight days, had we not been so obstinately
+persecuted with unfavourable weather. Violent north winds, which rendered
+it impossible to make any use of the surveying-board in the open air,
+alternated in an extraordinary manner with rainbows. Our astronomical
+observations were as yet nothing to speak of. Observations with the
+barometer, thermometer, current-measurer, and tide-guage, could alone be
+prosecuted, the last of which especially gave the following interesting
+result, that the hour of high water, both at full moon and new moon, is
+not 11 A.M., as given by Horsburgh (7th edition, Vol. I. p. 102), but at
+1.10 P.M.[65]
+
+[Footnote 65: According to Lord Macartney, the tide rises at full and new
+moon, between 8 and 9 feet perpendicular. A northerly wind always causes
+the highest tide, the current of which is from S.E. by S. to N.W. by N.,
+and has a velocity of about 3 miles an hour.]
+
+The proper carrying out of the objects of the geognostic enquiries was
+hampered by unforeseen obstacles and difficulties. One day the rain would
+be so heavy, that the slight covering of our apartments would be
+insufficient to protect us any longer from the beating of the rain which
+fell in bucketsfull, and began to leak through innumerable seams and
+cracks on to the beds, tables, and floor. Did any one think to shelter
+himself in the hut of a neighbour?--ere long there commenced a regular
+emigration, which very speedily came to a conclusion, by each and all
+having the melancholy satisfaction of perceiving that Fortune had set to
+work with rigorous impartiality, and had resolved to let each one of us
+feel the weight of her displeasure. And so we passed the long dreary hours
+in our comfortless huts, that gave free entrance to wind and rain, with
+umbrellas outspread or wrapped in our India-rubber cloaks, gazing moodily
+at the numerous cases full of valuable instruments, which, instead of
+being serviceable to science, were, by the loss of so many splendid
+opportunities, doomed to inactivity.
+
+[Illustration: RAINY DAY AT ST. PAUL.]
+
+Fortunately, all showed themselves animated by the utmost zeal for the
+undertaking and its successful issue; and, in a word, each fresh
+avalanche of difficulties, which sought to thwart our exertions and impair
+our forces, served only to reawaken the energies and reanimate the
+confidence of each and all amid all our calamities.
+
+So soon as the hovel we inhabited, which had enabled us to make
+observations upon the direction and strength of the wind rather than
+secured us any accommodation for sleep, had been in some degree restored
+to its original condition, we availed ourselves of the slight improvement
+in the weather, to examine a tolerably numerous collection of very
+beautifully bound books, which were found stowed away in one of the
+recesses for books running into the four partitions, and had in all
+probability much to dread from the rain-water trickling through the
+covering of the roof. These had been brought hither by a former proprietor
+of the island, and when it was sold were transferred with the rest of the
+stock of tools, &c., to M. Ottovan, who occasionally resided at St. Paul
+for a month or two, but seemed, so far as the condition of the books went,
+rarely to meddle with them. It was curious enough, however, to encounter
+in a lone desert island, so many evidences of the most refined
+civilization, so we shall cite in a note some of the most interesting of
+this library of about 150 different works, which deserved a better fate
+than to moulder away undisturbed till they fell into dust.[66]
+
+[Footnote 66: Among these were the works on Natural History, by Charles
+Bonnel (Neufchâtel, 1783); J. S. Laharpe's "Abrégé de l'Histoire Générale
+des Voyages, Paris, 1816;" Dacier's "Translation of Horace into French,
+with Notes and Critical Remarks. Paris, 1816;" "De la Félicité Publique;
+ou, Considérations sur le sort des Hommes dans les Différentes époques de
+l'Histoire: A. Bouillon: from the Printing Establishment of the
+Typographical Society, Paris, 1776;" "Essay on the Life of the Great
+Condé, by Louis Joseph, Prince de Condé, at present in England, London,
+1st May, 1807;" "Précis des Journées 15, 16, 17, and 18 Juin, 1815, ou Fin
+de la Vie Politique de Napoleon Buonaparte, par M. Giraud, auteur de la
+"Campagne de Paris en 1814;" Paris, 1815, 1st vol. 8; "Histoire des
+Guerres des Gaulois et des Français en Italie, avec le tableau des
+évènemens civils et mílitaires qui les accompagnèrent et leur influence
+sur la civilisation et les progrès de l'esprit humain." "Depuis Bellevise
+jusqu'à la mort de Louis XII., par lex Adjutant-Général Auguste Jubé,
+tribun." "Depuis Louis XII., jusqu'àu Traité d'Amiens, par Joseph Servan,
+Général de Division. Dediées à S. M. l'Empereur. Paris, an. XIII. (1805)."
+"Manuel des habitans de St. Dominique, contenant un précis de l'histoire
+de cette isle depuis sa découverte, etc., par S. J. Duc[oe]urjoly, ancien
+habitant de St. Dominique; Paris, 1800, an. X, 2 vols.]
+
+Less fortunate were we in our researches for any document which could in
+any way throw any light, direct or indirect, upon the former history of
+St. Paul. The only piece of writing which we found that had reference to
+the island, was a licence drawn up during the reign of Louis Philippe,
+dated 20th February, 1846, to M. Adam, of St. Denis (in the Island of
+Bourbon), to proceed to carry out a certain undertaking in the schooner
+"_La Mouche_," 30 tons' burthen, under the protection of the French flag.
+"_La Mouche_," is the same boat in which Viot had made so many voyages to
+and fro between St. Denis and St. Paul. This document, which the poor old
+Frenchman drew out one evening from a drawer thickly strewn with dust,
+insensibly led the conversation to the quondam owners of St. Paul, and
+thence naturally to an enquiry, on our part, as to the number of graves
+which dotted this romantic offshoot of Père la Chaise. "The climate is far
+too healthy, and the island far too little frequented, to admit of there
+being many graves in St. Paul," replied Viot. Of the blacks, whom M. Adam
+had once worked so unmercifully on the island, very many perished here
+owing to the severity of their treatment, but no one knows where their
+bodies lie;--very possibly their bones lie scattered about the island,
+like the remains of the much persecuted petrel (_prion turton_), which the
+predatory gull throws carelessly from him after he has stripped off the
+flesh, and gorged himself on the most delicate morsels. Only two graves
+are known to the present residents,--one is the resting-place of an
+Englishwoman, who died on board a merchant-ship which happened to be near
+the island, and whose grave was dug in the earth on the north side of the
+crater-basin; the second covers the body of a ship captain, who was
+accidentally drowned in the basin by the upsetting of a small boat, as he
+was approaching the bar in heavy weather. His grave is at a short distance
+behind the huts of the colonists, and bears traces to this day of the
+solemn feelings with which it was erected; an enclosure of large stones
+neatly arranged, make the site and its object at once recognisable.
+
+Shipwrecks are unheard of at St. Paul; at least, none such have been known
+to occur since it has been occupied by man. On the other hand, they are of
+more frequent occurrence at the sister island, as has very lately been
+evidenced by the catastrophe of the _Meridian_. However, the elements are
+not always to blame for such lamentable occurrences. Ships are sometimes
+dashed to pieces on the shores of Amsterdam in the finest weather, so that
+one is almost induced to believe that these misfortunes are occasionally
+resorted to intentionally, so as to realize some high insurance on a
+vessel which has probably already become half unseaworthy--a not very
+conscientious method of doing business, of which, however, some of the
+natives of Greece and the borders thereof are not unfrequently guilty. In
+February, 1855, a North American whaler struck upon the north-east side of
+Amsterdam in a calm, and with a clear sky overhead, so that the entire
+crew, 30 in number, were able to secure the provisions and their kits. The
+captain, with one of the ship's small boats, made for the Island of St.
+Paul, 42 miles distant, in the hope, probably, of getting assistance
+thence. A lucky destiny so willed it, that (the accident having occurred
+in the finest season of the year), a vessel of M. Ottovan's, which by a
+strange coincidence was named _L'Ange Gardien_ (the Guardian Angel), lay
+at anchor inside the crater-basin, loading with fish. The shipwrecked crew
+were indebted to his circumstance that, within 14 days more, they found
+themselves at Mauritius. A report circulated among the residents of St.
+Paul that the captain of the stranded ship had landed with some of his
+companions in a boat on the N.E. of Amsterdam, with the intention of
+searching for a sum of several thousand dollars which a previous visitant
+to this island was said to have buried there for some mysterious reasons.
+While the captain was on shore, vainly searching for a considerable time
+after the buried treasure, the shipmaster left in charge in his absence
+came too near the island, whereupon the vessel had been lost upon one of
+the numerous reefs which lie off the shore. A part, it was added, of the
+buried money had, in fact, been recovered. According to Viot, the captain
+had dug up 1000 dollars (above £200), and one of his companions 300
+dollars.
+
+At last, on the morning of 3rd December--the fifteenth of our stay at the
+island--the sky shone so brightly that one could, with more probability
+than hitherto, cherish the hope that the various operations we had been
+compelled to lay aside might finally be brought uninterrupted to a
+successful conclusion. However, the very wet day was again exceedingly
+unfavourable for open-air observations, especially astronomical, inasmuch
+as a pretty strong North-east wind incessantly drove over the island
+clouds of rain, the very heaviest of which, attracted by the mass of the
+island, broke right over our heads. Fortunately this spell of bad weather
+did not last as long as the first; and when, on 6th December, the _Novara_
+once more made her appearance at the island, and enquired by signals as to
+the progress made in our appointed work, we were so fortunate as to be
+able to reply by the same means, that the most important portion had been
+completed, and that the officers and naturalists were ready to re-embark.
+
+About 9 A.M., the frigate anchored in 25 fathoms, close to the spot where
+the English ship _Fly_, Captain Blackwood, lay in 1842. It was the third
+time that the _Novara_ anchored off St. Paul. Twice before had she
+experienced unusually tempestuous weather, which compelled her to sheer
+off from such a perilous coast, and expose herself to be lashed for days
+together by the raging giant waves of the infuriated element.
+
+One of the boats sent by the frigate to take us off to the ship, brought
+at the same time some presents, in memory of the Expedition, for the
+residents of the island, who had been so hospitable and obliging during
+our stay. The presents consisted of ship biscuit, salted meat, and various
+other edibles, wine, a musket, woollen blankets, clothes, shoes, tools,
+medicines, vinegar, oil, &c. The simple, modest fellows were immensely
+pleased with these unexpected presents, and Viot especially seemed
+overjoyed on seeing a number of tools, for want of which many of the
+repairs necessary in the interior of their anything but air-tight wooden
+habitations, were daily becoming more apparent.
+
+We left a book on the Island of St. Paul, in which the principal memoranda
+of what we had achieved were set forth in three languages (German,
+English, and French), with the view of supplying to future scientific
+visitors, data for further researches and observations, and at same time
+incite them to prosecute these we had ourselves made.
+
+We insert here this document, which will yet give witness, probably, of
+the scientific activity of the Austrian Expedition at the Island of St.
+Paul in the Indian Ocean, at a period when those engaged in it will long
+since have voyaged to
+
+    "That undiscovered country from whose bourne
+    No traveller returns."
+
+"The Imperial Austrian Frigate, _Novara_, 44, under the command of
+Commodore the Chevalier von Wüllerstorf-Urbair, engaged in a voyage round
+the globe for scientific purposes, anchored at nine in the morning of
+19th November, 1857, on the Eastern side of St. Paul, with the purpose of
+prosecuting astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, and geodesical
+observations and measurements, and at same time examine thoroughly the
+natural history of the island. Extremely unfavourable weather in great
+measure delayed the expedition; and, after having successfully carried out
+a series of observations and researches, the results of which will in due
+time be published, the officers and naturalists in charge of the various
+departments, on the 6th December of the same year, quitted St. Paul, each
+bearing with him the most pleasing reminiscences of that interesting
+island, and of its three poor, but eminently kind inhabitants.
+
+"For the guidance of future observers the following memoranda may prove
+useful:--
+
+"I. That the spot at which observations were taken was on a small
+eminence, north of the huts of the colonists, and which may be recognized
+by a small pyramid of stones, on which the Austrian Expedition marked the
+observed latitude 38° 42' 55'' S., and the longitude 77° 31' 18'' E. of
+Greenwich.[67] Further that:--
+
+[Footnote 67: The time, which we took from the Cape Observatory by four
+excellent chronometers, gave, on our voyage between the Cape and St. Paul,
+a period of forty-six days, a difference of 3 h. 56 min. 11 sec., which
+the island was E. of the Cape, so that adding the Longitude of the latter
+East of Greenwich (by nautical almanack), 1 h. 13 min. 55 s., we have the
+Longitude of St. Paul 5 h. 10 min. 6 s. East of Greenwich (77° 31' 30''
+E.) Between Madras and St. Paul, during a long passage of sixty-seven
+days, and with six chronometers somewhat less accurately set than the
+preceding, St. Paul was found by observation to be 0 h. 10 min. 51.8 sec.
+West of Madras (2° 42' 55'' W.) By the longitude of the Observatory of
+Madras, 5 h. 20 min. 57 sec. East of Greenwich (80° 14' 15'' E.), as
+furnished by the Director of the Observatory, Major Jacobs (whereas the
+nautical almanack gave 5 h. 21 m. 3.77 sec. = 80° 16' 0-1/2''). The
+longitude of St. Paul would be 5 h. 10 m. 5.2 s. East of Greenwich (77°
+31' 23'' E.) The average of the two measurements gives as the average 5 h.
+10 m. 5.6 sec., or 77° 31' 26'' E. to be assumed as the final longitude of
+St. Paul, while the latitude was taken from the various means of the
+height of the sun at the meridian on an average of days. An additional
+computation in which allowances were made for the various corrections,
+gave, as the latitude, 38° 42' 47'' S.]
+
+"II. That the direction of the true meridian line drawn from this point to
+the nearest opposite shore of the South side of the crater-basin was
+marked by an oblique (St. Andrew's) cross.
+
+"III. That the tidal-gauge was situated on a rock near the landing-place,
+and that the rise of the tide above the mean level of the water (3 feet 5
+inches), was marked on a slab of rock smoothed for the purpose.
+
+"IV. Lastly. The magnetic observations were taken in a hut erected for
+that express purpose on the little plateau behind the settlers' huts,
+where at the same time various sorts of useful trees were planted by the
+Expedition.
+
+"The names of the officers and naturalists who, under the superintendence
+of the commander of the Imperial Expedition, took part in the various
+scientific operations were:--for Astronomy and Terrestrial Magnetism,
+Lieutenant Robert Müllar; Botany, Dr. Edward Schwarz and M. Jellinck;
+Geodesy and Meteorology, Lieutenant Eugen Kronowetter; for the
+Trigonometrical Measurement of the Crater-basin, Lieutenant Gustavus
+Battlogg; for Geology, Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter; Ethnology and Physical
+Geography, Dr. Karl Scherzer; Zoology, G. Frauenfeld and J. Zelebor;
+Draughtsman and Artist, Joseph Sellemy."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.--TRACK FROM ST. PAUL TO POINT DE GALLE. (CEYLON).]
+
+Towards 5 P.M. the last boat came off with the measuring and levelling
+instruments, and various articles of baggage.[68] The embarkation was
+finally completed. Half-an-hour later the _Novara_ weighed anchor, and we
+steered, favoured with most splendid weather and full of pleasing
+anticipations, for the adjacent island of New Amsterdam. Not without
+sundry twitches of sadness did we remark the sharp crater of St. Paul
+gradually fade away like a vision in the gloom of approaching night; and
+many undying memories must attach to our residence on that lonely,
+world-forsaken island.
+
+[Footnote 68: Remembering how many bottles and glass tubes were shattered,
+we have not thought it beyond our province to recommend future scientific
+travellers to bring with them a good supply of duplicates of all
+instruments liable to breakage, as it is very difficult to get such
+insignificant articles replaced out of Europe, and we frequently found on
+this occasion the want of some such little instrument interposed an
+obstacle to the further usefulness of the instruments.]
+
+And now, at the moment of our departure from the island, be it permitted
+us to cast a retrospective glance at the various results obtained by the
+Expedition of the _Novara_ during her stay at St. Paul.
+
+Never hitherto on this island, so important by its geographical position
+for ships trading with China, the East Indies, Australia, and New Zealand,
+have astronomical and magnetic observations and geodesical measurements
+been so thoroughly ascertained as by the _Novara_ expedition. Upon a
+carefully measured base-line, various points of the upper and lower
+margin of the crater were accurately laid down by means of the Theodolite,
+and the whole island submitted to a geometric network of angles. At the
+same time the geologist, with the aid of the compass and the patent
+levels, prepared a chart originally intended for geological purposes only,
+while the draughtsman of the expedition added to its value, by skilfully
+sketching in from these given points the configuration of the coast-line
+of the island. By their united efforts there has been published a chart of
+St. Paul, which gives even to the minutest details an entirely correct and
+accurate representation of the form and surface of the island. This minute
+chart, or plan, was prepared on a scale of 132 Vienna fathoms to one
+Vienna inch, or 1/9504 of the natural size. Moreover, it is intended
+preparing, from this map and from the various outlines and views taken on
+the spot, a plastic model of the island after Nature, which, moulded in
+gypsum, will give scientific inquirers the most accurate conception of its
+singular structure. Not less interesting for navigators in the Indian
+Ocean will be the publication of the various observations which, during
+our stay of 18 days, were made with the barometer, thermometer,
+tide-gauge, and gauge of the velocity of currents, taken at certain fixed
+hours, day and night, as also the soundings in the crater-basin, and on
+both sides of the bar. Although the complete publication of these _data_
+must await the appearance of the nautical portion of the present work, we
+shall give here the most important of these results. The extreme length of
+the island from N.W. to S.E., is three nautical miles; the superficial
+area is 1,600,000 Vienna square klafter--1 Vienna klafter = 1 fathom = 6
+English feet--100 English square feet = 92-986/1000 Vienna square feet.
+The highest point of the crater-basin is 846 feet; the greatest diameter
+of the upper rim of the crater is 5490 feet; the least 4590 feet; the
+greatest diameter of the basin at the level of the sea is 3984 feet, and
+the least 3444 Vienna feet.
+
+The observations on the state of the weather, taken with much difficulty,
+are not intended to include the regular observations on the exterior of
+the island, and in like manner some of those taken in the harbour, or
+basin of the crater, must be accepted with a certain limitation. For
+similar reasons, we were unable to fix the rate of the current setting
+from the sea into the basin, although we secured most extraordinary
+results considering the circumstances. The amount of specimens of natural
+history which was procured, was very limited, but on that account was the
+more valuable. To the geologist, it must be of the very highest interest
+to find that St. Paul has been classified, with scientific precision, and
+by dint of personal examination and research, in one of the four main
+divisions in which, according to the scheme of Alexander Von Humboldt, the
+volcanic formations of the earth may be divided. Measured by the latest
+distribution of the volcanic strata by the description of stone found, as
+laid down by the greatest of German naturalists, St. Paul belongs to the
+same class as Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Teneriffe, &c., in a word, to
+what is known as the Chimborazo formation. A section of the east-side,
+taken in profile, lays bare its entire geological history, and forms one
+of the most instructive means of coming to direct conclusions as to its
+geological structure.
+
+The birth of this island from the bosom of the deep, combined with
+eruptions of lava and scoriæ, was the last effort of the subterranean
+forces. Since that period it has been subject wholly and solely to the
+various terrestrial influences, although the lapse of centuries has not
+been able to extirpate the last traces of the volcanic fire which once
+poured forth its currents of molten lava. A large proportion of the level
+ground is hot, and at the lower edge of the rim of the crater appear
+several hot springs, the temperature of which, as already remarked, is so
+high that fish, eggs, potatoes, &c., can be cooked on them in a few
+minutes. The highest point of St. Paul rises 870 feet above the basin of
+the crater. Its walls rise abruptly at an angle of about 85°, while the
+upper surface of the island (with the single exception of a small plateau
+of about 400 feet on the north side) stretches, at first level from the
+periphery of the upper margin of the crater, gradually falling away
+towards the sea-coast, at an angle of about 13°. On its North-west coast,
+where it is from 100 to 200 feet in perpendicular height, the island
+presents several small pyramids of pumice, like parasitic warts on the
+principal mass.
+
+Like the geologist, the botanist also found in this wild spot an unusual
+opportunity of acquiring accurate information as to the occurrence and
+propagation of certain kinds of plants in a primitive soil. Six grasses
+and one reed (_cyperaceæ_) form the vegetation of the island, one rush and
+three or four of the grasses forming the majority. The botanist having
+ascended to the plateau found there two grasses, both of which grew to a
+certain height only, and at certain places; the one (in the immediate
+vicinity of the settler's huts,) the oat, or _avena_; the second a
+_digitaria_, in the neighbourhood of the terraced fields, directly
+opposite the entrance to the crater, in warm positions, which, so soon as
+the earth is a little disturbed, emit jets of steam. It is still uncertain
+whether the other kinds of grass, _Poa_ and _Setaria Holcus_, belong
+exclusively to St. Paul, or are to be included in the more general group
+of geographical plants known as that of the islands of Edward's Island,
+Kerguelen's Island, and St. Paul.
+
+Among the grasses there spring up here and there, but on the whole very
+sparsely, some wild vegetables which have been planted by previous chance
+visitors.[69] In the crater there are also _Sonchus arvensis_ and one
+_Plantago_ (Plantain). On the south margin of the crater are _Cerastium_
+(maize-ear chickweed), and _Stellaria media_ (chickweed); both grow on a
+small piece of ground, and are far from thriving. Of _Cryptogamia_ the
+botanist found four sorts. Two _Parmelias_, one _Evernia_, and one
+_Cladonia_, the first-named overrunning the blocks on the edge of the
+crater with great luxuriance.
+
+[Footnote 69: Such as _Rumex acetosella_, _Cynara Scolcymus_ (artichoke);
+_Solanum tuberosum_ (species of nightshade); _Daucus carotta_ (carrot);
+_Petroselinum sativum_ (parsley); _Brassica oleracea_ (sea-kail);
+_Raphanus sativus_ (horse-radish).]
+
+Of _Algæ_ there were found 33 species. The stones rolled backwards and
+forwards by the action of the waves, as also those surfaces which remained
+covered at lowest tide, were entirely covered with _Dicurella flabellata_.
+Most numerous was _Gigartina radula_, just in a state of fructification.
+Every movement of the water calls up slender, delicate _confervæ_, and
+pale and coloured _luminariæ_. The breakers have crowned the stones with
+festoons of the _Macrocystis pyrifera_. Of Liverworts there were found
+_Marchantia_ and _Jungermania_; of foliaceous mosses, _Sphagnum_
+(bog-moss), and two kinds of _Bruym_. Two ferns, just beginning to bear
+fruit, were found on the plateau, and one _Lycopodium_ (club-moss), which
+thrives pretty well, and frequently grows on the _Sphagnum_. On the whole,
+the botanist of the expedition found on the island, 11 _Phanerogamia_, 4
+_Lichens_, 33 _Algæ_, 2 ferns, 2 Liverworts, 3 foliaceous mosses, 1
+_Lycopodium_. In this enumeration are included the European vegetables
+cultivated by the residents, as also some untended plants, which
+apparently have been introduced with the vegetables, or have been brought
+hither by previous visitors. The stony substratum of this island is barely
+covered with a plastic vegetable substance, which fills the cracks. The
+walls of the crater, as also the entire plateau, present to view a plain,
+unrelieved expanse of grass; not, however, like fields clothed with sward,
+but single tufts pressing one upon the other, which seem like the
+grave-mounds of a hundred bygone generations of plants. Frequently, at the
+foot of a block of pumice, all overrun with grasses of all sorts, one
+comes upon a moss or a stem of fern on one of the pieces of lava that has
+been washed up, or perceives with amazement in some out-of-the-way place,
+and utterly neglected, good old acquaintances from Europe, such as
+carrots, parsley, potatoes, &c., which apparently have been begun to be
+cultivated on some of the terraces, whence they have propagated themselves
+in a wild state all over the island. But not a tree, or bush, is to be met
+with throughout the island.
+
+In like manner, although the zoologist seemed to have but a poor prospect
+at St. Paul, it presented materials for most satisfactory speculation to
+the attentive naturalist. Only one of the grasses is infested by an
+insect, which appears in great numbers, a very tiny _cicada_ (cricket),
+the _Delphis hemiptera_, of which, according to the zoologist of the
+expedition, it is hard to say whether it became indigenous to St. Paul
+before, or contemporaneous with the arrival of man. Among other insects
+that have certainly been introduced here, the zoologist found the common
+bluebottle-fly, a gnat, the universally found cockroach, the book-tick
+(_acarus eruditus_), one kind of earwig, and the flea; besides the
+_Isopodis_, our common barrel-worm,[70] in almost fabulous quantities.
+These animals invariably follow man wherever he plants his foot, living
+upon garbage or decaying organic matter. With the exception of the
+clothes-moth, which has probably been introduced among the wool-stuffs,
+there are in the island no butterflies, none of the been tribe, no
+_Neuroptera_. Mites also need scarcely be reckoned, since the only
+representative, the common cheese-mite, is more apt to become extinct than
+to thrive; on the other hand, there are two kinds of spiders, for which
+the enormous number of flies furnish sufficient food.
+
+[Footnote 70: These loathsome animals cover the island in such quantities
+that one of the naturalists reckoned them at 6,000,000,000, counting 100
+as the minimum to each square foot of the island.]
+
+The species belonging to the sea are somewhat more plentifully
+represented, although, with few exceptions, very small and insignificant.
+The largest shell fish, a _Tritonium_, only attains a length of 3 inches;
+_Patella_, which is very plentiful all round the island, is only 1 inch
+long; several sorts of snails (such as _Buccinum_, _Defrancia_,
+_Mangelia_, _Paludinella_, _Adeorbis_, _Janthina_, _Fissurella_,
+_Scutellina_, _Lepidopleurus_, _Bulla_, _Asteronotus_, _Doto_), are barely
+a few lines in length, or even less.
+
+The _Brachiopoda_ are represented by a very inferior member, the
+_Terebratulina_, only two lines long, which, however, is a giant compared
+with one of the two only kinds of mussel, _Kellia_ and _Lima_, which are
+occasionally met with here, and are only half-a-line in length.
+
+Among the _Vertebratæ_, the fishery of which is the principal object of
+the visits annually paid to the island, one, the _Cheilodactylus_, a
+spinous-finned fish, which is extraordinarily abundant all round the
+island, supports an important fishery, while _Thyrsites Atun_ were
+frequently caught with rod and line from the frigate.
+
+Of _Amphibiæ_, there is not a vestige to be found on the island; the birds
+belong for the most part to the powerful-winged web-footed birds that
+frequent the open ocean, as, for example, the _Diomedea exulans_ (great
+albatross or man-of-war bird), _D. chlororhynchus_ (yellow-billed
+albatross), _D. fuliginosa_ (a new one not determined), _Lestris
+catarractes_, _Storna sp: Prion Vittatus_, of which the four last-named,
+at the time of our visit, had both eggs and young. Of birds with
+fin-shaped wings, there was the golden-crested penguin (_Apterodytes
+chrysocoma S._), living in two distinct colonies among the precipitous
+overhanging cliffs, with innumerable young, already of a pretty good
+size.[71] We also remarked several other winged denizens of the deep, which
+had alighted on our ship during the last few days immediately preceding
+our arrival at St. Paul. According to the fishery-people, the other birds
+of the island quit it altogether so soon as their young have grown
+sufficiently, and only return when the next breeding season comes round.
+
+[Footnote 71: One of the zoologists, Mr. Zelebor, endeavoured to kill two
+penguins that had been caught alive in the island, the one with arsenic,
+the other with chloroform. Of the latter, a quantity was administered
+enough to have killed a man, but which scarcely affected the penguin, who,
+in a quarter of an hour after, seemed quite restored to himself. The
+second, which had swallowed two tea-spoonsful of arsenic, died eight hours
+later.]
+
+In contradistinction to the sea-birds, M. Frauenfeld remarked but one
+single land-bird, a swallow, whose movements seemed to indicate that he
+was watching a breeding female. A stray bird on this lonely spot of earth,
+nearly 3000 miles away from the main land! Hundreds of questions
+suggested themselves on thus unexpectedly coming upon so well-known a
+wanderer. What could have condemned him to this self-imposed exile? Was he
+a straggler? Was it the first time he had selected this island for a home?
+Had it been his own cradle? And would he at some future period find
+companions to visit with him, and ultimately share these solitary desolate
+abodes?
+
+There were no seals visible,--they have retreated before the attacks and
+stratagems of their insatiate pursuer the seal-hunter, and for a long
+period have ceased to frequent the island. Indeed, St. Paul furnishes not
+a single specimen of mammal peculiar to itself; for all the members of
+this great natural division at present on it,--such as goats, swine, cats,
+&c.,--having become wild, must necessarily be classed, however unusual,
+with rats, mice, and the like. In other respects, all these have not
+varied in the slightest from the type of the domesticated animal (although
+they have probably lived wild for a hundred years past), except that they
+are very shy and avoid the presence of man.
+
+While upon these various points, the stay of the Imperial Expedition at
+St. Paul gave many splendid results by means of observations and
+scientific collections, it was also productive of a number of important
+practical benefits for seafaring people. The geodesical results, for
+instance, obtained by the Expedition, demonstrate that there is formed by
+the basin of the crater at St. Paul's, despite the small extent of its
+coast-line, a secure natural haven which would afford substantial
+facilities for ships, to which, on their voyage to China, Australia, or
+anywhere in the East Indies, any accident has happened, necessitating
+complete and speedy repair, or which might require fresh provisions for
+their crews, stricken with scurvy after a long voyage. For, although the
+depth of the basin of the crater in the centre is very considerable, and
+although the squalls of wind from the N.W. are often very violent, the
+ship can always make fast to the land, and so ensure the requisite
+security. How far the assistance so cheerfully rendered by science may
+have been called for, or how far the route at present traversed by sailing
+vessels makes that assistance desirable, must be left to the judgment of
+those nations, such as the English, French, and Dutch, which, as having
+possessions washed by the Indian Ocean, have a direct interest in the
+future condition of such a harbour of refuge, situate equidistant from
+Asia, Africa, and Australia.
+
+The morning after our departure from St. Paul, that is to say, on 7th
+Dec., we found ourselves not more than ten miles distant from Amsterdam.
+The first view of the island greatly resembles that of St. Paul, and the
+hypothesis gained constantly in probability that the geological formation
+of Amsterdam is nearly identical with that of St. Paul.
+
+A whaler was cruising in the neighbourhood of the island, while one of his
+slim whaleboats was pursuing a school of sperm whales, which sported about
+in great numbers.
+
+Towards 7 A.M., a boat approached from the whaler _Esmeralda_, Captain
+Pierce, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, to ask for surgical assistance for
+a sailor who, while engaged a few days previously in hauling a captured
+fish alongside, had had his left hand so severely injured by one of the
+lines, that amputation had seemed the sole remedy. The Captain had, in
+genuine Yankee fashion, assumed the duties of surgeon, and performed the
+operation himself. Now that it was over, and when neither praise nor
+censure could benefit the patient, he was anxious to know whether he had
+done right or wrong. While one of the ship's surgeons was getting ready,
+as requested by the captain, to proceed to the bedside of his patient, the
+whaler informed us he had already been absent from his family in the
+States five months, and would proceed hence to the Sandwich Islands and
+the Northern grounds, and finally return home round Cape Horn. If the take
+of fish proved good, he hoped to complete the voyage within two years.
+Whale-fishing, in truth, is not only a very dangerous and laborious, but
+also a most precarious pursuit. Occasionally a ship gets loaded within a
+brief space with oil and whalebone, by which, of course, the owner or
+charterer makes a splendid profit, and the entire crew obtain a handsome
+share. But frequently does it happen that, after a voyage of fifteen
+months and more, there is not a single fish taken, in which case the hardy
+sailors, who are entirely dependent for their pay upon a share of the
+spoil, have had all their labour and undergone all their privations in
+vain, while the freighter is poorer by a good round sum. The bare chance,
+however, of a rich haul is sufficient to raise to 8000, the number
+(probably on the increase) of the ships of varying tonnage and
+nationality, which at present encounter the anxieties, dangers, and
+hardships attaching to the whale-fishery. It is calculated that, were it
+possible to anchor them within signalling distance of each other, they
+would form a complete girdle round the earth at the Equator. In other
+respects, the incessant activity of the whaler is not without its
+advantages for science, since the observations and communications of many
+of the captains connected with the whaling business have essentially
+contributed to extend our acquaintance with atmospheric phenomena,
+especially in high latitudes, on both sides of the Equator.
+
+The loquacious captain, an uncommon quality in a Yankee, could not conceal
+his astonishment at encountering an Austrian man-of-war in such a latitude
+in mid-ocean, and adverted to this unexpected phenomenon. Captain Pierce
+further complained bitterly of the weather, and said that, as long as he
+had sailed the Indian Ocean, he had never at this season experienced such
+tempestuous weather as during the last week; which was further confirmed
+by several other whalers, regular visitors to these waters. Respecting
+Amsterdam, Captain Pierce, unfortunately, could give us but very little
+information. He had never set foot on the island, nor did he know whether
+it was accessible at all. But he spoke highly of the availability of the
+coasts for valuable fish. Nowhere in the Indian Ocean, the Captain
+remarked, was there such an abundance of fish of all descriptions as at
+the Southernmost point of this little-known island. Consequently most
+whalers, on their course Southwards, approach this island, and send out
+boats to bring in supplies of fish suitable for the table. Usually the
+boat is filled in a few hours with delicious food caught with the rod and
+line, when the fish are forthwith salted, in sufficient quantities to
+supply the crew for several weeks.
+
+Is Amsterdam really a sister-island of St. Paul? Is it, too, of volcanic
+origin, upheaved by the same subterranean energy, and does it still show
+similar traces of long-continued activity? These questions pressed on us
+for solution all the more vividly as we neared this inaccessible island,
+when we recalled to mind the mysterious phenomena which D'Entrecasteaux
+had observed here in March, 1792, and which have remained unexplained to
+this day.[72] The French Expedition saw, it is true, clouds of smoke
+emerging alternately from a subterranean opening close to the shore, but
+without being able to satisfy themselves whether the vegetation had been
+set on fire by the hand of man or by volcanic action, the wind which blew
+direct from the island making it impossible to land, unless one was
+prepared to run the risk of being suffocated by the rolling masses of
+smoke. There was, therefore, to be solved, at Amsterdam, the mystery as to
+whether the pillars of smoke, which were observed by the naturalists of
+the French Expedition of 1792, issuing from the soil adjoining the sea,
+were produced by an actual eruption, or were caused by subterranean fires
+in activity.[73]
+
+[Footnote 72: La Billardière, Rélation du voyage à la recherche de la
+Peyrouse, fait par ordre de l'Assemblée Constituante pendant les années
+1791-94, Paris, 1800. (Vol. I., pp. 112, 113.)]
+
+[Footnote 73: Vide Alexander v. Humboldt's "Kosmos," Vol. IV., pp. 412 and
+585; also Physical and Geognostic Remarks, by the same author, prefixed to
+this volume.]
+
+About 11 A.M., the two jolly-boats of the _Novara_ were lowered to look
+for a landing-place on Amsterdam, while the frigate stood off and on,
+under easy sail, at an offing of five or six miles. Our whaling informant
+had told us the most abundant fishing-station was at the south point of
+the island, while the best place for disembarking was on the N.W. shore.
+As, however, upon consideration, it was deemed advisable, looking to the
+probability of a N.E. gale springing up, to get to windward of the ship,
+so as to be able to fetch her more speedily on our return, the S.E. side
+was selected, and our course laid for it accordingly. Along the
+acclivities of the coast pyramids of loose stones were visible, resembling
+those on St. Paul, but more numerous and of larger dimensions, the entire
+island seeming altogether on a much larger scale, and more lofty. On the
+West side we observed rocky precipices of from 1000 to 2000 feet in
+height, fissured with deep clefts and rents, whereas on the South and
+S.E., these presented a more gradual slope.
+
+For above an hour we steered along the shore, which rose sheer out of the
+water, without being able to detect a single point at which it was at all
+practicable to disembark, so as to scramble up to the high ground. The
+entire Eastern side is hemmed around with steep abrupt precipices of 150
+to 200 feet high, not unlike skilfully-erected bastions, and clothed with
+long thick grass.
+
+As we drew near, we could plainly discern in the water-courses that
+descend upon the upper slope--radiating, as it were, from all sides of the
+highest peak, which was enveloped in clouds--numerous streams of water,
+each pouring through a rift like a thread of silver, after which,
+precipitating itself over the steep precipices on the shore, it washed
+like a small torrent over terraces and banks of lava, till it was lost in
+the sea. If these streams are swollen by the heavy rain in winter, they
+may form waterfalls, as mentioned by early navigators, which must impart a
+far less pleasing character to the landscape. Two small patches of
+dazzling white, like fresh fallen snow, which were visible high above the
+slope, we could not make out with the utmost power of our glasses. The
+green colour which enveloped the entire island seemed to indicate the
+existence of grass vegetation resembling that of St. Paul.
+
+At last, when we had got within two cables' length of the shore, we
+encountered enormous green flakes of floating sea-weed, which, becoming
+entangled with the rudder, made further progress possible only by dint of
+most strenuous exertions. This proved to be the same gigantic sea-tangle
+of the Southern hemispheres (_Macrocystis Pyrifera_), which likewise
+constitutes a barrier of _fucus_ on the East side of St. Paul. The
+sea-calves mentioned by older describers were nowhere to be seen; but on
+the other hand we had an opportunity of satisfying ourselves as to the
+immense abundance of fish which frequent the coast of the island in a
+truly astonishing degree, although the American whaler had prepared us by
+his remarks. From bow and stern of the boat hooks and lines were hung out,
+and several of the crew were at once kept busy hauling in the lines, at
+the end of each of which there usually struggled a fish of some two or
+three feet long. These were chiefly umber fish, which are also very
+plentiful about St. Paul, where, from their delicacy, they formed a
+favourite dish at our otherwise very frugal repasts.
+
+We had now got so near, that we could distinctly perceive grass and the
+stems of ferns growing among the clefts of the rocks. However, although
+there was a dead calm, and the sea outside was as smooth as glass, the
+long ground-swell of the ocean, with its broad flat billows, caused such a
+heavy surf on the rock-bound stony beach, that the attempt to pass it was
+not to be thought of. The further we advanced along the coast in a
+northernly direction, the more distant we got from the ship, and unluckily
+in an equal degree our hopes were disappointed of finding a spot at which
+we could land, and scramble from the strand up the steep bank to the level
+ground above. The south-easternmost point, which at a distance presented
+the appearance of a low headland jutting out into the sea, behind which we
+had hoped to find a good landing-place, now that we had got close to it,
+proved to be a small detached rock; while the shore, as far as the eye
+could reach, rose like a wall to a height of from 150 to 200 feet. There
+now hove in sight five whalers, who seemed hunting that most valuable of
+all the inhabitants of the deep, of the spots frequented by which Maury's
+renowned Whale Charts have lately supplied so interesting and useful a
+code of instruction. These charts, which are based on a vast number of
+observations, of the tracts of ocean and seasons of the year at which
+whales are most frequently seen, will at the same time greatly tend to a
+solution of the question as to the migration of these enormous mammals;
+for it has never yet been settled, whether these animals flee from the
+pursuit of man to remote seas, thus continually constraining their
+pursuers to seek their prey in new waters, or whether, (as is the most
+prevalent opinion), they are always entirely extirpated from one locality,
+and accordingly are only to be met with in any numbers in some different
+area, in which man has as yet only rarely, if ever, disturbed them.[74]
+
+[Footnote 74: Some very valuable and detailed particulars of the Whale
+fishery are to be found in Maury's incomparable work, "The Physical
+Geography of the Ocean," and in Dr. Hartwigs' "Popular Treatise on
+Animated Nature in the Ocean. (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.)"]
+
+After an hour-and-a-half of continuous rowing, and when, in our very
+unsuitable boat, we had got about 7 nautical miles distant from the
+frigate, we at last found a smooth spot between two reefs, which projected
+above the level of the sea like a breakwater, and at once let go the
+boat's anchor. A regular landing-place, however, was not to be hoped for
+at this point. It was necessary first to make a spring to a block of rock,
+and thence, picking one's way among stones rendered slippery by being
+covered at flood-tide, endeavour to reach the beach. This we all
+succeeded in accomplishing over the rough rocks, without any mischance,
+and at last we stood on the firm soil of the Island of Amsterdam, at a
+spot which assuredly had never before been trodden by human feet, unless
+by some castaway. For only in consequence of the sea being perfectly calm,
+which at this season was quite unusual, were we able to reach the shore at
+this point.
+
+What a scene of wildest desolation, and inaccessible solitude now met our
+gaze! Around us nothing but huge blocks of basalt, some rolled about by
+the breakers, and so slippery with half-dry _algæ_, that one was in danger
+of falling at every stride; others with their angles and indentations as
+sharp, as when first violently torn from their original bed; and behind
+these gigantic blocks, a perpendicular wall of rock rising 200 feet sheer,
+composed of a schistus of basaltic lava lying regularly and horizontally
+one over the other, intermixed with red or brown slag, and yellow tufa.
+Immense holes and cavities in the rocky wall, as also the empty spaces
+between the broken blocks that had fallen down, and the vast air-holes
+scooped out in the lava beds, furnished an undisturbed nestling-place for
+flocks of a beautiful sea-swallow, with glossy black head, silver-grey
+body, and bill and feet of carmine red--the most elegant and attractive
+contrast of colours that can well be imagined upon any bird. These pretty
+creatures afforded great amusement to the sportsmen of our little party,
+while the geologist acquired a better idea and more information as to the
+mineralogy and geognosis of the island beneath the steep wall of rock,
+than he could have obtained above, where all seemed to be covered with
+thick green grass. But the botanist and zoologist found but little to
+repay their search on the beach. The same _Algæ_, the same grasses, the
+same _patellæ_ (limpets), as at St. Paul, even to the same caterpillars
+swarming upon every tuft of grass in numberless quantities. At several
+points, fresh, perfectly good, sweet spring-water trickled down from the
+heights, and we could thus confirm the relations of former explorers, that
+the island contains fresh water; but whether it can be got at, still
+remains a very uncertain question. As we were convinced, after several
+examinations and much exertion, that to ascend the precipice from this
+spot was impossible, it was resolved, after the men had rested, and a few
+observations had been made with the sextant, to re-embark and endeavour to
+find a more suitable spot for disembarking.
+
+We quitted this first spot about 2 P.M., and continued to steer along the
+coast in a N.E. direction. The character of the scenery remained almost
+unaltered. The steep shore wall indeed dipped somewhat occasionally, but
+it was never less than 100 feet above the level of the sea. At various
+points there appeared, as at St. Paul, between the tufa strata, black
+veins of basalt, and fragments of scoriæ, lying upon reddish-brown slag.
+Our curiosity, however, was especially excited by the appearance of small
+trees and low bushes. At first, while we were yet at some distance, we
+could barely distinguish a few dark, clear, green spots amid the universal
+dull olive appearance of the vegetation that covered the island; now that
+we were keeping closer in, we plainly saw small trees, which seemed most
+to resemble forests of pine, as also what appeared to be thick close
+brushwood of a light green colour, with which large patches of the middle
+and lower slopes of the island were covered. In vain did we watch for some
+spot in this singular island at which we might land and climb; at length,
+after steering several miles further along the coast, and passing several
+promontories advancing from the island, and numerous isolated rocks, we
+came, towards 3.30 P.M., upon a number of lava-blocks that had fallen from
+above, and, forming a sort of dam or bulwark between the sea and the
+shore, seemed to render disembarkation possible. The boat's anchor was
+again dropped, and we proceeded to make for the shore by dint of jumping,
+as before, from rock to rock; a method of reaching land more agreeable and
+better suited to penguins than decorous philosophers!
+
+Among the rocks on the strand lie fragments of shipwrecked vessels--pieces
+of masts and yards--dumb witnesses of human disaster, and suffering, and
+death! At this point the shore was not very steep. The masses of rock
+piled here on each other in wild confusion, made our ascent more
+practicable than at our former landing-place, though perhaps they
+necessitated greater circumspection. Dr. Hochstetter and M. Zelebor, as
+also Lieutenant Kronowetter, and a sailor, started for the height. A
+ridge, grown over with grass and rushes, and forming a line of
+communication between the upper and lower portions of the island, seemed
+the most accessible point. at which to mount to the high ground above. At
+first the path led over the colossal rampart of broken rocks and through
+the surf, after which came clumps of rushes and clods, in which the former
+grew, and thence upwards over masses of slag. It was a regular Sisyphean
+task. On the loose rolling _débris_ beneath the feet, for every five feet
+forwards, one slipped four backward, so that to climb this height of
+little over 100 feet, took nearly a whole hour. At last the adventurous
+scramblers stood on the top of the island, on a small bare cone of scoriæ,
+whence they were able to overlook a portion of the ground. Dense rush-like
+grass, as high as a man, thickly covered the entire surface--
+half-withered, half of a lively green; here broken short off by wind and
+rain, there still standing erect. Further progress was not to be thought
+of, not even as far as the green clump of bushes which had already been
+observed from the boat, although it was scarcely a hundred paces distant,
+on the surface of the declivity, and although a closer examination
+promised to afford many interesting details as to the vegetation on the
+island. It would have been necessary to make one's way either through
+heaps of withered rushes, requiring to be broken down at every moment, or
+across thick, matted, fresh, slippery grass, in order to get anywhere near
+the copse that resembled the pinewood. Moreover, owing to the short
+allowance of daylight that remained, both were for the present
+inaccessible.[75] Evening was coming on, and it was necessary to think of
+our return, as we were at a distance of at least eight miles from the
+frigate. With the help of pocket-handkerchiefs, which they had tied to the
+reeds, the explorers readily found again the place at which they had
+ascended, and now speedily returned to the improvised landing-place,
+where, meanwhile, the naturalists that had remained behind had occupied
+themselves with collecting specimens on the beach, and amid the
+surrounding rocks. A singular spectacle now presented itself to the
+astonished view. A couple of lucifer matches that had been thrown aside
+without further thought, had burst into flames amid the parched rush beds,
+and dense volumes of black smoke forthwith rose upon the surface of the
+island. The fire speedily spreading among the thick dry grass, soon
+assumed a formidable breadth, and ere long a considerable portion of the
+east coast of the island was in a light flame. There was now presented to
+the members of the _Novara_ expedition, the same spectacle as that
+witnessed by the naturalists of the _Recherche_, when D'Entrecasteaux
+passed here some sixty years before. It may safely be assumed that the
+fire, and the thick wreaths of smoke then visible were like those of
+to-day, the result of man's hands, and not of subterranean forces--in
+fact, kindled in all probability by fishermen, who were clearing this
+uninhabitable island of the close impervious brushwood that so greatly
+impedes locomotion, and were rendering it capable of being traversed, as
+well as susceptible of cultivation. During the night of 7th and 8th
+December, 1857, the sky was clear and cloudless, and the flames crackled
+and leaped high above the beach, in an elliptical area, which must have
+measured a couple of miles in its major axis. A dense, copper-coloured,
+luminous cloud of smoke rose straight into the air, where it spread out
+horizontally, till at last a long trail of smoke stretched in a S.E.
+direction to the farthest horizon, entirely covering the upper part of
+the island. About 2 A.M., according to the report of the officer of the
+watch, the spectacle was still more grand and imposing. The conflagration
+at that time extended over an immense surface, so that the imagination
+might naturally enough be disposed to regard this as the bursting forth of
+the pent-up flames of a volcano, with the usual accompaniments of red-hot
+streams of lava, clouds of floating ashes, and pillars of flame mounting
+to heaven.
+
+[Footnote 75: One of the shipwrecked crew of the _Meridian_, in an article
+in the _Nautical Magazine_, for 1854, p. 75, describes at some length the
+difficulties of access to this island. We quote it here as a supplement to
+our own experiences:--"After we had clambered up to the top by means of
+ropes, and after much exertion and considerable danger, we found the
+island for a space of two or three miles thickly covered with reeds, from
+5 to 8 feet high; behind rose a lofty hill, also clothed with reeds.
+Fortunately, during our stay on the island, there was a sufficiency of
+fresh water, although in summer, in all probability, there is a great
+scarcity. So long as we remained, constant rain fell upon the summit of
+the mountain, and kept the numerous little brooks full of water. In order
+to signal our situation to any ship that might be passing, we set the
+reeds on fire; but the flames spread more furiously than we had
+anticipated, so that our lives were endangered. A considerable quantity of
+young birds were picked up, which had fallen victims to the flames. On the
+29th August, to our great joy, a ship, the _Monmouth_, hove in sight, and
+observed our signal; but the surf was at this time so violent that no boat
+could reach us. At last, on 31st August, a boat came near enough to the
+shore to make us a signal to proceed eastward over the rocks. We set off
+at once, but found the path very rugged, and owing to the immense masses
+of rock lying around, excessively difficult. Besides reeds and brushwood,
+there were no other plants but parsley and endive (_cichorium intybus_).
+During the first half of the following day we found no water, but we found
+the hail very grateful, which day and night fell incessantly, alternating
+with rain. At the first watering-place we came upon an English sailor,
+whom the captain of the _Monmouth_ had despatched to assist us. He
+informed us we must make for the north side of the island, as no boat
+could reach the shore at the spot where we had gone ashore. The
+south-coast is the worst part of the island; there the surf breaks
+continually against the iron-bound coast; there is nothing resembling a
+beach--only here and there enormous blocks of a hard species of stone,
+that have fallen from time to time from the cliffs above. On 2nd
+September, we had neither provisions nor water. The following day,
+however, we found water, and a few cabbage-stalks, which several years
+before had been sown by some whalers, and fortunately had thrived. On 5th
+September, we reached what is called the Cabbage Garden, and the same
+evening arrived at the place where the boat was awaiting us."]
+
+Fortunately, this gigantic conflagration must have done far more good than
+harm to this desolate island, covered as it was for the most part with
+reeds, since, without destroying any of the vegetation that could be of
+service to man, it will greatly facilitate examination by future voyagers,
+and adapt it for settlement by fishers and others, who at present seem to
+leave it utterly abandoned.
+
+Towards 6 P.M., as it was already getting dark, our two boats set out on
+their return to the frigate, from which in the course of the day they had
+been distant about fifteen miles. However a fresh Northerly breeze having
+sprung up we were able to make sail, and at 7.30 P.M. once more reached
+the frigate, when we were received with a storm of questions, principally
+turning upon the mysterious far-visible conflagration,--which had been
+kindled by a couple of humble Vienna lucifers! During our visit to the
+island a variety of observations were also made on board the frigate, to
+obtain the position of Amsterdam, as also to determine the elevation of
+the most prominent peaks of the island, and the outline of the shore. The
+results of these gave the following: latitude 37° 58' 30'' S.; longitude,
+77° 34,' 44'' E. of Greenwich; elevation of the highest summit (nearly
+corresponding with previous observations), 2891 English feet; of the
+second highest, 2651 feet; the length of the South coast, as measured from
+the frigate, 32,359 feet; of the Western shore, 5507 feet.
+
+There was still some faint hope that we might visit the island next day.
+However, during the night the wind sprung up, the weather became variable,
+and we saw ourselves compelled to renounce our cherished desire to
+investigate the island thoroughly, the rather that, owing to the
+unpropitious weather during the last few weeks, the stay of the _Novara_
+in these latitudes had been prolonged so considerably beyond the period
+fixed, that no more time could be spared, if it were desirous to avoid
+sacrificing the objects of the Expedition with reference to other and more
+important departments of scientific enquiry, by engaging in them at a
+season in all probability highly unfavourable for the purpose.
+
+Consequently our observations in Amsterdam remained most imperfect;
+although the geologist of the expedition was enabled to clear up the
+uncertainty hitherto prevailing as to the geological structure of the
+island, and to determine upon scientific data, that Amsterdam is an
+extinct volcanic cone, of precisely the same character, and belonging to
+the same order of volcanic formation as the sister island of St. Paul;
+that it probably contains on itself all the usual indications of its
+volcanic origin, and that its upheaval probably took place at the same
+period. On the other hand, the naturalist regretted to see slip the
+opportunity so rarely vouchsafed, of instituting a comparison between the
+respective vegetations of these islands, and of making evident how,
+simultaneously with the advance of a more luxuriant, and more multiform
+vegetable organization, there also appears an entirely new race of
+animals, and how closely allied in the economy of nature is the existence
+of individual specimens with certain fixed pre-existent types. In any case
+St. Paul, which we enjoyed an opportunity of examining in the utmost
+detail, is, of the two islands, the most important to the commerce of the
+world, not merely as a finger-post on the most frequented deep-sea route
+in the Indian Ocean, but also as a haven of refuge for ships and crews.
+Already the crater-basin of St. Paul has served in case of need as a
+desirable asylum for ships that are half unseaworthy. Not many years since
+an English man-of-war steamer came to St. Paul, after a severe storm in
+the Indian Ocean, during which her engine broke down, and her rudder was
+knocked away, after which she, for twelve days, was steered by a temporary
+rudder. The vessel, after discharging the heaviest part of her equipment,
+was easily brought into the interior of the crater-basin, and was there
+hove down for several months on the Northern barrier, undergoing repairs.
+
+On the 8th December, about 4 A.M., only a dark cloud of smoke in the
+distant cloudless horizon indicated the position of Amsterdam. The island
+itself, properly speaking, was actually out of sight, for a fresh N.W.
+breeze had driven us merrily along during the night. The last hope was now
+dissipated of being able to obtain a view of the North side of Amsterdam.
+We were now rapidly approaching the region of the S.E. Trades. The breeze
+freshened and crept gradually to the West, thence to the South, and
+finally to the Eastward. This veering of the wind proved to be a
+fore-runner of the Trades, which we got into on 14th December, in S.
+latitude 28° 1', E. longitude 85°.
+
+On that day a merchantman hove in sight, which, with favouring breezes and
+all sail set, soon bore down on us. She came down without any flag, and
+stood right across our bows at so short a distance that we could plainly
+read her name--the _Bunker's Hill_, of Boston--on her stern. Thereupon we
+ran up our flag; and, as it is as gross a breach of the code of maritime
+politeness for a ship to pass across the bows of another in the open ocean
+without saluting, as for a man on land to brush quickly across another's
+path without apologizing, a blank shot was fired at this unmannerly
+American. To this manifestation etiquette lays it down that, as the
+hoisting of her flag by a man-of-war is a direct challenge for any
+merchantman that may be in sight to hoist its flag, any neglect of these
+universally recognized rules must involuntarily give rise to suspicions.
+After we had fired the blank shot, the American, by a telegraph of
+flag-signals, enquired the latitude and longitude, which in merchant ships
+in the open sea is pretty frequently resorted to, in order to know where
+precisely they are, as they are not able to make such frequent
+observations as ships of war. Before anything else, however, it was
+necessary to settle the question of saluting; and this the obstinate
+Yankee, in spite of the warning signal, seemed resolved not to notice,
+although he well knew the seriousness of his position, as was abundantly
+evident in the celerity with which several ladies and gentlemen, whom we
+could discern on deck, flew to seek shelter below! A second report,
+accompanied by a ball over his stern, at last brought this pertinacious
+captain to his senses, and the whistling of the shot had the desired
+effect. The "Stars and Stripes" were run up, upon which we signalled the
+required latitude and longitude. Probably it was but a petulant explosion
+of a silly national vanity, as also the consciousness of commanding a
+handsome crack "clipper," that could speedily run out of gun-shot, which
+led to this premeditated and persistent violation of one of the most
+ordinary rules of politeness. Indeed, even the vessels of the North
+American navy itself are frequently compelled in the open sea to treat
+their fellow-countrymen in a similar manner; and the captain of the
+war-steamer _Minnesota_, looking after the North American interests in
+China, was obliged, as we learned afterwards at Shanghai, to enforce a
+compliance with established sea usages on one of his seafaring
+compatriots, by dint of cannon-shot, in accordance with the undoubted
+practice of all maritime nations.
+
+The south-east Trade, which we had hoped would drive us on our destined
+course, was not so strong or so steady as we had expected, chiefly
+perhaps in consequence of the influence exercised by the Australian
+continent, the temperature of which during this, the summer season of the
+Southern Hemisphere, is raised to an extraordinary degree by its sandy
+surface, that when the air has become thus warmed, it ascends and becomes
+more rarefied in its lower strata, in consequence of which its elasticity
+becomes so great as to drive back the surrounding colder atmosphere, and
+only admit it to contact with the heated air at its most remote limits.
+This occurs the more readily, that the heated air, after it has risen to
+the more rarefied tracts, expands on all sides, and at a certain distance
+from the lower level, begins to add to the pressure of the atmosphere. In
+this self-acting zone of increased atmospheric pressure, the winds,
+however, are naturally more faint, and, to observers who happen to be on
+the exterior of this zone, always appear to take their rise from the
+further side. For this reason, probably, we fell in with easterly breezes,
+so long as we had the Northern portion of Australia to the eastward of us.
+
+At any rate, the equilibrium of the air seemed to be disturbed, as we
+could plainly perceive from the weather and the confused sea. At last on
+18th December, the heavens seemed somewhat more propitious, though the
+wind still continued easterly; indeed occasionally blew from the north,
+and frequent squalls of rain poured pitilessly down upon us. The more,
+however, we increased our distance from the Australian continent, that is,
+from all land to the eastward, the more steadily blew the south east
+Trade. And so we kept standing steadily forwards, till at last, on the
+24th December, in 6° 4' S. Lat., and 82° 34' E. Long., we reached the
+eastern boundaries of the Trades and got into that of calms.
+
+The heat, which thus far had spared us, began now to be most oppressive,
+and was felt all the more owing to the air being extraordinarily damp and
+dense. Frequently in the afternoon a passing shower of rain, which would
+sometimes completely flood the deck, would cool the air for a few fleeting
+moments. Occasionally indeed we had westerly and more rarely
+north-westerly breezes, but these were never of long duration, and were
+incessantly broken by rains and squalls.
+
+And at this same season, at which in our distant Fatherland, palace and
+hut are decked out with unwonted attention, when golden fruits and elegant
+presents glitter from the green fir-branches of the Christmas Tree, all
+lit up with the neat little wax-tapers, when man's heart seems to overflow
+with cheerfulness and love of his fellow-creatures,--at this season we
+were languishing far from our dear ones, tormented with the intense heat,
+scarcely able to realize to ourselves, that at home it must now be snow
+and frost, while keen Boreas is whirling the snowflakes aloft, and howling
+a grim accompaniment the while! However, we promised ourselves the
+satisfaction of enjoying these pleasures at our own firesides, whereupon
+our recollections of home and dear friends imparted to our minds a
+wholesome stimulus, arising from the soul-inspiring conviction, that we
+too were present in their minds and hearts at this hallowed season. Nay,
+several of the officers of the _Novara_ Expedition were surprised when
+far at sea, in the very midst of the Indian Ocean, with Christmas gifts,
+which thoughtful friends had many months before entrusted to the care of
+discreet fellow-voyagers.
+
+After constantly struggling against calms and contrary winds, exactly at
+the first stroke of the New Year, at midnight of 31st December-1st
+January, we reached the Equator, which we were now crossing for the second
+time, and began the year 1858 in the Northern Hemisphere.
+
+On this New Year's Day we had nearly had a great disaster. A lad who was
+coming down the shrouds fell overboard. The sea was perfectly calm and
+smooth, but already on the morning of this very day we had seen many
+sharks, those dreaded foes of man in the domain of ocean, so that the life
+of the unfortunate youth seemed seriously imperilled. The same instant in
+which the youth fell, saw a life-buoy thrown over, a boat prepared for
+lowering, and all usual appliances for a rescue made available. But
+although an excellent swimmer, he seemed to lose all presence of mind,
+probably through fear, and must undoubtedly have been drowned, had not the
+boatswain's mate, and two other sailors, leaped into the water and made
+all haste to his assistance. Meanwhile the boat had been got into the
+water, by which rescued and rescuers were got safe on board again.
+
+A few months later, the boatswain's mate, for his gallant conduct on this
+occasion, received, by the express orders of His Majesty, the silver cross
+of merit, while the sailors were advanced one grade.
+
+The current, which runs northward along the coast of Australia, but turns
+off to the westward about the tenth degree of South latitude, so as to
+pass southward of Ceylon, directly along the Equator to the Coast of
+Africa, carried us far to the westward, in consequence of which we had
+overcast, uncertain weather, with, for the most part, calms or light
+breezes. As we found ourselves approaching the fourth degree of Northern
+latitude, a rather fresh N.E. wind sprung up, probably the trade wind of
+the Northern Hemisphere, which, however, as we neared Ceylon, again died
+away to a calm.
+
+At the same time, in lat. 5° 32' N., 79° 5' E., we fell in with a current
+running more than two miles an hour. We had, as it turned out, got to the
+westward of the roadstead of Point de Galle, in Ceylon, and found some
+little difficulty in making headway against the current. On 7th January,
+toward 3.30 P.M., land was made to the eastward, and an hour later, a
+Cingalese canoe was perceived making for the frigate under sail. It was
+the pilot boat, whose crew, having been informed by a Hamburg brig that a
+large ship was in sight, had put to sea to meet us.
+
+At the first sight of this little canoe, it was hardly possible to refrain
+from amazement at the courage and hardihood with which the half-naked
+Cingalese boatmen could put off some 30 or 40 miles to sea in such a tiny,
+narrow boat, that barely gives them room to sit lengthwise. Two
+cross-bars, or outriggers, projecting on one side, where they are
+fastened externally to a rather massive beam, which swims parallel with
+the boat, gave this canoe, apparently so fragile, such stability and
+seaworthiness, that it is at all times not less safe than a boat of
+European construction.[76]
+
+[Footnote 76: These canoes resemble very closely the "proas," of the
+Polynesian Islands, carrying a beam on one side, which is quite straight,
+and always kept on the lee of the wind and sea, the change of course being
+effected by simply shifting the sail, and steering with the paddle from
+the opposite end.]
+
+The natives steer with short paddles, and continue an incredibly long time
+at this most exhausting work, as we must conceive it to be. And yet they
+are to appearance a feeble race, except that the muscular system of the
+upper part of the body is remarkably developed.
+
+The dress of these people is remarkably simple, and usually consists only
+of a piece of coloured linen cloth or calico, which, worn short like a
+woman's petticoat, is thrown single-fold round the loins.
+
+The pilot, though he could only make himself intelligible in broken
+English, speedily came to a good understanding, and offered to sell us
+bananas, pine-apples, and cocoa-nuts, as also Ceylon jewels, the latter of
+which he carried on his person, secured in a parti-coloured cotton belt.
+This reminded us that we were nearing the shores of the country in which
+costly stones are found, but precisely on that account, as was natural,
+our speculative pilot found but a poor market for his wares.
+
+Off the coast we caught a shark 7 feet long, and 135 lbs. weight--a rather
+juvenile specimen--whose teeth, which we examined, were already strong
+and sharp enough to seize a man, and strip the flesh off him. Also a
+number of large dolphins and other fish, sported in the dead water under
+the frigate's stern, and provided plentiful employment for the harpoon and
+the rod. Presently we found ourselves within six miles of the land, when a
+large number of pirogues forthwith came swarming about us, all of a
+construction similar to the pilot boat, and each manned by four half-naked
+bronze natives. These offered fruits for sale, especially magnificent,
+gigantic clusters of banana. On one such cluster we counted, arranged in
+five rows, one over the other, not less than 175 bananas.
+
+On the 8th January, we anchored in the unpicturesque haven of Point de
+Galle, surrounded by groves of cocoa-nut palms, directly opposite the
+lighthouse tower, and in a fine quartz sand bottom of 16-1/2 fathoms (103
+feet English). All large ships, that only intend remaining a short time,
+anchor in the open roadstead, the entrance into the inner harbour being
+rather difficult, owing to numerous coral reefs. In the roads also lay the
+English frigate _Shannon_, from which, in the absence of her captain, the
+first lieutenant immediately came on board the _Novara_, and in the
+handsomest manner put his services at our disposal.
+
+As the only Austrian Consul on the island was resident in Colombo, M.
+Sonnenkalb, the Consul for Hamburg, had the courtesy to receive us with
+the most hospitable of welcomes, and proceeded to do us the honours of the
+place.
+
+On the 10th we hauled the frigate into the small inner harbour, in order
+to facilitate the shipping of stores. The entrance is rather winding,
+owing to the numerous shoals, and it is with some little difficulty that
+one can find a comfortable, commodious berth among such a crowd of
+shipping. We only saluted the flag of the dominant nationality--a
+customary courtesy--and were replied to by the batteries on shore. An
+officer of the frigate was then dispatched to announce our arrival to the
+governor of the station--a major in the English army. This gentleman
+seemed not to think it incumbent on him to put himself in the least out of
+his way for us. Indeed, we even experienced some little difficulty in
+procuring a sufficient supply of drinking water for shipment as stores;
+but we must at the same time add, in justice to the representatives of
+England in distant countries, that during our entire voyage this was the
+one solitary instance in which English military official men did not
+display that universal readiness to oblige, which, to their credit, is so
+conspicuously and so kindly displayed by them in their intercourse with
+foreign nations.
+
+[Illustration: CINGALESE CANOE.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ADAM'S PEAK FROM COLOMBO.]
+
+
+
+
+                               VIII.
+
+                               Ceylon.
+
+                   STAY FROM 8TH TO 16TH JAN., 1858.
+
+   Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English Government.--
+     Better Prospects for the Future.--The Cingalese, their
+     Language and Customs.--Buddhism and its Ordinances.--Visit to
+     a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of Galle.--The sacred
+     Bo-tree.--Other Aborigines of Ceylon.--The Weddàhs.--
+     Traditions as to their Origin.--Galle as a City and Harbour.--
+     Snake-charmers.--Departure for Colombo.--Cultivation of the
+     Cocoa-nut Palm, a benevolent, Buddha-pleasing work.--
+     Polyandria; or, Community of Husbands.--Supposed Origin.--
+     Annual Exportation of Cocoa-nuts.--Rest-houses for
+     Travellers.--Curry, the National Dish.--A Misfortune and its
+     Consequences.--The Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makun,
+     and Father Miliani.--Annoying Delays with restive Horses.--
+     Colombo.--A Stroll through the "_Pettah_" or Black Town.--Ice
+     Trade of the Americans with Tropical Countries.--Cinnamon
+     Gardens and Cinnamon Cultivation.--Consequences of the
+     Monopoly of Cinnamon.--Rise and Expansion of the Coffee
+     Culture in Ceylon.--Pearl-fishery.--Latest Examination of the
+     Ceylon Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+     Results.--Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.--The Divers.--
+     Pearl-lime, a Chewing Substance of wealthy Malays;--Annual
+     Profit of the Pearl-fishery.--Origin of the Pearl.--Poetry
+     and Natural Science.--Artificial Production of the Pearl.--The
+     Chank-shell--The Wealth of Ceylon in Precious Stones.--Visit
+     to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.--The Cowry-shell, a Promoter
+     of the Slave Trade.--Discovery of valuable Cingalese MSS. on
+     Palm-leaves.--The heroic Poem of "Mahawwanso," and Turner's
+     English Translation of it.--Hospitality of English Officials
+     in Colombo.--A second Visit to Father Miliani.--Agreeable
+     Reception.--The Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous
+     Snakes.--Adventures on the Journey back to Galle.--Ascent of
+     Adam's Peak by two Members of the Expedition.--The sacred
+     Footprint.--Descent.--The "Bullock-bandy," or Native Waggon.--
+     Departure from Galle for Madras.--The Bassos (shallows).--A
+     Berlin Rope-dancer among the Passengers.--Nyctalopia; or,
+     Night Blindness.--Fire on board.--Arrival in Madras Roads.
+
+
+The inquirer who becomes acquainted by personal examination with the
+important geographical position of the Island of Ceylon (called also
+Seilan or Singhala), her commodious harbours, her productiveness, and her
+marvellous climate, involuntarily wonders at the stepmother's part that
+England has hitherto played with respect to this renowned island of palms
+and spices, the Malta of the Indian Ocean, which of all the British
+possessions in distant parts of the earth, has, till recently, received
+the least care or attention.
+
+It must be borne in mind, however, that Ceylon is an appanage of the
+British Crown, and it is not an independent, self-supporting colony. Those
+shortcomings of administration, for which the mother country is
+exclusively responsible, have been hitherto a complete drag upon her
+development. But the English people have this advantage over all other
+nations, that once anything has been recognized to be useful and
+imperatively required, they proceed to apply it with such energy, that
+they are enabled to make up for any neglect with giant strides. During
+late years many fetters have been knocked off which formerly impeded the
+more active development of agriculture and commerce. The harbour of Point
+de Galle (also called only Galle for shortness) has become a central
+station for the steam-boat trade with the East Indies, the Burmese
+Archipelago, China, and Australia. A telegraphic wire will ere long
+stretch from Ceylon to England, such as even now unites the island with
+the Coromandel Coast and India; a railway is in course of construction
+between the most important commercial centres of the island, and so
+obvious are the fundamental benefits it must confer, that ere long the
+classical and incomparably beautiful island of Ceylon is destined to shine
+a star of the first magnitude in the azure of the Indian Ocean, one of the
+most prosperous, wealthy, and blest of islands!
+
+The scientific researches of all kinds, which have in modern days been
+instituted in Ceylon, have been attended with the most important results,
+bearing upon its history and its various tribes, as well as on its natural
+wealth; and the masterly and marvellous work Sir Emerson Tennent lately
+published on the isle of Ceylon, seems intended to compensate for many
+instances of neglect which Ceylon and its inhabitants have experienced
+from the English since they seized on it.
+
+Embracing all the three kingdoms of nature, and following up with learned
+accuracy the history of the inhabitants, from the obscure traditions
+attending their earliest settlement down to the present day, Sir Emerson
+Tennent's work is a perfect pattern of a monography, although upon this
+subject the German inquirer will involuntarily, and not without an
+emotion of pride, recall to mind Carl Ritter's admirable, well-digested
+publication upon Ceylon, in his classical work on Eastern Asia, doubly
+meritorious by the very fact that the German scholar never set foot in the
+country itself. There are, however, indeed few spots on earth which
+present such inexhaustible subjects for the study of the historian as well
+as the inquirer into physical science, of the poet and the political
+economist, as this romantically-beautiful island, which we have been
+taught to regard as the Garden of the World, as indeed the special site of
+the Garden of Eden, the first abode of the progenitors of the human race.
+
+We have not to do here, as in most of the islands of southern seas, with a
+savage people, that have only, since the first appearance of Europeans,
+emerged from a state of barbarism, and been raised one step towards
+civilization, but rather find, as in the East Indies and China, a peculiar
+type of civilization, which, although widely differing from that of
+Europe, yet seems not less valuable and extraordinary. The whites (scarce
+7000 in number, of whom 2482 are females), who live scattered over an area
+of 24,700 English square miles, have hitherto been too few in number to
+exercise any marked influence on the customs or mode of life of a native
+coloured population of 1,726,640 souls, and hence it is that Ceylon
+exhibits a more romantic and characteristic air than any other British
+settlement in distant parts of the globe.
+
+A people like the Cingalese, of such ardent imaginativeness, with a
+splendid history, and a religion professed in the various realms of the
+East by more than 300 millions of people, gains in interest the more we
+become acquainted with them, and the more we make their traditions, their
+mode of life, and their customs, the object of special inquiry.
+
+The Cingalese, or indigenous natives (so named to distinguish them from
+the other inhabitants of the island, belonging to other stocks and
+amalgamated races, who at various periods had settled here, and who call
+themselves Ceylonese), were entirely the offspring of Hindoo emigrants,
+who, about five centuries before the birth of Christ, came from Hindostan
+to Ceylon, and imported their own mode of government, and system of caste,
+as also their arts, language, and religion, from the continent into the
+island.
+
+They constitute the germ of the present population, and early divided
+themselves into four leading castes:--1st, that of the royal family;--2nd,
+the Brahmins;--3rd, the merchants, peasants, and shepherds;--and 4th, the
+sixty inferior common castes. At present there exist in Ceylon only the
+two latter. The most numerous is that of the peasants, who, however,
+meddle but little with the cultivation of the soil, but have arrogated to
+themselves the exclusive and hereditary possession of all employments, lay
+or ecclesiastical. The dress of the Cingalese usually consists of a cloth
+wound turban-fashion round their head, and long white drapery. On festive
+occasions they wear richly-adorned tight-fitting jackets of velvet or
+wool, and on such occasions rank and power assert themselves by the number
+of garments, to such an extent that frequently a wealthy man makes his
+appearance in several of these habiliments, worn one above the other. The
+Cingalese are shorter in stature than the Europeans, their average stature
+being 5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 5 inches, English. Their _physique_,
+though graceful and delicate, is powerful and muscular, with a brawny
+breast, broad shoulders, the muscles of the thigh strongly developed, but
+with disproportionately small hands and feet. Their colour is commonly a
+light-brown, their hair black and quite straight. The women are
+beautifully formed, but even when they can, like Asokamalla of historic
+fame, boast all the forty and six marks of the Cingalese ideal,[77] they
+must fall far short of the European standard of female beauty, with their
+bodies anointed with oil, and their mouths stained with the betel-nut. As
+the Cingalese girls usually marry so early as 12 years of age, they
+speedily lose the bloom of youth, and frequently have the appearance of
+crones at 20. Another especially loathsome habit of the Cingalese is the
+chewing the betel-nut, a custom so universally prevalent among all Indian
+races, that not merely the men and women, but the very children exhibit an
+extraordinary predilection for it. The ingredients of this masticatory
+consist of the green tender leaves of the Betel-pepper-shrub (_Piper
+betle_), the nut of the areca-palm (_Areca catechu_, or cabbage-tree),
+some lime made of calcined shells, and tobacco, which, according to the
+rank of the individual, they keep ready prepared by their side, in silver
+or brass boxes, resembling snuff-boxes. These corrosive substances at the
+same time stain the saliva so deep a red, that, after long use, the lips
+and teeth seem as though smeared with blood.
+
+[Footnote 77: Of these forty-six perfections of womanly beauty we extract
+the following by way of example, from a Cingalese author:--hair, glossy as
+the tail of a peacock, and hanging in ringlets to the knee, eye-brows like
+the rainbow, eyes like sapphire, and the leaves of the manilla flower, a
+hawk nose, lips lustrous and red as coral, teeth small and regular, like
+the buds of the jasmine, neck thick and round, haunches broad, breast
+firm, and conical like the cocoa-nut, the figure slight, capable of being
+spanned by the hand, the limbs spindle-shaped, the sole of the foot
+without any hollow, the skin free from any prominence of the bones,
+sweeping in rounded curves, soft and tender.]
+
+The language is an offshoot of the Sanscrit, copious, harmonious, and full
+of expression, with threefold grammar, and as many vocabularies, viz. for
+the royal tongue, the official or court tongue, and that of society at
+large. To these there must be added the Pali, the learned, but obsolete
+written language of the priestly caste, which the Cingalese have in common
+with the kingdoms of Siam and Ava, in the further Indies. In this
+language, itself but a dialect of the Sanscrit, all their sacred books,
+traditions, and poetry are written. In many parts of the island the
+knowledge of language and written lore are held in such high honour, that
+grammar and literature form the entire study of the inhabitants. Reading
+and writing are as common among the Cingalese as in England, except that
+in Ceylon the women take no part therein. They do not write as we do, with
+quill or steel pen upon paper, but engrave the characters with a
+fine-pointed iron graver, or _stylus_, upon the leaves of the Talipot
+palm-tree (_Corypha umbraculifera_), from which they slice a broad strip
+for the purpose about 2 feet long, and several inches broad. These require
+no further preparation than that they must be well smoothed beforehand,
+and all inequalities removed. In order to render the writing more clear
+and legible, the Cingalese rub it with a mixture of cocoa-nut oil and fine
+pulverized wood-ashes, which imparts to it durability and prevents
+obliteration. Great numbers, however, use the leaves of another species of
+palm for writing upon, viz. the Palmyra palm (_Borassus flabelliformis_),
+but those of the Talipot are preferred to all others for their closeness
+of texture, and are alone used in important records and other documents.
+
+The religion of the Cingalese is Buddhism, which in Ceylon still
+flourishes in these times in all its pristine vigour. Buddha is not the
+name of the founder of this belief, who is called Gautama, or Sakja-Muni,
+but is only one of the numerous titles of honour invented by that
+personage, who in the Sanscrit figures so conspicuously as a sage. Gautama
+was born in the province of Maghada (now known as Reha), in Northern
+Hindostan, B.C. 624. His parents were Suddhodana, King of Magadha, and his
+consort Maja. Contemplating the degeneracy and misery of man, sunk in
+deepest woe, Gautama attacked the doctrine of Brahma, rejected the Vedas,
+or holy books, and founded the new faith, which consists of the following
+fundamental propositions:--The Creator and Ruler of the world is a
+supreme, invisible, purely spiritual (and for that reason obviously
+impossible to be figured) Being, almighty, wise, just, beneficent, and
+merciful. Man most fitly recognizes and honours the Deity by silent
+contemplation: by the practice of chastity, temperance, and virtue he
+attains to happiness. The complete fulfilment of all his duties confers on
+him here on earth the dignity of a Buddha, or sage, and after death
+consigns him to the beatific repose of _non-existence_[78] (_Nirwana_).
+Condemned souls are born again in the forms of wild animals. According to
+Gautama's teaching a fresh Buddha always appears at certain epochs, whose
+existence is manifested by his extraordinary spiritual powers, by his
+deeds, and by his prophecies, selected by destiny for the purpose of
+enlightening the world as to the decrees of the Supreme Being, and to
+restore religion to her pristine purity. The death of a Buddha is also the
+commencement of a new reckoning of time. Gautama, who died about B.C. 542,
+or some 2400 years since, was the forty-fifth and last Buddha that
+appeared to the Cingalese; his doctrine must continue to operate for 5000
+years, when, according to the Cingalese traditions, the next Buddha, or
+Purifier, will appear. Gautama's belief, bequeathed by him to his
+disciple, the Brahmin Mahakaja, was immediately translated into Sanscrit,
+and speedily spread. Several hundred temples and monuments dedicated to
+him are scattered in various parts of the island, and remain to this day
+an evidence of the extent and influence of Buddhism.
+
+[Footnote 78: The ten precepts of the moral code of Buddhism are as
+follows:--Kill no living creature--do not steal--follow no unclean
+occupation--tell no lies or untruths--drink no fermented liquors--live
+exclusively on vegetables--anoint neither the head nor the body--go to no
+singing parties or spectacles--do not sleep on a raised nor on a wide bed--
+eat but once a day, and before noon.]
+
+[Illustration: BUDDHA TEMPLE NEAR GALLE.]
+
+On the day of our arrival we at once set off to visit one of these
+Buddhist temples, in the vicinity of Galle. The edifice is small and
+insignificant, only the carved woodwork of the door presenting any object
+of interest as a work of art. In the interior is a gigantic figure of
+Buddha, carved in wood, and in a reclining position; it is 20 feet long,
+and painted yellow and red, with long flaps to the ears, and a lotus
+flower on the head; while on the walls around, richly decorated with
+scrollwork, dragons and lions, part painted, part sculptured, various
+interesting episodes are represented in the history of Buddhism. Right in
+front of the figure are placed a number of offerings of the most
+miscellaneous description, beneath which are flowers and fruits; a small
+tin box is also particularly conspicuous, into which every stranger is
+expected to drop a piece of silver by way of present. Adjoining such a
+temple are always to be found the _wiharas_, or residences of the priests
+(_hamaduruhs_), and the spot where preaching and teaching are carried on.
+The priests wear long wide vestures, yellow or white according to their
+rank, or else only a single yellow outer garment, which falls in the form
+of graceful drapery over the naked shoulders; their heads are shaved, and
+they walk about quite barefoot, with a parasol of Talipot palm in their
+hand, and observe with strangers a reserved, distrustful demeanour.
+
+We were conducted all round by a young priest, of about 20 years of age,
+who spoke a little English, which is not a very common accomplishment,
+since the Buddhists have a great dislike for all that is foreign. Only at
+the conclusion of our visit did the old, grey, half-blind superior priest
+make his appearance, saluted us, but immediately left us to snatch from a
+boy a shaddock (_Citrus decumana_), which is especially prized by the
+Cingalese on account of the refreshing qualities of its juice.
+
+The priestly office, however, does not deter a native from indulging the
+disgusting habit of chewing the betel-nut, and this aged _hamaduruh_
+became much more sociable on receiving some.
+
+Adjoining the temple, which stands in a charming cocoa-nut grove, we first
+got an idea of the extraordinary luxuriance of the vegetation of this
+island. In a single enclosure, not much larger than an ordinary
+house-garden, we saw coffee-trees, cinnamon-bushes, clove-trees,
+nutmeg-trees, (_Areca catechu_), oranges, lemons, pine-apples, and
+bread-fruit trees (_Arctocarpus incisa_), flourishing in wildest
+profusion.
+
+A second temple, which we also visited, was the Dadále Panzela, the
+largest in the province, and the seat of the high-priest of the Buddhists.
+This worthy personage, a septuagenary, is named Nanalangara Seresumana
+Mahdamaradjigurù Ganatchari-Naikunangi, and is surrounded by a staff of
+priests of the temple who are reputed holy, and who apparently venerate
+him as a superior being. This temple did not differ much in construction
+and arrangement from the first; but the place set apart for instruction,
+where, at the time of our visit, some youths were busily engaged in
+copying the sacred books upon palm leaves, as also the residences of the
+priests, made a much more imposing impression, and spoke of a certain
+degree of opulence. In the midst of a piece of ground laid out like a
+garden was planted the sacred Bo-tree, which is looked upon as holy by the
+Buddhists, because, according to an ancient tradition, Buddha was in the
+habit of reposing under the shadow of its branches, as often as he visited
+the earth. Towering above everything wherever a Buddhist temple is raised,
+there a Bo-tree is planted; but the particular sacred tree, the original
+plant from which the legend took its rise, grows at Anaradnapura, in the
+northern part of the former kingdom of Kandi, whither it had been suddenly
+translated from a far-distant land, and spontaneously took root in the
+spot where it at present stands, in order to serve as a protection and
+shelter for Buddha.[79] Ninety Cingalese monarchs are interred around it,
+all of whom, by the temples and statues they erected to Buddha, are deemed
+worthy of this pre-eminent mark of distinction.
+
+[Footnote 79: The sacred Bo-tree (_Ficus religiosa_) of the Buddhists is
+frequently confounded with the Banyan Tree (_Ficus Indica_), held in such
+honour by the Brahmins, from which latter it differs in this, that it does
+not throw out from its branches numberless twigs which take root again in
+the earth. The incessant waving and rustling of the leaves and branches,
+which is common to both species of _Ficus_, is regarded by the faithful
+Buddhists as the effect of a fear-instilling scene of which the sage was
+once witness under the Bo-tree; just as the Syrian Christians deduce, from
+the fact that the Holy Cross was manufactured out of aspen-wood, that this
+tree is trembling, even in our days, with anguish and terror. Singular,
+what an important part the fig-tree seems to play in all religions,
+including the Christian and the Mahometan!]
+
+The grey-headed high-priest permitted the library of the temple to be
+shown to us, which consists of a large number of Pali manuscripts,
+inscribed on Talipot leaves, each of which was enclosed between two
+elegant boards made of calamander wood (_Diopyrus hirsuta_), fastened with
+strings, and enveloped in numerous folds of cloth, the whole guarded with
+singular reverence, in lofty, broad, wooden cupboards, richly carved. When
+we returned, the chief priest requested us to give him our names, and that
+of the country we came from, upon which a young priest carefully wrote
+down with a goose quill on a sheet of paper, in Cingalese language,
+apparently with the view of showing us civility, some superficial remarks
+respecting the _Novara_ Expedition.
+
+Besides the pure Cingalese, the island is also inhabited by Hindoos from
+the Malabar coast, Moors (the descendants of wandering Arabs and
+Mahometans from northern India, who at present carry on the greater part
+of the trade of the island), Malays, Javanese; then Portuguese, Dutch,
+British of the various nationalities comprised under that title; and,
+lastly, Negroes from Mozambique and Madagascar, who have formed alliances
+with the Cingalese, and are rearing a numerous mixed race.[80]
+
+[Footnote 80: What is related by various writers of the practice of
+"running a muck" (a custom that seems to recall the frightful blood-feuds
+of the Corsicans), long supposed to be peculiar to Ceylon, in which a
+Malay thirsting for revenge, and armed with a naked "_kreese_," or dagger,
+rushes through the streets like a madman, yelling "_Amock, Amock_" (kill,
+kill), and runs the fearful weapon through the body of the very first
+person he meets,--seems to be founded on a mistake. No one could give us
+any particulars on the subject from personal observation. Sir Emerson
+Tennant too, in his work on Ceylon, passes over this custom of "running a
+muck," without a syllable of mention. Evidently the custom is not
+naturalized in this island. It now prevails among the Malays of the Sunda
+archipelago, while in Ceylon no instance has occurred within the memory of
+man. That this tendency to murder is caused by the use of opium likewise
+appears improbable. Crawford, in his most excellent descriptive dictionary
+of the Indian islands, speaking of "running a muck," pretends it results
+frequently from a monomania taking this particular form, and originating
+in disorders of the digestive organs.]
+
+Deep in the interior of the island, in the province of Bintang, N.E. from
+Kandi, and towards Trincomalee and Batacalva, in holes in the earth, or
+under the palm-leaves, reside the tribe of the Weddàhs or Veddàhs, the
+most savage race in the island, traditionally said to be the aborigines
+proper, who go about naked, with the exception of a girdle round the
+loins, and use only bows and javelins, which however they manufacture and
+handle with great dexterity.
+
+According to one of the various Cingalese traditions, these Weddàhs are
+the descendants of a very bloodthirsty, cannibal monarch, who, deposed by
+his people, was only permitted the alternative of death, or of
+withdrawing with the ministers of his cruelty to roam for ever amid the
+solitudes of the forest. The dethroned king chose the latter alternative,
+and thus became the little-to-be-envied progenitor of this rude savage
+race. At any rate it seems worthy of note, that these Weddàhs, destitute
+though they are of the remotest traces of civilization, are still regarded
+as belonging to the privileged caste.
+
+Owing to the shortness of our stay, we unfortunately had no opportunity of
+visiting the interior of the island, or of seeing these Weddàhs. With
+difficulty did we tear ourselves from the zone of the cocoa-nut growth,
+and therefore only got acquainted with two places on the island, Galle and
+Colombo, the latter the seat of government.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT GALLE.]
+
+Galle is, from its position, as also from its configuration, indisputably
+the best and most important harbour in the south and west of the island,
+as Colombo can only be regarded as an open, insecure roadstead. Founded in
+the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, conquered at a later period by
+the Dutch, and finally, at the peace of Amiens, transferred to the
+English, Galle displays singularly few traces of its different masters.
+The streets are narrow, but cleanly; the houses are for the most part
+constructed of earth, with verandahs, or airy colonnades towards the
+street, and rooms within, plastered to imitate stone, of spacious
+dimensions, as is desirable, considering the heat of the climate. As one
+enters from the roadway at once into the sitting apartment, and as the
+door stands wide open all day to admit a free current of air, a sort of
+open screen-work is usually put up before the entrance, to prevent a too
+minute inspection of the interior, by the prying eyes of inquisitive
+passers-by. At Galle we, for the first time, saw the "Punkah," a sort of
+fan peculiar to India, which stretches from one end of the roof of the
+room to the other, and being swung to and fro by a servant produces a
+refreshing coolness. Here, too, we first became acquainted with the
+"Gecko" (_Hemidactylus maculatus_), an elegant little house-lizard, which,
+with graceful agility, runs to and fro upon the walls, windows, and roofs,
+and speedily becomes as familiar with man as a pet-dog or kitten. They
+usually make their appearance towards evening, when, without the slightest
+symptoms of timidity, they begin their surprising evolutions, during which
+they catch gnats with astonishing dexterity, and although they are
+disagreeable objects to all new comers, one speedily becomes accustomed to
+these harmless, innocuous, playful little animals, of which the Ceylonese
+are in the habit of relating many interesting and amusing anecdotes.
+
+Of late years, during which Galle has risen into considerable importance,
+as the converging point of the lines of steamers to Eastern India, China,
+and Australia, the number of substantial houses has greatly increased, and
+several large hotels are found here replete with every comfort. Like most
+European settlements in India, the Cape, and China, Galle possesses a fort
+in which, at an earlier period, the European colonists dwelt with their
+wives and families apart from the natives, and has also a "Pettah," or
+Black Town, a sort of Cingalese Ghetto, exclusively inhabited by the black
+population. At present this separation is not so strenuously enforced as
+in earlier times, but whoever would seek to form a more accurate idea of
+the various races of this population, its mode of life and its demeanour,
+must leave the so-called "Fort," and wander through the native or
+Cingalese quarter. Here are the fruit and vegetable markets; here all was
+devoted to buying and selling, which seemed to excite the otherwise
+listless little covetous disposition of the Cingalese; here jugglers and
+snake-charmers exhibit, who excite interest rather by the horrible nature
+and the foolhardiness of the performances, than by their executing any
+surprising feats. A belief is prevalent among the people that this
+singular class of men, greatly resembling our own gipsies, possess the art
+of depriving a poisonous serpent of its venom, and rendering it
+innocuous. And, in fact, one does see them produce from a white cloth the
+dreaded Cobra di Capello, 4 or 5 feet long, and exquisitely marked,
+irritate it violently, and go through all manner of unpleasant
+performances with it on their naked bodies. Frequently the serpent, weary
+of being constantly brought out for exhibition, endeavours to escape from
+its tormentor, whereupon a general scramble for escape takes place among
+the spectators. Every one hurries off to a safe distance, and the
+unfortunate charmer is left alone on the scene with his eminently
+intractable pupil, and has, into the bargain, given his exhibition in
+vain. As, however, it not unfrequently happens that the bite of the Cobra
+di Capello is followed by fatal consequences to the snake-charmer himself,
+it is highly probable that the whole mystery resolves itself into courage,
+and the shrewdness with which, availing themselves of the uncommon dread
+and aversion with which this animal is regarded, they are able at once to
+prevent him from making use of his deadly poison fang, and to put forth
+their own sleight of hand. This explanation seems also to account for the
+very remarkable fact that men have ventured to domesticate this dangerous
+reptile in more places than Ceylon. Indeed, within the experience of Major
+Skinner, a thoroughly trustworthy personage, who has resided for many
+years on the island, and to whom the naturalists of the Expedition are
+indebted for many acts of kindness, an instance actually occurred in the
+neighbourhood of Negombo, in which a wealthy man, who keeps large sums of
+specie in his house, bethought him of the singular precaution of having
+several deadly cobras to watch the treasure in lieu of dogs. Day and night
+they glide about, a terror to thieves, while they are quite harmless to
+the inmates who feed them and attend to them!
+
+In former times snake worship (_Nagas_) was universal throughout Ceylon,
+and, as in India, the cobra received divine honours from the natives,
+because it was supposed to be a metamorphosed king. This serpent, however,
+is so singularly and wonderfully endowed by nature, its appearance and
+motions are so peculiar, that an imaginative people like the Cingalese may
+well be excused for associating the idea of metempsychosis with its aspect
+of mystery.
+
+From Galle, an excellent road, following the coast-line the entire
+distance, leads to Colombo, the seat of government, 75 English miles
+distant. Every morning there starts from Galle for that destination, the
+"Royal Mail" coach, an uncomfortable, somewhat dangerous, mode of
+conveyance, in which this distance is traversed in from 8 to 10 hours. In
+order to travel more at our ease, we engaged an extra waggon. In Ceylon
+people usually employ, on long excursions, but one horse, which is changed
+at distances varying from 6 to 10 miles. We had some difficulty in
+reconciling this custom with our predilection for travelling at our
+leisure. The first few hours of our journey passed away very pleasantly;
+the road was excellent, and the country magnificent and charming. We
+seemed as though driving through a park inhabited by thousands of men, and
+planted with cocoa-nut palms--amidst which occasionally the white dome of
+a Buddhist temple, or the minarets of a Mahometan mosque, shooting up
+above the summits of the palms, imparted an aspect of life to the
+landscape--while in the gay bazaars that fringed the road, the few
+necessaries of life required by the exceedingly frugal natives were
+exposed for sale, temptingly arranged on palm or plantain leaves. The
+whole south-western coast district is so populous that the huts of the
+natives were continually in sight, right and left, under the forest shade,
+and the scenery in consequence seemed as full of life and careless
+enjoyment as though the people had nothing else to do but walk about under
+palm-trees. This impression was the more strengthened, that we rarely
+perceived a man with anything else in his hand than a Talipot leaf, or a
+Chinese parasol, to protect himself against the burning rays of the sun,
+which shone almost directly overhead. Of the women, on whom for the most
+part fall all the troubles and hardships of life among the Cingalese, we
+only saw a few carrying to the city heavy baskets balanced on their heads.
+
+The luxuriant, widely-extending cocoa-nut forests, which on the south and
+west sides of the island stretch down to the sea-shore (whereas on the
+eastern coast they are altogether absent), seem independently of the
+necessity of paying all due care to the maintenance of one of the
+necessaries of life, to be specially indebted for their existence to the
+circumstance that additional planting of this tree, as also its careful
+cultivation, is one of the religious observances and duties of the
+servants of Buddha. Whoever plants a cocoa-nut, palm, or bread-fruit tree,
+performs a work agreeable to Buddha. At the birth of a son, or on any
+similar festive occasion, it is customary to plant a few cocoa-nut shoots
+in the earth. Cocoa-nut palms form a very important part of the property
+of a family. The father divides them as heritable property into equal
+portions for bequest to his children. Not one single palm but has an
+owner, though instances occasionally occur in which several families are
+supported by the produce of a single palm!
+
+This peculiar phenomenon has been followed by most remarkable results
+bearing upon the social condition of the native population. Increasing
+poverty, and the ever present grinding necessity of preventing any further
+subdivision of the joint property, have impelled the natives to resort to
+the unnatural remedy of the brothers of a family having but one wife among
+them! The fact that there are in Ceylon fully one-tenth more men than
+women, was the cause of the rapid spread of this custom, and upheld
+Polyandria, or plurality of husbands, as a desirable invention for
+remedying the deficient supply of females. Many a female has three, four,
+or even seven husbands, and all children that are born of such a wedlock
+have equal rights, and are (differing in this respect from the law of
+Hindostan, by which only the children of the eldest brothers are
+registered, as the entire property belongs to him, while all the younger
+brothers serve him as vassals, and can be driven by him out of the house),
+the _lawful_, recognized heirs of the different fathers. In order to guard
+against the rise of law-suits respecting birth and heritage among the
+Cingalese, in consequence of their local customs, the British courts of
+justice, singular to say, find themselves constrained to recognize this
+disgraceful custom, and to interpret the law with reference to it.
+Although in the maritime provinces plurality of husbands has been signally
+on the decrease, owing to foreign influences, it still prevails to a great
+extent in the interior of the island. The submissiveness of the Cingalese
+to their superiors and their monarchs is assigned as the origin of this in
+other respects very ancient custom, which seems to have been universally
+in use among the various races of the mainland of India from time
+immemorial. Constrained to apply their own manual labour in cultivating
+the land of their tyrants, and frequently to accompany them on distant
+journeys, they thought they could, during their absence, most surely
+protect their own fields and crops against utter ruin, by apportioning
+wife and chattels among brothers and nearest relatives, and thence the
+family tie was gradually converted into a socialist community.
+
+The almost endless cocoa forests, which we were traversing by splendid,
+broad, level roads, not alone provide the native with, to him, the most
+important necessary for supporting existence, but the fruit itself forms
+at the same time so important and valuable an article of produce, that the
+cultivation of the cocoa-nut has been regularly and systematically carried
+on by European enterprise since 1841--at present covering an area of
+23,000 English acres--while the proportion of native land on which this,
+the most useful growth of the tropics, is cultivated, amounts to about
+100,000 acres. Formerly, the nuts were shipped to foreign parts for the
+extraction of their oil; but for this purpose there are now on the island
+itself, especially in Colombo and Galle, a considerable number of
+manufactories, at which the oil already expressed from the nuts is usually
+at once put into casks for exportation. The quantity of oil thus exported
+annually is estimated at from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 gallons, worth from
+£100,000 to £150,000. Besides this, the elastic fibre of the outer husk of
+the cocoa-nut is used in the manufacture of ropes, door-mats, &c., and,
+under the name of Coir, forms an important article of export, the annual
+consumption averaging between 30,000 and 40,000 quintals (centner weight),
+worth from £20,000 to £25,000.
+
+The first station on leaving Galle for Colombo is Bentotte, where, as is
+the custom all through the country, there is a "resting-house" open to all
+travellers, similar to the "Choultries" in India, the "Caravanserais," or
+lodgings for pilgrims, in Eastern countries, or the "Pasangrahans," of
+Java. These resting-houses, which all through the interior of the island
+are found on the highways and forest roads, are among the oldest
+institutions of the country, and were formerly maintained at the expense
+of private individuals. The resting-houses, which have been erected under
+the English rule on the main roads of the island, are in all respects of a
+far higher class, and strongly resemble the waiting-rooms of our own
+(German) railroads. One is not merely provided in these with shelter, but
+also with food and drink, at a fixed tariff. A special committee (the
+Provincial Road Committee) is appointed to superintend the management of
+these resting-houses.
+
+Here we partook of a luxurious "tiffin," as the customary meal between
+breakfast and dinner is called in Ceylon, as well as throughout India; and
+in so doing, made acquaintance for the first time with the renowned Indian
+dish "Curry," which consists of flesh or fish prepared with a powder
+compounded of spices. It tastes so hot that the European palate only gets
+accustomed to it by degrees; but in these countries it is looked on as the
+favourite dish, which must never be absent from any meal, because the
+cayenne pepper plentifully sprinkled over it, stimulates the stomach and
+promotes digestion. Hence the curry-powder is in immense request, and is
+largely exported. The assertion that this dish was first invented by the
+Portuguese is quite erroneous, as the chronicles of the country establish
+that it was in request in Ceylon in the second century before Christ.[81]
+
+[Footnote 81: According to Professor Wilson, "Curry" is but a corruption of
+the Carnatic term _Májkki-Kari_, a dish composed of rice, sour milk,
+spices, and red pepper.]
+
+As we mounted into our vehicle again, after a short halt at Bentotte, in
+order to resume our journey to Colombo with a fresh horse, we perceived
+that our driver, a negro, had been too free of his visits to the
+brandy-bottle, and occasionally took to rolling on the box. In the hope
+that he might become sober by the way, we ventured to proceed, but ere
+long he lost his balance, and fell to the ground, compelling us, to avoid
+further mishap, to retrace our steps on foot to the nearest village--thus
+reversing the order of matters, and, so to speak, escorting our horse,
+coach, and driver. This occurrence, unimportant and hardly worth
+mentioning in itself, was the occasion of an interesting adventure. As it
+was only with much difficulty that we could make ourselves intelligible to
+the natives, we resolved to apply to the authorities in the very first
+place we came to. It turned out that we were in the vicinity of the
+Catholic mission of St. Sebastian de Makùn, whose superior was a
+Benedictine from Rome. The church is situated amid the rich vegetation of
+the primeval forests, the gigantic trunks of whose trees, supporting a
+huge diadem of luxuriant foliage, are arched into a natural dome of the
+most graceful proportions. With curiosity whetted to the uttermost, we
+advanced along a beautiful path, beneath cocoa-palms, cabbage trees,
+bread-fruit trees, screw pines, tree-like ferns, and broad-leaved bananas,
+till we reached the dwelling-house of the Mission, and introduced
+ourselves to the missionary. Forthwith the latter, a tall, stately figure,
+with handsome features and cultivated manners, and dressed in a woollen
+robe, ushered us into a darkened chamber opposite, and received us most
+cordially. This worthy priest, by the name of Miliani, was not less
+surprised at being visited at this solitary mission by Austrian
+travellers, and with the most lively satisfaction and the utmost readiness
+to oblige, offered us all the assistance in his power. In spite of our
+hurry, we had to take a cup of coffee _à la Romagna_, with our hospitable
+missionary, and to promise to visit him on our return journey. Father
+Miliani has already lived many years in this country, and ministers to a
+Christian community of more than 1000 souls. Altogether there are in
+Ceylon about 50 Catholic missionaries under a Bishop whose residence is in
+Colombo. Our priestly host was greatly respected by the Cingalese, but he
+evidently was overjoyed at being able once more to express his thoughts
+and feelings in his native Italian.
+
+It was evening ere, with many a hearty shake of the hand, we tore
+ourselves away from the cordial hospitality of St. Sebastian de Makùn.
+Horse and driver this time gave hope of faster progress. But we were
+doomed once more to experience a severe disappointment, and although we
+were only about 10 or 12 miles distant from Colombo, which was our
+destination, it took us five long hours to get over the ground. The night
+was very dark, but the road was continually illuminated with torches of
+palm, carried by the homeward plodding natives, which emitted a gloomy
+light alternating with showers of sparks.
+
+When at last we got to Colombo about midnight, pretty well knocked-up, we
+comforted ourselves with the reflection that the inconveniences attending
+personal transport between Galle and the seat of government, can by no
+means be classed among events of rare occurrence; since, in consequence of
+the inveterate obstinacy of the native horse, one must have recourse to
+the most incredible expedients to get the carriage under weigh. For
+instance, at every station the ears of the post-horse were twisted
+together and then suddenly relaxed in order to set the vehicle in motion;
+and, when this torture failed, a pole, or thick stick, was inserted under
+the tail of the recalcitrant, and rubbed up and down till the poor animal,
+smarting under this painful operation, took to the collar. Once the
+carriage is started in this extraordinary fashion, the coachman swings to
+and fro at the peril of his life, and endeavours by continually "pitching
+into" the horse, to keep him at the gallop. Thus between whooping and
+whipping the next station is reached, where the same trial of patience
+awaits the traveller, and a similar martyrdom for the next horse.
+
+Our first business the following morning was to take a walk through
+Colombo, which, like Galle, consists of "The Fort," or White City, and the
+"Pettah," or Black Quarter, in the latter of which are situated the houses
+and shops of the natives, and where the chief traffic and the greatest
+activity are combined. Here one rarely encounters a white man, for even
+the soldiers and police belong to the brown and black races. The natives,
+however, manifest, outwardly at least, a great respect for the whites, and
+everywhere draw aside reverentially when one makes his appearance.
+
+In the middle of the main street are some Buddhist temples. We were not,
+however, permitted to enter, unless we consented to take off our shoes. At
+several of the natives' houses the entrance porch and windows were gaily
+adorned with plantain leaves. On inquiring of our Cingalese attendant what
+was the occasion of this manifestation, he replied in broken English that
+the inmates were celebrating "Christmas," wishing probably to express that
+the natives celebrated a feast analogous to our Christmas.
+
+The filth and unsavoury odours which prevail in the Black Quarter, and the
+noise and yelling of the natives, speedily drive visitors back to the
+European portion of the city, which altogether, with its gloomy, decayed
+aspect, makes anything but a favourable impression. The public buildings,
+the houses of the mercantile community, the warehouses, and
+fortifications, all bear the impress of the Portuguese settlement of
+bygone centuries; and as its commerce is attracted more and more every
+year to Galle,[82] there remains but faint hope that this quaint type will
+not ere long be effaced by a new style of building, albeit the inhabitants
+of the capital promise themselves a restored reign of activity and energy,
+as the result of railway communication with Galle.
+
+[Footnote 82: The value of the produce exported annually from the island
+(chiefly cocoa-nuts, coir, cinnamon, and coffee), is above £2,000,000, and
+the imports of European manufactures are about the same amount.]
+
+During our random promenade through the streets of what is called the
+Fort, we perceived at a sugar-baker's in Chatham Street--the most select
+quarter of Colombo, and containing the most important warehouses, which,
+however, are far from elegant in their appearance--some rough ice offered
+for sale, which had a curious effect in a town so near the Equator, and
+presenting such few evidences of luxury in other respects. This ice is
+brought round the Cape of Good Hope from the United States, and is chiefly
+shipped from Boston. The daily consumption of iced-water, ices, and so
+forth, is estimated at about 1000 lbs., costing about one shilling the 8
+lbs. It is impossible to repress a feeling of astonishment at these
+speculative Yankees who, despite all obstacles interposed by temperature,
+transport in all directions and over thousands of miles an article so
+perishable, so easily destructible as ice, and are able to drive a
+profitable business in it in the hottest and most diverse regions of the
+globe--in the West Indies and South America, in Asia, and in Africa.
+
+The traveller who visits Colombo will hardly fail to make an excursion to
+the Cinnamon Garden, in order to inhale the fragrant and peculiar aroma,
+and enjoy tasting the tender rind of this remarkable shrub, which plays so
+conspicuous a part in the history of Ceylon. During the palmy days of
+cinnamon culture, the five principal cinnamon plantations of the southern
+half of the island extended some 15 or 20 miles. For this one lucrative
+product of the soil all others on the island were abandoned, with most
+deplorable consequences. The cinnamon culture, a monopoly of the various
+governments which one after another conquered Ceylon, and domineered over
+its inhabitants, was carried on, especially by the Dutch East India
+Company, with terrible severity. The slightest embezzlement of cinnamon,
+or wilful damage to the plant, was visited with death. The unintentional
+breaking off of a twig of the cinnamon bush was punished with amputation
+of the offending member. Every cinnamon bush, even to those growing in the
+gardens of private individuals, was the property of the Government, and
+the cinnamon collector, or even cinnamon-peeler alone, had the right to
+strip off the rind when ripe. To destroy such a plant, or even to dispose
+of it to any one, was regarded as a crime affecting life. The labourers,
+who were employed in the cutting off, peeling, and preparation of the
+rind, belonged to the caste of Chalias, and constituted the lowest grade
+of that class. In like manner, under the English rule, the monopoly of
+cinnamon was at first continued, with such disastrous consequences to the
+trade that it was finally abandoned in 1832, and the merchants of Colombo
+and Galle were left to divide among themselves the exportation of this
+important article, under an exporting duty of 3_s._ per lb. These duties,
+however, were found much too high, as the highest price obtainable in
+Europe was from 6_s._ to 7_s._; and this advance in the price to the trade
+of the genuine article, was the cause of foreign merchants turning their
+attention to the supply of various species of cinnamon-bearing laurels and
+cassias, growing in Cochin-China and Java.
+
+When Government, recovering at last from its delusion of treating
+cinnamons, which at first had seemed indigenous to the island of Ceylon
+alone on the earth,[83] as a national monopoly, reduced the export duty to
+one shilling, and ultimately repealed it altogether, the various
+substitutes had already found their level in Europe, as affording a larger
+supply at a much more moderate rate, and the cultivation of the finer
+kinds became less and less each year. Prices fell, and the consumption was
+diminished. Only the coarser sorts repaid exportation. Nay, it even led to
+the interesting and curious result, that just as, previous to the high
+price under monopoly, the low-priced cassia displaced the finer sort of
+genuine cinnamon, at the present day the coarser sorts of cinnamon are
+beginning to oust the cassia from the English market, whence all the world
+are supplied. At present there are from 14,000 to 15,000 acres planted
+with cinnamon, chiefly in private hands, and producing annually from
+800,000 to 900,000 lbs. of cinnamon, worth from £40,000 to £50,000
+sterling.
+
+[Footnote 83: Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work (vol. i. p. 599), challenges
+the assertion that Ceylon is the native country of the cinnamon-tree. In
+no European or Asiatic chronicles is any mention made of cinnamon as a
+product or article of commerce in Ceylon up to the end of the thirteenth
+century. Although it was from the earliest times imported into Europe from
+Africa through Arabia, the natives trading with Ceylon first knew of the
+existence on the island of this important shrub about the twelfth or
+thirteenth century. Hence Sir Emerson looks upon Africa as the native
+country of the cinnamon-tree.]
+
+The chalias, moreover, are no longer, as formerly under the Portuguese and
+Dutch, _adscripti glebæ_ for life, or slaves that could be purchased with
+the soil, but free labourers, who are entitled to demand proportionate pay
+for the lightest services rendered.
+
+The Cinnamon Gardens in the neighbourhood of Colombo, although for the
+most part gone to decay, nevertheless impart to the whole scene a
+singularly cheerful, agreeable aspect. The bushes, from 4 to 6 feet in
+height, with their smooth, beautiful, light green leaves, resembling those
+of the bay-tree, and their pale, yellow flower-stamens shoot up doubly
+fresh and succulent, from the snow-white quartz soil in which they best
+thrive. The flowering season of the cinnamon is in January, and the fruit
+ripens in April, when the sap is richest in the shrub. In May the boughs
+are begun to be "barked," which process continues till October. The
+pruning and gathering of the yearling shoots, which are about the
+thickness of a man's thumb, is very laborious, and employs many hands.
+Each labourer cuts off as many as he can conveniently carry in a bundle,
+then, with the point of a crooked knife, made for the express purpose,
+strips the entire rind from the wood, carefully scrapes off the exterior
+corticle and innermost layer, and lays the stripped-off cinnamon rind, now
+reduced to the thickness of parchment, in the sun, where it dries and
+curls together. All round the hut, in which the peeling of the rind is
+carried on, is diffused a most exquisite aroma, caused by the breaking of
+the leaves or twigs. What is related, however, by various travellers of
+the fragrance of the cinnamon forests, which they have scented at a great
+distance seaward, would seem to indicate that this delicious odour
+emanates from various other aromatic plants in which Ceylon is so rich,
+rather than the cinnamon groves, the aroma of which, indeed, is not
+perceptible beyond the immediate vicinity. The best description of
+cinnamon is not so thick as stout paper, and is fine-grained, flexible,
+light brown, or golden yellow, sweet and pungent; the coarser qualities
+are thick-skinned, dark brown, acrid, stinging, and leaves a bitter
+after-taste. In the warehouses, the cinnamon rinds and canes sorted for
+shipping are piled upon each other, packed in bales of about 90 lbs.
+weight each, and carefully sewed. In all cavities and spaces between each
+layer an immense quantity of pepper is strewn, to preserve the cinnamon
+during its sea-voyage, by which both spices are benefited, the black
+pepper absorbing all the superfluous moisture, and gaining by the
+fragrance of the cinnamon.
+
+Consequent on the diminution of cinnamon cultivation, which undoubtedly
+has resulted in great measure from the altered taste of mankind and the
+consequent extraordinary falling off in the demand for this once
+highly-prized spice, the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon has, during the
+last 20 years, increased tenfold; and it is solely owing to the dearth of
+available labour that this branch of produce, considering the splendid
+profits it returns, is not even more extensively carried on. In 27
+districts there are 404 coffee plantations, covering a surface of 80,950
+acres, of which, however, only 63,771 acres are really productive. These
+produced last year, 347,100 cwt., or 5-1/2 centners per acre. To this must
+be added the quantity under cultivation by the natives, who possess about
+36,000 acres of coffee plantations, and in the year 1859 alone, exported
+180,000 cwt. We may safely assume, therefore, that the cultivation of
+coffee is on the eve of transforming this island of Ceylon, from a mere
+military station of England, into one of the most flourishing colonies of
+the British Empire. Twenty years ago there were exported barely 60,000
+centners, worth £180,000. In September, 1858, the export exceeded 600,000
+cwt., which represented on the spot a value of £1,500,000 sterling. "When
+capital and labour shall have become more plentiful," remarked to us a by
+no means over-sanguine resident, "Ceylon will have in its mountain
+districts 240,000 acres planted with coffee trees, yielding at the lowest
+estimate, 1,680,000 cwt. of coffee annually." Here, as among the high
+table-lands of Guatemala and Costa Rica, we have the reassuring evidence
+how one of the most important plants for the civilized man can be
+profitably cultivated, without having recourse to the blighting influences
+of slave-labour, at the same time making the lands in which it is produced
+both rich and prosperous.[84]
+
+[Footnote 84: The coffee-tree frequently suffers, especially in Ceylon,
+from an insect called the coffee-bug (_Lecanium Coffeæ_); as, however,
+this troublesome insect has only infested the coffee plantations since
+1848, and this branch of cultivation has nevertheless increased so
+surprisingly since then, there seems no reason to dread that the coffee
+plant will suffer by these bugs, in the same manner or to the same extent
+as the vine by the ravages of the _fungus_.]
+
+While the cultivation of the coffee-plant has been followed by such
+splendid results, the repeated attempts to introduce the sugar-cane have
+been on the contrary as uniformly failures--so that of the numerous
+plantations established by Europeans, there are at present no more than
+five remaining. In all those localities where the temperature seemed
+adapted to the growth of the sugar-cane, the nature of the soil, and the
+too great humidity have prevented its thriving.
+
+On the other hand, the island possesses two natural products in which but
+few spots on the globe are qualified to enter the lists with her, and
+which may be expected to increase in value and importance in proportion as
+science assumes her share in their exploration. These products are PEARLS
+and PRECIOUS STONES.
+
+The most productive pearl banks lie on the west coast of Ceylon, between
+the 8th and 9th degrees of North latitude, near the level, dreary beach of
+Condatchy, Aripo, and Manaar. The pearl fisheries are a monopoly, and,
+therefore, under the inspection of the Government. Former governors had
+counted too much on the abundance of this natural treasure, and in their
+blind haste to fill the coffers of the State, had so exhausted the banks,
+that suddenly, from a source of revenue they became an item of
+considerable deficiency, and, from 1838 to 1854, could no longer be
+dredged. From a net annual return of £120,000 sterling, the yearly return
+had sunk to £10,000, of which nearly one-half was consumed in the
+attendant expenses. Now-a-days the work is gone about more circumspectly,
+a scientific examination having been made by a native naturalist, Dr.
+Kelaart, of all the oyster banks on the west coast. We had the pleasure,
+while at Colombo, of becoming personally acquainted with this very able,
+unassuming gentleman, who presented us with several memoirs of his own,
+touching upon the latest facts that had been ascertained with reference to
+the pearl oyster. One special result of his various researches has been
+the demonstration of two facts of the utmost importance to the pearl
+fishery, and which hitherto had not been fully ascertained--that this
+mollusc possesses locomotive powers; that its occasional disappearance is
+perfectly natural; and that, moreover, the pearl oyster may, without any
+injury, be transplanted from one locality to another--nay, even from salt
+to brackish water. The first-named observation explains the occasional
+disappearance of the pearl oyster from certain beds,[85] even when they
+have not been inordinately thinned by too keen a quest after gain; the
+latter opens up the pleasing anticipation of the pearl oyster being
+susceptible of very extensive propagation, by a process similar to that of
+pisciculture, or artificial breeding of fish (such as the colonies of
+edible oysters which are met with in the South of France), by
+transplanting them to such places as seem best suited to the conditions
+necessary to their highest development. What a splendid conception it were
+to plant the sea-coasts of Ceylon with pearls, and thus throw the wealth
+of the island in precious stones into the shade, by the treasures she
+would possess in the depths of the sea!
+
+[Footnote 85: This singular property of the oyster, in virtue of which it
+can be fed to as confirmed obesity as a prize-ox, and admits of nearly as
+much dexterity in "crossing," if we are to trust the palates of
+"gourmets," as the Southdown and Leicester breeds of sheep, has received
+its most extraordinary development in the vicinity of New York, where the
+amount of capital sunk in the oyster trade considerably exceeds
+£1,000,000! The finest of these are transferred as spawn from the beds in
+the East River, or Long Island Sound, to the "nurseries," which are
+situated in the brackish water near the head of the tide-way, just below
+the "Highlands of the Hudson." Here they are carefully tended for some
+months, till, their education being completed, they are re-transferred to
+their native beds, and fed there with oatmeal daily; while, by some
+mystery of the craft, the spawning season is postponed, except in the case
+of those that are selected for propagating the race.]
+
+Exactly at the period of our arrival at Colombo, the preparations were
+being resumed at Aripo for the take of the oysters, which commences at the
+beginning of February each year, and lasts about three weeks. It is, in
+fact, a sort of jubilee time for the people, at which the Governor and
+numbers of the wealthier classes mingle with the populace. Ordinarily this
+spot becomes at that season a rendezvous for the poor and the wretched,
+and a rallying point for all manner of abominable odours, filth,
+troublesome flies, and intolerable heat, despite which drawbacks the
+fishery is visited by thousands of boats, and hundreds of thousands of
+men, who flock hither with the alluring prospect of speedy and abundant
+wealth, or have been attracted from all parts of the Indian Continent by
+the singularity of the spectacle. Suddenly, as though evoked by the wand
+of a magician, a regular town starts into existence, of tents, or even
+neat huts, with bamboo and cabbage-tree palings, roofed over with
+palm-leaves, rice-straw, or coarse thick woollen cloth; booths for the
+sale of merchandise "rise like an exhalation" during the night to supply
+necessaries of all sorts to the converging multitudes from the interior,
+as well as the fleets of visitors from seaward; and last, not least, the
+divers themselves. Swindlers and mountebanks throng hither, adroit thieves
+creep stealthily about, all Indian customs and fashions are represented,
+all castes jostle each other. Priests, and the subordinate hangers-on of
+the various sects, hurry about, and jugglers and Nautch girls vie with
+each other in amusing the noisy multitudes.
+
+The result of numerous experiments has proved that no diving apparatus can
+replace the human machine, the cost of which, moreover, is a fixed
+definite quantity, viz., the fourth part of the pearls brought up, which
+is the diver's share. In each boat, or "Dhonie," are ten divers, each
+having an assistant. Before the divers proceed to descend, a number of
+quaint ceremonies are gone through, and incantations murmured, as well in
+the boats as on shore, by the so-called "shark-charmers;" indeed, the
+superstition of the divers, who for the most part come from the Coromandel
+coast, is so great, that not one of their number, Christian or idolator,
+would continue in this employment without the countenance of the sorcerer;
+and the Government finds itself compelled to pay the impostors.[86] They
+levy a tribute of ten oysters upon each boat.
+
+[Footnote 86: In 1857, the chief shark-charmer was a Roman Catholic!]
+
+Accidents with sharks are of rare occurrence: the noise of 1000 divers on
+the water at once seeming to scare the animals. Moreover, the dark colour
+of the skin of their bodies, acts as a considerable protection to the
+divers, so that there are numbers who blacken their legs, in order still
+more to alarm the monster.[87]
+
+[Footnote 87: An encounter in the water between a shark and an expert
+swimmer, armed only with a knife, is not so unequal an affair as might at
+first be supposed. The pearl fishers of the Gulfs of Panama and Nicoya
+only use a short stick, with which, if the sharks get _above_ them, they
+stir up the mud, under cover of which they swim along the bottom for a
+little distance, and then shoot up to the surface. Of the equality in
+which a good swimmer armed with a knife feels himself in encountering a
+shark, there are numerous instances. Many years ago, when shipping was
+more plentiful in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, than at the present day,
+vessels had occasionally to put up with somewhat awkward berths, when they
+used regularly to "foul their anchors," whereupon it became necessary, of
+course, to send some one down to free the cable. For this purpose, negro
+divers were employed, and one man attained a wide reputation from having
+himself, unscathed, slain in fair combat at different times, no less than
+five sharks! Ultimately the sharks steered clear of any black man who had
+a knife suspended round his neck.]
+
+After these preliminaries, the divers go down into the water, each
+carrying a basket-shaped net, in which to bring up the oysters, when
+selected--a stone of from 15lbs. to 25lbs. weight being fastened round the
+body, so as more readily to enable him to sink to the bottom. When at a
+depth of some 5 or 6 fathoms, the diver unfastens the stone, which is
+forthwith hauled up. He now throws himself forward on his face, and keeps
+himself as close as he can to the ground, while he rapidly rakes up and
+collects together all that is within his reach, so as to fill his landing
+net. He crawls along in this manner during the minute of his submersion,
+over a space of from 40 to 50 feet; and so soon as he pulls the cord
+attached to his plaited basket-edge, it is immediately hauled up, and he
+himself speedily follows it to the surface.[88]
+
+[Footnote 88: The divers are mostly old men, vigorous and healthy in
+appearance, thus dispelling the general notion that deep-sea diving
+weakens the body and shortens life. We were told of one diver, employed
+during the year 1856, in the pearl fishery, who was so stout and fat, that
+in addition to the ordinary diver's stone, he had to make fast a
+considerable weight to his body, in order to sink himself in the water.]
+
+The utmost depth at which the diver can safely remain seems to be about 40
+feet, beyond which blood is apt to issue from the nose and ears. They
+seldom remain above 50 or 60 seconds under water, although cases
+occasionally occur in which the stay under water is protracted to 80
+seconds. The diving is carried on for 5 or 6 hours without intermission,
+so that each of the ten divers can, in the course of a day, bring up from
+1000 to 4000 oysters. By dint of good fortune, and close packing, about
+150 oysters are brought up in each basket-net, while occasionally an
+unprolific bed does not give more than five or ten oysters. So soon as the
+oysters have been dragged to land, they are sorted in shares, of which one
+goes to the oyster fisher as his remuneration, and the remainder are sold
+in lots of 1000 each to the highest bidder. Now begins speculation. Chance
+presides here, quite as capriciously as at a lottery or another game of
+hazard. It often happens that a single oyster contains thirty or forty
+pearls, of which some may be worth a sovereign on the spot; but it more
+frequently occurs that several hundred oysters do not yield a single
+pearl. The small, valueless pearls, called also "seed pearls," are burnt
+down, and sold as pearl-lime to the wealthy Malays, by whom it is used as
+a luxurious addition to the betel and cabbage nuts, as masticatories. The
+Ceylonese mix the lustreless pearls with other grains, with which they
+feed the poultry, in whose croops the pearls regain their former
+brilliancy after a few minutes' grinding. The croop is then slit up, and
+the glittering stones extracted, white as the most beautiful
+pearl-muscular tissue.[89]
+
+[Footnote 89: This method of procedure, which is adopted by the rest of the
+Indian races, and in which the lustreless pearls are swallowed by hens,
+pigeons, and ducks, so as to be polished up, after being subjected to the
+preliminary digestion of these birds, has been proved to be anything but
+beneficial to the pearls as regards loss by attrition. Careful observation
+has established, for example, that four pearls, weighing twelve grains,
+have lost four grains by undergoing this process during twelve hours,
+while eight others, weighing thirty grains, were reduced to twenty grains
+after a sojourn of two days in the gizzard of a duck.]
+
+The pearl oysters caught on the coast of Ceylon are all of the same
+species (_Meleagrina Margaritifera_), uniformly oval in shape, and about
+9-1/2 inches in circumference. The number taken in Ceylon annually must be
+numbered by millions. In the year of our arrival to Ceylon (1858), the
+pearl fishery yielded £24,120. According to the last returns, before us as
+we write, there were in the year 1859, 1352 boats engaged during eighteen
+days in the pearl fishery, the gross take of which amounted to 9,534,951
+oysters, sold for £48,216. The divers' shares amounted together to
+2,126,749 oysters.
+
+The wide-spread popular delusion, that the pearl in the oyster is but a
+produce of disease in the animal, has long been refuted by scientific
+research, and although the great German poet, Henry Heine, in his
+"Romanzero," sings,
+
+   "Those world-famed pearls,
+    They are but the wan mucus
+    Of a sad oyster,
+    Dimly sickening in the depth of the sea!"
+
+it is rather a poetic fancy than a scientific fact. We have latterly been
+especially indebted to the German naturalist, Theodore von Hessling, for a
+very circumstantial and thoroughly exhaustive memoir on the natural
+history of the pearl oysters and their pearls,[90] in which the learned
+author seeks to establish that the enveloping matter of the germ of the
+pearl is identical with the covering of the animal, and that in the
+process of growth two influences are at work, an external and an internal.
+The first is called into play by the property peculiar to the hinge system
+that unites the double shell, of gaping wide open, in consequence of which
+extraneous substances rush in with the current of water, such as minute
+fragments of quartz, molecules of plants, &c., which, being detained
+either circling in the cavity, or eddying round the hinges, are seized on
+in the course of their revolutions, and entangled in the parenchyma of the
+various organs, which is specially secreted from the mantle, till it
+becomes enveloped by layers of solid shell. On the other hand, the
+internal development is closely allied to the conditions of deposition
+and subsequent growth of the shell-matter. Molecules, either a single
+grain or congeries of grains, varying from 9.01 to 0.05 of a line (3/4 of
+an inch down to the 1/240th of an inch), enclosed in the _epidermis_ of
+the shell, constitute usually the _nuclei_ of the pearls, which, to a
+certain extent, may be considered as nothing but a portion of the
+_epidermis_ not applied to the formation of shell. The pearls also are
+simply independent concretions growing in the creature, and consisting of
+the substance of the shell, which are with difficulty discriminated from
+the various descriptions of growths which constitute the inner surface of
+the shell.
+
+[Footnote 90: Die Perlen-Muschel, und ihre Perlen, Naturwissenschaftlich
+und Geschichtlich mit Berücksichtigung der Perlen-gewässer Bayerns,
+beschrieben von Theodor von Hessling, Leipzig, 1859.]
+
+The great importance of the pearl as an article of luxury and commerce,
+has naturally led to numerous attempts to manufacture them by artificial
+means, in the course of which extraneous bodies have been introduced
+between the mouth and shell of the animal, sometimes with, sometimes
+without injury to it. The Chinese especially are adepts at placing certain
+small bodies, specially prepared, in the shells of the pearl oyster,
+which, after a short time, becomes coated with mother-of-pearl, or nacre.
+This manufacture of artificial pearls is carried on on a large scale in
+the neighbourhood of Hong-Chow-Foo. During our stay at Hong-Kong and
+Shanghai respectively, we ourselves saw several mussel-shells, in which a
+mother-of-pearl covering had formed over small neatly carved figures,
+mostly sitting figures of Buddha,[91] the singular appearance of which
+would, at the first glance tend to make the observer suspect that the
+pearl had been fastened to the mussel by some adhesive substance. But we
+had so frequently an opportunity of satisfying ourselves by actually
+witnessing the entire process, that we could no longer doubt that the
+carved figures are with the utmost care introduced into the animal, and,
+after remaining a few days in the water, become attached to the mussel by
+a distinct membrane. This, their membrane, afterwards becomes
+interpermeated by the calcareous matter, till, finally, layers of
+mother-of-pearl are deposited all around the nucleus, the whole formation
+corresponding with the chalk-like concretions occurring in other
+creatures.
+
+[Footnote 91: The antiquity of this experiment is proved by the fact that
+the _Topographia_ of Ischikiang speaks of a pearl, which had been sent to
+the Imperial Palace at Pekin, 490 B.C., which resembled Buddha, and
+apparently must have been produced by this same method; although likewise
+the priests of Buddha, at that early epoch, might not have objected, in
+the interests of their religion, to make capital out of such a specimen of
+artistic skill.]
+
+Besides the pearl-shells, the northern shores of Ceylon, especially
+between the Island of Manaar and Karativoe, are especially rich in beds of
+a volute mussel (_Turbinella rapa_, or _soluta gravis_), which are
+exported in great numbers to India, where the Hindoo women saw them into
+rings of all sizes, to be worn as ornaments on the arms, legs, fingers and
+toes. The chank-shell is likewise a chief instrument of the Buddhists,
+who, amongst other devout customs, blow three times a day on this sacred
+shell, to summon believers to worship.[92] It is also used as a festive
+ornament of the Indian temples, as well as a donation to the dead, which,
+inspired by a religious feeling, the survivors place in the grave
+alongside of the corpse of their illustrious departed.
+
+[Footnote 92: According to the most ancient annals of the Cingalese, the
+chank-shell is sounded in one of the superior heavens of the demigods
+(similar to the conk-blowing Tritons of Grecian mythology), in honour of
+Buddha, as often as the latter wanders abroad on the earth.]
+
+The gems found on the island are distinguished, less for their intrinsic
+value than for the great variety of precious stones which are present.
+They are, with few exceptions, found to have been disengaged from the
+primitive rocks, and washed into the alluvial soil, especially in the
+outskirts of the mountainous districts, where they are rolled along the
+beds of the streams together with other pebbles, or are washed out of the
+alluvial deposits. Hitherto, they have only been searched for for purposes
+of trade, and then only in the most desultory and thriftless way, no one
+having as yet examined the rocks themselves, by the disintegration of
+which the valuable stones are disengaged. There was, indeed, no detailed
+information as to the wealth in precious stones of the island, until the
+researches of the English mineralogist, Dr. Gygax, who has very lately
+published on this subject many interesting observations and remarks. The
+locality in which precious stones are most abundant is, so far as present
+experience goes, the district of Saffragam, the capital of which in
+consequence takes the name of Ratnapoora, or Anarhadnaporra, "the city of
+rubies." They are also found at various other parts of the island; in the
+plains on the West coast, between Adams' Peak and the sea, at Nuwera
+Ellia, Kandy, Matelle, and Ruanwelli, near Colombo, as also in Matura, and
+the river courses on the eastern side, towards the ancient Mahagam. The
+geologist of the Expedition visited some mines of precious stones near
+Ratnapoora. These are situated on the Kaluga-Sella, a small tributary of
+the Kalu-Gunga, and lie, some in the very bed of the river, some on the
+steep bank. They are about thirty feet deep, but having been some time
+disused, they are full of water. The uppermost stratum of these pits or
+mines is a rich fertile yellow loam, exactly resembling our diluvial
+loams. This is succeeded, according to the report of the proprietor of the
+mines, by a slimy black clay, and clayey sand, beneath which again is a
+bituminous clay, holding numerous organic remains, such as leaves, trunks
+of trees converted into a substance resembling lignite, and not
+infrequently elephants' tusks and bones of animals; thereafter sand, and
+lastly a bank of rolled gravel, forming a species of conglomerate with
+red, yellow, and occasionally blue clay--being, in fact, what is known as
+stone-gravel. This bank of pebbles is the layer in which the precious
+stones occur, and these are most commonly found between the larger masses
+of agglutinated matter, that are always found especially to abound in
+gems, whenever they are superposed upon what is called malave, which
+appears to be a sort of greenish-coloured talc-like half-decomposed mica.
+The most valuable stones that are obtained from these mines are rubies and
+sapphires. In the Kalu-Gunga, also, precious stones are occasionally
+washed down, and as the geologist of the _Novara_ Expedition was
+descending the river in a boat, from Ratnapoora to Caltura, he perceived
+at several places, more particularly at the various rapids, men standing
+in the water, provided with flat pan-shaped baskets, in which they sifted
+the sand and pebbles.
+
+The gems found on the island are rubies, sapphires topazes, amethysts,
+garnets, cinnamon-stone, and tourmaline. On the other hand, all the
+diamonds, emeralds, carnelians, agates, opals, and turquoises, which the
+natives offer for sale, are imported from India. One precious stone, on
+which the Cingalese set an exceedingly high value, because they
+erroneously believe that it is peculiar to the island of Ceylon, whereas
+it is also found on the southern shores of Hindostan, is the "Cat's-eye,"
+a greenish transparent quartz, which, when polished in its natural shape,
+or "_en cabochon_," exhibits in its interior a varying reflected light,
+undoubtedly arising from the presence of fibres of asbestos, and which, in
+fact, bears some resemblance to the eye of a cat. The natives, as a rule,
+estimate the value and symmetry of this stone by the brilliancy and
+tenuity of the beam which it emits, and the clear olive-coloured ground
+upon which it shines in relief.
+
+A vast number of men give themselves up to the exciting but most uncertain
+occupation of searching for precious stones, and barter what they have
+found, chiefly to Mahometan merchants, for clothes and salt. As, however,
+the natives themselves set a high value on jewels, in consequence of
+their small bulk admitting of their being readily concealed and easily
+carried about, the finer descriptions are readily disposed of at a good
+price, and, singular to say, it has frequently happened, as we ourselves
+found by personal experience, that precious stones are dearer in Colombo
+and Galle than in the European markets! The explanation of this paradox is
+probably that the steady copious influx into the London and Paris markets
+of precious stones from all parts of the earth where jewels are found,
+admits of by no means such excessive fluctuations in value as at Ceylon,
+where the supply actually on hand is so varying, and where the value of
+the article almost always depends upon the rank and wealth of the Indian
+purchaser. The foreign traveller very often cannot restrain a feeling of
+surprise at seeing the fingers of the stately Mahometan jewellers adorned
+with rings of costly gems, which are only offered for sale to himself at
+an exorbitant sum.
+
+The value of the precious stones of all sorts found in Ceylon in the
+course of a year is estimated by Sir Emerson Tennent at about £10,000,
+one-fourth, at least, of the entire quantity finding a market on the
+island, a full half being sent to the jewel-polishers of India, so that
+only the remaining fourth is exported to Europe.
+
+The scant time allotted to us at Colombo was zealously occupied in seeing
+the utmost that we could of the many interesting objects that invited
+attention. Among others, we visited one of the largest industrial
+enterprises in Ceylon, known as Hultsdorf Mill, a cocoa-nut-oil factory,
+the proprietorship consisting in shares, of which the largest holder is
+David Wilson, Esq., the Austrian Consular Agent. Here are carried on all
+the various processes connected with the manufacture, the preparation of
+the oil-cake from the cocoa-nut, the expressure of the oil, &c., which are
+carried on by apparatus, partly sent out from England, partly put up in
+this country, all set in motion by steam-engines. The task assigned in
+these factories to the natives, of whom above a thousand are employed in
+the various departments, is, nevertheless, not the less important and
+significant, that, while machinery is used in those processes where it is
+necessary to use an agency far transcending the powers of mere human
+labour, all collateral products, such as soap, candles, perfumery, as also
+the implements and tools required for the works, and even the barrels and
+chests required for the transport of the manufactures, are prepared and
+used by handicraft labour.
+
+To the thoughtful visitor it is a scene of no ordinary interest to behold
+several hundreds of Cingalese, Hindoos, and Mozambique negroes, all
+thoroughly conversant with the management of the most magnificent
+invention of the nineteenth century. Here are a number of artisans
+employed at the hydraulic presses and iron turning-lathes; in another
+apartment the various parts of the different machines are being
+constructed or put together, which regulate the pressure of the steam
+supplied to the apparatus when in activity; in a third, persons are busy
+examining and testing the resulting products with scrupulous precision.
+With all its development, European industry has, in this quarter,
+exercised but an obscure influence; and, thus far, has been productive of
+but small results as a civilizing element among this population, which has
+hitherto shown itself so little disposed to accept the Christian form of
+civilization.
+
+In the large warehouse belonging to Mr. Wilson, we also saw huge heaps of
+"Kauris," or Cowries, (_cypræa moneta_), the renowned, or rather
+ill-reputed, species of mussel, which comes from the Maldive Islands, and
+plays so important a part in the commerce with the coast of Malabar and
+the interior of Africa; while here, it constitutes the sole medium of
+exchange, which is used by way of barter for almost all sorts of
+agricultural produce, chiefly among the blacks.[93] These mussels are sent
+from Ceylon to London, and thence back to the Eastern Coast of Africa, and
+thus indirectly uphold the slave-trade, as, the native merchants of that
+region barter these shells, so greatly sought after by all African tribes,
+as ornament, for negroes and negresses, who are in turn sold to the
+"speculators in human flesh." A ton of these shells, of which the smaller
+description are most in request, and therefore the most valuable, costs
+in Ceylon about £70 to £75.
+
+[Footnote 93: The Malay name for this mussel is "beya," implying duty,
+toll, tax, thus leaving it open to conjecture that that nation, in their
+commerce with the Asiatic and African continents, have for untold ages
+employed the same principles of currency and expressions of value as
+ourselves.]
+
+To the kindness and active interest in our objects of Mr. Wilson, in whose
+agreeable villa at Mootwall--the plan and method of construction of which
+reminded us of the beautiful planters' houses on the sugar estates of
+Louisiana--we spent the last night of our stay at Colombo, we are also
+indebted for a copy, with which he presented us, of the most ancient
+annals of Ceylon, inscribed with an iron graver upon Talipot palm-leaves
+in the highly-esteemed Pali language, and preserved between richly-carved
+boards of the costly wood of the Kalamander tree (_Diospyrus Hirsuta_).
+This carefully-preserved MS. includes, among others, the celebrated epic
+poem "Mahawanso," (an abbreviation "Mahantaman Wanso," "Genealogy of
+mighty men,") which recites under 100 heads, and in 9175 verses, the most
+important events connected with the interior constitution and history of
+the island, as also of all the battles fought by the inhabitants in
+foreign countries from B.C. 543 to the year 1758, A.D. Of these, the most
+renowned historic relics of the Cingalese, 38 chapters, of 262 pages 4to,
+were translated into English by George Tumour, Esq., an eminent Pali
+scholar, and printed at Ceylon, in the year 1837. Unfortunately, his
+earnest desire to publish the rest of this highly-interesting work was
+destined not to be gratified. The grave closed over him ere he could
+realize his wish. At present, however, there is a prospect of the
+translation of the "Mahawanso" being completed by Mr. James de Alwis, a
+worthy follower in the footsteps of Mr. Turnour, chiefly through the
+munificence of Government and of the Scientific Institutes, which were
+invoked to supply the requisite assistance for the prosecution of an
+undertaking likely to prove so unremunerative.
+
+In addition to the copy of the "Mahawanso," we also procured a number of
+other important Cingalese MSS. on Talipot palms, which were made use of by
+Tumour, partly in his translation of the "Mahawanso," partly in his other
+works upon Ceylon, and which embrace numerous valuable historical details
+not comprised in the "Mahawanso." This complete collection of the most
+antique annals of the Island of Ceylon, in the purchase of which we were
+kindly favoured with the advice and assistance of Mr. Wilson at Colombo,
+together with a variety of other Cingalese MSS. on palm leaves, collected
+at a subsequent date, now form part of the collection of valuable books in
+the Imperial Royal Library at Vienna.
+
+Besides Mr. Wilson, our very best thanks are due to the Colonial
+Secretary, Sir C. J. McCarthy, who had the kindness to provide several of
+the members of the _Novara_ Expedition with the requisite letters of
+introduction to the authorities in the interior of the Island: also to Mr.
+John Selby, the very obliging proprietor of the _Examiner_; to Dr.
+Kelaart, physician and naturalist; to Charles P. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent for the Western Provinces; and to Captain Gosset,
+Surveyor-General, for their numerous attentions. The last-mentioned
+gentleman very kindly provided us with a pair of level-tubes which we
+urgently needed for one of our levelling instruments, and which, in this
+quarter of the globe, were more rare and difficult to be met with than
+pearls or precious stones.
+
+Our return from Colombo to Galle, was not less marked by misadventures
+than our journey thither. As far as Caltura, where our amiable Father
+Miliani was in waiting for us with his neat single-horse equipage, to
+convey us to the beautiful parsonage of St. Sebastian Makùn, all went
+tolerably smoothly with us. We arrived, as had been concerted, to
+breakfast with this hospitable shepherd of souls. On our way to the
+parsonage, we noticed that great respect was paid to the worthy Father, by
+such of the Cingalese as met us. Their usual salutation was to bend
+themselves to the earth, veiling their eyes at the same time, and bending
+forward the outstretched head as though to implore a blessing. Father
+Miliani, who held the reins in his left hand, while his right hand
+flourished a long heavy whip, slightly inclined his body upon the
+cabriolet, and so dismissed in peace the poor folk that besought his
+benediction. When we had now got pretty near the parsonage, we were
+suddenly brought to a halt by a couple of natives, of whom one implored
+the spiritual ministration of the Father for his wife, then lying almost
+_in articulo mortis_, while the other had brought with him, from the
+sacristy of Makùn, the Communion-plate required for the purpose. The
+priest, to whom this interruption seemed to come as a matter of course,
+stopped, apologized for the unexpected delay, threw the reins to one of
+the party, sprang from the waggon, and disappeared in the gloom of the
+forest. It was not for long, as it proved; for the stately, handsome
+figure of the priest of Makùn presently appeared between the cocoa-palms.
+He had found the woman much less dangerously ill than he had been led to
+expect by the report of the husband, the native converts to Christianity
+being very much given to requesting the administration of the rites of the
+Church, upon being attacked by the slightest indisposition, because they
+anticipate much more benefit from spiritual treatment than from the
+medicines of their body-curers. And now we proceeded on our way to the
+parsonage at a smart gallop, which, however, did not prevent a zealous,
+much-believing Cingalese from keeping up with the mettled horse, stride
+for stride, for the entire distance, keeping close to the waggon as he ran
+alongside. We were not then aware, indeed, whether this violent bodily
+exercise was undertaken as a matter of choice or as a penance, but it
+seemed to us, in any case, an act far less meritorious than prejudicial to
+health.
+
+In St. Sebastian de Makùn, the entire community were awaiting our arrival,
+and escorted us by a romantic hill, and through a delicious palm-forest,
+to the priest's abode. Here we found the porch of the house gaily adorned,
+and metamorphosed with tropical fruits and flowers into a smiling fragrant
+bower, with the feathery leaf of the cocoa-palm cut into thin strips. The
+inventive ingenuity of the Cingalese had endeavoured to represent the
+various birds found in tropical forests, which were suspended in
+ornamental baskets of green leaves among the festoons. Over the entrance
+to this bower, improvised out of materials supplied by the primeval
+forest, was placed a picture painted by the good Father himself,
+representing a large anchor, with the superscription in Italian "La
+speranza non confunde!" (Hope never disappoints!) This was evidently a
+delicate allusion of our kind-souled entertainer to the hope which he had
+expressed during our previous visit, that he should see us on our return
+from Colombo, "which had not been disappointed."
+
+In the interior of the arbour appeared an elegantly appointed table, that
+seemed ready to give way under the weight of good things spread upon it,
+around which were placed a number of arm-chairs, worked in tapestry, while
+the plastered floor was strewed with the glistening green leaves of the
+_Ficus religiosa_. As soon as we had taken our seats, the members of the
+community, consisting of more than a hundred tawny, half-naked Cingalese
+(principally men and children), arranged themselves in a circle, and some
+half-dozen dancers began to execute a very ordinary-looking dance to the
+sound of a drum. The entire figure consisted in their simply approaching
+each other from opposite sides, during which they struck the
+hollow-sounding instrument pretty sharply, holding it in their hand the
+while, after which they drew away from each other, and wound up by
+dancing round in a circle in couples. A boy of eight, in glittering
+costume, next performed a dance, in which he was accompanied by a grown-up
+Cingalese who sung, occasionally accompanied by drum and fife. Frequently
+we enquired what was the meaning of the vocal accompaniment to the dance,
+but could get no information upon the subject. But we have always had
+occasion to remark among the various primitive races, that they are rarely
+able to give any connected account of the history of their dances or even
+their songs, but simply go through a set of mechanical figures which they
+have learned, or rehearse a set of words by rote, without being able to
+assign any signification to either. Over and over again have we put the
+question, only to receive the same stereotyped answer from Hindoos,
+Negroes, Chinese, Malays, and Polynesians, that they could tell us nothing
+more than that these songs and dances took their origin in the "olden
+times." Breakfast was served in the arbour by Cingalese boys. As often as
+the hospitable Father turned to apologize for his scanty means, which
+prevented him from ministering to our entertainment as he could wish, some
+new dish would be forthcoming, or some fresh kind of wine would be
+produced, till one knew not which most to admire, the variety of the
+entertainment, or its cost in preparation.
+
+On inquiring of Father Miliani, in the course of conversation, whether he
+had any acquaintance with the plants to which the natives ascribe healing
+properties, he sent for a phial containing an oily substance, which;
+according to the Cingalese herbalists, is composed of 57 different roots
+and as many flowers, and has already been wonderfully efficacious in cases
+of persons bitten by poisonous serpents. It is called by the natives,
+_Visanili-Katail_ (oil against poison); and the priest of Makùn remarked
+to us, he had himself had an opportunity of satisfying himself as to the
+marvellous curative qualities of this vegetable substance, in the case of
+persons who had been bitten by the most venomous snake in the whole
+island, the _Cobra di Capello_, who had entirely recovered by the copious
+use of this antidote. The application is very simple. The mouth is rinsed
+out with it, and the patient further takes from 15 to 20 drops of the oil
+internally. Unfortunately, we were not able to inquire more particularly
+as to the ingredients from which the Visanili-Katail is compounded, of
+which we eventually got a small quantity to carry away with us, after much
+entreaty; but by way of compensation, Father Miliani was able to give us
+much valuable information as to the manners, customs, and traditions of
+his flock. He regretted, however, that they were all of a highly
+impassioned strain, and that they constantly passed from one extreme to
+the other. The following trait, which was pointed out to us by the Father
+in the course of conversation, may serve to indicate the modes of thought
+and observation of the natives. When the Cingalese perceived how eagerly
+and with what warmth of friendship the Father received us, they inquired
+of him whether he had been previously an acquaintance of ours, as they
+were unable to conceive the existence of such hearty good-will between
+persons who were utter strangers to each other. The priest, readily
+appreciating the results which must flow from the reply he should give, in
+confirming the devout souls of his children, replied that the reputation
+of his name had long since penetrated to us, and we were unwilling to ride
+by without turning aside to salute him, to which he had readily expressed
+his assent, and had also long since been apprized of the important mission
+of the Austrian ship of war, whose commander was termed by the natives,
+with the bombast of their native tongue, "King of the Sea." At our
+departure, the kind Father presented us with several interesting articles,
+as _souvenirs_ of Makùn, while we, on our part, left with him a donation
+in money to defray the expenses of erecting his church.
+
+Father Miliani, the band of musicians, consisting of ten or twelve
+wild-looking fellows, with all manner of barbarous musical instruments, of
+which they made not less barbarous use, together with a laughing, yelling,
+gesticulating crowd of half-naked Cingalese, with long raven locks
+floating over their shoulders, accompanied us to our travelling chariot.
+Here we took leave of the hospitable Father, the vehicle set out on its
+route, and the whole brown retinue at once dispersed.
+
+Hardly had we left the Mission of St. Sebastian Makùn behind us, ere our
+troubles began afresh. At almost the very first station we came to, we
+had to hire a horse from a resident at an exorbitant rate--the animal
+belonging to the station, and which had been engaged for us, being utterly
+useless. This gave occasion for fresh delays. The party letting the horses
+was what is called a native doctor, who assumed the title of "native
+vaccinator," and bitterly complained, that for his attendance four days in
+every week, as required by the law, for the purpose of inoculation, he
+only received from Government a monthly salary of £2 5_s._ sterling.
+Whatever deficiency existed in his salary, he seemed determined to make up
+for in the hire of his horse, which he charged for at the rate of ten
+shillings for six miles! On the cash being forthcoming, our "native
+vaccinator" did not disdain himself to take the reins, and, with his own
+hands, apply the whip to his mare between the shafts of our vehicle. But
+this mark of distinction was destined, ere long, to cost us dear. Hardly
+had we proceeded a couple of miles under his care, when the hind-wheels of
+the vehicle sunk into a rut, whence our Æsculapian steed lacked the
+strength to extricate us. To complete the sum of our misfortunes, at the
+very moment we were using our utmost endeavours to replace the waggon on
+the regular track, it came on to rain heavily, and we were, in a
+twinkling, wet to the skin. Some thirty young Cingalese, in the full dress
+of Adam before the Fall, who were standing open-mouthed round the waggon,
+could only be roused by threats from their passive attitude; and when,
+finally, they lent a hand to assist, they, in their ill-timed zeal, came
+near oversetting the waggon into the ditch on the opposite side. Next, we
+exchanged this stubborn brute for one that was blind. For a brief space we
+hoped the latter might probably be the more easily driven in consequence
+of his not seeing what was going on around him; but these anticipations
+were speedily dispelled, and in a rather unpleasant manner. The short
+distance that now separated us from our destination seemed as though it
+would never have an end; and, in a word, it was already verging on
+midnight ere we reached Galle, where we had been expected to dinner five
+hours before, by our hospitable friend, the Consul for Hamburg. Some of
+the invited guests had already left this agreeable house, while others
+were still seated at the whist-table, as, wearied and exhausted, we
+entered the drawing-room. The circumstances that had so seriously delayed
+our arrival were explained by way of apology, and proved the subject of
+some goodnatured quizzing on our misfortunes by the guests present; and in
+such agreeable society, and over a sumptuous supper, we speedily forgot
+the trifling annoyances of our latest experiences.
+
+In the course of a desultory agreeable conversation about the natural
+beauties of the island, many were the plans of more distant excursions
+which we projected this evening--which, however, upon more mature
+consideration, all proved impracticable, owing to the scanty time at our
+disposal. Thus we found ourselves, much against our wishes, compelled to
+forego a visit to Kandy, and its beautiful environs, in which is situated
+the renowned temple that enshrines the tooth of Buddha, the occupation of
+which by the English was, in the eyes of the Cingalese, the most manifest
+indication of their being the legitimate conquerors of the kingdom.[94]
+Neither were we able to take part in an elephant hunt, although these
+animals are found in the island in such quantities, that it is related,
+with every appearance of accuracy, of a single elephant hunter, the late
+Major Rodgers, who was struck dead by a flash of lightning a few years
+since in the midst of the forest, that he had, in the course of his life
+of active exercise, laid low fifteen hundred elephants with his own hand!
+But permission was granted by the commander of the Expedition to the
+geologist and one of the zoologists to remain in Ceylon, and rejoin the
+frigate at Madras by the steamer which runs fortnightly, so as to enable
+them to ascend the world-famous Adam's Peak, 7000 feet high, one of the
+loftiest peaks in Ceylon, where, according to tradition, the founder of
+the Buddhist doctrine, when last he visited the earth, in answer to the
+supplications of a priest, left behind the print of his footstep
+(_Sri-pada_), as a visible sign of his presence.
+
+[Footnote 94: The legend relating to these relics, about which so many wars
+were waged, goes back as far as the third century of the Christian era,
+when Mahasana, a true believer, having become King of Ceylon, purchased
+these teeth for numerous valuable presents, of one of his kindred, a
+Calinga king in Bengal, who sent them over by his princes. The tooth
+Dahata Wahansa immediately achieved a miracle--it illumined the entire
+island, and supplanted all heretical teaching. It was forthwith enveloped
+in a hundred cloths, and a temple erected to enshrine it, since which it
+has been regarded as the Palladium of Ceylon. When, in 1560, this tooth
+was transferred to the temple at Manaar by the Portuguese under Constantin
+de Braganza, the king offered the Portuguese bigots 600,000 pieces of gold
+by way of ransom. Braganza judged it more advisable to destroy the tooth.
+But he little knew the adroitness and subtlety of the Buddhist priesthood.
+The very next morning the tooth, that had been supposed to be destroyed
+was marvellously found in a Lotos leaf in the temple, where it had been
+deposited by Buddha himself!]
+
+We cite, in the following extract, the most prominent features of this
+venture, as supplied by the two members of the Expedition who undertook
+it, so as to complete the description of the _Novara's_ visit to Ceylon:--
+
+"On 13th January, 1858, we proceeded from Colombo to Ratnapoora, _en
+route_, to visit Adam's Peak, a tolerably long and tedious journey. On the
+margin of a river we encountered an elephant, who was engaged in assisting
+the labourers on the public roads in that vicinity. While our car and the
+baggage were being embarked here, and again put in order, this animal went
+through a number of tricks, such as swaying to and fro, lying down,
+raising his trunk, and trumpeting, the latter of which, at a sign from his
+driver, he did with a vengeance, and for so doing was rewarded with a few
+plantains. These exercises seem to constitute the first steps in taming,
+as they were gone through in a similar manner by all the elephants we
+afterwards saw, whether employed like this one in task-work, or maintained
+for show, or made use of in the Temple service.
+
+At mid-day we reached Ratnapoora, and as we were anxious to shorten as
+much as possible our next day's journey, we decided on pushing forward in
+the course of the afternoon, as far as the little village of Gilli-Mali,
+seven miles further on. We had been provided by C. W. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent in Colombo, with letters of introduction to his deputy,
+Mr. Mooyart, at Ratnapoora, who, however, we unfortunately found was
+absent from home. Next day, however, we had unmistakable evidence that our
+letters had, very shortly after our departure, reached the hands they were
+intended for, by a variety of precautions which the hospitable gentleman
+must have at once arranged with a view to our greater comfort. While yet
+on the second-half of our road to Gilli-Mali, night overtook us, and we
+prosecuted our march by torch-light through the dense jungle. Our guides
+and porters had shown some reluctance to enter this jungle, partly on
+account of the swarms of land-leeches (_litchies_, as they are termed
+here, doubtless by a corruption of the English name), which are especially
+active during the night, partly from other causes of anxiety. Accordingly,
+they kept reciting Cingalese ditties, alternated with shrill yells, or
+shouted, so as to be heard at a distance; whether to drive away evil
+spirits, or to frighten the _chetah_ or leopard, we could not ascertain.
+No long time elapsed ere we ourselves began to perceive traces of having
+been victimized by that most uncomfortable of guests, the land-leech. The
+naked Hindoos were incessantly occupied with pulling off these painful
+blood-suckers, and we had to call a halt from time to time, in order to
+loosen and carefully fling them away, as they had succeeded in reaching
+the skin, through the trousers immediately above the boot. They are found
+up to an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea on the mountains, chiefly in
+damp or wet localities, and are most active during the evening and night
+in the selection of a victim.
+
+At Gilli-Mali, we fell in with Mr. Braybrooke, an English engineer, who
+most hospitably invited us to his bungalow, and with whom we conversed
+upon topics relating to Ceylon, till far into the night.
+
+Next day we had to ascend the Peak itself; which is in so far a difficult
+undertaking on the side from which we approached it, that one has gained
+no vantage-ground at Gilli-Malli, our last night's resting-place, towards
+reaching the summit, so that one sees it in its entire colossal height of
+above 7000 feet directly in front; whereas, in ascending from Kandy, one
+has already, at Neuwera Ellia, attained an elevation of 4000 feet, which
+can be performed in a carriage. We set out at 7 A.M., and after an
+hour-and-a-half's march, gained the last village, Balahab-a-Dullu, in the
+Buddhist temple of which is kept a flat metal dish, adorned with silver
+_rosettes_, with which the imprint of the holy footstep is covered over at
+the season of the annual pilgrimage. On the table, before a colossal
+figure of Buddha, were strewn, as usual, a quantity of flowers presented
+by the faithful; these were the flower-shrubs of the _Areca palm_,
+_Hibiscus_, _Alamanda_, _Tagetes_; also, close to the wooden statue, are
+placed several small figures of silver or wood, 3 or 4 inches long. The
+priest also showed us a magnificent manuscript of at least 1000 palm
+leaves, closely and beautifully engraved on both sides with Cingalese
+characters, which belonged to the temple, and was guarded with great care.
+
+At a solitary house on the road, we left our guides and porters to discuss
+their modest repast, which, in consequence of the strict ordinances of the
+Buddhist faith, consists of vegetable substances only. Reclining on a mat
+spread on the ground, each took a piece of green plantain leaf, scattered
+upon it a little rice which they had just brought with them, and some
+chili (red Spanish pepper), and thence conveyed their simple food to their
+mouth with the hand. This frugal meal was speedily concluded, and we once
+more pushed forward. From this point we had the dense covert of the high
+forest trees, the lofty foliage of which afforded a most agreeable shade,
+and kept us comparatively cool. The path, which consists simply of
+ravines, formed by the rush of torrents during the rainy season, is so
+steep that it seems like one uninterrupted flight of stairs, the steps of
+which seem partly constructed by Nature, partly by the hand of man.
+Frequently they are artistically chiselled in the solid rock; at one
+stupendous precipice a Cingalese monarch has had four flights, of 250
+steps in all, hewn out of the living rock. Here and there, also, ladders
+have been contrived, the rounds of which are composed of pieces of bamboo
+bound together, by which one clambers up. The whole route bears marks of
+being much used, and is considerably worn, the stones being rubbed quite
+smooth. Under the damp shade of the forest are found a vast quantity of
+the most beautiful ferns and _Lycopodium_ (Club-moss; or Wolf's-claw, as
+it is called in Sweden, whence the Linnæan name); from the delicate beauty
+of the _Jungermania_ (Star-tip), to the tree-like fern, _Filius
+Phyllophisidos_, which vies with the giants of the forest. The more deeply
+shaded spots are adorned here with beautiful balsams, a genus of plants
+which, besides being unusually luxuriant and beautiful in this district,
+exhibits certain peculiarities of form not usually met with.
+
+At one place, called Nihilabellagalla, there was pointed out to us, at a
+few paces to the side of the road, near a rugged projecting rock with a
+steep declivity in front, a narrow valley which seemed to be closed in by
+perpendicular walls of rock on the opposite side. This _cul de sac_, we
+were informed, was a favourite resort of numerous wild elephants. A shot
+fired at this point, with the gun directed towards the rocks opposite,
+returned a thundering echo.
+
+By 4 P.M. the last halt, or resting-place, was reached, above which the
+singular-looking cone towers sheer overhead, some 500 or 600 feet high.
+The vapours which, during the entire day, had been playing about the
+summit, from time to time lifted like a veil, as though to indulge us with
+an opportunity of beholding this sublime mountain-peak under the magical
+effect of twilight. Our native retinue, which had gathered fresh
+accessions of strength at every place we passed, and now consisted of from
+24 to 30 persons, showed no inclination to proceed farther, but appeared
+desirous of passing the night at the last halting-place, which was nothing
+but a sort of hovel. It was only by a resolute expression of our
+determination to reach the summit the same evening that they gave in.
+Their reluctance arose from an idea that no one could with impunity pass
+the night on the highest point of the mountain--which, indeed, is natural
+enough, since the sharp night-air at such an elevation may well be
+prejudicial to the health of those who are not sufficiently protected
+against its attacks.
+
+The last portion of the ascent is so steep, and so difficult, that all
+superfluous baggage was left behind, and we took with us only what was
+absolutely indispensable. Thus far we had seen occasional traces of
+elephants, sometimes so fresh, that they could not have been more than an
+hour old. According to a report of Major Skinner, the unmistakable marks
+of one of these animals was remarked in the year 1840 quite close to the
+rock which bears the sacred footprint! At the steepest points, iron
+ladders have been made fast, by which the visitor has to scramble up.
+There were, also, innumerable chains fastened to the rock, of every
+description and variety of link, which swung to and fro by dozens on
+either hand, some eaten away with age and rust, some forged quite lately,
+it being considered a meritorious work to provide such as a protection
+against the occurrence of accidents. By 6 P.M., we at last reached the
+summit, and were rewarded with a panoramic view of indescribable
+magnificence. The mists were almost entirely dispersed, and in the clear,
+calm, evening light, the eye wandered at pleasure over the vast, almost
+limitless, panorama at our feet, as far as the sea, barely visible in the
+grey distance. Bounding our view from north-west to east, the mountain
+ranges rose by three distinct terraces of hills, each behind the other,
+and in regular gradations, till they culminated in the highest peak on the
+island, the Pedro-talla-galla, which overtops Adam's peak by nearly 1000
+feet,[95] but presents no pre-eminent peak, similar to that on which we now
+stood. The remainder of the horizon was filled with low mountains, which
+gradually became more and more flat as they approached the coast. The
+followers of three religions,--Buddhists, Brahmins, and Mahometans, stand
+face to face with each other on this space of barely a few steps, in order
+to bow before these visible emblems, in sincere devotion to the invisible
+Deity. The highest surface, which is nearly level, is of an irregular oval
+form, and is about 60 or 70 feet in length, by from 36 to 40 feet in
+breadth, and is inclosed within a wall 5 feet in height, with two
+entrances on the west and south, while the north-east corner is shut out
+by an artificially rounded rock, easily surmounted, however, by any one
+who ascends it. In the middle of this enclosure stands a block of rock
+some 10 or 11 feet high, which, on the extreme top, has a depression, the
+divine _Sri-pada_, or Holy Footstep. The adoration consists chiefly of
+offerings of flowers which are brought up hither, and presented with
+innumerable genuflections, invocations, and exclamations of "_Sadoo_,"
+which corresponds to the Christian Amen. The impressed foot-print is
+ascribed by the Buddhists to the last incarnation of Buddha, the gentle
+hermit Gautama; while it is regarded by the Brahmins as the footstep of
+Siva, and by the Mahometans as that of Adam, as being the spot on which
+the progenitor of the human race stood so long, doing penance after his
+expulsion from Paradise, until the Almighty pardoned him.
+
+[Footnote 95: The precise relative elevations of the two mountains are,
+Pedro-talla-galla 8280 feet, Adam's Peak 7420 feet. Two other peaks of the
+main range are also higher than Adam's Peak, viz. Totapella 7720 feet, and
+Kirrigal-potta 7810 feet, while the plains, or table-lands, of Welinani
+and Neuwera Ellia are, respectively, no less than 6990 feet and 6210 feet
+above the level of the sea.]
+
+This depression, in which only the most unbridled imagination can see any
+resemblance to the human foot, is about 5 feet in length by 2-1/2 in
+breadth, and is set, as it were, in a level stratum of mortar, several
+inches in height, by six in breadth, shaped to resemble the outline of the
+human foot. At its anterior extremity, it presents a straight line, on
+which the five toes are artificially formed by several tolerably thick,
+narrow crevices, filled with mortar, and about 8 or 9 inches in length,
+which jut inwards, the great toe being on the right or east side, and thus
+indicating that it is a representation of the left foot. At the heel end
+the setting of mortar is somewhat narrowed and rounded off. Over the whole
+affair a wooden temple with balustrades open on all sides, has been
+erected, which is fastened by iron chains to the rock, and to beams of
+rhododendron fastened on the N.W. side, outside the wall, to prevent its
+being swept away by the storms which, on this lofty, exposed peak,
+occasionally rage with great vehemence. These cables, as also several of
+the poles by which the temple was supported, were thickly hung with carved
+figures of Buddha enveloped in linen cloth, which, originally the votive
+offerings of pilgrims, and bleached by long exposure, fluttered in the
+breeze. On the front of the temple is erected a penthouse roof, shading a
+bench beneath, on which several of our porters, who regarded our impious
+presence, and still more impious admeasurements of the holy footprint,
+with a horror which they flattered themselves was unobserved, deposited
+their offerings of flowers, and humbly bent the knee. On the west side,
+under two small distinct roofs, were two bells, and quite apart, on the
+rock itself, and somewhat in the background, a smaller temple. Between the
+block of rock and the inner half of the enclosure, a small house has been
+erected, 12 feet long by 6 feet broad, which is used as a shelter at night
+by the priests who are on duty during the pilgrimage season,[96] in which
+we too took up our quarters. Suddenly, from the depths below there arose,
+through the unbroken silence of the night, a confused murmur, in which the
+sounds of human voices were plainly recognizable. The singularity of such
+a phenomenon produced a certain degree of excitement among our
+superstitious spectre-dreading followers, inasmuch as it had never
+happened that strangers undertook the ascent of the peak at night, seeing
+it gives trouble enough to reach the summit by daylight. By degrees we
+perceived a number of torches borne by natives, who, with loud and
+long-continued cheers, set about slowly ascending the ladders. To the
+inquiries of our followers they made no reply; and we had, in a word, to
+wait a considerable interval, until, indeed, the leading torch-bearer had
+reached the summit, ere we were enlightened as to the object of this
+mysterious nocturnal visit. How great, and let us add, agreeable was our
+surprise at finding ourselves suddenly surrounded by a choice array of
+wines, with food of various sorts, which the overflowing hospitality of
+Mr. Mooyart had dispatched after us to the summit of Adam's Peak, together
+with his card, the whole being conveyed in huge baskets by the supposed
+spectres! A cheerful fire speedily blazed up, at which our tea and
+provisions were cooked, and, as may well be supposed, while, enjoying our
+delicate fare, we thankfully toasted the kind and thoughtful donor.
+
+[Footnote 96: The dry season, occurring in the south-west side of the
+island from January to April, is likewise the chief season of pilgrimage,
+at the end of which the entire amount of the offerings, annually averaging
+from £250 to £300 sterling, is handed over to the High-Priest of Buddha.]
+
+Deep silence once more fell on all around, no cry of any wild beast
+reached us at this elevation, no hum of insect broke upon the awful
+stillness. Our coolies lay cowering together around the drooping blaze,
+seeking some shelter against the night air. One division stowed themselves
+away in a second sleeping-house for priests, which had been run up some
+twenty paces distant, in which we also were in the end fain to seek
+shelter from the ever-increasing keenness of the air, the temperature of
+which fell to 54°.5 Fahr., where, with our wrappers drawn close around us,
+and stretched at full length on the bare rock, we awaited the approach of
+morning.
+
+The first faint glimmer of dawn invited us once more to the open air, in
+order to contemplate the wonderful aspect of Nature at this elevation. We
+had, after leaving Ratnapoora, taken barometrical and thermometrical
+observations, with the view of determining the elevation at nine different
+stations, which had been, wherever practicable, selected in such manner,
+that by means of them the various limits of certain classes of vegetation
+were indicated, which in many instances are marked out with extraordinary
+distinctness upon the perpendicular side of the peak. These series of
+observations, which were at the same time supplemented by investigations
+as to the temperature of the soil and of various springs, will be compared
+with the results of previous scientific visitors to the summit of Adam's
+Peak, and published in another form. The geology of the isolated pinnacle
+of Adam's Peak, so far as the dense covering of primeval forests permitted
+us to observe, is uncommonly simple and uniform. The chief directions of
+the lofty chain of mountains in Southern Ceylon, separated from each other
+by level plateau-like depressions, is from S.S.E. to N.N.W., corresponding
+likewise with the chief directions of the strata of gneiss, of which these
+mountains are composed. The gneiss is uniformly of a species not often met
+with, studded with garnets, and between its strata are inserted single
+beds of hornblende-gneiss and splinters of pure hornblende, as also
+granulite-gneiss and pure granulite. The steep, final cone of the rock
+consists of a granulitic gneiss of varying texture from coarse to fine,
+and abounding in garnets. Everywhere, even up to the highest summit, the
+gneiss is decomposed on the surface into laterit-like products. The huge
+blocks of brown ironstone, however, which are found near the summit, in
+the hollow path by which it is customary to ascend, owe their origin to
+the decomposition of the hornblende.
+
+After these interesting observations, admeasurements, and investigations,
+made at the summit of the most remarkable peak in the world, had been
+brought to a conclusion, we set out on our return to Gilli-Mali, which we
+reached late at night. Here we found, at the abode of our hospitable
+entertainer, Mr. Braybrooke, a fresh guest, who likewise intended to
+ascend Adam's Peak the following day. This was the well-known Count Medem,
+a Russian gentleman, who has frequently traversed both the old and new
+worlds, and was now about making a second visit to China.[97] The next day
+saw us at Ratnapoora, from which point we continued our return journey on
+the waters of the Kalu-Gunga, or Black River, as far as Caltura.
+
+[Footnote 97: Count Medem died the same year at Shanghai.]
+
+Our boat consisted of two trunks of trees hollowed out and fastened
+together, upon which was erected a semicircular tilt, covered with the
+leaves of the Fan Palm (_Borassus Flabelliformis_), under which one might
+sit or lie at pleasure, sheltered from the sun. As the mail-car that runs
+daily from Colombo to Caltura was already full, we were compelled, in
+order to pursue our journey to Galle, to make use of the native waggon, or
+bullock-bandy. This is a two-wheeled cart drawn by oxen, and covered with
+a semicircular tilt of palm-leaves, beneath which there was room for two
+persons to lie at full-length packed closely together. The oxen, of a
+breed that have humps and erect horns, are small, and walk with a quick,
+short tramp, while their entire bodies are tattooed with Cingalese
+characters and ornaments. The horns are usually adorned with metal tips,
+and frequently are dyed, the one red, the other green. The cross-piece of
+the pole is fastened to the neck instead of the customary yoke, and the
+cord for guiding the animal passes through the nose. The driver either
+strides along between the two oxen, or sits with his back to them on the
+pole. The rate of progression by this national conveyance is so slow, that
+the mail-car which left Colombo the day after overtook us long ere we
+reached our destination, and it was with some difficulty we reached Galle
+in time for the overland steamer which was to bring us to Madras."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.--TRACK FROM POINT DE GALLE TO MADRAS.]
+
+At 6 A.M. of the 16th January, the _Novara_ set sail from the roads of
+Point de Galle with light breezes off the land, and steered southerly in
+order to avoid the Basses or Baxos, a much-dreaded rocky shoal,
+traditionally alleged to be the remains of the island of Giri, swallowed
+up by the sea, and which, owing to the very strong current, require the
+utmost care to be observed, in order to avoid drifting right upon them.[98]
+
+[Footnote 98: A late survey, instituted with the intention of erecting a
+lighthouse on the "Basses," proved a failure, in consequence of the ground
+having sunk in while an examination was being made by the diver, and left
+nothing but holes filled with water, in which, according to the report of
+the fishermen, besides fish and molluscs, sea-snakes are occasionally
+seen, of a light-gray colour, and about 4 or 5 feet in length.]
+
+The evening before our departure, the Consul for Hamburg had requested
+from the Commander of the Expedition the favour of a free passage to
+Madras, on board our frigate, for a native of Berlin, named Neupert. This
+man had come to Ceylon a long time previously with a company of
+rope-dancers, and had at first made a good deal of money as an acrobat and
+juggler, despite the dangerous competition of the Indian practitioners,
+but had afterwards lost his all, and had been for some weeks in a pitiable
+plight. The request was at once acceded to, and Neupert came on board
+during the night. His luggage did not encumber him much. However, although
+the greatest part of his effects had disappeared in Galle, he fortunately
+had kept his various apparatus; and, by way of showing his gratitude for
+the free passage that had been accorded to him, professed his willingness,
+in the course of the voyage, to give us some specimens of his skill on
+deck. Accordingly, one fine afternoon, he gave us an entertainment out on
+the open ocean, which not alone hugely pleased the sturdy tars grouped
+together on the forecastle, but ultimately, in consequence of a collection
+set on foot for the unfortunate Berlin acrobat, procured him enough ready
+money to enable him to pass the first week after his arrival at Madras
+free from anxiety, besides supplying him with a fresh outfit.
+
+Within a few days after our departure from Galle, several severe cases
+occurred of hemeralopia, chiefly among members of the ship's band. Every
+evening, as darkness set in, these men lost all power of distinguishing
+objects, and had to be led about like blind men. In Vienna, we had been
+advised by various physicians there, with a view to the confirmation or
+refutation of the popular belief, to try the use of boiled ox-liver;[99]
+and, as one of the oxen shipped at Ceylon had been slaughtered, we were in
+a position to make the desired experiment, which, it must be confessed,
+proved eminently successful. This time, moreover, several of those thus
+afflicted were treated with cooked pig's-liver, which was given them to
+eat, while the steam rising from the dish was applied to their eyes. But
+we had, on our return voyage, the most convincing proof of the efficacy of
+the liver of animals of the ox tribe in cases of night-blindness, when
+above twenty of those afflicted, after frequent relapses during the voyage
+from Valparaiso to Gibraltar, were treated in the last-named port with
+ox-liver, and dismissed permanently cured.[100]
+
+[Footnote 99: This cure is likewise very much resorted to, even of late
+years, among the Highlands of Scotland!]
+
+[Footnote 100: During the entire voyage round the globe, there occurred 75
+cases of _Hemeralopia_; the largest number of which, 60, occurred between
+Cape Horn and Gibraltar. The remainder were isolated cases, occurring at
+Rio, Ceylon, the Nicobar Islands, and on the voyage from China to Sydney.]
+
+The voyage from Ceylon to Madras was, on the whole, monotonous and void of
+interest, with the exception of one single event, which no one on board is
+likely to forget for the remainder of his life. About 3.30 P.M. of the 2nd
+January, 1858, there suddenly resounded from the hold, the astounding cry
+of "Fire! fire!" Everyone rushed, in the utmost excitement, on deck. It
+turned out that a by no means insignificant quantity of pure alcohol,
+which was stowed away in the hold for the preservation of specimens of
+natural history, had, from some unknown cause, caught fire. Forthwith the
+pumps were manned, the sails clewed up, all the portholes closed, so as to
+cut off the slightest draught, and all the hammocks of the crew trundled,
+_pêle-mêle_ on deck anyhow, out of the quarter-nettings, in which they are
+stowed away during the day, there to be dipped in sea-water, and in that
+wringing-wet condition applied, partly in extinguishing the flames, partly
+in preventing the fire from spreading. In less than a quarter of an hour
+the worst danger was over, and our wonted quiet restored, despite the
+first terrible excitement. On a more searching investigation, several of
+the tin carboys in the hold, filled with spirits of wine, and kept between
+layers of sand in iron chests, were found to have been corroded till the
+liquor had oozed through, while the air, having free access to the sand,
+had become strongly impregnated with gas. This atmosphere, impregnated as
+it was with alcoholic fumes, took fire on one of the sailors carelessly
+entering the hold with a badly-fastened lantern, and in a moment the light
+flames which speedily enveloped the man in such a confined space, at once
+gave the alarm. The full carboys remained uninjured by the fire. Had such
+a catastrophe happened, and the whole quantity of spirit (about 40
+gallons) taken fire, considering the immense quantities of combustible
+matter we had on board, among the rest a ton-and-a-half of gunpowder, the
+upshot must have been of a far less agreeable nature. The extraordinary
+lightning-like activity displayed by the entire ship's company on this
+occasion was something wonderful. Each man seemed to have got wings. There
+was the most laudable emulation displayed by all hands in seeking to save
+the lives of themselves and others from such a terrible doom.
+
+On the 30th January, at 7.30 P.M., we anchored in Madras Roads, so dreaded
+for their insecurity, about three nautical miles from the shore, and in 9
+fathoms (56 feet English). Even in the calmest weather there is a
+tremendous surf on this coast, and from October to December, in which
+strong gales blow from the N.E., it is all but unapproachable. For this
+reason, so soon as the wind increases so as to endanger the ships in the
+roads, a flag is hoisted on a staff at the Master Attendant's office, that
+they may put to sea at once. On the second signal, all ships must quit the
+Roads for fear of being dashed through the surf upon the beach.
+
+From the city we heard a running fire of musketry and some salutes with
+cannon, which, considering the prevalence of warlike rumours and movements
+in the then circumstances of India, made us conjecture that the natives of
+the Coromandel coast were also in insurrection against the English.
+However, we learned afterwards that the musketry and salvoes proceeded
+from the troops stationed near the drilling-ground, who were receiving
+their general on his return from parade with a salute. The following day
+(Sunday, the 31st January, 1858) the European community of Madras fell
+into a precisely similar error in consequence of our salute, which they,
+being at that hour assembled at worship, mistook for a much less peaceful
+and agreeable intimation, so that the majority, dreading an outbreak,
+hurried to their houses in deep anxiety.
+
+[Illustration: MASULI BOAT AT MADRAS.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF MADRAS (AND PROPOSED PIER).]
+
+
+
+
+                                 IX.
+
+                               Madras.
+
+      DURATION OF STAY FROM 30TH JANUARY TO 10TH FEBRUARY, 1858.
+
+   "Catamarans" and "Massuli" boats.--Difficulty of disembarkation,
+     and plans for remedying it.--History.--Brahminism.--Festival
+     in honour of Vishnu.--Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+     Government.--Politics and Religion.--Laws of Brahminic faith.--
+     The Observatory.--Museum of Natural History and Zoological
+     Garden.--Academy of Fine Arts.--Medical School.--Infirmary.--
+     Orphan Asylum.--Dr. Bell.--Lancastrian Method of Teaching
+     Children first applied in Madras.--Colonel Mackenzie's
+     Collection of Indian Inscriptions and Manuscripts.--The Palace
+     of the former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.--Journey by rail
+     to Vellore.--_Fête_ given by the Governor in Guindy Park.--
+     Visit to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.--
+     Excursion to Pulicat Lake.--Madras Club.--_Fête_ in honour of
+     the members of the _Novara_ Expedition.--"Tiffin" and dance on
+     board.--Departure from Madras.--Zodiacal light.--Shrove
+     Tuesday in the tropics.--Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.
+
+
+The morning after our arrival in Madras Roads, a native boat came
+alongside, of the sort known as "Catamarans," having on board two
+natives, who brought off from the authorities of the port the customary
+papers to be filled up. This extraordinary and very primitive boat
+consists of merely two or three trunks of trees bound together
+raft-fashion, on which these daring boatmen kneel. As a great part of
+their body is necessarily under water, they carry the papers and letters
+entrusted to them for transmission to the ships in the Roads, in
+turban-like wrappings which envelope their heads. Ordinarily, these men
+are excellent swimmers, a most requisite accomplishment to enable them to
+regain their boats, in the event of being swept off by the waves, or to
+save themselves and others from the innumerable sharks, which frequent the
+entire Coromandel coast, and render it eminently dangerous. About noon, a
+larger boat approached us, manned by from 15 to 20 natives, who offered
+their services as caterers, washers, agents, servants, in short as
+"Dubashes" a sort of Hindoo _factotum_; while each individual, shrieking
+and vociferating at the top of his voice, held high in the air, with
+outstretched arm, a number of written testimonials of ship-captains that
+had already employed him. These boats, called "Massuli," or "Musli" boats
+(from _Muchly_--fish), about 36 feet long by 5 or 6 in width, and in which
+alone it is possible to bring passengers and goods to land, are light, as
+flexible as if made of leather, and are fastened together with the elastic
+fibres of the cocoa-nut, being in every particular specially adapted to
+yield to the tremendous blows of the heavy surf, which a boat of ordinary
+construction could not possibly live through. They are for the most part
+pretty deep, and are usually manned with from 12 to 15 naked natives, who
+make use of an exceedingly smooth pallette-shaped paddle. In one of these
+boats, the officers of the frigate on leave, and the naturalists of the
+Expedition, were conveyed to land in the midst of a fresh breeze from the
+N.E. The more we approached the shore, the more formidable was the
+appearance of the tumultuous tempest-driven waves. Amid frightful yells
+and hurrahs, we passed in safety the first and second lines of surf. But
+we had yet to encounter the third, and by far the most furious. The
+boatmen spread a couple of cloths over our heads, to prevent our getting a
+soaking; the boat made several violent plunges forward, and was for an
+instant apparently covered by the tremendous foaming billows, but seemed
+to glide in a most extraordinary manner over these, and finally was neatly
+laid alongside the beach on the crest of the last breaker. This is the
+critical moment, and the most disagreeable, because the boat is, by this
+manipulation, thrown on its side, and one feels disposed to rush out, ere
+the returning wave throws the boat high and dry on the sand. The noisy
+shrieks of the boat's crew and Coolies, or Lascars (Indian porters), with
+which the disembarkation is accompanied, combine to render it still more
+annoying and unpleasant. One feels a sensation of satisfaction at having
+gone through this remarkable, and to some extent wholly peculiar,
+experience; but no one was ever known to encounter it voluntarily a second
+time. The glowing picture, which numbers of travellers have drawn of the
+landing at Madras, might impress many readers with the idea that their
+representations were most probably tinged somewhat with a colouring of
+romance; but, in view of our own experience at what is confessedly the
+pleasantest season of the year, there can be at certain times no
+description, however vividly sketched, but what must lag behind the
+reality.
+
+There could hardly have been selected a more unsuitable site for a city,
+than that of Madras, and it is only the circumstance that the entire
+Coromandel coast presents no more eligible haven, as also the importance
+of the place as the chief city of the Carnatic, which alone has a
+population of 5,000,000, that has enabled Madras to boast a population of
+700,000 inhabitants, and a commerce of such magnitude that 6000 vessels,
+British and foreign, are annually[101] cleared inwards and outwards, laden
+with upwards of 650,000 tons of produce and goods of a total value of more
+than £8,000,000 sterling.
+
+[Footnote 101: In the year 1857, the number of trading vessels was 6241,
+carrying 652,146 tons merchandise, of which 1438 were square-sailed ships;
+and 4803 native boats and Chinese junks. The imports of goods and metals
+amounted to Rs. 40,563,826 (about £4,050,000 in round numbers); the
+exports to Rs. 40,060,656 (about £4,000,000 in round numbers). We are
+indebted to the kindness of Dr. Balfour for a variety of interesting
+statistical _data_, the information contained in which must be transferred
+to the statistical portion of the _Novara_ publications.]
+
+The spot at which vessels anchor can by no stretch of terms be called a
+roadstead, being in fact nothing but an open strip of coast running nearly
+due north and south, so that during the N.E. monsoons, the sea that sets
+in is something extraordinary, and produces a tremendous surf. At no
+season of the year is it practicable to reach the shore by ordinary
+ship-boats, because the beach, being utterly unprovided with any
+artificial appliances, is left in its natural state--that is to say,
+covered with fine sand, which lies so level that the depth is only nine
+fathoms two miles out at sea! Singular to say, no steps have to this day
+been taken to carry out the proposition, made many long years ago, of
+remedying this difficulty in reaching land, by the construction of a mole
+or pier, although three or four plans have already been presented by
+distinguished engineers. The last and most feasible scheme, and the most
+likely to be put in execution, consists in constructing a mole 1000 feet
+in length and 60 feet in breadth, to be erected upon iron piles driven
+into the sand, and with a cross-piece at the seaward extremity--the mole
+construction resembling the letter =T=. On either side of the mole,
+tramways will be laid down to facilitate the transport of goods that have
+been discharged. The entire cost of this undertaking would be about
+£100,000--an entirely disproportionate, and, indeed, insignificant amount,
+when one takes into consideration the important consequences which must
+result to trade and passenger traffic on the completion of this erection.
+
+The earliest British settlement was at Armegon, about 36 miles north of
+Pulicat (or about 78 miles N. by W. of Madras). The cession of a piece of
+land by the native Rajah of Besnayor induced the president of the old
+factory at Armegon, Mr. Francis Day, to abandon the latter, and in the
+year 1639, the Fort of St. George was erected at the newly-selected
+station, where formerly stood the little Hindoo village of Ischinapatam.
+This fort formed the nucleus, at a later period, of the city of Madras,
+which is built on the flat alluvial soil along the coast, and at present
+comprises an area of about 30 (English) square miles. Its extent along the
+beach from north to south is about 9 miles by an extreme width of 3-3/4
+miles. Madras, like all the rest, consists of a White town, exclusively
+inhabited by Europeans, and a Black town, or _Pettah_, in which the
+natives and all coloured residents carry on business.
+
+The White town, which, however, presents none of the carefully laid-out
+streets and compact blocks of houses involuntarily suggested by the word
+"town," but rather resembles a gigantic park, in which are situated a vast
+number of comfortable ornamental villas, rises at its highest point 20
+feet above the sea; whereas the Black town, at several points--for
+instance, Popham's Broadway--is hardly 8 feet above the level of spring
+floods.
+
+While in Ceylon we had had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
+influence exercised by Buddhism over the political and social condition of
+the island; here we, for the first time, found ourselves confronted with
+the followers of Brahmah. At the moment of our arrival, the principal
+festival of the year was being celebrated in honour of Vishnù, one of the
+three godheads of the Brahminical faith. It lasted fourteen days, and was
+celebrated with much pomp. Temples were improvised, and some dancing
+platforms erected for the female servants of the temple and "_bayadères_."
+In one of these dancing saloons, adorned in the most marvellous manner, a
+sort of altar rose in the background, richly hung with gold filagree work
+and stained cut-glass, and fringed with singular representations of the
+god. In the doorway stood, on the left hand side, a copy of the statue of
+the Venus de' Medici; on the right, of the Apollo Belvedere; on a small
+table were visible butterflies, fire-flies, and conchs, in ornamental
+glass cases. On the walls, of plain deal boards, were suspended on one
+side, adjoining the portrait of Anthony da Padua, a number of
+representations of voluptuous Oriental "_odalisques_;" on the other, near
+an engraving in copper of Carlo Barromeo, all sorts of obscene engravings,
+such as are offered for sale only in the most abandoned quarters of Paris
+and London, and then under the cover of night. For that matter, we believe
+that the Hindoo priests, who superintended the erection of this hall
+consecrated to the worship of Vishnù, gave themselves less anxiety
+respecting the subjects treated of in the pictures suspended round, than
+that the walls should appear richly decorated with engravings and
+pictures. Adjoining this half-open dancing booth for the women in
+attendance on the temple, rises the chief Hindoo temple in Madras, a
+stately edifice of blocks of syenite, and surrounded by a lofty wall
+painted with the usual white and red streaks; and on which a fleecy-coated
+long-tailed baboon was performing his antics. Two gloomy pyramidal towers
+shoot up from the wall of the temple, and a beautiful colonnade leads to
+the entrance porch. A huge tank, almost resembling a pond, in which the
+Hindoos thrice daily performed their ceremonies, and went through their
+ablutions, lies in front of the temple, surrounded on its remaining sides
+by buildings for various purposes, while a stately elephant, specially
+consecrated to the service, is kept on the side next the temple, which
+carries up a pitcher of water every forenoon from the pool in front of the
+pagoda, one of the servants attached to the temple sitting on his back
+holding it, while a second, seated behind him, keeps waving a fan in
+either hand. The elephant is first conducted round the temple and then
+inside, in order to present the water to the god. This elephant (which
+animal it seems is itself an incarnation of Vishnù) had the distinguishing
+mark of the sect, as also several other indications of a similar nature
+richly tatooed upon his huge broad forehead. Every evening during the
+continuance of the fourteen days' festival, the various temples and
+dancing booths were brilliantly illuminated with wax tapers and oil lamps,
+but admission was refused to the profane, and in the eyes of Brahmah,
+unbelieving Europeans, a rule which was everywhere enforced with much
+politeness but unvarying firmness. Moreover, everything that the hand of a
+European has touched is unclean to the Hindoo. Only the _Pariah_, or
+"outcaste," the very lowest class of the people, eats any food that has
+been prepared in the kitchen of a Christian.
+
+The most substantial part of the festival, however, was fortunately not
+confined to the interior of the temple, but took place in the streets,
+through which, during the period the festival lasted, immense processions
+of Hindoos, praying, singing, and dancing, used to pass every evening
+about 11 P.M. on their way from one temple to another, so that we were in
+no want of picturesque objects. First, a band of musicians would lead the
+way, with the peculiar little drum or tom-tom, whining pipes, and blaring
+clarinets. It was more like the noise of a lot of children's instruments
+than music. Next came a Hindoo riding on a gaily-bedizened ox, after whom
+appeared a number of girls and "_Bayadères_," dressed in white clothes,
+their hair richly dressed, and with rings through their nostrils, while
+the flaps of their ears were adorned with richly-gemmed ear-rings hanging
+down to the neck, and moving both hands and feet as they danced before the
+sacred figure, which was drawn along by 24 sturdy believers in Vishnù. The
+image was placed on a daïs thickly overspread with flowers, filagree work,
+and small mirrors, approached by steps, and with a parasol outspread
+overhead; in a vehicle in front was a sort of figure dressed up in
+flowers. On either side a multitude of torch-bearers strode along, with
+sulphurous lights and other means of illumination, or iron frames, on
+which were disposed in pyramidal form or like a bow, from 7 to 13
+fireballs, which, let off at intervals alternately with Bengal lights and
+rockets, formed a veritable ocean of light. A tub filled with cocoa-nut
+oil was dragged behind, from which the cotton wicks were kept constantly
+replenished, so that the flames continued unintermittently. Wherever the
+procession passed the by-standers stood with hands reverentially folded.
+Many had the thresholds of their houses gaily adorned with flags and
+illuminated with paper lamps, others let off sky-rockets. From time to
+time, the procession halted for a moment, the female dancers formed two
+rows, and some of their number went through a sort of dance, in which they
+performed a set of stereotyped motions with their hands, and chanted the
+praises of the god in a most monotonous chorus. Thousands upon thousands
+of Hindoos joined the procession, so that we could hardly make way through
+the crowds. The yelling, heat, odour of oil, and stink of sulphur were
+absolutely intolerable. As often as the procession paused, the noise was
+redoubled, the confusion became tenfold. Itinerant confectioners, who
+offered for sale all sorts of sweetmeats, prepared either from the kernel
+or milk of the cocoa-nut, drew back reluctantly when the eye of a stranger
+was directed towards their piled-up delicacies, through dread lest a mere
+glance from him should blight their stock in trade. On the other hand, we
+remarked some of these vendors pressing forward with eagerness to satisfy
+the curiosity of strangers by offering small samples of their eatables, so
+as the more easily to propitiate and get rid of these dangerous guests,
+and leave the poor Hindoo in peace and unharmed! As Christianity makes but
+slow progress among the Hindoos, and as the tendencies of the English
+residents in India do not point, as of yore among the Spaniards in
+America, towards the violent conversion of the heathen natives with the
+alternative of annihilation, but rather towards political and commercial
+influences, we find the British Government regarding with placid
+indifference the abominations of Hindoo worship, which, even to this hour,
+take the form of laceration of the flesh and self-immolation, rather than,
+by ruling with the strong hand, fan the religious fanaticism of the
+multitude, without the possibility of Christianity becoming a gainer.
+Among the thousands upon thousands who were celebrating the festival of
+Vishnù in such a heathenish fashion, there undoubtedly were many who are
+in the employ of Government, which has no scruples about appointing
+Hindoos of all sorts to the various posts in the public service. The
+English State Church which held that such appointments tended, not very
+indirectly, to support heathenism,[102] earnestly remonstrated against the
+practice, but the Government becoming daily more convinced that the
+doctrines and homilies of the Christian faith continued to be entirely a
+dead letter among the Hindoos, seems to hold fast to a policy of seeking
+gradually to introduce Christianity and European civilization among the
+Indian races, by means of equality of rights and assimilation of laws, by
+a system of well-organized national, trade, and industrial education, and,
+above all, by the influence of personal example. This, to be sure, is a
+very slow and arduous method of conversion, inasmuch as a life of
+religious observances is more deeply intertwined with the very foundations
+of the social system in India than in any other country of the globe, and
+fairly blocks the way against the expansiveness of European civilization.
+For as simple as the Hindoo religion appears in its primitive principles,
+the proper observance of its various rites is proportionately difficult,
+and full of subtle distinctions for the sincere Hindoo believer.
+
+[Footnote 102: The East India Company even undertook the maintenance of the
+Hindoo temples, and defrayed the receipts of the annual festival in honour
+of Vishnù out of the revenues. There exist in the Presidency of Madras
+alone 8292 Hindoo temples, with an annual revenue of about £100,000, all
+under the protection and control of the Company. (See "India, Ancient and
+Modern," by David O. Allen, Boston, 1856.)]
+
+The worship of Brahma, according to the doctrines enunciated by Brahma's
+own lips in the Vedas, or holy books, took its rise in the adoration paid
+to the powers of nature, regarded as so many divinities, especially in the
+exalted transcendentalism of their ideas respecting the sun, the moon, the
+stars, and the firmament. Thence was readily developed the belief in a
+sole, eternal, Almighty Creator and Ruler of the world, Brahma,
+represented as having four faces looking to the four quarters of the
+globe, and reposing on a swan. This simple monotheistic belief was
+gradually developed into the divine manifestation of Brahma as a Triune
+divinity, namely, as the Creating power (Brahma), the preserving power
+(Vishnù), and the destroying, and at the same time renewing, energy of
+nature (Siva).
+
+Although the revelation of Brahma has long since been completed, while
+Vishnù and Siva are still active agencies in the world as Supporter and
+Augmenter respectively, Brahma is assigned a very inferior rank in the
+worship of the masses, although, according to the lawgiver Menù, the Moses
+of India, he created the Brahmins out of the substance of his head, to
+guide and instruct man; from his arms the Chetriyas, to protect and defend
+him; from his trunk the Veisigas, to nourish and support him; and, lastly,
+from his feet the Sadras, to serve and be the property of all the other
+castes.
+
+To Brahma, the fulness of whose existence no earthly notions can embrace,
+there are no temples dedicated, these being rather erected in honour of
+Vishnù, the Intercessor and Supporter, who manifests himself in the
+atmosphere and in water, and Siva the destroyer and regenerator of the
+various races, as also to the other divinities whom the Hindoo religion
+numbers by millions, although the majority of these have several names,
+and the lower classes are simply Avatars, that is incarnations or
+manifestations, of the superior deities. This peculiarity of the Hindoo
+religion makes it impossible correctly to classify or define Indian
+mythology. The god Rama, for example, is frequently named for Krishna, and
+the latter again for Vishnù. Vishnù, on his part, sometimes figures as
+Rama, when he is to destroy Ravana, the tyrant of Ceylon, or as Buddha, in
+order to found Buddhism. Like the Proteus of Grecian fable, the Hindoo
+mythology assumes a thousand different shapes,--it is, in short, Pantheism
+in its most perfect development.
+
+A zealous Hindoo requires about four hours of each day to get through his
+religious ceremonies, these being performed at different periods, as he
+must bathe in the morning, at noon, and again at night, in a tank or pool
+before the temple, and recite certain prayers. For purposes of
+recognition, the two chief castes wear special marks, the worshippers of
+Vishnù having a trident painted on the forehead in either white or yellow,
+while those of Siva, on the other hand, sport three horizontal stripes, or
+one round spot marked with the ash of burnt sandal-wood. Many Hindoos
+write on their foreheads the distinguishing insignia of both Vishnù and
+Siva, and look thus the more strange and peculiar.
+
+After every ablution these marks are painted afresh, and with much care
+upon the forehead, so that paint and rouge-boxes play an important part in
+a native household. No Hindoo can partake of his exclusively vegetable
+nutriment, if cooked in a European kitchen, such being entirely contrary
+to the principles of his faith. Every servant, therefore, leaves his
+master regularly at noon, in order to partake of his simple meal of rice
+and vegetables, either with his family or in one of the numerous Hindoo
+cook-shops. The frequent holidays of the Hindoos, of which there are
+twenty-one within two months, seriously interfere with trade among the
+natives, and still more with the instruction of the young.
+
+Hindooism, however, appears to have lost much of its originality by
+constant contact with Europeans, and by the various political revolutions,
+and although many of these ceremonies are still kept up, and the bodies of
+their dead are still burned on pyres, yet the modern Hindoo has so far
+relaxed from his ascetic austerity, as to admit of his being employed in
+the various pursuits of active life. And it is not a little surprising to
+see these handsome, tall, brown figures, with their insignia of Vishnù or
+Siva marked on their foreheads, and dressed in their sweeping plaited
+togas of pure white, employed on the telegraph, the railway, the arsenal,
+and even the observatory, all which employments demand the utmost
+exactness and punctuality, and thus afford the most gratifying evidence of
+the adaptability of the Hindoo race to be impressed and to benefit by
+European civilization. With the exception of Major Jacob, the director of
+the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the whole of the _employés_ are
+natives, who are not indeed employed in making the actual observations,
+but are found perfectly competent to compute the various calculations, and
+make the requisite reductions. The institution itself is at present of but
+little importance as a place of scientific observation, in consequence of
+the small support it receives, but it is to be provided with a meridian
+circle, similar to that in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope,
+when it must become an important station. Strange to say, here, as at the
+Cape, there are no observations made on the Sundays, which in the course
+of a year gives rise to lamentable deficiencies, especially when some
+natural phenomenon of rare occurrence happens to fall upon a Sunday.
+
+We were greatly surprised at the flourishing condition of the Central
+Museum, with which is united a Zoological Garden, both set on foot in
+1851. In the spacious rooms of this stately edifice are ranged costly
+Indian antiquities and sculptures, inscriptions in Sanscrit, in stone, or
+marble slabs, antique fragments of Indian monuments,[103] as also an
+instructive collection of technical and ethnographical subjects, models of
+fortresses, ships, agricultural implements, instruments, tools, machines,
+and native forts. The geological department of the Museum is the weakest
+and poorest department; and as spirits of wine and glass jars are
+expensive articles in India, the greatest number of the animals, even the
+fish and snakes, are simply stuffed. In the garden which surrounds the
+museum buildings are a considerable number of cages inclosing living
+animals, such as monkeys, panthers, bears, giraffes, stags, gazelles,
+cobras, Indian hens, pigeons, marsh-birds, and singing-birds. In addition
+there were _Aquaria_ with fishes arranged in groups at various spots all
+round the garden. Of objects of special interest there was a powerful
+baboon (_Pithecus Satyrus_), above 5 feet high, fastened to a chain in a
+large monkey-house, around whom were gambolling a number of smaller
+species, as also a number of cobras in a large box with glass sides, so
+that one could examine them at leisure on every side. Here we witnessed
+the uncomfortable spectacle of a native engaged in cleaning the panes
+inside the cage and directly beneath these formidable animals, which
+thronged around him in such numbers that he was continually compelled with
+one hand to resist their importunate caresses. Anyone not aware of the
+fact that these animals have been rendered harmless by the extraction of
+their poison-fangs, must experience a feeling of terror and astonishment
+at the sight of this brood of malign, stealthy-moving, hissing serpents,
+with a naked Hindoo in their midst!
+
+[Footnote 103: These important inscriptions are explained and described in
+the Selections from the Records of the Madras Government, Report on the
+Elliot Marbles (p. 191) by R. W. Taylor, Madras, 1857.]
+
+Most astonishing and gratifying is the immense number of casual visitors
+that frequent this institution for advancing education. The book for
+inscribing names lying in the Museum, showed for a single month no less
+than 36,522 visitors, mostly natives, and this it seems has been about the
+average number since the foundation of the Museum. There is also a small,
+valuable library, which, by means of purchases, gifts, and exchanges, is
+being visibly added to with each year, and is accessible to visitors of
+all classes, the custodian and inspectors being all natives.
+
+The Madras Literary Society, an offshoot of the Royal Asiatic Society in
+London, and now reckoning but a small number of associates, publishes from
+time to time the most valuable information as to the latest achievements
+of science in India, and serves in a measure as a medium by which to
+compare the intellectual progress of Asia and Europe. To the members of
+this society the naturalists of the _Novara_ Expedition are specially
+beholden for their great attention during their stay in Madras, as also
+for their hearty participation in the objects of the Imperial Expedition
+as evidenced by their sending copies of their own various and useful
+publications.
+
+There are in Madras numerous institutes devoted to the diffusion of useful
+knowledge among the masses, part founded and maintained by Government,
+part by private enterprise, and this liberality is the more praiseworthy
+that the European community of Madras does not comprise much more than
+1600 persons, of whom only a very few settle any length of time. The
+Europeans resident here are chiefly military men and merchants, who leave
+the country after remaining five or ten years, as almost every one regards
+his stay in this hot, sandy capital of the desert Coromandel coast, as
+purely provisional, and views it as a stepping-stone towards attaining
+some better post, or becoming suddenly wealthy by some favourable
+conjuncture of circumstances. That the majority of these institutions have
+more practical objects in view admits of ready proof, and is but one
+instance the more of the moulding power of surrounding circumstances. In
+the school of arts for instance, under Dr. Hunter's superintendence, there
+are 20 pupils, mostly Hindoos, who are receiving instruction in drawing,
+sculpture, lithography, woodcutting, etching, and photography. But in
+order to reduce, as far as possible, the expenses of this institution,
+there is also included a manufacture of earthenware, the proceeds arising
+from the sale of which are applied to the support of the school.
+
+Another eminently useful institution, the Medical College, which, as well
+as most of the other professional foundations, we visited in the company
+with our hospitable and influential friend, Dr. Kelly, possesses one
+division, in which such of the natives as purpose to set up as
+apothecaries, are at the same time so far educated as to be able, in case
+of necessity, to perform a few of the minor surgical operations. Of the
+hundred of an auditory who at the period of our visit were attending a
+lecture on chemistry, the majority were half-blooded Indians, dressed in
+the European fashion, with a sprinkling of barely 9 or 10 Hindoos in their
+white robes, and with the Vishnù or Siva marks on their forehead. We
+frequently heard the professors, among whom are several gentlemen of high
+scientific attainments, such, for instance, as Messrs. Evans, Lorimer,
+Mudge, Montgomery, Mayr, &c., express their regret at the severe check
+which the development of science sustained by the outbreak of the late
+revolt. Plans for a new university, a hospital, and a medical school to
+correspond are all ready, and but for that ruinous catastrophe would have
+been by this time in working order.
+
+In other respects the present Infirmary is an ugly and unsuitable
+building, making up about 100 beds for patients. Several of these were
+occupied by soldiers, who had been severely wounded under Havelock at the
+storming of Delhi. The introduction of punkahs, or wind-fans, into the
+wards has proved so salutary, that there is an intention to have them
+worked without intermission day and night, by means of water power,
+instead of by manual labour as hitherto. In order to be able to estimate
+the boon conferred by such an improvement upon the condition of the poor
+invalids, we must call to mind that the average annual temperature of
+Madras is about 94° Fahr., which is slightly in excess of the average
+temperature at the equator, although Madras is 10 degrees north of the
+line. Under such climatic conditions, it is no wonder that the
+invigorating wholesome breeze is known at Madras as "The Doctor."
+
+Among the benevolent institutions visited by us, we found the twin asylums
+for male and female orphans of soldiers well worthy of notice in many
+particulars. These are for the most part the offspring of European
+soldiers married to native women, and are known as "half-castes," or
+"Mestizoes." In the Military Female Asylum, there were at this time 216
+girls, who were brought up to all manner of female work, as well as taught
+reading, writing, and arithmetic, and remained in the institution until
+suitably provided for in marriage. The marriage outfit, as also a small
+wedding present of Rs. 50 (£5), for each girl is provided by Government,
+and the entire working expenses, which amount to about Rs. 30,000 (£3000)
+annually, are defrayed by a Government grant of Rs. 1000 (£100) a month,
+together with the interest of the funded capital, upon which Government
+pays 8 per cent. interest.
+
+The Military Male Orphan Asylum was founded in 1788 by means of voluntary
+contributions, supplemented by a Government Subvention, and possesses a
+special historical interest from the circumstance that it was here that
+Dr. Bell, who held the post of Head-Master in the establishment, first
+projected and put into execution the method of imparting elementary
+instruction, afterwards so widely renowned as the Lancastrian method of
+teaching, which since that period has traversed the globe, and has been
+introduced into every capital in Europe. The course of instruction of the
+institution includes writing, reading, arithmetic, grammar, geography,
+history, English, Tamil, and music. The capital of the institution is
+vested by Government in the 4 per cent. stocks, paying 8 per cent.
+interest, which, with the large amount realized within the establishment
+itself, is sufficient to defray all expenses without any further
+assistance. The number of boys is about 242. The head teacher, who
+obligingly conducted us over the whole establishment, which is very
+handsome, called a dozen boys forward just as we were leaving, who played
+a few simple pieces on wind instruments, on which they performed a variety
+of national airs with great precision. The music master was a German.
+
+Among its casual attractions, Madras has occasionally flower shows, and
+exhibitions of industry, and it is exceedingly gratifying to observe how
+European science is even here called in to elicit the treasures of nature,
+and administer to the necessities of mankind. The catalogue of the
+industrial exhibition of 1857 shows, _inter alia_, 17 sorts of spices, 20
+varieties of resin, 64 plants suitable for the distillation of oil, and 41
+different drugs, and Dr. Kirkpatrick, a physician in Mysore, has taken the
+trouble to enumerate, by their botanical and Indian names, 240 native
+drugs, which had been sent to the Madras exhibition, as also their market
+value, and at the same time has subjoined the modes in which the natives
+use them.
+
+Among the most remarkable private museums which have been formed at
+Madras for the illustration of the history and monuments of the southern
+provinces of the Deccan, must undoubtedly be included the collection of
+native inscriptions and manuscripts of the well-known Colonel Mackenzie,
+which first attracted the attention of all friends of Oriental science, as
+also the British Government, through a memoir[104] of Alexander Johnston,
+Esq. It is a magnificent testimony to the conservative spirit of the
+British resident among heathen nations, as compared with the barbarous
+spirit of destruction that characterized the Spanish colonists. From an
+erroneous idea that they were in so doing promoting the interests of
+Christianity, these Romanist conquerors destroyed all sculptures and
+monuments of the pagan Indian races, and, by this fanatical Vandalism, at
+the same time prevented the hand of science from unfolding, as it might
+have done from these important vestiges, the history of these very
+remarkable races from the most remote ages.
+
+[Footnote 104: On Colonel Mackenzie's Collection, in the Journal of the
+Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain. London, 1835, p. 4, vol. ii.]
+
+In the immense old palace, surrounded by adjacent edifices and gardens,
+once occupied by the King of the Coromandel coast, the renowned nabob of
+the Carnatic, the offices of the English Government _employés_ are at
+present located. The last of these sovereigns died a few years since, and
+his former minister receives from the British Government a pension of Rs.
+1300 (£130) a month. Great men who have fallen do not ordinarily like to
+be sought out or gazed at. There is, however, on the contrary, no
+difficulty in obtaining access to the last minister of the last monarch of
+the Coromandel coast, who seems to feel flattered by a visit from
+strangers. On our entering, the venerable old gentleman rose from a rich
+thick carpet, on which he was sitting cross-legged, held out his hand in
+the most affable manner, and did us the honour of accompanying us through
+the palace. He had a long white beard, and wore a white turban on his
+head, while his person was enveloped in white linen. A splendid staircase
+conducted to a council-room, adorned with a portrait of the late nabob,
+life-size, executed in London. A second room has a likeness of George
+Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, dedicated to his friend,
+Omadal-Omrah, nabob of the Carnatic, 1st January, 1797, and of Lord
+Cornwallis, arm in arm with a nabob, the former represented as walking
+among pines, the latter among palms. In the harness-room and coach-house
+adjoining, our obliging attendant revealed to us an endless array of
+golden howdah trappings, gilt with cunning hand, which seemed to have
+formerly borne the mighty nabob, when riding on his elephant. As we
+emerged from this lumber room, filled with dust and mud, we perceived in
+the square before us an immense dust-cloud, which approached nearer and
+nearer in its gyrations, and gradually assumed the shape of an elephant.
+It was a gigantic and magnificent specimen, and proved to be the favourite
+elephant of the last nabob, which, like the minister himself, was reduced
+to eat the bread of charity. His enormous tusks were sawn half off, for
+which his attendant assigned the singular reason that the tusks of an
+elephant must be cut, just as we pair our nails! This pensioner-elephant,
+however, seemed to find himself in very good quarters, and was a
+carefully-tended gentle creature, who carried about his chain with his
+proboscis, and knelt down at the word of command.
+
+Among the other spacious apartments of this deserted palace was the
+banquetting hall, as it is called, which was represented by various
+writers as one of the largest rooms in the world, which, however, is a
+transparent fallacy. It is hard to believe that above a thousand persons
+could find room in it. At the period of our visit this apartment was used
+as a barrack for the English troops, in consequence of which the splendid
+full-length pictures already mentioned were carefully covered. One of the
+soldiers, anxious to show them to us, tore away the covering of one before
+we could interfere, when we found it to be a splendid likeness, painted in
+London, of Sir Thomas Monroe, a former governor of Madras.
+
+In the first few days of our stay in Madras, we made an excursion to the
+fort of Vellore, distant about 80 miles (English) from Madras, formerly a
+renowned native fort, which is now reached in a few hours by rail. This
+line passes through a flat uninteresting country, which is barely relieved
+here and there by a couple of solitary palms or a Hindoo temple, and
+altogether presents a strongly African character in its scenery. Only at
+those points, at which there are tanks, or artificial basins, either
+excavated or formed by damming the water, does there occur a luxuriant
+green vegetation covering the parched, brown, dusty soil. These tanks are
+filled in the rainy season, and during the dry season, which continues for
+months, supply the rice-fields with water for irrigation, the culture of
+that plant requiring an unusually large supply of water.
+
+If English railroads are proverbially comfortable in the mother-country,
+they certainly fall off lamentably in that particular in the cars used in
+India. This deficiency is the more provoking and remarkable, considering
+the various other appliances for comfort which are to be found in this
+country. The conductor, as well as the other servants of the Company, was
+a Hindoo. On the entire line we saw but five or six white men employed.
+The fares are pretty moderate, that for the entire distance, 80 miles,
+being Rupees 7-1/2 (15_s._), for first-class, and Rupees 3 (6_s._), second
+(about 2-1/4_d._ and 1_d._ per mile, respectively). The line is to be
+extended from Bejapoor, so as to unite the eastern and western coasts of
+the peninsula. There are also lines projected from Madras to Bombay by
+Poonah and Bellary, and from Madras to Calcutta. The Governor, who (the
+evening previous to our departure, as we were being entertained at his
+summer residence, Guindy Park,) had been apprized of our intention to
+visit Vellore, was so attentive as to order the commandant to be informed
+by telegraph of our projected excursion at a late hour of the evening,
+and when we reached Vellore at 11 A.M., Captain Stevens was awaiting us at
+the station, to greet the voyagers by the _Novara_ in the name of the
+commandant of the fort, and convey them to the fort, three miles off, in a
+waggon drawn by oxen, as is the custom of the country. The waggon was
+about as large as an ordinary sized sitting-room, and contained several
+arm-chairs and cane stools, the position of which could be altered at
+pleasure.
+
+Vellore was once one of the strongest fortresses in India, the wells of
+which were formerly rendered inaccessible by numerous colonies of
+alligators. These Hindoo fortifications have, however, lost their military
+importance for Europeans, as they are on all sides "overcrowed," as
+Rittmeister Dugald Dalgetty would say, by eminences, from which they could
+easily be cannonaded. Within the fort itself are several extraordinary
+buildings, once pagodas and houses of entertainment for priests and
+pilgrims (_choultries_). The former sanctuary, now used as an arsenal, is
+a _chef-d'[oe]uvre_ of architectural skill, with splendid _relievos_ and
+figures sculptured in granite blocks. Most of the divinities have four
+arms, symbolical of the universality of their power. The various edifices
+seem to have been once an abode of Brahmins, a sort of Hindoo monastery in
+which, in addition to the pagoda, there were ranged all round, a temple,
+colonnades, and halls for the residence of the priests. In some of the
+smaller apartments there still are openings for windows, with a finely
+carved grating hewn out of the solid granite, the workmanship of which
+even the stone-cutters of our own days might feel proud of. Captain
+Mitchell, an English officer stationed at Madras, had hit upon the idea of
+photographing the most interesting of these monuments.
+
+The fortress of Vellore has been fortified for about 1000 years! Captured
+by the English at the close of the last century, the then Nabob, a
+Mussulman, was taken prisoner, and his descendants have ever since
+inhabited the fort as State prisoners, without ever being permitted to
+leave it. We inquired of the officer who accompanied us, whether the Nabob
+was permitted at least to make use of the space within the fortress for
+exercise in the open air. "The Mussulmen," replied the cautious
+Englishman, "do not care to show themselves in public; they prefer taking
+their exercise in the court in front of their residence, or in the
+garden." Accordingly, the aged prince is rarely known even to take an
+airing in a palanquin. The town of Vellore itself is, in a great measure,
+another place altogether, whose inhabitants are Mahometans, about 80,000
+in number, chiefly engaged in rice culture.
+
+We originally intended to return the same day to Madras, the length of the
+journey, as well as the distance of the fort from the railway station,
+having been represented to us as much shorter than was actually the case.
+Accordingly, we telegraphed to the Austrian Consul, M. Campbell, Esq., an
+exceedingly courteous gentleman, that we should not return till the
+following morning. How great was our astonishment to find that the
+telegraph _employés_ at Vellore, both in the transcribing department, and
+in the management of the apparatus, which was on Morse's system, were
+Hindoos, with their curious marks upon their foreheads, and their
+old-fashioned costume! They went, however, through the duties connected
+with this modern invention with great adroitness. The telegraph is already
+in operation to Bombay, and in this direction has two separate lines.
+There are, moreover, other lines in course of construction,--along the
+coast to Calcutta,--along the coast to Pondicherry by Adam's Bridge,[105]
+from Madras to Point de Galle, and from Madras to Hyderabad, Bangalore,
+and Bellary.
+
+[Footnote 105: Adam's Bridge--called by the Hindoos Rama's Bridge,--is a
+bank extending between Ceylon and the mainland of Hindostan, by the
+islands of Manaar and Ramisseram. It is about 30 miles in length, running
+in a N.W. by W. direction, about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and
+principally composed of shelving sand, through which are three main
+openings or channels, that admit the passage of boats of very light
+draught.]
+
+In proceeding from the fort to the town of Vellore, which is charmingly
+situated and regularly laid out, and is inhabited by numerous pensioners
+of the East India Company, we must cross the river Palaar (or Peliar),
+which, during the rainy season, is a headlong dangerous torrent, while in
+the dry season its bed, 1000 feet wide, is but a bare expanse of sand. It
+is only by dint of strenuous exertions that the traveller is able to pass
+this sand waste in a waggon, as it sinks at some points above the hubs of
+the wheels. We had four buffalo oxen yoked, and even then had to be
+propelled at certain points by the assistance of some 30 coolies or Indian
+porters besides. This serious inconvenience was shortly after our visit to
+be remedied by the erection of a splendid bridge of solid masonry, which
+was to span the river by 42 arches, and will reduce the time of transit
+from the station from 1-1/4 hour to 20 minutes. Hereabouts oxen are
+usually employed for draught, which are of the same humped species as
+those we had previously seen in Ceylon. These animals trot with uncommon
+swiftness, so that the rapidity of transport may stand comparison with
+that where horses are employed.
+
+A few miles distant from Vellore, and visible from the hills around, lies
+Arcot (Arucati), the residence of the nominal nabob of the Carnatic, who
+has long been a pensioner of the British. The population of Arcot are
+mostly Mahometans, who speak a dialect of Hindustani, and drive a very
+active trade.
+
+At Vellore we resided in the house of the hospitable Lieut.-Colonel
+McCally, who, in the absence of the Commandant, did the honours of the
+Fort to the members of the _Novara_ Expedition. Here we experienced a most
+cordial reception, and passed a few most delightful hours in the domestic
+circle of his amiable family. In the evening we made out an excursion to
+an adjoining eminence, 1400 feet above sea-level, 300 above Vellore, from
+which there is a commanding view over the town and neighbourhood. Seen
+from this point, the Fort looked charming, presenting itself to us,
+surrounded as it is by moats and watercourses, like an island in the
+foreground. On the top of this hill is the bungalow or country-seat of the
+collector of revenue, W. A. Sulivan, Esq., where we revelled in the
+enjoyment of the exquisite natural scenery, and partook of refreshment.
+
+In the evening a number of officers, with their wives, met us at dinner at
+Lieut.-Colonel McCally's house. The gaieties were prolonged till far in
+the evening, music and songs alternating with round games and dancing, so
+that we had hardly composed ourselves to sleep ere we were awakened by the
+servants, in order to avoid missing the train, which leaves Vellore for
+Madras at 6.30 A.M. By 11 A.M., we were once more in the chief city of the
+Carnatic.
+
+The same afternoon the officers of the _Novara_, and the naturalists of
+the Expedition, were invited to an Indian fête, which Lord Harris gave
+every year at this season in his palace at Guindy Park, and to which it
+was customary to invite the majority of the European residents at Madras,
+together with their families,--military, civil service, and mercantile
+community, all being honoured with cards. This festival originated in a
+children's entertainment, which the governor had been in the habit of
+giving on the birthday of his son; the latter had long since gone to an
+English University, but the custom had survived, and the day was equally
+carefully observed this year also, having been looked forward to for
+months before by the "white" young folks of Madras. The entertainment
+still retains the character of a children's party, inasmuch as on the
+present occasion there were assembled above 250 children of both sexes,
+varying from 5 to 12 years of age. The total number of guests who, in
+addition to these, shared in the festivities was probably more than a
+thousand. The fête began with the performances of some 30 Indian jugglers
+and acrobats, on a large lawn in the park. These, as may be conceived, had
+been selected from among the most athletic and skilful. They presented a
+singularly-picturesque appearance, from the diversities of age, agile
+boys, athletic young men, slender voluptuous-looking _Bayadères_, old
+grey-headed men, and marvellous-looking old hags, with streaming white
+hair, and dark, piercing, gleaming eyes, recalling in their manners and
+appearance our own gipsies. All played at once, and performed with the
+most astonishing precision a succession of breakneck feats, that set the
+spectator's hair on end. It was a spectacle entirely _sui generis_,
+thoroughly Indian in short, to behold these wild-looking brown figures,
+unawed by the presence they were in, going through their various
+performances and feats of agility. In front of us knelt an old man who
+played with a dozen knives, which he kept circling around him with wild
+yells, apparently without looking at them, till he finally turned them in
+such a manner that it seemed as though the sharp points of the knives had
+transfixed his hand. Next youthful acrobats sprang through paper balloons
+set on fire,--girls in boys' dresses climbed up bamboo poles 100 feet
+high, in the midst of continual yells,--boys executed on the damp meadow
+ground the most extraordinary feats of agility and contortions of the
+limbs, while one old fellow, to the intense astonishment of the assembled
+children, swallowed swords, as also tow and other combustible matter,
+whereupon flames presently seemed to issue from his month. These, indeed,
+are feats of conjuring which have been performed in Europe, _usque ad
+nauseam_, but here all was done with such precision and dexterity (each
+man especially playing entirely _con amore_, evidently not to impress the
+spectators, but because he felt a pleasure in it himself), that the whole
+exhibition left quite a different impression from anything of the sort
+elsewhere.
+
+After this introductory amusement, the children invited were regaled with
+a refection under an enormous tent. This was for the grown-up guests
+another source of great amusement. More than 300 children took their seats
+at a long well-covered table, while their fathers, mothers, governesses,
+&c., stood behind the benches, and took special care to supply the little
+watering mouths with a sufficient supply of the many delicacies before
+them.
+
+A distribution of souvenirs to the various children present succeeded the
+repast, the various articles being fastened to a gigantic tree under a
+tent. The tree was profusely hung with elegant paper lamps, and although
+there were no pine-branches, only palm leaves, the "_tout ensemble_," bore
+a strong resemblance to a genuine Christmas tree. Fathers and mothers
+expressed to us their own feelings of pleasure at beholding the glee of
+their children, and, indeed, seemed to think this the most entertaining
+part of the fête. The distribution lasted a considerable time, and many of
+the children affected to coquette disparagingly with the presents of
+their neighbours, which these latter held fast with both hands, till at
+length the whole joyous train were dismissed homewards, thoroughly pleased
+with the day's proceedings.
+
+After this interlude there were fireworks on the lawn for the grown-up
+children, which seemed intended to serve merely as a stop-gap to while
+away the time between the distribution of the presents to the children and
+the supper, which was laid out in the brilliantly-illuminated dining-room
+of the palace. The fine band, which a few days previously had so pleased
+us by its performances during dinner at Guindy Park, drew up on the large
+lawn fronting the ball-room, and during this interval played a few select
+pieces with admirable precision. At last, supper was announced by a
+flourish of trumpets. Despite the spacious proportions of the apartment,
+the company was too numerous to admit of all sitting down at once. We
+calculated the number of guests still remaining at at least 500. The
+ladies supped first, and afterwards the gentlemen--the Governor, Lord
+Harris, doing the honours in person, in the most courteous and kindly
+manner. After supper the party proceeded in couples to a splendid
+ball-room, where dancing speedily began, while over their heads an
+omnipresent punkah, of rich tapestry-paper, and elegantly adorned with
+beautiful arabesques, swung to and fro, and kept the half-breathless
+dancers continually fanned by its currents of air.[106] In spite, however,
+of this artificial ventilating machine overhead, one must have had an
+extraordinary love for the dance to find pleasure in a polka or galop at a
+temperature of 86° of Fahrenheit.
+
+[Footnote 106: In many English families in India there prevails a sort of
+punkah mania, so that there is a regular hurricane incessantly blowing
+over their heads. Undoubtedly these artificial gales are particularly
+agreeable in apartments where, a large number of persons being assembled,
+the atmosphere becomes intolerable--as, for instance, courts of justice,
+churches, hotels, and hospitals. Under such circumstances, they are,
+indeed, a most valuable contrivance. But their application is entirely
+overdone; and there are persons who, even while they are sleeping, have a
+Hindoo servant continually working the punkah, which, under such
+circumstances, is usually worked from an adjoining room by means of silken
+cords, so that the motive power is not visible from the apartment, but
+only the effect felt. Strangers at first find these artificial currents
+very apt to superinduce headache, until continued residence makes him
+regard the punkah as a most necessary article of furniture.]
+
+Lord Harris had taken measures for ensuring our proceeding direct from his
+residence in Guindy Park upon the favourite excursion from Madras--that,
+namely, to the Seven Pagodas. We had accordingly provided ourselves with
+only what was indispensable in the way of luggage; and towards 1 A.M., we
+left the ball-room, and proceeded on our way to the renowned Hindoo
+Temples to the south of Madras. A waggon conveyed us to the Adyar bridge,
+where a Government boat was in waiting for us, together with some Hindoo
+servants of the Governor, who were to be our guides to the Seven Pagodas.
+One of these _peons_, as they are called in India, named Iritschapa,
+presented us with a document, in which he was commissioned to place
+himself at our disposal during the whole period we were absent, and
+anticipate all our requirements without further authorization, to the best
+of his ability, so as to ensure our comfort and assist the objects we had
+in view. The Government boat was supplied with everything that could
+minister to our comfort, a second boat following us exclusively for the
+conveyance of our heavy baggage, personal effects, tents, and provisions.
+Towards 2 A.M., we embarked on the Eastern Coast Canal, which goes as far
+as Sadras, and by which we reached the Seven Pagodas, called also
+Mahamalaipuram, the city of the Great or Holy Mountain, at 9 A.M.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOLY MOUNTAIN.]
+
+These singular and majestic specimens of architecture are about 3 miles
+from Sadras, being situated on the coast northwards, and about 500 paces
+from the canal. They consist of temples, grottoes, bas-reliefs, cisterns,
+stone-benches, and thousands of sculptures in long ranges of bas-reliefs,
+which afford an abundant store of antiquarian research. They go by the
+name of the Seven Pagodas (from _Baghavati_--Holy House, whence the
+European corruption, Pagoda), from the circumstance, that there are, upon
+the very brink of the ocean, seven temples hewn out of one piece of rock.
+The Brahminical legends speak of an entire city having existed here, of
+which only the fragments are now washed by the sea. But, according to
+Babington's and Heber's minute researches in this neighbourhood,[107] there
+seems no doubt that there never existed any large city here, but that the
+whole was a mere myth of the Brahmins, who procured a royal gift, an
+Agrabaram in this neighbourhood, and with subtle forethought left here a
+caste of stone-cutters, who from time to time, under the guidance of their
+priests, executed these sculptures for the adornment of their sanctuary,
+which are justly the objects of wonder to their descendants. To this day,
+even, there dwell here certain families of stone-cutters, who work these
+singular rocks as granite quarries, and make money by the trade. The Seven
+Pagodas, specially so-called, are monolith temples, hewn on the spot out
+of massive blocks of rock. The mountain itself, a huge block of granite,
+to which the entire locality owes its reputation as a site of works of
+art, is covered, behind as well as in the front slope, with innumerable
+figures.
+
+[Footnote 107: Benjamin Guy Babington. An Account of the Sculptures and
+Inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, illustrated by Plates I.-XVIII., in the
+Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, London, 1819,
+p. 258. Bishop Heber's Narrative, London, 1828, Vol. III., p. 216.]
+
+After our arrival, we made a hasty circuit through the place, so as first
+of all to be able to identify them, and be in a position to recognize the
+various sculptures and bas-reliefs cut out in the solid granite rock. The
+greater number of the sculptures represent either the one or the other
+descriptions of the Avatars (the incarnations or transfigurations) of
+Vishnù, to whom the larger proportion of the temples is dedicated. In one
+of these temples, we perceived the god Vishnù in the fifth, or Dwarf
+Incarnation, in the course of which he had, under the guise of a
+Brahminical dwarf, begged of King Balitscha-Kravathi--who, by his piety,
+had acquired so much power over the gods, that they had to transfer to him
+the dominion of sea and land, and had in consequence waxed arrogant--as
+much soil as he could traverse in three steps! The wealthy Rajah made no
+objection to complying with the apparently moderate request of the pigmy
+being before him. On the opposite wall of the temple we now see, in a
+large admirably executed bas-relief, how Vishnù, represented on this
+occasion with eight arms, at once embraced heaven and earth with his left
+foot, and as there was thus no more room left for the next step, Vishnù
+released the haughty Rajah from his promise, on condition that he should
+descend to the infernal regions. From this feat, Vishnù bears the name of
+Triwikrama and Tripadas (thrice-stepper).
+
+In the next rock grotto we came to, we beheld the Life of Krishna, the
+shepherd-god, represented, first as tending his sheep, surrounded by cows,
+goats frisking about, &c. Walter Elliot names this representation
+"Krischna's Choultry," or the abode of the priests. The temple has a
+frontage of 50 feet, is from 30 to 40 feet in depth, and has about twenty
+figures.
+
+From this spot, our guide, a Brahmin, brought us to what is called the
+Ganeza Temple, a monolith Pagoda. When we expressed a wish to touch the
+face of Ganeza (a son of Siva), cut in stone and plentifully besmeared
+with oil and lard, one of the Hindoo attendants hurried forwards to
+prevent us from being guilty of insult to this much-beloved divinity. The
+inscription to the right, in front of the niche in which Ganeza, hewn out
+of a single block of granite, is represented in a sitting posture,
+consists of verses and prayers to Siva, written in Sanscrit.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOD GANEZA.]
+
+We also remarked, on our way to the village, an ellipsoidal block of rock,
+68 feet in circumference, by 25 in height, which, from its very peculiar
+position, seems to shift every moment, and presents a very extraordinary
+appearance.
+
+As we were proceeding to the beach, we came upon the Pagoda of
+Kovulgobrom, which is at present in use (first constructed in the days of
+Rajah Apatsch, 400 or 500 years since), situated on a large oblong plot of
+ground, which is surrounded by a wall from 6 to 8 feet high. We were not
+permitted to cross the threshold of the pagoda, the door of which always
+stands wide open, and the minor apartments of which, so far as we could
+discern at a little distance away, were quite empty. We could just descry
+a few sculptures on the walls.
+
+The whole village contains at present about 400 inhabitants,[108] who
+reside in eighty small dwellings. Of these, three, built of bricks and
+with tiled roofs, belong to the caste of Brahmins, thirty to the Pariahs,
+five to families occupied in fishing, and two mere hovels of palm-wood to
+the Willis, the lowest and most wretched caste of all. The families of
+stone-cutters reside outside the village. One remarks here that the walls
+of the houses are hidden by heaps of cow and horse-dung, which the
+inhabitants, as in Egypt, use for fuel, and which they pile up to dry
+against those of the walls which are most exposed to the sun. The _peon_
+of the settlement, by name Randghajaneik, a sort of overseer, gave us a
+drawing of the various groups of houses, their inhabitants, and also the
+names of the various castes in Tamil, engraved as usual with an iron tool
+upon palm-leaves, and very elegantly rolled up in a small envelope. Among
+the customs and fashions of the inhabitants which attracted our notice, we
+were informed that they always burn their dead from four to five hours
+after life has departed--usually four hours and forty minutes--alleging
+that the released soul takes that length of time to reach heaven! The
+bones are collected and thrown into the sea. Widows are no longer
+required, on the death of their husbands, to ascend the pyre with them.
+Accordingly, the mortality upon this score is small enough in
+Mahamalaipuram. All seem hale and hearty, although for the most part they
+live upon rice and fruits, tasting flesh but seldom, as it is never used
+by the Brahmin caste. The Brahmins will not even eat eggs, because they
+are the produce of hens; nor drink milk because it is procured from cows!
+The girls generally marry at thirteen. They are, however, usually
+betrothed from the time they are two or three years of age, the
+bridegroom-elect taking the bride-elect to reside with himself.
+
+[Footnote 108: Of these inhabitants 50 belong to the Brahmin caste, 250 to
+the Malabar, Sentù, and Siva castes, and 100 are Pariahs.]
+
+All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write, but the
+Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite unintelligible to
+them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telùgu, and Malabar. The greater number
+had their foreheads painted according to the caste they belonged to. Those
+worshipping Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver
+amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed. The adherents
+of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no distinguishing mark upon the
+forehead, except that those that are married wear a five-ply cord
+(_panul_), tied obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not,
+however, attach too much faith to these varieties of external markings,
+since many tattoo their foreheads with red, or yellow, or ashen-gray
+punctures, which usually have no special signification, but simply imply
+that on account of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence,
+they have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing insignia
+of their caste properly designed. According to the natives, the yellow
+colour is procured from the crushed, yellow-tinted root of the _Curcuma
+longa_, (a species of spice), the red from the Cardomum (_Amomum repens_),
+citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from common chalk.
+
+[Illustration: BIVOUAC AT MAHAMALAIPURAN.]
+
+Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most admirable
+arrangements for our accommodation while at the Seven Pagodas. When, after
+our first survey of the locality, we came down to the beach, we found two
+large and two small tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected
+round a fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our astonishment,
+on entering the first tent, to find it spread with carpets, with an
+elegant sleeping-apartment with two large commodious bedsteads, and fitted
+up with all the usual necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage
+which ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two immense
+baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate our exhausted frames!
+Ere we had recovered from our surprise, we were advised of the voice of
+the Government Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second
+tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and reception room, and was
+also furnished with every conceivable appliance to promote our comfort.
+His lordship was even so attentive as to send his own travelling canteen
+for our use on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls, with
+a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with blue, by means of
+which the glare of the sun and of the blinding white sand was rendered
+less painful and more tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were
+employed in sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained sand,
+which produced a most refreshing coolness all around. The Government Peon,
+as also the chief of police of the district, wore their best uniforms of
+white, with bran new bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red
+scarves, with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate, with
+the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number of men and children
+ran hither and thither,--in a word, the whole village seemed in an uproar
+to see the strange gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of
+receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 P.M., the thermometer suspended
+within the tent marked 84° Fahr., although a gentle breeze was blowing
+from seaward through the fragrant luxuriant grass (_Kus-kus_, or
+_Vetiveyr_), which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an
+exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant _Kus-kus_, (_Andropogon
+muricatum_) in the manufacture of mats, which are intended to be suspended
+in the entrance-halls of houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon
+the penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine damp
+texture, which thus at once tempers the heat, and fills the air with
+perfume.
+
+Towards 5 P.M., the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled to the Five
+Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our encampment. The prevalent
+tree in this locality is the _Palmyra_ palm, which, though it does not
+boast the majestic proportions of the _Oreodoxia Regia_, or the cocoa-nut
+palm, presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance. Generally
+speaking, however, the district is quite bare and destitute of trees; and,
+in short, like all the rest of this coast, has very much the appearance of
+the flat coasts of Africa.
+
+Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the brothers of
+Vishnù, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and Sawadewen, the fifth being
+excavated in honour of Dubrotis, the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend
+relates that the four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality
+of husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species of Amazon.
+All these temples are tolerably sculptured, which, indeed, constitutes
+their chief claim to attention; but they are far from showing the artistic
+finish of the bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy
+Mount.
+
+Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not the most
+important of these artificial grottoes. The sculptures here are
+incontestably the most highly-finished. The upper portion, to which access
+is obtained by some steps cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite
+block, known as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of one
+piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed allegories.
+
+Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga, Siva's wife,
+riding on a lion (according to the natives, on a tiger), and bending her
+bow in conflict with Mahishasura, a giant with the head of a buffalo, who
+brandishes a club. According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this
+represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and heroine, Donga, the
+representative of active virtue, and the bull-headed Mahishasura, the
+personification of brute strength and animal passion. Over the head of
+either figure, a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread,
+giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.
+
+[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF ON ONE OF THE MONOLITH TEMPLES.]
+
+The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnù
+(Rhanganatha), 9-1/2 feet high, apparently representing the idea of the
+Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five heads, encircles his head.
+At his feet one perceives two rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in
+a praying attitude, with uplifted hands, only the bust being represented.
+In one of the niches at Swami are two busts, life-size, of Siva, and his
+wife Paravathi, the latter holding an infant at the breast, his offspring
+Supramanión. Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from
+the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma, on the left
+Vishnù, each with four arms, symbolical of their power and dominion.
+
+The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of platform of loose
+stones accurately fitted to each other without mortar, so as to make an
+ornamental whole. The interior is adorned with much more highly-finished
+specimens of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing penance,
+annually climb, with great difficulty, into this part of the building, and
+make their way into the unfinished interior apartments. While we were
+giving free scope to our surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed
+in our contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of flowers,
+wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players (_Pulanpolen_) who
+were passing, made their appearance to give us a specimen of their musical
+skill. One old man, of whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnù, neatly
+carved in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there was in
+the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a manuscript, known as the
+_Istálam-purànam_ which gave the history of the Seven Pagodas, written in
+Tamil.
+
+The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter Elliot, who
+formed an extensive collection of the various valuable Hindoo manuscripts
+and inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a
+translation of them,[109] told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil
+Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give one single
+reliable particular as to the history of the Seven Pagodas.
+
+[Footnote 109: Journal of the Madras Literary Society, 1846, Nos. 30 and
+31.]
+
+In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and surrounded by a
+modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on the exterior of the Temple,
+an inscription in Tamil, which is, however, utterly unintelligible to the
+natives. This inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a
+donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and gives the most
+complete detail, together with signature of the donor. The name
+Mahamalaipur,[110] the "City of the Sacred Hill," occurs frequently in it.
+
+[Footnote 110: Dr. Elliot writes Mamallaipuram; the natives call the place
+Mahawalipuram, obviously a mere corruption of the customary mode of
+spelling.]
+
+In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo followers, we
+remarked that they made no difference between a "kovül" or praying-house,
+in which the divinities are never produced, but are guarded under lock and
+key, and a pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they can
+be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it is that a pagoda is
+more readily accessible than a kovül, the sanctity of which it is
+forbidden him to violate.
+
+In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the Brahmins, was
+permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (£3), to break away the partition which
+divided the inscriptions into two portions, in order to prepare three
+copies, and have them translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these
+translators was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The
+inscription contains the history of two donations, on the enlargement and
+laying the foundation-stone of the temple, accomplished by the "Kanattan"
+of the village, and, lastly, a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin
+Paramesvara-Mahavara, on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept
+constantly burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073. It
+results from this interpretation that the inscription was put up towards
+the end of the 11th century, thus supplying some clue to the age of this
+rock temple, which, according to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed
+a thousand years.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO ONE OF THE TEMPLES.]
+
+To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole history, the
+natives wander regularly every morning, and sometimes two or three times
+during the day, to offer flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight
+of steps cut in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is an
+excellent view over these monumental edifices.
+
+That fancy has been called in to invest these unique unfinished sculptures
+with the character of pleasure-grottoes, baths, &c., &c., of historical
+personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the guide does not
+fail to point out to the stranger a sort of stone cistern hewn out of the
+solid rock, traditionally reported to have been once the plunge-bath of
+Dubrotis. This colossal basin has about 2-1/2 feet water during the rainy
+season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use. The water,
+tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves a mark behind on the
+stone sides, which naturally becomes very visible during the dry season.
+This the natives maintain marks the height of the water as often as
+Dubrotis, (Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another similar
+block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch, and is called Dharma
+Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which, near the head, a tiger is crouched
+to guard it. This gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as
+though balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor made to
+oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock piled up above the
+grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so forth. All these spots, however,
+have in reality not the slightest historic significance; it is only the
+present generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions, and
+interpretations, which assuredly never were in the intention of the
+constructors.
+
+On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of sculptures of
+remarkable beauty, representing the history of Tapasa, or the deep
+penitence of Ardschuna. On the right hand, close to the figure of the
+penitent Ardschuna, one perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as
+large as life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half woman
+half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have seen, is a huge
+sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in height, comprising hundreds
+of figures, with an idol in the centre, to which from all sides
+worshipping deities, men, and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory
+attitudes; along the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The
+colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal, tends still
+more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder doubt whether he is looking
+upon sculptures or upon living elephants. Elliot and others who have
+described these rock temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a
+comparatively small antiquity. They are representations borrowed from the
+poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo mythology. The five roundish temples to
+the south of the village are beyond all question the oldest of these
+monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed; solid, and
+here and there showing marks of work, but only adorned externally, the
+interiors being masses of unhewn granite; each of these temples is 30 feet
+in length by 20 in breadth and height. Thus far, the inscriptions have
+been ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are as yet
+undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to decipher them, or at
+all events to find the key by which to decipher them. The most important
+has been copied and interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the
+various representations give the slightest historical clue as to the
+object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to establish the fact,
+that in the 17th century this district was inhabited by the Corumbas, a
+half-civilized race of the Dschaina religion. About this period, or a
+little later, in the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals
+were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced to this
+neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however, their nature, and the
+immense expense incurred, all point to a long-continued influence of the
+Brahmins. Most of these temples seem to have been first erected in the
+17th century, under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several
+even a much later date.
+
+As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old pyramidal
+pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the sea, peering up from amid
+the furious foaming surf, it seems to be altogether a myth, so that such
+enquirers as Ellis, Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo
+traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble of searching
+for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of seeking to recover the ruins of
+the submerged city. Several writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea
+on the Cormandel coast is retiring; but this appears to be a mistake, for
+here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is the case at Fort St. George,
+which 80 years ago was at some distance from the sea-shore, whereas its
+walls are at present washed by the tremendous surf.
+
+But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden and extensive
+as to have swallowed up an entire city, without leaving any traces. Not
+one of the natives to whom we spoke in the place could say for certain,
+that the sea had materially gained upon the land within the memory of man.
+Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a city. One can
+safely assert that there never existed such a city at Mahamalaipuram, but
+that it has always been a mere abode of priests, with temples,
+sanctuaries, &c., without any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan,
+Quirigua, or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more
+artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of the artist.
+The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at Mahamalaipuram is too low, to
+admit of our supposing that since their erection the greater part had been
+swallowed up in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to
+any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they are all
+susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo mythology, with the
+aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata, all referring to Vishnù and his
+world of deities.
+
+While some of the _Novara_ expedition were visiting Mahamalaipuram, others
+made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake, near the shore, northwards from
+Madras. About 40 or 50 miles on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or
+Blue Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the gray horizon
+to the N.W., the height of which may be about 1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow
+bulwark or quay of unequal breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles,
+separates this salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some
+narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters. The lake
+varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about 60 to 70 miles long.
+The level of its bed is so remarkably regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5
+feet, that when the wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be
+pushed along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked inhabitants of
+the coast standing in the very middle of the water, with their landing or
+drag-nets, or busily occupied with rod and line! Being but a few hours
+distant from Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial
+canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets, carefully faced
+with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining land into lagoons, in which
+during the rainy seasons the strongly brackish water enters, and is used
+to make sea-salt.
+
+In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by fishing-boats, as by
+those laden with wood and fruit, which they convey to the city for
+disposal. Most especially remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds,
+which frequent its shores and all around it. At several places where the
+shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere swamps with barely a foot of
+water, they are literally covered with myriads of curlews, which fly
+about in flights of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long
+rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the earth, seeking
+their food in the mud; far as the eye can reach, one saw whole ranks of
+these birds blending with storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in
+the water itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the
+sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in the air. As
+evening came on, the naturalists of the _Novara_ were sailing as though in
+a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish, as they sprang out of the water, left a
+fiery wake behind them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured
+ever-widening circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again.
+Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round the boat,
+united with the singular melancholy cry of the jackal, which resounded
+from the shore, while overhead flights of birds flew restlessly about in
+the air, whirring in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.
+
+From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the artificial canals,
+which unite this basin of water at various points and in different
+directions with the surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta
+Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a sort of
+underwood or brush, which grows again within the extraordinary short space
+of ten to twelve years. _Sisyphus vulgaris_ (_Rhamnea_), _Gardenia Ficus_,
+tamarinds, and several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the
+forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of climbers. The
+wood is cut by the natives, who have constructed huts in the jungle, into
+pieces of about 2 feet in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the
+shore, whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.
+
+When the members of the _Novara_ Expedition had returned, greatly pleased,
+from their various excursions, the Madras Club gave a grand banquet in
+honour of the captain and staff, to which the _élite_ of Madras society
+were invited. Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the
+club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific members of the
+Expedition upon the free list of the club during the ship's stay. The
+Madras Club-house, though not so luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of
+London, fairly surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in
+fact, a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds assembled
+all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable mode of existence;
+parlours, with wide arm-chairs and American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms,
+in which are all the best journals and an excellent assortment of the best
+and newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine in either
+the English or French style; billiard-rooms, shower and plunge-baths, and
+a large swimming-bath. Members from the country, or strangers, can be
+accommodated with lodging as well.
+
+At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at which above 200
+persons sat down, the chair was taken by the Chief Justice Sir Christopher
+Rawlinson--next to the Governor, the most influential person in the
+community. The extremely friendly disposition manifested on that occasion
+found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few, but appropriate
+words, welcomed the foreign guests; while, on the other side, they gave
+unmistakable evidence of the admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by
+the _Novara_ carried away with them from the hospitable shores of
+Madras.[111]
+
+[Footnote 111: After the customary official toasts had been proposed by the
+chairman, and thanks returned by the Commander-in-chief of the Expedition,
+the health was also proposed of the scientific staff, on which occasion
+one of the naturalists present expressed his thanks for this honour, in
+his name and that of his colleagues, in the following speech, which may be
+permitted to find a place here, as best showing with what impression the
+members of the Expedition left Madras.
+
+"Gentlemen,--It is not without some feeling of anxiety that I am rising,
+for I have so many things to say, and yet it is but the thousandth part of
+what I, of what my fellow travellers all feel! Surely, it is always
+flattering to a man to be distinguished by his fellow-men; but such a
+distinction becomes the more honouring if those who concur to distinguish
+him are--as this is the case with you--a most estimable part of the
+_British_ nation! Of a nation, which has done more than any other on the
+globe for the propagation of Christianity, the diffusion of knowledge, the
+advancement of science, for the progress of civilization, industry, and
+commerce. I do not intend, gentlemen, to return with the shiny currency of
+flattery the many proofs of attention and kindness which all the members
+of the Expedition have witnessed during our short, but most pleasant,
+ever-remembered stay in this city, the birth-place of hospitality! What I
+say is but truth! Every page in modern history certifies my words! Which
+nation has done more for the propagation of Christianity among savage
+tribes all over the world? Some years ago, when I was rambling in British
+America, and along the north shores of Lake Superior, I often found
+villages of 300 or 400 Indians, and but one single white man amongst them.
+And who was that white man, who voluntarily shared their misery, their
+wants, and their privations? He was an _English missionary_!
+
+"And again! Which nation has made greater and more serious efforts to
+suppress the slave trade, and to abolish slavery in all countries where it
+still exists, a shame to the nineteenth century?--Slavery! that hideous
+leprosy on the limb of the gigantic body, called the United States! Who is
+even now anxiously engaged to open, with the heartblood of its noblest
+sons, a vast empire--the Chinese kingdom--to civilization, to
+Christianity, to the traffic of all seafaring nations of the globe!
+
+"And is not this very city, Madras, where we have been so heartily
+welcomed, the best proof of the energy and perseverance of the political
+and commercial greatness of the British nation? Nothing but English
+steadiness and English perseverance could succeed to build on this barren,
+inhospitable, and even most perilous coast, a vast, flourishing city,
+rivalling in size and the number of inhabitants the largest capitals in
+Europe! And what is still more pleasing and satisfactory, is the
+intellectual and physical condition in which one finds the Indians,
+especially if compared with the condition of the natives in North and
+Central America, &c. There he meets a population, rapidly dying away, in
+proportion as the axe of civilization is resounding from the backwoods.
+One may almost determinate the day when the last of the red men will have
+disappeared from the North American Continent, the land of his ancestors!
+Here in India, on the contrary, the traveller meets with a thriving,
+industrious population. Who can see Hindoos, Malabar, Sentus, &c., occupy
+most important employments at the observatory, at the telegraph offices,
+at the railroad, in any branch almost of the public service, and still
+believe the Hindoo race like the Indians of North America to be a _doomed_
+people--to be a people that has no future? No, it HAS a future, and, under
+the wise and humane government of the British Crown, I am sure the
+coloured race of India will even have a most _glorious_ future!
+
+"These are the impressions and feelings, gentlemen, with which we part
+from Madras, with which I and my scientific colleagues bid you all a most
+sincere and heartfelt farewell."]
+
+As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish, notwithstanding the
+difficulties of getting out to, and back from the roads, to visit our
+ship, the commodore invited some forty guests, shortly before our
+departure, to a "tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty
+heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the company of some
+twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After "tiffin," which was served on the
+poop, under a tent improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt
+sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck, our band of
+music being called into requisition for quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes;
+and, indeed, our guests paid so little attention to the approach of
+night, that their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of
+which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our pleasant guests
+homewards with Bengal lights.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII.--TRACK FROM MADRAS TO THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.]
+
+At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set sail. As the
+frigate was perceived, from Fort George to weigh anchor, a thundering
+salute was fired of 21 guns--an extraordinary honour and mark of
+attention, to which we responded by a similar salute. In consequence of
+calms and light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and it
+was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our voyage. For several
+evenings after, that magnificent, and as yet unexplained, phenomenon, the
+Zodiacal light, which is conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age,
+to be the beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving in
+the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was visible with much
+regularity. What was afterwards observed, however, of this remarkable zone
+of light, during the course of our voyage, will be found detailed in the
+meteorological portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather
+accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar Islands, our next
+station. But although, as was rendered necessary by the climate so near
+the Equator, we were clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was
+nothing to remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our sailors
+did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without celebrating that day, to be
+marked with a white stone, by masking and dancing according to ancient
+custom. Jack has an especially good memory for the return of such
+junketings, and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of
+the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near the line also,
+not because he had any pleasure therein, but because it has always been
+his custom to do so at carnival-time!
+
+The state of health of the ship's company was excellent, there being but
+eight on the sick list, of whom only two were seriously ill.
+
+On the 22nd February towards 10 A.M. the Island of Kar-Nicobar hove in
+sight, and towards afternoon we found ourselves but a few miles distant.
+The land seemed for the most part level, only a low eminence thickly
+covered with frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown with
+cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three Malay boats at
+anchor. On the beach were some huts of beehive-like shape, in and out of
+which naked brown figures were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous
+lights glimmered from the shore.
+
+The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we anchored off the
+N.W. side of the island, in 14-1/2 fathoms coral sand, about 2 miles
+distant from the shore, and just between the two villages of Mosse and
+Sàui, each consisting of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4
+cable-lengths of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay
+bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies covered in the
+most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European clothes, approached the
+frigate while she was being secured, in small but elegant canoes, and
+called out anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive tone
+and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we interpreted into an
+inquiry as to whether they had anything to fear, and whether we were
+disposed to be friendly. When, however, we did not immediately throw them
+a rope to make fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our
+numerous guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.
+
+[Illustration: ARRIVAL AT KAR-NICOBAR.]
+
+                            END OF VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+                            APPENDIX A.
+
+
+           LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE "NOVARA" EXPEDITION.
+
+          Commodore--B. v. Wüllerstorf-Urbair, Commander-in-Chief.
+          Captain--Frederick Baron Pöck.
+          First Lieutenant--Bela Saal de Gyula.
+          Lieutenants--Maurice Monfroni de Montfort.
+              "     "   Alexander Count Kielmansegge.
+              "     "   William Lund.
+              "     "   Robert Müller.
+              "     "   Ernest Jacoby.
+              "     "   Eugen Kronowetter.
+              "     "   Gustavus Battlogg.
+          Purser--Antonio Basso.
+          Principal Surgeon--Dr. Francis Seligmann.
+          Assistant Surgeons--Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant.
+                 "       "      Dr. Edward Schwarz.
+                 "       "      Charles Ruziczka.
+          Chaplain--Edward de Marocchini.
+          Midshipmen--Henry Fayenz.
+            "    "    Joseph Natty.
+            "    "    Gustavus v. Semsey.
+            "    "    Richard Baron Walterskirchen.
+            "    "    Louis Meder.
+            "    "    Alexander Kalmar.
+            "    "    Augustus Baron Skribanek.
+            "    "    Andreas Count Borelli.
+            "    "    Francis Baron Cordon.
+            "    "    Frederick Baron Haan.
+            "    "    Edward Latzina.
+            "    "    Michal de Mariassi.
+            "    "    Eugen Prince Wrede.
+            "    "    Joseph Berthold.
+          Engineer--Wenceslas Lehmann.
+
+
+                           _Naturalists._
+
+               Geology--Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter.
+               Botany--Dr. Edward Schwarz.
+                  "    Mr. Anthony Tellinek, horticulturist.
+               Zoology--Mr. George Frauenfeld.
+                  "     Mr. John Zelebor.
+               Ethnography--Dr. Charles Scherzer.
+               Artist--Mr. Joseph Selleny.
+
+The entire crew, including sailors, marines, gunners, servants, and the
+ship's band, amounted to 352 men.
+
+
+
+
+                             APPENDIX B.
+
+ _List of the various Provisions and Stores furnished to the Frigate
+           "Novara" before her departure from Trieste._
+
+
+ Coals--23 tons (at 260 pounds daily consumption)           for 198 days
+ Water--86 tons (the daily consumption was
+   furnished by the distilling apparatus)
+ Biscuit--50,965 pounds (Vienna weight)                      "  145  "
+ Wine--(light red Istrian wine), 8777 mass (= 3510 gallons)  "   50  "
+ Rum--7913 mass (= 3165 gallons)                             "  226  "
+ Salt Beef--17,800 pounds            for 105 days \ Meat
+ Preserved Meat (in tins)                122   "  | (boned)  "  264  "
+ Pork--5760 pounds weight                87    "  /
+ Rice--6850 pounds                       77    "  \ (for
+ Essence--3184 pounds                    58    "  /  Soup)   "  135  "
+ Mélanges d'Equipage, 40,000 rations    114  days \
+ Sour-crout, 16,000 rations              46    "  | Vege-
+ Cabbage, 16,000 rations                 46    "  | tables   "  298  "
+ Potatoes, 32,000 rations                92    "  /
+ Cocoa--10,290 pounds (Vienna weight)                        "  610  "
+ Sugar--3494     "                                           "  156  "
+ Salt--1000      "                                           "  100  "
+ Vinegar--831 mass (= 332-1/5 gallons)                       "   95  "
+
+
+
+
+                             APPENDIX C.
+
+                        SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURE
+
+        DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE "NOVARA."
+
+
+ KEY:
+ A - Pay of Commodore, in Austrian currency.
+ B - Pay of Staff.
+ C - Pay of Naturalists, and incidental Expenses of this department.
+ D - Pay of Crew, including extras.
+ E - Victuals for Crew and Hospital (Sick).
+ F - For Sundries, Repairs, and Ship's Material.
+ G - Purchase of Books, Instruments, and Medicines.
+ H - Pilots and Tug Steamers.
+ I - Pay of Servants, including extras.
+ J - Boat-hire, Postages, Travelling Expenses of the Staff, &c.
+ K - Totals.
+
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+       Period of       |         |          |         |          |
+      Expenditure.     |    A    |    B     |    C    |    D     |
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+                       | Florins.| Florins. | Florins.| Florins. |
+                       |  Kr.    |   Kr.    |   Kr.   |   Kr.    |
+ April to June, 1857   | 2,112 ..|  5,413 51| 1,744 53|  7,522 52|
+ III. Quarter    "     | 2,327 10|  8,214 10| 3,302 40| 10,562 37|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 3,261 20|  9,604 50| 4,816 57| 10,560 50|
+ I.    ditto    1858   | 3,118 ..|  9,377 ..| 4,073 ..| 10,557 49|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 3,212 ..| 10,542 30| 4,358  5| 10,755 39|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 5,102 30|  9,638 30| 5,421 17| 10,245 24|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 2,217 10|  6,931 50| 5,272 56| 10,020  6|
+ I.    ditto    1859   | 4,914 20| 16,958 20| 9,578 23| 10,840 43|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 3,227 16| 11,008 ..| 4,090 20| 11,151 56|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 3,117  7| 10,911 41| 3,857 14| 11,009 29|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|   984 18|  2,564  5| 1,990  5|  3,314 16|
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+     Grand Total       |33,593 11|101,164 47|48,505 50|106,541 41|
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+       Period of       |          |         |        |        |
+      Expenditure.     |    E     |    F    |   G    |   H    |
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+                       | Florins. | Florins.|Florins.|Florins.|
+                       |   Kr.    |   Kr.   |  Kr.   |  Kr.   |
+ April to June, 1857   |    133 55|   146  7|   37 10|  ... ..|
+ III. Quarter    "     |  2,316 40|   362 47|   16 28|   28 ..|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 27,344 29| 2,839  3|  644 49|  356 26|
+ I.    ditto    1858   |  2,099 39|   646 10|   36 34|   85 53|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 21,514 37| 2,170 53|  349 54|  ... ..|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 17,443 32| 5,925 48|  338 14|  645 50|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |  5,762 30|   ... ..|  212 34|2,197 55|
+ I.    ditto    1859   | 30,715 17|18,185 34|2,286 40|  647 54|
+ II.   ditto     "     |  3,179 24|   767  4|   23  2|   94 23|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 11,444 ..| 7,551 15|  306 24|  ... ..|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|  2,163 40|   ... ..|   33 30|  ... ..|
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+     Grand Total       |124,009 43|38,594 41|4,285 19|4,056 21|
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+       Period of       |        |         |          |
+      Expenditure.     |   I    |    J    |    K     |
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+                       |Florins.| Florins.| Florins. |
+                       |  Kr.   |   Kr.   |   Kr.    |
+ April to June, 1857   |  811 34| 5,277 59| 23,200 21|
+ III. Quarter    "     |  363 53|   186 18| 27,680 43|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |  435  9| 2,027 31| 61,891 24|
+ I.    ditto    1858   |  397 28|    96 22| 30,487 55|
+ II.   ditto     "     |1,144 43|   814 25| 54,764 46|
+ III.  ditto     "     |  566  8| 1,351 46| 56,678 59|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |   29 24|   651 59| 33,296 24|
+ I.    ditto    1859   |1,592 30| 1,258 51| 96,978 32|
+ II.   ditto     "     |  200  5| 1,258 32| 35,000 2 |
+ III.  ditto     "     |1,910 ..|   793 ..| 50,900 10|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|  269 46|     5 ..| 11,324 40|
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+     Grand Total       |7,720 40|13,721 43|482,193 56|
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+
+Thus the Expenditure, during the voyage, amounting to 483,193 florins 56
+kreuzer, Austrian currency, which, calculated at the rate of 10 florins to
+a pound sterling at par, is equal to about £48,219 sterling. To this sum
+must be added the outfit and armament of the frigate for the purposes of
+the voyage, amounting to about £6000 sterling, and the expenses for four
+months' provisions, taken in at Trieste before our departure, and
+estimated at about £4500 sterling, so that the entire Expenditure of the
+Expedition, from the time of starting till its return, amounted to about
+£58,000 sterling.
+
+
+
+
+                              LONDON:
+
+                    PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
+
+                     ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+                                66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, W.
+
+                   MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, & CO.'S
+                       LITERARY ANNOUNCEMENTS.
+
+
+   THE VOYAGE OF THE NOVARA ROUND THE WORLD. The Circumnavigation
+     of the Globe, by the Austrian Frigate Novara. English Edition.
+     Containing an Unpublished Letter from Baron Humboldt. With
+     numerous wood engravings. Dedicated, by special permission, to
+     Sir Roderick Murchison. 3 vols., 8vo.
+
+   THE MARQUIS OF DALHOUSIE'S ADMINISTRATION of BRITISH INDIA. By
+     Edwin Arnold, M.A., of University College, Oxford.
+
+   THE POLITICAL LIFE of the EARL of DERBY.
+
+   THE LIFE of the RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN DISRAELI, M.P.
+
+   THE SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES of the LORD BISHOP of OXFORD from
+     1841 to the Present Time. Edited by the Author. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE LIVES of the SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. By William
+     Nathaniel Massey, Esq., M.P., author of "The History of
+     England," and Chairman of Ways and Means.
+
+   THE LATITUDINARIANS. A Chapter of Church History, from the
+     Accession of Archbishop Tillotson in 1691, to the Death of
+     Archdeacon Blackburne, in 1787. By Edward Churton, M.A.,
+     Archdeacon of Cleveland.
+
+   THE LIFE OF THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   ECCLESIA RESTITUTA. By F. C. Massingberd, M.A., Prebendary of
+     Lincoln and Rector of Ormsby.
+
+   SEVEN ANSWERS to the 'ESSAYS and REVIEWS,' BY SEVEN WRITERS IN
+     SEVEN SEPARATE ESSAYS.
+
+   THE HISTORY OF THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY, from the Defection of Sir
+     Robert Peel to the Present Time. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, from the Death of
+     Elizabeth to the Present Time. By the Rev. Geo. G. Perry,
+     M.A., Rector of Waddington, late Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln
+     College, Oxford. 3 vols., 8vo.
+
+   CHURCH RATE A NATIONAL TRUST. By the Venerable Archdeacon
+     Denison. 1 vol., 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST. By the Rev. George Williams, B.D.,
+     Senior Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE AMERICAN CHURCH and the AMERICAN UNION. By Henry Caswall,
+     D.D., of Trinity College, Connecticut, and Prebendary of
+     Sarum. 1 v., post 8vo.
+
+   PHILOSOPHY; or, THE SCIENCE of TRUTH, being a Treatise on First
+     Principles, Mental, Physical, and Verbal. By James Haig, Esq.,
+     M.A., of Lincoln's Inn.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS OF GENERAL GARIBALDI; or, TRAVELS FROM ROME TO
+     LUCERNE, comprising a Visit to the Mediterranean Islands of La
+     Madalena and Caprera, and the Home of General Garibaldi. 1
+     vol. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF DR. WOLFF, the Bokhara Missionary.
+     2d. edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36s.
+
+   AN AUTUMN TOUR IN SPAIN. By the Rev. R. ROBERTS, B.A., of
+     Trinity College, Cambridge, and Vicar of Milton Abbas. With
+     numerous Engravings. 21s.
+
+   HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE SUCCESSORS OF ST. PATRICK AND
+     ARCHBISHOPS OF ARMAGH. By James Henthorne Todd, D.D., F.S.A.,
+     President of the Royal Irish Academy, Treasurer of St.
+     Patrick's Cathedral, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the
+     University, and Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. 2
+     vols., 8vo.
+
+   THE LIFE OF GEORGE FOX, The Founder of the Quakers. From
+     numerous original sources. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE PRIVATE JOURNAL OF THE MARQUESS OF HASTINGS,
+     Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in India. Edited by
+     his Daughter, SOPHIA, the Marchioness of Bute. Second Edition,
+     2 vols. post 8vo, with Map and Index. 21s.
+
+   NAPOLEON THE THIRD ON ENGLAND. Selections from his own writings.
+     Translated by J. H. SIMPSON. 5s.
+
+   THE HUNTING GROUNDS OF THE OLD WORLD. By H. A. L. (the Old
+     Shekarry). Second Edition. 21s.
+
+   HIGHLANDS AND HIGHLANDERS; As they were and as they are. By
+     WILLIAM GRANT STEWART. First and Second series, price 5s.
+     each; extra bound, 6s. 6d.
+
+   THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA. With numerous Woodcuts. 10s. 6d.
+
+   LECTURES ON THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. By the Rev. R. J.
+     M'GHEE. Second Edition. 2 vols, Reduced price, 15s.
+
+   PRE-ADAMITE MAN; or, THE STORY OF OUR OLD PLANET AND ITS
+     INHABITANTS, TOLD BY SCRIPTURE AND SCIENCE. Beautifully
+     Illustrated by Hervieu, Dalziel Brothers, &c. 1 vol, post 8vo,
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   LOUIS CHARLES DE BOURBON: THE "PRISONER OF THE TEMPLE." 3s.
+
+   A HANDY-BOOK FOR RIFLE VOLUNTEERS. With 14 Coloured Plates and
+     Diagrams. By Captain W. G. Hartley, author of "A New System of
+     Drill." 7s. 6d.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS of a WINTER CAMPAIGN IN INDIA, in 1857-58. By
+     CAPTAIN OLIVER J. JONES, R.N. With numerous illustrations
+     drawn on stone by Day, from the Author's Sketches. In 1 vol.
+     royal 8vo, 16s.
+
+   TWO YEARS IN SYRIA. By T. LEWIS FARLEY, Esq., Late Chief
+     Accountant of the Ottoman Bank, Beyrout. 12s. Second Edition.
+
+   DIARY OF TRAVELS IN THREE QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. By an
+     AUSTRALIAN SETTLER. 2 vols, post 8vo, 21s.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS of the COURT of NAPLES in OUR OWN TIMES.
+
+   MOUNT LEBANON AND ITS INHABITANTS: A Ten Years' Residence from
+     1842 to 1852. By Colonel CHURCHILL, Staff Officer in the
+     British Expedition to Syria. Second Edition. 3 vols, 8vo,
+     £1·5s.
+
+   FROM SOUTHAMPTON TO CALCUTTA. Sketches of Anglo-Indian Life.
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   THE TABLETTE BOOKE of LADYE MARY KEYES, OWNE SISTER TO THE
+     MISFORTUNATE LADYE JANE DUDLIE. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   TRAVEL and RECOLLECTIONS of TRAVEL. By Dr. JOHN SHAW. 1 vol,
+     post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
+
+   LETTERS ON INDIA. By EDWARD SULLIVAN, Esq., Author of 'Rambles
+     in North and South America;' 'The Bungalow and the Tent;'
+     'From Boulogne to Babel Mandeb;' 'A Trip to the Trenches;' &c.
+     1 vol. 7s.
+
+   CAMPAIGNING IN KAFFIRLAND; or, SCENES AND ADVENTURES IN THE
+     KAFFIR WAR OF 1851-52. By Captain W. R. KING. Second Edition.
+     1 vol. 8vo, 14s.
+
+   THE RELIGIOUS TENDENCIES OF THE AGE. 6s. 6d.
+
+   ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A HORSE. By SIR GEORGE
+     STEPHEN. With illustrations by Cruikshank. New and cheaper
+     Edition, 5s.
+
+   THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, Elegant Gift Book for the Season.
+     Beautifully bound in green watered silk, with coloured plates.
+     Containing the Art of Conveying Sentiments of Esteem and
+     Affection. Eleventh edition, dedicated, by permission, to the
+     late Duchess of Kent. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES; With a description of the "Ladies'
+     Safety Hive." By SAMUEL BAGSTER, Jun. 1 vol., illustrated. 7s.
+
+   THE HANDBOOK OF TURNING, With numerous plates. A complete and
+     Practical Guide to the Beautiful Science of Turning in all its
+     Branches. 1 vol. 7s. 6d.
+
+   TEXTS FOR TALKERS. By FRANK FOWLER. 3s. 6d.
+
+   THE SUMMER TOUR of an INVALID. 5s. 6d.
+
+   ARMY MISRULE: BARRACK THOUGHTS. By a COMMON SOLDIER. 3s.
+
+
+                              Fiction.
+
+   WHY PAUL FERROLL KILLED HIS WIFE. By the Author of "Paul
+     Ferroll." Third Edition. 10s. 6d.
+
+   OUR NEW RECTOR. Edited by the Author of 'Mr. Verdant Green.'
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   THE RECTOR'S DAUGHTERS. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+
+   SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. A Novel. By MARGUERITE A. POWER. 3 vols.,
+     31s. 6d.
+
+   AN M.P. IN SEARCH OF A CREED. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ROTTEN ROW. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   CRISPIN KEN. By the Author of 'Miriam May.' Dedicated, by
+     special permission, to the Right Hon. Sir E. B. Lytton, Bart.,
+     M.P. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   WHO SHALL BE DUCHESS? or, THE NEW LORD OF BURLEIGH. A Novel. 2
+     vols., 21s.
+
+   THE LIGHTHOUSE. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE SKELETON IN THE CUPBOARD. By Lady Scott. 2 vols., 21s.
+     Cheaper Edition, 5s.
+
+   TOO LATE! By Mrs. DIMSDALE. 7s. 6d.
+
+   HELEN. A Romance of Real Life. 7s. 6d.
+
+   THE CASTLE and the COTTAGE in SPAIN. By Lady Wallace, Author of
+     'Clara; or, Slave Life in Europe.' 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   CYRUS. By Lady Julia Lockwood.
+
+   GERTRUDE MELTON; or, NATURE'S NOBLEMAN. A Tale. 7s. 6d.
+
+   RUTH BAYNARD'S STORY. 1 vol., 10s. 6d.
+
+   VANITY CHURCH. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   MY WIFE'S PINMONEY. By E. E. NELSON, a grand niece of the great
+     Lord Nelson. 5s.
+
+   THE EMIGRANT'S DAUGHTER. Dedicated, by permission, to the
+     Empress of Russia. 5s.
+
+   MIRIAM MAY. 4th Edition. 10s. 6d.
+
+   WHISPERING VOICES OF THE YULE. Tales for Christmas. 5s.
+
+   THE SENIOR FELLOW. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ALMACK'S. A Novel. Dedicated to the Ladies Patronesses of the
+     Balls at Almack's. New Edition, 1 vol, crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   NELLY CAREW. By MISS POWER. 2 vols, 21s.
+
+   MEMOIRS OF A LADY IN WAITING. By the Author of 'Adventures of
+     Mrs. Colonel Somerset in Caffraria.' 2 vols, 18s.
+
+   HULSE HOUSE. A Novel. By the Author of 'Anne Gray.' 2 vols, post
+     8vo, 21s.
+
+   THE NEVILLES OF GARRETSTOWN. A Historical Tale. Edited, and with
+     a Preface by the Author of 'Emilia Wyndham.' 3 vols, post 8vo,
+     31s. 6d.
+
+   CORVODA ABBEY. A Tale. 1 vol, post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE VICAR OF LYSSEL. The Diary of a Clergyman in the 18th
+     century. 4s. 6d.
+
+   GOETHE IN STRASBOURG. A Dramatic Nouvelette. By H. Noel
+     Humphreys. 7s. 6d.
+
+   SQUIRES AND PARSONS. A Church Novel. 1 vol. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE DEAN; or, the POPULAR PREACHER. By BERKELEY AIKIN, Author of
+     'Anne Sherwood.' 3 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d.
+
+   CHARLEY NUGENT; or, PASSAGES IN THE LIFE OF A SUB. A Novel, 3
+     vols, post 8vo. 31s. 6d.
+
+   PAUL FERROLL. By the Author of 'IX Poems by V.' Fourth Edition.
+     Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   LORD AUBREY; or, WHAT SHALL I DO? By the Author of 'Every Day.'
+     A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE IRONSIDES. A Tale of the English Commonwealth. 3 vols., 31s.
+     6d.
+
+   AGNES HOME. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+   LA CAVA; or, RECOLLECTIONS OF THE NEAPOLITANS. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ANSELMO. A Tale of Modern Italy. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE DALRYMPLES; or, LONG CREDIT AND LONG CLOTH. 10s. 6d.
+
+   INSTINCT; or, REASON. By Lady JULIA LOCKWOOD. 5s. 6d.
+
+   CARELADEN HOUSE. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+
+                              Poetry.
+
+   Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton's Eva, AND OTHER POEMS.
+
+   Sacred Poems. By the late Right Hon. Sir Robert Grant, with a
+     Notice by Lord Glenelg.
+
+   Eustace; An Elegy. By the Right Hon. Charles Tennyson
+     D'Eyncourt.
+
+   Oberon's Empire. A Mask.
+
+   The Shadow of the Yew, AND OTHER POEMS. By Norman B. Yonge.
+
+
+
+
+                MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.'S
+
+                     EAST INDIA ARMY AND COLONIAL
+                               AGENCY.
+
+                  66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE,
+                             LONDON, W.
+
+    (_In the immediate vicinity of the New East India House and
+                        the Oriental Club._)
+
+
+Messrs. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, and Co. beg to invite the attention of Regimental
+Messes, Officers, Members of the Civil Service, and other Residents in
+India, Australia, and the Colonies to their East India Army and Colonial
+Agency, and to the advantages it offers.
+
+
+                         BANKING DEPARTMENT.
+
+PAY, PENSIONS, FUND ALLOWANCES, DIVIDENDS, &C., drawn and remitted with
+regularity. SALES of, and INVESTMENTS in, Government Stock, Foreign
+Securities, &c., effected. Every other description of FINANCIAL BUSINESS
+transacted.
+
+
+                         SUPPLY DEPARTMENT.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, including Provisions, Wines,
+Plate, Jewellery, Books, Guns, Band Instruments, Clothing, &c., carefully
+selected and despatched by Overland Route, or Sailing Ship, to Regiments
+and Messes in India, Australia, and the Colonies.
+
+PRIVATE ORDERS from Officers, Members of the Civil Service, and Residents
+in India, Australia, and the Colonies generally, are executed with care,
+economy, efficiency, and promptitude.
+
+All orders should be accompanied by full and detailed directions.
+
+
+                    PERSONAL AGENCY DEPARTMENT.
+
+The Constituents of Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. may depend upon
+receiving every attention to their requirements and instructions. Every
+assistance will be afforded to their Constituents and their Families on
+their arrival in England, with the view to relieve them from every
+possible inconvenience.
+
+Charge, when required, will be taken of children coming from India and the
+Colonies, and arrangements will be made for their education in England.
+
+To those going out to India, Australia, and the Colonies, Messrs.
+Saunders, Otley, and Co. offer their services to secure passages Overland,
+or by Ship, and to afford them all necessary information connected
+therewith.
+
+All Letters, Parcels, &c., will be received by Messrs. Saunders, Otley,
+and Co., for their Constituents (whether in England, India, or the
+Colonies), to whom they will be forwarded regularly.
+
+
+                               TERMS.
+
+NO COMMISSION CHARGED on the execution of Orders, whether from Regimental
+Messes or Private Individuals, WHEN ACCOMPANIED BY A REMITTANCE, and a
+small Discount at all times allowed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+             LITERARY AND POLITICAL NEWSPAPER FOR INDIA
+                        AND THE COLONIES.
+
+                       THE ORIENTAL BUDGET,
+
+                  PRICE ONE SHILLING (POST FREE).
+
+   Published on the First of every Month by Saunders, Otley, and Co.,
+                66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Changes to the original document: Footnotes and
+illustrations may have been moved. Minor punctuation inconsistencies or
+errors have been corrected. To the table of illustrations have been added
+entries for the preceding illustrations. The publisher's corrections
+listed at the end of Volume III have been applied. The following
+additional changes were made:
+
+ analagous[analogous] to the mountain chains
+ to be reaped from European emigation[emigration]
+ Namely: 9159 Portuguese[Two footnotes were improperly swapped]
+ we were still able vividly to recal[recall]
+ If any one desires [to] see a veritable
+ towards the end of the rainy reason[season],
+ their bite produces on the the[del 2nd the] hand
+ that such soundings are only succesful[successful] when
+ they cannot recal[recall] having perceived,
+ Terrestrial Magnetism, Liuteenant[Lieutenant] Robert Müllar;
+ of New Bedford, Massachussets[Massachusetts],
+ pendant les annés[années] 1791-94
+ there there[del 2nd there] is nothing resembling a beach
+ custom that seems to recal[recall] the frightful
+ This time, morever,[moreover]
+ and chaunted[chanted] the praises
+ all to be able to indentify[identify] them,
+ thirty to the Parias[Pariahs],
+ Ry[By] T. LEWIS FARLEY, Esq.,
+ effected. Every other descripion[description]
+
+Also, the publisher on one occasion confused the degrees Réaumur and
+Fahrenheit used in measuring temperature with degrees and minutes used to
+determine lattitude and longitude:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as 24°
+5', (87° 12' Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72° 5' to
+74° 75' Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13° 8' to 10° 5' (63°·05 to 5° 62'
+Fahr.); between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from
+18° 8' to 9° 2' (74° 3' to 52° 7').
+
+The corrected paragraph is as follows:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to
+74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to
+9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of
+the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38456-8.txt or 38456-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38456/
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/38456.txt b/old/38456.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..005b004
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/38456.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,14412 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the
+Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I
+       (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order
+       of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859,
+       Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the
+       Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the
+       Austrian Navy.
+
+Author: Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+Commentator: Alexander von Humboldt
+
+Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38456]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been faithfully
+replicated except as listed near the end of this document under another
+Transcriber's Note. Italicized words are indicated _like this_. Bold words
+are indicated =like this=. Fractions are indicated like this:
+3-14159/100000. The oe ligature is indicated like this: man[oe]uvre.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: CHART OF THE TRACK OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE NOVARA
+ON HER VOYAGE ROUND THE GLOBE _In The Years 1857, 1858 & 1859._]
+
+
+
+
+                               NARRATIVE
+
+                                OF THE
+
+                     Circumnavigation of the Globe
+
+                        BY THE AUSTRIAN FRIGATE
+
+                                NOVARA,
+
+                 (COMMODORE B. VON WULLERSTORF-URBAIR,)
+
+             _Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government_,
+
+                     IN THE YEARS 1857, 1858, & 1859,
+
+           UNDER THE IMMEDIATE AUSPICES OF HIS I. AND R. HIGHNESS
+
+                   THE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND MAXIMILIAN,
+
+               COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE AUSTRIAN NAVY.
+
+                          DR. KARL SCHERZER,
+
+                 MEMBER OF THE EXPEDITION, AUTHOR OF
+                 "TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA," ETC.
+
+                               VOL. I.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+                               LONDON:
+
+                      _SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO._
+
+                   66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE.
+
+                                1861.
+
+                 [THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.]
+
+
+                               LONDON:
+                    PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
+                      ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+
+
+                                  TO
+
+                     SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON,
+
+      G.C.S.ST., M.A., D.C.L., V.P.R.S., G.S., L.S., F.R.G.S.,
+
+ DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
+
+                     TRUST. BRIT. MUS., ETC., ETC.,
+
+              THE GREAT PROMOTER OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE,
+
+                 These Pages are respectfully Inscribed,
+
+              IN RECOGNITION OF HIS VALUABLE EXERTIONS IN
+                   ADVANCING THE SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS
+                      OF THE AUSTRIAN EXPEDITION,
+
+                              AS WELL AS
+
+  IN GRATITUDE FOR THE HOSPITABLE RECEPTION SECURED TO THE NAVIGATORS
+
+                 THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES,
+
+           WHEREVER IT WAS THEIR GOOD FORTUNE TO CAST ANCHOR,
+
+                                  BY
+
+                 THE AUTHOR OF THE FOLLOWING NARRATIVE.
+
+
+[Illustration: LETTER.]
+
+[Illustration: LETTER CONTINUED.]
+
+
+
+
+                     PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+
+A member of the scientific corps attached to the Expedition, which, under
+the auspices of that enlightened friend of science and liberty, the
+Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, was despatched on a voyage round the globe,
+the high honour has been conferred upon me of having entrusted to my care
+the publication of the Narrative of our Cruise.
+
+In this not more difficult than enviable task, I have been most liberally
+assisted by my eminent fellow-labourers--the whole literary material
+collected during the voyage having been kindly placed at my disposal. The
+comprehensive journals and reports of the venerable Commander-in-Chief of
+the Expedition, Commodore Wullerstorff-Urbair, as well as the various
+memoranda of the other members of the Scientific Commission, contributed
+materially to the elucidation of my own general notes, as well as my
+observations upon special subjects, which latter chiefly referred to the
+Geography, Ethnography, and general Statistics of the various countries
+visited.
+
+While preparing the details of our voyage for publication in my own
+language, the idea perpetually presented itself that a translation of this
+narrative into English might prove not unacceptable to the British public.
+And although fully aware that a voyage round the globe, in the course of
+which little more than the coasts were visited of the various countries we
+touched at, could not pretend to offer much new information to the
+greatest of maritime nations, it seemed, nevertheless, that it might
+interest a people so eager in the pursuit of knowledge as the English, to
+know the impression which has been made upon travellers of education by
+the Colonies and Settlements of Britain throughout the world.
+
+The English language, moreover, being spoken more or less over the greater
+part of the earth's surface, geographically speaking, the author who
+addresses his readers in that tongue is sustained by the flattering
+conviction that he will be understood by the majority of the nations of
+the globe! For it is not alone the educated classes of all countries that
+seek to master a language which possesses such a grand--all but unrivalled
+literature! The political and commercial development which Great Britain
+enjoys under the benign influence of liberal institutions, has made
+English the medium of intercourse among almost all sea-faring nations;
+nay, even barbarous tribes find it their obvious interest to get a slight
+inkling at least of the language of a people whose civilizing and
+elevating energies they may not, it is true, understand, far less
+appreciate, but whose imposing power inspires them with awe, while they
+are more closely attached by the tie of material advantage.
+
+The following narrative describes the most important occurrences and most
+lasting impressions of a voyage during which we traversed 51,686 miles,
+visited twenty-five different places, and spent 551 days at sea, and 298
+at anchor or on shore.
+
+As the purely scientific results of the Expedition will be published
+separately under the supervision of Commodore Wullerstorf and the other
+members of the scientific corps, I shall, in this place, only attempt to
+place before the reader a general outline of the countries and races
+visited during our cruise in different regions of the world.
+
+In relating simply and concisely what was seen and experienced, I have
+endeavoured to avoid incurring the reproach, so frequently launched by
+English critics against German works of travel, of dryness and minute
+detail, such as render them distasteful to the English reader, and make it
+almost impossible to enlist his attention or evoke his sympathy.
+
+If, as is specially the case with respect to natural science, many a
+doubtful point still remains undecided--if the ingenious "Suggestions" of
+the immortal Alexander von Humboldt (for the translation of which I feel
+particularly indebted to that profound scholar, my learned and esteemed
+friend Mr. Haidinger, whose name will be familiar to the scientific world
+in Great Britain), could not be acted upon to the extent and in the
+effectual manner each of us could have wished, the reason for such
+deficiencies will be found in the peculiar mission of the Expedition, and
+in the arrangement of our route, which was specially laid out with
+reference to the numerous and widely different objects, which it was
+specially intended to keep in view throughout the voyage.
+
+Among the more prominent of these, may be specified the opportunity thus
+afforded for the practical instruction of our young and rapidly-increasing
+navy; the unfurling of the Imperial flag of Austria in those distant
+climes, where it had never before floated; the promulgation of commercial
+treaties; the aid afforded to science in exploration and investigation, as
+well as by the collection of those objects of Natural History, the
+acquisition of which is all but impossible to the solitary naturalist,
+owing to the expense and difficulty of transport,[1] and the establishment
+everywhere of friendly correspondence between our own scientific
+institutions and those in remote regions, I have considered it necessary
+to invite the attention of the British reading public to these
+circumstances, in order to make them more intimately cognisant of our
+various and manifold tasks, and thus make them the more readily disposed
+to overlook the deficiencies and discrepancies of this book, which I now
+respectfully commit to their perusal.
+
+[Footnote 1: Notwithstanding the short period at our disposal at each
+port, which concomitant necessity militates so much against the practical
+utility of a circumnavigation of the globe as compared with an expedition
+solely directed to one single centre of scientific observation, the
+collection of objects of Natural History made during the cruise are very
+extensive, and unusually rich in new or rare species. The zoological
+department alone embraces above 23,700 individuals of different kinds of
+animals: viz. 440 mammalia, 300 reptiles, 1500 birds, 1400 _Amphibiae_,
+1330 fish, 9000 insects, 8900 Molluscs and _Crustaceae_, 300 birds' eggs
+and nests, besides numerous skeletons. The botanical collection consists
+of _Herbaria_, seeds of useful plants, special regard being had to those
+best adapted for the various climates of the respective Austrian
+provinces, drugs, specimens of dye-woods, and timber, fruits preserved in
+alcohol, &c. The Geological and Palaeontological Museums of our country
+have likewise been enriched with various rare and valuable specimens,
+particularly in consequence of Dr. Hochstetter, the geologist of the
+Expedition, having prolonged his stay in New Zealand, where, at the
+special request of the Colonial Government, he explored the province of
+Auckland. The Ethnographical and Anthropological collection consists of
+above 550 objects, among which are 100 skulls, representing the craniology
+of almost all the races of the globe.]
+
+Before concluding, I beg leave to express my hearty thanks to all those
+who have contributed in such various ways to aid my humble efforts--to
+specify some were invidious, as in so doing I must wrong others. To each
+and all I return the most heartfelt gratitude.
+
+May the indulgent reader peruse the following pages with an approving
+eye--may they afford him as much satisfaction and as much interest as I
+experienced in committing to paper the descriptions and impressions
+therein set forth, since in so doing, I, so to speak, made the delightful
+voyage for the second time, and in thought visited once more the different
+localities, from every one of which I, and my fellow-travellers, brought
+away none but the most friendly and agreeable recollections.
+
+It inspires a _German_ traveller with a peculiar and lofty feeling of
+pride and delight that he can look upon himself as belonging to a race, to
+whom seems to have been reserved the diffusion of a New Life over the
+earth--whose special mission it appears to be to make even the most
+primitive tribes in the remotest corner of the world acquainted with the
+blessings of Christian civilization, of political liberty, of intellectual
+culture, and, standing triumphant on the ruins of slavery and despotism,
+to proclaim to the great family of universal mankind, the advent of a new,
+a vernal era of Faith, Freedom, and Happiness!
+
+                                           DR. KARL SCHERZER.
+
+TRIESTE, _18th March, 1861_.
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                      PREPARATIONS FOR THE VOYAGE.
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+   Approval of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+     Voyage round the World.--Object of the Expedition.--
+     Appointment of a Scientific Commission.--Preparations.--
+     Fitting out the Frigate _Novara_ at Pola.--Departure for
+     Trieste.--Visit of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian on board.      1
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                      FROM TRIESTE TO GIBRALTAR.
+
+   Departure.--Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.--A Man lost and found
+     again.--Passage through the Straits of Messina.--The Steamer
+     _Sta. Lucia_ returns to Trieste.--Regulations and Instructions
+     for further Proceedings.--A Day on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Sunrise.--Cleaning the Ship.--Mental and Physical Occupation.--
+     Moonlight at Sea.                                                  11
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III.
+
+                              GIBRALTAR.
+
+   Political Significance of the Rock.--Courtesy of the British
+     Authorities.--Fortifications.--Signal Stations.--The only
+     Place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.--Calcareous Caves.--
+     Chief Entrances into the Town.--Shutting the Town Gates.--
+     Public Establishments.--Inhabitants.--Elliott's Gardens.--The
+     Isthmus, or Neutral Ground.--Algeziras.--Ceuta.--Commerce and
+     Navigation.--Excellent Regulation in the English Navy relative
+     to Officers' Outfit.--Small-pox appears on board the
+     _Caroline_.--Departure from Gibraltar.--A Fata Morgana.--The
+     _Novara_ passes the Straits.--Takes leave of Europe.--Voyage
+     to Madeira.--Floating Bottles to ascertain the Currents.--
+     Arrival in the Roads of Funchal.                                   29
+
+
+                             CHAPTER IV.
+
+                               MADEIRA.
+
+   First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the
+     Island.--History.--Unfavourable Political Circumstances
+     connected with the Cultivation of the Ground.--Aqueducts.--
+     First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its
+     Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a Compensation for its Loss.--
+     Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence
+     for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the
+     Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress
+     among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--
+     Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--
+     Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent
+     Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--
+     Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent
+     of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to
+     Funchal.--Departure.                                               58
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                           RIO DE JANEIRO.
+
+   Brazil the Land of Contrasts.--Appearance of the City of Rio and
+     its Environs.--Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and the
+     Tejuca Waterfalls.--Germans in Rio.--Brazilian Literary Men.--
+     Assacu (_Hura Brasiliensis_.)--Snake-bite as an Antidote
+     against Leprosy.--Public Institutions.--Negroes of the
+     Mozambique Coast.--The House of Misericordia.--Lunatic
+     Asylum.--Botanical Garden.--Public Instruction.--
+     Historico-Geographical Institution.--_Palaestra Scientifica._--
+     Military Academy.--Library.--Conservatory of Music.--Sanitary
+     Police.--Yellow Fever and Cholera.--Water Party on the Bay.--
+     Chamber of Deputies.--Petropolis.--Condition of the Slave
+     Population.--Prospects of German Emigration.--Suitability of
+     Brazil as a Market for German Commerce.--Natural Products, and
+     Exchange of Manufactures.--Audience of the Emperor and
+     Empress.--Extravagant Waste of Powder for Salvoes.--Songs of
+     the Sailors.--Departure from Rio.--Retrospect.--South-east
+     Trades.--Cape Pigeons.--Albatrosses--Cape Tormentoso.--A Storm
+     at the Cape.--Various Methods of Measuring the Height of
+     Waves.--Arrival in Simon's Bay.                                   121
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                          CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
+
+   Contrasts of Scenery and Seasons at Cape Colony.--Ramble through
+     Simon's Town.--Malay Population.--The Toad-fish, or
+     Sea-devil.--Rondebosch and its delightful Scenery.--Cape
+     Town.--Influence of the English Element.--Scientific and other
+     Institutions.--Botanical Gardens.--Useful Plants.--Foreign
+     Emigration.--A Caffre Prophet and the Consequences of his
+     Prophecies.--Caffre Prisoners in the Armstrong Battery.--Five
+     young Caffres take Service as Sailors on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Trip into the Interior.--Stellenbosch.--Paarl.--Worcester.--
+     Brand Vley.--The Mission of Moravian Brethren at Genaadendal.--
+     Masticatories and intoxicating Substances used by the
+     Hottentots.--Caledon.--Somerset West.--Zandvliet.--Tomb of a
+     Malay Prophet.--Horse Sickness.--Tsetse-fly.--Vineyards of
+     Constantia.--_Fete Champetre_ in Honour of the _Novara_.--
+     Excursion to the actual Cape of Good Hope.--Departure.--A Life
+     saved.--Experiments with Brook's Deep-sea Sounding Apparatus.--
+     Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South Indian Ocean.      196
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII.
+
+    THE ISLANDS OF ST. PAUL AND AMSTERDAM, IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN.
+
+   Former History.--Importance of the Situation of St. Paul.--
+     Present Inhabitants.--Preliminary Observations.--To whom do
+     the Islands belong?--Fisheries.--Hot springs.--Singular
+     Experiment.--Penguins.--Disembarkation.--Inclement Weather.--
+     Remarks on the Climate of the Island.--Cultivation of European
+     Vegetables.--Animal Life.--Library in a Fisherman's Hut.--
+     Narrative of old Viot.--Re-embarkation.--An official Document
+     left behind.--Some Results obtained during the Stay of the
+     Expedition.--Visit to the Island of Amsterdam.--Whalers.--
+     Search for a Landing-place.--Remarks on the Natural History of
+     the Islands.--A Conflagration.--Comparison of the Two
+     Islands.--A _Rencontre_ at Sea.--Trade-wind.--Christmas at
+     Sea.--"A man overboard!"--Cingalese Canoe.--Arrival at Point
+     de Galle, in Ceylon.                                              267
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                                CEYLON.
+
+   Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English Government.--
+     Better Prospects for the Future.--The Cingalese, their
+     Language and Customs.--Buddhism and its Ordinances.--Visit to
+     a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of Galle.--The sacred
+     Bo-tree.--Other Aborigines of Ceylon.--The Weddahs.--
+     Traditions as to their Origin.--Galle as a City and Harbour.--
+     Snake-charmers.--Departure for Colombo.--Cultivation of the
+     Cocoa-nut Palm a benevolent, Buddha-pleasing work.--
+     Polyandria; or, Community of Husbands--Supposed Origin.--
+     Annual Exportation of Cocoa-nuts.--Rest-houses for
+     Travellers.--Curry the national Dish.--A Misfortune and its
+     Consequences.--The Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makun,
+     and Father Miliani.--Annoying Delays with restive Horses.--
+     Colombo.--A Stroll through the "_Pettah_," or Black Town.--Ice
+     Trade of the Americans with Tropical Countries.--Cinnamon
+     Gardens and Cinnamon Cultivation.--Consequences of the
+     Monopoly of Cinnamon.--Rise and Expansion of the Coffee
+     Culture in Ceylon.--Pearl-fishery.--Latest Examination of the
+     Ceylon Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+     Results.--Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.--The Divers.--
+     Pearl-lime, a chewing Substance of wealthy Malays.--Annual
+     Profit of the Pearl-fishery.--Origin of the Pearl.--Poetry and
+     Natural Science.--Artificial Production of the Pearl.--The
+     Chank-shell.--The Wealth of Ceylon in Precious Stones.--Visit
+     to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.--The Cowry-shell, a Promoter
+     of the Slave Trade.--Discovery of valuable Cingalese MSS. on
+     Palm-leaves.--The heroic Poem of "Mahawanso," and Turnour's
+     English Translation of it.--Hospitality of English Officials
+     in Colombo.--A second Visit to Father Miliani.--Agreeable
+     Reception.--The Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous
+     Snakes.--Adventures on the Journey back to Galle.--Ascent of
+     Adam's Peak by two Members of the Expedition.--The Sacred
+     Footprint.--Descent.--The "Bullock-bandy," or Native Waggon.--
+     Departure from Galle for Madras.--The Bassos (Shallows).--A
+     Berlin Rope-dancer among the Passengers.--Nyctalopia; or,
+     Night Blindness.--Fire on Board.--Arrival in Madras Roads.        345
+
+
+                                CHAPTER IX.
+
+                                  MADRAS.
+
+   "Catamarans" and "Masuli" Boats.--Difficulty of Disembarkation,
+     and Plans for remedying it.--History.--Brahminism.--Festival
+     in Honour of Vishnu.--Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+     Government.--Politics and Religion.--Laws of Brahminic Faith.--
+     The Observatory.--Museum of Natural History and Zoological
+     Garden.--Academy of Fine Arts.--Medical School.--Infirmary.--
+     Orphan Asylum.--Dr. Bell.--Lancastrian Method of Teaching
+     Children first Applied in Madras.--Colonel Mackenzie's
+     Collection of Indian Inscriptions and MSS.--The Palace of the
+     former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.--Journey by Rail to
+     Vellore.--_Fete_ given by the Governor in Guindy Park.--Visit
+     to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.--Excursion to
+     Pulicat Lake.--Madras Club.--_Fete_ in Honour of the Members
+     of the _Novara_ Expedition.--"Tiffin" and Dance on Board.--
+     Departure from Madras.--Zodiacal Light.--Shrove Tuesday in the
+     Tropics.--Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.                   424
+
+
+
+
+                       LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+                               VOL. I.
+
+
+                                                        PAGE
+
+         The Track Of The Austrian Imperial Frigate
+           Novara.                            _frontispiece_
+
+         Letter.                                         iii
+
+         Letter Continued.                                iv
+
+         Notes.                                          xvi
+
+         Departure.                                        1
+
+         Gun-room of the _Novara_.                         4
+
+         Plate: Vertical Section of the Frigate
+           "Novara".                                       7
+
+         Geodetical and Astronomical Instruments.         10
+
+         Look-out Man.                                    11
+
+         Track from Triest To Madeira.                    11
+
+         "Palinurus".                                     16
+
+         Seamen off duty.                                 21
+
+         View of Gibraltar from Seaward.                  28
+
+         Rock of Gibraltar.                               29
+
+         Rock Cavern in Gibraltar.                        34
+
+         South Gate, Gibraltar.                           38
+
+         Inhabitant of Frangola.                          47
+
+         Cape Trafalgar.                                  52
+
+         Loo Rock (Madeira).                              57
+
+         Scene in Madeira.                                58
+
+         Bridge over the Ribeiro Seco.                    70
+
+         Carapuca, or Cap worn by the Natives of
+           Madeira.                                       91
+
+         Cathedral of Madeira.                            95
+
+         Sleigh party in Madeira.                         97
+
+         Village of Fayal.                                99
+
+         "El Homem em pie".                              101
+
+         Erica Trees.                                    103
+
+         Track From Madeira to Rio Di Janeiro.           107
+
+         Cape Frio.                                      120
+
+         The Quay at Rio.                                121
+
+         Island of Paquita, Bay of Rio.                  156
+
+         Track from Rio Di Janeiro to the Cape
+           Of Good Hope.                                 182
+
+         Cabo Tormentoso.                                195
+
+         Cape Town.                                      196
+
+         Rifle Volunteer _Fete_ at Stellenbosch.         217
+
+         Paine's Kloef as it was.                        220
+
+         Paine's Kloef as it is.                         220
+
+         Crossing the Breede River.                      226
+
+         Hot Springs of Brand Vley.                      227
+
+         Hottentot Huts at Genaadendal.                  233
+
+         Church and Mission Houses of the Moravian
+           Settlement at Genaadendal.                    237
+
+         Tomb of a Malay Prophet at Zandvliet.           245
+
+         Interior of the Mausoleum.                      246
+
+         Tsetse Fly.                                     252
+
+         Track from the Cape Of Good Hope to St. Paul's
+           Island.                                       259
+
+         Arrival at St. Paul.                            266
+
+         View of St. Paul.                               267
+
+         Distant view of Crater-Basin of St. Paul.       275
+
+         Rainy day at St. Paul.                          300
+
+         Track from St. Paul to Point De Galle (Ceylon). 309
+
+         Cingalese Canoe.                                344
+
+         View of Adam's Peak from Colombo.               345
+
+         Buddha Temple near Galle.                       353
+
+         Interior of a House at Galle.                   359
+
+         Track from Point De Galle To Madras.            418
+
+         Masuli Boat at Madras.                          423
+
+         View of Madras (and Proposed Pier).             424
+
+         The Holy Mountain.                              458
+
+         The god Ganeza.                                 461
+
+         Bivouac at Mahamalaipuran.                      464
+
+         Bas-relief on one of the Monolith Temples.      467
+
+         Entrance to One of the Temples.                 470
+
+         Track from Madras to the Nicobar Islands.       480
+
+         Arrival at Kar-Nicobar.                         482
+
+
+[Illustration: LETTER.]
+
+Transcriber's Note: The text of the letter above, along with supplemental
+address information, are in the first volume of the German edition:
+
+  Sr. Hochwohlgeboren
+  dem Herrn Oberst von Wuellerstorf,
+  kais. koen. Linienschiffs-Capitaen,
+  Befehlshaber S. Maj. Fregatte Novara,
+  Ritter hoher Orden &c. &c. &c.
+  in
+  Triest.
+
+
+               Hochwohlgeborener Herr,
+
+             Hochzuverehrender Herr Oberst, k. k. Linien-Schiffs-Capitaen.
+
+Ew. Hochwohlgeb. wollen, als Befehlshaber Sr. Maj. Fregatte Novara, die zu
+einem grossen, edeln, das deutsche Vaterland und die Wissenschaft ehrenden
+Unternehmen durch kaiserliche Huld bestimmt ist, den Ausdruck meiner
+Verehrung nachsichtsvoll empfangen, indem ich, von der Zeit naher Abfahrt
+in halber Genesung bedraengt, es wage, Ihnen einige _physikalische_ und
+_geognostische Erinnerungen_ ganz gehorsamst vorzulegen, von denen Einiges
+vielleicht den ausgezeichneten Gelehrten, die die Expedition zu begleiten
+das Glueck haben, von Nuzen sein kann. Ich wuerde dies Wenige nicht
+angeboten haben, wenn eine so genaedige und liebenswuerdige Aufforderung Sr.
+kaiserl. Hoheit des Herrn Erzherzogs Ferdinand Maximilian mich nicht dazu
+bestimmt haette. Was ich Nautisches ueber Richtung und Temperatur der
+Meeresstroehmungen, ueber die magnetischen Curven eingeflochten habe, muss
+ich besonders _Ihrer_ Nachsicht empfehlen. Wenn man erinnert, scheint man
+belehren zu wollen, und von dieser Anmassung bin ich weit entfernt. Da kein
+Entwurf, keine Abschrift meiner, wenigstens fleissigen, mit Zahlen
+ueberladenen Arbeit existirt, so waere es vielleicht vorsichtig, sie von
+Jemand, der der behandelten Gegenstaende kundig ist, abschreiben zu lassen.
+Meine gelehrten und mir lieben Freunde Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter, Dr. Karl
+Scherzer und Dr. Robert Lallemant, der mich bei seiner letzten Durchreise
+durch Berlin, um mir sein wichtiges Werk ueber das Gelbe Fieber in der
+Tropenzone zu geben, verfehlt hat, wage ich dringend Ihrem besonderen
+Schuze und Wohlwollen zu empfehlen.
+
+Mit der innigsten Verehrung und den heissesten Wuenschen fuer den Erfolg
+eines so schoen vorbereiteten Unternehmens
+
+                              Ew. Hochwohlgeboren
+
+                                               gehorsamster
+                                               Al. Humboldt.
+
+Berlin, den 7. April 1857 Nachts.
+
+
+
+
+                 PHYSICAL AND GEOGNOSTIC SUGGESTIONS,
+
+                                 BY
+
+                       ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT.
+
+
+In compliance with the gracious invitation which H.I.H. the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian was pleased to address to me from Trieste (December
+12th, 1856), and as yet barely recovered from an indisposition, I jot down
+these hasty notes, without presuming to give definite instructions, such
+as those I drew up, conjointly with M. Arago, for the guidance of the
+French expeditions, or for Lord Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty,
+on the occasion of the Antarctic Voyage of Discovery of Sir James Ross
+(1840-43). The following pages consist simply of hints which may possibly
+prove serviceable to the distinguished and highly informed gentlemen, who
+have the good fortune to sail on board the Imperial Frigate, _Novara_,
+under the command of Commodore von Wuellerstorf. With two of these savans,
+Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter and Dr. Karl Scherzer, I have had the pleasure,
+here in Berlin, to agree verbally on various subjects.
+
+As I do not exactly know what course it is intended the _Novara_ shall
+follow in navigating the Atlantic, nor in what meridian it is proposed to
+cross the Equator, (in conformity with the sound and useful directions of
+my friend Lieut. Maury, of Washington), on her voyage to Rio de Janeiro,
+nor how near she shall keep to Cape San Roque and Fernando de Noronha, I
+must content myself with inviting the attention of the voyagers in a
+general way to the temperature of the sea, as also to the variations and
+aberrations of the magnetic curves, and their currents.
+
+A lower degree of temperature is usually observed W. of the Canaries, and
+Cape Verde Islands, commencing with the Salvages, the thermometer
+indicating as low as 72 deg.7 Fahr. This has been already ascertained by Mr.
+Charles Deville, in his chart of temperature on the voyage "aux Antilles,
+a Teneriffe et a Fogo." I consider this diminution of temperature results
+from the North Guinea current, bringing with it cold water from the north
+southwards as far as the Bight of Biafra and the River Gaboon, at which
+point it is encountered by an opposite current flowing northwards along
+the south-western coast of Africa from Loando and Congo.
+
+In 1825, Captain Duperrey had accurately laid down the point of
+intersection of the magnetic, with the terrestrial equator. In 1837, we
+learned from Sabine's investigations of magnetic inclination near the
+Island of St. Thomas (on the Equator, adjoining the above portion of the
+coast of Africa), that this point of intersection had already shifted
+four degrees to the westward. A period of twenty years having elapsed
+since Sabine's expedition for determining observations with the pendulum,
+it would be most desirable that fresh investigations should be made in
+that neighbourhood, for the purpose of verifying the secular changes of
+all magnetic curves, especially with regard to their variation. In 1840,
+the line of no declination in America began 9 deg. 30' E. of South Georgia,
+whence it ran to the S.E. coast of Brazil, near Cape Frio, thus traversing
+the mainland of South America only between the latter point and the
+parallel of 0 deg. 36' S., when it leaves the continent a little to the east
+of Gran Para, near Cape Tigioca, cutting the terrestrial equator again,
+but in 50 deg. 6' W. According to Bache's Map of Equal Magnetic Declination,
+it reaches the coast of North America near Cape Fear, to the south-west of
+Cape Lookout. This line, along which the magnetic declination is _nil_,
+extends to a point in Lake Erie, 2 deg. 40' W. of Toronto, where the
+declination is already 1 deg. 27' W.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Wherever, in this paper, it is not precisely expressed to the
+contrary, the scale of the Centigrade Thermometer, the longitude from the
+Meridian of Paris, the French foot (_pied du roi_=12.79 inches English),
+and the geographical mile, 15 to a degree of the Equator, measuring 3807
+"toises," are meant.]
+
+It is evident from the observations of Captains Beechey and Findley, and
+still more particularly from those of the French Captain Kerhallet, that
+the remarkable subdivision of the main equinoctial current, flowing from
+east to west into two branches, one directed to the N.W., the other to the
+S.S.W., commences at a considerable distance from the Capes of St. Roque
+and St. Augustin. This bifurcation has always, and with good reason, been
+ascribed to the protruding convexity of the South American continent at
+these two promontories. It would be an important step gained in verifying
+the theory of currents, could the precise distance be ascertained by
+chronometer. It is apparently like an "_actio in distans_," probably a
+phenomenon of what is known as "packing." As the frigate, on leaving Rio
+de Janeiro is to make for the Cape of Good Hope, the opportunity will
+present, should she steer sufficiently southerly, for many interesting
+observations with respect to the _connecting current_ W.N.W. and E.S.E.
+which encounters that from Madagascar and Mozambique, close to the Cape,
+more especially with regard to the temperature of the sea.
+
+If the frigate is intended to approach the small cluster of islands of
+Fernando de Noronha, E. of Pernambuco (Lat. 3 deg. 50' S.), I would recommend
+to that excellent geognostic, Dr. Hochstetter, the hornblendic phonolithe
+rock found there, far from a volcanic crater, but with trachytic dykes and
+basaltic amygdaloid. The flat little island of St. Paul (Penedo de San
+Pedro), 1 deg. N. Lat., singular to say, is not volcanic at all, containing,
+like the Malouin or Falkland Islands, slaty green-stone passing into
+serpentine.
+
+Should the frigate alter her course and cross the Equator more to the
+eastward, without touching at Rio de Janeiro, she might possibly fall in
+with the Marine Volcanic region, (Lat. 0 deg. 20' S., Long. 22 deg. W.), which
+has quite lately become famous again by the U. S. Expedition of the Brig
+_Dolphin_ (1854), commanded by Lieutenant Lee. On 19th May, 1806, columns
+of black smoke were seen issuing from the sea by Krusenstern, and volcanic
+ashes were gathered, after a singular bubbling of the sea from 1748 to
+1836, according to careful investigations by Daussy.
+
+As the frigate is commissioned to visit Ceylon and the Nicobar Islands,
+she cannot sail direct from the Cape to Australia; and the hope must
+therefore be abandoned of her visiting the small basaltic islands, known
+as Prince Edward's (47 deg. 2' S., 38 deg. E.), and Possession (46 deg. 28' S., 47 deg.
+30' E.), belonging to the Crozet's Group, or the two islands, long
+confounded with each other, of Amsterdam (Lat. 37 deg. 48' S.) and St. Paul
+(Lat. 38 deg. 38' S.) The latter island, the more southerly of the two, (a
+very characteristic drawing of which was given by Willem de Vlaming so far
+back as 1696), is supposed to be volcanic, not only by its form, which
+will at once remind the geologist of Santorin, Barren Island, and
+Deception Island, (one of the New Shetland group), but also in consequence
+of the eruption of steam, and the flames occasionally observed there.
+
+As for Amsterdam, which consists of a single densely-wooded mountain, the
+puzzle remains for solution as to how, during the expedition of
+D'Entrecasteaux in 1792, the whole island seemed, during two entire days,
+enveloped in smoke; whereas, on landing there, the naturalists of that
+expedition were satisfied that the mountain was not an active volcano,
+and that the columns of steam issued out of the ground near the shore! As
+yet, the phenomenon remains entirely unexplained.
+
+If we examine any map of the Indian Ocean, we may trace the continuation
+of the Sunda group from Sumatra, N.W., through the Nicobar, and Great and
+Little Andaman Islands, and thence through the volcanoes of Barren Island,
+Narcondam and Cheduba, nearly parallel with the coasts of Malacca and
+Tenasserim, all on the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The minor
+volcanoes just enumerated will present valuable opportunities of
+geological enquiry.
+
+Along the coasts of Orissa and Coromandel, the western portion of the Bay
+of Bengal is quite free of islands, Ceylon, like Madagascar presenting
+rather the type of a continent.
+
+Off the W. coast of the peninsula of India, (that is opposite the
+Neilgherrie hills, and the coast of Canara and Malabar), there is a series
+of three archipelagoes, extending from 14 deg. N. to 8 deg. S., viz., the
+Laccadives, the Maldives, and the Chagos, which appears, as it were,
+continued through the banks of Sahia di Malha, and Cargados Carajos, to
+the volcanic group of the Mascarenhas and Madagascar. As the first-named
+archipelagoes, so far as is yet known, consist solely of coral, and are,
+consequently, true "atolls," or reef-lagoons, the bottom of the ocean
+should be examined over a large extent, adopting the ingenious hypothesis
+of Darwin, that it is to be considered _as an area of subsidence_, rather
+than an elevated region.
+
+It would also be a matter of great importance to get observations
+respecting terrestrial magnetism, particularly so as to define the
+position of a given segment of the magnetic equator. Capt. Elliott, as the
+result of his comprehensive studies, (1846-49), ascertained that the
+magnetic equator passes through the north end of Borneo, and thence nearly
+due W. to the northern extremity of Ceylon. In this region the curve of
+minimum intensity is nearly parallel to the magnetic equator, which
+intersects the Continent of Africa near Cape Guardafui--according to
+Rochet d'Hericourt, in lat. 10 deg. 7' N., long. 38 deg. 5'. E. Between this point
+and the Bight of Biafra nothing is known.
+
+The South Asiatic islands comprise Formosa, the Philippines, the Sunda
+group, and the Moluccas. The great and little Sunda Islands and the
+Moluccas embrace 109 volcanoes, with fiery eruptions, and 10 what are
+called mud-volcanoes. This is not a mere estimate, but is the result of an
+enumeration by Junghuhn, who, within the last year (1856), has returned to
+Java, and thoroughly equipped by M. Pahud, Governor-General of the Indian
+Netherlands, will be of great assistance to the Imperial Expedition.
+
+An exact mineralogical determination of the volcanic rocks (trachytes) is
+unfortunately wanting everywhere.
+
+The most active volcano of Sumatra is the Gunung Merapi (8980 feet), which
+must not be confounded with a volcano in Java, of the same name. That of
+Sumatra was ascended by Dr. L. Horner, and Dr. Korthals in 1834. We may
+pronounce Indrapura (11,500 feet, but this measurement is very uncertain),
+and Gunung Pasoman (9010 feet), the Ophir of our maps, to be utterly
+unknown geologically. The highest of the Java volcanoes is Gunung Semeru
+(11,480 feet), ascended by Junghuhn in 1844, 1220 feet higher than the
+Etna. The largest craters of the 45 which are disposed in a line along the
+shores of Java, are Gunung Tengger, and Gunung Raou. Dr. Junghuhn has
+recently given the outlines of each separate volcano in his splendid
+topographical and geological map of Java, in four sheets, published in
+1856, which does great credit to the Dutch Government.
+
+The following subjects are worthy of special attention while the frigate
+is at Java.
+
+1. The curious phenomenon of the ribbed surface. (_Vide_ Junghuhn, Java,
+Part II., p. 608.)
+
+2. The disposition, as yet unaccounted for, of a series of
+regularly-shaped hills, formed by the mud-streams ejected in the year 1822
+by the volcano of Gunung Galungung. (_Vide ut supra_, pp. 127-731.)
+
+3. The ejection of water by the Gunung Idjen, on 21st January, 1817, (pp.
+707, and 717-121).
+
+4. The erroneousness of the assertion that the volcanoes of the Island of
+Java do not emit streams of real lava.
+
+It must be admitted that the mighty Javanese volcano, Gunung Merapi,
+already alluded to, has not, within the historic period, presented any
+coherent compact streams of lava, but mere fragments and boulders;
+although in 1837, lines of fire were seen running uninterruptedly from
+the top down the sides of the cones in eruption. But each of the three
+volcanoes, Tengger, Idjen, and Slamat, present examples of black lava
+currents, descending as far as the tertiary strata.
+
+Streams of stone-boulders, red-hot, similar to those of the Cotopaxi, but
+scarcely touching each other, flowed from Gunung Lamorgan on 6th July,
+1838.
+
+No active volcano is known in the island of Borneo. The highest mountain
+of the whole island, perhaps of the whole insular world of Southern Asia,
+is the Hina Bailu (12,850 feet?) on the northern point of Borneo. It is as
+yet unexplored. According to Dr. Lewis Horner, son of the astronomer of
+the Krusenstern expedition, there occur among the syenite and serpentine
+mountain range of Rathus, on the S.E. of the island, deposits yielding
+gold (which has even been worked by diggings), diamonds, platinum,
+iridium, and osmium,--presenting, in fact, a similar association to those
+of the Ural mountains. No mention is made of palladium. Rajah (now Sir
+James) Brooke describes in the province of Sarawak in Borneo, a low hill,
+Gunung Api ("hill of fire" in Malay), the slags of which attest former
+volcanic activity. A visit to Borneo would be of very great service.
+
+There are eleven volcanoes in Celebes, and six in Flores, all active.
+
+It is still uncertain whether the conical mountain Wawari, or Atiti,
+which is more generally known as the volcano of the island of Amboyna,
+ever poured out anything except hot mud (1674), or whether it should be
+merely classed as a _solfatara_. The main group of the South Asiatic
+Islands is connected through the Moluccas and the Philippines with the
+Papua and Pellew islands, and the Caroline Archipelago of the South Sea.
+
+The most important geological fact to be remarked with reference to the
+island of Formosa, abounding in mineral coals, is the break in the line of
+direction of the open vents, when, instead of N.E. to S.W., the central
+line follows the meridian line, which it pursues nearly as far as 6 deg. S.,
+passing through Formosa and the Philippine Islands (Luzon and Mindanao),
+respecting which deviation nothing certain is known, and in which region
+every mountain of conical shape, or outline is invariably set down as a
+volcano, even though there should be no indications of a crater. The
+Sooloo Archipelago forms the connecting link between the islands of Borneo
+and Mindanao, the long, narrow island of Palawan, constituting that
+between Borneo and Mindoro.
+
+The Island of Yesso, separated from that of Niphon by the Straits of
+Sangar, or Tsugar, and from the islands of Krafto (Saghalien) and Tschoka,
+or Tarakai, by the Straits of La Perouse, connects, through its North
+Eastern Cape, with the archipelago of the Kuriles. From Broughton's
+Southern Vulcan Bay up to its northernmost point, Yesso is traversed by an
+uninterrupted range of volcanoes--a fact the more worthy of being
+recorded, as in the expedition of La Perouse there were found red porous
+lavas, as well as wide areas, covered with slags, in the Baie des
+Castries, in the narrow island of Krafto (Saghalien), which is, as it
+were, merely a continuation of Yesso. In our own day these regions command
+a higher interest, from a political point of view, more especially since
+Russia, dissatisfied with the situation of Okhotsk, at the sanded mouth of
+the Amoor, was anxious, after the destruction of Petropaulowski, on the
+coast of Kamtschatka, to obtain, on the S.E. coast, a harbour suitable
+for a military station.
+
+Among the three islands which form the main portion of the Japanese
+Empire, six volcanoes are known to have had eruptions in the historic
+period. The volcano, Fusi Jama, in Niphon, province of Suruga (Lat. 35 deg.
+18' N., Long. 136 deg. 15' E., altitude 11,675 feet), is said to have risen
+out of the plain 286 years before the Christian era. Its last eruption was
+in 1707. The volcano, Asama Jama, in the district of Saku, between the
+meridians of the two capitals, Miaco and Jeddo, was last in eruption in
+1783. On the island of Kiusiu, adjoining the peninsula of Corea, four
+volcanoes are situated, from one of which, called Wanzen, there was a most
+destructive eruption in 1793.
+
+The beautiful work of Commodore Perry, U.S.N., detailing his mission to
+Japan, on the part of the United States Government, in 1852, containing
+excellent photographs of races, as also drawings by the Berlin artist,
+Wilhelm Heine, does not, as yet, comprise the scientific results of that
+expedition.
+
+Proceeding northwards, the volcanoes are more densely crowded, and are
+found arranged in series. Of the fifty-four which I enumerated as still in
+activity among the islands of Eastern Asia, there are thirty-four on the
+Aleutian, and ten on the Kurile Islands. The Peninsula of Kamtschatka
+contains nine volcanoes, which have been in activity within the historic
+period. Lying under the 54th and 60th degrees of northern latitude, we see
+a long strip of sea-bottom between two continents undergoing a perpetual
+process of destruction and re-arrangement.
+
+The South Sea, the superficial extent of which is one-sixth greater than
+that of the entire solid crust of our planet, actually presents a smaller
+number of active volcanoes, less vents for communication between the
+centre of the earth and its atmospheric envelope, than the single Island
+of Java! Out of 40 volcanic cones, including those which are extinct, only
+26 have been seen in eruption during the historic period. They are not
+scattered at random, but, on the contrary, as was pointed out by Mr. James
+Dana, the ingenious geologist of the great United States Exploring
+Expedition, under the command of Capt. Wilkes (1838-42), they have been
+thrown up, at widely extending clefts, communicating by submarine mountain
+systems. They are arranged in groups and distinct regions, analogous to
+the mountain chains of Central Asia and Armenia (in the district of the
+Caucasus), and belong to two quite distinct systems, one running S.E. to
+N.W., the other S.S.W. to N.N.E.
+
+In the Hawaiian Archipelago (or Sandwich Island group), we find Mauna Loa,
+according to Wilkes, 12,900 feet in height, which does not present any
+cone of volcanic scoriae (resembling, in this particular, the volcanoes of
+the Eifel), but has emitted streams of lava. The lava basin of Killauea,
+13,000 feet in its greatest, by 4800 in its smallest diameter, is not a
+_solfatara_, but a true lateral vent on the flank of the powerful Mauna
+Loa itself, exactly resembling the less elevated sheet of lava of Arak.
+Mauna Kea is 180 feet higher than Mauna Loa, but is extinct. Tafoa and
+Amangura, in the Tonga group, are still in eruption, the last discharge of
+lava having occurred in July, 1847. The volcano of Tanna was in full
+eruption during Capt. Cook's Voyage of Discovery in 1774, as was also the
+volcano of Ambrym, west of Malicollo in the archipelago of the New
+Hebrides. At the south point of New Caledonia, lies Matthew's Rock, a
+small smoking rocky island. The volcano of Santa Cruz, N.N.W. of Tina
+Kora, with periodical eruptions occasionally occurring at intervals of 10
+minutes, had been already noticed as a volcano by Mendana, so far back as
+1595. In the Salomon Archipelago, there is found the volcano of Sesarga,
+while others are said to be in full activity in the Marianas or Ladrones,
+just like those of Guguan, Pagon, and El Volcan Grande de Asuncion, which
+appear to have broken forth along a line that follows the meridian. In New
+Britannia, three conical mountains were observed vomiting streams of lava,
+by Tasman, Carteret, and Labillardiere. There are two volcanoes in full
+activity on the north-east coast of New Guinea, opposite Admiralty
+Islands, which themselves are so rich in obsidian. In New Zealand,
+numerous regions abound in basaltic and trachytic rocks. Of active
+volcanoes there are Puhia-i-Wakati (the volcano of White Island), and the
+lofty cone of Tongariro (5816 feet). To the absence of centres of volcanic
+agency in New Caledonia, where sedimentary formations and seams of coal
+have recently been discovered, is ascribed the vast development of coral
+reefs. Dana was the first to ascend the Peak of Tafua, in the Island of
+Upolu, one of the Samoa group, not to be confounded with the still active
+volcano of Tafoa, south of Amangura, in the Tonga Archipelago. Dana found
+in it a crater overgrown with thick forest. So, too, on the isolated Vaihu
+or Easter Island group, there is found a range of conical mountains with
+craters, but inactive.
+
+Of the volcanic groups of the South Sea, the most violent is the farthest
+east, adjoining the shores of the New World, viz., the archipelago of the
+Gallipagos, which consists of five considerable islands, very admirably
+described by Darwin. There are streams of lava down to the very shore of
+the sea, but no pumice. Some of the trachytic lavas are said to abound
+with crystals of albite. It is important to examine whether or not this
+is oligoclase, as on Teneriffe, Popocatepetl, and Chimborazo; or
+labradorite, as on Etna and Stromboli. Palagonite, exactly similar to that
+of Iceland or in Italy, was discovered by Bunsen in the specimens of tufa
+from Chatham Island, one of the Gallipagos.
+
+New Holland does not show any signs of recent volcanic activity, except at
+its most southern point (Australia Felix), at the foot of the Grampian
+Mountains. N.W. from Port Philip, as also towards the Murray River, there
+are numbers of volcanic cones and sheets or flows of lava.
+
+It would be of great interest and utility to observe the relative
+inclinations of the Magnetic and the Geographical Equators, by means of
+the dip of the magnetic needle, though this will be rendered more
+difficult, from the fact of the ship's course being easterly, that is,
+contrary, to the Equinoctial current. As regards the low temperature of
+the current, which I discovered in 1802, running up from 40 deg. S. to the
+Gallipagos along the coast of South America, and then turning westward, it
+would be highly important to investigate whether in the eastern part of
+the South Sea in 7 deg. N. and between 117 deg. and 140 deg. W., there really exists
+in every season a _counter current_ from west to east. But I need not
+enlarge upon this topic to such attentive navigators.
+
+The line of no inclination was crossed six times by Duperrey between 1822
+and 1825. When I first discovered, near Truxillo, the low temperature of
+the cold Peruvian current, it was 12 deg.8 Reaumur (60 deg.8 Fahr.). The
+temperature observed in the course of twenty years by Mr. Dirckinck von
+Holmfeld, in the neighbourhood of Callao, expressed in degrees of Reaumur,
+were as follows:--
+
+ September  1802     12 deg.8  (Fahr. 60 deg.8)  }  Thermometer in the air.
+ November    "       12 deg.4  (  "   59 deg.9)  }  13 deg.3 Reaumur.
+ December,  end of   16 deg.8  (  "   69 deg.8)  }  (61 deg.92 Fahr.)
+ January    1825     12 deg.7  (  "   60 deg.57)
+ February    "       15 deg.3  (  "   66 deg.42)
+ March       "       15 deg.7  (  "   67 deg.32)
+ April       "       14 deg.5  (  "   64 deg.62)
+
+The temperature of the sea I found to be 22 deg. Reaumur (81 deg.5 Fah.) north of
+Cape Blanco, when on my way from Callao de Lima, at which point the cold
+current diverged towards the Gallipagos.
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24 deg.5, (87 deg.12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16 deg. to 18 deg. (68 deg. to 72 deg.5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18 deg. to 19 deg. (72 deg.5 to
+74 deg.75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12 deg. 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13 deg.8 to 10 deg.5 (63 deg.05 to 55 deg.62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18 deg.8 to
+9 deg.2 (74 deg.3 to 52 deg.7).
+
+In sailing from the Sandwich Islands to the west coast of America, the
+Imperial Expedition will have to choose between the Ports of San Francisco
+or Acapulco. The first choice would be of great mineralogical advantage
+for those regions of the United States, lying North of the river Gila.[3]
+Parallel with the chain of the Rocky Mountains, which, according to
+Marcou, contains up to the present day several volcanoes in full activity
+in its northern part (Lat. 46 deg. 12' N.), run single, and at certain points
+double ranges of coast chains from San Diego to Monterey, from 32 deg. 15' N.
+to 46 deg. 45' N. They begin with the coast range specially so-called, which
+is a continuation of the high ridge of the Peninsula of Lower or Old
+California; after which, farther to the North, there follow in succession,
+first the Sierra Nevada di Alta California, between 36 deg. and 38 deg. N. the
+lofty Shasty mountains, and the Cascade Range, nearly twenty six miles
+distant from the littoral, including many high and active volcanoes, and
+extending far beyond Fuca Straits. The following are still in
+eruption:--Mount St. Elias (46 deg. 2' N.); Mount Regnier, or Rainier, (46 deg.
+46'); and Mount Baker, (48 deg. 48'.) These three active cones would be most
+conveniently visited by the geologist of the expedition from San
+Francisco, as would likewise the whole Cascade Range. We have as yet no
+certain intelligence as to the geology of the entire longitudinal
+auriferous valley of the Sacramento River, (where a trachytic crater, in
+a state of disintegration, is known as the Butt of Sacramento). Does the
+auriferous quartz occur in veins, and are these still _in situ_, or are
+they broken up? What description of rock is traversed by these veins? Does
+the wash-gold here contain occasionally, as in the Ural Mountains,
+fragments of vein-stones with isolated cavities, in which are found
+impressions of leaves and membranes, clearly proving that they have not
+been rolled, or transported by water, any great distance to the spot they
+now occupy? Have these been found, alongside of gold, diamonds, platinum,
+osmium, iridium, or mercury?
+
+[Footnote 3: The Gila falls into the Colorado about forty miles above the
+embouchure of the latter into the head of the Gulf of California.]
+
+Should the frigate steer for Acapulco, it may be assumed that there exists
+an intention to cross the Continent to Mexico and Vera Cruz, from the
+volcano of Colima (1877 toises) as it were, along the parallel of the
+range of volcanoes, and greatest heights rising in detached groups between
+the two seas, about the parallel of 19 deg. N. New astronomical observations
+are greatly needed for determining the position of the volcanoes of Colima
+and Jorullo (667 toises). The volcano of Colima, with its twin peaks _de
+fuego_ and _de nieve_, should be carefully examined, as also the volcano
+of Jorullo, with the fragments of granite enclosed in its lava; the Nevado
+de Toluca (2372 toises), Popocatepetl (2772 toises), Itztaccihuatl (2456
+toises), Cofre de Perote (2098 toises), and the volcano of Tuxtla (18 deg. 28'
+N.), on the eastern slope of the Sierra St. Martin, from which a column of
+flame shot up with great violence on 2nd March, 1793, a fair specimen of
+what the Spaniards term _Malpays_, the Sicilians _Sciarra viva_. The face
+of the country is covered over with boulders of lava, at San Nicolas de
+los Ranchos, at the foot of Popocatepetl, adjoining the city of Puebla de
+los Angeles, after which, on the road from Puebla to Vera Cruz, will be
+observed two narrow strips of boulders of cooled basaltic lava, rich in
+olivine. Similar examples will be found at Parage de Carros, near
+Tochtilacuaja and Loma de Tablas, between Cancas and the Casas de la Hoja.
+The mere ascension of volcanic cones is geologically of far less
+importance, than the bringing away numerous specimens, carefully selected,
+of various trachytic rocks, which, by their oryctognostical composition,
+are characteristic of each volcano. I would nevertheless recommend that
+the Pico del Fraile of the Toluca volcano (2372 toises) should be
+ascended, proper caution being used. From this very sharp peak, I brought
+away thin plates of trachyte perforated by lightning, and within the holes
+of a melted glassy surface, resembling those brought from Little Ararat.
+Both for the miner and geologist, an interesting and useful visit might be
+paid to the rich mines of Guanaxuato and the Mines de la Biscaina and
+Regla, on the road from Mexico to Real del Monte, so as to observe the
+close connection subsisting between the richer silver ores, occurring in
+trachytic porphyry without quartz, but with felspar, (glassy felspar?),
+and the thoroughly volcanic Cerro del Jakal, abounding in obsidian, and
+the Cerro de las Navajas (Razor Range), which remind one of the environs
+of Schemnitz, with the sole exception, that the trachytes "_porphyres
+meulieres_" of Beudant, are wanting here.
+
+As it is highly desirable that considerable time should be devoted to the
+volcanoes of Quito, Peru, and Chili, it appears uncertain whether the
+course of the frigate, on leaving Acalpulco, will be shaped direct for
+Guayaquil, thus reversing the route taken by myself, or whether she will
+not touch at some of the central American ports--Realejo or Sonsonate. The
+crowded series of volcanoes in Central America, of which no less than
+eighteen, conical or dome-shaped, may be considered as still in active
+eruption, would yield a rich harvest of facts of all kinds in elucidation
+of the theory of volcanic action, such as have never hitherto been
+sufficiently taken advantage of. We are still in need of the mineralogical
+determination of the rocks, while the form and situation of the mountain
+masses have been well described by Squier, Oersted, and other modern
+travellers. The greater number, indeed, of the eruptions of scoriae and
+slag were unaccompanied by streams of lava, as, for example, those of
+Mount Isalco, abounding in ammonia. But recently eye-witnesses have
+furnished us with quite different accounts regarding these eruptions, in
+the case of several volcanoes--as the Nindiri (a twin volcano with that
+called Massaya), on which Dr. Scherzer has lately shed much light; the
+Volcano el Nuevo, erroneously called Volcano de las Pilas, that of
+Coseguina, situated on the Great Bay of Fonseca, and that of San Miguel de
+Bosotlan, from which there flowed an extensive stream of lava in July
+1844. It would be most tempting to pass by land from Mexico southwards to
+Oaxaca, and thence to the Isthmus of Guasacualco or Tehuantepec, and
+Chiapas, so as to rejoin the frigate at Realejo or Sonsonate. Facts might
+be obtained, in such a journey, of great value in determining the
+dependence of geological phenomena on each other; but it is to be feared
+it would be attended with too much fatigue and loss of time. For similar
+reasons, it cannot be proposed that the scientific gentlemen attached to
+the Expedition, should leave the frigate for three or four months, when
+they reach Central America, in order to cross by rail the Isthmus of
+Panama, with the object of examining the Volcancitos of Turbaco and Gabra
+Zamba, both active, and thence ascend the Rio Magdalena from Carthagena de
+las Indias, as far as Honda, whence they could proceed by Bogota and
+Popayan to Quito.
+
+It will be also unavoidable to forego the examination of the sedimentary
+rocks, rich in fossils, between Honda, Bogota and Ibagues, the Mastodon
+fields (_Campos del Gigante_), and the Salto de Tegumidama on the plateau
+of Bogota, the wax palm (_Ceroxylon Andicola_), and the Azufrales of the
+Passo de Quindiu, the volcanoes of Tolima, measured by myself and ascended
+by Boussingault, and of Paramo de Ruiz (4 deg. 15' N.), as also the two
+volcanoes of Popayan, the Purace and the much more interesting but now
+extinct Sotara. As a middle course, I may suggest a disembarkation, not
+exactly at Guayaquil, but on the gold and platinum coast of the Choco,
+near San Buenaventura, so as to proceed thence to Popayan, and afterwards
+return to the volcanoes of the province of Pasto, which are highly
+important, and so on to Quito, by way of Guachucal, Tulcan, and Villa de
+Ibarra, rejoining the frigate only at Guayaquil.
+
+I believe, however, it would be more advisable to select Quito as the
+starting-point, whence to examine the important elevated volcanic region
+De los Pastos (between 2 deg. 20' and 0 deg. 56' N.), containing the volcano of
+the town of Pasto, the volcanoes of Tuguerres, Chiles and Cumbal, and the
+Azufral de Pasto, and not to land at any port of the Choco coast, not even
+from the Bahia de Cupica, which for half a century I have recommended in
+vain on account of its vicinity to the Rio Naipi, one of the tributaries
+of the Atrato. In drawing up a list of names of the volcanoes of the
+renowned lofty plateau of Quito, I may include, Imbaburu, Cotocachi, Rucu,
+Pichincha, Antisana, the much-disputed question of the stony walls like
+streams of lava, on the east slope of Tana Volcan, and Reventazon de
+Ansango; Cotopaxi, with its strange inexplicable quarries of pumice, of
+Guapecho and Zumbalica, in the neighbourhood of Llactacunga and San
+Felipe, the pumice containing oligoclase, not glassy felspar, deposited in
+strata, like any rock _in situ_ for a considerable distance on all sides
+of Cotopaxi; Tunguragua (mica slate), studded with garnets, and beds of
+granite, which dip under the former, and have themselves been pierced by
+the trachytes of Tungurahua at Rio Puela and the Hacienda de Ganace; the
+hills of Moya, near the village of Pelilco, cast up in the celebrated
+earthquake of 7th February, 1797, and still in a state of activity; the
+Chimborazo, which M. Jules Remy, accompanied by an Englishman named
+Princkley, was in the belief they had ascended, on the 3rd of November,
+1856, to the very summit, "_mais sans s'en douter_." Poggendorff, (Vol. X.
+p. 480), has clearly demonstrated that the boiling point given by Remy for
+the summit, would not give 6544 metres (little different from my own
+trigonometrical admeasurement of 6530 metres), but fully 7328 metres. As I
+distrust my own half-barometical measurements, I have vainly implored
+travellers, these fifty years past, to have a new series of
+trigonometrical observations made of the summit of Chimborazo. The merit,
+then, of settling this moot point, it also remains for the members of the
+_Novara_ Expedition to obtain.
+
+It would be important to examine the Sangay (16,068 feet)--which, like
+Stromboli, is in constant activity, yet without any traces of
+lava-streams--on account of the grains of quartz discovered by Wisse in
+the trachytic boulders ejected by the volcano, which is of such rare
+occurrence in the trachytes out of Hungary; and also on account of the
+close vicinity of beds of granite and gneiss, which are broken through by
+the Sangay trachyte, forming an island, as it were, of not hardly two
+miles in breadth. Still more deserving of attention is the extinct volcano
+El Altar de los Collanes (Capac Urcu) a sketch of which I presented in
+the atlas published in my "Kleine Schriften" (Plate V. p. 461), formerly
+higher than Chimborazo, and still (?) 16,380 feet. Not a single specimen
+of its trachyte has ever been deposited in a European museum. The Altar
+itself is readily accessible from Riobamba Nuevo. In its vicinity may also
+be seen mica slate and gneiss, cropping out at the Paramo del Hatillo near
+Guamote, and Teocaxas, which are so seldom fallen in with in the highlands
+of Quito. Tradition relates that gold-mines were worked here during the
+days of the Incas, in the neighbourhood of volcanic trachytes. From the
+Altar the geologist might proceed, by way of San Luis, (Query, whether the
+primitive clay-slate found here be of the Silurian formation?) and
+Guamote, to Paramo del Assuay (2428 toises), and Cuenca, as far as Atausca
+(2 deg. 13' S.), where an immense mass of sulphur, lying in a quartz seam is
+worked, forming a bed in the mica slate. Of what rock does the easily
+accessible Cayambe Urcu (18,170 feet) consist, crossing the Equator, S.E.
+of Otavalo? _En route_ from Quito to Cayambe, the rich deposits of
+obsidian near Quinche should also be inspected, which furnished the large
+mirrors to the Incas, and farther to the north of which are the volcanoes
+of Los Pastos, which form a separate system by themselves.
+
+For examining the rocks and exploring the volcanoes of Southern Peru and
+Bolivia--respecting which see the last edition of Pentland's Maps, not
+those published between 1830 and 1848, in which the height of Sorata was
+indicated at 3949 toises (25,257 feet), and Illimani at 3753 toises
+(24,004), and accordingly both as much more lofty than Chimborazo, which
+is 3350 toises (21,426 feet)--the best starting-point would be the port of
+Arica, which may be reached, sailing the whole distance against the cold
+current, from Guayaquil, after a short stay at Callao de Lima. Of the
+volcanoes of Peru and Bolivia only three are now active.
+
+(_a._) The volcano of Arequipa, three miles N.E. of the town of the same
+name, which, according to Pentland and Rivero, is situated about 7366 feet
+above the level of the sea. The measurements of M. Dolley, of the French
+navy, which were published under my superintendence, give the summit of
+the volcano as 10,348 feet above the town of Arequipa, so that its total
+elevation above the sea would be 17,714 feet. In the table of heights for
+Mrs. Somerville's "Physical Geography," Mr. Pentland speaks of the summit
+as being 20,320 English feet in height, or 19,065 Paris feet, closely
+approximating to the old trigonometrical measurement (19,080 feet) given
+by Thaddeus Haenke, a Bohemian, who accompanied the expedition of
+Malaspina, in 1769. What a deplorable state for the science of hypsometry
+to be in! which the _Novara_ ought to put an end to. Samuel Anzon, a North
+American, in 1811, and Dr. Weddell, in 1847, have ascended the volcano of
+Arequipa.
+
+(_b._) Sahama (18 deg. 7' S.), according to Pentland's new map of 1848, is 871
+feet higher than Chimborazo (which he gives as 20,970 feet), and is still
+active. The true heights of Illimani and Sorata, ascertained since 1848,
+are, instead of 3949 and 3753 respectively, only 3329 toises (21,266
+English feet), and 3307 toises (21,145 English feet).
+
+(_c._) Volcano Gualatieri, in the Bolivian province of Carangas (18 deg. 25'
+S.), height 20,604 feet.
+
+The southern group of South American volcanoes, that, of Chili, presents
+the largest number of active fire-mountains--only second, indeed, to that
+of Central America, there being from eleven to thirteen. In order to
+increase the geological exploration of this region which has been so well
+prepared by the memorable expedition under Captain Fitzroy, in the ships
+_Adventure_ and _Beagle_, the excellent generalizing theories of Mr.
+Darwin, and the naval astronomical expedition of Mr. Gilliss, for 1849-51,
+the _Novara_ will probably land at Valparaiso. A great desideratum between
+Coquimbo and Valparaiso is an exact measurement of--
+
+_A_. The volcano of Aconcagua (32 deg. 39' S.). Its height has been stated, in
+1835, by Captain Fitzroy, as 21,767 feet, Pentland's correction assigning
+22,431 feet; while Captain Kellet, of the frigate _Herald_, gives it as
+21,584 feet. Miers and Darwin are both of opinion that the Aconcagua is
+still in activity, which is denied by Pentland and Gilliss. The most
+recent measurement of Aconcagua--that by Pissis in 1854 (see Gilliss, Vol.
+I. p. 63)--makes the height 20,924 feet. M. Pissis has published, in the
+"Anales de la Universidad de Chili," for 1852, the geodetical elements of
+his survey, which is based upon eight triangles. Aconcagua being probably
+the highest mountain in the New World, a new measurement is eminently
+desirable. Neither Dhawalagiri, with his 4930 toises, nor Kintsinjunga,
+measured by Colonel Waugh, with his 4406 toises, are any longer considered
+the highest mountains in the Himalaya range, but the Deodunga (Mount
+Everest), which is 29,003 English feet, equal to 27,212 Paris feet, or
+4535 toises.
+
+_B._ The volcano Maipu (34 deg. 17' S., height 16,572 feet), ascended by
+Meyen. The trachytic rock on the summit has broken through the Jurassic
+strata, in which Leopold von Buch has ascertained, from heights of 9000
+feet, the existence of _Exogyra couloni_, _Trigonia costata_, and
+_Ammonites biplex_. This volcano has no streams of lava, but only
+eruptions of volcanic slags. It would be most desirable that Dr.
+Hochstetter should examine this remarkable protrusion of dislocated
+strata.
+
+_C._ The volcano Antuco (37 deg. 7' S.), the geology of which was described by
+Poeppig, is a lofty basaltic crater, having a trachytic cone rising up in
+its centre to an elevation of 8672 feet. It was observed in full activity
+by Domeyko in 1845. Gilliss gives an account of an eruption in 1853.
+According to Domeyko, a fresh-burning cone was thrown up on the 25th of
+November, 1847, which remained in activity for a whole year. Molina
+considers the Nevada Descabezado (35 deg. 1' S.), ascended by Domeyko, to be
+the highest mountain in Chili; but its height is estimated by Gilliss at
+only 12,300 feet. The most southerly volcanoes are the still active
+Corcovado (43 deg. 12' S.), 7046 feet; Yanteles (43 deg. 29' S.), 7534 feet; and
+the Volcan de San Clemente, opposite the granite formation on the
+peninsula of Tres Montes. Still further south, in 51 deg. 41' S., another, the
+Volcan de los Gigantes, is laid down on the old maps of South America, by
+La Cruz Olmedella, as opposite the archipelago of La Madre de Dios.
+
+Should the _Novara_ return to Europe through the Straits of Maghellanes,
+it would be very desirable the members of the Expedition should visit the
+locality from which Prince Paul of Wuertemberg, after long zoological
+travels through North America, has, within the last year, brought back to
+Germany a very large collection of specimens.
+
+Altogether, I calculate the number of active volcanoes on the surface of
+the earth to be upwards of 225--one-third of which, or 75, are upon the
+various continents, and the remainder upon the insular world. The Western
+Continent has 53 active volcanoes--of which, North-Western America, north
+of the river Gila, has 5; Mexico, 4; Central America, 18; South America
+about 26. Viewing the globe as a whole, there presents itself an extensive
+oblique region in which volcanoes most abound, stretching from S.E. to
+N.W. in the more westerly part of the Pacific, between 75 deg. W. and 125 deg. E.
+of Paris, and between 47 deg. S. and 66 deg. N. In this region, the fused elements
+of the interior of our earth may be said to be most permanently in
+communication with the atmosphere.
+
+The greatest attention should be paid, with the view of improving them,
+to the sections and maps of Chili, contained in the work, "Buenos Ayres
+and the Provinces of Rio de la Plata," published in 1852 by Sir Woodbine
+Parish, and still more so, to that entitled "Map of the Republic of Chili,
+compiled from the Surveys of Gilliss, Pissis, Allen, Campbell, and Claude
+Gay, between 23 deg. and 44 deg. S., as contained in Gilliss' 'United States
+Astronomical Expedition, 1847-52 Washington, 1855.'"
+
+The chief object to be aimed at by the _Novara_, with respect to
+scientific enquiry, seems to me to be the formation of a collection in the
+Geological Institute of Vienna, in comparison to which all the collections
+which at present aspire to be considered rich in volcanic specimens, (such
+as those of Berlin, Paris and London), should appear to be insignificant.
+In all periods of history, travellers are only the representatives of the
+state of knowledge of their own time, and consequently, collections always
+present the readiest means of promulgating new discoveries by
+oryctognostical examination or chemical analysis. In order to set on foot
+a grand Volcanic Museum, it would be necessary to bring home from every
+one of the volcanoes visited, not less than 10 or 12, but still better 15
+or 18, specimens of the porphyritic trachytes, all carefully selected,
+well-shaped, containing crystals not disintegrated, and of sufficient size
+to admit of a fresh fracture being made. For such quantities, however,
+there cannot be provided on board ship, even with the kindest patronage of
+the commanding officer, sufficient space for the accumulations of two
+years' arduous efforts in forming a collection. The greatest part,
+therefore, should be sent by other conveyance to Trieste, the most secure
+channel being through the consuls of the Austrian Empire, or those of
+allied powers, or through the medium of British, Dutch or American
+mercantile establishments, or by the regular packets.
+
+Duplicates, say four or five specimens, from each volcano, should be taken
+on board the _Novara_ in boxes of about 3 feet long. It would be too
+disheartening to have any misgivings of the success of this glorious
+scheme for getting together a Museum of Volcanic Rocks in Vienna, of all
+the regions of the globe, arranged upon a regular geographical system,
+each labelled with its own name, so as to promote a general acquaintance
+with these branches of knowledge:
+
+   1. Europe.
+
+   2. Atlantic Islands.
+
+   3. Continent of Asia, South Coast of Arabia (Aden), Kamtschatka.
+
+   4. Islands of Eastern Asia and India.
+
+   5. The Indian Ocean.
+
+   6. The Pacific.
+
+   7. Continent of South America: Chili, Peru, Bolivia, Quito and
+      New Grenada.
+
+   8. Central America.
+
+   9. Mexico, south of the river Gila.
+
+   10. North-Western America, north of the river Gila.
+
+   11. West Indies.
+
+Much of this work might be done on board the _Novara_. As to Nos. 3 and 4,
+Kamtschatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, the Red Sea, and the West
+Indies, it will not be difficult to procure specimens at some future
+period.
+
+Our piping times of peace are favourable to the execution of this project,
+which should be zealously kept in view throughout the Expedition.
+Travelling as I was, during the great wars, I did not dare shrink from the
+difficulty of having to carry along with me 44 large boxes, as I did on
+the road through Mexico from Acapulco to Vera Cruz, whence they were sent
+to Cuba, Philadelphia, and so to Bordeaux. The mechanical labour of having
+the collections carefully packed, keeping duplicates distinct, and sending
+away geological, botanical, zoological and ethnographical collections, is
+itself quite as important as the purely scientific work.
+
+The exhibition of comprehensive volcanic collections brings to light the
+strong analogy subsisting between the trachytes belonging to volcanoes,
+far distant from one another, while it indicates the existence of great
+differences in the mineralogical composition of volcanoes situated very
+near each other. My most excellent friend and fellow-traveller in Siberia,
+Professor Gustavus Rose, recently subjected the trachytes of the Berlin
+Museum, the greater number of which were collected by myself, to careful
+crystallographical and chemical investigation. He found oligoclase and
+pyroxene on the trachytes of Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Colima,
+Tunguragua, Purace, Paramo de Ruiz, and the Peak of Teneriffe, which has
+recently been accurately examined by Mr. Charles Deville. The trachytes of
+Toluca, Orizaba, Gunung Barang, and Burung Agung, on the Island of Java,
+Argaeus, in Asia Minor, Cuneguilla, south of Sta. Fe de Nuevo-Mexico, the
+Sierra de San Francisco, west of the Rocky Mountains and Pueblo Zuni,
+consist of hornblende, oligoclase, and brown mica. The trachytes of
+Stromboli and Etna, those of the Siebengebirge (Drachenfels), and of Kara
+Hissar in Phrygia, consist of large crystals of glassy felspar, with
+numerous smaller crystals of oligoclase, some hornblende and mica.
+Oligoclase, having been mistaken for albite, led to the fantastic idea of
+a peculiar rock, the _Andesite_, prevailing in the Andes, and even led our
+great master, Leopold von Buch, to make some curious distinctions,
+(Description des Iles Canaries, 1836, pp. 186-87.)
+
+To ascertain the average height above the level of the sea, I propose that
+furrows should be cut in the rocks of the different regions along with
+inscriptions, which might carry information to unborn ages, as has been
+done, on my suggestion, now some 25 years ago, by the Academy of Science
+at St. Petersburg, on the Caspian Sea, while Sir James Ross, in his
+"Voyage of Discovery in the Southern and Antarctic Regions," 1839-43, Vol.
+II. p. 23, regrets not having done so, or, at least, of having only once
+adopted this plan.
+
+I would also, with all deference, suggest observations regarding the daily
+atmospheric variations or tides, so as to obtain tables of _maxima_ and
+_minima_. In order to obtain these, whenever the frigate is at anchor near
+any coast, but particularly within the tropics, hourly observations with
+the barometer and thermometer (the latter affixed to the barometer, and
+also freely suspended in the open air), should be made through several
+consecutive days and nights. During the occurrence of an Aurora Borealis
+(or Australis), attention should be paid to the perturbations of the
+magnetic variation, and the magnetic intensity of the horizontal needle.
+Boreal Auroras have been seen in the southern latitudes of the Peruvian
+Pacific, as low down as 12 deg. 13' S.; but the occurrence of such phenomena
+there is of much less frequent occurrence than that of Austral Auroras in
+Scotland. It is important to keep an exact register of the intensity of
+blackness in the "coalbags," when the smallest stars surrounding them are
+still visible to the naked eye. The daily meteorological observations, as
+also those on the temperature of the sea, will probably be made on board
+ship, in conformity with the views of Lieutenant Maury, and the method
+agreed upon at the last nautical congress.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As I shall have long ceased to be numbered with the living, when the
+_Novara_ returns to Trieste, richly freighted with scientific treasures of
+all kinds, with fresh information relating to organic and inorganic
+nature, to the races of man, their habits and languages, I now pray to
+Almighty God that His blessing may rest upon this great and noble
+enterprise, to the honour of our common German Fatherland! And
+concluding, in this night, these oblique, illegible lines, I remember, not
+without emotion, and with very mingled feelings, that joyous period of my
+life when, fifty-eight years ago, in the beautiful gardens of Schoenbrunn,
+preparing myself for a long journey, I was enjoying with grateful mind the
+friendly kindness of the venerable Jacquin and Peter Frank.
+
+                                                     A. v. HUMBOLDT.
+
+ Berlin, in the night of 7th April, 1857.
+
+[Illustration: DEPARTURE.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  I.
+
+                     Preparations for the Voyage.
+
+   Approbation of the Plan to fit out an Austrian Man-of-War for a
+     Voyage round the World.--Object of the Expedition.--
+     Appointment of a Scientific Commission.--Preparations.--
+     Fitting out the Frigate _Novara_ at Pola.--Departure for
+     Trieste.--Visit of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian on board.
+
+
+In the autumn of 1856, His Majesty the Emperor was graciously pleased to
+approve of the proposal for a voyage round the world, as projected by his
+Imperial Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the head of the
+Austrian navy, and to commission the sailing frigate _Novara_ for that
+purpose, a vessel qualified to meet every requisite condition.
+
+The chief object of the Expedition--a circumstance which must not be lost
+sight of--was to afford the officers and cadets of the ship an opportunity
+of acquiring that practical acquaintance with naval affairs which, added
+to the theoretical knowledge previously attained, would render them
+thoroughly familiar with nautical routine, and thus materially contribute
+to the further development of the Austrian navy.
+
+This branch of the public service, placed since 1848 on an entirely new
+basis, has with difficulty worked its way through all those embarrassing
+circumstances inseparable from the organization of a new system; but the
+honest zeal and energy of the board appointed, supported by favour from
+the highest quarters, have succeeded in introducing many improvements, and
+in increasing by degrees the numerical strength of the men, thereby laying
+a secure foundation for the rising naval force, the importance of which,
+at this moment, every reflecting patriot will acknowledge.
+
+The intended Expedition offered, besides the advantages for the service,
+another not less important for the State, namely, the recognition of the
+Austrian flag in remote quarters of the globe, to which it had never
+hitherto penetrated; and by thus opening new channels for the outlet of
+our natural products and manufactured goods, to promote the industrial,
+commercial, and maritime interests of the empire.
+
+In order to satisfy the scientific requirements of the age, the
+illustrious head of the navy issued orders, that the officers on board
+should in every way assist in the researches to be made, connected with
+navigation and geography; and was, moreover, pleased to invite the
+Imperial Academy of Sciences to nominate two members, he himself naming a
+third, to accompany the Expedition for the purpose of observing and
+investigating phenomena pertaining to the different branches of physical
+science, as well as collecting rare specimens and interesting objects of
+natural history. To this commission were ultimately attached a botanist, a
+practical zoologist, an artist, and a flower-gardener.
+
+The Academy had, for the guidance of these gentlemen, drawn up
+instructions which, with a multitude of other papers containing useful
+hints and interesting queries, received from the Imp. Geographical,
+Geological, and Medical Societies, as well as from numerous foreign and
+native scientific men, formed a most valuable collection of materials for
+the purposes of the Expedition.[4]
+
+[Footnote 4: Of these instructions, "The physical and geognostical
+remarks," with which the Nestor of natural science honoured the voyagers
+of the _Novara_, being of a more general interest, are published at the
+end of this volume, together with the facsimile of an autograph letter of
+Baron von Humboldt to the commander of the Expedition.]
+
+Foremost amongst these _savans_ stood Alexander von Humboldt, that
+illustrious man, who up to the last moment of his existence was alive with
+youthful enthusiasm for every scientific enterprise. In England great
+interest in the success of the Expedition was evinced by Sir Roderic
+Murchison, Sir W. Hooker, Sir Charles Lyell, General Sabine, Admiral
+Smyth, Admiral Fitzroy, Professor Robert Owen, Professor Philips,
+Professor Bell, Professor W. A. Ramsay, Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh,
+W. J. Hamilton, Esq., Charles Darwin, Esq., L. Horner, Esq., James Yates,
+Esq., B. Davis, Esq., &c., &c. From the United States of North America, we
+received most valuable communications from Commander M. F. Maury, National
+Observatory, Washington, D. C.--Captain Rodgers, and others.
+
+Letters of introduction were received from Germany, and particularly from
+England, to influential parties and societies in a variety of places
+abroad, amongst which were many warm and friendly recommendations from the
+English Government and Admiralty, as well as the Directors of the then
+East India Company, to various administrative authorities in the British
+Colonies.
+
+[Illustration: GUN-ROOM OF THE _NOVARA_.]
+
+The frigate _Novara_ was laid up in the arsenal of Pola, where all
+requisite steps were taken to complete her outfit, and prepare her
+thoroughly for the voyage. The ventilation of the lower deck was improved,
+and the number of cabins increased in proportion to the number of
+individuals for whom accommodation was to be provided.
+
+The gun-room was, by command of the Archduke, converted into a
+reading-room, and provided with a well-selected library as well as with
+all the charts and maps necessary for the information of the officers, who
+here made their calculations and executed their drawings.
+
+The store-rooms for the sails and tackle were enlarged, so as to hold a
+double quantity.
+
+A distilling apparatus, the same as patented by M. Rocher, of Nantes, was
+fixed on the gun-deck, and being placed in connection with the ship's
+coppers, it was found that, during the few hours each day that the latter
+were used for cooking, enough sea-water was distilled to supply the entire
+ship's company with excellent water to drink. This distilled water, after
+having been kept in iron tanks for a month, was found pleasant to the
+taste, and agreed very well with the health. The excellent health enjoyed
+by all the crew throughout the voyage must, in a great measure, be
+ascribed to the circumstance, that scarcely any other but this distilled
+sea-water was used, so that the men were enabled entirely to forego
+drinking river or spring-water, which in the tropics are frequently found
+injurious.
+
+The use of such an apparatus permits a great diminution in the store of
+water usually carried by a vessel. The space gained by this diminished
+bulk of water, enabled us to take on board a larger cargo of coal and
+provisions, such as preserved beef and compressed vegetables. The sailors
+were not, however, particularly fond of the preserved beef, because in
+cooking it loses a great part of its flavour (though the broth is strong
+and good); nor does it seem as an article of diet to have had a
+particularly beneficial influence on the health, for the sanitary
+condition of the crew was equally satisfactory, and the number of
+scorbutic patients not materially increased when, towards the end of the
+voyage, the fresh stores were exhausted, and only salt and pickled rations
+were issued.
+
+Compressed dried vegetables were of great benefit to the health of our
+men, and cannot be sufficiently recommended. The so-called _melange
+d'equipage_ of Chollet, as well as _sauer kraut_, potatoes, and other
+vegetables, have an excellent taste, improve the soups when mixed with
+them, and are easily preserved, provided they be protected from the effect
+of damp. Hence it might be advisable to keep them enclosed in
+well-soldered tin boxes. The price of these vegetables is so moderate,
+that it is surprising they are not more generally employed.
+
+The long-continued satisfactory state of health of the crew must also
+partly be sought for in the constant use of shower-baths. For this
+purpose, apertures, three-quarters of an inch in diameter, were bored in
+the planks of both the deck and forecastle, under which a perforated disc
+could be screwed, and above which a pail of water was placed. By these
+simple means every one was enabled to enjoy the luxury of a bath; when,
+however, the desire for that refreshment became general, so that the
+arrangement above-mentioned was insufficient, a hand fire-engine was made
+use of, so as to accommodate as many at once as might present
+themselves--a process which found great favour with the jolly tars, as
+affording abundant opportunities for fun and merriment.
+
+[Illustration: VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE "NOVARA."]
+
+The frigate _Novara_ had been placed on the stocks in the arsenal of
+Venice in the month of February, 1845, and was launched in April, 1850.
+She was pierced for 42 guns, but during the voyage carried only thirty
+30-pounders,[5] and four of smaller calibre.
+
+[Footnote 5: The 30-pounder marine guns answer very nearly to the English
+32-pounders.]
+
+The principal dimensions of the frigate (Vienna measurement) are:--
+
+ Length between perpendiculars      165 feet  5-1/2 inches.[6]
+ Length of water line               156 "     5       "
+ Greatest breadth                    44 "     11-1/2  "
+ Greatest breadth on water line      43 "     2       "
+ Depth of hold                       19 "     3/4     "
+ Draught of water aft                18 "     9       "
+ Draught of water fore               17 "     5-2/3   "
+
+[Footnote 6: 96-423/1000 Austrian feet = 100 English.]
+
+The superficial area of the ship, or the load-water line, amounted to
+5685.35 square feet; quantity of water displaced 2107 Austrian, or 2630
+English tons. The superficial area of the principal sails amounted to
+18,291 square feet.
+
+The frigate proved herself to be an excellent sailer, as, of the various
+vessels which, throughout the voyage, sailed in company with us, only
+three clippers outstripped her.
+
+The question may here be asked, why, in the present state of navigation, a
+sailing-vessel was preferred to a steamer for this voyage? The principal
+consideration which decided this selection was the greater disposable area
+which a sailing-vessel offers in comparison with a steamer of the same
+dimensions, in which coal and machinery occupy so large a space. On the
+present occasion, it will be perceived that what was specially wanted was
+room for as great a number of officers, cadets, and men as possible, who
+were, as has been stated, to make this voyage for improvement in nautical
+affairs. Plenty of space was also required for the numerous instruments
+and bulky collections of objects of natural history; while in most parts
+of the ocean which we were to traverse, the winds blow so regularly, that,
+with very rare exceptions, sails form the best motive power. The expense
+of fuel requisite for a steamer, and the trouble of replacing it during
+the voyage, are thus saved; whilst, finally, the space occupied by the men
+employed in the management of the machinery, and that required for the
+stowage of special stores, would be withdrawn from more important objects.
+
+After the frigate had been properly fitted up in the arsenal of Pola, she
+sailed on the 15th March, 1857, for Trieste, where she cast anchor on the
+17th in the Bay of Muggia. H.I.M.'s corvette _Caroline_, likewise fitted
+out at Pola for a voyage to the coast of South America and Western
+Africa, followed in her wake, and it was now seen that the frigate was a
+better sailer than the corvette, a circumstance so much the more
+satisfactory, that the latter had hitherto been considered the swiftest
+ship in our navy.
+
+The unfavourable state of the weather interfered so much with the works
+which were to be finished at Trieste, that the embarkation of provisions,
+swinging the compasses, &c., &c., could only be proceeded with very
+slowly.
+
+At last, the members of the Commission arrived, and the vessel only waited
+for sailing orders.
+
+Before leaving on so interesting an enterprise, with which the most
+pleasing recollections of our lives will ever be associated, we had the
+gratification of being honoured by a visit on board from the Archduke
+Ferdinand Maximilian. The commander of the Expedition introduced the
+officers and scientific gentlemen to his Imperial Highness, who addressed
+them in affecting terms, and concluded his remarks by expressing a hope
+that the frigate _Novara_ would, with God's help, return happily from her
+mission to her own honour and that of the country.
+
+The narrative of the voyage is now presented, and, probably, the results
+of the various scientific investigations will very shortly be offered to a
+discerning public, leaving it to them to judge how far we have succeeded
+in realizing the hopes of the illustrious Prince. But if we have not
+satisfied all the expectations entertained, it certainly was not from
+insufficiency of means; for everything was complete in that respect, and
+we owe it chiefly to the circumspection and kind care of the
+Commander-in-chief of our navy, that this enterprise had been so wisely
+planned, and its details brought in so short a time to such a degree of
+perfection that, during the whole voyage, it was not found necessary to
+make the slightest alteration in the original arrangements and
+regulations.
+
+[Illustration: GEODETICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS.]
+
+[Illustration: LOOK-OUT MAN.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  II.
+
+                       From Trieste to Gibraltar.
+
+   Departure.--Fair Voyage down the Adriatic.--A Man lost and found
+     again.--Passage through the Straits of Messina.--The Steamer
+     _Sta. Lucia_ returns to Trieste.--Regulations and Instructions
+     for further Proceedings.--A Day on Board the _Novara_.--
+     Sunrise.--Cleaning the Ship.--Mental and physical occupation.--
+     Moonlight at sea.
+
+
+The departure of the frigate was fixed for the 30th April, 1857, and
+H.I.M.'s corvette _Caroline_, Captain Kohen, was ordered to accompany her
+as far as the coast of South America. H.I.M's steamer, _Sta. Lucia_,
+Captain von Littrow, received orders to tow both ships as far as the
+extremity of the Straits of Messina to avoid loss of time, such as
+frequently arises in the Adriatic during the spring, from calms and
+unfavourable winds.
+
+With the dawn of the day fixed for the departure of the ships, all was
+bustle on board; craft of all kinds hovered around, and relatives and
+friends had assembled in great numbers to take leave. The verdant and
+thickly-wooded slopes of the promenade to St. Andrea, near the shore, were
+thronged with spectators, and the fair and lovely picture of our native
+coast developed itself once more before our eyes, clad in all its charms
+of spring, as if to wish us a hearty farewell, an auspicious voyage, and a
+happy return!
+
+At 8 o'clock A.M. we weighed anchor, and the steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+approached the _Novara_ for the purpose of towing her from the Bay of
+Muggia into the roads of Trieste. She had all her colours displayed, and
+saluted the city of Trieste, Austria's chief and most important emporium,
+with 21 guns. The salute was answered from the castle, whilst the band on
+board struck up Haydn's beautiful hymn: "God preserve the Emperor!" The
+frigate moved out of the road-stead, accompanied by a great number of
+boats, and followed by the best wishes of the numerous crowds assembled on
+shore, and of all true patriots, who looked upon this Expedition as a
+cheering evidence that a new and energetic spirit of enterprise had arisen
+in their native country.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.--TRACK FROM TRIESTE TO MADEIRA.]
+
+The corvette _Caroline_, which was waiting outside the roads, was attached
+to the frigate, and soon Trieste appeared like a dim cloud on the distant
+horizon. The outlines of the Carinthian Alps became fainter, and the
+excitement of the parting scene was calmed by that busy activity required
+from every one embarking on a long voyage, if he desires to attain any
+degree of comfort, however little, in the cramped and limited space of a
+crowded ship.
+
+A perfect calm, a smooth sea, and a but-slightly-clouded sky,
+prognosticated fair weather, and promised leisure to complete those
+arrangements which had been left undone. The steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+performed her task of towing the two vessels most satisfactorily, and,
+favoured by the prevailing currents of wind and water, we made five miles
+an hour, and came, on the day of departure, in sight of the promontory of
+Pola.
+
+The passage down the Adriatic was on the whole most pleasant, with the
+exception of some showers of rain near the heights of Isola Grossa; which,
+however, on this occasion saluted us only with a slight puff of wind. The
+ship moved so gently and quietly on her way, that those occupying the
+lower cabins could scarcely have fancied themselves at sea, had they not
+been made aware of it by other impressions.
+
+On the 1st of May, the crew became highly excited by a man being missed,
+when the morning watch was called. Some thought he had, from fear of a
+slight punishment hanging over him, jumped overboard, but as nothing of
+the kind had been observed by the watch on deck, every corner was
+searched, but without success, upon which the man was given over as lost.
+When, however, the dinner hour arrived, and the tables and benches were
+being removed from the lower deck, how great was the surprise, when the
+culprit was discovered crouching among them! A peal of laughter roused the
+poor fellow, who this time was let off with the fright and the punishment
+of being made an object of ridicule by his comrades.
+
+On the 3rd of May, being clear of the Adriatic, the steamer _Sta. Lucia_
+was at midnight despatched to Corfu to complete her store of coal, whilst
+we sailed for Cape Spartivento, on the Calabrian coast, which had been
+assigned as our _rendezvous_. On the 5th, we sighted this the most
+southerly promontory of Italy, when, in consequence of a fresh breeze, the
+sea began to make itself rather disagreeably felt. The novices on board
+became somewhat alarmed. A feeble voice was even heard, which endeavoured
+to prove from this phenomenon that man is a creature made for _terra
+firma_, and not for the watery element; but this excellent idea came
+rather late; mankind are obliged to submit to existing circumstances, and
+this thought alone held out some hope, that a longer stay on board would
+prove the best cure for the evil. Such indeed was the case; though pale
+faces, want of appetite, and even worse effects, were produced, whenever
+the ship made a heavier roll than usual. But these slight inconveniences
+of sea life became rarer and rarer, till at last they appeared only in
+really stiff gales. On the 7th the steamer _Sta. Lucia_ returned and took
+us again in tow.
+
+The weather during our passage through the charming straits of Messina
+was delightful. The colossal Etna exhibited in all its glory its
+snow-capped summit, gilded by the rays of the rising sun, and Messina
+shone with all the attractions of its splendid situation. The coast of
+this part of Italy is mostly bare and rugged, the broken outlines of the
+mountains imparting to the landscape that characteristic peculiarity which
+makes so deep an impression on the mind. We passed the famous Charybdis,
+in which a multitude of dolphins were disporting themselves. The
+neighbouring coast formed a brilliant panorama, and we kept so close in
+shore as to be able to distinguish the movements of the people. The
+appearance of our three goodly ships seemed to have attracted the
+attention of the inhabitants, for they stood in groups in the streets and
+squares of Reggio and Villa San Giovanni, saluting us by waving their
+handkerchiefs. When towards the evening we had passed the straits, we
+could descry the Neapolitan coast as far as Monte Bulgario, in the Bay of
+Policastro, and distinguish the imposing Stromboli, with its volume of
+smoke, far on the Western horizon.
+
+The following morning found us in sight of the small island of Alicudi,
+situated on the north of Sicily. The estimable captain of the _Lucia_ came
+on board to take leave, on his return to Trieste. The steamer, being
+relieved of her burden, made her way briskly towards her destination; and,
+before an hour had elapsed, we could perceive nothing but a small streak
+of smoke in the haze of the horizon.
+
+With light breezes, we came, on the following day, in sight of the island
+of Ustica. Sea-gulls (_Thalassidroma pelagica_) enlivened the scene, as
+they, from time to time, flew after the garbage thrown from the ship, or
+sought for sea-nettles and other small inhabitants of the sea's surface.
+These birds much resemble our land swallows, and their movements are so
+graceful, that one cannot but admire them, especially when they lightly
+touch the agitated water with their little webbed feet, and directly, as
+if repelled, withdraw. The muscular power of these feathered creatures is
+truly wonderful; they follow the ship for entire days continually on the
+wing, ever on the watch to snatch at the little food which the sea seems
+but scantily to supply to them.
+
+[Illustration: "PALINURUS".]
+
+Whilst we were passing down the Mediterranean, a great deal of time was
+employed in drawing up regulations, and in digesting all those
+instructions which had reached the Commander of the Expedition from all
+sides, and by which we were to be guided in our future proceedings.
+
+The scientific gentlemen were the first who received certain rules for
+their guidance; for, life on board a ship, and especially of a man-of-war,
+is so entirely different from that on shore,--the etiquette and usages
+practised appear, to those unused to the sea, so vexatious and annoying,
+that it was absolutely necessary to inform them of the regulations which
+are essential in order to keep so singular an organization as that of a
+ship at sea in working order. Erelong every one perceived, that the
+matutinal annoyance of holystoning the decks, the daily cleaning of
+everything on board, &c., are measures of importance, which contribute
+materially to the preservation of the health of the crew, and that a
+strict observance of discipline is absolutely necessary to exercise their
+powers, and thus to fit them for all eventualities.
+
+For the better accommodation of the naturalists, a place on the lower
+gun-deck was fitted up for those operations which, on account of the
+limited space and noxious exhalations, could not well be performed in the
+cabins.
+
+We had a large quantity of alcohol on board, destined for the preservation
+of interesting objects of natural history. In order to prevent any
+calamity by fire arising therefrom, the whole quantity was put in a large
+iron tank placed in the hold, and covered over with sand. It will,
+however, be seen in the sequel, that even this precaution proved
+insufficient to protect the ship from the ignition of this
+highly-combustible substance.
+
+The meteorological observations, and those connected with the physical
+geography of the sea, were entrusted to four officers, who, like those
+attached to the watches, had alternately to be at their posts, and had, at
+prescribed hours, to observe the barometer, thermometer, and psychrometer,
+as well as the temperature of the surface of the sea, the state of the sky
+and the ocean, and to note down the obtained results. One of the junior
+officers was intrusted with the nautical observations on shipboard, as
+well as the astronomical and magnetical on shore.
+
+The midshipmen were at the same time trained by study and practice, so as
+to enable them to assist the officers in their duties. Besides the men on
+the look-out, one of the midshipmen was employed on the same service. In
+stormy nights, when the wind is howling, and rain or snow falling, this
+post is certainly not very pleasant, but is, as may readily be imagined,
+most important.
+
+Life in the limited space of a ship, completely cut off from the external
+world, is so peculiar and interesting to those unacquainted with the sea,
+that we will endeavour to describe a day passed on board the _Novara_,
+from the instant when at daybreak the bustle and activity begin, till the
+late hour when night reminds one of repose, those sweet moments which
+carry the voyager to his distant home on the wings of a dream.
+
+As the sonorous bell strikes the fifth hour of the morning, the crew are
+called on deck by the boatswain's whistle, the hammocks are slung up and
+stowed away, and the work begins.
+
+This is the busiest time of the day, and for the mere spectator the most
+uncomfortable. On all sides scouring, rubbing, sweeping are going on,
+floods of water are streaming along the decks, and he who is not as yet
+familiar with these cleaning processes, runs some risk of a ducking as
+soon as he makes his appearance outside his cabin. These morning ablutions
+are, however, indispensable evils on board ship, for cleanliness is a
+condition essential to the preservation of health, and even the quantity
+of humidity which penetrates the timber, and renders the air damp, appears
+to be less injurious than the omission of these daily scourings.
+
+When the cleaning of the various parts of the ship is finished, the
+idlers, and such of the officers as are off duty, appear on deck, whither
+people come to enjoy the fresh air, and to greet the opening day. It may,
+however, be permitted to observe, that a sunrise at sea, notwithstanding
+its various charms, is by far less imposing than the same scene on a lofty
+mountain, where the veil of night seems to vanish as if by magic, and
+luxuriant nature lies at our feet like a smiling infant awaking from a
+lovely dream. That wild majesty of scenery, that overpowering grandeur of
+gigantic mountain forms, such as one sees in the Swiss or Tyrolese Alps,
+is wanting at sea, where the rising sun pours his beams only over a
+boundless world of water.
+
+The sailors breakfast at 7, the officers at 8, and the Commander at 9. At
+the latter hour the bugle sounds the order to "clear the ship," when the
+cleaning of arms, guns, and all other articles of metal connected with the
+ship's armoury, begins. During this process the band plays cheerful airs,
+so that the work is done whilst keeping time with the music, which serves
+to lighten the labour. This duty requires to be completed within
+forty-five minutes, and terminates with an inspection of the men and their
+arms.
+
+This being over, officers and midshipmen off duty assemble together with
+the naturalists in the reading-room. Most of the books in the library
+referred to those countries likely to be visited by the Expedition, so
+that every one might previously obtain useful information relative to
+their physical, historical, and social conditions.
+
+The naturalists employ the greater part of the day in their cabins, noting
+down their observations, and preparing for those to be made in the course
+of the voyage. The crew are kept in activity by being drilled and
+otherwise occupied.
+
+The men dine at 12; the dinner of the officers is served up at 3, and that
+of the Commodore at half-past 3 o'clock P.M. The remainder of the
+afternoon is spent in prosecuting the labours begun in the morning. Thus
+steals on the evening, when a general assemblage takes place on deck, for
+air and exercise.
+
+[Illustration: SEAMEN OFF DUTY.]
+
+The occurrences of the day, the sunset, the curious formation of the
+clouds, or the bewitching beauty of a brilliant tropical sky at night,
+form interesting topics for lively discussion. It is, however, rather
+daring to institute a comparison between the splendour of the sky in the
+tropics and that of our higher latitudes. For, most men become more or
+less unjust towards the beauties of a new and foreign natural scenery, in
+consequence of their not being able to divest themselves of former
+impressions produced in them by phenomena of a similar nature. What
+impressions are, for instance, deeper in young and old, and excite more
+delightful recollections than the starry sky of home? And can it be
+disputed that the association of ideas has a most powerful effect upon
+the impressions made by those phenomena of nature which are so peculiarly
+attractive and so deeply fixed in the human mind?
+
+The conversation generally becomes more lively on those evenings when the
+moon, placid friend of the sailor, appears on the distant horizon,
+shedding her silvery beams over the unbroken expanse of water. The
+influence which she exercises on the state of the weather, even the
+prejudices and superstitions connected with our satellite, offer subjects
+of interesting debate; involuntarily the mariner looks with grateful
+feelings towards that heavenly luminary, the mild soothing light of which
+diminishes the number of his anxious nights, protects him in present,
+warns him of remote dangers, and influences so powerfully that vast
+element on which he passes the greater part of his life. Indeed he who has
+ever spent a dark and stormy night on the ocean, when the ship, lashed by
+the fury of the waves, and borne resistlessly along, stands in constant
+peril of coming in violent collision with a vessel similarly
+circumstanced, or of being dashed to pieces on some iron-bound coast of
+rugged rock, easily comprehends and will excuse the sailor who ascribes to
+the moonlight somewhat of a supernatural and mysterious power.
+
+In this manner, and notwithstanding the continued sameness, days and
+months glide away like hours, until we again cast anchor, and only the
+work accomplished gives an idea of the length of time which has been
+passed at sea.
+
+Sunday alone breaks the monotony of life on board, when, after the diurnal
+cleaning of the ship, and the inspection of the crew, the officers, and
+all the men who are not on duty, assemble for divine service on the lower
+gun-deck, where the chaplain says mass on a temporary altar, whilst the
+ship's band performs sacred music. In the afternoon the men off duty amuse
+themselves for a couple of hours with the "_tombola_," a game much liked
+by our sailors. Between 6 and 7 P.M. the band plays on deck, whilst the
+sailors are cutting grotesque figures to the music. The singular capers by
+which all evince their happiness; the good-humoured awkwardness with which
+each clings to the brawny arm of his companion; the mock graceful air
+those who enact the gentler sex assume in the dance, and, finally, the
+affected attitude with which the cavaliers bow to their partners as if
+they really were of the gentler sex--all this is most ludicrous and
+amusing. The playing the national dance "Monferina" always elicits a
+particularly hearty reception. There is a peculiar charm in national
+melodies, even though they awaken no political reminiscences like the
+Marseillaise, or the Rakoczy; they electrify alike the educated and the
+men of the people; a thousand pleasing recollections suddenly crowd into
+the memory, and when the well-known tunes strike the ear, the heart seems
+to live again in bygone times! As if touched by magic, the sailor from the
+Adriatic, as soon as the Monferina is struck up, seizes his neighbour by
+the arm with a noisy shout and hurls him about in wild hilarity; his
+thoughts seem as if flying towards his distant home, where, in the country
+inn, with a buxom lass on his shoulder, he has waltzed away many a happy
+hour. The whole village, with all its familiar faces, seems to revive in
+his memory during the playing of the melody,--now he fills his glass; now
+he clinks it merrily with that of his companion; now he presses his
+sweetheart more closely to his side: Lo! suddenly a shrill whistle pierces
+the air, the music ceases, the call is heard "to fall in," and the yet
+dance-stricken sailor, suddenly, as if awakening from a sweet reverie, is
+once more standing on the deck of the _Novara_!
+
+The frigate, in the Mediterranean also, maintained her superiority as a
+sailer. The corvette _Caroline_ was able to keep the prescribed distance
+from the _Novara_ only by the latter reefing some of her sails. As some
+magnetic observations were to be made at Gibraltar, and, as we had to
+ascertain the results of the various chronometers on board, on the 12th of
+May we signalled the corvette to take her own time and rejoin us at
+Gibraltar, as we were anxious to avoid unnecessary detention.
+
+The acquisitions of the naturalists had, as yet, been very scanty: to
+their great annoyance they could not even obtain any of the tortoises,
+which, from time to time, approached the ship, though they were repeatedly
+fired at, and on one occasion a boat was launched, in the hope of catching
+some of them. The specimens which we saw were from fifteen to twenty
+inches in diameter; they mostly floated quietly on the surface, and seemed
+sleeping or basking themselves in the sun.
+
+The night of the 16th May was exceedingly boisterous, and almost tangible
+darkness prevailed; thunder, lightning, and occasionally strong easterly
+squalls, raged furiously, and only subsided towards the morning, when it
+cleared up with fresh southerly breezes. Not being far from Cape de Gatt,
+on the Spanish coast, prudence required us to change course, and, during
+the continuance of stormy weather, to keep at a respectful distance from
+the shore. Here a merchantman, apparently an American, bore down so close
+upon us, that, in the darkness, an unpleasant collision seemed
+unavoidable. However, we tacked about, and thus, fortunately avoiding our
+dangerous neighbour, safely proceeded on our course.
+
+It is truly astonishing how often merchantmen, entirely forgetful of their
+own safety, from want of caution, or presumption, or it would occasionally
+seem, sheerly from acting upon peculiar and abnormal principles of
+navigation, wantonly expose ship, men, and cargo to many dangers, which
+might easily be avoided, particularly in cases where no tacking is
+required, and only a slight touch of the rudder would suffice to prevent a
+collision, which is always attended with danger to the smaller ship. In
+this respect the North Americans are very unpleasant neighbours on account
+of their national vanity, and the Dutch for their phlegmatic temperament
+and the indifference they evince on such occasions.
+
+On the 18th of May, the small rocky island of Alboran, in the narrow part
+of the sea between Africa and Spain, was observed; being flat and without
+vegetation, it is scarcely perceptible, and the land-fall during the night
+should be carefully avoided. The erection of a lighthouse on this island
+would certainly be regarded as a great boon by all who navigate the
+Mediterranean.
+
+On the 19th of May, the sea suddenly assumed a peculiar orange colour; a
+dust-like covering was observed on the surface of the water, and at some
+depth white points might be seen, mingling with each other in the wake of
+the ship. Clouds of this orange-like matter appeared spread upon the sea,
+which thereby lost its usual transparency. On closer examination this
+phenomenon appeared to arise from a mass consisting of myriads of minute
+animalculae, which had a yellow opaque kernel, the gelatinous covering of
+which was transparent and colourless. A quantity of sea-water impregnated
+with this matter, having been brought into a dark room, gave out a light,
+and when agitated, such brightness proceeded from it, as justified the
+anticipation that, during the night, the whole sea would be illuminated.
+Accordingly the wake of the ship was illuminated by a wonderful stream of
+light, in the depths of which larger masses of luminous matter could be
+discerned, whilst on the surface there was a sparkling and glittering, as
+if all the stars of the firmament were reflected in the water.
+
+This phosphorescence of the sea, for the explanation of which we are
+chiefly indebted to Professor Ehrenberg, proceeds for the most part from
+the emanations of light from molluscae of the genus _Medusa_, and other
+living phosphoric animalculae; sometimes, however, as for instance in
+Venice, it arises from the putrescent fibres of decayed molluscae, and
+other organisms in a state of decomposition.
+
+On the evening of the 20th the splendid Ceuta Light was seen, which, even
+at a distance of twenty miles, looks as if it were quite near. This
+lighthouse is of the utmost importance to ships emerging into the Atlantic
+from the Mediterranean, as the current is exceedingly powerful, and during
+the night is apt imperceptibly to carry a vessel out of her course. On the
+morning of the 21st, the ship lay in a calm before the rock of Gibraltar.
+Barren, gray, and gloomy rose now before our sight this rocky,
+gun-studded, colossal sentinel of that vigilantly-prudent, energetic, and
+jealous Power, which is so constantly seeking to extend her rule wherever
+her own interests are concerned, or where she thinks it advisable to make
+herself respected by other nations.
+
+A light breeze sprang up, and at half-past 3 P.M. the anchorage, eleven
+and a half fathoms in depth, was reached. The frigate now lay in front of
+the Alameda or public gardens of Gibraltar, situated near the town gate,
+called the Ragged Staff. This anchorage is tolerably safe at this season,
+but in autumn and winter, as well as generally in strong easterly winds,
+it is not to be recommended, it being preferable to haul further in
+towards the place where the merchant-vessels usually lie. We saluted the
+English flag on the fortress with twenty-one guns, which were immediately
+answered from the ramparts. There were no English men-of-war in the Roads,
+except the sloop _Curlew_, Capt. Horton. The following morning our
+consort, the _Caroline_, anchored in our vicinity.
+
+The first day of the arrival of a man-of-war in harbour is attended with
+much inconvenience, particularly if she carries the flag of the
+Commodore, or it happens that the mail packets are arriving or departing,
+or that there are many ships of war in the Roads. The latter was not now
+the case, but so many visitors, letters, and newspapers arrived at once,
+that neither the one nor the other could be thoroughly enjoyed.
+
+The local authorities, the governor, Sir James Fergusson, at their head,
+were extremely obliging and attentive; Mr. Falkland, an officer of the
+Engineers, was placed at our disposal; a specially-reserved site was
+assigned us for astronomical and magnetical observations; huts were
+erected by the workmen of the arsenal for the protection of the
+instruments, and in short everything, calculated to promote scientific
+labours, was provided. The Chancellor of the Austrian Consulate, Mr. John
+Frembly, himself a geologist, proved likewise to be of great service to
+our scientific men: and it was considered a fortunate omen to have found,
+at this our first anchorage, so much sympathy with the objects of the
+Expedition.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF GIBRALTAR FROM SEAWARD.]
+
+[Illustration: ROCK OF GIBRALTAR.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 III.
+
+                              Gibraltar.
+
+             STAY FROM THE 20TH TO THE 30TH MAY, 1857.
+
+   Political Significance of the Rock.--Courtesy of the British
+     Authorities.--Fortifications.--Signal Stations.--The only
+     place in Europe frequented by Monkeys.--Calcareous Caves.--
+     Chief Entrances into the Town.--Shutting the Town Gates.--
+     Public Establishments.--Inhabitants.--Elliott's Gardens.--The
+     Isthmus, or Neutral Ground.--Algeziras.--Ceuta.--Commerce and
+     Navigation.--Excellent regulation in the English Navy relative
+     to Officers' Outfit.--Small-pox appears on Board the
+     _Caroline_.--Departure from Gibraltar.--A Fata Morgana.--The
+     _Novara_ passes the Straits.--Take leave of Europe.--Voyage to
+     Madeira.--Floating Bottles to ascertain the Currents.--Arrival
+     in the Roads of Funchal.
+
+
+This remarkable promontory, which in our days has obtained so much
+political importance, the Calpe of the ancients, constituted of old, with
+the opposite Abyla,[7] the so-called pillars of Hercules, celebrated, at
+the same time, as the boundary of the then-known world. It derives its
+name from the corrupted Arabic _Gebel_ (mountain) and _Tarik_, the name of
+a Moorish conqueror, who had pitched his camp here (A.D. 711). Like a
+colossal giant, guarding the portal of Europe, and converted, by the
+energy and ingenuity of the British, into an almost impregnable outpost,
+this precipitous rock has, as regards the Mediterranean, the same high
+strategic importance for that great maritime people, as Heligoland for the
+German Ocean, Aden for the Red Sea, Ceylon and Singapore for the Indian
+Archipelago, Hongkong for the Chinese waters, or the Cape and St. Helena
+for the Atlantic Ocean.
+
+[Footnote 7: The present Apes Hill.]
+
+Gibraltar was already strongly fortified, when it belonged to the
+Andalusian kingdom, but its grandest fortifications date from the treaty
+of Utrecht (1713), when it became an appanage of the British crown.
+Stupendous and incomparable are the works which since that period have
+been executed on it, though the calcareous formation of the locality and
+its numerous caves may have considerably facilitated their construction.
+
+The English authorities, who so kindly assisted in the scientific
+researches, obligingly furnished each individual of the frigate's staff
+with a written permission to inspect the fortifications as often as they
+pleased, and thereby afforded them the particular gratification of being
+able to view and admire these vast structures in all their details.
+
+Excellent and well-kept roads lead to the principal fortifications, which
+only begin at an elevation of several hundred feet above the town. The
+galleries, hewn in the solid rock, forming a kind of casemates, are of
+such breadth and height that they may be conveniently traversed by a man
+on horseback with his hat on. They have been constructed at an immense
+expense of labour and money, and are designated by various names, as
+"Upper gallery," "Lower gallery," "Queen's gallery," "St. George's Hall,"
+and so on. Their extent is estimated at an English mile, but is probably
+much greater. Besides these galleries, passages run for miles in the
+interior of the rock, affording the garrison a thoroughly-protected
+connection with all points that may chance to be threatened.
+
+The grandest and most imposing of these marvellous excavations are the
+"Queen's gallery" and "St. George's Hall." According to carved
+inscriptions, most of them were begun and completed between the years 1783
+and 1789. At the period of our visit, there were mounted on the different
+fortifications 707 guns, about one hundred of which peeped out of the
+smaller embrasures. Since that date, however, the number is said to have
+been increased so as to amount now to about 1500.
+
+During the stay of the _Novara_, it fortunately happened that the birthday
+of Queen Victoria was celebrated, and thus an opportunity was offered of
+seeing the fiery mountain in full activity. Though the occasion was
+peaceable, yet the imposing spectacle gave a tolerable idea of the
+elements of destruction which Gibraltar could put in action if really
+attacked. The governor of the fortress, surrounded by a brilliant staff,
+in which the Spanish governor of Algeziras and his officers played but a
+sorry part, reviewed the garrison, consisting of infantry, cavalry, and
+artillery, to the number of from 5000 to 6000 men; and whilst the troops
+defiled in slow and quick step, lightnings and thunders issued from all
+the crevices and embrasures of the artificially-perforated rock; huge
+volumes of dense smoke followed, and a rolling subterraneous rumbling gave
+the mountain exactly the character of a volcano suddenly burst into
+action. The echo of these salvoes of rejoicing must have been heard, not
+only in the adjacent parts of Spain, but also on the more remote coast of
+Africa; and he who was ignorant of the real cause, might have supposed it
+a grand rehearsal of that fearful tragedy which the English seem
+determined to perform in the event of an attack. The supposition, however,
+that the guns of Gibraltar are able entirely to command the Straits is
+erroneous, for these, at their narrowest part, are 12-1/2 miles wide, and
+not even the Armstrong guns, with which the fortress has lately been
+furnished, have so extensive a range. The English are, however, able to
+command the Straits by a fleet, which would find in the Bay of Gibraltar a
+sufficiently safe and roomy anchorage.
+
+From the fortifications, a narrow and rather steep path leads to the
+telegraph station, at an elevation of 1300 feet above the level of the
+sea. Steamers and men-of-war, as soon as visible, are signalled from this
+point by means of immense balls and flags. It would be very difficult to
+signal merchantmen in the same way, as, during a prevailing westerly wind,
+multitudes of ships often appear to the eastward of the rock, anxiously
+waiting for a favourable easterly breeze to carry them through the
+Straits; in the same way the westerly horizon is sometimes crowded with
+ships, prevented by contrary winds from entering the Mediterranean.
+
+We found at the station an Aneroid-barometer, and a thermometer. The
+advantages for navigation and physical science of extensive meteorological
+observations, regularly made, are so evident, that it is astonishing to
+see how often opportunities are neglected for making them, such as are
+offered here.
+
+There was no opportunity for seeing any of those families of monkeys, the
+occasional appearance of which on the Rock of Gibraltar has given rise to
+tales found in books of travel of the existence of a submarine
+communication, through which this single representative of the genus in
+Europe has found its way to this rock from Africa. Sometimes, however,
+during easterly winds, single individuals are observed on the highest
+peaks on the eastern side of the rock, where it is completely
+inaccessible; probably the remnants of that species (_Inuus ecaudatus_),
+which at some former time, either by chance, or human agency, have found
+their way hither from the Moorish coast.
+
+The calcareous caves are very remarkable. That on the western side, called
+St. Michael's, situated at a height of 800 feet, is the most important. It
+contains beautiful stalactite formations, and seems to be of considerable
+extent; it has, however, not been closely examined hitherto, as only a
+small part is conveniently accessible. St. Martin's Cave, on the
+south-east, likewise about 800 feet above the level of the sea, is
+smaller, but its stalactites are of a purer whiteness. A third was
+discovered a few years since on the eastern side of the rock at a height
+of only 80 feet, the lower portion of which consists of accumulations of
+sand and recent shells. There have also been found bones and teeth of
+large herbivorous animals.
+
+[Illustration: ROCK CAVERN IN GIBRALTAR.]
+
+The characteristic vegetation of the mountain is Spanish broom (_Spartium
+junceum_), the yellow blossom of which strikes the eye pleasingly at a
+great distance. There is also one species of cactus, and one of the dwarf
+palm (_Opuntia vulgaris_, and _Chamaerops humilis_), which grows in great
+abundance, and forms, on the south face of the rock, almost the only
+vegetation, whilst, on account of difference of temperature, it is
+altogether absent on the remaining sides.
+
+Gibraltar has little to attract strangers to settle; barracks, military
+store-houses, and fortifications, render the appearance of the place
+peculiarly monotonous, the more so that there are no elegant buildings, or
+fine shops, on the rock. There was nothing observed, however, to confirm
+the statement, in a celebrated geographical work, copied by all later
+compilers, that "most of the houses are painted black, to soften the glare
+of the sun, and prevent an attacking enemy having a distinct view of the
+place." The town, which is built in terraces on the side of the rock, is
+accessible only from three points. The greatest portion of the traffic
+passes through the so-called Old Mole at the north end, whilst the
+entrances on the south are generally used by men-of-war sailors only. All
+are opened at 5 in the morning, and, according to the season, shut between
+7 and 8 in the evening, precisely twenty-five minutes after the first
+signal-gun. This closing of the gate is attended with ceremonies verging
+on the comic. A broad-shouldered corporal, carrying in his hand a heavy
+bunch of immense keys, marches, visibly impressed with the importance of
+his mission, in measured steps, accompanied by a number of red jackets
+with fixed bayonets, towards the massive town-gate; the bridge is then,
+with much ado, drawn up, and the horribly-creaking gate, with great
+exertion, closed, bolted, and finally locked. After "gun fire" no one can
+leave the town by the Old Mole; at 10 P.M., however, and at midnight, a
+little postern is opened, through which those jolly stragglers, who have
+forgotten in merry company the measure of time, may slip out to return to
+their floating abodes. From this hour till morning all communication with
+the harbour is arrested, and the utter impossibility (except in
+extraordinary cases) of leaving the town _after_ this hour, has given rise
+amongst the people to the saying, "There is only _one_ thing more
+difficult than to get _out_ of the town after midnight, and that is to get
+_in_."
+
+There are in the city two Anglican churches, one Wesleyan, one
+Presbyterian, two Catholic chapels, and two synagogues. The garrison
+library, where likewise a great number of journals and magazines are kept,
+possesses 22,000 volumes, amongst them several very rare and costly works,
+especially of ancient Spanish literature. It was founded in 1793 by
+Captain Drinkwater, and has been hitherto kept up by private subscriptions
+and the profits arising from a printing-establishment attached to it.
+
+Gibraltar owes to the energy and public spirit of the governor, Sir James
+Fergusson, the foundation of several important establishments and
+undertakings. Since the beginning of his administration in 1856, the
+number of public schools has been considerably increased, the town
+supplied with gas, and well-arranged public baths established.
+
+The city does not possess a single well or spring; the water used is
+obtained from tanks, in which the rain is collected. The quantity of rain
+that fell during the twelve months of 1855 amounted to 78 inches; in 1856,
+it is said to have been only 24 inches. Nevertheless, there is at no time
+any scarcity of water. The Government have lately caused the erection of
+a distilling apparatus for making sea-water fit for domestic purposes,
+which, however, hitherto has not been used.
+
+The population of Gibraltar, including the garrison of 6000 men, amounts
+to about 20,000 souls, consisting of Spaniards, English, Italians (mostly
+Genoese), Portuguese, Moors, Turks, Greeks, and Jews; indeed, a mixture of
+races, customs, and manners such as scarcely can be found at any other
+place in Europe. The native residents call Gibraltar briefly _the rock_,
+and themselves, with a kind of pseudo-patriotism, _rock people_, though by
+the officers of the garrison and navy generally complimented with the name
+of "rock-scorpions."
+
+The permanent settling of foreigners, in consequence of its being a
+fortress, requires a number of formalities, which have the effect of
+limiting the population; and even the English portion must be considered
+migratory, as it consists chiefly of military and government officers,
+who, after the lapse of certain intervals, exchange in regular order.
+
+The only really beautiful walk in the place is Elliott's Gardens, situated
+at the south end of the town, laid out in a grand style, but disfigured by
+a tasteless bronze statue of General Elliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield),
+the heroic defender of Gibraltar in 1782. In the evenings, when one of the
+military bands is performing, the grounds are thronged by visitors on
+foot, horseback, and in carriages, whilst loving couples, of all races and
+grades, ramble in happy union through the shady avenues.
+
+Near the gardens, towards the south, is a second quarter of the city,
+which mostly consists of government buildings. On the lowest terrace,
+which juts furthest into the sea, stands the lighthouse, on the celebrated
+"Europa Point."
+
+[Illustration: SOUTH GATE, GIBRALTAR.]
+
+Gibraltar is connected with the Spanish continent by a sandy neck of land,
+called by the Spaniards _El Istmo_, and by the English "the neutral
+ground." It runs between the Mediterranean and the bay, one mile and a
+half in length and 2700 feet in breadth. This plain, which is not more
+than 10 feet above the water, owes its origin to the formation of a dune
+in the rocky bed of the ocean. Strong easterly gales seem by degrees to
+have accumulated the sand on this shallow run of the sea, which formerly
+separated Gibraltar from Spain.
+
+A similar sand formation, near Catalan Bay, has attained the enormous
+height of 1000 feet. The Government have caused a portion of the sand, at
+the point where the isthmus joins the rock, to be excavated, and the water
+of the bay to be let in, so that there only remains a narrow low dyke of
+firm ground, which probably in time of war may be completely submerged.
+The stagnant water of this cut must, however, during the hot season,
+considerably increase the amount of fever.
+
+From May till October the troops are encamped under tents on this isthmus,
+along which the neighbouring Spaniards come to market daily in crowds,
+with provisions of all kinds, displaying their rancour against the foreign
+intruders by endeavouring to make them pay the highest possible price for
+their produce.
+
+The adjacent Spanish settlements, Campamiento and St. Roque, are much
+resorted to by excursionists from Gibraltar, and, during the summer, are
+selected by numerous families for even a longer stay; for however little
+pleasure or interest a ride over this arid and sandy plain affords, once
+arrived at Campamiento, the rider enjoys a most charming prospect, while
+there is probably no other point from which the isolated rock appears more
+grand or picturesque than from this neat little village.
+
+In following the road that runs from Campamiento along the bay, the
+charming little town of Algeziras is reached. It lies on the western
+shore, exactly opposite Gibraltar, with which it is in regular
+correspondence by daily steamers.
+
+Algeziras, formerly a poor fishing-village, has greatly increased in
+extent and prosperity, through the smuggling trade. This clean and
+pretty-looking place has a population of 10,000 souls, and makes by
+contrast an extremely pleasant impression on coming from the dismal and
+gloomy fortress. Men and things here have quite an Andalusian appearance.
+The small but neat one-storied houses are mostly painted a bright white,
+and ornamented with green verandahs; at almost every window beautiful
+flowers are exhibited; and the public promenade, shaded by fine trees, is
+delightful. The principal square is likewise planted with trees, and the
+lower stories of its houses are occupied by apothecaries' shops,
+coffee-rooms, confectioners, and one by a bookseller even. The churches
+appear in every respect insignificant; the hospital of San Juan de Dios,
+however, is an ancient and noble structure, the management of which is
+admirable. One of the arrangements here was eminently characteristic of
+Spain: in the ward for male patients stands at the upper end, by the side
+of the beds for common patients, a large, broad, elegantly-polished
+bedstead, which, the porter told us, was intended for "_caballeros_."
+
+At a short distance from the town is the Amphitheatre Constantia, a large
+wooden booth, said to hold nearly 9000 spectators. It is chiefly used for
+bull-fights, which always attract a large audience. The aqueduct here,
+taken with the fine scenery around, forms an exceedingly picturesque
+object.
+
+The inhabitants of Gibraltar sometimes make excursions to the peninsula of
+Ceuta (the Sebta of the Moors), situated on the opposite coast of Africa.
+The lighthouse of this little promontory has been lately furnished with a
+Fresnel apparatus, throwing out a most intense light, which is visible at
+a greater distance than any other observed during our voyage. This place,
+which is used by the Spaniards as a penal settlement, numbers 6500
+inhabitants, and has a very indifferent harbour. The "rock people" also
+occasionally make excursions to Tangier, the most westerly town of the
+strait, and the most important as regards the commerce of Morocco.
+
+A great number of steamers on their various routes touch at Gibraltar, for
+discharging and embarking freight and passengers, and to coal. The
+quantity of the latter thus shipped is estimated at 30,000 tons annually,
+all imported from England. There is also a regular correspondence by
+sailing vessels with all the leading Italian ports, and those of the
+Levant, as well as with Constantinople, Corfu, and Trieste.
+
+Gibraltar being a free port, there are no customs' dues, except those on
+wines and spirits. All flags enjoy equal privileges, and in all disputes
+the English law decides. It is impossible to obtain a satisfactory
+statement of the amount of imports and exports, as no Custom-house exists,
+and the official reports merely give the number and nationality of the
+flags of the ships that arrive and depart. Smuggling is carried on to a
+great extent, and, being a lucrative trade, will continue to be so, as
+long as Spain retains her prohibitory duties on English goods.
+
+The principal items of commerce in Gibraltar are English cotton goods,
+which are exported to Barbary in considerable quantities. To compete
+successfully with the English in this branch of trade would be very
+difficult for any other nation; but there are a great number of other
+articles which might find a ready sale on the African coast, and which are
+produced cheaper in several States of the European continent than in
+England; a consideration of so much the more importance in trading with
+the Moors, that these people regard lowness of price rather than the
+quality of the goods.
+
+For this very reason, small but industrious Belgium has become a powerful
+competitor of mighty England. Thus, for instance, that country exports to
+Morocco, by way of Gibraltar, sugar, both in loaves and crushed,[8]
+hardware and cutlery, nails and screws, zinc, as well as all sorts of
+earthenware and glass. A portion of these articles goes into the
+neighbouring Spanish provinces.
+
+[Footnote 8: The superior quality and cheapness of Belgian sugars have of
+late in a great measure driven all others out of the market. It is also
+worthy of remark, that though Gibraltar is a British colony, all the
+accounts are kept in Spanish currency, and that there are more Spanish and
+French coins in circulation than English, which, when changed, even
+sustain a small loss. The Spanish measures and weights also are more in
+use than the English.]
+
+It is rather singular that the Belgian glass goods are in Gibraltar
+represented as of _German_ manufacture, and thereby obtain a readier sale.
+This seems to be a proof that German (_i. e._ Bohemian) glass articles
+have been patronized before the Belgian, and lost the market only through
+the importation of the latter.
+
+The intercourse between Gibraltar and Spain is carried on by coasting
+vessels, and by French as well as Spanish steamers, while the postal
+communication with Great Britain is conducted by the Peninsular and
+Oriental Steam Packet Company.
+
+Correspondence with Spain and other parts of the Continent is carried on
+overland, but is little to be relied upon, as, owing to the horrible
+condition of the Spanish roads, a delay of from six to eight days
+sometimes occurs in bad weather. Between Gibraltar and Cadiz, a distance
+of only sixty English miles, the letter-bag is said to have often been six
+days on its way.
+
+The narrative of our stay at Gibraltar would be defective if we omitted
+mention of the numerous proofs of hospitality we experienced on all sides.
+Invitations were repeatedly received from the Convent (Government House),
+as well as from private families, and everywhere we experienced the most
+cordial reception.
+
+We must in particular mention a visit paid to Captain Warden, the
+superintendent of the station and arsenal, as it afforded an opportunity
+of becoming acquainted with a feature in the English naval service, as
+practical as it is worthy of imitation. The superintendent of the arsenal
+inhabits a beautiful roomy house, belonging to the Government, situated in
+a large garden, well planted with splendid plane-trees, laurel, and
+orange-trees, and ornamented with most beautiful and odoriferous flowers.
+As a superintendent's income would not admit the outlay necessary properly
+to furnish so large an edifice, this is done by contractors, who let out
+the furniture at the rate of five per cent. annually on the value. This
+sum is deducted monthly from the pay. The same system is also adopted on
+board English men-of-war. The cabins of the officers are there furnished
+and provided with all the requisite comforts by contractors under the
+superintendence of the Admiralty. The value of each article is marked in a
+printed list deposited with the authorities. The captain pays a yearly
+rate of five per cent. on the valuation, and binds himself besides, in the
+event of the ship's being paid off, or of being appointed to another
+vessel, to return in good condition all the articles specified, and pay
+the value noted in the list for everything missing. This agreement is
+registered at the Admiralty, and the contractor receives the amount
+monthly. The advantage of such an arrangement to the commander of a ship
+will be more fully appreciated by those who, from personal experience, are
+aware of the expense attending an outfit, and the great loss which an
+officer transferred from one ship to another suffers through a sudden and
+forced sale of his property. The commander of a ship is moreover often not
+in a condition to spend for his personal outfit a sum of perhaps a
+thousand pounds sterling, but he can conveniently pay annually from L40 to
+L50 for the hire in monthly instalments; and it thus becomes easier for
+him to maintain the appearance due to his position.
+
+The commander and officers of the _Caroline_, which, after an absence
+since the 12th of May, had rejoined us on the 23rd, were, like ourselves,
+received in the kindest manner by all the authorities of Gibraltar.
+
+It had been arranged that we should make the voyage to Madeira in company
+with the _Caroline_, but an unexpected incident prevented it. The
+small-pox[9] made its appearance on board, and although in a mild form and
+in but a few cases, yet it was sufficiently alarming to interrupt, as a
+matter of precaution, all communication, and to postpone indefinitely her
+departure, as a great part of the crew might be overtaken with the disease
+whilst at sea, exposed to sudden changes of temperature, thereby causing
+the most serious consequences. Such is not the case with diseases which
+are in some degree localized, as cholera, yellow fever, dysentery, &c.,
+when it is even prudent to set sail, notwithstanding the presence of the
+malady, as a change of place and climate is frequently accompanied with
+beneficial results.
+
+[Footnote 9: As there has lately been some difference amongst the medical
+men of Europe as to the utility of vaccination, the following observations
+from the report of Dr. Wawra, the principal physician on board the
+_Caroline_, regarding the appearance and the course of this epidemic, may
+not be out of place:--"A day before our departure from Trieste a man
+complained of a slight fever and headache, and his skin was covered with
+spots which were judged at once to be indications of an approaching
+eruption of small-pox. The man was immediately sent on shore as a matter
+of precaution; but, nevertheless, eight days after our departure we had a
+second, and ten days after that a third case: the epidemic was on board,
+and though in a mild form, yet serious consequences were apprehended. The
+_re-vaccination_ of the men was therefore decided upon, and carried out,
+as far as the virus on board would admit. Only five individuals of the
+whole had not been vaccinated at all; some had undergone the operation in
+their childhood, a great part of them, however, had been vaccinated on
+board other vessels, from two to five years before. Only fourteen cases
+occurred. Most remarkable, and evidently in favour of those who advocate
+re-vaccination, is the fact, that amongst most of those who had been
+vaccinated in their childhood, the disorder was more severe than among
+those who had been re-vaccinated on board the ship. Among those who had
+_never_ undergone the operation before, the vaccination on board was most
+successful; not one of them caught the disorder. Among the _re-vaccinated_
+only four cases occurred, with slighter symptoms than among those who had
+been once only operated upon. We met with several instances of the kind at
+other places where we touched. At Buenos Ayres, where the vaccination laws
+are stricter than anywhere else, the small-pox is extremely rare. Among
+the Brazilians, who entertain an absolute prejudice against vaccination,
+the _variola_ is one of the most common and most frightful diseases. It
+prevails still worse amongst the negro slaves, among whom, from the
+ignorance and prejudice of their masters, vaccination is neglected. The
+white marks of the disease are particularly visible in the black skin, and
+are evident proofs how virulently it has raged amongst them."]
+
+After we had got through our duties at Gibraltar, an attempt was made,
+with the first favourable wind, to set sail and reach the Atlantic; the
+_Caroline_ remaining behind for the benefit of the sick on board. She was
+to follow only when the health of the crew no longer excited any
+apprehension.
+
+On the 30th May the wind changed to south, and as the current in the
+harbour was also favourable, we weighed anchor in the hope that in the
+Straits we might meet with an easterly wind. The _Novara_ passed the
+_Caroline_, which saluted with a round of cheers, when we tacked to clear
+the roads, after which all sail was hoisted to beat out against the
+western current in the Straits. The sea was covered with a mucous
+substance, which generally indicates that there is scarcely a chance of a
+fresh breeze; however, even the little we had, would have sufficed to
+carry us through the Straits, but towards 6 P.M. a perfect calm overtook
+us, and notwithstanding the press of sail, we were carried back towards
+the East, and about midnight found ourselves again in the Mediterranean,
+which did not seem disposed to part with us. There was no improvement next
+day, and at sunset we were exactly twenty-five miles east from the point
+we had occupied the preceding day. The clouds passed from West to East
+across the moon, and in the night from the 31st of May to the 1st of June
+the westerly wind became so fresh that we had even to reef the sails.
+
+Current, wind, sea, everything was against us; even tacking was of no
+service, as we lost ground visibly with each tack. When at last all hope
+of making the West had disappeared, we anchored, like many others of our
+companions in sorrow, on the 1st June, at 6 P.M., in the Bay of
+Frangerola, fifteen miles north of Malaga.
+
+Here were anchored nearly sixty merchantmen, all wind-bound. Behind the
+Punta Molinos, near Malaga, there must have been quite as many more. Fresh
+additions were constantly being made to the already considerable fleet,
+which had involuntarily collected together, whilst those merchantmen which
+with fruitless obstinacy kept on tacking about us, were getting more and
+more out of their course, as with every successive hour their position was
+changed for the worse.
+
+[Illustration: INHABITANT OF FRANGOLA.]
+
+In the hope of a favourable wind we were all a-taunto on the 2nd June,
+perfectly prepared for a start. Under these circumstances no one could go
+on shore, but an officer was despatched in a boat to make inquiries as to
+whether there were any sanitary board in the neighbouring village. A
+relative of the President of the Junta de la Sanidad came on board, and
+stated that, though as a rule only vessels clearing from Spanish harbours
+were permitted to have intercourse with the shore, an exception should be
+made in favour of ourselves. This Andalusian was very communicative, and
+amongst other things told us that the inhabitants were supported almost
+entirely by fishing. Many ships had now been waiting several weeks for a
+favourable wind to pass the Straits. Some had thrice attempted to sail
+towards the West, but in every case were driven back by wind and current.
+In 1847, a year of scarcity, Louis Philippe had caused several French
+steamers to be stationed in the Straits in order to take in tow ships
+coming from the Black Sea laden with grain, and thereby to facilitate
+their passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. In the afternoon
+we had a visit from about thirty inhabitants of Frangerola, who came on
+board in fishing-boats to view the ship. None of these people had ever
+seen so large a man-of-war, and they all therefore regarded the ship with
+great curiosity. The ship's band greatly delighted them, but the
+signal-gun at sunset seemed to terrify them and to hasten their departure.
+
+In the evening we felt from time to time some warm blasts of wind from the
+east, and enjoyed for nearly an hour the delightful spectacle of a "Fata
+Morgana." This phenomenon, as is well known, arises from two currents of
+air of a different density, separated by a distinctly-formed plane,
+generally produced when the temperature of the two currents happens to
+vary. When, for instance, as is frequently the case at sea, a considerably
+warmer current of air comes suddenly in contact with a colder current
+having a lower position, the plane of separation of the former becomes
+condensed, and forms a mirror for all those objects which are in the lower
+current, so that their image is inversely reflected. As this surface of
+separation is not level throughout, various contractions and distortions
+result, which impart to the whole a singular appearance. On land, as for
+instance in the deserts of Africa, where the warmer current of air is on
+the surface of the ground, the aerial mirror is formed beneath the eye of
+the observer, by which the same phenomenon is produced that results from
+the reflection of objects on the surface of the water.
+
+In the present case the temperature of the atmosphere was about ten
+degrees higher than that of the sea's surface at the point of
+observation. The surface of the current of warm air appeared like a light
+fog, inclining in the East towards the Spanish coast, and in the
+South-east to South towards the surface of the sea. Where it was highest
+it reached nearly five degrees above the horizon. The images of the ships
+at anchor near Malaga, and those at sea under sail, appeared reversed, and
+assumed curiously fantastic forms, particularly in those places where the
+reflecting surface became irregular, and inclined towards the horizon. The
+appearance of these distorted ships in the air, joining in the most
+singular way the real ones actually floating on the sea,--the warm vapour
+which is from time to time wafted on the face of the observer, as well as
+the perfect and almost death-like stillness which, under such
+circumstances, prevails both on the sea and in the atmosphere, may easily
+produce the belief in a mysterious power, among a people who are generally
+prone to ascribe to supernatural agencies every phenomenon they cannot
+understand or explain.
+
+This "Fata Morgana"[10] was not merely interesting in itself, but also gave
+reason to indulge in the hope of a favourable wind. A light easterly
+breeze accordingly sprang up towards midnight, the current became
+reversed, the anchor was weighed, and all sail made with this favourable
+wind towards Gibraltar, the rock of which was distinctly recognizable
+through the misty air, at a distance of nearly sixty miles.
+
+[Footnote 10: The name Morgana is of Breton origin, and signifies "sea
+woman," from _mor_, sea, and _gan_, a fine woman;--the fairy mermaid of
+English legendary tales.]
+
+A calm still prevailed near Europa Point, but as the day wore on, the
+easterly breeze blew strong through the Straits, and, in company with
+innumerable other ships, the Pillars of Hercules were at length passed.
+The wind freshened, and the frigate cracked merrily on down mid-channel;
+for, though the set of the current was dead against us, yet the wind
+proved more than a match for it, which in our case was the more apparent,
+that those merchantmen which sailed along the coast, not having the
+advantage of this wind, seemed as though left motionless in the rear.
+
+When towards noon the _Novara_ was off the place where the _Caroline_ had
+been anchored, that ship was no longer visible. She had probably set sail
+in the morning. We supposed her to be among the crowd of ships which were
+sailing in the fog, but did not discover her, even after we had overtaken
+and examined all of them. We now endeavoured to reach the Atlantic as
+speedily as possible, making from nine to ten knots an hour, and, with
+joyful sensations, sailed through those beautiful straits, on whose shores
+the ancient world unrolled its grand panorama, thanking Providence here,
+at the entrance of that vast ocean, which now shone so brilliantly, that
+we were permitted to carry the Austrian flag into distant regions.
+
+At 4 P.M., aided by the fresh evening breeze, we passed the most southerly
+point of Europe. We were just going to dinner when the last glimpse of the
+old world passed before the cabin windows, and we gazed once more with
+sorrowing eyes at the rapidly-disappearing coast, which, illuminated by
+the rays of the setting sun, seemed to wave us a last farewell in letters
+of fire. However beautiful, however inspiring the prospect of our task;
+however inviting the magnificent ocean that lay extended under our eyes,
+magically lit up by the silvery beams of the bright moon shining from a
+starry sky, yet the painful sensations of parting with that old world,
+with which so many pleasing associations--so many cherished recollections
+were bound up, had a powerful influence, and gave rise to melancholy
+impressions, of which we were only relieved by the comforting hope that we
+should one day return to all so dear to us.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE TRAFALGAR.]
+
+The night was delightful. Not a single cloud obscured the sky, and the
+ship, with all sails swelled by a fair wind, ploughed the dark waves,
+leaving a glittering track behind. We were now on the ocean! Below, blue,
+foam-crested billows; above, the sky studded with stars;--below, the wide
+desert of the sea; above, the infallible guides to lead us safely through
+it.
+
+We awoke to new activity on that great element, which conceals so many
+charms and so many hardships, where the continued alternations of hope and
+fear, of enjoyment and privation--where weariness and disappointment, and
+yet again the new strength imparted by returning success--so excitingly
+animate, and so gloriously manifest the innate power of the human mind.
+
+Life on board, the various excitements at sea, the different countries and
+people seen during a voyage, all tend to arouse feelings and sensations
+which are reserved for the mariner alone, and which render his life, if he
+knows how to use it properly, happy and most enviable. At sea the mental
+and physical eye gains strength, man there seeks to unravel Nature in all
+her phases, and to know and to admire more thoroughly her works. The
+seaman owes his energy, his straightforwardness, and his piety, to a life
+spent in the midst of nature, to his direct intercourse with creation.
+Between him and the Sovereign of the Universe there is, as it were, no
+mediator--he lives and labours uninterruptedly on the steps of the throne
+of his Creator and Preserver. In this great temple he directs to Him alone
+his complaints, his thanks, and his prayers. At sea he learns law and
+order from Nature herself in her constantly-recurring functions; here he
+admires the omnipotence and goodness of God in the sunrise after a stormy
+night, and in the brightness of the moon that lights up his path; here he
+learns by his actual experience the truth of that maxim of life, that "God
+only helps him who helps himself."
+
+The wind, hitherto easterly, chopped round to the North-east, which,
+according to Maury's excellent directions and charts, may be considered as
+a trade wind, and in this season might be called so. In fact, the trade
+winds are produced by a current of air, which is directed towards the
+Equator, and only in consequence of the earth's motion round its axis
+acquires a north-easterly direction to the north of the equator, and a
+south-easterly to the south of it. But the trade winds become perceptible
+at a certain distance from the equator, or rather from the hottest zone of
+the earth's surface; and it is clear, that when the zone assumes a greater
+breadth, the boundary of the trade winds is extended further towards the
+poles, as the position of this zone and its heat obtained from the sun are
+the causes of these phenomena.
+
+This is exactly the case in these waters; Africa, with its sandy deserts,
+presents a broader zone of the greatest heat than is possible on the sea,
+and the trade winds, accordingly, reach further towards the north. Its
+direction, however, cannot always be north-easterly, and depends
+necessarily on the direction of the northern boundaries of this zone of
+greatest heat. Accordingly, we at first had a more northerly wind, which
+in our progress towards Madeira became much more easterly. The weather
+continued on the whole beautiful, the sea was calm, and only the increased
+length of the waves showed the greater expanse of water we were now
+navigating.
+
+We overtook some other ships, which were sailing towards the west. As we
+saw nothing of the _Caroline_, we concluded that she was considerably
+ahead. The current, which near Gibraltar has a westerly direction, tending
+towards the Mediterranean, loses its power at a distance from the land,
+and half-way to Madeira it changes its direction in such a way that the
+ship is carried imperceptibly southwards, though only a few miles a-day.
+This current is a lateral branch of the great Gulf Stream, which from the
+Gulf of Mexico is directed towards England, but about the latitude of New
+York sends off a branch in a south-easterly direction, which passes round
+Madeira, and, near the Canaries, takes a parallel direction with the coast
+of Africa and forms the commencement of the Guinea current. The
+temperature of the sea water, which in the midst of this current is
+generally rather higher than that of the air, indicates to the mariner
+that he is in the Stream, and he must take care that his ship is not
+carried more to the south out of its course than he wishes. This shows
+clearly of what importance ocean-currents are to navigation; and it
+becomes evident that it is the duty of the scientific navigator not only
+to find out their direction and strength, but to use all means at his
+command, in order to ascertain their general movement in given districts
+of ocean.
+
+For this latter purpose, it is customary (as often as circumstances seem
+to render it advisable) to throw overboard, and commit to the mercy of
+these currents, a well-corked empty bottle, in which has been deposited a
+card with the name and position of the ship. The bottle thus prepared, and
+made conspicuous by a covering of white linen cloth, or some such
+material, wanders hither and thither with the current, until it is picked
+up by some other ship, or is stranded anywhere on _terra firma_. The fact
+of such a bottle having been picked up is usually published, together with
+the particulars enclosed, by means of which it is obvious that an estimate
+can be formed of the average strength and direction of the current.
+
+At 1 P.M. each afternoon, it was our custom to despatch one of these
+ocean-posts, under given conditions; but only rarely did we afterwards
+receive any information with respect to them. In each bottle was placed a
+card with the following particulars, written in German, English, French,
+Italian, and Spanish:--
+
+"H.I.M. frigate, _Novara_, such and such a day of the week and month, hour
+at which thrown overboard, Longitude from Greenwich, Latitude. Whoever
+finds this bottle, which is about being thrown overboard well-corked and
+in good order, is requested to forward for publication, to the nearest
+spot at which there is a newspaper, the day, hour, latitude and longitude,
+in which the bottle has been found, together with the particulars of a
+similar nature already enclosed."
+
+On the 7th June, towards evening, we were not more than 55 nautical miles
+distant from the E. point of Madeira, and as the wind was favourable and
+pretty fresh, it became necessary to shorten sail, so as to reach the
+anchorage by daybreak.
+
+About 2.30 A.M., a vessel was perceived, which, by its lights, was made
+out to be a man-of-war. We now burned a port fire which was not merely
+replied to, but accompanied by signalling the number of the _Caroline_.
+She was steering exactly our own course, and after having had to struggle
+with calms on nearing the coast, we cast anchor together, in the roads of
+Funchal, in 32 fathoms, sandy bottom, immediately South of the Loo Rock, a
+singular-looking, lofty, conical rock, which marks the best anchorage for
+large ships. The U. S. corvette, _Dale_, lay in our vicinity, and sent a
+boat on board with an officer to extend to us the usual greetings, after
+which she saluted the Commodore's standard with a salute of thirteen
+guns,[11] which, as is the etiquette, we returned, gun for gun. We now had
+the pleasure of hearing that the small-pox had entirely disappeared on
+board the corvette _Caroline_, those attacked being now in a fair way of
+convalescence, while on board the _Novara_, the health of the ship's
+company was eminently satisfactory.
+
+[Footnote 11: Commodores of other nations receive only eleven guns by way
+of salute.]
+
+[Illustration: LOO ROCK (MADEIRA).]
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN MADEIRA.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  IV.
+
+                               Madeira.
+
+               FROM THE 8TH TO THE 17TH OF JUNE, 1857.
+
+   First Impressions.--Difficulty in Landing.--Description of the
+     Island.--History.--Unfavourable political circumstances
+     connected with the cultivation of the ground.--Aqueducts.--
+     First Planting of the Sugar-cane.--Culture of the Vine.--Its
+     Disease and Decay.--Cochineal as a compensation for its loss.--
+     Prospects of Success.--Climate.--A favourable Winter Residence
+     for the Consumptive.--Strangers.--First Appearance of the
+     Cholera.--Observations with the Ozonometer.--Great Distress
+     among the Lower Classes.--Liberal Assistance from England.--
+     Decline of Commerce.--Inhabitants and their Mode of Life.--
+     Decrease of the Population, and its Causes.--Benevolent
+     Institutions.--Public Libraries.--The Cathedral.--Barracks.--
+     Prison.--Environs of Funchal.--Excursion to St. Anna.--Ascent
+     of the Pico Ruivo.--Singular Sledge Party.--Return to
+     Funchal.--Departure.
+
+
+Delightful and striking is the first impression of Funchal, its luxuriant
+gardens smiling with gorgeous flowers, and its mountain sides cultivated
+almost to their summits; and although the grander and more gigantic forms
+of true tropical vegetation are wanting, and the landscape displays rather
+the character of an island off the shores of Italy than of the torrid
+zone--still Nature exhibits herself here with such varied charms that
+imagination can scarcely conceive a sweeter or lovelier scene. The most
+beautiful plants of the temperate and sub-tropical zones meet here in
+their highest development, whilst some representatives of the tropics
+intermixed enhance the richness of the wonderful picture. Odoriferous
+magnolias, large flowering tulip trees, plane trees, laurels, myrtles,
+acacias, passion and trumpet flowers, tree-like fuchsias with immense
+blossoms, gaudy hortensias, sweet-smelling roses, blooming oleanders,
+aloes, 40 feet high, in full flower, imposing camellias with shining green
+foliage, covered with beautiful rose-like flowers, chestnut trees,
+Brazilian pines, cypresses--all delight the eye, together with
+pomegranates, tamarinds, bananas, sugar-canes, coffee-shrubs, gigantic
+dragon trees, pine-apples, mangroves, papayas, and aquacates. Certainly,
+at a later date, we met in the primitive forests of the Nicobar islands,
+or in Java, Luzon, and the Caroline islands, with grander and more
+imposing scenery; but none that surpassed in fragrance, luxuriance, and
+loveliness the floral beauty of Madeira.
+
+The anchorage of Funchal[12] is merely an open, exceedingly unsafe
+roadstead, which affords so little protection to ships that often in
+southerly winds they are obliged to get under sail. This is especially the
+case in the winter, when the sea often rushes into the small unprotected
+bay with fearful violence. In October, 1842, five vessels were cast on
+shore within the space of a few hours, and another sank whilst at anchor;
+a similar violent gale from the south raged in December, 1848, when a like
+number of ships met with the same fate, and were dashed to pieces. The
+British sloop of war _Daphne_ only escaped by making the open sea in time.
+In order to run less risk of being surprised by such gales, sailing
+vessels generally cast anchor to the south of the Loo Rock, where there is
+tolerably safe anchorage at a depth of twenty-five to thirty fathoms. In
+that position they are clear of the rocky headlands, and can therefore
+more easily set sail before the sea rushes in with all its irresistible
+violence. Steamers, which are better able to resist the force of the waves
+than sailing vessels, generally cast anchor nearer the shore, so that
+passengers may be more easily landed, and coals shipped with greater
+facility.
+
+[Footnote 12: The Portuguese for fennel-field, because the first
+discoverers of the island found this plant in great abundance.]
+
+The Portuguese Government has done nothing to compensate for the
+shortcomings of nature with regard to safe landing-places in this island,
+otherwise so highly favoured. Though the rocky condition of the Funchal
+roads, (the only anchorage for larger ships which the island possesses,)
+offers sufficient means for the construction of a harbour for boats and
+small vessels, yet the Government has hitherto done so little, that the
+landing of passengers can only be effected by small, peculiarly-built
+boats, which, whilst tossed by the waves, have to be drawn on shore by the
+natives wading knee-deep in the water. If, therefore, the ship remains any
+length of time at Funchal, the communication with the land is attended
+with considerable expense. We laid out, in payments to the boatmen, during
+a stay of nine days, the sum of forty-five Spanish piastres[13] (L9 15s.
+sterling), although they had not over-charged us.
+
+[Footnote 13: Spanish piastre = 4s. 4d. at par.]
+
+The formalities at the custom-house, which strangers--even those belonging
+to a ship-of-war of a friendly Power--have to go through, are extremely
+annoying, and entail a great loss of time. Before landing, passengers'
+boats are boarded in the open roads by officers, who are stationed a few
+cable lengths from the shore. On landing, the stranger is obliged to
+repair to the custom-house, where even small and open packages are
+subjected to a second rigid examination. The time lost during this
+process, unnecessarily minute, is exceedingly unpleasant. The reason
+assigned for these vexatious regulations is the extent to which, of late,
+smuggling has been carried on in the island, and which, in the opinion of
+the Governor, required these measures of precaution. It seems, however,
+that this system rather promotes contraband trading, by making it very
+lucrative. The Austrian consul, Charles Bianchi, Esq., did all in his
+power to diminish the frequency of the continual examinations, and
+likewise, in all other respects, endeavoured to promote the objects of the
+Expedition.
+
+The greatest length of the island of Madeira, from Ponta Furado in the
+east, to Ponta do Pargo, in the west, amounts to 30 miles; its greatest
+breadth, from Ponta do Cruz in the south, to Ponta do Sao Jorge in the
+north, is 12-1/2 miles, and its area is about 240 square miles. This
+volcanic and mountainous island is intersected by innumerable deep ravines
+and defiles, and its whole surface is so much broken and irregular, that
+the representation Columbus once gave to Queen Isabella, of the Island of
+Jamaica, when she asked him for a description of its configuration, might
+perfectly be applied to the aspect of Madeira also. The great navigator,
+after having crushed a sheet of paper in his hand, and partly opened it
+again, placed it on the table, saying, he could convey to Her Majesty no
+clearer idea of that island than that crumpled piece of paper afforded.
+
+A large portion of the island is not susceptible of cultivation; for the
+heathy region which constitutes nearly one-third of its surface, and rises
+to a height of about 2500 feet above the level of the sea, is extremely
+steep, and too much exposed to winds and rains in summer, to admit of any
+kind of cultivation, even that of grain; whilst another not less
+considerable tract is too rocky and precipitous for that purpose. In the
+south of the island, the highest limit of cultivation is estimated to be
+at a height of 2500 feet, though in several places rye and barley grow at
+2800 feet. In the north of the island, where a better system of irrigation
+prevails, the extreme boundary of cultivation reaches a higher altitude,
+and on the declivities of the Ribeiro Frio, it is met with at an elevation
+of above 3000 feet.
+
+The earlier history of the island has had such a great influence upon its
+present industrial and social condition, that a few remarks on the most
+important features of its history may find a place here.
+
+Madeira was discovered in 1419, by two Portuguese, Joao Gonsalvo da
+Camara[14] and Tristao Teixeira, and, about 1421, a colony of Europeans
+settled on the island. Camara obtained, as a gift for his discovery, the
+south-eastern, and Teixeira the north-eastern part of the island, together
+with the most extensive powers and privileges. Funchal was then the
+principal place of Camara's territory, and Machico that of Teixeira's.
+These two recipients (_donatarios_) enjoyed the exclusive privileges of
+erecting flour and saw mills; they alone were allowed to build ovens for
+public baking (private baking being permitted to all); they, moreover, had
+the monopoly of trading in salt, had claims upon the tithes of the royal
+revenues, and were empowered to grant portions of the land to settlers.
+Every settler was required to erect within five years a house, a cottage,
+or barn, on his ground, and to cultivate the land. If these conditions, at
+the expiration of the fixed period, had not been complied with, the donor
+had the right of granting the land to some one else. These grants were
+hereditary, and lapsed to the crown, or the donors, if alive, in the event
+of there being no direct successors. Such extraordinary privileges and
+immunities were deemed necessary in order to reconcile the holders with
+the dubious character of the early settlers in the island; for, though in
+those times the highest families in Portugal took part in all adventurous
+expeditions, yet most of the settlers were taken from prison and convict
+hulks; and the first settlement of Madeira had much more the character of
+a place of banishment for criminals than that of a colony of free
+emigrants.
+
+[Footnote 14: Vulgarly called Zargo, or the Squinter.]
+
+With a view to obtain more ground for cultivation, the first settlers are
+said to have set on fire so large a portion of the primeval forests, that
+they were soon unable to check the conflagration. According to old
+writers, the fire, particularly in the south of the island, lasted several
+years; and the heat is said to have been so intense, that many persons in
+order to escape from it, sought refuge on board the ships in the roads of
+Funchal.[15]
+
+[Footnote 15: The name _Madeira_, signifying in Portuguese "timber or
+wood," justifies the statement that the island was at one time richly
+wooded.]
+
+This act of vandalism against nature, which is confirmed by ancient and
+modern authors, is being avenged even at present, though centuries have
+passed since the deed. The cedar, once a denizen of the island, is no
+longer to be found; and only the ceilings of the cathedral and of old
+houses, which are constructed of this costly material, show the magnitude
+which this noble tree formerly attained in the island. Of the dragon tree
+(_Dracaena Draco_), which was once the ornament of the forests of Madeira,
+there are at present, in the whole island, only six or seven specimens in
+existence, which are shown as curiosities to strangers. The Til-tree
+(_Oreodaphne f[oe]tens_), the Vinhatico (_Persea indica_), and the Folhado
+(_Clethra arborea_), formerly the most numerous representatives of the
+native flora, are likewise at present very rarely to be met with, and
+their places are occupied by plants and trees of the temperate zone,
+particularly the Spanish chestnut, the fruit of which furnishes the
+inhabitants with food, whilst the tree itself has served hitherto in the
+north of the island as a support to the vine. The destruction of the
+forests has, at the same time, considerably contributed to the
+modification of the climate in general, and to the diminution of humidity
+in particular. At the date of the discovery of the island, and a long time
+after, the Rio Socorridos, the largest river in the island, is said to
+have been so deep, as to float timber from the interior to the sea; at
+present this river is quite insignificant, and almost dried up.
+
+The island remained for two centuries in the possession of the direct
+heirs of the original owners, and when at last, from want of legal
+successors, these privileges lapsed, the crown granted them to other
+favourites; but with some restrictions. The exclusive right to corn and
+saw mills was then entirely abolished, and the salt monopoly with other
+privileges was retained by the crown. The descendants of the first
+settlers had in the mean time acquired considerable property in land,
+whilst the cultivation of the sugar-cane, now very generally adopted, the
+introduction of negro slaves from Africa, and the foundation of large
+estates, contributed materially to the prosperity of the inhabitants. The
+ruins of many large buildings in various parts of the island are even now
+mute witnesses of the opulence of their former occupants.
+
+This prosperous state of the island was, however, at the beginning of the
+last century, materially affected by the introduction of the so-called
+_vinculos_ or entails, which, introduced under the protection and in
+favour of the church, were a great burden upon the land. Frequently, rich
+proprietors left to the church portions of their incomes in order to have
+masses said for the repose of their souls, and encumbered their lands with
+so many burdens, that only a small remainder fell to their heirs. So long
+as these claims were in existence the proprietors could not grant leases
+for a longer period than four years, nor impose fresh burdens on their
+lands. The union of several such vinculos was called a _morgado_ (entailed
+property). Under the severe but wise administration of the Marquis of
+Pombal, a law was passed which forbade the future creation of morgados
+(unless the property yielded an income of 1200 piastres annually, and even
+then the special licence of the crown had to be obtained), declaring the
+whole system of entails "as contrary to the rights of property and the
+well-founded claims of the other members of the family." The law of Dom
+Pedro, dated the 4th February, 1802, was still more severe, as it allowed
+at the same time the abolition of single entails, the value of which was
+below 200 Spanish piastres annually, as well as that of every morgado,
+the annual value of which did not exceed the sum of 600 piastres. As,
+however, a great number of these entails exceed 200 piastres, these
+oppressive restrictions still weigh upon four-fifths of the land,
+notwithstanding the above-mentioned laws. Among the creditors who still
+have claims, there are three nunneries (which alone, of all other similar
+institutions, outlived the revolution of 1821), the hospital of Funchal,
+and the Portuguese Government. The institution of these vinculos and
+morgados produced a kind of feudal dependency between the cultivator of
+the estates (_caseiro_) and the landlord or holder of the morgado. On the
+occasion of his marriage, or the birth of an heir to the latter, the
+caseiro brought presents of such fruits as his land produced; when the
+landlord removed from the town into the country, the caseiro carried his
+litter and luggage; in conversation the caseiro addressed the landlord as
+_meu amo_ (my lord). The revolution of 1821 did away with many of these
+usages, and in various ways altered the relation between the caseiro and
+the landlord.
+
+Another impediment to the improvement of agriculture, is the system of
+parcelling ground into small allotments, which has been continued up to
+the present time. The farms are in general extremely small. In the richer
+and more fertile parts of the island they rarely exceed an acre in extent,
+very often they are not half so large, and sometimes not even the tenth
+part of an acre. The late Conde de Carvalho, the proprietor of nearly
+one-third of the whole island, had upwards of eight thousand tenants.
+Supposing that this mode of farming existed in the remaining two-thirds,
+there would be in Madeira 24,000 farmers, caseiros or tenants; or, taking
+the population at 100,000 souls, nearly every fourth inhabitant would be a
+tenant farmer. This state of things is not to be wondered at, considering
+that almost every day-labourer farms a small patch of ground, the extent
+of which is not greater than the ordinary size of a large garden bed, on
+which he grows vegetables, potatoes, figs, peaches, sugar-cane, and
+sometimes even grain.
+
+In the north and west of the island, where agriculture has made more
+progress than in the south, rent is paid in money; generally, however, the
+system of paying in kind is still in existence, in which the harvest,
+(after deducting the _tithe_, which, at Madeira, belongs to the State and
+not to the church,) is divided between the landlord and the tenants.
+According to this principle the landlord receives half of the produce of
+the ground, be it grain, sugar-cane, wine, fruit or vegetables, which are
+brought for sale, and not consumed on the farm itself. It sometimes
+happens, however, that the harvest is sold in a lump, while yet on the
+ground. Oxen are the only animals employed in agriculture. They are
+diminutive and singularly unsightly, but of a very powerful breed, and
+furnish very good meat for the table. They are generally fed in stalls,
+but in the mountainous districts they graze in open pastures. There are
+only a few badly-fed sheep on the island, so that the mutton is almost
+unfit for consumption. Pigs and fowls are in abundance, and the rearing of
+poultry is generally the principal means of living possessed by the
+peasantry. What is asserted by some authors regarding wild rabbits and
+boars to be met with on the island, wants confirmation. The few rabbits we
+saw were perfectly identical with the European species (_Lepus
+cuniculus_), and lead to the supposition that rabbits as well as pigs, now
+found in a wild state here and there on the island, are only the progeny
+of those which have formerly been introduced from Europe.
+
+The numerous open and walled water conduits (_levadas_), which are of
+considerable height, and lead to all parts of the cultivated land, are of
+particular importance. Each levada is placed under the superintendence of
+a committee, selected mostly from the landowners, who have a direct
+interest in them. Sometimes one person only, generally the most
+considerable landowner of the district, under the title of _juiz da
+levada_, is entrusted with the control of the water, and receives for his
+services the use of the water during twenty-four hours. The right of using
+these levadas is very strictly guarded, and often leads to law
+proceedings. Every piece of ground within a district through which such a
+conduit runs, is entitled to the use of the water by turns, during a
+certain number of hours (generally not more than twenty-four). These turns
+are different, according to the extent of the district, from fifteen to
+forty days. The distribution of the water is entrusted to a so-called
+_levadeiro_, who places himself at the upper end of the land through which
+the water is to flow, and with an hour-glass in his hand measures--a
+modern Saturn--the time during which the owner is entitled to the use of
+the beneficent element. After the expiration of the fixed period, the
+water is made to pass on to the ground of another proprietor. These
+conduits, so extremely important to the farmer, were constructed partly at
+the expense of the Government, and partly by the contributions of the
+landed proprietors. Those who have no other title may obtain the right to
+this privilege either by purchase or by government grant. For every
+twenty-four hours' use of the levadas 400 reis[16] are paid, which tax is
+employed to keep them in good order.
+
+[Footnote 16: 1000 reis or milreis=to one Spanish piastre, or about 4s.
+4d.]
+
+The high roads of Madeira are, with but few exceptions, in a deplorable
+condition. They are generally laid with small pointed stones, and at
+numerous places they have an inclination of from 23 to 27 degrees. Every
+adult male native is obliged to pay annually one Spanish piastre, or to
+give five days' labour for their repair. On account of the bad condition
+of the roads in the interior of the island, most of the natural produce is
+conveyed from one place to another in boats, or, as is the case with wine,
+is carried to the harbour in skins and casks, on the backs of the
+inhabitants.
+
+[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE RIBEIRO SECO.]
+
+The first attempt at cultivation in Madeira was the planting of
+sugar-canes, introduced soon after the discovery of the island, through
+the instrumentality of Prince Henry of Portugal (son of John I.), which
+grew so abundantly, that for a considerable period the produce of the
+island sufficed for the supply of the whole kingdom of Portugal. In
+commemoration of this flourishing epoch, as regards the cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, two sugar-loaves were introduced into the arms of the island.
+In the year 1452 was erected the first sugar factory, near Machica, and at
+the end of the fifteenth century there existed as many as 120, in which
+slaves chiefly were employed. The Jesuit, Antonio Cordeyro, who wrote his
+_Historia Insulana Lusitana_ at the beginning of last century, makes
+mention of a considerable number of sugar factories, which had been
+erected in almost every part of the south coast. On the estate of the
+Genoese, Juan Esmeralda, half a league from Ribeiro do Taboa, there were
+annually manufactured 20,000 arrobas[17] of sugar. By degrees, however, the
+culture of the cane fell, into decay, whether through disease of the plant
+or its cheaper production in the Brazils and West Indies is not known, so
+that in the year 1840, only two sugar factories were at work in the whole
+island; and even these only produce molasses and rum, of which the latter,
+in the year 1856, amounted to 1500 pipes. The cultivation of the
+sugar-cane, however, has increased since the vine disease has fallen so
+heavily on the landowner. In the summer of 1857, there were eighteen
+factories again in activity on the island, though so late as 1855, the
+importation of sugar, for the consumption of the island, amounted to but
+31,176 arrobas.[18]
+
+[Footnote 17: One arroba = 32 arrateles or pounds. One pipe = 108 gallons.]
+
+[Footnote 18: From 64 lbs. of sugar-cane are obtained 4 galls. of juice,
+and from 4 galls. of juice are made 8 galls. of rum. The average price was
+2200 reis per gal. of sugar-juice. The rum of commerce (from 22 to 23
+degrees) is sold at one Spanish piastre the gallon.]
+
+The greatest elevation at which, in the south of the island, the
+sugar-cane can be grown, is, like that of the banana tree, about 1000 feet
+above the level of the sea. In the north, the cultivation of the cane
+would be remunerative only at those points where, as, for instance, at
+Fayal and San Jorge, ground and temperature are most favourable for it. To
+judge by the soil and climate, the cultivation of the cane in Madeira
+might, with care, even at the present time, prove advantageous. In the
+south-west part of Lousiana, where, in 1796, this plant was introduced
+exclusively for the manufacture of _Taffia_,[19] there exist at present as
+many as 1500 sugar factories, producing annually, on an average, 200,000
+hogsheads of sugar. The planter of Madeira is not, as in Lousiana, obliged
+by the frost to cut the cane before it is ripe; there it ripens
+thoroughly, blooms in January, and is harvested in March.
+
+[Footnote 19: A beverage resembling brandy in taste, much liked in the West
+Indies.]
+
+The motive power of the sugar-mills is mostly water and steam. There are
+also a dozen large distilleries at work, possessing the most modern
+English improvements. An acre of land, planted with sugar-cane, is said to
+yield from 100 to 120 Spanish piastres, a result for the landowner more
+profitable than that arising from the cultivation of the vine, even in its
+best days.
+
+As regards the culture of cotton, for which the climate and soil are
+peculiarly suitable, no attempt has as yet been made. The same remark
+applies to olive trees; though the Government ordered the latter to be
+planted so long ago as 1768. The cultivation of tobacco, however, is
+prevented from extending, being a government monopoly. As for wheat, it
+is not produced in sufficient quantity to meet one quarter of the
+consumption of the inhabitants. In the year 1854, wheat, to the amount of
+216,918 bushels, was imported from the north of Africa alone, a quantity
+nearly twice as great as that which the island produces. Wheat and maize,
+or Indian corn, are also imported from the Azores, and some ports of the
+Mediterranean; an importation which is likely rather to increase than
+decrease.
+
+The potato belongs to that small class of vegetables which grow at
+considerable elevations, and, by proper irrigation and dressing of the
+ground, three harvests may be obtained in the course of the year.
+
+The Inhame [not the Yam (_Dioscorea alata_) of the West Indies and South
+America, but a kind of grume (_Colocasia esculenta_)] grows in large
+quantities near to rivers and water conduits, where the ground is humid.
+It is much sought for by the people, on account of its cheapness, though
+rather a coarse kind of food, which, as Cordeyro naively says, "picao
+algum tanto na garganta" (scratches the throat).
+
+Sweet potatoes (_Convolvulus edulis_, Lin.), water-melons, gourds, as well
+as all kinds of European garden vegetables, are found throughout the year
+in the market, though not of a particularly good quality. Oranges, lemons,
+bananas, guavas, pine-apples, figs, apricots, and peaches, are abundant
+during the summer season, and on higher ground even apple and pear-trees
+are to be met with.
+
+On the "Desertas," three uninhabited little islands south-east of
+Madeira, and belonging to it, there grows on the rocks the orchilla
+(_Rocella tinctoria_), a species of lichen, celebrated for yielding a fine
+purple colour, much used in dyeing. Considering the great importance for
+industrial purposes of this lichen, it might, with some care, be
+advantageously grown in Madeira. Formerly there was a small quantity
+brought to market, and sold for 14,000 reis the quintal. At the present
+time the yield has entirely ceased, though it is found in large quantities
+in the neighbouring islands. It is considered not to be of such good
+quality as that of the Azores, where, as is the case with all lichens,
+that grow in more southern and warmer climates, it is of a better quality,
+and more highly esteemed.
+
+The product, however, which hitherto has yielded the largest profit to the
+natives, and made the name of Madeira famous and familiar, even to those
+who do not profess a particular interest in the beauties of nature in this
+romantic island, is its _wine_. Though this article of exportation has,
+through the vine disease, entirely lost its former importance, yet it may
+be of some interest to take a glance at its history and culture, in order
+the better to comprehend the magnitude of the calamities that have
+overwhelmed the people of Madeira, in consequence of the bad vintages of
+the last seven years.
+
+The vine was introduced from Cyprus, almost at the same time with the
+sugar-cane, under the auspices of Prince Henry of Portugal, in 1425, but
+its culture did not attain much importance till the beginning of the
+sixteenth century. Some authors even suppose that the wine of Madeira owes
+its reputation chiefly to those plants which were, at a much later date,
+imported by the Jesuits from Candia. This much is certain, that the
+produce grown on the estates of the Jesuits greatly surpassed in quality
+all others in the island, and maintained a higher price in the market even
+when those estates had changed hands. The grape ripens in the north at an
+elevation of 2700 feet, but such as are fitted for the manufacture of
+wine, grow only as high as the Curral das Freiras (2080 feet).
+
+Hitherto four sorts of vines have been cultivated in the island, namely,
+the _Bual_ and _Tinta_, both of which were brought from Burgundy, the
+_Sercial_ from the Rhine, and the _Malvasia_ or _Malmsey_ from Candia.
+There are four species of the last-mentioned, (_candila_, _roxa_,
+_babosa_, and _propea_); the delicious flavour of which by many people is
+considered to have a great similarity with the Hungarian _Tokayer_. The
+most esteemed sorts were grown west of Funchal, near Cama de Lobos, and
+Estreita. Excellent qualities were grown also at Santa Cruz, on the north
+side of the island, and the valleys near Ponta da Cruz; in general,
+however, the grape of the northern district proved to be of inferior
+quality, and was therefore only used in the manufacture of rum. In the
+north the vines were trained on chestnut trees, but in the south, as in
+Lombardy and the Tyrol, in festoons, supported by a kind of cane (_Arundo
+sagittata_), and tied up by a species of willow (_Salex rubra_),
+specially cultivated for that purpose.
+
+Though nearly a fifth of the cultivated portion of the island was thus
+planted, yet the individual vineyards were but small in extent, the
+largest of them not exceeding three or four acres. In the wine-growing
+countries of Europe fresh plants are set at least every twenty years; but
+in Madeira they are allowed to remain in the ground so long as they yield
+any fruit. The native growers do not relish improvements; of all the
+agricultural implements which some English landowners, settled near
+Funchal, wished to introduce, the garden-rake alone was adopted by these
+enemies of innovation. The vineyards of Madeira were usually let out to
+farmers (_caseiros_), and rarely cultivated by the proprietors themselves.
+The yield of an acre was estimated at from one to three pipes. In 1848 the
+cost of producing a pipe of Madeira amounted to from 12 to 40 Spanish
+piastres. In the same year the total production of the island amounted to
+30,000 pipes, of which only 10,000 were exported, as the inferior sorts,
+not keeping well, are not suited for the foreign markets. Of the wines
+exported, half went to Russia and the Baltic provinces, the other,
+comprising the best kinds, were sent to England, the West Indies, and the
+United States. Up to the year 1851, when the last good vintage occurred,
+the price of a pipe varied from 12 to 14 Spanish piastres. So late as
+1845, when the Danish corvette _Galatea_, on her voyage round the world
+for scientific purposes, put in at this island, the inferior sorts were
+so cheap that Captain Steen Bille considered it more profitable to supply
+the crew with wine mixed with water than beer. Since that time prices have
+become ten times higher, and the best quality now sells for from L110 to
+L150 a pipe, and will doubtless rise in proportion as the older stores are
+exhausted.
+
+Though the yield of the vine had been decreasing, year after year, for a
+considerable time, yet the actual vine disease only made its appearance in
+1852, when the leaves and fruit were covered with a kind of fungus
+(_Oidium Tuckeri_),[20] like a white dust. The Portuguese Government sent a
+commission for the purpose of investigating the causes of the calamity.
+The report[21] is not decisive on the point, whether the fungus is the real
+cause or only a symptom of the disease, nor does it offer any advice as to
+how it may be checked. Dr. Hermann Schacht,[22] who resided during a period
+of 18 months in the island, and has published a valuable treatise, states
+that the vine-disease appears there in the same form as in Germany, even
+as regards the season, which is soon after the blossom disappears. At
+first the young leaf is covered with a whitish matter, chiefly on its
+lower side; it then assumes a crumpled appearance, becomes spotted, and
+at last decays. The young diseased grape likewise becomes covered with a
+white dust, at first partially, and then entirely, the green skin by
+degrees assuming a brown colour, the grape increasing at same time in
+size, until it as large as a currant, or a small cherry, when it becomes
+black, and perishes together with its diseased stock. In this decayed
+condition the grapes remain on the vine till late in the autumn. Dr.
+Schacht was successful in arresting the progress of the disease in its
+earlier stages, by washing all parts of the plant with a solution
+consisting of one part of glue to sixteen parts of water; an operation
+which had been likewise performed with good effect in the Royal hothouses
+of Sans-souci in Prussia. He rubbed the leaves and grapes infected by the
+fungus with this solution, and, where possible, dipped the grapes in it.
+The solution very soon dried, and gave the grapes and leaves a glossy
+appearance. All that had once been operated upon in this way remained in a
+healthy condition, and even those affected by the fungus recovered beneath
+the crust, the operation thus seeming to afford a protection against the
+fungus. The practice of strewing the plant over with powdered sulphur,
+which was so much lauded, seems to be of little use. At Teneriffe, Dr.
+Schacht found the fungus widely spread, notwithstanding the application of
+sulphur. Keeping the grape close upon the ground is also recommended as a
+protection against the disease, having proved very successful in the
+south.
+
+[Footnote 20: Vide Botanical Gazette of 1852, page 9; of 1853, page 583;
+and of 1854, page 137;--Fulasne, "Sur le Champignon, qui cause la Maladie
+de la Vigne."--_Comptes Rendus_, vol. xxvii. 1853;--Dr. Schacht on
+Madeira, pages 52 to 58.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Memoria primero sobre a mangra e doenza das vinhas nas ilhas
+da Madeira e Porto Santo, por Joao de Andrade Corvo. Lisbon. 1854.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Madeira und Teneriffa mit ihrer Vegetation, &c. Von Dr. H.
+Schacht. Berlin. 1859.]
+
+The pecuniary loss sustained since the first appearance of the malady
+amounted in the autumn of 1852 to 1,137,990 Spanish piastres, L190,000,[23]
+and after having waited in vain a period of five years, for a better state
+of things, the impoverished landowners entirely gave up cultivating the
+vine. A traveller who chances now to visit Madeira can scarcely believe
+that but a few years ago the greater portion of the island was covered
+with the plant. The cause of its disappearance must, however, not be
+ascribed entirely to the disease, but partly also to the utter neglect of
+its culture in favour of that of other products, so much so that of late
+it was scarcely possible to procure a sufficient quantity of grapes for
+invalids to whom they were medicinally prescribed. Moreover, the sugar
+plantations, which annually increase in extent, have contributed to the
+destruction of the vines, as the former require irrigation, which causes
+the roots of the latter to rot in the humid ground.[24]
+
+[Footnote 23: The quantity of wine produced amounted, in the year 1851, to
+10,374 pipes; in the following year (1852), only to 1413-1/2 pipes.]
+
+[Footnote 24: The vine disease seems, however, to have been already
+prevalent in Madeira at a former period. In an old lease, referring to
+land or property in the west of the island, there is a clause to the
+effect that "In the event of the young grape being covered with mildew
+(_mangra_), the contract would be null and void." In Portugal also, the
+disease is said to have existed more than fifty years ago, though not to a
+great extent.]
+
+The present situation of the people of Madeira claims alike the sympathies
+of the philanthropist and the attention of the political economist. We
+here behold a population of upwards of a hundred thousand souls, deprived
+at once of a product, which has been for more than three centuries the
+principal means of obtaining their living, and by which many an
+industrious grower made a considerable fortune.
+
+The farmer of Madeira, accustomed for generations to this branch of
+industry, is now forced to apply his energies to another, on the fortunate
+selection of which will depend his welfare for the future, or at least for
+years to come.
+
+Some of the wealthier growers have not entirely abandoned the culture of
+the vine, and have been assisted in their endeavours by the Consul of the
+United States in Funchal, the liberal-minded Mr. Marsh; experiments were
+made by engrafting and setting fresh and healthy plants, brought from the
+banks of the Ohio. They proceeded on the principle, that it is most
+advisable, and likely to be productive of the best success, to obtain
+young plants only from countries where the disease has never appeared. The
+choice fell upon the Isabella and Catawba grapes, which are indigenous to
+the United States; and, whatever may be the final success, the merit of
+transplanting, at a considerable expense, these two North-American grapes
+to Madeira, is due to Mr. Marsh. It is, however, a question, whether they
+will be able to replace those hitherto cultivated, the conditions of
+climate and soil being so different. As is well known, none of the
+European vines succeed in North America; and the two indigenous sorts,
+which are grown in great quantities on the banks of the Ohio and the
+Missouri, cannot stand a comparison with any of our finer kinds. The juice
+of the American grapes is best suited for the manufacture of what is
+called sparkling hock, which is very like the Austrian Schaumwein.
+
+Some of the wealthier landowners formed an association for the purpose of
+introducing the culture of cochineal, to supply the place of that of the
+vine. Several plantations of nopal, or cactus, were laid out, and the
+first harvest was gathered in 1858. The nopal (_Opuntia cochinillifera_)
+is the only kind of cactus on which the cochineal insect breeds, and the
+south of the island, up to an elevation of 500 feet, the only part adapted
+for its cultivation. An attempt was made to introduce the culture of
+cochineal in the island by Senor Miguel de Carvalho, as far back as 1836.
+But the indifference of the people, and their prejudices against
+innovation, as well as the limited spirit of enterprise possessed by the
+native merchants, rendered the attempt, in that instance, abortive. In
+consequence, however, of the vine disease, the idea of cultivating
+cochineal was resumed, without considering, as it would appear, the
+probable results in a mercantile point of view. At the time of our visit
+there were about thirty acres of land planted with cactus, and the "seed"
+of the cochineal insect was expected from the Canary Islands. One cannot
+but think the notion of substituting the cultivation of cochineal for that
+of the vine was not a lucky one, the large capital required, and the
+limited market for the article, holding out small chance of success. The
+entire consumption of cochineal in the whole world amounts to no more than
+about 30,000 quintals, and towards this quantity, Guatemala furnishes
+15,000, the Canary Islands 6000, Mexico 8000, Java and the Philippine
+Islands together 1000 quintals. There is little prospect, therefore, that
+the cochineal culture of Madeira will ever become an important source of
+gain, or advantageously compensate for the loss of the vine. Few
+landowners in the island seem to possess sufficient means to withstand the
+chances and fluctuations to which its culture is subject. To illustrate
+this, it may be mentioned, that during our visit to the highlands of
+Guatemala, in 1854, when the cochineal harvest was bad, the tercio (150
+lbs.) of cochineal cost 140 Spanish piastres. In the following year, when
+it was unusually productive, the price declined to 80 piastres. A tercio
+of dried cochineal costs the grower, or nopalero, about 50 piastres; a
+nopal plantation must lie fallow every third year, being consequently only
+productive during two years. Have the landowners of Madeira considered all
+these disadvantages, and will they be able to bear all the drawbacks
+peculiar to the culture of cochineal? The climate and soil seem to hold
+out far greater advantages for the cultivation of the sugar-cane, coffee,
+cotton, and tobacco.
+
+There are few spots on the earth's surface which possess a climate so
+delightful, and so little subject to extremes as Madeira, the mean annual
+temperature being 64 degrees Fahrenheit, or only 5 degrees higher than in
+the most southern parts of Europe. The lowest temperature during five
+years' observation was 50 degrees, the highest, 74. An invalid residing at
+Funchal, within his own doors, may always have a temperature not lower
+than 64, nor higher than 74 degrees. Violent siroccos occur in the course
+of the summer, which drive the thermometer up to 90 degrees in the shade;
+these storms, however, occur only twice or thrice a year, and rarely last
+longer than a couple of days. Dr. Renton, who lived in Madeira from 1825
+to 1831, only once during all that time saw the thermometer marking 90
+degrees, two hours after sunset. The rainy season, marked by west and
+south-west winds, begins at the end of September or the beginning of
+October. In November the weather clears up, and generally keeps fine till
+the end of December. At this period snow falls on the mountains, and rain
+at Funchal, accompanied by north-westerly winds, lasting till about the
+end of February, during which time the weather is wet. The remainder of
+the year is comparatively dry, the annual fall of rain at Madeira
+amounting, according to Sir James Clark,[25] to 36 inches, there being in
+all about 73 wet days,[26] whilst at Rome, for instance, it rains, on an
+average, during 117 days, though the amount of rain-fall is only 29
+inches.
+
+[Footnote 25: On the Sanative Influence of the Climate of Madeira. By Sir
+James Clark. London. 1841.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The fall of rain, according to Dr. Hoberdon's observations,
+is, on a seven years' average, 30.62 inches per annum. Dr. Mittermayr,
+from Heidelberg, states, on a three years' average, the rainy days to be
+95 per year. Johnston, in his Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, states
+the fall of rain on an average to be 29.82 inches, and the number of rainy
+days 100 per annum, viz. 48 in the winter, 17 in the spring, 4 in the
+summer, and 31 in the autumn.]
+
+In some respects the winter is warmer at Madeira than the summer, owing to
+the north-westerly winds and the regular sea-breezes of that season,
+which keep the atmosphere continually at an even temperature; and hence
+the island is the favourite resort of consumptive patients during the
+winter season. England, which seems to possess the very unenviable
+privilege of furnishing to the annual mortality in Europe the most
+numerous contingent of phthisical patients, provides this island likewise
+with the greatest number of this, the most to be pitied of all classes of
+patients. The climate of Madeira will, however, be of little benefit in
+advanced and decided cases; although it seems to have a curative effect on
+young people in the first stage of the malady, as well as in cases where,
+being hereditary, its presence is merely apprehended.
+
+The number of strangers who annually, during the winter, resort to Madeira
+for the benefit of their health, amounts to from 400 to 500, and the money
+thereby circulated in the island reaches the sum of about L30,000. The
+number of English alone in the year 1855 was 285. But in the winter of
+1856-57, the English invalids who came to Madeira scarcely reached 100.
+The reason of this was another calamity, the cholera, which suddenly made
+its appearance in Funchal on the 4th of July, 1856. Until this epoch, the
+island had been spared this devastating scourge of our time. The epidemic
+is said to have been introduced by a detachment of Portuguese troops,
+which shortly before had arrived from Lisbon, where cholera was then
+raging. The circumstances under which this epidemic appeared in Madeira
+leave little doubt of the correctness of this supposition, and seem to
+confirm the view of Professor Pettenkofer,[27] relative to the importation
+of the disease by ships, and its propagation by human excrements, a theory
+advanced by this learned German physician in his famous work, with as much
+soundness as sagacity.
+
+The first individuals attacked were four soldiers of the 1st battalion of
+infantry, and the first who fell a victim to the epidemic was a boatman,
+who had landed some of the soldiers from the steamer. He was attacked on
+the 7th of July, at 1 P.M., and nine hours afterwards was a corpse. A few
+weeks later the scourge had spread over the whole island, raging with
+fatal severity, in consequence of the poverty, distress, and helplessness
+of the inhabitants. We cannot forbear mentioning a phenomenon observed at
+the time of the first appearance of the pestilence by Major Dom Pedro de
+Azevedo, one of the most distinguished men in Funchal. According to the
+observations regularly made by him, during two years, with reference to
+the quantity of ozone[28] contained in the atmosphere, he found that, as
+long as the pestilence was raging, it scarcely amounted to 2, whilst,
+under normal circumstances, the quantity, according to the ozonometer of
+Schoenbein, is said to reach 6 to 7.
+
+[Footnote 27: Dr. Pettenkofer's Investigations and Observations on the
+Spread of Cholera. Munich. 1855.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Ozone, or oxygen in an allotropic condition, is found in more
+perceptible quantity in pure localities than in those where great
+quantities of putrescent substances are accumulated, as the ozone
+disappears by oxidation. Observations on the quantity of ozone contained
+in the air during an epidemic are, therefore, of great interest, because
+they may throw a light on the influences of the atmosphere in the
+propagation of certain diseases.]
+
+In the beginning of October the malady gradually began to decrease, the
+last case which happened on the island occurring at Funchal, on the 16th
+December, 1856. It appears, from official reports, that out of a
+population of 102,837 souls, 7041 fell victims to the epidemic; other
+statements, that seem not less reliable, even raise the number of fatal
+cases to a much larger figure. A variety of local circumstances tended to
+heighten the fearful violence of the epidemic: the great distress among
+the people, arising from the deficiency of the vintages during several
+years; the potato disease, which occurred in the summer of 1856, and
+deprived the population, whilst suffering from other calamities, of one of
+their most important means of sustenance; and finally, to bring
+misfortunes to a climax, even that source of gain was dried up which the
+people derived from the temporary residence of numerous wealthy families.
+Terrified by the reports which were in circulation as to the ravages
+caused by the cholera at Madeira, hundreds altered their original plan of
+passing the winter there, and even resident strangers, horror-stricken,
+left the island, which had been so suddenly converted from a paradise into
+a burial-ground. The loss arising from the latter cause is estimated at
+L20,000, an immense sum at a time when pestilence and famine were raging
+so fiercely. The British Government, as well as English philanthropists in
+general, deserve the highest praise for the liberality with which they
+promptly and generously hastened to the assistance of the sufferers. Soon
+as intelligence of the great distress arrived in London, two steamers of
+war, the _Salamander_ and _Hesper_, with provisions, medicine, clothing,
+bedding, and money, were despatched to Funchal, where the former arrived
+on the 18th and the latter on the 31st of October, 1856. This assistance
+essentially contributed to the rapid extinction of the epidemic, as it
+sufficed to relieve the more pressing wants.[29] Considerable contributions
+arrived also from the United States; and, according to public statements,
+the relief that came from foreign countries amounted to L8895.
+
+[Footnote 29: Old chronicles report that Madeira has been visited by a
+pestilential disease, that raged within the years 1521 to 1535. But the
+cholera was never in the island before the year 1856. The yellow fever is
+altogether unknown.]
+
+The commerce of the island was, as a matter of course, seriously affected
+by such a train of calamities. The principal exports had hitherto
+consisted of wine, cattle, fruit, and wicker-work; the first and most
+important of these articles--wine--had, as already stated, all but
+entirely disappeared from the list for several years, the small quantities
+still exported being merely the remnants of old stocks.
+
+According to custom-house registers, the entire value of the produce
+exported in 1851 amounted to L164,960, of which L96,950 were shipped in
+English, L26,500 in American, and L16,650 in Portuguese vessels. The
+exports of 1855 were only L95,470, and in 1855, when the wine export had
+entirely ceased, the value did not exceed L2400!
+
+The imports were of a more numerous and varied description; calico, cotton
+and woollen goods, hardware, spices and provisions from England; timber,
+salt meat, and other articles from the United States; grain from the
+Mediterranean and the Black Sea; and sugar, coffee, oil, rice, and other
+colonial produce from Lisbon and the Portuguese settlements. The commerce
+is almost entirely in the hands of the English,[30] whose liberality during
+the cholera epidemic has much raised them in the estimation of the
+inhabitants.
+
+[Footnote 30: Three-fifths of the 50,000 tons annually imported are
+_English_ manufactures.]
+
+The absence of a regular banking establishment is much felt by the trading
+community, particularly in times of temporary distress. Singularly enough
+there are few Portuguese coins to be met with, and even these are not
+liked by the inhabitants. The moneys chiefly in circulation are English
+and American gold and silver coins, French five-franc pieces, and Spanish
+dollars. The sailing vessels in the roads of Funchal are mostly under
+English and American flags. The steamers which keep up the intercourse
+between Europe and the Brazils call regularly at Funchal for mails and
+passengers,[31] and a steam-packet arrives regularly every fortnight on its
+way from Europe to South America.
+
+[Footnote 31: An English coal depot has been established in Funchal since
+1848.]
+
+The trade carried on under ordinary circumstances is, as we have seen, by
+no means inconsiderable, and by proper management might enable the people
+to extricate themselves from their present depressed position; but though
+not exactly lazy, they are entirely deficient in the energy requisite for
+effectively improving their condition. Whenever they have enough of yams
+and potatoes, they no longer think of exerting themselves or of acquiring
+a more comfortable or independent mode of existence. Neither in Ireland,
+nor in the Silesian mountains, nor even amongst the Indians in North or
+South America, have we witnessed such a degree of poverty and wretchedness
+as we beheld among the labouring classes in the mountainous districts of
+this island. On entering a village, shoals of haggard-looking beggars
+covered with rags were seen, whose features indicated their unhealthy way
+of living, and an utter lack of the most common necessaries of life. The
+calamities of the last five years have certainly contributed to this
+excess of misery, and a traveller who visited Madeira twenty years ago,
+may have carried away with him quite a different impression of its
+inhabitants.
+
+The race inhabiting the island, notwithstanding some favourable
+exceptions, is rather unprepossessing and decrepit, owing to the elements
+of which it is composed. The first settlers, as already stated, belonged
+by no means to the better classes of Portugal, but consisted of a motley
+assemblage of ruffians, who came to the newly-discovered island merely in
+search of adventure. The admixture which afterwards took place with the
+black race imported from Africa, materially contributed to deteriorate the
+people both physically and morally. Though there is not one single pure
+negro in the whole island, yet the features of a considerable proportion
+of the inhabitants denote their African descent. In the population of
+Punta da Sol, a village on the west side of the island, the negro type is
+said to be exhibited in its strongest character.
+
+The dress of the native is extremely simple; a pair of white trowsers, a
+shirt, and linen jacket, constitute the entire toilette; with a few rare
+exceptions we never saw shoes: but even the poorest of the poor wears a
+curiously-shaped small cloth cap (_carapuca_) of a blue colour, with red
+lining, terminating in an erect pointed tail, six inches long. This seems
+to be a remnant of a turbaned head-dress, worn formerly by the inhabitants
+of the African coast, with whom the first settlers, allured by the
+slave-trade, once carried on an active intercourse.
+
+[Illustration: CARAPUCA, OR CAP WORN BY THE NATIVES OF MADEIRA.]
+
+Many of the inhabitants of Funchal obtain their livelihood by acting as
+guides to strangers. The roads being very steep, and formed of pointed
+stones, horses of an excellent breed are used in going even short
+distances; however fast the visitors may gallop, the guide follows the
+horses on foot, to which the natives are habituated from their earliest
+years. This practice is undoubtedly one of the principal causes of
+consumptive complaints, which are more frequently met with here than might
+have been expected considering the climate, though bad nourishment and
+unhealthy dwellings may have their part in causing the prevalence of the
+malady. The common people are mostly lodged in small low cabins of wood or
+timber, thatched with straw, the only opening being the door, through
+which air and light are admitted. Their sleeping-places are wooden
+benches, covered with straw, raised only one or two feet from a ground
+which, during nine months of the year, is damp.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to state that the wealthier classes offer a more
+pleasing aspect. They are extremely obliging, kind, and attentive towards
+strangers, and evidently endeavour to impress the visitor with favourable
+ideas of themselves and the island. To the hospitality of the Austrian
+Consul, as well as to Major P. A. de Azevedo and Don Juan Muniz, so
+deservedly celebrated for his knowledge of the flora of Madeira, the
+members of the _Novara_ expedition are indebted for many a happy and
+delightful hour.
+
+The population is perceptibly on the decrease. The causes are emigration
+to the British West Indies, and devastation by the cholera. The number of
+inhabitants in the two islands, in 1836, amounted to 115,446; in 1854, to
+103,296; and in 1855, to only 102,183. The emigrants during the last
+twenty-five years (1835 to 1860) are said to have amounted to 40,000, many
+of whom depart secretly, in order to avoid the heavy emigration tax.
+
+Numerous benevolent institutions indicate the charitable disposition of
+the inhabitants. The hospital, or Santa Casa de Misericordia, standing in
+a beautiful square, planted with planes and magnolias, can receive 104
+patients, and is exceedingly well managed. It appears, however, rather
+singular that the surgical are separated from the medical cases, whilst no
+separation exists amongst the patients who may happen to be labouring
+under contagious diseases. The most frequently recurring diseases are
+cutaneous, a circumstance which need excite no surprise in a country where
+the natives pay so little attention to the cleanliness of their bodies,
+and where Government itself favours as it were this carelessness by
+levying a considerable tax upon the importation of soap! Dysentery
+prevails throughout the year; intermittent fever and inflammatory diseases
+occur more rarely; but apoplectic cases are at times very numerous. The
+nominal amount of the funds of the hospital is estimated at L40,000; the
+annual income being about L1800 sterling.
+
+The hospital for lepers is fitted up for the reception of about forty
+patients, most of whom come from places in which the black has least mixed
+with the white race.
+
+The workhouse, for 230 paupers, was founded in 1847 by public
+subscription, and has an annual income of from 3000 to 4000 piastres.
+
+The nunnery of St. Isabel, for the reception of female orphans, was
+erected as early as 1726. Great care is taken of the education of the
+inmates, who are not permitted to leave the establishment, except in case
+of getting married or respectably employed.
+
+Foundlings, of whom, in one single year, 839 were maintained by the
+commune of Funchal, are given out to nurse; and there has been a most
+singular expedient adopted, in order to prevent abuse as regards obtaining
+the board money, which amounts to about one piastre a month, for each. A
+piece of tape is put round the infant's neck, the two ends of which are
+fastened with a lead seal, and stamped, so that, in the event of death, it
+cannot be taken off and put on another child's neck. The witnessing of the
+process of fastening and stamping this necklace is most unpleasant,
+although no real pain is inflicted on the child.
+
+In the year 1855 there existed in the entire island twelve elementary
+schools, attended by about 200 scholars, and likewise forty-nine Sunday
+schools, having about 2400 pupils. Funchal also possesses a college, with
+six professors and 120 students, an ecclesiastical seminary for
+twenty-four pupils, and a medical school, with four professors, which,
+however, during the year of our visit, had only seven students. Though the
+Government is very rigid in exacting the attendance of the children at
+school, yet only about a seventh part of the whole number living in the
+island really avail themselves of the benefit.
+
+A hospital for the consumptive is now in course of erection, at the
+expense of the Empress dowager of the Brazils, as a memorial of her
+daughter, who, in 1853, died of this disease on the island.
+
+There exist several public libraries and book societies at Funchal; and in
+several of the clubs a great many of the leading English, French, Spanish,
+Portuguese, and German journals, are to be found. Four weekly papers, in
+the Portuguese language, are published at Funchal. The first newspaper
+ever published there was the _Patriota Funchalense_, the first number of
+which appeared on the 2nd of June, 1821.
+
+[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF MADEIRA.]
+
+The public buildings offer little to attract notice; the churches are
+insignificant, and even the cathedral, a building in the Basilica style,
+is in no way remarkable otherwise than by the innumerable garlands and
+nosegays, offerings of pious devotees, which as it were transform its
+interior into a fragrant temple of flowers.
+
+That which was once a Jesuit monastery, has been now converted into a
+barrack, in which the whole garrison of the island, amounting to 400 men,
+are lodged. The daily pay of these soldiers amounts to 20 reis, or about
+one penny!
+
+An ordinary dwelling-house has lately been converted into a town gaol, in
+which the prisoners are very humanely treated. Passers-by may have an
+undisturbed talk with them through the lattice-work; and once we even
+observed a man who had thrust his foot through the iron bars, in order to
+have his measure taken by one of the inmates for a pair of shoes!
+
+The charms of beautiful walks, and a most enchanting neighbourhood,
+enhance the pleasantness of the climate of Funchal so much resorted to by
+invalids. In the interior of the town, not far from the sea-shore,
+splendid avenues of magnificent planes, large-flowered magnolias, and
+massive oaks, form delightful promenades, and afford repose and shade on
+numerous seats under the dense foliage of their wide-spreading branches.
+
+Seated on a gently-ambling steed, one may reach most pleasantly the
+summits of those lofty mountains, which rise close to Funchal, where a
+balmy fragrance perfumes the air, and the eye roams with delight in all
+directions over scenery of the most striking description.
+
+One of the favourite points from which such a view may be obtained in all
+its beauty, is the terrace in front of the church of Nossa Senhora de
+Monte, situated 1965 feet above the level of the sea, on a ridge of the
+Arrebantao mountain, reached in less than an hour by one or other of the
+existing conveyances; these are either horses, or hammocks and
+sedan-chairs, or sledges, covered with tasteful canopies, and drawn by a
+couple of small oxen.
+
+[Illustration: SLEIGH PARTY IN MADEIRA.]
+
+Though a vehicle, reminding one so strongly of a northern winter, appears
+rather odd in a climate such as that of Madeira, yet its practicability
+and convenience is very soon perceived, when comfortably sliding away over
+the smooth stones of Funchal. Wheel carriages, such as used in Europe, are
+unknown here.
+
+But he who has bodily strength and health enough to be able to wander
+through the interior of the island, will find spots which command
+landscapes by far more grand and sublime than that seen from Nossa Senhora
+de Monte. Cape San Lorenzo, with its petrified fauna;--the awe-inspiring
+Entroza pass, that wonderful sculpture of nature which bears so powerful a
+witness to the corroding action of water;--the lovely and solitary cascade
+of Rabacal;--the Pic Arrieiro, with its craggy rocks, offering to the
+geologist such a remarkable peep into the geognostical history of the
+island;--the numerous gigantic rocky skeletons of volcanic cones, on which
+the geologist is able to make the most interesting studies and
+investigations, just in the same manner as the anatomist on a corpse;--all
+these wonders of nature are calculated to awaken the reflection and excite
+the admiration of the beholder.
+
+The most delightful event during our stay in the island was an excursion
+of several days, made to the romantic localities of the northern coast. A
+stately cavalcade of twenty-two horsemen set out, early on a fine June
+morning, from Funchal to Nossa Senhora, and from thence over the Pic
+Poizo, through the glens of Metade to St. Anna. After a ride of two hours,
+the Casa de Abrigo was reached, a small house, situated about 4500 feet
+above the level of the sea, erected by the Government some years ago for
+the shelter of travellers. From this point the path runs through a hilly
+country covered with heath, from which the majestic Pico Ruivo, with the
+fantastic forms of its rugged volcanic walls bathed in gold by the rays of
+the rising sun, presents a most imposing sight. On the whole route only
+one small miserable village, called Fayal, was passed, consisting of a few
+straw thatched huts, exhibiting a picture of poverty and wretchedness,
+which can scarcely be paralleled in any part of the habitable globe.
+
+[Illustration: VILLAGE OF FAYAL.]
+
+At last, after a ride of eight hours, we reached St. Anna, an extensive
+village, with a large church and some brick buildings prettily situated in
+flower-gardens, the most stately of which was--the inn. The good cheer and
+repose found here for a few hours of the night, compensated in some degree
+for the fatigues of the past day, and prepared us for those to be
+encountered on the morrow.
+
+The frequent fogs prevalent in Madeira during the month of June, render it
+indispensable to start early in the morning, if the traveller wishes to
+enjoy the beauties of the scenery. At 2 A.M., therefore, our cavalcade
+set out, followed by a host of boys and porters carrying provisions and
+instruments for observations. Nature was still buried in sleep, the air
+quiet and motionless; the full moon, shedding her pallid light over sea
+and mountain, feebly shadowed forth the outlines of the hedges and bushes
+of roses, fuchsias, and hortensias, that lined the narrow path, and
+brought out dimly in faint relief the ghost-like white figures which,
+standing at the doors of their poor cabins, looked inquisitively at the
+riders, that were already so early on their way. The path led up to the
+mountains in steep and numerous windings, sometimes on soft ground through
+ravines, sometimes on solid basalt, or over the uneven surface of
+indurated lava. And when at last, emerging from deep glens, steep
+precipices, and rocky walls, all yet buried in the shades of night, the
+blue star-spangled sky burst upon us in all its beauty and grandeur, the
+effect was almost overpowering. A faint glimmer of light appeared on the
+distant horizon, masses of vapour moved over the ocean, and rising mists
+gathering into clouds, undulated like the surface of an agitated sea. It
+was only along the ridges of mountains and through the ravines, that one
+might glance between mist and land down to the calm boundless expanse of
+water at our feet.
+
+At 4 o'clock a halt was made near a solitary hut, called Choupana, at a
+height of 4400 feet, when the horsemen dismounted, and left their horses
+behind, preferring to reach on foot the termination of their journey.
+
+[Illustration: EL HOMEM EM PE.]
+
+We had just climbed up some steep basalt rock and reached an open spot,
+when the first rays of the sun tinged the eastern sky. Beaming in all his
+majesty on the sharply-defined clouds that hovered beneath, they sparkled
+like so many ice-capped peaks of Alpine glaciers; and when the great
+luminary ascended higher, distributing mingled light and shade in such
+gradations of tint as only Nature's cunning hand can mingle, the chaotic
+masses of vapour assumed the appearance of gigantic islands and lofty
+towering mountains, whilst a chorus of feathered songsters rung cheerfully
+out from the depths of the wooded valleys. The path wound along a
+precipitous declivity, grown over with tangled Til-trees, past a group of
+basaltic columns, which rose isolated to a height of 40 feet above the
+beautiful grassy carpet that clothes the ground, and in the crevices of
+which an old laurel, the last of its genus at this height, had taken root.
+The natives call this singularly-shaped group _Homem em pe_, or the man
+standing erect.
+
+Arrived at an open space of meadow ground, the Barreiro, or Encumiada
+Caixa, a gigantic rocky ridge, suddenly rises to a prodigious height, from
+a frightful abyss of almost fathomless depth. We now hastened across a
+plain covered with lava, to the rough basaltic summit of the Encumiada
+Alta. Safe on an eminence[32] above yawning gulfs, beneath a deep blue sky,
+in the brilliancy of a lovely morning sun, we abandoned ourselves to the
+thrilling impressions of the magnificent picture which nature here brought
+forth of earth, rock, and manifold vegetation. Towards the south an
+immense mountain ridge, with serried peaks (called Torres and Torinhas),
+rises to a height of 6000 feet, declining almost imperceptibly on the left
+hand, whilst on the right it descends abruptly in terraces, with
+perpendicular walls of rocks 1000 feet in height, connected by an
+inaccessible ridge with the imposing, stupendous, cupola-shaped summit of
+the Pico Ruivo. All this is disclosed to the eye within a radius of little
+more than two miles. Deep clefts and ravines run from the rocky crevices,
+and unite in a gloomy and profound abyss of 3000 feet, which forms the
+mouth of the ravine of Ribeiro Secco. Similiar chasms open to the right
+and to the left, and when they are too distant to be distinguished by the
+eye, dark shadows rising on the rocky walls indicate the deep crater-like
+basin of the Curral, and the gulfs of the Metade river, and the Ribeiro
+Frio. It would seem as if the whole island has, in a series of fearful
+convulsions, burst from a single central point in all directions; as if
+entire mountains had sunk into the deep, or had, by the action of torrents
+permeating their crevices, been converted into rubble, and carried as sand
+and fragments into the ocean.
+
+[Footnote 32: 5883 feet, according to the geologist's barometrical
+measurements.]
+
+The summits of the Torres and Torrinhas are nothing but barren naked
+rocks,--not a blade of grass, not a shrub, not a trace of vegetation is to
+be seen. At the highest points, strata nearly horizontal extend in
+remarkably regular layers, chiefly distinguished by the most manifold
+variety of colours and tints.[33] A dark grey schistus of volcanic ashes
+alternates with strongly-marked red, yellow, and violet layers of tufa,
+dross, and scoriae, together with brown and grey conglomerates. Just as red
+predominates on the upper part of these _Torres_, green prevails on the
+lower. From the spot where the springs first issue out of the crevices of
+the basalt, everything seems covered with a dense green carpet. These are
+the celebrated "clefts" of Madeira, in which, even on rocks of 1000 feet
+high, not an inch is to be discovered bare; they afford a rich harvest to
+the botanist, whilst they fill the spectator with delight and admiration.
+
+[Footnote 33: The celebrated American geologist, Mr. Dana, mentions that
+these wild contorted masses of mountain reminded him of the crater-walls
+of the Kilauea at the Sandwich Islands.]
+
+[Illustration: ERICA TREES.]
+
+Generally speaking, the scenery of Madeira does not owe its character to
+the grandeur or magnitude of its trees; the peculiar charm of the
+landscape arises more from grasses, ferns, shrubs, and different kinds of
+moss, all of which grow so rank and luxuriant, that the rocks, chasms, and
+abysses overgrown with them, appear like so many swelling cushions, or as
+if laid with soft velvet carpets in all directions. The different shades
+of green indicate the characteristics of successive zones of vegetation.
+Through the lower parts of the valleys run the beds of those mountain
+waters which, though nearly dried up in the summer, swell in the winter
+into torrents. Along these are scattered the straw-thatched huts of the
+natives, surrounded by vineyards and fields planted with rye, barley,
+potatoes, yams, and in the lower parts with single bananas. These
+cultivated lands rise to a height of 2000 feet, and in many places even to
+3000. Wherever on the steep declivities there is the smallest shelf to be
+found, even if only a square yard in size, it is turned to account. Next
+to this region, in ascending, is that of the brush and laurel woods.
+_Vaccinias_ (blackberries), and different kinds of heath, often attaining
+a growth of five or six feet, occupy the whole of the ground, and in the
+month of June, when the broom is in full flower, a bright golden-coloured
+belt girts Madeira, at a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet. We beheld this
+golden girdle in its richest splendour, set off by the dark masses of
+evergreens in the clefts. Higher up is the true region of the _Erica
+arborea_, which, with its light-green and _paille_ tint, contrasted with
+the deeper colour of the laurel, represents the underwood of our secondary
+mountain ranges. The _Erica arborea_ attains here the height of a large
+tree, and, on some spots, 30 to 40 feet of its gnarled stems stretch along
+the ground. Thus it may be traced, in company with other heaths, to the
+summit of the Pico Ruivo.
+
+After having made some physical observations, and enjoyed a most
+delightful prospect, we re-packed our instruments, filled our boxes and
+pouches with plants and geological specimens, and prepared for our
+departure. The guides, despite their heavy burdens, marched steadily on,
+humming in plaintive cadence their native songs. We soon reached our
+horses, and, penetrating through layers of clouds, rapidly descended the
+steep mountain sides to St. Anna.
+
+A walk on the same evening towards Porto Santo Jorge was not less
+charming than instructive, especially as we gazed on those hardened
+streams of lava, so interesting as regards the geological history of the
+island, out of the numerous crevices of which grew luxuriant magnificent
+rosettes of _Sempervivum_. Fuchsias and heliotropes were gathered from the
+bushes, and each took a share, now with the geological hammer, now with
+the botanical box, or the butterfly-catcher, in the harvest of objects of
+natural history. We passed in this neighbourhood several houses
+delightfully situated, surrounded by hedgerows of luxuriant shrubs and
+splendid native flowers.
+
+In the fine garden of the inn, amidst myrtles, bignonias, euphorbias, and
+fuchsias, was a handsome _Camellia japonica_, which had attained the
+imposing height of 15 feet, with a diameter of 9 inches, the top spreading
+fan-like in numberless branches.
+
+The following morning we returned to Funchal, accompanied by a troop of
+ragged and diseased natives, pertinaciously appealing to our charity.
+Plenteous alms were given them, for where Nature is so prodigal of her
+gifts, the human mind becomes more sensitive and liberal. At noon, we
+again reached the beautiful terrace of Nossa Senhora de Monte, and here
+the excursion was wound up by a diversion of quite a peculiar character;
+for, instead of returning to Funchal on horseback, we slid down a mountain
+1500 feet high, right into the town, on small double-seated wooden
+sledges, thus travelling down what is probably the grandest natural
+_Montagne Russe_ in the world. A train of more than a dozen sledges
+started at the same time. These singular vehicles are guided on either
+side with admirable adroitness by two natives, who avoid slipping by
+moistening their shoes; and, notwithstanding the velocity of these
+conveyances, even slight accidents are unheard of. Sledge parties of this
+kind, being cheap, constitute the most favourite amusement of the people
+of Funchal.
+
+The whole company met together once more at a convivial dinner in the
+hotel, where, agreeably to the custom of the country, not only the room
+and table, but even every single dish served up, was adorned with garlands
+of fragrant flowers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.--TRACK FROM MADEIRA TO RIO DI JANEIRO.]
+
+On the 17th June we again weighed anchor. The intention had originally
+been to steer direct for Rio de Janeiro; but as we learned, two days
+before our departure, that the yellow fever, though on the decrease, had
+not yet entirely ceased, we were in no hurry to arrive at the capital of
+Brazil, and therefore determined to employ the time so gained, in
+investigating the nature of the winds and currents prevalent in these
+latitudes. For though the proper course of ships between England and North
+America has been admirably laid down, for nearly every month of the year,
+by the long-continued ingenious labours of Commander Maury, of the
+Washington Observatory, yet there still exists great difficulty in
+steering sailing vessels from Gibraltar or Madeira to South America, by
+the directions hitherto existing; the more so, as the seafarer in these
+latitudes, close to the limits of the north-east trade-wind, generally
+falls in with variable breezes and frequent calms, caused partly by the
+African coast and partly by the cluster of isles from the Azores to the
+Cape Verde Islands, and which are of still more frequent occurrence in the
+summer of the northern hemisphere.
+
+We kept Madeira, or rather the clouds which, during the summer, gather
+daily round the mountains, a long time in view; and on the 19th, at a
+distance of 120 miles from the island, some persons on board thought they
+could still distinguish them.
+
+We steered at first in a south-westerly direction, with light breezes and
+fine weather. Advancing, however, towards the limits of the trade-winds,
+showers became frequent, and the wind chopped about much oftener; a more
+southerly course was therefore taken, in order to come as soon as possible
+under the influence of the north-easterly trade-winds.
+
+There was now an opportunity of directing attention to the formation of
+the clouds, which, in these latitudes, assume at times very curious
+appearances. The _cirri_ disappeared by degrees, and the _cumuli_ towered
+up on the horizon in colossal masses. These latter are formed under the
+influence of the sun, when most powerful, and are therefore seen chiefly
+during the afternoon. As soon as they rise they vanish by absorption, just
+as fast as they are formed by evaporation from the sea. Rain very rarely
+proceeds from them. The alternation of their shades, tints, and colours,
+is beautiful in the extreme, particularly at sunset, when their outlines,
+as they stand out in bold relief on the clear blue sky, vary in hue from
+the deepest grey to the most brilliant golden yellow.
+
+The nearer the tropics are approached the more does ocean teem with
+animated orgasms. A net cast into it was immediately filled with an
+immense number of little living creatures. Pretty-looking blue cockles,
+sea-nettles, and various other inhabitants of the deep, all of the most
+minute size, lay rolled up in one lump with small sea-weeds of beautiful
+forms and tints, from which those tiny things endeavoured, with great
+exertion, to extricate themselves. The microscope discloses to the
+observer an entirely new world in the economy of nature, as displayed in
+the animal life of the surface of the sea. The entire oceanic creation,
+from the smallest infusoria to the huge whale, are all specially adapted
+to the element in which they exist, and organized to contribute to the
+preservation, as well as the further development, of the whole globe.
+
+This is beautifully illustrated by the operations of the zoophytes; the
+water of rivers dissolves the chalky substances of the land and carries
+them down to the ocean,--immense numbers of these form, for themselves,
+habitations from this matter;--by successive accumulation, produced
+through the action or the dead bodies of these creatures, the ground is
+raised gradually into the reefs, banks, and rocks, so dangerous to
+navigation; or into islands inhabited by man, who, in the development of
+his moral and physical powers, performs his mission in his high position,
+just as definitely as the imperceptible animalcuae do in their narrow
+sphere.
+
+Exceedingly beautiful in the tropic seas are those small _physali_, a
+species of _Acalephae_, known to sailors as "Portuguese men-of-war." They
+sail along by means of their large air-bags, exposed to the wind, whilst
+their numerous long, dark-blue tentacles, like fibres or roots, reach deep
+into the water, extending or contracting in order to secure their food.
+The fringes of these air-bags are of a violet colour, and resemble, when
+in sunshine, a splendid flower, floating about the sea in all directions.
+
+Approaching the zone of the trade-winds, the aspect of the sea is animated
+by flying-fish. It has been long a matter of doubt whether this fish
+really moves through the air by flying, or whether, being pursued by
+enemies, it merely darts from fear out of the water, and sustains itself
+in the air by means of its long pectoral fins, though the long distances
+it moves are out of all proportion to its size and probable muscular
+power. This doubt seems to have originated with those who never have had
+an opportunity of personally observing flying-fish; or who have merely
+seen these creatures in the Mediterranean, where they are so small as to
+render it rather difficult to decide in what the movement really consists.
+
+But in the tropics all doubt vanishes, for the fish here attains a length
+of from 6 to 8 inches, and its pectoral fins are so much developed that
+they may perfectly well be used as wings. By closely observing them, it is
+seen that these fins, or wings, have an oscillating or vibratory motion,
+like that of the grasshopper, by which they assist the oblique spring from
+the water, produced by muscular power; they move at a height of from two
+to three feet above the surface of the sea, to a distance of from 50 to
+100 yards, and at the same time change the direction of their flight in
+exactly the same way as grasshoppers.
+
+It seems, however, to be neither pleasure nor want of food that drives
+these creatures from their own element. They have numerous enemies, of
+which the principal is the bonita (_Scomber Palamy_); whenever flying-fish
+were seen the bonitas likewise made their appearance; we often saw the
+latter darting out of the water and snapping at a flying-fish, when, if
+they did not succeed, they were perceived hastening under water in the
+same direction that their prey was taking. But the flying-fish is quite
+aware of the movement of the enemy, and, therefore, sometimes turns back
+abruptly, evidently with a view of dodging his pursuer. The advantage of
+the wings is, however, more apparent than real, for whilst they escape by
+these means from the bonitas, dorados, and dolphins, they fall a sacrifice
+to the seagulls and man-of-war birds (_Tachypetes aquilus_), which reach
+them like arrows shot from a bow, before they are able to conceal
+themselves again in the ocean. Those which were seen on the north of the
+equator, were invariably of the smaller kind (_Exocaetus volitans_); whilst
+in the south, also, the larger species (_Exocaetus exulans_) made their
+appearance. They often drop during the night on the decks of small vessels
+with low bows, but on the _Novara_, which rose about 20 feet over the
+surface of the water, this was not possible; however, some fell upon the
+chains, which were caught and preserved in alcohol by the zoologists.
+
+On the 27th June, at midday, we had arrived in 27 deg. 2' N. Lat., and 24 deg. 7'
+W. Long., and lay in a perfect calm, the mirror-like aspect of the sea
+allowing us to take a deep-sea sounding with what is called Brooke's
+apparatus. This consists of a tube, which runs through a thirty-pound
+shot, fastened to a thin line. As the shot, however, cannot easily be
+drawn up after the sounding, there is an ingenious mechanism, by means of
+which, on touching the ground, it is detached from the tube, which may
+then be drawn up, the shot remaining in the sea. The tube has a
+funnel-shaped opening at its lower extremity, by which a portion of the
+ground may likewise be brought up for scientific examination.
+
+In the afternoon a boat provided with everything requisite for the
+sounding, was launched, and the operation began. Unfortunately there were
+only 4050 fathoms of line, as we did not find at Gibraltar the quality
+required for the purpose. The whole stock ran entirely out without
+reaching ground; we could therefore do nothing more than make the attempt
+to heave the tube without the shot. In this, however, we succeeded only in
+so far as regarded the first 2000 fathoms; then the line broke, and the
+remainder was lost. One of the causes of this accident was the sudden rise
+of the trade-wind which increased so much as to engross nearly our entire
+attention.
+
+To convey an idea of the time a ball of this kind takes to descend through
+the different strata of water, which increases in density in proportion to
+the depth attained, we annex the length of the different periods required
+in paying out the line during the experiment:--
+
+                                                       Minutes. Seconds.
+
+    The first 1000 fathoms occupied                       19      8
+ From 1000 to 2000  "                                     21      3
+   "  2000 to 3000  "                                     40      6
+   "  3000 to 4000  "                                     76      6
+   "  4000 to 4050  "                                      3      5
+                                                      ______________
+ Total time in running out the entire length     Hours 2  39     28
+
+As the winding up of the tube requires at least the same period, it may
+easily be conceived how great is the expenditure of time necessary for
+such an experiment, and on what chances the success of the whole operation
+depends. Though this trial was partially unsuccessful, yet so much is
+certain, that at this point, 24,300 feet of line were run off without
+reaching the ground. There is always, however, to be taken into
+consideration the under-current, which draws the line out of the
+perpendicular, and renders the result of the operation rather doubtful.
+
+We now sailed with a fresh and steady trade-wind towards the thirtieth
+degree of W. Long., and thence along that meridian to the southward.
+
+In the night, between the 29th to the 30th, we crossed the parallel of the
+sun's declination, upon which the direction of our shadows, already for
+several days scarcely perceptible, was of course changed from north to
+south.
+
+We soon crossed the belt of the north-eastern trade-wind, as we made daily
+from 180 to 200 miles. On the 3rd of July the wind became very unsteady,
+and on the 5th, in 8 deg. 30' N. Lat. and 29 deg. 30' W. Long., it entirely left
+us. The sky often became dark and threatening; indeed, its aspect changed
+at times with surprising rapidity, without any particular disturbance in
+the direction or strength of the wind; nor had we to complain of as much
+rain as might have been expected in these regions.
+
+The calms in the so-called "belt of calms" were fortunately not of long
+duration, for in 6 deg. 43' N., and 28 deg. 49' W., a fresh south-east wind sprang
+up. When we came within the influence of the south-east trade-wind, we
+endeavoured to approach the coast of South America, for the purpose of
+observing the currents in that latitude, this being one of the
+investigations suggested by the letter of instructions drawn up by
+Alexander v. Humboldt. The great oceanic stream, which, on leaving the
+western coast of Africa takes a westerly direction, is divided by the
+projecting American Continent into two branches, of which the stronger
+turns N.W. towards the Caribean Sea, while the weaker moves south-west
+along the coast of Brazil.
+
+We had already felt its influence whilst in the zone of calms, and it
+became still more perceptible the more the equator was approached. The
+continuance of the south-easterly trade forced us to cross the Line at a
+more westerly point than usual. This, however, causes no disadvantage to a
+good sailing ship; nay, Commander Maury has proved indisputably that ships
+make extremely short passages, which reach the Equator so far to the west
+that they run a risk of hugging the coast too closely. Those on the other
+hand, which, from over-anxiety to avoid the current, keep too far to the
+east, lose much time, being compelled to pass weeks in the zone of calms,
+which increases in breadth towards the east, whereas the others come very
+little in contact with it, and avail themselves of the changes of wind
+near the shore, to double the Cape of St. Roque on the American coast, so
+much dreaded by the former. We cannot here forbear expressing our high
+admiration of the great merits of Mr. Maury, whose classical work on the
+physical geography of the sea, as well as his inestimable wind and current
+charts, deserve the especial attention of all who navigate these seas.
+
+The nearer we approached the Line, the more striking became the aspect of
+the southern constellations. The light of the northern polar star grew
+fainter and fainter, its altitude diminished, and it at length entirely
+disappeared. But, on the other hand, the Southern Cross, the Magellan
+clouds, the ship Argo on the "coal-bags," or starless, dark spots of the
+southern hemisphere, became more elevated in proportion as the northern
+sky moved away, and for a moment we felt some difficulty in recognizing
+our old acquaintances of the northern hemisphere in their relation to the
+new stars.
+
+On the 15th, at 3 A.M., we crossed the Line in 33 deg. 50' W.L. This event,
+which with all sailors forms a marked epoch in their seafaring life, had
+in this case the additional feature of being actually the first occasion
+of an Austrian man-of-war entering the southern hemisphere, and our crew,
+who had long before enjoyed, in anticipation, the merriment to which it
+would give occasion, had commenced the ceremony the preceding evening.
+Neptune, accompanied by an appropriate retinue of mermaids, tritons, and
+nereids, appeared at sunset, to announce with the utmost gravity to the
+Commodore, in a set speech, the astounding news that the vessel was
+entering his dominions, demonstrating the fact mathematically by an
+immense sextant, a chart, and pair of compasses a yard long, all
+manufactured by the ship's carpenter, and claiming his right to see the
+act of shaving and baptizing properly performed on all those who for the
+first time came into his kingdom. Amidst streams of water from the masts
+and fire-engines he made his exit down the rope ladder in a blaze of blue
+fire, followed by an ignited tar-barrel, which floated along like a globe
+of fire on the mirror-like surface of the sea.
+
+The real farce, however, took place the next afternoon, when Neptune
+re-appeared, accompanied this time by his good lady and a hopeful youth,
+all decked out in real sea-god-like attire, in a car drawn by six tritons,
+still accompanied by his farcical retinue blowing a flourish on their
+bugles, when, after a second set speech to the Commodore, the great ruler
+of the waves declared that the ceremony was now to begin.
+
+Every sailor was obliged, whether he would or no, to undergo a lathering
+with a nasty mixture of tar and grease, and submit to be scraped by an
+immense tin razor; which operation being performed, the unfortunate
+sufferer was thrown into a sail suspended by its four corners, and there
+deluged from head to foot from pails, pumps, hose, pots, dishes, and
+everything else that would hold water. The officers and other gentlemen
+escaped the ordeal by a contribution in money or wine towards the
+festivities.
+
+When the greater part of the sailors had undergone this process, and the
+scene, amidst formidable gushes of water, rioting, uproar, and excitement,
+had reached its highest point, behold! a voice thundered from the
+quarter-deck the words "two o'clock," and everything resumed its wonted
+aspect.
+
+Though the Line had been crossed at a more westerly point than usual, we
+were able, in the night from the 18th to the 19th of July, to pass
+easterly between the rocks Las Roccas and the island of Fernando da
+Noronha.[34] On the 20th July we were carried again by unfavourable winds
+to a distance of 100 miles from the Brazilian coast, where we parted from
+our faithful companion, the _Caroline_. She sailed for Pernambuco, whilst
+we kept out to sea in order to continue the observations on the westerly
+currents, and be able freely to double Cape St. Augustin. Bad weather,
+showers, and heavy swells prevented complete success in our task; it was,
+however, ascertained that the current close to the land is not so strong
+as at some distance from it, and that the extreme point of divergence is,
+at this particular season of the year, somewhat east of the south point of
+Fernando de Noronha. In the angle formed by the direction of the two
+currents between the point of division and the land, partial currents
+(according to circumstances and the strength of the wind), run towards one
+or the other side, of which the stronger tends towards the north-west.
+
+[Footnote 34: This island, situated 300 miles from Pernambuco, which
+supplies it with provisions, is at present used by the Brazilian
+Government as a penal settlement. It is extremely beautiful and fertile,
+but very little cultivated, and admirably suited for a coal depot, and a
+place for ships obtaining stores, particularly when epidemics are
+prevalent in Rio de Janeiro.]
+
+On the 23rd July the weather cleared up; we approached the coast and came
+in sight of Cape St. Augustin, the first land descried since leaving
+Madeira. On the 1st of August a rock was announced ahead; as nothing of
+the kind was indicated in the charts, we were curious to know what this
+could be. A boat was manned, and we were soon made aware, by our olfactory
+organs, of the real nature of the object, which turned out to be the
+carcase of a dead whale in a state of putrefaction, over which a number of
+birds were hovering, whilst a troop of sharks feasted on the putrid mass,
+boring themselves into the body. This incident shows how many rocks marked
+in charts as doubtful may owe their origin to similar circumstances; for,
+had we not been convinced of the real nature of the object, we should have
+believed this carcase to be a rock, and thus augmented the number of
+"doubtfuls" and interrogations in the charts of the Atlantic.
+
+On the 3rd August we made Cape Frio, and after a rough and stormy night
+reached at last, on the morning of the 5th, the numerous small islands
+situated in front of the harbour of Rio. The _Sugar Loaf_, that remarkable
+black basaltic rock at its entrance, stood grandly forth, as we ran in.
+Unfortunately the gloomy state of the atmosphere prevented the enjoyment
+of the exquisite beauty of this so often described charming bay.
+
+Here we found an English, a French, and an American frigate, as also a
+dirty old Brazilian sloop of war. Besides these ships of war, a Spanish
+frigate and galliot lay in the mercantile dock for repair; they had
+shortly before their arrival lost their masts in a _pampero_,[35] which,
+however, had borne all the characteristic marks of a cyclone.[36] The
+occurrence of tornadoes in the South Atlantic has been so often and so
+decidedly denied, that the mariner does not readily believe the violent
+storms of those latitudes to be hurricanes. This Spanish frigate had
+accordingly sailed heedlessly into the storm, and, with only such
+precautions taken as referred to mast and sail, had without further
+concern proceeded on her course. She thus had got into the very heart of
+the cyclone, and escaped entire destruction only by a fortunate chance.
+Now, had her commander considered this storm to have been a real hurricane
+he would have undoubtedly steered a different course, and probably in that
+case would have reached the harbour in safety. But the notion of the
+non-existence of hurricanes in these waters is so pertinaciously
+maintained that it was no wonder the careful and able Spanish commander
+had also been misled. Our own opinion is, that any storm in the ocean may
+assume a revolving motion, and it is therefore highly advisable always to
+bear in mind the well-founded theory of cyclones, in order to act upon it,
+as circumstances may require. Were this always done, how many valuable
+lives and property might be saved from destruction!
+
+[Footnote 35: A squall of wind of the South American Pampas.]
+
+[Footnote 36: The following succinct statement of the characteristics and
+general laws of cyclones will be found useful by way of reference:--
+
+1. It has been fully ascertained that in both hemispheres the air in the
+cyclone rotates in a direction _contrary_ to that of the sun. Thus, in the
+N. hemisphere, the course of the sun being from E. to S., W., and N., the
+course of the hurricane is from N. by W., S., and E.; and in the S.
+hemisphere, the sun's course being from E. by N., W., and S., the
+hurricane runs from N. by E., S., and W.
+
+2. They originate in the space between the equator and the tropics, near
+the equatorial limit of the trade winds.
+
+3. There is no instance on record of a hurricane having been encountered
+on the equator, nor of any one having crossed the Line, although two have
+been known to be raging at the same time in the same meridian, but on
+opposite sides of the equator, and only 10 deg. to 12 deg. apart!
+
+4. Their movement, which is always oblique from the equator to the poles,
+is usually from E. to W. at first, and towards the end W. to E., which is
+but a development of the gyratory motion that forms their most essential
+characteristic.
+
+5. The "motion of translation" varies from so low as 9 miles an hour to 43
+miles an hour. There is no precise estimate of the velocity of the
+gyratory motion.
+
+6. They are liable to dilate and contract in area, the contraction always
+implying a great accession of violence. (See _post_, p. 183.)]
+
+[Illustration: CAPE FRIO.]
+
+[Illustration: THE QUAY AT RIO.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  V.
+
+                           Rio de Janeiro.
+
+   Brazil the land of contrasts.--Appearance of the city of Rio and
+     its environs.--Excursion to the Peak of Corcovado, and the
+     Tejuca Waterfalls.--Germans in Rio.--Brazilian literary men.--
+     Assacu (_Hura Brasiliensis_).--Snake-bite as an antidote
+     against leprosy.--Public Institutions.--Negroes of the
+     Mozambique coast.--The House of Misericordia.--Lunatic
+     Asylum.--Botanical Garden.--Public instruction.--
+     Historico-Geographical institution.--_Palaestra Scientifica._--
+     Military Academy.--Library.--Conservatory of Music.--Sanitary
+     Police.--Yellow Fever and Cholera.--Water Party on the bay.--
+     Chamber of Deputies.--Petropolis.--Condition of the Slave
+     population.--Prospects of German emigration.--Suitability of
+     Brazil as a market for German commerce.--Natural products, and
+     exchange of manufactures.--Audience of the Emperor and
+     Empress.--Extravagant waste of powder for salvoes.--Songs of
+     the sailors.--Departure from Rio.--Retrospect.--South-east
+     Trades.--Cape Pigeons.--Albatrosses.--Cape Tormentoso.--A
+     Storm at the Cape.--Various Methods of measuring the height of
+     waves.--Arrival in Simon's Bay.
+
+
+Brazil--situated on the ocean-highway to the South Seas and the shores of
+India, endowed by nature, over the greater portion of her territory, with
+a salubrious climate, and a soil of tropical fertility, very nearly as
+large as Europe, and ten times the size of France, and yet containing not
+above 8,000,000 souls--has, far beyond all other States of South America,
+concentrated on herself, during more than half a century, the interest of
+the naturalist, as well as of the political economist--of the merchant as
+well as of the emigrant. Indeed, we may say that there are few countries,
+beyond the limits of Europe, which in certain parts have already been more
+thoroughly explored than the Brazilian Empire, while at the same time it
+can boast the possession of a rich and valuable stock of literature,
+treating of its history, since its discovery by the Portuguese Admiral,
+Pedro Alvarez Cabral, on the 22nd of April, 1500, down to the present
+time.
+
+After so brief a sojourn as ours, we can hardly offer more to the reader
+than a short sketch of our own few experiences, and some remarks regarding
+the alterations which took place in the appearance of the city and in its
+social and political condition, since the period when Martius and Spix,
+Rugendas, Prince Neuwied, Helmreichen, Natterer, Pohl, d'Orbigny, Wilkes,
+Castelnau, Burmeister, and others visited Brazil, and so accurately
+delineated it both by pen and pencil.[37]
+
+[Footnote 37: Before we left Europe, the wish was repeatedly expressed to
+us that, during our stay in Rio, more accurate information should be
+obtained as to the fate of numerous scientific works and collections, by
+several German naturalists who died in Brazil in recent times, such as
+Frederick Sello, Dr. Mueller (a companion of Castelnau), Dr. Engler, and
+others. Unfortunately, we can only give the little consolatory
+intelligence that, with the exception of the scientific memoranda left
+behind by Dr. Engler, chiefly relating to Itu in the province of St. Paul,
+there was nothing further to be hoped for. The collections have all been
+dispersed through want of care, and the manuscripts nearly all destroyed
+through ignorance of their value.]
+
+The magnificent scenery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro still continues to
+possess the same absorbing interest for the new comer, wherever it has not
+suffered by the expansion of the rapidly-increasing city, or the axe of
+the emigrant settler; it is but little one can add to or alter in the
+picturesque description which travellers, alive to its natural beauties,
+had already given, half a century ago, of the wonderful haven of the
+Brazilian metropolis! Very different, however, is the impression, when the
+stranger, on disembarking, sets foot on the new world, and has to make his
+way through narrow, steep, filthy streets, greeted by yelling crowds of
+blacks and whites, poor negro slaves, and wealthy planters, into the
+interior of this bustling port. An entirely altered state of affairs has
+sprung up since the separation of Brazil from Portugal, and he who has not
+seen Rio within the last ten years would hardly recognize the capital of
+the Brazilian empire. Along with the most conspicuous deficiencies, in
+numerous particulars, one finds such institutions as are not to be met
+with, in a similarly flourishing condition, in any other State of South
+America, or among the republics of the Isthmus. But Brazil is emphatically
+"The Land of Contrasts."
+
+When the traveller, stepping on shore from the anchorage for ships of war,
+(which is a little to the south of that for merchant vessels), has forced
+his way through the swarms of human beings at the landing stage, and in
+front of the hotel Pharoux, he finds himself on the Largo do Paco, or
+Palace Square. Here on his left rises the singular-looking Imperial
+Residence, and on his right, close to the shore, the Market Hall. A dense
+bustling crowd throngs the streets, while numerous vehicles, some drawn by
+horses, others by mules, as also omnibuses of all colours and dimensions,
+and crammed within and without, dash swiftly about, emulating the din and
+confusion of European capitals. Turning now to the right, into the Rua
+Direita, and thence a little further into the Rua do Ouvidor, the two most
+elegant but none the less most-neglected streets of Rio, there dazzles the
+eye, in the splendid, richly-decorated shops and arcades, the same profuse
+luxury as in Regent Street, or on the Boulevards. But how disagreeable the
+contrast with those cities, presented by the pools of stagnant water,
+which occur even in the most-frequented streets!
+
+The city proper presents the figure of a square of about one mile and
+three quarters each way, between the sea beach and the Campo da Santa
+Anna, and is divided with tolerable regularity by narrow streets built at
+right angles to each other. Except the most important public buildings,
+such as the National Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Military
+Academy, the Naval Arsenal, the Custom House, the Market Hall, the
+Imperial Palace, the Chamber of Deputies, and several of the churches,
+only shops and mercantile counting-houses are to be met with.
+
+From the city stretch the suburbs like long tentacles in every direction,
+on one side along the beach as far as St. Christoph, the winter palace of
+the emperor, and, in the opposite direction, as far as the charming Cove
+of Botafogo, while backwards they extend to the valleys leading to the
+Corcovado, to the suburbs of Larangeiras, Catumby Grande, and in the
+direction of the Tejuca mountains, as far as Engenho Velho, and Andarahy.
+Elegant little villas, frequently built in the strangest and most
+_bizarre_ style of architecture, alternate in these suburbs with ordinary
+dwelling-houses, all having most beautifully laid-out gardens. The
+merchant, the manufacturer, in fact every individual in easy
+circumstances, remain in the city only long enough to transact daily
+business. Each has his residence in the suburbs, where his family lives,
+to whose quiet circle he returns every evening. Among these suburbs, those
+of Caminho Novo and Catete, along the road leading to the charming cove of
+Botafogo, are more specially the diplomatic quarter, and the residence of
+the moneyed aristocracy of the capital.
+
+Amid so much that calls for censure in Rio Janeiro, and of which the
+aesthetic perceptions of the visitor will apprize him in the course of a
+stroll in any part of the city, there are two improvements which deserve
+grateful acknowledgment. The first of these consists in the lighting of
+the city by gas (prepared from English coal), which had been introduced
+shortly before our arrival, and is now extended to the extreme outskirts
+of the suburbs; the second is the magnificent aqueduct, which provides
+every quarter of Rio with a lavish supply of excellent drinking-water.
+However ugly Rio may look in the daytime, the gas at night gives
+it a magnificent and splendid appearance, particularly from the
+harbour. When, the evening after our arrival, we gazed out upon the
+brilliantly-illuminated city that lay before us, we could not help
+thinking there must be some festive occasion for such a flood of light,
+ignorant as we then were of what we learned afterwards, that Rio is as
+fairy-looking by night as it appears gloomy by day.
+
+Not less surprising, and forming a strong contrast with the deficiencies
+and requirements in other particulars, are the stately fountains that
+adorn the squares. Close by the corner of each street, gushes out through
+metal cocks, a stream of clear, fresh spring-water, which has been
+conveyed by the great aqueduct a distance of 10 or 12 English miles from
+the slopes of the neighbouring Carioca or Tejuca mountain-chains. The
+water supply has been in existence for 120 years, but the present immense
+reservoir and various improvements in it have been introduced by the
+Brazilian Government. With the exception of the Croton aqueduct, near New
+York, which supplies that city with 40,000,000 gallons daily, we do not
+remember to have seen in any part of the world a similar work of such
+magnitude.
+
+The dreary, uncomfortable feeling left by the city, gives way to most
+enjoyable impressions so soon as one emerges from the suburbs of Rio, and
+seeks compensation for the absence of the appliances of European
+civilization in the eternal grace and majesty of Nature. Walks may be
+taken in every direction, each opening up a fresh point of view, while, if
+the visitor take horse or mule, he may in the course of an hour or two
+transport himself into the very midst of the most extraordinary features
+of tropical vegetation.
+
+Among the most charming of these is a ride to the rocky peak called
+Corcovado, 2300 feet high, the road to which runs through magnificent
+shady forests. On the highest pinnacle of this rocky cone, which rises
+rather abruptly on the side of the valleys of Clementi and Broca, a
+parapet has been erected within these few years, so that the traveller can
+gaze over the delightful panorama below with as much, or even more,
+comfort and security, than from the Righi or the great Winterberg in the
+Saxon Switzerland. In the south and south-east rise the two stern-looking
+mountains, Gavia and Dos Irmaos, both of considerable height, and
+encircled by the mirror-like lagoon, Rodrigo das Freitas, near which
+stands out, clothed in the most luxuriant verdure, a part of the botanical
+garden; thereafter follows the beautiful valley of Clementi and Broca,
+with the splendid Lunatic Asylum and the fort of Praya Vermelha; beyond
+which is the smiling cove of Botafogo, and the singular Sugar Loaf, which
+forms such a characteristic feature of the entrance of Rio harbour; close
+beside the latter is the fort of San Juan; and lastly, facing the entrance
+of the bay, that of Santa Cruz, the strongest in the empire. At our feet
+lay stretched out the city itself, with the beautiful valleys of
+Larangeiras, Engenho Velho, and Catumby Grande. On the other side of the
+bay, just opposite Rio, is Praya Grande, the capital of the province, and
+in the background the lofty, spectre-like mountain-chain of the Organos--
+so called from the rocky peaks projecting like so many organ-pipes. What a
+wondrous prospect! It is scarcely possible to have, from a single point of
+view, a grander or more varied natural picture. We lingered here more
+than an hour, and tore ourselves away with reluctance from all those
+glories which Nature has shed with so profuse a hand over this enchanting
+landscape.
+
+One of our companions was the veteran Brazilian naturalist, the venerable
+Dom Antonio Ildefonso Gomez, who passed several years in Europe when a
+young man, and had, together with Humboldt, once attended the lectures of
+Cuvier at Paris. M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, during his visit to Rio, spent
+several months at Dom Ildefonso's hospitable abode. Although now a
+septuagenarian, the old physician is uncommonly hale in person, full of
+his pristine enthusiasm, indefatigable in the pursuit of knowledge, and
+able to pass an entire day on the back of his mule, so that he can ride to
+the most distant consultations without betraying any symptoms of
+exhaustion. He had brought with him a number of large oranges, some cheese
+and bread, and a bottle of excellent port wine, so that there was no want
+of wherewithal to recruit our strength; and there, on the summit of the
+Corcovado, our hearts swelling with rapture as the eye ranged over the
+marvellous landscape that lay unrolled at our feet, we drank to the
+prosperity of Brazil. Dom Ildefonso, a warm friend to all foreigners,
+remarked that within forty years Brazil will probably be more German than
+Brazilian or Portuguese, and expressed a hope it might be so, as only by
+that means, so far as his observation went, could his beloved native land
+hope for a prosperous future.
+
+We returned through most charming forest scenery by way of Larangeiras
+and Andarahy. Throughout the entire distance we rode amidst the most
+exquisite specimens of tropical vegetation, palms, ebony trees, bignonias,
+plantains, mangoes, papayas, and bread-fruit trees, mingling with which we
+could discern the various trees and shrubs of the Northern Hemisphere, and
+occasionally strange plants from China, Japan, and Australia, which had
+been planted here by the enterprising hand of foreign settlers.
+
+Not less charming is the excursion to the Falls of the Tejuca, to which a
+broad road leads through blooming flower-gardens, and past delicious
+country seats, extending far into the mountains, and surrounded and
+overshadowed by a wall as it were of verdure, consisting of the flowers of
+_Bignonia bella_, intermingling with the shining leaves of the gigantic
+_Bougainvillea_. The coral tree (_Erythrina coralliflora_), the indigenous
+magnolia, the fan-shaped _urania_, numerous species of palms, and lofty,
+carefully-tended screw-pines, plantains with gigantic fruits, bread-fruit
+trees, eugenias, casuarinas, and melon trees--such are the blooming
+odoriferous attractions that here adorn garden and field. Ever threading
+his way among such charming plantations, the traveller finally reaches the
+path which, hemmed in between two mountain ridges of moderate height,
+leads direct to the Tejuca mountains, while to the right branch off
+numerous narrow paths conducting to the various adjoining eminences, from
+which a view can be obtained of the small cascade. The tropical richness
+and profusion of vegetation, has here crowded together upon a few square
+feet of soil hundreds of plants of all kinds. They strike into the soil,
+or struggle upwards to the light, or give out roots from the stems or
+branches, and all twine and tangle with each other to such an extent that
+often in these tufts and thickets one sees the top of a fern, without
+being able to distinguish any part of its stem, or a passion-flower
+without any visible stalk or leaves, all suspended in mid-air, like so
+many elegant festoons.
+
+A short distance from this singular, thoroughly tropical landscape, is the
+second, known as the Great Cascade, which, however, owes its special
+attractions rather to the character of the surrounding vegetation than to
+the volume of water. The trees here grow on a sort of amphitheatre of
+rocks, all of colossal size, and the most widely different forms, no two
+of the same species adjoining each other, their stems and branches adorned
+with the most beautiful parasites and the blood-red leaves of innumerable
+creepers, which in their lavish luxuriance now stretch like garlands from
+tree to tree, now hang perpendicularly down from the very highest branch
+of the tree like a network of green lace, till they sweep along the
+ground.
+
+The water welling out from the granite rock, rushes into the abyss below
+after traversing a rocky declivity, somewhat resembling a sloping terrace
+of about twenty fathoms wide. Its track is indicated by the
+irregularly-shaped blocks piled upon each other, some of which at a little
+distance below, their huge wide ridges enclosed by retaining walls, serve
+as spots in which to dry in the sun the ripe berries of the coffee plant,
+which in many parts hereabout forms an almost impervious forest.
+
+As we prosecute our wanderings further, we finally emerge upon the green
+hills of the vicinity, and obtain a charming glimpse of the ocean; we have
+now arrived in front of the gigantic outline of the Gavia, and directly
+facing us lies the salt-marsh, known as Tejuca-Lake, in the midst of which
+rises an island, thickly overgrown with mango-trees, standing on their
+distorted hundredfold roots; melancholy-looking examples of the inactivity
+and absence of all attention of the Brazilian authorities, who permit such
+a hot-bed of poisonous miasma to remain in the immediate vicinity of the
+city, and leave these plants unchecked to carry on their pestiferous vital
+processes!
+
+Returning from such a delightful excursion to Rio de Janeiro, the stranger
+feels doubly uncomfortable and lonely in the dreary and sombre city. The
+Brazilians are in general neither very social nor hospitable, and only,
+after many years' acquaintance, is a familiar intercourse formed with
+strangers.
+
+In this respect they bear a strong resemblance to the Spanish-Americans,
+whom they also greatly resemble in many of their habits of life.
+Foreigners settled in Rio spend their evenings generally at their country
+seats, some distance from the town, so that the occasional visitor is
+deprived of the social intercourse that might otherwise be so accessible.
+We met with a most hospitable reception at the houses of the Austrian
+Minister, Chevalier de Sonnleithner, and our Consul-General, as well as
+from some German families, and also from the "Germania," a Club founded by
+twelve Germans as far back as 1821. This Society numbers now about 200
+members, and is well supplied with German newspapers and periodicals,
+besides possessing a well-selected library of several thousand volumes,
+and a reading-room, with _restaurant_, smoking, billiard, and
+dancing-rooms attached. Of the various nationalities represented at Rio,
+the Germans are the most respected by the Brazilians. They are about 3000
+in number, and as the majority are Protestants they have their own church,
+founded by three Germans in 1827, which now numbers 600 members, and has
+an annual income of 5000 milreis.[38] The community is under the protection
+of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council in Berlin, and accordingly, as often
+as public worship is joined in, prayers are offered up for the King of
+Prussia, as head of the church. Despite its existence for more than thirty
+years, the position occupied by the Evangelical church with reference to
+the State, has never been accurately defined, so that differences are
+constantly occurring. In connection with the congregation are a school,
+and a society for aiding distressed Germans, which numbers 200 associates,
+and has an annual income of from 6000 to 7000 milreis (L600 to L700). The
+objects of the association are the advance of money, pensions, payment of
+passage-money for transport, assistance to unemployed or sick German
+workmen, education of orphan children, and so forth. The German choral
+union had given a concert in aid of this humane society, which alone had
+realized 3100 milreis (above L300)!
+
+[Footnote 38: One milreis = 1000 reis = about 2_s._ English. The Brazilian
+milreis is of this small value as compared with that of the Portuguese (3
+to 7), in consequence of its being represented by paper-money of
+fluctuating value, which gradually became so depreciated that Government,
+when regulating the value in 1846, were not in a position to restore it to
+its par value of 3_s._ 4_d._ sterling.]
+
+It is not alone, however, as merchants, engineers, and artisans, that the
+Germans in Rio occupy a conspicuous position; they likewise contribute
+their mite to the advancement of art and science. For example, the most
+important literary enterprise in the empire is in German hands, viz. the
+printing and bookselling business of the brothers Laemmert. Their
+publications embrace two hundred and fifty works, chiefly of Portuguese
+(not Brazilian) authors, original or translated, treating of Brazilian
+legislation, history, medicine, public instruction, poetry, popular
+literature, works on religion, novels, romances, kalendars, and theatrical
+pieces. One publication due to the founder of the firm, Mr. C. Laemmert, a
+Bavarian by birth, has already proved of immense utility, the "_Almanak
+administrativo, mercantil, e industrial_," compiled by himself, first
+published in the year 1843. From a most defective little pamphlet at its
+start, this periodical publication has, in the course of time, become
+developed into an elegant, simply-classified octavo volume, 1400 pages
+thick, which, compiled carefully and kept constantly corrected to the
+latest moment, despite the most disheartening material difficulties, gives
+a very interesting insight into the entire internal organization of the
+empire, and at the same time supplies the most authentic information as
+to the scientific, commercial, and industrial activity of the city and
+province of Rio. Even more important as a medium for the diffusion of
+useful knowledge among the masses is a sort of popular kalendar, which is
+published in duodecimo form, under the title of "_Folinhas_" (Leaves), and
+for 320 reis (about 7-1/2_d._ English), gives upon 360 pages an immense
+amount of useful information. Of this publication 80,000 copies were sold
+throughout the empire in the year 1857. There are very few works of
+importance written by native authors, as they devote their energies
+chiefly to periodical literature. Of daily and monthly publications there
+are abundance, both in Rio and in the provinces, but they have only an
+ephemeral existence. The press enjoys the most unbounded freedom, and
+probably in very few continental cities would such language be tolerated
+as that of the _Courier du Bresil_, edited by a French refugee. If the
+influence of journalism in Brazil is as yet insignificant, it is in
+consequence of the prevailing ignorance, as four-fifths of the population
+are unable to read or write, and the papers published are consequently
+only in the hands of the upper classes.
+
+While we found but few opportunities of intercourse with Brazilian
+families, the public authorities received and treated us in the most
+obliging and distinguished manner. In this respect, we were particularly
+indebted to Dr. de Lagos, Dr. Schuech de Capanema, Dr. F. de Paulo Candido,
+and Dom M. de Portoalegre.
+
+These gentlemen took especial pains to make our stay in Rio as instructive
+as useful, and likewise gave us in reply to various scientific queries the
+most valuable information and practical hints. Thus, for example, we were
+favoured by Dr. de Lagos with the following particulars respecting the
+alleged efficacy of the milky sap of the assacu tree (_Hura
+Brasiliensis_), and of the bite of the rattlesnake as antidotes in cases
+of _Elephantiasis_, as also regarding the "Curare," that celebrated poison
+with which the Indians of Brazil tip their arrows.
+
+The assacu had long been employed as a remedy for the frightful malady
+known as _Elephantiasis Graecorum_, and its use was occasionally followed
+by the happiest results, without any attempt having been made thoroughly
+to investigate the specific action of the juice, although, like that of so
+many other Brazilian plants, it would probably surrender, if
+scientifically analyzed, the therapeutical energies which enable it to
+overcome occasionally the most obstinate cases of disease. The assacu is a
+tree growing in the northern provinces of Para, on making an incision into
+which there exudes a resinous sap, of a brownish or reddish-white colour,
+which coagulates, and gradually hardens. This inspissated substance is of
+a dark brown, rather resembling gum than resin, and readily soluble in
+water. When dissolved, it regains the colour and odour of the sap as it
+first trickles from the tree. A committee of physicians of Para long ago
+presented to the Brazilian Government a memorandum as to the practical
+efficacy and peculiarities of the assacu in cases of the above malady,
+according to which it appears, that the symptoms of the patient improve in
+the most marvellous manner from the very first day on which the remedy is
+used; the illness seems to be suddenly arrested, or, at all events to make
+but very slight progress. The milky sap is exhibited internally, in the
+form of pills, and a decoction of the bark is also administered by way of
+a beverage for the patient,--externally an infusion of the bark is used
+for bathing purposes. Some of those affected, to whom this remedy was
+applied, felt a sensation as of formication, immediately on taking it,
+while others experienced a feeling as though they had been submitted to a
+series of shocks of electricity, only weaker and more equable.
+
+It is a well-established fact that in many parts of South America, a
+popular belief prevails that the bite of the deadly _Cobra de cascavel_,
+or rattlesnake, heals _Elephantiasis_, or pustular leprosy, in which
+disease, as is well known, the legs and feet of those attacked are covered
+with a scurf resembling the cuticle of the elephant. However, instances of
+the practical application of so terrible a remedy, which seems to be
+almost more dreadful than the disease it professes to cure, are in all
+probability of rare occurrence, and are therefore doubly important when,
+as in the case detailed to us, they occurred under the very eyes of a man
+of science, and are related by the observer himself.
+
+A native, named Marianno Jose Machado, from Rio Pardo, in the province of
+southern Rio Grande, fifty years of age, had long been afflicted with
+morphea (_Elephantiasis Graecorum_), and had already passed four years in
+the Lazarus Hospital at Rio, when one day, worn out with his loathsome
+malady, he resolved as a last chance of being delivered from his dread
+disease, to submit to the bite of a rattlesnake. All the warnings and
+representations of the physicians, who entertained well-founded doubts as
+to the remedial efficacy of so dangerous a remedy, were disregarded.
+Marianno betook himself to a house in the Rua da Imperatriz, the occupant
+of which possessed a living rattlesnake, and there in the presence of
+numerous witnesses declared, signing at the same time a document to the
+same effect, that what he was about to do he did of his own free will,
+without any influence on the part of strangers, and that he assumed to
+himself the entire responsibility of his own deed. Marianno was of
+middling stature and athletic build; his entire skin was covered with
+rugosities, but without any appearance of ulceration, while his face was
+frightfully disfigured. The points of his fingers, moreover, had entirely
+lost their form, the skin readily peeling off from them.
+
+The daring sufferer opened the box in which lay the deadly reptile, and
+roughly seized it; but it at first attempted to escape, as though it too
+was disgusted at the horrible object before it. When, however, it felt
+itself once more squeezed, the snake turned round in self-defence, and bit
+the man on the finger. Marianno was sensible neither of the puncture of
+the teeth, nor of the instantaneous activity of the injected poison, but
+it became ere long apparent that he had been bitten, from the blood making
+its appearance, coupled with a slight swelling of the hand. Several
+physicians watched by the bedside of the sufferer; almost every half-hour
+the observed results were circumstantially reported. When, however, the
+symptoms rapidly became worse, antidotes were applied, and every effort
+made to save the patient. Nevertheless, the result of the experiment was
+as anticipated--within twenty-four hours after the bite of the rattlesnake
+Marianno was a corpse.
+
+Several members of the medical society of Vienna laid great stress on our
+procuring a considerable quantity of the celebrated poison, "_curare_,"
+used in South America for tipping arrows, with the view of instituting
+fresh experiments--similar to those already made, so as to elucidate its
+chemical and physiological properties. As the curare is not to be procured
+in Rio, but comes thither from the northern province of Para, where the
+natives procure it from the sap of the _Strychnos toxifera_, Dr. de Lagos
+promised he would take care to procure some, so as to transmit samples
+direct to the Vienna _savans_, and at the same time gave us much
+information as to the latest researches touching this substance, with
+whose remarkable properties Alexander v. Humboldt had made the scientific
+world acquainted, more than half-a-century previously, in his classic
+"Travels through the Equatorial Countries."
+
+One special peculiarity of the curare consists in the fact that, like most
+other organic poisons, it is only active when absorbed into the
+circulating system, and proves entirely innoxious, nay in some cases even
+beneficial, when introduced into the body by other means.
+
+The more the faculty became acquainted with the terrific activity, and
+invariably fatal results of this poison, the more zealously did science
+bestir itself to discover some means of neutralizing the operation of the
+curare. Quite recently the preparations of iodine-natron, when
+administered in certain proportions, have been recognized as antidotes;
+dissolved with the curare they seem entirely to obviate its evil effects.
+Careful observation and a gradual acquaintance with the properties of the
+curare, have further led to the conclusion that it may be regarded as a
+remedy in certain cases, and it has actually been administered with good
+results to animals affected with tetanic convulsions. May it be reserved
+to the physicians of our native country, to elicit from the quantity of
+this subtle and singular poison, which they may expect to receive through
+the kindness of Dr. de Lagos, such results as shall make its remedial
+properties available for man, instead of leaving its baleful energies as
+at present solely directed to the destruction of organic life!
+
+In the company of our Brazilian friends, already mentioned, we also
+visited the most interesting of the public charities and educational
+institutions of Rio.
+
+On the occasion of a visit we paid to the in part newly-erected Casa de
+Correcao, which is managed on what is known as the Auburn system, we were
+shown three Mozambique negroes, who, in 1852, had been smuggled in a
+"slaver" from the east coast of Africa into Brazil, there to be sold as
+slaves, despite the interdicts against the introduction of slaves, then
+actually in force. The vessel was, however, captured by the Brazilian
+cruisers, and the negroes forthwith restored to liberty, when, in their
+own interest, and with the view of preventing their being a second time
+sold into bondage, they were removed to a quarter of the prison away from
+the rest, and specially set apart for what are called "free Africans,"
+where they had been carefully educated and instructed in various
+handicrafts, all at the expense of the State. As a vocabulary of the
+idioms spoken by the Mozambique negroes, was an especial desideratum of
+the class of philosophic history in our Imperial Academy of Sciences, and
+there seemed to be but little prospect of our expedition visiting the
+eastern coast of Africa, we gladly availed ourselves of this unexpected
+opportunity to compile the wished-for vocabulary, in which Professor
+Portoalegre, Director of the Academy of Fine Arts, materially assisted us.
+Two of these negroes, Camillo and Ventura, were born in Quillimani, and
+belonged to the Mananpi race; the third, Jeremias, was born about sixty
+days' journey from the coast, of the Maqua race, and spoke a dialect of
+the Mozambique idiom. Ventura, a youth of, at the outside, seventeen years
+of age, related that he could perfectly remember having been stolen one
+night from his parents in Quillimani, when he was brought to a
+slave-dealer named Jones, after which he was shipped off in a wretched
+leaky vessel to the coast of Brazil. On our asking these three swarthy
+fellow-labourers, hearty of aspect and neatly clothed, who had been so
+carefully tended by the State, and earned, one as a house-servant, the
+other two as stonemasons, thirty milreis (L3 3s.) a month, whether they
+did not feel themselves better off in Rio than in their own home,--they,
+with one accord, answered that they longed to return to Quillimani, where
+it is hardly requisite to work above six months, and the rest of the year
+may be consumed in a genuine "_dolce far niente_" existence, instead of
+being compelled, as in Rio, to work the whole year round!
+
+In spite of long-continued efforts, the vocabulary turned out much less
+complete than we wished, in consequence of the limited capacity of these
+negroes. We did not content ourselves, however, with merely transcribing
+the answers to our questions, but also endeavoured to obtain a more
+accurate idea of the precise meaning attached to each, by repeating each
+of the words of the Mozambique language, and translating into it from the
+questions put in Portuguese. This method seemed to be the most effectual
+for ensuring the correctness of the pronunciation, so as to permit of its
+being afterwards reduced to writing. In the arrangement of the vocabulary,
+we availed ourselves of what is known as Gallatin's method, as it appeared
+to us more complete and comprehensive than that sent to our academy by the
+celebrated naturalist and traveller, Dr. Martius, of Munich, with a
+request that it should have his list of Latin words translated into the
+various languages hitherto unknown, or such idioms as have been as yet but
+little examined and investigated.
+
+The race, to which these three negroes belonged, seems to have been
+already converted to Christianity. At least, they all had Christian names,
+but could give us no information either as to certain heathenish rites in
+their own country, or concerning an idol of carved ivory which we showed
+them, brought from the east coast of Africa, and the method of worshipping
+it.
+
+Two of the most elegant edifices of Rio Janeiro, worthy indeed of being
+placed side by side with the largest charitable establishments in Europe,
+are the immense palace-like Hospital of the Santa Casa da Misericordia, in
+which between 8000 and 9000 patients are received and treated annually,
+and the really splendid Lunatic Asylum (_Asylo dos Alienados_), in the
+cove of Botafogo. The latter institution, founded in 1841, which, whether
+as regards the tastefulness of its architecture or its munificent
+endowment, can hardly be rivalled anywhere, owes its existence to one of
+the most estimable benefactors of his native country, Don Jose Clemente
+Pereira, Minister of the Interior at the time of its erection. This
+genial, benevolent soul, deeply acquainted with the human heart and its
+weaknesses, hit, as we were told, upon the following eminently original
+and ingenious method of raising the sums required. All grades of the
+various Brazilian orders, as well as the titles of Baron, Count, and
+Marquis, were put up for sale at fixed prices, the proceeds resulting
+from which purposes were applied to the erection and endowment of the
+asylum! And thus arose, at the south end of the cove of Botafogo, a
+splendid palatial edifice--a monument less of humanity and love of our
+afflicted neighbours, than of the vanity and frailty of poor human nature,
+the tributes to which erected it. Unfortunately, in this establishment,
+mere succour is all in all, and the cure seems entirely lost sight of, the
+sanative treatment of the patients lagging far behind their careful
+supervision; in short, it being rather a place for the safe confinement
+than the recovery of those deprived of their reason.
+
+One of the most instructive examples of how little the inhabitants of Rio
+make use of the natural capabilities of the site of their capital, is
+incontestably furnished by a piece of ground immediately adjoining the
+Lunatic Asylum, which has been dignified with the name of the Botanic
+Garden. With the exception of a very fine alley of hundreds of graceful
+king-palms (_Oreodoxa regia_), which present a magnificent spectacle,
+growing as they do with such admirable regularity as to appear rather
+artificial columns than planted trees, the eye encounters nothing but
+uncultivated land, abounding with the commonest vegetation, alternating
+with badly-selected nursery plantations, although both in the climate and
+the soil every facility is at hand for enabling this garden to be made a
+means of representing the vegetation of every zone of the globe. Even a
+large tea plantation, for the cultivation of which 10,000 Chinese were
+imported at the cost of Government, and from which, if the experiment had
+proved successful, the most important results might have been anticipated,
+stood there uncared-for and untended, a melancholy witness of how things
+are inaugurated in Brazil, and then suffered to fall through. When we
+enquired how long the garden had been laid out, our guide, a witty
+Portuguese, replied with a sarcastic smile; "Since the beginning of the
+world!" In that part of the garden which adjoins the Lagune, called
+Rodrigo das Freitas, stands a common mud hovel, with broken windows, and
+doors hanging by the hinges. This was pointed out to us by a labourer as
+the spot at which the Emperor alights and reposes when he visits the
+Botanical Garden.
+
+Singular to say, Brazil possesses no regular university! The jealousy with
+which any one city invested with certain privileges and prerogatives is
+regarded by the rest, is the reason that induced the Government to
+separate the medical and juridical classes, so that each of the four chief
+cities of the Empire benefits by the presence of a certain portion of the
+students. Thus the medical schools are in Rio Janeiro and Bahia, while
+those of jurisprudence are held in St. Paul and Pernambuco. The entire
+number of students attending these establishments amounted of late years,
+on an average, to upwards of a thousand. Great prominence has been
+assigned by Government, especially of late, to the extension of public
+instruction. In March, 1857, there were throughout Brazil, 2452 schools,
+(765 private, and 1687 public,) in which instruction was given to 82,243
+children of both sexes.[39] A school of industry, having for its object the
+instruction of able-bodied persons, was opened in 1856, and classes for
+teaching natural philosophy and political administrative science, are in
+process of being introduced. Amongst the scientific establishments of the
+country, the Historico-Geographical Institute occupies the first place,
+the meetings of which are generally attended by the Emperor as honorary
+president. This institution, which occupies in Brazil about the same
+position as the Academy of Sciences in Vienna, directs its special
+attention to the publication of old documents and manuscripts relating to
+the history of Brazil and the aboriginal population; but investigations
+relating to natural history are also included in its domain of enquiry.
+The sittings are held every alternate Friday. The naturalists of the
+_Novara_ attended one of these meetings, which took place in one of the
+wings of the palace. At half-past 6 P.M., the Emperor entered the hall, in
+plain clothes, attended by two chamberlains. All the gentlemen present
+approached one after the other and respectfully kissed the hand of their
+sovereign. On this occasion we remarked that even ladies, when presented
+to the head of the State, were accustomed to kiss his hand. The Imperial
+Honorary President, whose simple apparel was relieved only by the star of
+some order worn on the breast, took his seat at the upper end of a long,
+wide table, covered with green cloth. The associates, with the exception
+of the Vice-President and Secretaries, seemed to have no fixed seats, but
+sat in the order of their arrival. During the sitting there was the most
+marked absence of ceremony, and the business was transacted in the freest
+and easiest manner.
+
+[Footnote 39: Among the higher class of educational institutions, the
+College of Pedro Segundo ranks foremost, and is at present attended by
+about 900 students.]
+
+The proceedings were uninteresting, the greatest portion of the time being
+occupied in reading over the minutes of the last sitting, and replying to
+certain strictures upon the incapacity of land-surveyors in Brazil. Sir
+Robert Schomburgk had, in one of his works published in 1843, upon the
+subject of New Guinea, made some disparaging observations as to the method
+of admeasurement pursued in Brazil, and one member of the society, Dr.
+Schuech de Capanema, seemed to consider it his duty in his double capacity
+as a Brazilian and an engineer, to protest--somewhat tardily it must be
+owned!--against these, according to his opinion, unjust remarks. After the
+discussion was over, a manuscript was next brought forward concerning some
+of the native tribes; His Majesty expressed a wish to have this treatise
+read. The secretary accordingly made the attempt, but the writing was so
+illegible, that he was obliged to abandon the task. At the conclusion of
+the meeting, which lasted upwards of three hours, His Majesty conversed
+very affably with the Austrian gentlemen, and presented each with a copy
+of a national poem, "Conferacao dos Tamoyos," by a native poet, Goncalves
+de Magalhaes, and recently printed at His Majesty's expense, which relates
+the wars of the Tamoyos with the Portuguese residents of San Vincente--
+the last struggle of that heroic Indian race, the founding of Rio, and the
+subjugation of the entire force, under Nictheroy, by the Portuguese.
+
+The _Palaestra Scientifica_ is a branch of this institution, the members
+being chiefly naturalists. The gentlemen of the _Novara_ Expedition were
+invited to one of the meetings, which was inaugurated by the secretary
+reading aloud an ancient manuscript upon the natural resources of various
+provinces in Brazil, according to explorations, which had been undertaken
+in 1798, by the directions and at the cost of the then Portuguese
+Government. There was also read a memoir upon the culture of linseed,
+formerly carried on in the province of St. Catharina, which, however, is
+now entirely discontinued. Dr. Schuech presented to the Society
+vocabularies of the Croado and Puris languages, compiled by M. R. F. de
+Senestes, a retired Belgian ship captain, now resident at Minas, who had
+long traded with these two Indian races. Dr. Schuech also exhibited a
+pigment, or dye-stuff, extracted from the wood of the Ipe-tree, a species
+of bignonia, extensively used in the manufacture of axles. State
+Councillor and Senator Candido Baptista de Oliveira, [formerly Minister
+and Ambassador at St. Petersburg, and at that time publisher and editor of
+the _Rivista Brasileira_ (Brazilian Review)], brought forward some
+meteorological tables, and explained his new method for measuring
+altitudes. The proceedings are usually conducted in the Portuguese
+language; but out of courtesy to the foreigners, French was principally
+spoken, and the President kindly proposed that Dr. Schuech de Capanema, who
+is thoroughly versed in German, should translate into that idiom the
+proceedings as carried on in Portuguese. At the close of the sitting, the
+commander of our Expedition and the various members of the scientific
+commission were named associates of the _Palaestra Scientifica_.
+
+This society had projected an expedition to explore the western provinces
+of the empire, and some of their members were appointed to draw up the
+plan for carrying it out. The arrangements for the enterprise were on the
+grandest scale. The requisite books and scientific apparatus were ordered
+from London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. Every branch of science had its
+representative,--an astronomer, botanist, zoologist, ethnologist, &c.,
+were to accompany the Expedition; each section had a number of assistants,
+the astronomical as many even as nine. When we arrived in Rio, the printed
+instructions for the use of the members were just being distributed; and
+it was asserted that nothing but the non-arrival of the instruments from
+Europe prevented the departure of the Expedition. In short, the
+preparations which were made in the year 1857, justified the hope that a
+most brilliant success would be the result of an undertaking got up on so
+expensive a scale. The only pity is, that up till now--more than three
+years later--the Expedition has had but little result, and, according to
+the latest intelligence from Rio, some of the members in the north-east of
+the province of Ceara cannot proceed any further for want of money (_por
+falta de dinhero_), and expect new funds in order to continue their
+explorations and their efforts in search of the wild tribes (_em busca das
+tribus selvaticas!_) in the interior of Maranhao.
+
+There is, generally speaking, in Brazil, as in all other South-American
+States peopled by the Roman race, much of good-will, and still more
+vanity, to follow in the wake of northern European civilization in
+everything pertaining to progress and investigation; but there is wanting
+that energy, that perseverance so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race,
+which are essential conditions in successfully carrying out any
+undertaking, however zealously entered upon. This probably is the reason
+why in Brazil so many things in science and social life are begun and
+never brought to a conclusion; there is nowhere more talk about _what is
+to be done_, than at Rio de Janeiro. Thus, for example, the Museum of
+Natural History at the Campo Santa Anna, is an elegant building, with
+magnificent apartments, and large elegantly fitted cases--which, however,
+contain as yet but few objects of natural history, even those being most
+unsystematically arranged.
+
+Another educational institution--the Military Academy--founded under John
+VI., in 1810, for the instruction of the engineers and officers of the
+various scientific corps, has, since then, undergone nine reforms, and was
+just about to undergo another one! In this establishment the highly
+objectionable practice still exists, of making every pupil acquainted with
+the chapter and verse of the subjects of examination twenty-four hours
+before it takes place.
+
+The Public Library, though little more than begun at the period of our
+visit, already comprised 86,000 volumes, and is annually increased by an
+addition of five or six hundred. This institution was, in 1856, visited by
+3407 readers, who perused 7717 volumes, mostly in Portuguese and French,
+consisting of 238 on theology, 1046 on political economy, 2879 on natural
+science, 153 on the fine arts, 1083 on history, and 2318 on
+belles-lettres, which furnishes a very fair criterion for estimating the
+education of those availing themselves of these advantages.
+
+Another institution, which is an evidence of the efforts now making by the
+Brazilians to gratify their national vanity, is the _Conservatorio da
+Musica_, a newly-established institution for the promotion of the _opera
+lyrica nacional_, the number of pupils attending which averages 100. A
+custom has lately prevailed of sending one or two of the most gifted of
+these annually to Europe to complete their musical studies. During a four
+years' residence there, each pupil has a stipend from the Imperial
+exchequer of 3000 francs per annum; and in the event of obtaining a prize
+abroad, he receives a gratuity of 1000 francs; his compositions, however,
+in that case become the property of the parent institution. By this means
+the Brazilians hope to render themselves entirely independent of foreign
+musical talent. "Why should we annually pay hundreds of thousands of
+francs to foreign singers and concert-givers?" said a Brazilian to us one
+day in all earnestness. "We shall soon have our own artists--Brazilian
+Thalbergs, Grisis, and Lablaches!" Confessedly the inhabitants of the
+United States have been vain enough in all conscience; but when we
+consider the wonderful advances made by that active, energetic people, and
+contemplate their surpassing qualities, such a national foible is readily
+overlooked. In Brazil, on the contrary, the contempt affected for
+everything foreign, the fretful impatience to become emancipated from the
+smallest resemblance to European customs, is exceedingly childish and even
+ludicrous in a country which can hardly yet be said to be able to stand
+alone, since the pressure of circumstances is daily making them more and
+more dependent on other countries, and where it is necessary to import
+from abroad not merely the evidences of high culture, but the very first
+necessaries of life, even to obtaining supplies of foreign labour. This
+overweening self-esteem has rather increased, since it has become the
+fashion of young Brazilians, of the better classes, to visit Europe for
+the completion of their studies, as will, perhaps, be best illustrated by
+the following laughable anecdote:--A young Brazilian, the son of a German
+father and a native lady, who had but recently returned from Europe,
+overheard one of his friends asking another if he could tell of what
+country he thought the fresh arrival to be, at the same time indicating
+the youth, who just came from the academy of Freiberg. "There can be no
+doubt on that point," was the reply; "the blue eyes, light hair, and fair
+complexion, distinctly indicate that the gentleman is a German." "God
+forbid!" (_Deu m'en guarda!_) exclaimed the young gentleman, who seemed as
+it were ashamed of his foreign descent, and to feel even more indignation
+than a full-blood Brazilian at such a mortifying imputation.
+
+Among the various institutions recently established in Rio, the
+introduction of which is intended to be made available in promoting the
+physical well-being of the people, the foremost place must indisputably be
+assigned to the Board of Health (_Junta Central de Hygiena Publica_). It
+owes its origin to the appearance of the yellow fever and the cholera,
+which had never been known before in the country. The former broke out on
+the 29th December, 1850, having been introduced by vessels that had
+cleared from Bahia, at which port it had been raging for some weeks. The
+ravages of this pestilence were fearful in Rio; out of a population of
+250,000 souls, as many as 120,000 were attacked, and upwards of 5000 fell
+a sacrifice to the disease.
+
+The first case of cholera occurred a few years later, on the 15th of July,
+1855; and during the months in which it prevailed, nearly the same number
+(to be more precise, 4826) of the inhabitants of the capital were carried
+off. The fatal cases throughout the empire from this epidemic during the
+eighteen months between May, 1855, and December, 1856, are said to have
+amounted to the enormous number of 107,093! Dr. Francisco de Paulo
+Candido, one of the most eminent physicians of Rio, and the principal
+member of the Board of Health, states, in a report to the Government,
+relative to the statistics of the cholera throughout the empire, that he
+had observed, during the prevalence of the epidemic, three phenomena,
+which seemed to stand in a certain relation to its appearance, increase,
+and decrease, viz., the almost entire disappearance of the ozon in July
+and following months, when the disease was on the _increase_; the gradual
+increase of that atmospheric agent, in proportion to the decrease of the
+disorder; and lastly, the influence exercised by humidity and sudden
+changes in temperature on the intensity of the disease. Dr. Candido has
+added to his highly instructive report some meteorological tables and a
+graphical representation of the presence and absence of ozon in the
+atmosphere, which will be published, in its proper place, in the medical
+section of the present work.
+
+The consequence of the ravages of these two scourges was, that a variety
+of other measures for securing the public health were inaugurated by the
+newly-established Board of Health. Among others, a hospital was set on
+foot in a charming part of the Cove of Jurujuba,[40] at the eastern
+extremity of the Bay of Rio, expressly for the reception of patients
+afflicted with yellow fever or cholera. Every morning since that attack,
+(and during the unhealthy season several times a day), a small Government
+steamer, fitted up for the purpose, plies round the bay, to take up any
+cases that may happen to occur on board the ships arriving, and convey
+them hither free of charge. Two medical men on board the steamer commence
+the treatment, by applying the necessary remedies, during the passage
+from the ship to the hospital. Any vessel at anchor in the bay with an
+epidemic on board, has, according to arrangement, simply to hoist a flag
+on the mainmast, whereupon the Government steamer immediately embarks the
+sick persons. In order more effectually to keep from all contact with the
+population of the town, such shipboard patients as are labouring under
+infectious complaints, another hospital has been established on the Island
+of Marica, situated beyond the bar.
+
+[Footnote 40: Pronounced Shooru-shooba.]
+
+In consequence of these recent epidemic attacks, much greater attention
+than formerly has of late been paid to the cleanliness of the capital of
+the Brazilian empire, though a great deal has yet to be done in this
+respect. Rio used to be, without exception, the dirtiest city in the
+world. As there were neither gutters nor sewers, all impurities
+accumulated during the twenty-four hours used, towards evening, to be
+carried by negroes on their heads, in pails and casks, to the bay, and,
+singularly enough, emptied in the immediate vicinity of the Imperial
+palace, whereby several quarters of the city, particularly in the hot
+season, were rendered entirely uninhabitable. The execution of proper
+drainage and sewerage works in a city such as Rio, which lies on a flat
+and is densely built near the water, must be at all times attended with a
+very large expenditure of money. But who would boggle at any amount for an
+object which concerns the bodily health, not merely of the present, but of
+all succeeding generations? At the period of our visit, the Government had
+entered into a contract with Messrs. Joaquim Pereira de Lima and J. F.
+Russell, by which, in consideration of a lease for ninety years of
+certain taxes specially levied, the two contractors have undertaken to
+introduce into the capital of Brazil a system of harbour and street
+purification, similar to that which has long been in general use
+throughout England. There had also been lately started a _Companhia
+Reformadora_, having for object the widening and beautifying of certain
+streets, and the improvement of the paving. One must have lived in Rio,
+where each street and open square is a hotbed of fever and sickness, to be
+able aright to estimate the importance of the two last-named associations.
+
+A war steamer was, by the command of H.M. the Emperor of Brazil, placed at
+our disposal, to afford us an opportunity of viewing more closely the most
+beautiful points in the magnificent bay of Rio. There were on board with
+us the Captain of the Port, Dom Francisco de Perura Pinto, the captains of
+the Brazilian men-of-war lying in the harbour, as also several members of
+the Historico-Geographical Institute. A military band enlivened the party
+by playing national airs during the day. We first visited the south-east
+part of the bay at the villages of San Domingo and Ponta da Armacao,
+opposite to Ponta da Area, whence steamers, for navigating the bay and
+adjoining coast, are run by an English company, which employs 667 hands,
+(of whom 298 are foreigners, 207 natives, and 162 negro slaves). Except a
+part of the funds advanced by native capitalists, the whole undertaking is
+carried out by foreigners. England furnishes the engineers and machinery,
+whilst the requisite timber is brought from Norway and North America. The
+value of the labour employed during 1856 amounted to nearly L90,000.--We
+proceeded hence past the islands of Salinas and Honorio, and between the
+island of Baretto and the eastern shore of the bay, as far as the
+luxuriant island of Paqueta, on the lovely shores of which we landed. It
+has a circumference of five miles, and is inhabited by 16,000 persons, who
+convert shells into chalk; nearly all the houses on shore are chalk-kilns.
+During the dry season this island is the favourite Sunday resort of the
+_fluminenses_, as the Rio de Janeirians delight to call themselves. From
+this sweet spot the steamer carried us to the north side of the bay. In
+the back-ground, the Organos mountains now appeared in all the majesty of
+their imposing outline, whilst on one of the projecting ridges, the church
+San Francisco de Croara forms an extremely picturesque object.
+
+[Illustration: ISLAND OF PAQUITA, BAY OF RIO.]
+
+The more the northern portion of the bay is approached, the more romantic
+becomes the panorama of the mountains: from this point stand out in their
+full grandeur the Serra da Estrella, the Serra da Tingua (which is
+currently believed to be the highest mountain, not merely on the bay, but
+in Brazil), then the deep valley of Santa Cruz, next to which the
+mountain-chains of Suaratyba, and the Serra de Iguassou, rise
+majestically, melting away into the charming Tejuca chain, the Gavia, and
+the world-renowned Corcovado, whilst the Sugar Loaf, that gigantic
+guardian at the entrance of the harbour, splendidly terminates this
+magnificent amphitheatre.
+
+We passed the largest of the islands in the bay, the Ilha do Governador,
+which has a circumference of upwards of seven miles, and is inhabited by
+about a hundred persons chiefly employed in the chalk-kilns, sail-cloth
+and soap manufactories; and touched at some wild spots that promised a
+harvest for our naturalists. Here and there, from the deep blue waters,
+sprang up islands of the most luxuriant vegetation, like tropical idylls
+of rock and forest, such as the eye marvels to rest upon, but the pen
+refuses to describe. Indelibly impressed on our minds remains in this
+respect the lovely islet of Catalan, with its beautiful flowers and palms.
+
+On approaching the capital, towards the east of the bay, passing the
+island Bom Jesus, with a magnificent Franciscan monastery, and the Ponta
+do Caju, with charming country seats, a forest of masts, strikes the eye
+in bold contrast with the Sugar Loaf in the east, and the Morro de Viracao
+and the fort Pico in the west, which covers the position of Santa Cruz.
+Unfortunately we went down, just at this point, to a splendid banquet,
+etiquette requiring that we should exchange the quarter-deck for the
+state-room; for in Brazil also, upon such occasions, meals and
+speechifying play an important part, and greatly prejudice the special
+object of travel--the enjoyment of nature.
+
+We were not yet done, however, with our excursion. Again we turned towards
+the beautiful Cove of Jurujuba, where on the shore lay pretty little
+cottages embowered in the richest foliage, while, through a deep
+depression, appeared the masts of ships which were still on the bosom of
+the ocean outside, on the point of entering the harbour. As the vessel
+steamed in, the scenery changed character at every moment, like a fairy
+landscape, full of the loveliest, most enchanting glimpses of the
+surrounding country. At Jurujuba, we landed to visit the _Hospital
+Maritimo de S. Isabel_, erected in 1853, for the reception of sailors in
+ill-health of all nations and creeds. It proved of immense utility during
+the prevalence of epidemics. In the five years of its existence at the
+period of our visit, there had been admitted nearly 6000 cases of yellow
+fever.[41] For the excellent management of this fine hospital the utmost
+credit is due to the physicians in charge, Dr. Bento Maria da Costa, and
+Dr. Jose Teixeira da Souza.
+
+[Footnote 41: In the year 1856, 2452 patients were received into the
+hospital at Jurujuba Cove, of whom 175 died, 2195 were dismissed cured,
+and 82 remained under treatment. By comparison with former years, the
+number of sick seemed to have fallen off 13 per cent., while the expenses
+of management had increased 9 per cent.]
+
+The ground immediately surrounding the hospital has been reclaimed by the
+hand of man, and transformed into a garden, in which flourish, in
+solitary majesty, the shady _Aleurites triloba_ and the _Anda Gomesii_,
+growing in avenues or other regular groups, after all wild vegetation had
+been cut down. But at the first step beyond, the foot of the wanderer
+through these solitudes strikes into paths leading through the richest,
+densest forest scenery Casuarinas (_Anacardium occidentale_), with its
+luscious pear-shaped fruits, the Indian mango-tree, the various species of
+Eugenia, so rich in ethereal oil, the Figuera Branca (_ficus doliaria_),
+the canoe-tree, a gigantic species of _Bombax_, protected by sharp spines,
+and other lofty forest-children, reach to the very buildings; while, amid
+the dense underwood that grows unchecked, and a few paces distant only
+from the dwellings of man, lurk dangerously poisonous snakes, who find
+here a secure haunt. Within our own experience, as one of the botanists of
+the Expedition was placing a ladder against a primaeval forest tree, the
+progenitor of numberless scions, he stumbled upon a poisonous Jacaraca,
+ready to defend from intrusion his accustomed resting-place.
+
+At the north-west entrance of Jurujuba Cove, rises a lofty island, with
+the appropriate name of Bom Viajem ("a happy voyage"), with its church of
+the Virgin of the same name, situate on the extreme summit, 400 feet in
+height. As, during our visit to the hospital, the twilight had crept
+stealthily on, we returned without further stoppage to Rio; when the
+company, landing at the usual landing-place of the arsenal, separated,
+full of the most pleasing impressions, arising from the beautiful scenery
+enjoyed during the day, and a deep sense of gratitude for the noble
+hospitality shown us by our amiable hosts.
+
+Another favour was conferred by Drs. de Lagos and Schuech, who formed a
+fishing-party on a grand scale, which was greatly enjoyed by all, though
+the gun proved more profitable to our naturalists than rod, line, or net.
+
+As the number of days at our disposal in Rio Janeiro began to diminish, we
+applied ourselves to seeing the utmost possible with the smallest
+sacrifice of time. The morning after our excursion on board the Santa
+Cruz, we attended a sitting of the Chamber of Deputies. The hall, oval in
+shape, is plainly, but comfortably fitted up. The members sit on benches
+in a semicircle. Opposite the president stand tables for the ministers of
+state; at the upper and lower end of the hall are galleries for the
+public, and one is specially assigned to the diplomatic body. Each member
+speaks from his place. Their language is very free and their behaviour
+still more so,--they sometimes carry this so far as not to allow a speaker
+to proceed; and in screaming, brawling, and violence, they excel even
+certain members of the late French Chamber of Deputies. There are said to
+be some very able speakers amongst the Brazilians. The subject of debate
+was a petition presented to the House for an inquiry into the conduct of a
+late minister of justice, who was accused of having tyrannically dismissed
+a government officer in the province of Maranhao. The subject had created
+great interest in the public mind, and the galleries were crowded to
+suffocation; we did not remain till the conclusion of the debate, but the
+minister is said to have justified the proceeding by proving that the
+officer had allowed himself to be bribed.
+
+On the same day we made an excursion to the Serra da Estrella and
+Petropolis, a place which has of late excited so much attention in the
+public journals, since the question of German emigration to Brazil, with
+its accompaniments of agitations by the Brazilian recruiting agents, began
+to assume its present remarkable proportions. Though the distance from Rio
+to Petropolis may be accomplished in four hours, yet three different
+vehicles are required:--in the first place, a steamer from Rio to the
+railway-station on the opposite side of the bay, then the railway to
+Fragosa, and lastly, a carriage to the final destination over an excellent
+road which runs through the mountains to Petropolis.
+
+This fine work, which was opened in 1848, is unfortunately the only one of
+its kind in the whole empire,[42] as are likewise the five miles of
+railway between Maua and Fragosa; and yet how highly important would
+railway communication prove from the metropolis to the northern provinces,
+by means of which the excessive cost of carriage by mules might be so
+considerably reduced, benefiting alike the landowner and the merchant! As
+an illustration, the fact may be mentioned, that the cost of transit for
+an arroba (32 lbs.) of coffee from the coffee district of Vassouras to
+Rio, a distance of about 50 miles, amounts to from 700 to 800 reis (about
+1_s._ 8_d._). The trouble and expense connected with this miserable mode
+of conveyance, so much enhance the price of some kinds of natural produce,
+that it does not pay to transport them to the harbour of the capital.
+Several companies have latterly been projected, and money subscribed for
+constructing railways in the various provinces of the empire, and a few of
+these are already under weigh, as, for example, that of Dom Pedro Segundo,
+which will put the richest provinces in direct communication with Rio, and
+for which the amount of money required has been entirely subscribed. But
+in this, as in all other Brazilian enterprises, energy is wanting to make
+these good intentions bear fruit; and so long as there is not a greater
+admixture of foreign go-a-head-ativeness in the country, much must remain
+confined to the mere expression of patriotic wishes. And in this
+connection, foreign immigration, of which we shall treat further on, will
+prove of immense importance.
+
+[Footnote 42: This road is to be continued from Petropolis as far as
+Parahyba; and in various other directions also the building of roads for
+commercial traffic is being fostered by Government. The Brazilian
+Government are at the same time turning their attention to improving the
+existing means of transport by importing dromedaries for use. As it
+withstands variation of temperature, and thrives on almost any kind of
+nourishment, the dromedary is certain to do well, especially in the
+northern provinces, and will prove exceedingly serviceable in the
+transport of the products of that section of the country. The great heat
+and drought which prevail in Maranhao, Piauhy, Matto Grosso, and that
+direction generally, is eminently suitable to the dromedary, which does
+not thrive in hot _damp_ weather. It is calculated that a dromedary, which
+can carry an average weight of 700 pounds, (being six times what a horse,
+and four times what a mule will carry on his back), costs, in his own
+country, from L12 to L16; and after paying cost of transport to Brazil,
+will be worth L48. With the introduction of the "ship of the desert," that
+of the date-palm must go hand in hand, as that fruit constitutes the chief
+food of the dromedary, and will probably simultaneously effect a great
+change in the articles of consumption by the lower orders.]
+
+The journey by carriage through the Sierra from Fragosa to Petropolis is
+extremely beautiful. He who is not fortunate enough to enter deeper into
+the interior, at least obtains here an idea of what constitutes a primaeval
+Brazilian forest. The wonders of tropical vegetation, as manifested not
+only by vastness of form but also by gorgeous and rank luxuriance, strike
+the eye at first-sight almost the same way as an overpowering chorus
+affects the ear. It requires time to collect the thoughts, so as to be
+able to appreciate and enjoy thoroughly the extraordinary beauties that
+impress the wondering mind.
+
+If the eye of the astonished traveller has been but in the most cursory
+manner directed to the vegetable phenomena that surround him, it must have
+rested on a climbing plant, which constitutes one of the chief marvels of
+the native woods. This singular creeper is the _Cipo matador_, a climbing
+plant of a very peculiar aspect, at once the most powerful and most
+destructive of all the Cipo tribe. It twines round the stems of lofty
+trees, which its flattened coils gradually constrict with almost life-like
+cruelty! Its aerial roots run out from all parts and embrace the tree like
+artificial clamps, forming in some places complete rings, and in others
+growing into the very bark. The tree, in consequence of this parasitic
+embrace, dies away by degrees, whilst its destroyer continues to grow
+gaily on the corpse of its victim, and spreads its leafy crown until it
+falls and perishes simultaneously with the support that had hitherto
+upheld it. To what profound reflections does the contemplation of this
+spectacle give rise! Involuntarily our thoughts fly from the wild
+Brazilian forest to the plains of civilization,--to the modern society
+where, likewise, many a noble human nature is slowly undermined by a
+treacherous Cipo matador of flesh and blood, till too surely he falls
+prone on the ground!
+
+Petropolis is, on account of its more temperate and healthy climate, a
+favourite residence of the wealthy Rio de Janeirians, and during the hot
+season, when the sultriness of the air, if not something worse, renders
+life almost unendurable, Petropolis is said to have the appearance of a
+European spa. It is at the same time the summer residence of the Emperor,
+and the only place in Brazil where an electric telegraph--uniting it with
+Rio de Janeiro--has been established. The town contains about 7000
+inhabitants; the streets, when completed, will be broad and handsome,--but
+only one has as yet been finished, the others being merely marked out,
+while even among the clean and neat houses already erected, there are
+frequent and wide gaps.
+
+The German colony, planned by a German engineer, Julius Friedr. Koehler, is
+at a little distance from Petropolis. The first colonists who arrived on
+the 30th of July, 1845, came mostly from Baden and the Rhenish provinces.
+The Government granted to each family a cottage, with a slice of forest
+near it, a cow, a dozen of chickens, and about L5 in money. Such at least
+was the information given us at Petropolis. Koehler soon afterwards met
+with a sad end at a newly-formed shooting ground. Many an emigrant family
+perished in misery; others, however, overcame the difficulties that beset
+them at the commencement; more emigrants arrived, and now one may walk,
+within a few hours, through the Rhine and Mosel valleys, Nassau,
+Darmstadt, Ingelheim, Bingen, the Palatinate and Switzerland, as the
+emigrants, in fond commemoration of their native homes, call their small
+settlements, which run some distance through the mountain valleys. The
+German origin of these settlements displays itself distinctly in the
+cleanliness and neatness of their log cabins, the affability of the
+people, the heartiness of their greeting, the fair hair, curly heads, and
+beautiful blue eyes of the children, as well as the language and music
+which is now and then heard.
+
+Petropolis is, however, not an agricultural colony in the real sense of
+the word, the majority of the 2500 Germans settled there obtaining a
+livelihood as artizans and labourers. The Government has done much to
+promote the growth of the colony, by making roads, and establishing
+schools. Still the people never become agriculturists, on account of the
+sterility of the soil; but as the road to the province of Minas Geraes
+runs through the place, the settlement will always retain some importance.
+For the cargoes of coffee which are conveyed by mules from the interior to
+the harbour, Petropolis is the last station, and will remain so for a long
+time yet, for the large outlay required renders it unlikely that the
+projected railway will soon be completed.
+
+Several attempts have been made to establish similar German colonies in
+various provinces of the empire, but, unfortunately, with as yet even less
+success than in the Serra da Estrella. However, the activity of the
+Brazilian emigration agents has much increased in different German ports;
+for the remarkable words of the Emperor, with which he opened the
+Chambers in May, 1854, at Rio,--"The necessity of a settled industrious
+population becomes more and more urgent,"--have become since then even
+more significant; in fact, the result of the endeavours on the part of the
+Government to increase the amount of labour by immigration, is now a
+question of life or death for the empire. Every disinterested person feels
+that, without an increase of labour, productive activity is impossible;
+nay, some even apprehend a considerable decrease in the producing
+capabilities of the country, in consequence of the effect to be
+anticipated in Brazil from the abolition of the slave-trade by the
+interference of England. Up to the year 1851, the importation of negro
+slaves continued undiminished, notwithstanding the treaty with England of
+1826, in which the abolition of the slave-trade forms one of the
+conditions on which the recognition of the Brazilian crown by the
+Government of Her Britannic Majesty was made specially contingent.
+According to a statement of the Foreign Office, there were from 1842 to
+1851 (despite the treaty) 325,615 negroes sold as slaves in Brazil, so
+that the amount of the slave population is now upwards of 2,000,000 souls.
+
+The condition of the black population in this country is materially
+different from that of the United States and the West Indies. The colour
+of the skin, which renders the life of even free and prosperous negroes
+almost intolerable in the northern states of America, where they are
+subject to so many humiliations, makes in Brazil no difference whatever.
+The question here is not whether white or black, but whether free or a
+slave. Free negroes may here occupy the highest places in the State, and
+even exercise a certain influence on the destiny of the white inhabitants.
+Slaves also are treated here with more humanity and less prejudice than in
+any other country visited by me, on which the curse of slavery yet rests;
+yet it must be confessed, without hesitation, that slavery, as beheld in
+Brazil, seems even a greater misfortune to the white population than to
+the black; for neither agriculture nor industry can thrive in a country
+where labour is not considered, as in free States, an honourable
+occupation--but rather as a disgrace--in consequence of its being
+performed by slaves. Not merely the blacks, who have no interest in being
+industrious, but their masters also are lazy, and approaching ruin becomes
+more and more certain. Free labour alone, by obtaining the upper hand in
+the country, can remedy these things. Slave labour cannot long compete
+with it. The intelligence, activity, and perseverance of 100,000 free
+white labourers will promote the prosperity and the happiness of Brazil,
+much more than the compulsory labour of two millions of negroes in
+bondage.
+
+In consequence of repeated and energetic remonstrances on the part of the
+British Government, the slave-trade has now ceased in Brazil, and "one of
+the grandest monuments of our century," as the celebrated declaration by
+the Congress of Vienna termed the entire suppression of the
+slave-trade,[43] may be considered by this circumstance approaching its
+termination.
+
+[Footnote 43: Declaration des puissances sur l'abolition de la traite des
+negres, du 8 Fevrier, 1815. L. Neumann, Recueil des traites et conventions
+conclus par l'Autriche (Leipzig, 1856. Vol. II., p. 502).]
+
+As the Government became convinced that there was not the least hope of
+reaping any advantage from civilizing the aboriginal tribes, it had
+recourse to free immigration, and promoted it in every way.[44] It
+endeavoured, particularly in the warmer northern provinces, to replace the
+deficiency of negroes by Chinese Coolies, who were imported from different
+parts of China; but they could not stand the climate, and were not found
+capable of advantageously replacing the negro in his various and often
+very heavy labour. This partially arose from the indiscriminate selection
+of the immigrants, as the agents, when they could not obtain able-bodied
+men, did not scruple to make up their cargo with whatever came to hand.
+
+[Footnote 44: It may be useful, however, on many accounts to observe, that
+the Brazilian Government take considerable pains to adapt this doomed race
+for a civilized mode of existence. A law of 19th September, 1855, assigned
+an annual sum of L6000 for the proper execution of this humane project. In
+order to remedy the very marked deficiency of suitable missionaries, the
+Government, through its representative in Paris, invited a number of
+Catholic priests from France--men, whose rearing and zeal for their faith
+had effected such marvels among the Indians of Canada. But the aborigines
+of Brazil seem hopelessly degraded, and are destined, after having filled
+their appointed place in the history of nations, to make room for a more
+energetically endowed race.]
+
+The Government pays, therefore, the utmost attention to European
+immigration; it has agents in Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, and
+especially in Germany; and endeavours to organize associations that have
+for their object the settlement of industrious labourers in the country,
+and to support colonies already in existence, till they are in a position
+to maintain themselves. In Brazil, the conviction is pretty general, that
+only an emigration _en masse_ of white labour can save this splendid
+country from ruin, though there are individuals who entertain a different
+opinion, and think--perhaps not altogether without reason--that the energy
+and industry of European settlers might eventually--considering the
+indolent and careless disposition of their countrymen--prove destructive
+to the national element!
+
+The most striking proof of how thoroughly in earnest the leading members
+of the Brazilian Government are in their efforts to procure an immigration
+of foreign labour, may be found in the report of the Commission upon the
+new tariff, in which the following passage occurs, illustrative of the
+advantages which may be expected to be reaped from European emigration on
+a large scale:--"'These foreign labourers arrive here poor, and depart
+from the country laden with our gold and silver, and, like blood-suckers,
+absorb our natural riches!' is the remark of those who are ignorant of the
+true interests of Brazil. For to whom are we indebted for our capital, for
+the industry and commerce which we have? To whom belong those
+manufactories which the people want to protect, and in whose favour so
+much is said? Why, to foreigners! Foreign hands and foreign capital
+cultivate our soil, expand our trade and commerce, and promote the arts.
+The _results_ of their labour remain, though they may themselves quit the
+country! Foreigners man our ships, build our manufactories, and supply
+them with hands; foreigners buy our produce and carry it to distant
+markets; foreigners render our forests and rivers productive; they work
+our mines, uncover the metallic wealth of our country, and educate our
+children! Capital, practical science, instruments, and machines, with
+which we perform our labours, belong mostly to foreigners; and,
+consequently, these blood-suckers are just the very men who render our
+land productive, preserving, instead of, as some erroneously imagine,
+depriving us of our vitality. The money which they take back to their
+homes is amply replaced by the treasures they leave behind in the product
+of their labour, and in the branches of industry which they have
+introduced or improved."[45]
+
+[Footnote 45: Of the sixty-four manufactories and workshops, twenty-eight
+belong to foreigners; and there is not a single industrial establishment
+in which foreigners are not employed, either as managers, engineers, or
+labourers.]
+
+More explicitly and discerningly it was hardly possible for Government to
+speak, and to enumerate the glorious results which the country may expect
+from the introduction of foreign industry and foreign activity, although
+such an official avowal could not fail to wound the national pride of the
+Brazilians.
+
+Notwithstanding this strong language of the Government, and all the
+enticements and zealous activity of the Brazilian agents in the various
+ports of Europe, the emigration to that country, in 1856, amounted to
+only 13,800 souls.[46] Among this number there were but 628 agriculturists,
+all the others coming merely with the view of obtaining a livelihood in
+the capital as artizans and labourers. There are probably in all the
+Brazilian agricultural colonies, at this moment, not more than 40,000
+emigrants settled, that is to say, about as many as emigrate in the course
+of three months to the United States!
+
+[Footnote 46: Namely: 9159 Portuguese, 1822 Germans, and 2819 of other
+nations.]
+
+The number of Germans emigrating to Brazil is strikingly small, when
+compared with the total annual emigration from that country. Of 61,413
+individuals, who, in 1856, embarked from Hamburg and Bremen, only 1822
+went to Brazil. The cause of this may be that, simultaneously with the
+large promises held out by the agents, warning voices were heard depicting
+in the most gloomy colours the terrible trials that await the unfortunate
+immigrant on his touching Brazilian soil.[47] Of late such excellent works
+have been published concerning Brazil, that we may advise all who take a
+special interest in the condition of that empire to study these works, the
+more so as the views therein expressed exactly coincide with our own
+impressions.[48]
+
+[Footnote 47: Among these, the opposition of the late Consul-General for
+Brazil at Dresden, Mr. John Sturz, deserves special mention, as, despite
+the threats of losing his appointment, that gentleman was incessantly
+occupied in exposing the iniquities of the Parceria system (see _post_),
+and recommending the immigrant, so long as such a slavish system
+continued, to refrain from turning his steps towards Brazil. Mr. Sturz had
+recently the enviable misfortune of being sacrificed to his own strong
+sense of justice, and dismissed from all employment by the Brazilian
+administration, though not without carrying with him the respect and
+admiration of every friend of humanity. An excellent and circumstantial
+description of the present condition of the German colonies in southern
+Brazil will be found in Dr. Ave Lallemant's attractive "Travels through
+Southern Brazil in 1858." (Leipzig, 1859.)]
+
+[Footnote 48: H. Handelmann's "History of Brazil" (Berlin, 1860), a
+remarkably profound and instructive work, devotes a special section (p.
+933) to the subject of German emigration, and gives a very copious and
+complete insight into the various missions and works since 1819 to the
+present day, which treat of German emigration and colonization.]
+
+So long as the unoccupied lands are not surveyed, laid out in lots, and
+sold at a small rate to the settler, as, for instance, in the United
+States; so long as the immigrant is unable to improve for himself his own
+plot of ground, but must remain a mere field-labourer, working for some
+foreign master, according to the iniquitous _Parceria_, or half-profits
+system;[49] so long as the expense of transport of the emigrant is to be
+worked off by future payments out of his labour, so long must every friend
+of humanity strongly dissuade the emigrant from proceeding to the great
+South American Empire.
+
+[Footnote 49: The modern Brazilian system of _Parceria_ may be shortly
+stated as that by which a planter engages in Europe such of the poorer
+classes as are desirous of emigrating, and has them transported at his own
+cost to Brazil, where they are engaged as farmers, with half profits, upon
+the coffee and sugar plantations, and contracting to reimburse him, by
+their personal services and labour, for the outlay he has been at for
+their transport, maintenance, instruction, &c. Until all these have been
+repaid by the improvement in the rent or productive powers of the land,
+they must remain, as working out their emancipation from the lord of the
+soil, veritable "_adscripti glebae_." After that has been attained they are
+free people, and may leave if they please, or may sink into the rank of
+"unattached labourers," which implies their assigning half of the net
+produce of the land to the ground landlord, the remaining half being their
+remuneration for labour. Proprietorship in the soil is never attainable by
+these farmers on half profits, inasmuch as the Parceria system can only
+exist where the soil is already exclusively vested in a planting
+aristocracy. (See Handelmann, etc., p. 568).]
+
+For Brazil, beautiful, fertile, and abounding in undeveloped natural
+wealth, two alternatives are alone open at present--either ruin to the
+producing power of the population through deficiency of industrial power,
+or the throwing open the land to foreign emigration by means of the most
+extensive concessions. The longer this is deferred, the more oppressively
+will the want of manual labour manifest itself; and the more advantages
+will foreign emigration secure.
+
+Once, however, these important stipulations are conceded, the German
+emigrants may forthwith bend their steps to the coasts of Brazil, where
+the glorious dawn of a magnificent future is surely breaking for them.
+While, in the United States, the problem to be solved by the German
+emigrants seems to be, to mingle German industry, German capacity, and
+German knowledge, with the keen spirit of enterprise and restless energy
+of the Anglo-Saxon race, and gradually to assimilate with it,--on the
+other hand, in the South American continent, it appears as though the
+German element were about gradually to gain the upperhand of the Latin
+stock, and permanently to conquer for German industry and German commerce,
+one of the fairest countries on the globe with the weapons of peace--the
+spade and plough.
+
+Brazil is, however, of great interest to Germany not merely on account of
+the prospects she holds out for its overflowing population. A market,
+teeming with the most important colonial products, with an area[50] of
+3,956,800 English square miles, and an annual consumption of nearly
+L10,000,000, must in the highest degree attract the attention and excite
+the most favourable anticipations of a country such as Germany, the
+majority of whose inhabitants are engaged in manufactures.
+
+[Footnote 50: According to the computation of the Historico-Geographical
+Institute of Brazil.]
+
+The chief article of Brazilian trade at present is coffee, the production
+of which, in consequence of the great profit of late years derived from
+it, has increased so much, that it has superseded the cultivation of all
+other produce; thus, notwithstanding the fertility and capability of the
+ground, even the commonest necessaries of life, as, for instance,
+potatoes, must be imported from abroad, the majority of the rural
+population being engaged in labour for the foreign market, and only very
+few for home consumption. This is the principal cause of the enormous
+prices which, even the most indispensable necessaries have reached in Rio
+de Janeiro.
+
+Brazil grows annually, in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and Santa
+Catharina, 5,190,000 quintals of coffee, consequently more than
+three-fifths of the entire amount produced on the whole earth, and of this
+the province of Rio de Janeiro alone yields two-thirds.
+
+The most important objects of export, besides coffee, are sugar, rice,
+cotton, hides, and dried meat, together with dye and cabinet woods. The
+progressive decrease of late years in these articles may probably be
+ascribed to the want of sufficient labour, as well as to the great extent
+to which the culture of coffee has been carried.
+
+Although the trade carried on between Brazil and Europe, and its great
+importance, will form the object of a special work, we cannot help
+noticing in this place as a very interesting fact, that among the
+importations, that of wheat-flour holds a very conspicuous place, above
+300,000 barrels of 200 lbs. each being annually consumed, of which
+seventeen twentieths are supplied by the United States, two twentieths
+from Trieste and Fiume, and the remaining one twentieth from Lisbon and
+Valparaiso. The flour from Trieste, by reason of its whiteness and
+superior quality, commands a high price, so as to necessitate its being
+mixed in baking with that from Baltimore. We were told it occasionally
+happens, that the best quality of the much-appreciated Trieste or Fontana
+flour reaches the price, altogether unapproachable by the finest American
+flour, of 64 to 66 shillings the barrel.
+
+As in the interior of the country the flour chiefly used is that called
+Mandioca, prepared from the root of _Jatropha Manihot_, it follows that
+the chief consumer of wheaten flour is Rio itself, the monthly consumption
+amounting to upwards of 16,500 barrels. The reason for the small sale of
+the Austrian manufactures in Brazil must be sought for, not so much in the
+deficient supplies of the articles required, as in the circumstance that
+the Austrian manufacturers have not hitherto found it much their interest
+to study the Brazilian market, so as to make the requisite alterations in
+the method of producing their fabrics, and thus render them suitable for
+that purpose. What little of our Austrian manufactures is at present
+exported for Brazilian consumption, seems at present to follow the, to all
+appearance, much less natural route northwards, and instead of proceeding
+from Trieste direct, is exported from Bremen or Hamburg as fabrics of
+Northern Germany.
+
+During our stay at Rio, Commodore Wuellerstorf, accompanied by Captain
+Poeck, and one of the members of the scientific commission, had the honour
+of being presented to the Emperor and Empress of Brazil, at a private
+audience. The reception took place at the winter residence of St.
+Christoph. It is an old unsightly building, and still unfinished, the
+central part especially having been for some years in a ruinous condition.
+The Emperor seems not to be partial to display, and a very characteristic
+anecdote in this respect, which does him great credit, is very generally
+reported. On the occasion of a visit to the splendid lunatic asylum of
+Botafogo, one of the ministers remarked to His Majesty that the inmates of
+the establishment were better and more elegantly lodged than himself. "It
+will always afford me great pleasure," was the reply, "to know that these
+unfortunate people are better provided for than I am."
+
+At the entrance of the palace at St. Christoph, the gentlemen of the
+Expedition were received by an ecclesiastic, who led them into an
+exceedingly plain ante-chamber, the furniture of which seemed to belong to
+bygone centuries. Several of the ministers of state, whose servants
+carried large portfolios, exchanged compliments with the Austrian
+minister, and entered the contiguous apartments. Chamberlains and
+domestics of the court looked stealthily at the strangers, and disappeared
+as rapidly as they had come. It seemed as though these presentations were
+of infrequent occurrence. At last, about half-past 6 P.M. the door opened,
+when His Majesty and the ministers walked through the room into the hall
+of audience, into which the gentlemen of the Expedition were soon
+afterwards conducted by a chamberlain. The Austrian minister presented
+each separately to His Majesty Dom Pedro II., who is the son of an
+Austrian Archduchess, and received the gentlemen in the uniform of an
+admiral, surrounded by all his ministers. He is a fine-looking man, of
+some 30 years of age, of stately appearance, but with a voice somewhat too
+thin for so robust a person. The portrait on the Brazilian coinage is
+remarkably like. The conversation was carried on in French; it is said,
+however, that the Emperor speaks German fluently. He conversed very
+affably and graciously with every one, and had something agreeable to say
+to each, expressing much interest in the _Novara_ Expedition. After
+several questions, the Emperor wished us success on our future voyage, and
+retired, upon which the audience was at an end.
+
+After the members of the Expedition had remained a short space in a corner
+of the audience chamber, they were conducted through a narrow boarded
+passage to the apartments of the Empress. In the ante-chamber we again
+encountered the Emperor, who had exchanged his admiral's uniform for plain
+clothes, and now stood before us in the undress black frock he usually
+wears.
+
+We were now ushered into the small and very plainly furnished
+reception-room of the Empress, in which there was nothing to attract
+attention except a couple of highly-finished portraits. Her Majesty, a
+sister of the late King Ferdinand II. of Naples, and of Queen Maria
+Christina of Spain, was in mourning owing to a death in the family. She
+was only attended by one lady in waiting, and received us with infinite
+grace. She is rather short in stature, and although still young, looks
+aged; in conversation she becomes however very animated, and thereby gains
+in gracefulness; her favourite theme was Italy, on which she dwelt with
+childlike fondness. Speaking of Naples, its charming bay, of the Vesuvius,
+and the lovely walk of Santa Lucia, near the sea, the tone of her voice
+became involuntarily more lively. Notwithstanding the tropical splendour,
+and an Imperial throne, the Princess seems to have a great longing for her
+native land. Alas! even an imperial crown is no protection against the
+yearning for home!
+
+During our stay here, the anniversary came round of the birth of our
+gracious Emperor, which was celebrated in the most festive manner. From
+early dawn the frigate appeared decked out in her gayest flags, which was
+similarly responded to by the English and French ships of war in the
+harbour. At 8 A.M., with the customary salutes of the ensign, a salute of
+twenty-one guns was fired, as also at mid-day and sunset. At 11 A.M., the
+crew were paraded and divine service was performed, to which our resident
+envoy and his family were invited, together with the acting
+Consul-General, the captain of an Austrian vessel, and a few Austrians who
+happened to be at that time in Rio. After service, the foreign guests and
+several officers of the staff were entertained by the commodore at
+breakfast. In the evening there was a banquet at the hotel of the envoy,
+at which were present several notabilities of the empire of Brazil, among
+others, Viscount Maranguape, minister of foreign affairs, and the Senator
+Viscount de Uruguay. In the garden of the club the frigate's band of music
+played chiefly German and Austrian pieces, which awoke in the bosoms of
+many the most tender recollections.
+
+The frequent arrival of men of war in the bay of Rio gives rise to an
+almost continual firing; each vessel entering fires a royal salute, which
+is answered by the fortress and the other ships of war in the harbour.
+During our stay we discharged not less than 432 salvos, while all the men
+of war together fired at least 1500 salvos, thus making, within three
+weeks, about 5250 rounds of gunpowder, used merely in salutes.
+
+The 31st of August had been fixed as the date of our departure. During the
+latter days of our stay, there had been frequent collations on board to
+make some return to those who had shown us attention. Several of the sick,
+one midshipman and two sailors, had to be left behind in hospital, where
+they received the most careful treatment, while Dr. Ave Robert Lallemant,
+who, by the kind recommendation of Humboldt, had been permitted by the
+Archduke to accompany the Expedition with the rank of surgeon of corvette,
+for the purpose of prosecuting his studies of yellow fever, was, at his
+own request, put ashore at Rio, whence he afterwards undertook the journey
+through Southern Brazil already alluded to.
+
+The night previous, three sailors had deserted from a boat sent on shore
+to bring back some officers. The system of kidnapping, as is well known,
+flourishes in Rio, and many a ship is said to have lost, in this way, from
+thirty to forty men. The crimps, who make their living by this traffic in
+man, entice young and robust sailors to desert by means of all imaginable
+allurements and promises, making advances in money, and leading them into
+a dissolute life, in order that, when afterwards they find themselves in a
+desperate state, and without resources, they may be sold by the scoundrels
+to the captains of vessels, as sailors, or, what is worse, as white
+slaves, to the planters in the interior. This abominable trade is said to
+be carried on, on a great scale, by an Italian, in Catumby Grande, and
+though the Brazilian police is perfectly cognizant of the haunts of the
+fellow, yet it seems not to be powerful enough to put a stop to the
+nuisance.
+
+These incidents did not, however, interfere with our departure at the
+specified hour, when we were towed out by the tug steamer _Perseverancia_,
+which we had hired for _L25_. Almost every large ship on leaving Rio is
+towed clear of the bay, so as to avoid having to tack between the islands,
+or perhaps have to anchor, so that the tug, which belongs to a private
+individual, and accompanied us eastward as far as the island of Razza,
+must be a source of considerable profit.
+
+On 31st August, at six A.M., we bade farewell to the splendid harbour of
+Rio. We had fortunately reached Rio after the visit of the yellow fever,
+but the almost continual rainy weather had spoiled many an excursion, and
+deprived us of the opportunity of more closely examining the environs of
+the city. Nor were we more successful in making ourselves at home here,
+notwithstanding the kind reception with which we were favoured by the
+Government and some private individuals. There is, in short, a great want
+of sociability, and we may add, almost utter indifference to scientific
+pursuits, which indeed appeal in vain to the great majority of the
+Brazilian population. Of course there are numerous and agreeable
+exceptions; but slavery, the mixture of races, the egotism and indolence
+of the wealthier classes, are all reasons why a European, just arrived,
+cannot feel himself comfortable. The white Brazilians bear, in some
+respects, a strong resemblance to the Italians, but they are deficient in
+their pleasing, insinuating demeanour, in their cheerful humour, quickness
+of perception, and lively imagination. They occupy a lower scale in social
+culture, without depth of thought or feeling, and seem almost incapable of
+persevering activity. This perceptible deficiency of hearty, energetic
+temperament, in addition to the confused intermingling of other foreign
+nations, which seem to regard the country as booty, to be abandoned so
+soon as success has crowned their labours, imparts to each new arrival a
+feeling of depression, which, so far from being weakened, is yet more
+keenly felt by those who have lived some time in the country, so that not
+merely among foreigners recently arrived, but with those also who have
+spent years at Rio, the desire to leave these shores becomes rather
+increased than diminished by a longer acquaintance.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.--FROM RIO DI JANEIRO TO THE CAPE
+OF GOOD HOPE.]
+
+At nine A.M., we cast off from the tug, not far from the little island of
+Razza, with its lighthouse, and spread our sails to the breeze, which
+gradually freshened, but blew from the N.E., which was foul for our
+course. However, we could still derive some advantage from even this as it
+was our intention to steer southerly from Rio, so as to be able to make
+almost exclusively a great circle course to the Cape of Good Hope, after
+we should have got further south than the Antarctic limit of the S.E.
+trades.
+
+The near termination of the winter quarter in this southern hemisphere,
+the approximation of the sun towards the south pole, and the consequent
+tendency of the zones of wind and currents of air to pursue the same
+direction, gave us reason to hope, that when approaching the limits of the
+trades, we should find a change of wind, which should shorten the voyage,
+or at all events keep us clear of storms.
+
+In the open ocean, where there are no hills or extraordinary conformations
+of land to break the uniformity of the earth's surface, and where the
+expanse of water is unbroken by any extensive group of islands, the
+disturbances in the atmospheric belt must necessarily be much less
+strongly marked than where continents are interposed, or in the narrow
+seas. The winds themselves, under such circumstances, display even in
+their shifts a certain amount of regularity, which is usually dependent
+upon the universal laws of nature.
+
+Once any one is so fortunate as to comprehend the latter in all their
+extent, so as to be cognisant of their results, it becomes a mere
+question of the study of local conditions in order to be able to declare
+how these universal laws operate, and to elucidate by the most simple
+explanations many of the phenomena of nature that have till now baffled
+science. Thus, when a wind hitherto steady shifts its direction, there
+must necessarily be, certain active causes for its doing so; if these
+causes perpetually recur in well-marked periodical intervals, the change
+of the wind must follow a definite law. Under certain circumstances the
+direction of the wind is well-defined; as, for instance, at certain
+seasons in the open ocean it remains always the same, or changes with a
+certain regularity, whence it becomes apparent that the causes must remain
+unchanging, and the recurrence of the phenomenon must accordingly admit of
+explanation.
+
+We know, for example, that in the case of hurricanes--those most terrific
+exemplifications of the tendency of the atmosphere to move in circles--the
+wind does not blow in straight lines, but rather in curves described round
+a central point, which again is not immovable, but has a regular
+progression along a definite curve. In that curved plane, however, which
+has been termed a _cyclone_, the wind always blows in one and the same
+direction, and in the Northern Hemisphere runs counter to the motion of a
+watch-hand, while in the Southern Hemisphere it, on the contrary, follows
+that motion.
+
+These facts once granted as accounting for such phenomena, it follows as a
+natural consequence of the general principles laid down, that they hold
+good in minor cases, and must remain of the same efficacy, whether it be a
+hurricane or a dust-whirl which may be under consideration.
+
+So, too, in conformity with those laws, light winds may be found subject
+to a variation in direction of a similar nature, such as may not perhaps
+be fully exemplified in every case, but simply serve to indicate the
+tendency of the wind to follow the same general direction as the
+hurricanes themselves.
+
+The importance of ascertaining such curvilinearity in the direction of the
+winds will be especially manifest at the limits within which the regular
+winds prevail, and when they must necessarily become intermingled with
+other regular currents of the atmosphere.
+
+Accordingly, as we neared the limit of the S.E. Trades, which always
+extend somewhat further south, as the sun's southern declination
+increases, we had to traverse regions where necessarily we encountered
+variable winds, owing to the increased area of the Trades. There are also
+found occasional spots at which a more rarefied atmosphere seems to fill
+the surrounding space, when there is seen a similar process to that in the
+case of hurricanes, first visible perhaps in the higher strata, but
+afterwards extending to those which are lower.
+
+The winds, then, shifted with much regularity, and with them the
+atmospheric pressure, just as in the case of cyclones, except that neither
+the wind nor the sea ever presented the characteristics of a tempest. The
+wind, which began to blow from the North-East, drew gradually to North,
+thence West and South, and returned to S.E., after short intervals of
+calm. We could thus perceive, on referring to the ship's log, that the
+entire cycle was completed in five or six days; so that it became quite
+possible, by examining the central direction of the daily variation, to
+foretell the wind which must be blowing twelve hours later, when, upon
+taking into consideration the path described by such central direction
+from day to day, it appeared that the wind described very nearly a
+parabolic curve.
+
+Even the aspect of the heavens, and the state of the weather, were only
+one degree less regular in their alternations than the hurricanes. With
+the S.E. wind, the sky was bright, but as soon as it began to veer round,
+towards afternoon, a few white belts of cirrhous clouds began to appear in
+the western heavens, constituting a well-marked division of the vault of
+the sky from one side quite to the other. As it drew still further round,
+and neared the line of centres, the weather grew foul, a driving scud
+covered the heavens, and a succession of splendid rainbows were seen, till
+the ship had reached the nearest spot to the storm-centre when there were
+sharp squalls of wind, accompanied by heavy showers of rain. The lower
+strata of clouds, mere vapour, drove before the wind, while those above
+moved in a directly contrary direction, generally that of the forthcoming
+wind. The atmospheric pressure, which at first would be considerable,
+gradually decreased as we approached the central line; as we drew away
+from that centre the barometer rose again, the weather improved, and the
+sky under the influence of southerly winds once more cleared.
+
+Unfortunately it is not practicable with a single ship to ascertain
+whether the veering of the wind follows an exact curve, as we can only say
+what is the direction at the spot where the observation has been made, and
+it is impossible to determine what it may be at other points. But it is at
+all events certain that the shifts of wind are amenable to the same
+general laws as hurricanes. A number of ships sent out for the special
+purpose of this branch of investigation, could render immense services to
+science and navigation, and achieve most interesting results.
+
+We availed ourselves of these general laws to traverse the ocean as
+speedily as possible, in order to reach early our next anchorage, and in
+so doing we experienced altogether three well-marked cycles of wind at
+short intervals. We cannot afford space to prosecute all the interesting
+consequences that result from these phenomena of nature, such
+investigations being more properly reserved for the meteorological section
+of the scientific portion of this work. Here, however, the facilities for
+observation of a sea-faring life have been directed towards an object of
+inquiry, which must prove of immense utility in navigation and commerce.
+And, perhaps, even landsmen may not find it uninteresting, that even that
+proverbially fickle element, air, obeys certain fixed laws, a more
+accurate acquaintance with which must be of the utmost importance to the
+denizen of _terra firma_, as well as those "that go down to the sea in
+ships, that do business in great waters."
+
+On this passage from the American to the African coasts, we were
+continually accompanied by our winged friends, the sea-birds, which,
+notwithstanding the unkind treatment they received at the hands of the
+zoological sportsmen, followed us with the utmost pertinacity, probably
+attracted by the numerous fragments of provisions thrown overboard.
+
+The Cape pigeons (_Procellaria sp._), those prettily-marked sea-birds,
+about the size of doves, the albatrosses, (_Diomedea sp._) the largest of
+the ocean feathered tribe, with their quiet majestic flight, stormy
+petrels of all sorts and sizes, from the smallest swallow to the largest
+of its kind; all these winged inhabitants of the sea's surface followed
+the frigate in motley groups, and seemed never to weary in their active
+search for food.
+
+Sometimes they alighted, rested on the surface of the water, and were left
+far behind; but they collected again with great rapidity as soon as
+anything eatable appeared, and overtook the frigate in a swift flight from
+the remotest point of the horizon. This singular attachment to ships very
+probably arises from their being accustomed to follow whalers, from which
+such a large quantity of garbage is thrown overboard, very much affected
+by these aerial parasites, whence they learn to expect from all vessels
+their favourite food.
+
+They possess a remarkable capacity for remembering the exact time when
+they are likely to receive a large quantity of eatables from on board.
+Every day, about noon, the vicinity of the ship became animated, and
+towards one o'clock, after the crew had finished dinner, these lively
+creatures were close behind, and even fought for the pieces of tow with
+which the coppers had been cleansed. The boldest amongst them was the Cape
+pigeon, which pounced, with the utmost avidity, upon the dainty morsels
+thrown overboard, raising a loud scream, swimming round its prey, diving
+for sinking fragments, or snatching from each other those they had
+secured. Then came the black and brown-spotted and white albatrosses. As
+soon as one of these colossal birds appeared on the scene of strife, the
+uproar of the screaming pigeons at once became still; they kept themselves
+at a respectful distance from the voracious albatross, which quietly
+consumed its lion's share. In a few moments, yet greater numbers of these
+assembled, of which the black ones (_Ph[oe]betria fuliginosa_), like the
+large petrels, are extremely shy, and rarely approach the ship within
+gun-shot. The other large-sized petrels acted similarly, the brown
+spectacled-petrel, so named from two singular-looking black rings round
+the eyes, being the most numerous. Along with these were several small
+Mother Carey's Chickens, and flights of other winged creatures swarming
+over the sea. The darker the sky, the more agitated the sea, the more
+actively do the Cape pigeons tumble and toss behind the ship; it appears
+that in rough stormy weather they see less distinctly and find food with
+difficulty, in consequence of which they are in a famished state. Only
+under these circumstances, and when the ship is moving slowly, can they
+be caught with a line. To angle for birds may appear rather odd to the
+reader, and yet it is common enough in the Southern Ocean, amusing the
+sailor, and providing the zoologist with means of obtaining these birds
+alive. For this purpose, however, circumstances must be comparatively
+favourable; that is to say, the weather must be rough, the sea agitated,
+and the ship making but little headway. When the sky is serene, and the
+sea calm, even the Cape pigeons do not think it worth their while to throw
+a glance at the bait; and if the ship is moving fast, they have not speed
+enough to catch it, because they only swim, and the ship outspeeds them.
+The line, moreover, must be of tolerable length, so as, in the event of
+any bird evincing a desire to snap, to allow as much to be paid out as is
+necessary to leave the bait precisely in the same spot, without towing it
+through the water. It sometimes also occurs, particularly after sunset,
+that these birds, continually following in the wake of the ship, do not
+see the line, strike against it, and entangle themselves so that they may
+be easily drawn on board. The scream of the storm-pigeon when caught,
+makes it betray its fate even before those on board have an idea that it
+has been captured.
+
+For the albatross, it is of course necessary to use a stronger hook, which
+it is best to attach to a copper wire, because this being thinner than
+line, is not so readily perceived. In order that the whole apparatus may
+swim on the surface of the water, a few cork floats are also made fast.
+
+When an albatross has hooked itself, the full strength of a man is
+requisite to draw it on board, for the bird, in its despair, dives and
+keeps its wings spread under water, so that the resistance is very
+considerable, and frequently even the strongest lines are broken. This
+cannot be wondered at when their size is considered, as they measure from
+10 to 14 feet across the extended wings, while their weight amounts to
+from 10 to 18 lbs.
+
+Arrived on deck, none of these sea-birds are able to fly away; they move
+very clumsily on their webbed feet, and can only rise after a slanting
+spring, which, however, they cannot accomplish on firm ground; if in the
+water these birds want to rise into the air whilst swimming, they flutter
+their outspread wings for a little, and use their webbed feet in a kind of
+rowing motion, in order to acquire the requisite impetus. The albatross
+defends itself with its bill, which is often four to five inches long, and
+care must be taken to avoid being wounded in catching them. We also
+remarked that the Cape pigeons, in their rage at being captured, vomited
+up a slimy greasy substance.
+
+The latter bird was of course new to us, and afforded us much amusement.
+Many were knocked over with the fowling-piece, especially when, in their
+inquisitiveness, they came too near the boats, which, as often as our rate
+of progress admitted, were launched with the view of adding to our
+collection of objects of natural history.
+
+In shooting an albatross large shot must be used, as, at a distance of 15
+or 20 feet, small shot do not penetrate the feathers and the down of the
+bird. What is most remarkable as regards these birds is the numerous
+parasites that live upon their bodies. It is most extraordinary how
+certain of these birds (as for instance, the _Puffins_ and _Procellariae_)
+are infested by insects, their plumage sometimes swarming with small
+specimens of _Crustaceae_.
+
+On the 26th of September, the famous Table Mountain of the Cape was
+visible, after we had, the evening previous, at a distance of fourteen
+miles, sighted the lighthouse of Table Bay.
+
+The twenty-six days of our voyage hither had flown quickly past, and we
+were still able vividly to recall the impressions made by Brazil, and the
+scenes we had gone through in mid-ocean, as the southernmost point of
+Africa came in sight with its characteristic hills, and our eyes and our
+thoughts were directed to another quarter of the globe. On the one hand,
+excited with the prospect of new scenery, and on the other, anxious to
+complete our elaborate observations upon Brazil, so as to be able to send
+them home from the Cape, we found ourselves in a frame of mind which kept
+us alternately hard at the desk, or drove us on deck to admire the
+remarkable outline of Cape Colony. We did not, at the present season,
+think it advisable to run right into the bay, so as to anchor near Cape
+Town, but resolved to double the Cape, and proceed to Simon's Bay, the
+usual anchorage for ships-of-war. We were, however, sadly disappointed in
+the hope of soon reaching it, as the south-east wind freshened so much
+that on the 27th it had become a gale, which forced us out to sea again.
+The world-known swell off the Cape began under the ever-increasing wind to
+run high, and we were soon involved in one of those famous Cape storms
+which justified the Portuguese in calling the promontory of South Africa,
+"Cabo Tormentoso," or the Cape of Storm.[51]
+
+[Footnote 51:
+
+    "Through such mad seas the daring Gama fought,
+    Incessant toiling round the stormy Cape."
+                        (_Lord Strangford's Camoens._)
+]
+
+The wind and spray roared and lashed through the rigging: higher and
+higher rose the huge mountains of water, with their white crests, that
+tossed the ship like a plaything from side to side. The waves foamed in
+through the port-holes on the gun-deck, while masts, cordage, timbers,
+every part of the ship groaned and creaked, a perfect medley of sights and
+sounds, including woful destruction of crockery, and the heavy rolling of
+erratic cannon-shot that had broken loose from the rack, and were rushing
+about the deck--above all which was heard the shrill whistle of the pipe
+of the boatswain's mate. The scene fairly baffled all powers of
+description, and must have been eminently impressive for those who for the
+first time experienced what is meant by "a gale at sea," especially at
+night, when the moon, struggling through the flying vapours, lit up the
+appalling scene with a livid supernatural tint.
+
+On the afternoon of the 28th the gale reached its highest point, and raged
+fearfully for some hours. The frigate proved herself, in this turbulence
+of the waters, to be thoroughly seaworthy. At the same time the sun shone
+brilliantly, the sky was clear and beautiful, and only here and there some
+feathery clouds were to be seen. There was a curious sense of dualism in
+this serenity of the sky, in contrast with the fury and agitation of the
+waves. Gradually the wind chopped round towards the east, which gave some
+hope that the gale would abate, but, nevertheless, the ship was tossed
+about worse than ever.
+
+The waves, like gigantic ridges, mounted, according to measurement, to the
+height of from 30 to 35 feet above the mean level of the sea, and
+occasioned that terrible rolling of the ship, and those fearful lurches,
+which, once experienced, are not readily forgotten.
+
+Hitherto the altitude of a wave has been generally measured merely by the
+eye, so that the result depended too much on the accuracy of individual
+observation to admit of its being exactly ascertained; and it is for this
+reason that the statements relative to the maximum height of the ocean
+wave are so various that they cannot be considered reliable, for whilst
+some observers estimate them to be from 60 to 70 feet, others reckon them
+only at from 30 to 40 feet.
+
+On board the _Novara_ the following method of admeasurement was adopted:
+we first determined, by a chronometer, the time that a wave takes to pass
+from one end of the ship to the other, whereby the velocity of the
+progressive motion of the wave could be calculated in relation to the
+ship's course and speed, regard being had to the direction and velocity
+of the ship against it. With this velocity ascertained, we were in a
+position to determine and fix the average distance between two consecutive
+waves. Lastly, the height of the wave was ascertained from the angle at
+which the frigate rose and fell in the line of its keel, by the influence
+of each successive wave and by means of the ascertained distance from the
+trough of the sea to the crest of the wave. Though this method, likewise,
+has many difficulties and deficiencies, yet it appears well suited to make
+correct comparisons between the different waves; and, under certain
+favourable conditions, it yields so accurate a result, that at any rate it
+is to be preferred to mere guess-work, besides that the experiment itself
+is susceptible of many improvements. It seems safe to assume that waves
+scarcely ever attain an elevation of more than 40 or 45 feet.
+
+The gale had driven us a long distance out, and only after great trouble
+did we again near the land. On the 1st of October the Cape came once more
+in sight; we tacked, in order to get into the wide gulf termed False Bay,
+by which in some respects the peninsula of the Cape is formed, being
+separated only by a low sandy plain from the Atlantic. Whittle's rock
+renders tacking in its neighbourhood in so far more difficult, as the
+existing charts of the bay are not sufficiently exact to be implicitly
+relied on. Buoys have often been fixed in that quarter, but every new gale
+carried them away again; so that the position of the rock is not
+indicated. An English pilot now came on board, who brought papers, and
+intelligence that a number of letters were waiting for us. Our impatience
+became stronger when towards evening the light breeze entirely ceased, and
+we thereby were forced to bring up at a distance of a mile and a half from
+the actual anchorage. About the same time an officer arrived from the
+British line-of-battle-ship _Boscawen_, under the flag of Rear-Admiral
+Grey, in order to serve as a guide should no pilot have boarded us.
+
+On the 2nd of October, at 7 A.M., the anchor was let go in Simon's Bay, a
+spacious but gloomy-looking sheet of water. Here ships ride much more
+secure than in Table Bay, from which, in a stiff westerly or
+north-westerly breeze, vessels are often forced to run out to sea to avoid
+being driven on shore. The communication with the land is thus sometimes
+interrupted for days. From Simon's Bay to Table Bay, round the Cape the
+distance is forty miles, whilst by land the journey to the capital of the
+colony is, with good horses, performed in three hours.
+
+[Illustration: CABO TORMENTOSO.]
+
+[Illustration: CAPE TOWN.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  VI.
+
+                          Cape of Good Hope.
+
+                   STAY FROM 2ND TO 26TH OCTOBER, 1857.
+
+   Contrasts of scenery and seasons at Cape Colony. Ramble through
+     Simon's Town.--Malay Population.--The Toad-fish, or
+     Sea-devil.--Rondebosch and its delightful scenery.--Cape
+     Town.--Influence of the English element.--Scientific and other
+     Institutions.--Botanical Gardens.--Useful plants.--Foreign
+     Emigration.--A Caffre prophet and the consequences of his
+     prophecies.--Caffre prisoners in the Armstrong Battery.--Five
+     young Caffres take service as sailors on board the _Novara_.--
+     Trip into the interior.--Stellenbosch.--Paarl.--Worcester.--
+     Brandvalley.--The Mission of Moravian Brethren at
+     Genaadendal.--Masticatories and intoxicating substances used
+     by the Hottentots.--Caledon.--Somerset West.--Zandvliet.--Tomb
+     of a Malay Prophet.--Horse Sickness.--Tsetse-fly.--Vineyards
+     of Constantia.--_Fete champetre_ in honour of the _Novara_.--
+     Excursion to the actual Cape of Good Hope.--Departure.--A life
+     saved.--Experiments with Brook's deep-sea sounding apparatus.--
+     Arrival at the Island of St. Paul in the South Indian Ocean.
+
+
+There can scarcely be a landscape more gloomy and desolate than the
+sterile, rocky mountains, and white sandy plains, which, like
+snow-fields, inclose Simon's Bay. Coming from the charming coast of
+Brazil, with its luxuriant verdure, the contrast becomes doubly
+unpleasing. A narrow green strip of land, running along from a small fort,
+forms a refreshing sight and a resting point for the eye fatigued with
+looking at these grim masses of stone. The traveller who merely touches at
+Simon's Bay without pushing into the interior, or who visits the Cape in
+the winter of the southern hemisphere (from April to September), can
+scarcely form an idea of the voluptuous loveliness which reigns during
+spring and summer in the interior of the colony, and will regard as
+fictitious those brilliant descriptions of its natural beauties, related
+by travellers who have been fortunate enough to visit this point of South
+Africa at those genial seasons.
+
+Had we left the Cape without seeing anything else than the melancholy
+neighbourhood of False Bay and the dull little settlement of Simon's Town,
+on its left bank, we should have carried away very different impressions
+and ideas to those entertained after having during spring passed some
+weeks in the delightful interior, and obtained at the same time an insight
+into the social condition of the colony.
+
+On the very day that we cast anchor in the bay, we took a stroll (our
+first footfall upon the soil of Africa) through Simon's Town, which
+consists of a single street of about forty clean, neat, and tidy-looking
+houses, straggling along the shore. The principal buildings are the
+Arsenal, the residence of the admiral of the station, five churches (one
+of which belongs to Roman Catholics), and two tolerably large hotels.
+
+It is hardly possible to conceive any town occupying a more dreary dismal
+site, with the exception, perhaps, of some of the Peruvian settlements on
+the west coast of South America. While the eye, below this row of houses,
+beholds nothing but granite rocks thickly strewn with shells, the main
+street is overhung by steep sandstone rocks, which, despite the marvellous
+richness of the blooming flowers, that well repay the researches of the
+naturalist, have a naked gloomy aspect, viewed from a distance, and are
+environed right and left by waste patches of white sand.
+
+The favourite walks of this small place seem to be along the shore, or on
+the road to Cape Town, into the soft sand of which the foot of the
+traveller is continually sinking. A number of ladies and gentlemen whom we
+met walking appeared to be somewhat surprised at the unusual appearance of
+an Austrian man-of-war, the flag of which was gaily fluttering in the
+gloomy bay. The residents in Simon's Town, amounting to about 800 souls,
+are mostly Malays, descendants of those numerous compulsory emigrants,
+who, during the period of Dutch ascendency at the Cape, had been
+transported from Java and other islands of the Indian Archipelago, owing
+to the want of labour or for political causes. For the Dutch used to send
+to the Cape Colony, as a place of banishment, many wealthy and influential
+Malay families, by whom the first germs of Mohammedanism were introduced
+into South Africa. It would even seem that the religious opinions of the
+Malay population exercise some influence on the habits of the Christian
+settlers of Simon's Town, as no butcher, for instance, would venture to
+kill and sell pigs for fear of giving offence to his Mohammedan customers.
+
+On a fine spring morning we started in a handsome vehicle from Simon's Bay
+to Cape Town. The road runs close along the seashore, which, seen from a
+distance, apparently consists of nothing but sand and rock, but, on more
+near acquaintance, exhibits at various points delightful nooks decked with
+most beautiful flowers. Everything indicated, by its glorious blooming
+garment, the bursting forth of spring.
+
+One hour's ride led us to a neat little fishing hamlet where an immense
+number of fish were hanging up to dry in the sun. The bones of whales are
+used by the inhabitants for all sorts of purposes; they fence their fields
+and gardens with the ribs, build walls with the vertebrae, make steps and
+stairs of the shoulder bones, and use the large jaw-bones as arches at the
+entrances of their huts. One of the owners of this fishing station was
+kind enough to offer us, as a particular dainty, a piece of flesh cut from
+the jaw of a whale and boiled in fat; but we were not exactly of the same
+opinion after having, from curiosity, tasted a few mouthfuls. The bay is
+very rich in the snook-fish (_Thyrsites Atun_), of which several hundred
+tons are pickled here annually and sent to the Mauritius.
+
+Another fish caught here is said to be extremely injurious to health, and
+even to endanger life--the small toadfish (_Tetraodon Honkenyi_), which
+exists in shoals, and may easily be caught with a line. One of the harbour
+regulations consists of a special paragraph warning seamen against using
+this poisonous "sea-devil." Foreign sailors who have eaten of it have died
+a few minutes after.
+
+On leaving this fishing station the road, leaving the coast, proceeds in a
+straight line over the plain which unites the Cape with the continent. The
+mountains recede, and the eye of the traveller gazes, charmed and
+surprised, on the mountain range of the peninsula, the celebrated Table
+and Devil's Mountains. The plain, which, during the dry season, is nothing
+but an arid desert, was now seen in its fullest beauty, like a flowery
+carpet, on which innumerable blossoms of varied hues and forms were
+interwoven. On the left lie the renowned vineyards of Constantia, and to
+the right stands what is called Halfway-house, the property of a native of
+Wuertemberg who, some twenty years before, came to the Cape a poor
+emigrant, and is now a wealthy and respected man, known far and wide,
+holding several official appointments, and showing himself a warm patron
+of his German countrymen. Being a zealous sportsman, and intimately
+acquainted with the locality, Mr. Rathfelder was of great service to our
+zoologists, who took up their residence at this place.
+
+From the Halfway-house to Cape Town the character of the landscape
+completely changes. The road leads through a park-like country; charming
+wood plantations, pines and oaks, stretch on either hand to the extreme
+limits of an undulating plain, intersected by long shady paths, the
+vistas terminating with elegant villas built in the Dutch or English
+style. Here are Cape waggons, drawn by ten to twenty oxen, side by side
+with elegant two or four-horse carriages and densely-packed omnibuses,
+such as one may see in Cheapside. We have now arrived in the charming
+Rondebosch, a village that might well aspire to the dignity of a town,
+chiefly inhabited as a summer residence by the wealthier inhabitants of
+Cape Town. The impression made by this beautiful road will never be
+obliterated from the memory of any one who has ever ridden over it in the
+spring. We were as much delighted by the sight of this smiling and verdant
+landscape as we had been depressed by the sandy plains of Simon's Bay.
+There, extended in charming variety before the fascinated eye, lay Table
+Bay with its ships, Cape Town, and the gigantic rocky wall of the Table
+Mountain resting on its granite base, and rising nearly perpendicular to
+an altitude of 3500 feet, together with the Lion's Head and the Devil's
+Peak. The distant background on the other side of the plain is bounded by
+the precipitous face of high, rugged, and broken mountain walls, the
+summits of which were covered with snow.
+
+Convenient and comfortable quarters were found in the Freemasons' Hotel,
+situated in the Parade, a large square planted with pines. Here, to our
+surprise, we met an Austrian, attending as waiter, who had been driven by
+the wild waves of the late revolution into the wide world, until he met
+with a peaceful existence at the Cape of Storms!
+
+Favoured by introductions to the most eminent men of science, who received
+us in the most friendly way, we succeeded, in the course of a few weeks,
+in acquiring rich and valuable scientific collections, and forming
+important connections for the future supply of our museums. A most cordial
+reception was accorded us by Mr. Julius Mosenthal, the Austrian Consul,
+and the head of one of the leading mercantile firms of the colony. In his
+hospitable house, German music and German song made us entirely forget
+that we were sojourning thousands of miles from home at the southernmost
+point of Africa.
+
+Cape Town is oblong in plan, with long wide streets, intersecting at right
+angles. It is destitute of imposing buildings; a commercial place, with
+pretty dwelling-houses, built in the English style and comfortably
+furnished, all of a light brown hue, owing to the dust, which, in
+south-east or north-west winds, envelopes the town in whirling clouds, and
+may indeed be considered the only plague of this healthy delightful
+climate. The English element, which, with the stereotyped customs of its
+life and its equitable laws, possesses, wherever it obtains a footing, so
+powerful an influence, has almost entirely superseded the Dutch, which
+continues to exist only in the lonely farmhouses far in the interior.
+There is scarcely anything remaining to indicate that Cape Town was
+founded by the Dutch; and were it not for the yellow Malay faces, with
+their gaudy head-coverings or umbrella-shaped straw hats, and the tawny
+mestizoes, who remind us of the aboriginal inhabitants, and give a
+completely foreign colouring, one might easily fancy one's self to be in
+an old English provincial town. Generally speaking, any one arriving here
+with preconceived notions of finding himself amongst Hottentots and
+Bushmen, or in a state of society differing materially from that of
+Europe, will soon discover that he has been entirely mistaken. The
+aborigines whom Jan van Riebeck found, when, with three Dutch ships, he
+landed in 1652 at Table Bay, and in the name of the Dutch East India
+Company established a settlement, have now almost entirely disappeared
+from the capital. If any one desires to see a veritable Hottentot or
+Bushman, he must undertake a troublesome journey, of weeks' duration, into
+the inhospitable interior. In Cape Town this singular race is only now and
+then to be met with in prisons or hospitals, and even then of a mixed
+breed.
+
+The colony has now a population of 280,000 white and coloured inhabitants,
+of whom about 30,000 live in Cape Town; half of these are whites, and
+probably not more than 1000 form the higher and influential class. There
+can be no doubt that when, in 1815, the English took possession of the
+Cape, a firm foundation had been laid already by the Dutch 150 years
+before; but the real progress of the country, and the development of its
+natural resources, date only from the commencement of British rule, by
+which those shackles were thrown off with which the narrow-minded colonial
+policy of the Dutch had fettered this settlement, like all others that
+owned their sway.
+
+The Cape Colony since 1850 has possessed a Legislative Council of 15
+members, and a House of Assembly of 40 deputies. The executive power rests
+in the hands of the Governor-General, appointed by the British Government.
+All bills passed by this parliament require the royal assent before they
+become law.
+
+It is impossible to speak in too high and eulogistic terms of Sir George
+Grey, whom we had the happiness at the time of our stay to find in the
+important position of Governor-General of the colony. Owing to the wisdom
+with which Sir George governed this important colony, he gained for
+himself the love and admiration of the people to such an extent that,
+after the expiration of the regularly fixed period of his office as
+Governor, they petitioned the Queen of England for his re-appointment. Sir
+George is not only an able statesman, but also a sound scholar, possessing
+a most complete collection of books and manuscripts on the Australian,
+Polynesian and African languages, and he is a most zealous patron of the
+numerous scientific institutions of the colony.
+
+The astronomical observatory, under the superintendence of Mr. Maclear,
+has preserved the celebrity which it attained by the great work on the
+constellations of the southern hemisphere, the materials for which were
+collected by Sir John Herschel during his residence here some twenty years
+since. There is now a transit instrument, which in accuracy excels even
+that of the Observatory at Greenwich, and which is said to have cost
+upwards of _L_2000.
+
+The South African Museum, containing collections of natural history, is
+now under the superintendence of Mr. L. Layard (brother of the celebrated
+investigator of Nineveh). This institution, as well as the South African
+public library, the literary, scientific, and mechanics' institutions,
+besides nearly fifty other establishments and societies for religious,
+benevolent and industrial purposes, owe their foundation and flourishing
+condition to the public spirit and the charitable disposition of the
+inhabitants of the colony. In 69 schools scattered over its surface,
+upwards of 18,000 pupils are educated according to a system introduced in
+1841 by Sir John Herschel.
+
+The Botanical Gardens, likewise founded and kept up by private
+subscription, are not only a most agreeable resort, but also afford much
+instruction, arising from the many interesting and useful plants gathered
+here from all quarters of the world. To those which are adapted for
+cultivation in the sandy plains of the Cape, great attention is devoted.
+Some of them have been found available in forming as it were vegetable
+walls of protection against the inroads of the sand, so destructive to all
+cultivation. As particularly serviceable for this purpose, were mentioned
+to us _Fabricia variegata_, a sea-shore shrub of from 6 to 10 feet high;
+_Protea myrtifera_; the so-called Hottentot fig: _Mesembryanthemum
+edulis_; and the Cape wax-myrtle _Myricacordifolia_;--all these are found
+to thrive in the sand without cultivation, put a stop to its ravages, and
+in some respects may be considered as the pioneers of all other plants,
+which do not thrive before the sandy soil has been prepared for them. Nay,
+singularly enough, some of these (as for instance the Hottentot fig),
+become extinct as soon as others make their appearance, just in the same
+way as the pioneer of civilization, the backwoodsman in the west of the
+United States, leaves his lonely blockhouse and hurries on as soon as
+overtaken by the peaceful settler. The wax-berry shrub is also otherwise
+useful to the inhabitants; from its berries a substance is prepared well
+suited for making candles. According to a treatise on its culture two
+workmen are able to realize with a defecator daily 100 lbs. of white wax
+from the berries gathered by six persons. The expense of labour, &c., does
+not exceed 18_s._ per 100 lbs., or about 2_d._ per pound. A large quantity
+of this vegetable substance has lately been sent to London, where it is
+said to have met with a profitable market. In the Botanical Garden of Cape
+Town we first met the two celebrated grasses known as _Holcus Caffrorum_
+and _Holcus saccharatum_, which, by their usefulness in domestic life,
+have more extensively, and perhaps quickly, than any other plant, spread
+over the world. We are indebted to the Secretary of the Board of Public
+Roads, W. De Smidt, Esq., for some seeds of these and other plants, as
+also to Mr. McGibbon, manager of the Botanical Gardens, for similar
+favours.
+
+Considering the deficiency of labour, and the large sections of fertile
+land as yet uncultivated in the colony, Sir George Grey has directed great
+attention to the immigration of German emigrants of respectable
+characters, of all trades, as well as those attached to agricultural
+pursuits. The plan adopted is an excellent and thoroughly honest one.
+Every emigrant, if single, obtains from the Government thirty acres of
+good land, and, if married, fifty; five for each child above one, and ten
+for every one exceeding ten years of age. The rate of the land is to be
+fixed by Government at a fair and reasonable sum, and, together with the
+passage-money, to be paid four years after the location of the emigrant,
+in five annual instalments. From the moment the colonist steps on African
+ground he is an independent owner of land, although not entitled to sell
+his property until his obligations to the Government are liquidated. The
+local parliament has granted a sum of _L_50,000 to promote emigration. The
+Cape probably offers to an industrious emigrant a more advantageous field
+for active energy than any other country in the world. Some of the German
+colonists, the remnant of the British Legion engaged in the Crimean war,
+who, under General Stuttersheim, have settled in British Caffraria, are
+thriving prosperously. They are the first pioneers of the German element
+in South Africa, and, under the protection of a liberal and free
+government, are increasing in number annually in consequence of the
+favourable reports which they transmit to their native country.
+
+An emigration of a peculiar kind has unexpectedly taken place. An impostor
+amongst the Caffres, who had assumed the character of a prophet,
+pronounced the end of the world as imminent, in consequence of which large
+numbers of them slaughtered their cattle and left their fields
+uncultivated. Being thus, in a short time, reduced to a state of perfect
+destitution, not less than 19,000 of starving Caffres sought help and an
+asylum in the British territory during the year 1857, and before its close
+the number had increased to 30,000. The colonial Government, out of
+consideration to the welfare of the colonists, admitted only those Caffres
+who bound themselves to act as servants, for at least one year, at
+reasonable wages, and in order to prevent any danger arising from being
+congregated in too large numbers, they were located by the Government
+officers in various detached parts of the colony.
+
+A very active society of philanthropists exists here, under the title of
+"The Committee of Emigration from Holland." Its object is to bring over
+orphans and children of the poor from the overpopulated Dutch provinces.
+These useful emigrants are partly located as apprentices to farmers, and
+remain until they are of age under the care of the Committee. During our
+stay a party of seventy boys and girls just arrived from Holland
+assembled, with their conductors, in one of the large avenues of the
+Botanical Garden, to be inspected by the Governor-General. They all looked
+healthy and cheerful, and seemed to have but little suffered from the
+fatigues of a long voyage. When Sir George Grey made his appearance the
+children sang the English National Anthem, translated into Dutch, and
+afterwards the sweet, affectionate song, "When the swallows homewards
+fly." Some young emigrants, who, two years ago, had come under similar
+circumstances from Holland, had already obtained good situations, and
+greeted their little compatriots most heartily. Being asked if they wished
+to return to Holland, they replied, without the slightest hesitation, in
+the negative, declaring that they felt very happy where they were,--an
+announcement of course peculiarly agreeable to the new-comers.
+
+An interesting opportunity was afforded to us of seeing a large number of
+Caffres, of both sexes, who had been brought in as prisoners in
+consequence of having made predatory incursions into the British
+territory. They all arrived in a state of nudity, and in most wretched
+plight, but were immediately provided with European clothes--blue striped
+shirts, sheepskin trousers, shoes, a Scotch cap, and a blanket which
+served during the day as a cloak, and at night as a covering. Their food
+was tolerably good, but their abode during night, in the damp casemates of
+the fort, seemed not to agree with them, and many were visibly in a
+diseased state of health. Nearly all were muscular, and some were really
+specimens of manly beauty. Not one of them knew his age. Their only mode
+of calculating is by certain important events, as by the death of a
+chieftain, or the various wars with the English. The superintendent, Mr.
+Walsh, a very obliging Irishman, had the kindness to cause them to perform
+some of their national dances, wild exercises which served the purpose of
+exciting their warlike spirit. The first dance they performed they called
+"Ukutenga." Six handsomely-built dancers advanced, whilst about thirty men
+closed in a circle around them, and, by their howlings and clapping of
+hands, formed as it were a musical accompaniment to this singular
+performance. The dancers sighed, groaned, hissed, and made the most
+extravagant grimaces and contortions, in order to arouse in themselves an
+artificial excitement. One, a lad twelve years of age, engaged so
+earnestly in the sports, that he perspired from his whole body. There is
+another dance, called "Tklombo," performed in the presence of diseased
+persons whilst the quack doctor practises his deceptive remedies; and a
+third, called "Umduta," which is only practised at weddings and other
+festive occasions. This last seemed to be the most characteristic. The
+semi-nude, slender men hopped, their arms clung together, in ranks of six,
+hissing with scorn, occasionally uttering a cry, then suddenly separating
+and marching one after the other in slow time, in a circle, uttering the
+most singular sounds. Now they bent forward the whole upper part of the
+body, and then back again, each of them making the same violent gestures
+as in the former dance, and pronouncing some words to excite their
+companions, such as, "Be active!" "Be alert!" until they all trembled and
+became fearfully and feverishly excited. The surrounding Caffres, who were
+at first mere spectators, by degrees were seized with this singular
+dancing mania, till at last the entire number, as if stung by a tarantula,
+lashed themselves into a wild and apparently ungovernable frenzy. The
+great difference in the colour of the skin of these Caffres was
+particularly striking, as they evidently belong to one and the same race.
+From the blackness of coal to bronze, all tints and shades were observed,
+and one of them, called "Ngduba" (Sea-shell), appeared to be even of a
+reddish yellow. He belonged to the tribe of the Fingoes, and said that
+both his parents were of the same colour.
+
+The governor permitted five young Caffres to be engaged on board the
+_Novara_, with their own consent, as apprentices, and although they were
+prisoners sentenced for several years, yet the Government took every care
+to secure their welfare. An agreement was signed to provide that their
+return, should they desire it, might be facilitated in every possible way.
+Faithful subjects could not be cared for with more anxiety than were these
+legally-sentenced Caffre prisoners by the colonial Government. Two of them
+went one day on shore, during our stay at Auckland, in New Zealand, and
+never came back; the other three made the whole voyage with the _Novara_,
+and are now sailors on board the imperial yacht _Fancy_. They, of course,
+understood, at their embarkation, only their own singular mother-tongue;
+yet the chaplain of the expedition, the Rev. E. Marochini, after having
+made himself acquainted with their idiom, succeeded in instructing these
+black youths, by means of their own language, in the doctrines of
+Christianity, and, by degrees, imparted some knowledge of the Italian and
+German languages, the happy results of these endeavours being a complete
+vocabulary and a small catechism in the Caffre language, which the
+reverend gentlemen composed during the voyage; and such progress did his
+three pupils make, that, on our return to Trieste, they were so far
+prepared as to be fit for reception, by baptism, into the Christian
+community.
+
+In the house of correction there were a number of female Caffres who had
+been made prisoners at the same time with their brothers and husbands,
+some belonging to the family of chiefs. One, the sister of the chieftain
+Sandilli, was a handsome, tall and slender woman, with mild features and
+piercing small black eyes; another, by the name of Mnovenkeli, the sister
+of the chieftain Mkoseni, was an imposing and earnest-looking figure.
+Several of these women bore a long stripe tattooed on their breasts as an
+ornament. Several were deficient of a little finger of the left hand: this
+mutilation is the effect of superstition, as it often occurs that, in case
+of the severe illness of the child, the distressed mother causes a finger
+of her offspring to be cut off and sacrificed to the evil spirit, in order
+that the rest of the body may be saved and permitted by the evil spirit to
+recover.
+
+One of these young Caffre women had her child wrapped up in a piece of
+linen tied to her back, and endeavoured to lull it to sleep by continually
+moving the left elbow, by which the baby was kept in a swinging motion,
+and an effect was produced like that of a cradle. Various questions were
+put, through an interpreter, to several of these females, who, after their
+timidity was overcome, answered with great readiness. Polygamy is said to
+prevail amongst them. Many women have from ten to twelve children. The
+children are suckled sometimes from two to three years. A numerous progeny
+is the pride of a family. As a proof of the legitimacy of a child, there
+is said to exist a kind of milk trial. Notwithstanding considerable
+trouble in endeavouring to procure information, we were unable to obtain a
+very lucid idea of this singular experiment: it consists in the father
+giving the infant, in the bottom of his hand, directly after its birth,
+some cow's milk to drink, and if the child refuses the draught it is
+considered illegitimate. Caffre women very rarely salute their husbands
+with a kiss, except after a long separation, and even then only on the
+cheek--never on the lips.
+
+In the ethnographical part a detailed description will be presented of
+this most peculiar race, of whom the Bushmen are evidently only a decrepid
+branch. Here it will suffice to observe that a girl, only sixteen years of
+age, was noticed, whose father was a degenerate Hottentot, and whose
+mother was a Bushwoman. The girl measured 4 feet 6 1/2 inches, and weighed
+75lbs. Another Bushwoman, thirty years of age, measured 4 feet 9 inches.
+All the individuals we saw of this race were remarkable for their
+exceedingly small hands and feet.
+
+One week of our stay at the Cape was devoted to an excursion into the
+interior. On the 1st October, early in the morning, we left Cape Town in a
+light two-wheeled vehicle, drawn by four horses--a turn-out which
+certainly seemed better suited for a drive in Hyde Park than a journey,
+however short, in South Africa: for who would suppose that the principal
+roads on the southernmost point of the most unknown quarter of the globe,
+are, in consequence of English civilization and the geognostic nature of
+the ground, in a better condition than most bye-roads in the civilized
+states of Europe? For a country where labour is so deficient and
+expensive, such enormous works could only be executed by means of
+compulsory labour: in this respect the high-roads and mountain passes of
+the Cape afford the most evident proofs of how much more beneficially and
+usefully convicts may be employed in colonial works than in allowing them
+to rot within prison walls, alike a burden to themselves and to society.
+
+Only ten years ago the streets of Cape Town looked at least highly
+dangerous, and the steep rugged old roads, which sometimes run parallel
+with the new ones, evince very clearly the great difference between bygone
+days and the present, as regards the internal communications of the
+colony. The uncultivated state of the country formerly, which indeed, in
+some parts, continues even yet to exist, is the cause of the ancient
+custom having been retained of placing before every vehicle, however
+lightly laden, sixteen to twenty powerful oxen, even on perfectly level
+roads. All longer journeys into the interior are undertaken in heavy
+waggon-like vehicles, exclusively drawn by oxen. As a family is sometimes
+compelled to take up abode in such waggons for weeks together, they are
+completely covered and provided with all possible conveniences; indeed, it
+is a sort of locomotive house. The waggon, which much resembles the
+goods-trucks used on European railways, is at least 18 feet long, and the
+entire length of the set-out, including the oxen, embraces not less than
+from 120 to 180 feet. It may readily be imagined how such a custom impedes
+speedy intercourse, and how much more usefully a great part of the animal
+power might be employed. On the excursion from Cape Town to Stellenbosch,
+a small place only ten miles distant, we met more than 100 waggons, of
+which not one had less than ten, and many double that number of oxen, so
+that at least 1500 heads of cattle were employed in a work which might
+easily have been performed by a third part of the number.
+
+The coachman was a Malay, and wore that singular screen-formed straw hat,
+which so peculiarly distinguishes the male population of his race. These
+men have the reputation of being particularly skilful drivers, and thus
+form a considerable portion of the coachmen of the place. The Malay driver
+had an assistant by his side, who seemed, however, chiefly to serve as
+ballast, in order that our two-wheeled vehicle might not lose its
+equilibrium; for the disconsolate condition of the horses rendered the
+fear of their running away quite superfluous. Our charioteer drove his
+horses, which now and then were rather restive, with so much adroitness,
+that we arrived as early as nine o'clock in that charming settlement
+Stellenbosch, which Wilkes, the American Commodore, even in 1839,
+designated as the loveliest and most beautiful in the whole colony. It has
+completely preserved the aspect of a little Dutch town; the streets are
+straight and wide, adorned with avenues of oaks, many centuries old; the
+houses are extremely tidy and clean, and are built in the genuine Dutch
+style. There is no trace of English influence perceptible. Its 4000
+inhabitants mostly speak Dutch, and cultivate the vine, grain, and fruit.
+No country town seen in the whole course of our long voyage made a deeper
+impression, or left more pleasing recollections, than Stellenbosch. The
+occasion of our visit was certainly of an uncommonly cheerful and festive
+character. On the day of our arrival the Governor was about to review a
+corps of volunteers, raised in Cape Town and its neighbourhood, to supply
+the place of the regular troops about to be dispatched to the Indian
+battle-fields. Extraordinary enthusiasm and interest was manifested
+everywhere in the military movements. Thousands of visitors had assembled
+even from great distances to witness this novel national spectacle. The
+Governor had proclaimed the day as a general holiday; all shops were
+closed; the streets presented an extremely animated appearance, and in
+front of every house was a crowd. The Austrian Consul had been kind enough
+to favour us with a letter of introduction to one of the first families in
+the place; but, taking into consideration the general bustle and continual
+arrival of strangers, we were much afraid of being, at this moment, very
+unwelcome guests, as every nook and corner would already be occupied; for
+in this colony visitors do not come, as with us, for a short time, and
+without encumbrance, but with waggons, horses, servants, household and
+all, regularly to settle down for an indefinite period.
+
+Our own party consisted of five persons provided with four horses, and we
+were now, for want of other lodgings, about to claim the hospitality of
+Mynheer Van Schultze. A pretty, youthful, rosy-cheeked lady, who appeared
+at the door, took--not without some embarrassment--our letter of
+introduction, and disappeared with it into the interior of the stately
+house. We were requested to enter, and were shown into a suite of very
+neat rooms, and were received, not merely with great politeness, but with
+the heartiest welcome.
+
+At ten o'clock we drove out with our hospitable friend, Mynheer Van
+Schultze, to the review, which took place on the common in the
+neighbourhood of the village. The number of spectators was probably twenty
+times greater than that of the volunteers; they had surrounded the ground
+with a wall of carriages, on the tops of which women and children were
+grouped in every picturesque attitude. The rifle volunteers marched, with
+the Governor, Sir George Grey, at their head, and preceded by a band, to
+the ground. There might have been about 300 cavalry and 200 infantry, with
+several pieces of artillery. They all looked very well; their uniform was
+plain and remarkably suitable for the purpose, consisting of tunics and
+trousers of black cloth with metal buttons, and a common cap with a silver
+ornament. They went through the usual man[oe]uvres, whilst a good deal of
+gunpowder was expended. The evolutions of the cavalry were executed with
+wonderful precision, a result due chiefly to the circumstance that, at the
+Cape, every inhabitant is a good equestrian, and is trained from childhood
+to manage a horse.
+
+[Illustration: RIFLE VOLUNTEER _FETE_ AT STELLENBOSCH.]
+
+The review finished, a breakfast was served at the Drosdy, or
+Municipality, on long tables, in a magnificent avenue of oak trees;
+nearly 600 volunteers and many other guests sat down, whilst in the
+back-ground a large number of ladies and gentlemen were present as
+spectators. The presence of some members of the Novara Expedition at the
+festival led the Burgomaster, after the toast of the Queen was given, to
+propose the health of the Emperor of Austria, prefacing it with various
+laudatory remarks on the Expedition. The toast was most heartily received,
+the whole company raising their glasses, whilst the band performed the
+Austrian national anthem. The officer to whose lot it fell to return
+thanks, said:--"That he felt deeply gratified with the honour done to his
+country and nation by the enthusiasm with which the health of his
+sovereign had been received by so distinguished an assembly, and that he
+could not forbear expressing his admiration and delight in observing the
+prosperous condition of this fine country, which, like all others where
+the Anglo-Saxon race was predominant, was blessed with freedom, with the
+spirit of progress, and the blessings of Christianity;" and he concluded
+by proposing "Old England for ever."
+
+On the day after the review the journey was pursued early in the morning
+to the village of Paarl (Pearl), about four hours distant. We had come as
+strangers to the hospitable Stellenbosch, and left as old friends, the
+entire family accompanying us to the carriage, and the worthy old mother
+of our amiable host, a thoroughly genuine Dutch matron, was visibly
+touched on taking leave of those whom, in all probability, she would never
+see more.
+
+On the route to Paarl several immensely large ant-hills were met with,
+some of which measured from two to two-and-a-half feet in diameter, by
+about three feet high. The insects were partly black and partly of a
+greyish-brown colour, and must be very troublesome to the farmers.
+
+Paarl, an extremely neat village, consists of a single long street, and
+contains nearly 4000 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in the growth of the
+vine. They are the descendants of those French Protestants who, at the
+close of the 17th century, left their native country in consequence of
+religious persecution. All the detached farm-yards were extremely neat,
+and bore evidence of the wealth of their owners. Nothing reminds one of
+Africa and the neighbourhood of Hottentots, Bushmen, or Caffres. The
+landscape becomes grander the more the mountains, 4000 to 5000 feet high,
+are approached. Among them lies the little town of Wellington, charmingly
+situated; though but a few years in existence, and numbering only 2000
+inhabitants, it has already a joint-stock bank with a capital of L45,000,
+several schools, and some neat places of worship. While taking an evening
+stroll, we passed a well-lighted Reformed Dutch Church, from the interior
+of which the devotional tones of a pious Christian congregation floating
+through the night air, died away among the mountains.
+
+Singular to say, the small, and, one would think, essentially prosaic and
+practical little town of Wellington boasts a quack doctor, named Brabna,
+whom the common people, far and near, come to consult, more, one would
+imagine, to be relieved of their money than their ailments.
+
+[Illustration: PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT WAS.]
+
+[Illustration: PAINE'S KLOEF AS IT IS.]
+
+The route to Worcester, whither we set out the following morning, leads
+at first through the wide, highly-cultivated Waggonmakers' Valley, adorned
+with numbers of rich farm-steads (so named from a number of artisans of
+this handicraft having settled here in former times), after which it
+passes over the difficult pass called Paine's Kloef, 4000 feet high, which
+frequently recalled the well-known road over the Soemmering Alp, or that at
+Optschina. This mountain-pass, first completed in 1853, by the engineer,
+Mr. Paine, greatly facilitates the traffic between Cape Town and this
+fertile district, which previously was quite inaccessible, and whose
+immense natural resources are only now beginning to be developed.
+
+When we reached the highest point of the pass we found a strong south-east
+wind blowing. The thermometer marked 55 deg. F., and when plunged in a spring
+that issued from the mountain close at hand, 48 deg. South-east winds are
+especially prevalent here, particularly in summer, when they frequently
+cause serious damage; hence all the upper branches of the trees incline to
+the north-west.
+
+We now came to the finest bridge in the country, named Darling Bridge,
+after a late governor, which is thrown across the broad stream called by
+the Dutch, Breede River, and by the English, Broad River, a frequent
+source of error. The English colonists are bent upon driving out the Dutch
+names of rivers and localities, and supplying them with new names of
+English origin. The Dutch, however, hold on obstinately to the names they
+have been accustomed to, and continue to use the ancient nomenclature.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Darling Bridge is a farm where the traveller can
+be comfortably accommodated, and from which, being a post-station, letters
+can be forwarded to all parts of the country. It has regular communication
+with the rest of the colony three times a week. The vehicle, however, in
+which the letters and packets are forwarded, in consequence of the
+wretched roads in the interior, and with the view of expediting the
+transmission of mail matter, is simply a light, open, eminently
+uncomfortable, two-wheel waggon, in which but one passenger can be taken
+each trip. Day and night, up hill and down dale, it continues its journey,
+changing driver and horses every two hours, only the unfortunate
+passenger being condemned to remain glued to the jolting uncomfortable
+car, until he has attained the end of his journey. We were told of an
+English captain, who once travelled on urgent business 400 miles in fifty
+hours in this fashion, and arrived at his destination in such a pitiable
+plight, that he had to be lifted from the car and put to bed forthwith,
+which he kept for several weeks, before he was able to get about again.
+Unfortunately, we were not told whether this unlucky passenger returned to
+Cape Town by a similar conveyance.
+
+In the dining-room of the farm we made acquaintance with several families
+from Graaf Reinet, in the north of the colony, who were _en route_ for
+Cape Town, and had been already three weeks on the road, during which they
+must have passed every night in their unwieldy waggon, or under tents.
+There was also among the assembled travellers a Quaker Missionary, of
+Worcester, who was on his way to the opening of the Spiritual Synod at
+Cape Town, and who was so kind as to furnish us, on the spot, with some
+introductions to his friends in Worcester, a lovely little town, which we
+reached towards the evening. There are places which charm at the first
+glance, just as there are many men who take us by storm as it were.
+Worcester is one of these; so neat, so clean, with a pretty garden in
+front of each little house, every wall of which was entwined with roses,
+and in the back-ground all around, bare, but picturesque groups of lofty
+hills of a blueish-grey tint, which imparted to the entire landscape a
+peculiar and almost magical colouring. Worcester, a creation of
+yesterday, has about 4500 inhabitants, chiefly employed in vine growing
+and sheep pasture. There are some of the peasantry here who own flocks of
+3000 to 4000 sheep! The rich vegetation of the valley has an eminently
+northern character. Alongside of oaks, pines, poplars, willows, will
+appear a tree of Australian origin, of the order of Myrtaceae, the blue
+gum-tree (_Eucalyptus Globulus_), which, on account of its rapid growth,
+is planted before each door for the purpose of shade. One of these trees
+was shown to us of but four years' growth, the stem of which was already
+twenty feet high! The leaves have a highly aromatic odour, and must be
+especially suitable for the extraction of oil, as the rind is full of
+camphor; as yet, however, the tree is not used by the colonists for any
+other purpose than to supply shade to their gardens.
+
+It is surprising what comfort the traveller encounters among these new
+settlements, from which, even already, all traces have been eradicated of
+the difficulties that originally beset the colonist; so that at every turn
+one meets with evidences of the highest European civilization. Whenever,
+indeed, he finds himself at a settlement, he will remark that it is not
+merely provided with the necessaries of life, or the mere products of the
+soil, but that it sparkles with numerous objects of luxury and refined
+taste; such as handsome furniture, pianos, and other musical instruments,
+engravings, English classics, besides telescopes, barometers,
+thermometers, and other similar evidences of high cultivation. At the
+hotel at Worcester, we met with a degree of comfort such as is found only
+in the chief cities of Europe. Several of the inhabitants, among others
+Dr. Esselin, a missionary of the Moravian brotherhood, and Dr. Meynard, of
+the Episcopal Church, laid us under particular obligations by their
+participation in the objects of our inquiry. The latter gentleman sought
+us out at our hotel, and, after a hearty welcome, remarked that he
+possessed, in his collection, several highly interesting petrifactions
+from Beaufort, about 400 miles north-west of Worcester. We satisfied
+ourselves, however, by a visit which we paid to Dr. Meynard at his own
+house, that his collection was far from possessing the interest he claimed
+for it. In all probability, however, judging by what we heard, Beaufort
+must be a classic soil for the palaeontologist, as there are numberless
+fossils in that district, especially of reptiles. In like manner, the
+stalactite grottoes, known as "The Congo Caves," 300 miles from Worcester,
+have never yet been scientifically examined or described.
+
+Dr. Esselin, who is a native of Hesse, was so kind as to accompany the
+naturalists of the Novara Expedition to the hot springs of Brand Vley the
+following morning. The road thither, which lies through a valley partly
+overflowed towards the end of the rainy season, was exceedingly trying to
+the horses, and, but for the kind offices of Dr. Esselin, who was
+acquainted with the difficulties of the route, and undertook the guidance
+of the waggon through the constantly recurring swamps and morasses, we
+should in all probability have had to retrace our steps halfway, or even
+have stuck fast, which would have been a still more serious matter. Only
+after unspeakable exertions did we succeed in threading the valley of
+Worcester as far as the shores of Breede (or Broad) River. Several times
+we were compelled, in order to lighten the waggon, to dismount, and wade
+up to our knees in water. Once the quag was so deep, that to avoid sinking
+in it we had to be carried, one by one, on the back of our Malay driver.
+
+[Illustration: CROSSING THE BREEDE RIVER.]
+
+On the bank is the cottage, (_boeren plaats_), of a peasant who avails
+himself of his proximity to convert the stream into a source of profit, by
+ferrying travellers, who have occasion to pass here during the floods,
+across the river in a small skiff, the waggon and horses being swum across
+afterwards. In summer, on the contrary, the stream is readily forded on
+horseback, and is indeed dry at several points. At the period of our visit
+(in October, 1857), towards the end of the rainy season, this Breede River
+was about 150 feet wide, and about 28 feet deep, and we accordingly found
+ourselves compelled to call in the assistance of the ferryman. Under his
+superintendence the work was gone about quite systematically. First of
+all the four horses were swum across, by a halter round the neck; after
+which the luggage was transported to the opposite bank in a small boat.
+Last of all came the waggon, with the travellers therein. It was thought
+that the upper portion of the waggon might be towed across, swimming on
+the surface of the water, by fastening an empty water-tight cask between
+the wheels; the cask, however, proved unequal to the weight. As the waggon
+left the shore it sank deeper and deeper in the water, till about
+mid-current it fairly capsized, hardly a spoke of the left wheel reaching
+the opposite bank.
+
+Amidst our perplexities, a violent shower of rain came on, making the
+waggon leak in every corner, just as we succeeded, after great trouble, in
+getting it to land, and were busy repairing it. Fortunately, every
+requisite precaution had been taken to remedy any such disaster occurring
+at this dangerous spot; so that the whole affair, though sufficiently
+uncomfortable at the time, left only the recollection of a pleasant
+adventure.
+
+[Illustration: HOT SPRINGS OF BRAND VLEY.]
+
+At last, towards noon, we reached the hot springs of Brand Vley, or Brand
+Valley. This hot spring, which is quite exposed, like a pond or tank, and
+even at the least accessible points is adorned with rich vegetation, is
+about 100 feet in circumference, and is of a triangular shape, rounded off
+at the corners. Among bananas, ferns, and cacti of all sorts, spring up
+numerous specimens of _Calla Ethioptica_, silver poplars, pines, reeds,
+and canes, in wild profusion. Many fruits even, such as pine-apples,
+mangoes, rose apples, &c., which as a rule do not flourish at this
+elevation, grew all round the edges of the basin. Some twigs of a rose
+tree, which, growing luxuriantly in the warmth and moisture, spread across
+the spring, like a green canopy, must have been a second growth of the
+same year. We in fact enjoyed the unusual spectacle of seeing one portion
+of the tree in the flush of its utmost beauty, while the upper and more
+distant branches had not as yet put forth their leaves. The water at the
+hottest point reached 145 deg. F., while the temperature of the air was 75 deg. F.
+It is remarkably clear, has not the slightest taste, and in many
+particulars greatly resembles the springs of Wildbad Gastein. The number
+of patients during the season (October to April) does not exceed from 100
+to 150, the waters being chiefly used in chronic maladies, rheumatic
+affections, scrofula, erysipelas, cutaneous eruptions, and similar
+complaints. Immediately adjoining is a small brook, with a temperature of
+68 deg. F., which rises at the foot of a neighbouring eminence, and has water
+enough during the entire year to keep a mill in constant work.
+
+The only animal inhabiting the spring is the larva of a _Tipularia_, which
+frequents one quarter of the pool where the temperature of the water does
+not exceed 113 deg.
+
+On the 14th of August, 1857, two shocks of an earthquake were felt in
+rapid succession in Brand Valley, of such violence as to arouse the
+inhabitants out of their sleep, when several of the smaller houses were
+found to have rents and fissures in their walls. The proprietor of the
+bath alleged that the shocks in Brand Valley were much more severe than at
+Worcester, although that town is but six miles distant.
+
+At Brand Valley we took leave of our hospitable companion, Dr. Esselin,
+who presented us with several books on leaving, and set out on an
+excursion to the mission of the Moravian Brethren in Genaaden Dal, in the
+district of Caledon. _En route_ we encountered several families, who came
+from far in the interior of Cape Colony, driving before them enormous
+herds of oxen, some of which were yoked to the waggons that formed the
+caravan, these being fitted up something like dwelling-houses on wheels.
+As night fell, a halt would be called at some selected spot, when the
+draught oxen were unharnessed, a fire lit in the open air, and the evening
+repast prepared. Horses are very rarely used on long journeys, although
+these are in consequence seriously lengthened thereby, especially as it is
+the custom all over the country to unyoke every two or three hours, so as
+to allow the beasts to enjoy a roll on the ground, if only for a few
+minutes at a time.
+
+As neither of our drivers was acquainted with the road we were now to
+pursue, we hired a black guide from Brand Valley, who accompanied us on
+horseback as far as the next farm-house, where we were to pass the night.
+Just as one requires a pilot to take a ship into an insecure or unknown
+harbour, so we now had to avail ourselves of the services of this limber
+young negro, who was an excellent rider, in piloting us through the
+endless morasses and pools of water. Renden was the name of the solitary
+farm (the property of Mr. Pretorius, a landed proprietor, to whom we had
+letters of introduction), where we were to pass the night.
+
+As we approached, we were saluted with the loud barking of a hound that
+had been unchained, and who seemed ready to rush upon his unexpected prey,
+so that we hardly dared to advance one step. At last a man made his
+appearance at the door of the house, with a lantern in his hand, speedily
+followed by the whole family, anxious to learn who could be in the
+neighbourhood at so late an hour. We handed him the letter, which we
+begged him to read, and requested to know whether we could be received for
+the night. We were at once admitted, and speedily found a most cordial
+welcome. We were shown into apartments very plainly furnished, but neat,
+and scrupulously clean, after which we were invited to join the household
+at supper. It was a very numerous family. The father and mother, genuine
+Dutch figures, sat at the head of a long table; next to whom sat the
+son-in-law, who had married the eldest daughter, and then commingled with
+each other, the sons and daughters that were as yet unmarried. They all
+seemed hearty and healthy, and their indurated hands were the best
+diploma of their industry. The youngest son said a short prayer; after
+which venison, potatoes, mutton, vegetables, bread, butter, and cheese
+were set down in huge dishes, besides which two bottles of Cape wine, of
+their own manufacture, went the round of the table. Although this place
+had been only settled four years previously, an immense deal had been
+already accomplished by this stirring, cheerful family to make the soil
+thoroughly productive, and render the house habitable. Even a small garden
+had been laid out in front of the dwelling-house.
+
+The chief article of cultivation in the valley is the grape, for wine
+manufacture, which must in this place return a very handsome profit.
+
+From Renden to Genaaden Dal is a four-hours' journey. The road passes by
+Donker's Hoek, a tolerably high mountain, to ascend the summit of which
+cost our horses some strenuous exertion, although we marched a
+considerable distance on foot. A wide belt of sandstone formation
+presented a marvellous display of flowers, and gave us in little an idea
+of the South African Karroos, a series of terraced clay-patches, estimated
+at from 3000 to 4000 feet high, which, hard and steppe-like in the dry
+season, are speedily transformed in the rainy season into smiling,
+flower-bespangled plains, quite sponge-like under foot, and rich in
+alkaline products.[52] We advanced some six hours before reaching another
+farm-house. This was known as Kleene Islea Plaats (Little Island Farm),
+near which flows the Zonderend River (River Without End), the property of
+a kind and hospitable family of French extraction, whose parents emigrated
+hither from France during the revolution in 1793. As it was Sunday, the
+servants had gone to church, so they could only offer us cold mutton,
+syrup, butter, and bread. Before and after our repast, the devout old lady
+of the house put up a short petition.
+
+[Footnote 52: The English appellation "Karroo" seems to be derived from
+_Karusa_, signifying "hard" in the Hottentot language, and to refer to a
+quality appertaining to the clayey substance of which these terraces are
+composed, by virtue of which the red clay, strongly impregnated with iron,
+and mixed with sand, becomes in the dry season as hard as burnt clay.]
+
+Here, too, we remarked that those born in the country of European parents
+are called Africans: only the English form an exception to this rule, and
+remain with persistent patriotic obstinacy, "Englishmen."
+
+The journey from Kleene Islea Plaats to Genaaden Dal is extremely
+picturesque. One first catches sight of this retired Moravian settlement
+only when actually entering the place itself, embowered as it is among
+lofty trees. What a surprise, when, still fancying one's self at a
+considerable distance from the village, on reaching the end of a beautiful
+valley at the entrance to Bavian's Kloef, one sweeps by a circuit into the
+very heart of the settlement. We alighted at what is called "The
+Lodgment," a house set apart for visitors, and conducted by a brother, in
+conformity with the laws of the community.
+
+The dwellings of the Hottentots lie scattered among the rising grounds in
+the neighbourhood, and with their poverty-stricken aspect impart a
+somewhat melancholy impression. These are built of loam, low in the roof,
+as though intended for a stunted race of men, and rarely have windows, so
+that the door is, generally speaking, the largest aperture in the entire
+building. Our Malay driver laughed at them, and called them _oete kripp_
+(oxen stalls).
+
+[Illustration: HOTTENTOT HUTS AT GENAADENDAL.]
+
+There seem to be three distinct kinds of these dwellings, which apparently
+indicate so many grades of social and pecuniary consideration among the
+resident Hottentot families. The first sort, which consists simply of a
+single apartment, serving at once for kitchen, work-shop, and sleeping
+place, and receiving air and light through a narrow, low-pitched door-way,
+is that most usually met with, and may not unaptly be compared to a
+bee-hive. The next class is of a better description, and may at once and
+definitely be distinguished from the first-mentioned, in so far as it
+possesses a second room, which, if dark and windowless, is at any rate
+partitioned off, and serves as a sleeping apartment. Finally, the third
+kind, which can only be said to be the least poor-looking, consists of
+one large, almost empty chamber, for occupation during the day, with wings
+on either side, one of which is used as a kitchen, the other as a
+bed-room. The wretched ventilation, and damp, moist location of these
+habitations, combined with the bad quality of food, may be regarded as the
+main causes of the unfavourable state of health of the coloured portion of
+the inhabitants of Genaaden Dal, among whom, especially as regards the
+female portion, pulmonary complaints are rife.
+
+We were provided with letters of introduction to the Superintendent of the
+Community, Dr. Koebling, as also to the Physician and Pharmaceutist, Dr.
+Roser, a Wuertemberger by birth, and experienced a most cordial reception.
+We availed ourselves of the last hours of declining day to make an
+excursion to the hills, in the country immediately adjacent, so as to
+command at a glance the entire colony. The principal buildings, the
+Church, the school, the workshops, the warehouses, and the dwellings of
+the missionaries, are assembled in a quadrangular open place, to which a
+number of lofty, massive, leafy, venerable oaks impart a sombre, but
+poetical, appearance, eminently characteristic of the community. All the
+buildings are of a uniform dingy-grey tint. Close in the rear of these
+buildings is a large garden, which reaches as far as what is called
+"Bavian's Kloef" (defile), in which, even at present, apes, antelopes, and
+zebras, abound. Near the kitchen-garden is the cemetery of the community,
+which seems to be used by meditative brethren as a favourite resort and
+promenade.
+
+This settlement, situated at the entrance of a mountain defile, at the
+foot of an immense sandstone range, of from 3000 to 4000 feet high, was
+founded in the year 1787, by a brother of the persuasion, named George
+Schmidt, from Moravia, who settled fifty-five miles east of Cape Town,
+near Sargent's River, with a number of Hottentots, whom he began to
+convert to Christianity, and called the station "Bavian's Kloef." From the
+year 1806, the settlement assumed the beautiful name of "Genaaden Dal"
+(Vale of Benevolence), so exquisitely correspondent with the benevolent
+exertions of the brotherhood. It at present numbers 3100 souls, mostly a
+race crossed between Hottentots and Mozambique negroes, of the latter of
+whom a considerable number have settled here since the Slave Emancipation
+Act of 1826. The settlers are partly proprietors of the land, partly
+artisans, cutlers, waggon-makers, tanners, carpenters, millers, &c. In the
+workshops the most exemplary cleanliness and neatness are imperatively
+insisted on. At the Great Exhibition, held in London in 1851, the
+wood-work of the Hottentot carpenters of Genaaden Dal received "Honourable
+Mention," and this elegant testimonial in recognition of their efforts now
+hangs, framed and glazed, in the library hall of the community. It
+somewhat surprised us that the cutlers did not receive, in their section,
+a similar distinction, since, in that department of industry, the
+Hottentots produce articles, which, so far as concerns quality and
+cheapness, are really astounding. The workpeople receive a fixed weekly
+payment, which they may expend as they please. The net proceeds, however,
+of the various articles manufactured belong to the community, and are
+expended in defraying the expenses of, and supporting, the mission. The
+inhabitants of Genaaden Dal are closely connected, by religious ties, with
+the community; and only those who profess the principles of the Moravian
+brotherhood are permitted to settle among them.
+
+The field-labourers, who hire themselves out to labour elsewhere, are
+frequently absent from the settlement for months at a time, and return to
+Genaaden Dal immediately after the completion of seed-time or harvest. It
+is significant that these labourers regard this period of emancipation, as
+a sort of relaxation from the severe discipline and rules to which they
+are subjected in the religious community.
+
+The principal articles of food of the inhabitants consist of maize, beans,
+pumpkins, rice, fruits, tea, coffee, and occasionally mutton. Wine is
+strictly prohibited throughout the settlement, and when a member of the
+_Novara_ Expedition, never imagining that this interdict extended to
+strangers as well, desired the attendant at the house we were occupying to
+fetch a bottle of sherry, that individual regarded him with as
+horror-stricken an air as though he had asked him to participate in some
+crime.
+
+Although the first settlers in Genaaden Dal were pure Hottentots, not more
+than five or six at present speak the idiom of their fathers, the rest
+knowing only the Dutch tongue. The Superintendent had the kindness to
+allow an old blind man, of the name of Sebastian Hendrik, to be presented
+to us, born in the colony in 1775, of Hottentot parents, "_een opregt
+Hottentot_" (an out-and-out Hottentot), as he called himself, and who
+still could speak a number of phrases in his mother tongue, with its
+extraordinary "clicking" sounds; but, on the other hand, no longer had the
+slightest recollection of the customs, usages, or proverbs of that nation
+to which he belonged by birth. In the library of the community, where this
+conversation took place, there were also shown to us numerous sketches by
+Hottentot and Caffre lads, which gave great hope of future excellence. It
+is an especially gratifying indication of intellectual progress, that
+several works of natural history are to be found on the shelves of the
+library.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH AND MISSION HOUSES OF THE MORAVIAN SETTLEMENT AT
+GENAADENDAL.]
+
+We also found time to listen to the singing in the church, quite a plain
+wooden building, erected in 1800, with white-washed walls, a spacious
+gallery, and an elegant organ, the gift of a benevolent lady of Hamburg,
+who spent some months of the year 1843 at Cape Town in search of health,
+and took an opportunity of visiting the Moravian brethren at Genaaden Dal.
+One of the missionaries sat in the middle of the chapel at a table covered
+with green cloth, and gave out, verse by verse, a hymn in the Dutch
+language, which was afterwards sung, with accompaniment by the organ, by
+the entire community assemble in the edifice. The men and women sat apart
+from each other, on smooth wooden benches, the former on the left, the
+latter on the right of the officiating minister. The chapel was only
+illuminated with a few tallow candles; but the devotional feeling of the
+community seemed to gain by this simple unostentatious ritual, and the
+mysterious solemn obscurity of their place of congregational worship.
+
+Next morning, 12th October, some of the brethren paid us the attention of
+examining in our presence the scholars of the Seminary for Teachers, so
+that we might personally satisfy ourselves of their progress in the
+various branches of education. This academy for the education of suitable
+instructors, was originally established in 1838, through the generous
+assistance of a Saxon nobleman, Count Schoenburg, and year by year since,
+has been so liberally assisted by that benevolent nobleman, that its
+future prosperity seems fairly established. At present there are in the
+seminary 14 pupils (Hottentots, Caffres, and half-breeds). Since the year
+of its establishment, 50 young persons in all have been sent out hence; of
+whom, however, only one half proved to be available for the duties of
+teachers. Up to the year 1856, twenty-two pupils were already at work in
+the service of the community, fourteen had been rejected as unsuitable,
+and fourteen were still in the institute. They entered at from ten to
+fifteen years of age, remained within its walls six years for instruction,
+when they were clothed and maintained, and thereafter, without further
+obligations to the society which had educated them, were dispatched into
+the most remote districts of the colony as teachers and apostles of
+Christianity. The examination of the pupils of the seminary took place at
+the Library Hall, which boasts a portrait of a highly meritorious brother,
+the venerable C. J. Latrobe, who, in the year 1815-16, visited South
+Africa as a missionary, and, two years later published, in London, his
+very remarkable book of travels. The examination commenced with a
+performance on the piano by a Mestizo lad of about sixteen, son of a
+Mulatto father by a Hottentot mother. This youth displayed a decided
+talent for music, coupled with truly admirable execution; and besides the
+piano, played the organ, the violin, and the violoncello. Next, a variety
+of questions in geography and history were put to the pupils present.
+These consisted chiefly of easy intelligible questions, principally
+relating to England. Those examined were surprisingly well acquainted with
+the history of Liverpool, London, Manchester, Dublin, &c., and could
+enumerate many particulars about the Thames and Westminster Abbey. What
+proved most disagreeable, was the singular custom that prevailed, of all
+the pupils answering at once, each hoping, by out-clamouring his fellow,
+to prove his intimate acquaintance with the subject under discussion. The
+examiner, for example, put a question to a scholar, whereupon all the
+pupils yelled out the reply in chorus. But it was, on the whole,
+astonishing, and indeed eminently suggestive, to hear Hottentots, Caffres,
+and negroes, at the extreme southernmost part of Africa, speaking of
+England, and her influence over the destinies of humanity, as a
+commercial, maritime, and industrial power. Already the youth of the
+settlement are thoroughly interpenetrated with esteem and affection for
+the mother country and its mighty people. As a _finale_, the assembled
+pupils sang a Dutch _Bergmann's Gruss_, "The Miner's Welcome," and one of
+Mendelssohn's delightful songs.
+
+Before we quitted Genaaden Dal we breakfasted with the missionaries. They
+are all married, and manage their households in common, and accordingly
+partake of their various meals together, each with his family, all seated
+at one table, one of their wives attending to change dishes and wait at
+the table. Nowhere are any particular qualifications to be remarked, and
+it is difficult to conceive more thorough harmony than exists among the
+unpretending, yet zealously religious missionaries of Genaaden Dal.
+
+As we were preparing for our departure, Dr. Roser unexpectedly packed up a
+number of objects of natural history and scientific interest, which he
+kindly presented to the Imperial expedition as a _souvenir_ of Genaaden
+Dal. Besides these, there were also given to us two valuable little
+books,--one a small work upon the Nicobar Islands, written about the
+beginning of this century by a Moravian brother of the name of Gottfried
+Hensel; the other a treatise composed by the excellent Dr. Roser himself,
+upon the pharmaceutics and natural history of Genaaden Dal. With respect
+to the various substances chewed as stimulants, or intoxicants, by the
+Hottentots, in order to deprive themselves of sensation, or rouse
+themselves to a state of high excitability, we found the following
+particulars in this interesting essay. That most in use is composed of the
+bruised leaves of the "_Leonotis Leonurus_." This plant, which grows in
+great quantity in and beyond the Genaaden Dal, is called by the natives
+"Dagga," as also frequently, "Tacha or Takka," and this variation in
+pronunciation is very probably the reason that we find in Berghaus's
+"_Voelker des Erdballs_" (Races of the Globe), this celebrated smoke-weed,
+marked as "Donha." What the same author says of certain stimulating
+properties of the plant may well be considered as an exaggeration. It is
+curious how the properties of this plant seem to be inextricably mingled
+with the destinies of the Hottentots. In many places it has been
+extirpated, in order more readily to wean the aborigines from the practice
+of chewing: at other places again, "_Leonotis Leonurus_" is expressly
+planted in order to attract the Hottentots, and so supply any deficiency
+in hands for labour, reckless of the moral consequences. Another narcotic,
+and the most widely prevalent, is the wild hemp (_Canabis Sativa_), the
+dried leaves of which are smoked by the natives. Dr. Juritz, one of the
+most respectable apothecaries in Cape Town, assured us he had been
+compelled, during a previous residence at Stellenbosch, where he was
+engaged in his business, to keep always on hand in his store a large
+quantity of wild hemp for sale to the natives.
+
+The poison with which the Bushmen tip their arrows, rendering them such
+dangerous and terrible weapons, is extracted from the "_Cestrum
+venenatum_."[53]
+
+[Footnote 53: The Dyaks of Borneo poison their arrows with the juice of
+_Strychnos Tieute_ and _Antiaris Toxicaria_ (Upas).]
+
+Among the animal products of Genaaden Dal of importance in a scientific
+point of view is Hyrazeuma, a substance obtained from the urine of the
+Cape Marmot (_Hyrax Capensis_). It is of a dark-brown colour, somewhat
+tenacious, and nearly hard, of a very penetrating odour, and is found in
+cavities resembling a molehill. This article is made use of with much
+effect in hysterical complaints by the Hottentots. Dr. Roser is of
+opinion, that this Cape Marmot is in all probability the same animal which
+Martin Luther, in Leviticus, c. xi, v. 5, and Proverbs, c. xxx, v. 26, has
+translated by the word "_kaninchen_" (conies).
+
+On our way from Genaaden Dal to Caledon, to which there is an excellent
+level road, we perceived a large number of silver poplars, with pendent
+nests of finches. On a single tree we counted more than forty such pendent
+nests, constructed in a very singular manner.
+
+Caledon is a cheerful, ambitious little town, important as the centre of
+the wool trade, as also for the thermal springs in the neighbourhood.
+These, situated about two English miles outside the town, on a rising
+ground, in a romantic and highly attractive neighbourhood, are impregnated
+with iron, and of a considerable temperature. Even in the bath-house,
+distant about a mile from the source of the spring, a thermometer held in
+a stone trough, filled to overflowing, marked from 100 deg.4 to 104 deg. Fahr. At
+their respective sources the one spring has a temperature of 116 deg.6 Fahr.
+and the other 114 deg.8 Fahr. The colour of the water is ochre yellow. From
+the terrace of the bath-house a rather extensive landscape opens to the
+view, backed by a splendid range of mountains, including the Tower of
+Babel, as the inhabitants have christened the highest peak in this
+vicinity.
+
+Caledon has 600 inhabitants. About twenty years ago there were not more
+than ten bales of wool grown in the entire district. At present about
+800,000 lbs. are shipped annually. One Merino sheep supplies from 1 lb. to
+1-1/2 lb. of wool, worth from 1_s._ 2_d._ to 1_s._ 4_d._ sterling per
+pound. Besides Caledon, the principal wool districts of Cape Colony are
+Swellendam, Beaufort, and Graaf-Reinet. All these districts united produce
+yearly about 15,000,000 lbs. of wool, worth about _L_1,000,000 sterling.
+Within two years the wool produce of the entire colony has increased 30
+per cent., and during last year a strenuous and very costly experiment has
+been made to introduce the Angora breed, with the intention of increasing
+the wool-producing powers of the less fleecy race by a judicious cross
+with the native species.
+
+The road to Somerset-West leads over the high and picturesque Hauw-Hoek
+Pass and Sir Lowry's Pass; the latter is very steep, and parts of it are
+hardly, if at all, inferior in extent and variety of landscape to those
+presented by the Styrian Alps. At the culminating point of the latter
+pass, which surpasses even Paine's Kloef in height and width, one stands
+as upon the ruins of a lofty tower, from which the eye can range at will
+over the entire country beneath. South-east and eastward towers the
+Hauw-Hoek Pass, while southwards and westwards the charming Lowry's Vale,
+and far in the distance the smiling settlement of Somerset-West come into
+view, while all around, farther than the eye can reach, are luxuriant
+pasturages, that only wait to be settled and cultivated in order to
+produce magnificent returns.
+
+Somerset-West, a prettily-built, and very charmingly situated settlement,
+already supports so considerable a traffic with the capital that a daily
+omnibus has proved a remunerative speculation to the promoters.
+
+We now proceeded to Zandvliet, the property of one of the oldest and most
+highly considered families in the colony, named Cloete, where we spent the
+night. With these genial kindly people we soon felt ourselves as entirely
+at home as if with our own families; we sang, laughed, and frolicked, till
+far into the night.
+
+The following morning we drove to a hill, about a mile and a half distant
+from Zandvliet, known as Macassar Downs, on which is the spot of
+interment, (Krammat or Brammat), of a Malay prophet.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB OF A MALAY PROPHET AT ZANDVLIET.]
+
+This individual, so honoured in death, was, if we are to believe the
+Malays, a direct descendant of Mahomet, named Sheikh Joseph, who, expelled
+from Batavia by the Dutch Government for political reasons, settled in the
+colony about a century and a half ago, and died and was buried in the
+neighbourhood of Zandvliet. An especial deputation came over from Malacca
+to Cape Colony to fetch away the corpse of the defunct prophet, for
+conveyance to the land of his birth; but at the disinterment it happened
+that the little finger of the prophet, in spite of the most persevering
+research, could nowhere be found. This circumstance appeared to those
+simple believers sufficient reason for erecting a monument over the spot
+in which the finger of a Malay prophet lay hid from view. Even to this day
+the Malays from time to time perform a pilgrimage to the Colony and
+celebrate their religious ceremonies at the Mausoleum. Four followers of
+the prophet are buried with him, two of them Mahometan priests, who are
+regarded with much veneration by the Malays. An extensive flight of stone
+steps leads to the tomb, the exterior of which is very insignificant, and,
+but for a small pointed turret, hardly differs from an ordinary
+dwelling-house. On entering, a low-roofed vault is visible, a sort of
+front outhouse, which rather disfigures the facade, and much more
+resembles a cellar than the portal of a Mausoleum. Above the arch of this
+vault an Arabic inscription has been engraved with a stylus; but this is
+so painted over in brick colour that it has already become almost
+illegible. Judging by the few words that have been deciphered, it seems to
+consist of the first propositions of the Koran.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MAUSOLEUM.]
+
+The inner room, provided on two sides with modern glazed windows at
+irregular intervals, is about the size of an ordinary room of 12 feet
+long, 9 wide, and 7 high. In the middle rises the monument, to which
+access is had by some more brick steps. Immense quantities of unwashed
+white linen cloth are heaped upon it, which seem occasionally sprinkled
+with a brown odoriferous liquid (_dupa_). As at the head of Sheikh Joseph,
+so at his feet several figures, resembling those in enamel used to
+ornament tarts, are drawn upon the linen cloth with the overflowings of
+the unguent. These have undoubtedly been formed accidentally, and it
+appears wrong and unfair to attribute to them any more recondite
+significance. The monument rests upon four wooden pillars, with pyramidal
+pinnacles or ornaments, and is richly decorated with fine white muslin,
+which gives to the whole very much the appearance of an old-fashioned
+English "fourposter," with its costly drapery and curtains. While the
+curtains are spread out all around, several small green and white
+bannerets stand at the upper and lower end of the sarcophagus. The whole
+interior is, as it were, impregnated with the incense which devout Malay
+pilgrims from time to time burn here, especially after the forty days'
+fast (Ramadan), or leave behind upon the steps of the tomb in flasks or in
+paper-boxes. On such occasions, they always bring wax-candles and linen
+cloth as an offering, with the latter of which they deck the tomb afresh,
+so that a perfect mountain of white linen rises above the stone floor.
+During their devotions they unceasingly kiss this white mass of stuff, and
+as they are continually chewing tobacco, this filthy habit produces
+disgustingly loathsome stains.
+
+On the same hill which boasts the tomb of Sheikh Joseph, there are also,
+in ground that is common property, nine other graves of eminent Malays,
+enclosed with carefully-selected stones, and likewise covered over with
+large broad strips of bleached linen cloth, protected by stones from any
+injury by weather or violence. At the head and foot of each individual
+interred, is a single stone of larger size. Formerly the black inhabitants
+of the neighbourhood made use of this store of linen cloth to make shirts
+for themselves, without further thought upon the propriety of the matter.
+Latterly, however, a shrewd Malay priest spread a report that one of these
+ebony linen stealers had lost all the fingers off one hand, since which
+the graves of those departed worthies remain inviolate and unprofaned.
+
+At the foot of the hill are some small half-fallen-in buildings, near a
+large hall, painted white, red, and yellow, consisting of a small
+apartment and a kitchen, the whole in a most dirty, neglected, and
+desolate condition. At this point the Moslems must have accomplished
+certain prayers, before they can climb the hill and proceed to visit the
+tomb. Over the door of this singular house of prayer some words are
+likewise engraved in the Arabic character, which, however, are now
+entirely illegible.
+
+On quitting the Malay Krammat, we next undertook a tolerably difficult
+walk to the Downs or sand-dunes, which at this point extend along the
+entire coast line, on which the wax-berry shrub, as already mentioned,
+grows wild in vast quantities, and visibly prevents the further
+encroachments of the moving sand. The Eerst Rivier (First River) may be
+regarded as the limit of demarcation between the sand-dunes and the soil
+adapted for vegetation.
+
+The same evening the naturalists of the Expedition left hospitable
+Zandvliet, though not till after they had been presented by Herr Cloete
+with a splendid collection of fruits indigenous to Port Natal. Having been
+everywhere received with distinction, and enjoyed every sort of assistance
+in our researches, we set out on our return so richly freighted with
+objects of natural history, that the waggon, as we drove through the wide
+streets of Cape Town, presented such a various and substantial assortment
+of each as spoke volumes for the success of our journey. Every available
+corner was called into requisition to dispose of our prizes--even between
+the open windows hung suspended the bottle-shaped nests of the finch, and
+the slender sticks that supported the tilt were entwined with gigantic
+festoons of flowers. In a word, the whole waggon, with its variegated
+contents, resembled a holiday-van on its return from a country excursion,
+so gaily and cheerfully was it decorated.
+
+During our residence in the Cape colony, severe depression existed among
+the agricultural inhabitants of the Western and Eastern districts, in
+consequence of an epidemic which, within two years, had carried off 64,850
+horses (draught horses, mares, and foals), of the value of L525,000
+sterling.[54] Many landowners in consequence entirely gave up rearing
+horses, and turned their attention almost exclusively to the breeding of
+sheep. The visitations of this malady are by no means of late
+introduction, but hitherto they had made their appearance at such long
+intervals, that but little attention was paid to them and people regarded
+their return without much alarm. This disease of the horse, usually
+endemic in Cape Colony, assumed every twenty years, owing to some
+inexplicable causes, an epidemic character, and on those occasions
+extended over an extensive area, as happened with extraordinary regularity
+in the years 1780, 1801, 1819, 1839, and 1854. Hitherto no further
+precaution was taken, than, so soon as the disease appeared, to drive the
+horses from the grass pastures to their stables or covered sheds, and
+there supply them with fodder, the night dew being considered a main cause
+of the complaint. A resident in Stellenbosch, indeed, maintained that the
+dew which was deposited during the continuance of the disease tasted quite
+bitter, and was of an unusual brownish tinge. Singular to say, not the
+slightest symptoms of illness manifested themselves in the swine, dogs,
+and birds of prey which devoured the carcases of horses that died of the
+disease, while the consumption, whether boiled or roasted, of mutton
+which was ever so slightly tainted with the mere germ of this malady,
+never failed to produce the most mischievous consequences on the human
+species. According to Dr. Livingstone the same malignant ulcerous
+imposthumes were produced, if even sound portions were used of the carcase
+of an animal that had died of this complaint. These observations, founded
+on innumerable examples, run counter to the opinion of the French
+physicians and physiologists, that the malignity of the poison in such
+cases becomes neutralized by the process of cooking. Considering the
+importance of the subject to a land-holding colony, it could hardly fail
+that numerous individuals should devote themselves to elucidating the
+causes of this devastating epidemic; but it must ever remain a striking
+and significant fact, illustrative of the high standard of cultivation in
+Cape Colony, that within a very few years 112 different authors published
+treatises respecting this complaint among the horses. The result of these
+numerous researches was, that the malady is epidemic, but not contagious;
+that horses driven into the stable before sunset, and not permitted to go
+out to pasture till the dew has evaporated off the grass, are as a rule
+exempted from attack; that those horses which are kept at night in open
+pounds, or in places where there are heaps of dung, take the disease in a
+milder form than if suffered to roam at large day and night; lastly, that
+horses for which no covered shelter can be provided, may with great
+advantage be sent to hilly localities and dry runs of land. The practical
+remedy which was most resorted to, consisted in immediate and prolonged
+bleeding, pushed to actual exhaustion of the animal, in the first stage of
+the malady, as also the exhibition of 1 drachm of tartar emetic and 2
+drachms of calomel, or, at a later stage, of 30 grains of tartar emetic
+twice a day.
+
+[Footnote 54: At the same time 92,793 head of cattle (draught oxen, cows,
+and calves) fell a sacrifice to a disease of the lungs, and we were
+assured that the original cause of this terribly fatal malady
+(_Pleuropneumonia_) is attributable to a bull having been imported from
+Holland, in the year 1854, in a diseased state. The English public will
+remember the severe panic under which Continental graziers, and others
+connected with the cattle trade, laboured during the years 1854-55 and the
+commencement of 1856.]
+
+[Illustration: TSETSE FLY.]
+
+Another appalling scourge of the settlers in the south-west district of
+Cape Colony is a minute, almost imperceptible insect, of terrible omen,
+the _tsetse-fly_ (_Glossina morsitans_), a puncture from which produces
+such terrible destruction among horses and cattle, that several runs of
+land are uninhabitable--nay, even the mere passing through districts which
+they frequent, proves fatal to the draught beasts of the caravans. This
+insect is principally encountered in copses and brushwood, very seldom in
+the open country, and is about the size of a common house fly, but with
+wings a little longer. In colour it resembles the honey bee. The tsetse is
+uncommonly active, and usually escapes all attempts to catch it with the
+hand; but in the cool of the morning or evening it is less active and
+quick in its movements. The poison which it carries is so powerful that
+the bite of three or four individuals is sufficient to kill the most
+powerful ox. Many animals, especially such as appear perfectly sound or in
+the best condition, die speedily after being bitten, but the majority are
+ill for an entire week, and usually become blind before death. One
+remarkable circumstance is that the bite of these insects is fatal to
+dogs, even when fed with milk, while calves and other young animals, so
+long as they are sucking, remain perfectly exempt from the malefic powers
+of the tsetse. It is especially noticed that the danger seems to be
+confined to domesticated animals, while such as are wild or only half
+reclaimed, such as buffaloes, zebras, jackals, oxen, horses, and wild
+dogs, have not the slightest occasion to dread this insect; nay more, it
+attacks man himself without the least ill consequences. The sensation
+which their bite produces on the hand, or other portion of the human
+frame, would be confounded by any one travelling in the tsetse district,
+with that of another minute and most troublesome, though by no means
+dangerous insect, the flea. Fortunately the tsetse-fly has an appointed
+circuit to range in, in the south-west of the Cape Colony, which it never
+changes or extends. The landowner may erect his cattle-pound on one side
+of the stream in perfect security, although the opposite bank may resound
+with the hum of swarms of these insects. When the natives, who are
+acquainted with the localities in which the tsetse-fly abides, are
+compelled, as they constantly are, to shift their ground, and, in changing
+their pastures, to transgress upon the district of the tsetse, they
+usually select the moonlight nights of winter, when the insect, during the
+quiet hours of the cold season, is not likely to molest their charge.
+
+Many travellers whose draught oxen and horses have been killed by the
+ravages of this insect, are annually not merely frustrated in their
+journey, but, it appears, have their personal safety seriously imperilled
+by being deprived of all means of locomotion. Anderson, in his admirable
+work upon "Lake Ngami," relates that some twenty aborigines of the Griqua
+race, who had been elephant-hunting in the north-west of that lake, and
+were provided with three large waggons and numerous oxen and horses,
+found, on their return to their encampment, that they had lost the whole
+of their cattle-team by the bite of the tsetse. So, too, Dr. Livingstone,
+during a short journey over a district frequented by the tsetse, lost
+forty-three strong and useful oxen, although by dint of great vigilance
+scarcely twenty flies had been able to settle among the entire herd. We
+have dwelt at length on the description of the ravages caused by this so
+much dreaded insect, with the view of pointing out the numerous and
+amazing difficulties which present themselves to the traveller or settler
+in certain localities, and how often not only wild and rapacious animals,
+but even small, hardly perceptible insects endanger the life of the
+wanderer, and render large tracts of lands valueless for settlement.[55]
+
+[Footnote 55: Most valuable comprehensive details, as to the natural
+history of the tsetse-fly, its ravages, and its migration into the
+districts which it frequents, are to be found in the "Transactions of the
+Royal Society," Volume XX., page 148; "Proceedings of the London
+Geological Society," page 217; Charles John Anderson's "Lake Ngami; or,
+Explorations and Discoveries during Four Years' Wanderings in the Wilds of
+Western Africa," London, 1856; Dr. Livingstone's "Missionary Travels and
+Researches in South Africa," London, 1857. The agent of the London
+Missionary Society at the Cape of Good Hope, the estimable, highly
+respected Dr. Thompson, gave us a small piece of a root called _fly-root_,
+which is considered to grow from a parasite, and a decoction of which is
+reckoned by the aborigines an antidote to the bite of the tsetse-fly.
+Unfortunately the requisite material was not in sufficient quantity to
+admit of determining the plant itself, or of instituting further
+researches with it.]
+
+No stranger can well leave Cape Town without having visited Constantia,
+the chief seat of the wine cultivation of the country. Accordingly we had
+a day of exceedingly pleasant relaxation while visiting High Constantia.
+Mr. James Mosenthal, the very hospitable Austrian Consul, had carefully
+selected the most beautiful spot in the immediate vicinity of Cape Town,
+the charming residence of his friend Mynheer Van Reenen, at which to get
+up a splendid _fete champetre_ on an extensive scale, in honour of the
+visit of this the first man-of-war that had borne the flag of our country
+into these remote seas. The entire staff of our frigate was invited, and
+over a hundred guests, comprising the flower of the fair sex of Cape Town,
+took part in the festivities. Immense four-horse coaches conveyed the
+company in the forenoon to the hill of Constantia. The company wandered at
+leisure under the gigantic oak trees, or in the beautifully laid-out
+garden of this extensive domain, and after a sumptuous _dejeuner_, the
+majority set to dancing. A small orchestra of stringed instruments played
+alternately with the ship's band in the garden, and in the tastefully
+decorated apartment. Those who did not care to dance, or whom a burning
+afternoon sun prevented from walking in the open air, might escape into
+cool and most elegant cellars, where our hospitable entertainer had stored
+large quantities of "spiritual treasures." The costly nectar which the
+Cape, and especially High Constantia, produces, finds its way but seldom
+to European tables, because the quantity produced is very much below the
+demand; for although the first cultivation of the grape for wine dates in
+Cape Colony so far back as 1668, the wine manufacture has only of late
+years expanded in a marked degree,--viz., 45 per cent. from 1855 to 1856,
+and 70 per cent. from 1856 to 1857, so that at present the entire quantity
+produced of red and white Cape wine (Pontac and Frontignac) may be stated
+at 24,000 pipes, worth L380,000 sterling.
+
+At the conclusion of the _fete_ we sat down to a splendid banquet in the
+open air, in a shady avenue, so as to admit of all the guests sitting at
+one long table. At the upper end, under the umbrageous boughs of some
+venerable oaks, that towered like a canopy overhead, fluttered the flags
+of England and Austria. The mayor of Cape Town occupied the chair; the
+toasts customary on such occasions were given and responded to, allusion
+being made to the pleasure felt at the arrival of an Austrian man-of-war,
+as also to the gratitude of the members of the Expedition for the hearty
+welcome prepared for them, and expressing an earnest hope that both
+Governments may ever continue faithfully allied, as both nations are, by
+descent, sympathy, and intellectual pursuits. A few days after this
+splendid entertainment, we returned to Simon's Bay, whence the _Novara_
+was already preparing to sail. The several weeks' stay of the frigate at
+the little settlement of Simon's Bay, together with a certain quantity of
+repairs, had called forth a most unwonted briskness of business. Amid so
+circumscribed a population, the sudden influx of more than three hundred
+additional consumers, with their varying wants, speedily made itself
+perceptible in every class of the community, the more so as most of the
+heavy stores for the voyage were bought here, so that the sum set in
+circulation during these few weeks amounted to some L2,000. At the same
+time the Expedition were readily permitted to contribute a mite towards
+building the Catholic Church in Simon's Town, and to present some priests'
+garments, altar cloths, and church fittings, which had been intended by
+the Austrian Government for distribution among four Catholic Missionaries
+in the various quarters of the globe visited.
+
+Some members of the Expedition also set out on an excursion some thirty
+nautical miles, to where the peninsula of the Cape stretches out to the
+real Cape of Good Hope itself--a longer, more difficult, but also more
+interesting expedition, which gave fresher impressions, and conveyed a
+pretty accurate and more just idea of the physical features of the
+Peninsula of the Cape, its vegetation, zoology, and geological structure,
+than could be obtained by a cursory examination, of the natural features
+of a large portion of South Africa. For whoever has clambered up the torn,
+broken, rocky masses of Table Mountain, worn out and eaten away by the
+atmosphere, and has scrambled among its wild hollows, with its forests of
+the greyish green _Pratea Gargentea_ at his feet, amid its far extending
+rocky plateaux, full of stagnant water-pools; whoever has strayed thence
+among the wine-producing terraced hills of Constantia, with their rich
+vegetation; over the sandy table-lands backed by rocky ridges, over
+streams of copper-coloured water, and the boggy tracts that extend to the
+extreme south-west point, as far as the Sandstone rocks, 800 feet high,
+which, descending sheer into the tempest-tossed, fearsome, boiling ocean,
+constitutes the actual Cape of Good Hope--obtains a tolerably just and
+correct idea of the appearance of Southern Africa for one hundred miles
+into the interior, and along the coast line, 400 English miles in length,
+which stretches from St. Helena Bay as far as the River Samtoos, west of
+Algoa Bay. All is sandstone or clay-slate, with occasional granitic knobs
+cropping out; no trees, but such as are planted in clumps around the
+sparsely scattered farms, conspicuous from an immense distance; while, on
+the other hand, in spring, an indescribable flush of blossoms and flowers,
+and instead of trees, millions of ant-hills, with their regularly shaped
+cones from three to four feet high, impart a peculiar character to the
+landscape of South Africa. But on the so-called Lowlands of Algoa Bay,
+beyond the River Samtoos, Nature assumes an entirely different character
+in her forest vegetation. Unfortunately, the original designs of the
+geologists of the Expedition, of Examining the petrified treasures of this
+renowned district, fell through, which was all the more to be regretted as
+this geological Eldorado promised a great accession to our collection.
+
+During our stay at Simon's Town, we also experimented with our
+astronomical instruments, which, at our next station, St. Paul's Island,
+were to be brought fully into requisition for the first time. On this
+occasion, as on many others, the unfailing courtesy and kindness of the
+renowned astronomer and director of the Observatory of Cape Town, Mr.
+Thomas Maclear, assisted us most materially in the observations for
+comparison with our own physical instruments.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.--FROM THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE TO ST. PAUL'S ISLAND.]
+
+On the morning of the 26th October it fell calm, changing to variable
+breezes and light puffs of wind, that made it doubtful whether we could
+sail that day, as we needed a catspaw from the West in order to weigh
+anchor. From the English line of battle-ship _Boscawen_, there floated
+across the bay as we worked out, the Austrian National Anthem, played as a
+farewell--a graceful mark of recognition--which was replied to by our band
+performing the sister hymn, "God Save the Queen."
+
+We steered between Noah's Ark and Roman Rock, coasting along till we made
+Whittle Rock, but the wind shifting, we were, ere long, compelled to tack.
+Had we not seized the favourable moment to get away, it would, a couple of
+hours later, have been impossible to put to sea, as the wind sprang up
+from the S.E. and blew fresh. Towards sundown, the sky cleared up, and we
+once more caught sight of the serrated outline of the southernmost point,
+with its desolate, worn, hollowed-out, rocky masses, which, however, with
+the _souvenirs_ of the hearty reception that had been accorded us in Cape
+Town seemed on this occasion much more home-like and habitable. All of
+us, indeed, carried with us in our breasts the most cordial and agreeable
+reminiscences of the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+In spite of many drawbacks and deficiencies of physical requisites, which
+oppose the rapid development of its natural resources, Cape Colony
+possesses in its healthy climate its valuable indigenous products, and its
+free political institutions, a guarantee for its perhaps gradual, but on
+that account more substantial, progress. It is a favourable specimen of a
+prosperous agricultural colony able to maintain itself, whose inhabitants,
+seeking in the peaceable cultivation of the soil their sole reward, are
+exposed to none of those ruinous reverses of fortune, which make life in
+those lands that are rich only in a metallic currency so stormy and
+uncomfortable, and render their future so problematical.
+
+A colony, which already employs annually, in its commerce all over the
+world, a thousand ships, which has a trade valued at nearly L2,000,000
+sterling, and before long will be in a position to export 30,000,000 lbs.
+of wool a year, besides an unlimited quantity of wines already in great
+demand, whose soil, owing to its prolific nature, returns, under human
+cultivation, crops of one hundred-fold, while in its unexplored districts
+as many additional vegetable and mineral treasures lie unavailable as yet--
+such a colony carries in itself the germs of a splendid development into a
+great and most enviable future. Provided with laws of a most liberal
+scope, and institutions corresponding to the spirit of our times, which
+leave each colonist entirely at liberty to develope his powers and
+capabilities in whatever direction he pleases, Cape Colony must, ere long,
+stand forth as the pattern colony for all others in the different
+countries beyond sea,--a majestic monument of the reward so justly due to
+the English nation for its policy in promoting the moral and material
+progress of mankind in the most remote corners of the earth.
+
+We lay a southerly course in order to strike the regular Westerly winds,
+which we might hope to fall in with in the neighbourhood of 40 deg. S., and
+already we again saw our old friends, the albatross, the cape pigeon, and
+the stormy petrel, in innumerable quantities.
+
+By the evening of the 28th we had attained our limit in the South-west,
+but the West winds had not yet made their appearance, so that we had to
+contend till 1st November with baffling light winds alternating with
+calms. At length in 37 deg. 30' S. and 18 deg. 4' E., we encountered Westerly
+breezes, which, ere long, freshened, veered to the southward, and
+compelled us to shorten sail. We were at this time not quite as yet in the
+zone of West winds, but had to do with variable winds; which, however, as
+the prevailing winds must be west or south, could generally be made
+available to enable us to lay our course for St. Paul. Although in the
+month corresponding to May in the southern hemisphere, we found ourselves
+shivering with cold, the thermometer barely reached 18 deg. Cent. (64 deg.4 Fah.)
+during the day in the open air, and our bodies, accustomed of late to a
+milder temperature, felt as though it were twice more rigorous than it
+actually was, in consequence of the wind coming from the ice-bound
+antarctic regions.
+
+On the afternoon of 4th November, a great excitement arose on board; a
+violent shower filled the lifeboats with water, and a large black object
+was observed swimming in the sea. Fortunately, it was not a man, though it
+proved to be a great favourite that had fallen overboard. Bessy, an ape,
+had got loose from her chain, and while being chased, fell in her
+eagerness into the sea, which fortunately was tolerably smooth. The droll
+little brute had quickly made itself such a favourite with the crew from
+its comical attractive ways, that its sudden fall overboard awoke
+universal sympathy. A boat was lowered, and Bessy rescued, who speedily
+recovered from her fright, and although dripping wet, proceeded to consume
+an orange that was handed her with an expression of entire satisfaction.
+
+On reaching 40 deg. S., 31 deg. E., the West winds became more steady, with a
+perceptible increase of motion, giving an average of 33 feet as the height
+of the waves, while the frigate rolled heavily. Sometimes several
+"Rollers" would follow one after the other, which made the ship heel over
+from 20 deg. to 25 deg. on either side. At each roll, streams of water poured in
+upon the gun-deck. The cannon-shot kept up a deafening dance from one side
+to the other, while stools, tables, chests, and in short everything that
+could move, were unmistakably "lively." The temperature of the air during
+the night fell to 41 deg. Fahrenheit, and was felt yet more keenly in squalls
+accompanied by rain, which made our life on board anything but agreeable,
+although the certainty that we were proceeding favourably with the
+so-called "_Fair_" Westerly winds indemnified us in some degree for the
+discomfort.
+
+On 14th November, in 40 deg. 44' S., 60 deg. 8' E., we availed ourselves of a dead
+calm and smooth sea to try a cast of Brooke's Patent Deep-sea Lead.
+
+While at Rio, we had been supplied, through the kindness of Don Jose de
+Barnabe, Commander of the Royal Spanish Frigate _Bilbao_, with a large
+quantity of lead-line, after an unsuccessful attempt to purchase it there.
+Unfortunately, however, the line had become somewhat decomposed by
+moisture, and gave way at 6,170 fathoms (37,020 English feet) while still
+running out, so that on this occasion also, we could only tell that bottom
+had _not_ been reached with the portion of the line paid out.
+
+The times occupied by the line in running out were as follows:--
+
+         1st 1000  fathoms  15 minutes 36 seconds.
+         2nd   "      "     26    "    59    "
+         3rd   "      "     34    "    20    "
+         4th   "      "     43    "    25    "
+         5th   "      "     61    "     5    "
+         6th   "      "     75    "    55    "
+ And the last 170     "     11    "    40    "
+             ____           ______________________
+      Total 6,170     "     4 hours    29 minutes.
+
+To the apparatus two 30-lbs. shot were attached, and the first 100 fathoms
+of line were doubled. By this observation we satisfied ourselves that such
+soundings are only successful when none but the best materials are
+employed, and, moreover, that the line becomes deteriorated in an
+extraordinary degree by long stowage on boardship, so that it is better in
+long voyages not to take such large supplies of line, but to adopt most
+stringent measures to prevent its being weakened by damp. Very probably a
+light coating of tar over the line would tend to keep it in good
+preservation, and it also seems advisable proportionately to strengthen
+the first 500 or 1000 fathoms.
+
+On the 18th November the look-out man descried from the main topgallant
+mast-head the Island of St. Paul, the goal of our wishes, the object which
+had so long occupied our thoughts, and on which our scientific
+capabilities were to be called into enviable activity. The necessary
+arrangements were completed for facilitating astronomical observations,
+the instruments and other necessaries taken out and got in readiness to be
+conveyed to the island, and the various stations and duties of the
+different members specified, so as to admit of the observations being
+completed in the shortest possible time.
+
+On the 19th November, at daybreak, we found ourselves close in with St.
+Paul's Island, while on our port-side the outline of New Amsterdam was
+visible in the shape of two lofty peaks on the horizon. As the wind blew
+from the N.W., we kept the ship's course past the north promontory of the
+island, and ranged along the eastern side to the selected anchoring
+ground. As we doubled the northernmost point, the conical-shaped Nine-Pin
+Rock came into view, while the high and precipitous margin of the island
+in the N.E. with the entrance into the crater became visible. How great,
+however, was our astonishment, when we observed some neatly laid-out
+terraces, of a fresher green hue than were observed in the upper
+table-lands of the island! These were evidently spots cultivated by former
+or present residents in the island. But no traces of habitation were seen,
+whether of mankind or of the seal. Only flights of albatrosses, bryons,
+ospreys, and sea-swallows, with now and then the protracted screams (like
+human groans) of immense flights of penguins, those singular-looking
+sea-birds, which awaken so deep an interest alike for their striking
+appearance as by their mode of life.
+
+An examination of the rock of the island showed layers of black lava,
+alternating with yellow and red tufa, which seemed stratified regularly
+from the rim of the crater to the extreme circumference of the island.
+"Thirty fathoms, and no bottom," sung the wearied leadsman; and presently,
+"Thirty fathoms,"--and a few minutes before 9 A.M. the anchor rattled out,
+on the 24th day after we left Simon's Bay, after retracing our steps
+Eastward some 3000 miles. Our anchorage, as we afterwards became aware,
+was not the best possible, as we ought to have lain closer in to the
+island. But when one anchors nearer the land in a less depth of water,
+one is by no means more protected from storms sweeping in from seawards,
+to which the entire eastern half of the island lies exposed. Only on the
+west side does the island, with the steep margin of the crater some 700 or
+800 feet high, afford any protection against the west winds, which,
+however, seldom blow here.
+
+[Illustration: ARRIVAL AT ST. PAUL.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+
+
+
+                                 VII.
+
+                 The Islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam,
+
+                      IN THE SOUTH INDIAN OCEAN.
+
+   Former History.--Importance of the situation of St. Paul.--
+     Present inhabitants.--Preliminary observations.--To whom does
+     the Island belong?--Fisheries.--Hot springs.--Singular
+     experiment.--Penguins.--Disembarkation.--Inclement weather.--
+     Remarks on the climate of the Island.--Cultivation of European
+     vegetables.--Animal life.--Library in a Fisherman's hut.--
+     Narrative of old Viot.--Re-embarkation.--An official document
+     left behind.--Some results obtained during the stay of the
+     Expedition.--Visit to the Island of Amsterdam.--Whalers.--
+     Search for a Landing-place.--Remarks on the Natural History of
+     the Island.--A Conflagration.--Comparison of the two islands.--
+     A _rencontre_ at sea.--Trade-wind.--Christmas at sea.--"A man
+     overboard."--Cingalese canoe.--Arrival at Pont de Galle, in
+     Ceylon.
+
+
+The visit of the Austrian frigate _Novara_ to the Islands of Amsterdam and
+St. Paul, so long confounded with one another, was one of the cherished
+objects of interest to the immortal Alexander von Humboldt.
+
+Although St. Paul has been in very recent times visited and surveyed by
+illustrious English navigators,[56] and although the doubt hitherto
+existent as to the precise discoverer, and the correct application of the
+names of the two islands, has been set at rest by the discovery of the
+original log of Antonio Van Diemen, kept on his voyage from the Texel to
+Batavia (16th December, 1632, to 21st July, 1633), by which it is made
+plain, beyond possibility of contradiction, that that renowned navigator
+passed for certain on 17th July, 1633, between both islands, and conferred
+on the northern the name of New Amsterdam, and on the southern that of St.
+Paul;[57] yet the two islands still continue to present points of great
+interest on closer examination and observation. Of the various ships
+which, since the discovery of those islands, have visited them for
+scientific purposes, hardly any have remained long enough to be in a
+position to acquire a thorough acquaintance with the various objects of
+natural history and scientific interest that present themselves. Even the
+visit paid by the naturalist attached to the expedition on board the
+English ship _Lion_ and _Hindostan_ which, on the 2nd of February, 1793,
+touched at St. Paul, _en route_ to China, and to whom we are indebted for
+the first detailed account of this island, erroneously spoken of as
+Amsterdam (following the example of former English navigators), did not
+come within the original design of that Ambassadorial expedition. It was
+the result rather of accident that, as the _Lion_ and _Hindostan_ were
+passing close in with St. Paul, two human beings were descried on the
+shore, waving in the air a piece of canvas fastened on poles, who
+apparently were anxious to convey to the expedition their desire to
+communicate with their ships. It was supposed these were shipwrecked
+mariners, stranded on this dangerous coast, who regarded the arrival of
+the _Lion_ as an unexpected means of rescue. To save these
+fellow-creatures from so desperate a position, the Captain of the _Lion_
+declared to be a pleasing duty assigned by Providence, and rejoiced to
+have been selected as the instrument of their deliverance. When, however,
+the boat of the British man-of-war, which was despatched to take off the
+castaways and bring them on board ship, had landed on the island, the crew
+speedily discovered the singular delusion which all had laboured under.
+The men, whom motives of humanity had intended to rescue from this
+inhospitable place, turned out to be anything but involuntary residents on
+the island, being seal-hunters, who for five months had dwelt here, and
+purposed remaining ten months longer, with the intention of completing a
+cargo of 25,000 seal-skins, for which at that time there was a very
+considerable and lucrative demand in the Chinese markets,[58] and the
+signals which had first attracted their attention, it now appeared were
+for no other object than to enable them to feel themselves once more,
+after such an interval, in the company of their fellowmen.
+
+[Footnote 56: Captain C. P. Blackwood, of H.M.S. _Fly_, 1842, and Captain
+Denham, C.B., of H.M. Surveying Ship _Herald_, 1853. M. Tinot "_capitaine
+du long cours_," who visited St. Paul in the summer of 1844, published
+likewise some interesting memoranda relating to that island, in the
+"_Nouvelle Annales de la Marine et des Colonies_," for November, 1853.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Previous to the resuscitation, after considerable difficulty,
+of this important, indeed decisive document, by Mons. L. C. D. Van Dyk,
+among the archives of the East and West India Company of Amsterdam, of
+which he was Librarian, the utmost uncertainty prevailed as to the
+discovery, name, and geographical position of the two islands. Now,
+William Van Flaming, a Dutch navigator, was supposed to be the
+discoverer,--now, the hardy Van Diemen. Atlases, charts, and books of
+travels, spoke of the name St. Paul belonging, here to the northern
+island, there to the southern. This long-continued confusion of names had
+naturally left ample space for the most contradictory statements as to the
+position, conformation, and geological conditions of both islands. One
+traveller, for instance, describes Amsterdam as an island with good
+anchorage on the North side, and an extinct crater, into which ran a
+fissure, forming a natural link with the ocean; while, on the other hand,
+he described St. Paul as a desert island, with steeply sloping shores,
+which make it matter of difficulty, if not utterly impracticable, to
+effect a landing; while other voyagers, again, give directly contrary
+accounts of both islands. Compare the following:--"An authentic account of
+an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China,
+together with a relation of the voyage undertaken on the occasion by
+H.M.S. _Lion_, and the ship _Hindostan_, E.I.C.N., to the Yellow Sea and
+Gulf of Pekin, as well as of their return to Europe, taken chiefly from
+the papers of H.E. the Earl of Macartney, &c., by Sir George Staunton,
+Bart. (London, 1797), vol. I., pp. 205-27."--"Relation du Voyage a la
+recherche de _La Perous_ fait par l'ordre de l'Assemblee constituante
+pendant les annees 1791-92, et pendant la 1^{re} et la 2^{de} annee de la
+Republique Francaise. Par le citoyen La Billardiere, Correspondent de
+l'Academie des Sciences de Paris. Au VIII. de le Republique Francaise.
+Tome I. pp. 120-123."--"Johnston, A.K., General Gazetteer of the World
+(London, 1855)."--"Hamburgh, James, India Directory; or, Directions for
+Sailing to or from the East Indies, China, Australia, and the adjacent
+parts of Africa and South America (London, 1855). 7th Edition, vol. I., p.
+101."--"Voyage to the South Pole, and Round the World, by Captain Jas.
+Cook, R.N. (London, 1777)." An interesting and tolerably circumstantial
+treatise on these islands is also to be found among the transactions of
+the Imperial-Royal Geographical Society of Vienna for the year 1857,
+second division, pp. 145-56, by Mr. A. C. Zhishman, Professor of Geography
+and History, in the I. R. Nautical Academy at Trieste.]
+
+[Footnote 58: "It seems," says Lord Macartney, "that the Chinese possess
+remarkable skill in the dressing of seal-skins, by which they remove the
+long coarse hair, so as to leave merely the soft tender skin, and
+simultaneously manage to render the hide thin and pliant. Only the
+prospect of some such enormous profit could at any time induce human
+beings to pass fifteen months at a stretch on so ungenial a spot, which,
+moreover, their occupation must render yet more loathsome. They killed the
+seals as they basked in the sun on the rocks along the shore, and around
+the broad natural rock basins. As only the skins were of any value to
+them, they left the flayed carcases exposed to rot on the ground, and
+these lie heaped together here in such masses that it was difficult to
+avoid treading on them, when one reached the shore of the island. At every
+step some disgusting spectacle presented itself, while an unutterably
+nauseous smell of decaying matter poisoned the surrounding atmosphere. In
+the summer months the seals flock hither, all at the same period, in herds
+sometimes numbering 800 to 1000, of which usually only about one hundred
+are killed at a time. This is the utmost number that five men can skin in
+the course of a single day, it being necessary to peg them together on the
+spot, on account of the drying up of the skin. For want of the requisite
+vessels only an inconsiderable quantity of the train-oil, which these
+animals contain, is collected. A portion of the best of the blubber is
+melted, and serves these people in lieu of butter. The seal which
+frequents these islands is the Southern or Falkland seal (_Arctocephalus
+Falclandicus_ of Gray--_Phoca fusilla_ of Schreber). The female weighs
+ordinarily from seventy to one hundred and twenty pounds, and is from
+three to five feet long, the male usually considerably larger. In their
+natural state these animals are not particularly timid; sometimes, indeed,
+they plunge all together into the water when any one approaches them; but
+quite as often they remain sitting quietly on the rocks, or raise
+themselves erect with a menacing growl. A sharp blow on the snout with a
+stick seems sufficient to kill them. Most of those that approach the shore
+are females, the proportion they bear to the males being about thirty to
+one. This apparent disproportion between the sexes, according to
+observation hitherto, is explained as follows:--The Southern seal at
+certain periods often undertakes distant wanderings from one tract to
+another; and certain of these tracts, such as the Cape of Good Hope and
+the islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam, are only frequented by the females
+when about to bring forth, and by the younger males of the school. In
+winter the huge snouted seal, or Sea Elephant (_Macrorhinus_, "long
+snout," _elephantinus_ of Gray--_Phoca leonina_ of Schreber), which
+sometimes attains a length of twenty-five or even thirty feet, comes in
+great numbers to these islands, where they herd together like sheep in the
+natural coves which the coast is broken into, in which the males announce
+the presence of a herd by a vehement growling, deepening into a loud
+roar."]
+
+Owing to the important situation of St. Paul, midway between the
+southernmost point of Africa and the Australian continent (from each of
+which it is about 3150 miles distant), a complete, accurate survey of the
+island seemed of great importance, not merely to the scientific world, but
+also in the interests of navigation; as most of the ships bound for China,
+Australia, and New Zealand, as well as the East India liners, pass pretty
+close to these islands, especially during the winter season. Many captains
+trading in the Indian ocean see in St. Paul an advantageous haven for
+recruiting the strength of their scurvy-stricken crews, while the ships of
+others, shattered almost to the point of foundering in the storms of a
+tract of ocean where for thousands of miles there is no other land, can
+find here their only prospect of preservation.
+
+For the voyagers on board the _Novara_, an interest of an entirely
+personal sort attached to their visit to the island. Among the
+unfortunates, who on the 24th August, 1853, suffered shipwreck on the
+shores of New Amsterdam, in the British ship _Meridian_, was a native of
+Brienz, in Switzerland, named Pfau. This person, together with the
+captain, Richard Hernamann, and a Frenchman had disappeared, leaving no
+trace, when, on the following morning, the surviving passengers of the
+wrecked ship were rescued by a whaler that happened to be cruising in the
+neighbourhood. It was supposed that the three unfortunate men had
+endeavoured to reach the adjacent island of St. Paul in a small boat, and
+probably were still living there. The father of the Swiss made
+application, through an indirect channel, to the chief of the Expedition,
+earnestly requesting him on his visit to the island to institute some
+enquiries with the view of finding some trace of his ill-starred son,
+still unwilling to renounce all hope that he might yet be found living at
+St. Paul.
+
+We hove to about one mile and a half distant from the great crater-basin,
+in whose eastern buttress a natural communication has been opened with the
+sea through a breach in its side. When the Dutch captain, William Van
+Flaming, cast anchor before the island in 1697, the wearing action of the
+waves had not yet completed this breach, there existing at that period a
+dam of some five feet high between the sea and the cavity of the crater.
+At present small boats can, at any hour of the day, pass into the
+crater-basin, protected from the swell of the ocean by two natural
+barriers, which leave between them a passage of about 300 feet wide. Our
+last admeasurement gave a length of 600 feet for the southern barrier, and
+1002 feet for that in the north; while the intervening water passage
+measured 306 feet in breadth, with a depth of 9.6 feet at high water, and
+from 2 to 3 feet at ebb tide. On the north side of the entrance to the
+straits stands a lofty pyramidal rock, called Nine-Pin Rock, round which
+circle innumerable sea-fowl, which to all appearance brood among the
+chinks and crannies of the rock, while in the water below crowds of sharks
+lash the water into foam. It must be highly dangerous hereabouts to be
+capsized in a boat, as there would be little possibility of any one being
+rescued, no matter how speedily assistance might be rendered.
+
+Scarcely were we anchored, ere we in the ship perceived a boat approaching
+from the island, which rapidly neared the frigate, with three men who had
+taken up their abode in even this desolate wilderness. Our imagination
+deluded us with the pleasing idea that these three forlorn, forsaken
+figures might be the long lost men wrecked in the _Meridian_, whom pitying
+billows might have wafted to this solitary island.
+
+Presently there stepped on deck by the side-ropes a grizzly figure, with
+deeply-furrowed features and long, grey beard, clothed in a blue blouse
+and coarse linen trowsers, that seemed to have weathered many a winter's
+storm. This primitive-looking old man proved to be a Frenchman named Viot,
+who had lived here for a considerable time as overseer of a fishing
+establishment on the island. Our first question had reference to the
+missing men from the _Meridian_. But how sore was our disappointment when
+the old sailor in the blouse told us he knew all the particulars of the
+catastrophe of the ship, but that he had never come across the slightest
+trace of the three unfortunates whom we had enquired about. Viot had
+visited the island regularly every year since 1841, except that in which
+the _Meridian_ had been lost. The fate of these three shipwrecked men must
+therefore remain for ever undetermined, although, considering the
+tempestuous weather which usually prevails in the Indian Ocean in the
+month of August, it is highly improbable that a boat of such small
+dimensions as that to which the captain and his two unhappy
+fellow-travellers committed themselves, could reach St. Paul, which was
+distant 42 miles from the spot at which the ship was wrecked.
+
+About 11.30 A.M. the naturalists, accompanied by the officers appointed
+to assist in the scientific operations, proceeded in two boats to the
+shore, for the purpose of making some preliminary observations. When we
+reached the bar there opened to our view, covered with luxurious grass
+growing in tufts, the walls of a majestic crater, the exquisite regularity
+of the cavity of which left the exact impression of an enormous natural
+amphitheatre.
+
+[Illustration: DISTANT VIEW OF CRATER-BASIN OF ST. PAUL.]
+
+On either side the ground rises nearly perpendicularly to a height of
+about 800 feet, which probably is likewise the average height of the walls
+of the crater. On the north side of the basin, a kind of terrace was seen
+low down, with huts thatched with straw, while on the shingle of the bar
+was planted a not very perpendicular flagstaff, on which, in honour of the
+arrival of a ship of war, old Viot had run up the French ensign. As the
+_Novara's_ boat swept into the crater-basin, he saluted with the
+proverbial courtesy of his nation, which not even the rough occupation of
+a whale-fisher had been able to rub out of him. Viot had last come hither
+in the preceding March, with a mulatto and a negro on board of a fishing
+craft, named the _Alliance_, of 45 tons, in which he had sailed from St.
+Denis, on the Island of Bourbon, anew to take charge of the little fishing
+station here, which is at present the property of M. Ottovan, a French
+gentleman domiciliated in St. Denis.
+
+While at Cape Town we were informed, in reply to our enquiries, by the
+first authority in the country, that the Island of St. Paul belonged to
+England, and was a dependency of the Mauritius; here, to our astonishment,
+we on the other hand learned from the inhabitants that St. Paul at present
+was under the protection of the French Government, and, in fact, was an
+appendage of the Island of Bourbon, the governor of which long previously
+had ordered the French flag to be hoisted, with all the naval formalities,
+by a detachment of French soldiers who had been landed from a French ship
+of war. According to Viot--who is to all appearance a thoroughly
+trustworthy man, but on whom, however, we throw the responsibility of the
+correctness of the following information,--the island seems, in fact, to
+have been, some twenty years since, the property of a French merchant of
+St. Denis, named Camin, who somewhat later entered into partnership with a
+person named Adam, a Pole by birth, to whom he ultimately resigned the
+entire island.[59] Adam, who was described to us as a man of exceedingly
+fierce and determined character, did wonders for the cultivation of the
+island. He left a number of Mozambique negroes, whom he compelled to work
+through the entire year, exposed to the severest privations, and employed
+in hewing stone from the rocks, with which huts were erected, in preparing
+a landing-quay on the north side of the basin, and in sowing a number of
+plots of ground along the lower margin of the crater with European
+vegetables.
+
+[Footnote 59: According to Captain Denham, who visited this island in 1853,
+the present proprietor called this fishing station, Marie Heurtevent, and
+said he had bought it about five years previously for 6000 dollars from a
+Polish merchant of St. Denis, where he himself also resided. (_Nautical
+Magazine_, pp. 68, 75).]
+
+About eight or ten years since, Adam (who afterwards, in the course of a
+voyage from Bourbon to New Zealand, met a disgraceful death, having been
+thrown overboard for his cruelty by the black crew of a small vessel, whom
+he had driven to desperation) sold the islands to their present possessor,
+M. Ottovan, a ship-chandler of St. Denis, who since then has twice each
+year, during the fine season, despatched a small craft of some 30 to 45
+tons, manned by from 15 to 18 fishermen, from St. Denis to St. Paul
+Island, so as to turn to advantage the unusual abundance of this
+fishing-ground. This vessel leaves St. Denis regularly every November on
+its voyage of from 24 to 30 days to St. Paul. The return voyage to St.
+Denis takes place during the prevalence of the South-East Trades, and
+occupies a much shorter time, rarely exceeding 14 to 16 days. The fishing
+sloop, during its stay at the island, anchors inside the basin of the
+crater, so as to discharge her provisions for the fishermen, and to
+facilitate the freighting for the homeward voyage with the fish that have
+been caught, as also to guard her against sudden changes of weather, which
+in these latitudes, as we ourselves experienced, is, even during the best
+season, very stormy and dangerous. The fishermen use the excellent
+whaleboats (or _baleinieres_), so admirably suited to the heavy swell of
+the Indian Ocean, in which they go out in the morning, returning to the
+shore at nightfall. The species of fish which is found in greatest
+numbers, and is caught exclusively by the hook, is usually called by the
+fishermen, "Indian Cod:" it is by no means, however, of the _genus_
+Haddock, and very slightly, if at all, resembles the codfish of northern
+waters, or common stock-fish, but seems to belong to the class of finger
+fish (_cheilo-dactylus-fasciatus_), which is usually classed among the
+crow fish (_sciaenae_). These are salted, dried in the open air, packed in
+casks, and dispatched in large quantities to the markets of St. Denis. It
+is calculated that the number thus sent off in the course of each year
+amounts to about 40,000. which are sold in the market of St. Denis by the
+hundred, for from 40 to 60 francs (L1 12s. to L2 8s.--total L640 to L960).
+The expenses of maintaining the settlement is very small.--Viot has 57
+francs a month (L2 6s.); his two companions 40 francs and 25 francs
+respectively (L1 12s. and L1); the men engaged in the fishery receive 25
+to 30 francs a month, besides provisions. The second voyage of the vessel
+ordinarily takes place in January or February, so as to return in April or
+May, with a similar cargo. It often happens that the owner of the vessel
+finds some more profitable employment for it, when it only returns during
+the second year, and their provisions, as meal, rice, biscuit, tobacco,
+&c., get rather short. The settlers, however, employ what leisure time
+remains after their work is done, in cultivating a number of plots of
+ground with cereals and vegetables, potatoes especially returning from
+time to time an excellent yield. Of these useful tubers, which grow with
+remarkable luxuriance in the turf-soil of the island, they raise from 60
+to 80 cwt. annually. Fresh vegetables being articles in great request are
+more particularly made available by the inhabitants of St. Paul, by way of
+barter, when trafficking with the whalers, from 20 to 30 of which touch
+here in the year, to exchange their salt fish, rice, tobacco, cheese,
+brandy, &c., for the fresh provisions grown on the island. The number of
+vessels that pass within sight of St. Paul in the course of a year may be
+reckoned at from 100 to 150, of which, however, only a very few, except
+the whalers, visit the island.[60] In the year 1857, for example, it
+occurred only twice (one case being an English man-of-war), that passing
+ships sent boats to the island, five months of the year having elapsed in
+the first instance, and two in the second.
+
+[Footnote 60: All the Dutch Indiamen on the home voyage from Batavia,
+during the months of October till May, have been for many years in the
+habit of running south till they sighted St. Paul, so as to catch the S.
+E. Trades. But it has never been the policy of the Dutch to attract
+attention to the eastern seas, and accordingly no information found its
+way to Europe respecting these interesting islands, till the period
+mentioned in the text.]
+
+When the take of fish in the immediate vicinity of the island does not
+seem sufficiently remunerative, the fishermen occasionally launch out to
+greater distances. They then bring out from the basin of the crater the
+barque that brought them from Bourbon to St. Paul, and remain at sea for
+several days, or make for the adjoining island of Amsterdam, the shores
+of which are even more frequented by the fish than those of St. Paul.
+
+As already remarked, our first movements were directed solely towards an
+examination of its physical features. We were accompanied on this tour of
+inspection by Ferdinand, an active, intelligent Mulatto, with thoroughly
+French manners. The French stock has this peculiarity as compared with the
+German, that it remains unmistakably French, even when mixed with
+two-thirds African blood. Ferdinand was for the first time in St. Paul,
+having been conveyed hither in the _Alliance_ in the previous March, to
+work for M. Ottovan. Family troubles had been the cause of his banishment
+to this dismal island. Although only 24 years of age, he was already the
+father of two children, whom, he informed us, he had placed at school in
+St. Denis; and in sheer despair at the worthless conduct of their mother,
+had hired himself hither as a labourer at 40 francs a month, paid by the
+owner of the island. He proposed returning to St. Denis in the next ship
+that left St. Paul, in the hope that peace might be by that time restored
+in his family.
+
+At various spots in the lower rim of the crater-basin, within which
+Ferdinand acted as guide, we perceived heavy volumes of smoke emerging
+from the shallow parts of the water, which obviously implied the existence
+of hot springs. The two most active and largest in circumference were on
+the north side of the crater-basin, and were known, the one as the Bath,
+the other as the Drinking Fountain. Moreover, at several points on the
+north bar, hot water bubbles up from the soil, of such a temperature that
+the same person who, with a hook and line had caught a fish in the cold
+water basin, might, with the same motion of his hand, let them drop into
+the hot adjoining spring, where, in fact, it is boiled within a few
+minutes and fit for eating! We have ourselves made this experiment, which
+is also mentioned by Lord Macartney, and found the fish thus prepared
+exceedingly palatable.
+
+At high water the whole of the hot springs become mingled with the brine
+of the ocean, and thus indicate a temperature which is barely perceptibly
+higher than that of the latter. Adjoining the landing-place, several late
+visitors to the island have endeavoured to perpetuate the record of their
+fleeting presence on some compact granite blocks of rock, which are
+scattered in the path to the hot springs. Thus, on one of those stones,
+fast becoming obliterated by the weather, may be read:--"Savouret, 1841"--
+"J. D. Rogers, 1855, Mars."--On a second huge block:--"Hte. Rogers, 1852
+to 1857;" and lastly, these names, with difficulty decipherable,
+"Pallefournier-Emile, Mazarni-Denoyarez, Grenoble, Canton de Sassenage,
+Departement de l'Isere, 1844." In general we found none of the
+inscriptions on the island that can be recognized.
+
+On reaching the plateau above, which is reached by a narrow, steep, and in
+many places rather fatiguing path, from the settlers' huts on the north
+side of the basin of the crater, we came to a breeding-place of the
+yellow-tufted "Crested or Hopping-Penguin"[61] (_apterodytes chrysocome_)
+in which we found at the lowest estimate from 500 to 600 of these singular
+creatures, which are adorned with grey-yellow tufts of feathers arranged
+in a semicircle above the eyes, and which, as was well remarked by the
+naturalist attached to the _Lion_, with the peculiar plumage and the
+almost scaly covering of their fin-like wings, suggest a remote
+resemblance to the form of a fish. Living part of the year in the water,
+and passing most of the remainder on land, Nature has, in a manner,
+adapted them for these widely differing modes of life. The dirty
+greyish-brown attire of the young contrasts so strongly with the gay
+plumage of the old penguin, that at the first glance they hardly seem to
+belong to the same species. The females lay only one or two eggs, usually
+in October, so that at the time of our visit, the young were only about a
+month-and-a-half or so old. These penguins, so graceful and nimble in the
+water, as if it were their proper element, are very awkward on land, so as
+to be easily caught, or knocked down with a stick. Only in so doing it is
+necessary to be on one's guard against a blow from their long sharp bills,
+with which they can inflict on their pursuer a by no means trifling wound.
+In the course of centuries, during which they have paid undisturbed visits
+to this island, they have trodden a well-marked path from their
+breeding-place to the edge of the sea; and it is a proof of the wonderful
+instinct of this creature, that this place is almost the only point on
+the entire island, at which it would be possible for it to reach the sea.
+A flock of these hopping penguins presents an odd and peculiar appearance,
+as, after leisurely bathing in the sea, and providing a sufficient supply
+of food for their young, their elegant heads emerge from the water, when
+carefully calculating the effect of the breakers, they ride their crest
+and allow themselves to be deposited on the beach; or, after hopping from
+stone to stone, the plumes on their heads nodding to and fro, suddenly
+plunge headforemost into the sea, like so many somersault-throwers! Not
+less diverting are the movements of these animals when, returned from
+their laborious wanderings, which they undertake two or three times a day
+in search of food for their young, they bend their tottering steps back to
+the roosting-place, waddling in their walk like ducks. One always leads
+the way as guide and forager-in-chief, and the rest, usually from ten to
+fifteen in number, follow him in a column; on reaching the roosting-place,
+a piece of level winding ground, they give a shrill cry, and comport
+themselves anything but peaceably towards their neighbours, especially if
+these have possessed themselves of their accustomed seats. Continual
+squabbling and disputing go on, and their croaking and screaming are
+prolonged far into the silence of night. They show much tenderness for
+their young, shelter them with great care, and defend them with
+extraordinary courage and pertinacity against the southern hawk gull[62]
+(_stercorarius antarcticus_), which frequently swoops upon the
+breeding-ground, and even ventures within reach of man, from whom it
+defends itself by violently striking and biting with its beak. Always at
+war under ordinary circumstances, they are nevertheless the most faithful
+of allies in moments of common danger or necessity. The flesh of the old
+penguin has so rank a smell that it is only used by those frequenting the
+island in case of the most extraordinary necessity; that of the young, on
+the other hand, has a far more agreeable flavour.
+
+[Footnote 61: Called also the "_Jumping Jack_" by the English sailors, from
+its custom of jumping quite out of the water, like a porpoise, on its
+encountering the slightest obstacle.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Called by the English sailors "Port Egmont Hens" from their
+frequenting Port Egmont in the Falkland Isles. They seem to be identical
+in species with the "skua," or "bonxie" of the Shetlands.]
+
+The breeding-place of the penguin is about 300 feet above the level of the
+water in the basin of the crater.[63] Four hundred feet more of laborious,
+steep scrambling, brings the adventurer to the plateau at last, from the
+highest peaks of which he readily obtains a view of the greater part of
+the island, which is utterly treeless. At many places we found the ground
+quite warm, and at one slimy tract, about 600 feet wide, which was noticed
+by the naturalists on board the _Lion_, there was positive danger of
+sinking several feet into the hot, yielding soil, if we did not advance
+with great care. On the other hand, the fierce tongues of flame, which
+Lord Macartney alleged were visible at night from the deck of the ship,
+and which greatly resembled the celebrated nocturnal fires of Pietra Mala,
+in the mountains between Florence and Bologna, were nowhere visible, at
+least during the time we were on the island.
+
+[Footnote 63: A second breeding-place, somewhat larger, but much more
+inaccessible than that described, occurs on the north-west side of the
+island. There among rugged fantastically broken masses of rock, these
+extraordinary creatures can sun themselves undisturbed, and have hardly
+anything to dread from the destroying hand of man, who could only get
+thither with much difficulty, and not without peril to life, by clambering
+along the face of a precipitous wall of rock.]
+
+On the north-west side of the islands, facing the sea, two lofty pinnacles
+of scoriae, with truncated summits, rise in cones of such exquisite
+regularity of form as speedily attracted the attention of our geologist,
+and became somewhat later the chief scene of his activity. In the
+immediate vicinity, many traces of lava-streams are visible, which plainly
+show the direction in which their currents had flowed. From the upper edge
+of the great basin of the crater the ground slopes gradually to the sea,
+ending abruptly in a precipice, descending sheer 150 or 200 feet into the
+sea.
+
+In order to avoid retracing our steps by the same path, we directed our
+guide, the ever active Ferdinand, to conduct us back to the shore by some
+other track than that by which we had clambered up to this point;
+whereupon he stopped at a point of the upper rim of the crater, where the
+ground fell suddenly away quite perpendicular, grasped the rich luxuriant
+grass hand over hand, and having proceeded a few steps, invited us to
+follow. At the first glance we involuntarily recoiled at the bare idea of
+descending into the abyss by such a route, but presently we found our
+advance less dangerous and appalling than had at first appeared, when it
+was found we might, without any misgiving, let ourselves down by the long
+tough grass, the strong stalks of which supplied a safe means of descent.
+
+In less than three-quarters of an hour we had descended from the upper
+margin of the crater to the settlement, and at once proceeded on our
+return to the frigate. A pretty fresh N.W. breeze had sprung up in the
+meantime, which rendered our re-embarkation in our small short boats,
+totally unsuited to the tremendous swell of the Indian Ocean, exceedingly
+uncomfortable. Arrived at the ship's side, the sea ran so high, and had so
+increased the difficulty of laying the boats alongside, that we at first
+endeavoured to reach the deck by the Jacob's ladders suspended at the
+poop. When, however, one of the sailors (who confessedly have much greater
+readiness in clambering than ordinary mortals), while holding on to one of
+the ladders, was reached by a tremendous wave, and half his body being in
+the water, ran a risk of being carried off by a shark, the scientific
+gentlemen in the boats preferred making for the starboard side of the
+ship, whence they reached their haven of refuge by the man-ropes.
+
+Although this accident sufficiently manifested the impracticability of our
+original plan of returning every evening on board, and of being able to
+remain beside the ship during the carrying out of the objects of our
+visit, no man supposed as yet that, at this season, the summer of St.
+Paul's, the weather might suddenly become so stormy and generally
+unfavourable, as thus early to necessitate our re-embarkation, and that
+the ship would be compelled, with all speed, to leave her anchorage, and
+put to sea for a week under most uncomfortable circumstances.
+
+On 20th November, about 6 A.M., the officers and naturalists, together
+with a portion of the crew, 32 in all, left the frigate with a large
+quantity of instruments, scientific apparatus, and baggage. This little
+expedition was supplied with provisions and water for six days, there
+being no springs of fresh water on the island, the frequenters of which
+are compelled to depend for their whole supply of drinking-water, partly
+on the rain-fall, partly during long-continued dry seasons on the water of
+one of the hot brackish springs which occur on the north side of the lower
+circuit of the crater. Long accustomed to these fluids and to their
+peculiar taste, the inhabitants feel no evil results from their
+employment, which very probably would not be the case with those persons
+who visit the island for the first time, and whose arduous exertions
+necessitate their drinking daily large quantities of water.
+
+On a small eminence, about 150 feet high, above the fisherman's huts on
+the north side of the crater-basin, a small wooden cottage was erected for
+the protection of the astronomers; and at a distance of about 40 feet, a
+second for the magnetic instruments, both of which, with their contents,
+were entrusted to Lieutenant Robert Mueller. Lieutenants Batlogg and Eugen
+Kronowetter, were respectively entrusted with the observations by
+theodolite, and with the surveying board. To the last-mentioned gentleman
+were also confided the observations with the meteorological instruments,
+the researches with the tide-gauge, the instruments for measuring the
+velocity of currents, as also the soundings in the basin, and on either
+side of the bar,--to assist him in the execution of which Cadet Count
+Borelli and Head Quartermaster Cian were detached. We quartered ourselves
+as well as we could in the wretched filthy huts which, in summer, serve
+the fishermen from St. Denis as a shelter. In one of these hung several
+pictures--one representing Napoleon I. riding the inevitable white horse,
+the majority consisting of female portraits and scenes of Parisian life,
+so that the whole place had quite a Frenchified appearance.
+
+Hardly had the instruments, apparatus, men, and baggage been placed under
+shelter, when once more a strong north wind came on, which, during the
+night between the 20th and 21st, increased to such a height, that it blew
+down the two huts intended for the observations, which had not been quite
+finished, and in which, fortunately, the instruments had not yet been
+placed--exposing the work already begun to very considerable interruption.
+
+Early in the morning, a whaler approached the island, and sent one of her
+boats off for fresh provisions. She proved to be the _Herald_, of New
+Bedford, Massachusetts, U. S., out 27 months, and expecting to require to
+remain out 11 months longer, in order to complete her lading of oil and
+whalebone. She was last from St. Augustin's Bay (Madagascar), which place
+she had left two months previously. When the captain, who chanced to be in
+the boat, saw the activity of the scientific corps, the results of which
+were already beginning to be visible in the hitherto deserted island, he
+said that one of his crew had fallen from the mast a few days previously,
+and severely injured himself, and forthwith asked whether we could render
+him any surgical assistance. Considering the precarious circumstances
+under which we ourselves were on the island, we judged it more advisable
+to receive the unfortunate whaler on board the frigate, where we could
+give him all necessary assistance. As we afterwards learned, the surgeon
+of the frigate, Dr. Ruschitztha, notwithstanding the inclemency of the
+weather, was ordered from the frigate, and had the satisfaction of
+rendering valuable assistance to the invalid.
+
+The foul weather continued all day, and during the night of the 21st, it
+became so tempestuous that the frigate was at last compelled to put to
+sea. About 3.30 A.M. she began to labour heavily with an unusually high
+sea and frequent shifts of wind, accompanied by showers of rain, after a
+heavy blow from the N.W., so that at first it was thought on board that
+one of these furious gusts, which for several hours past had followed each
+other at regular intervals, had sprung the cable, and that the anchor
+would be lost. The jib accordingly was hoisted, and the fore-topsail set
+with four reefs in it, and an attempt made to weigh anchor. This
+operation, at all times laborious, was now especially so, and seemed as
+though it would never have an end. Although the capstan was manned, as
+already said, at 3.30, it was not till past seven, or four hours later
+that the anchor hove in sight. It was the port anchor that had been
+weighed, and it was now perceived that one of the flukes had given way,
+and was entirely broken off. In such stormy weather it seemed very
+uncertain whether the anchor could be brought on board, as it struck with
+much force against the ship-side, in consequence of her severe rolling,
+and it was only secured at great risk to the life of the men employed. The
+cable was unbent, and the anchor slipped, so as to relieve the ship (for
+which the anchor still on board was sufficient in the meantime), from the
+vehement thumping. The frigate now had to encounter a regular
+North-wester, and only after three days of the most furious rolling or
+pitching, was she able, aided by northerly breezes, again to reach her
+former anchorage. The members of the Expedition, left at St. Paul to
+prosecute their scientific labours, occasionally experienced a somewhat
+peculiar feeling when the frigate, owing to the severity of the weather,
+remained invisible during these three long days; and fancy involuntarily
+depicted themselves in the position of men whom the stormy waves of
+destiny had cast away on this lonely island in the Indian Ocean, there
+perhaps to languish for weary months out of reach of assistance or means
+of rescue.
+
+Old Viot, who had come for the sixth time to the island, alleged that such
+rainy tempestuous weather at this season of the year was quite an unusual
+phenomenon,--an opinion which somewhat later was confirmed by the reports
+of several North American whalers. Ordinarily the fine season commences at
+the beginning of November, at which period the South wind is the most
+prevalent, the sky often remaining clear and hot for weeks together. The
+hottest month of the year is January, the coldest June. From May to
+October it is exceedingly difficult to land with boats on the island, and
+cases not unfrequently occur during the continuance of the stormy season
+resembling that which is instanced by the historiographer of Lord
+Macartney's embassy to China, in which, during September, 1792, a ship
+anchored on the east side of the island, was only able twice, during the
+lapse of eight weeks, to send a boat to the island with provisions. On
+this station the fishery is confined to the fine season (from November to
+April), while for the rest of the year the various huts of the fishermen
+are entirely abandoned, being only inhabited by a couple of men, in whose
+charge are left the few but by no means valueless implements and apparatus
+of the island. These men lead a very monotonous life, though not one of
+privation, for the crater-basin supplies the whole year round the most
+delicious fish, and craw-fish of the finest kind.
+
+Our sailors used to hang a basket with bait close to the edge of the
+crater-basin, sunk a few feet in the water, which they would draw out
+every time full of lobsters. In a few hours they frequently caught from
+eighty to one hundred pounds' weight of these large and extremely delicate
+species of shell-fish. An excursion which was got up one morning to the
+South side of the island, in a fisherman's boat, was rewarded in a few
+hours with some fifty different sorts of denizens of the deep, some of
+which weighed twenty to twenty-five pounds each.
+
+According to Viot's account, snow does not fall often in winter, and in
+consequence of the heat inherent in the volcanic soil, never lies long on
+it. On the other hand, hail is a tolerably frequent visitant. Rain is of
+constant occurrence, and sometimes falls in immense quantities. Viot was
+never weary of expressing his astonishment at the enormous size of the
+drops of rain which for many a year he had seen fall at St. Paul. The cold
+is often pretty severe; while the almost entire want of firing on the
+island (for the dung of animals is not obtainable in sufficient quantities
+to make its storing worth the requisite labour), deprives the poor
+residents of the comfort of a fireside. "If the last storm had not blown
+down our hut, we should for long have had to do without fuel," was the
+naive remark on one occasion of the old Frenchman, as he lay stretched out
+on a dirty bed, carefully rolled up in his rough woollen blanket. Winter
+begins in May and ends in September. During this period the Northerly
+winds are often very strong. On 27th June, 1857, there blew for six or
+eight hours here so terrific a tempest that the inhabitants of St. Paul
+did not venture outside of their huts for fear of being rapt away by the
+wind. These storms of winter occasionally rage to such a degree that they
+drive before them into the basin of the crater huge masses of water, which
+they whirl in wild confusion to an enormous height, showing that the tract
+in the Southern Ocean traversed by the hurricanes which occasionally do
+such damage about Mauritius and Rodriguez, occasionally embraces the
+islands of St. Paul and Amsterdam. In November, at the commencement of the
+fine season, the winds are rather variable, and so continue to the end of
+March, when the N. and N.W. winds begin once more to blow regularly; these
+bring heavy rains and foul weather, after which, except that it is cold
+when the wind changes to West with a Southerly tendency, a warmer and
+drier climate is experienced. During our stay we frequently had an
+opportunity of verifying by observation the steady return of certain winds
+in regular succession. For instance, after the N.E. wind had prevailed for
+some days, it veered to N.N.W. whence it invariably went to W. by S.,
+where it usually stayed some little time, after which it once more went to
+N.E.--a phenomenon which went through its phases every six days with
+surprising regularity.
+
+There are heavy mists during autumn, but thunder on the other hand is far
+from frequent, nor is it particularly violent when it occurs. During a
+residence of eighteen days we never saw the centigrade thermometer stand
+higher than 66 deg.2 Fahr., or lower than 53 deg.6 Fahr. Lord Macartney gave 62 deg.
+Fahr. as the average of the thermometer during his visit in February,
+1793.
+
+As for earthquakes, a phenomenon whose occurrence at St. Paul would
+possess an uncommon interest, Viot averred that during sixteen years that
+he had visited the island, off and on, he neither himself had perceived
+any indications of one, nor had he at any time heard of any such having
+been observed.
+
+On the contrary, Ferdinand (who, nevertheless, had lived but eight months
+on the island) affirmed that his predecessor, Rosemond, had told him of
+shocks, comparatively slight it is true, which he (Rosemond) had felt
+during his several years' abode here. Considering the small circumference
+of the island, and the violent surf on its shores, slight oscillations may
+not improbably be felt, which are caused by other than volcanic agencies.
+Moreover, on the outer margin of the crater-basin, the island presents at
+those numerous points, from which at ebb-tide roll volumes of smoke and
+steam, so many natural vents for the escape of the confined subterraneous
+gases, that in their ordinary state, and so long as they continue open, in
+future, there is no especial reason to suppose there will be any
+upheavings of the earth's crust in consequence of volcanic agencies. The
+earthquake of 14th August, 1857, which was pretty severely felt in Cape
+Town and the vicinity, does not seem to have included St. Paul within the
+circle of its influence. The present inhabitants of St. Paul, at all
+events, unanimously assert that they cannot recall having perceived,
+either on the 14th August, or at any time about that period, any shocks of
+earthquake whatever, or to have observed any unusual appearances either in
+the surface of the earth or in the atmosphere.
+
+We purposely say "at any time about that period," because the inhabitants
+of the island do not avail themselves of that assistance so universal
+now-a-days of a printed calendar, but trust to memory for keeping a
+reckoning of the flight of time. That mistakes should frequently occur
+with such a method of computing time is rendered the more probable that
+not one of the three denizens of the island can write. For instance, we
+once remarked to our worthy Viot that by his own reckoning he had marked
+one day more than he had actually lived. "We always get into a mess with
+these confounded months of thirty-one days!" was the good-humoured reply
+of the ancient wanderer from Nantes.
+
+Although the volcanic soil of St. Paul is everywhere especially adapted
+for scientific study, it nevertheless presents few objects with which to
+enrich collections of natural history. An island, on which not a single
+tree or bush is to be found, and on whose tufa soil, though well adapted
+for fruit, only a few grasses, ferns, and mosses thrive, must, so far as
+regards the value of his researches, prove as little interesting to the
+botanist as the zoologist, who, as we shall see more circumstantially
+further on, came across but few representatives here of the animated
+kingdom.
+
+At several places, the practical gardener who accompanied the frigate was
+ordered to plant a number of European vegetables and anti-scorbutic
+plants, such as cabbage, horse-radish, turnips, of various assorted
+species, celery, garden-cress, and spoonwort,[64] it is to be hoped with
+favourable results. At all events, we had the satisfaction during our
+stay, of seeing the tender shoots of some of the vegetables already
+sprouting through the surface of the earth. At that time there were not
+above a dozen or so cultivated spots on the Island; if, however, these are
+carefully cultivated, they can always furnish enough excellent nourishing
+provision for from 80 to 100 men. A quantity of potatoes, from 6 to 8
+sacks, planted in June, yield, in January or February, a crop of from 60
+to 80 casks of 100 lbs. each, or between 3 and 4 tons.
+
+[Footnote 64: The vegetables planted were as follows:--_Brassica rapa_
+(rape); _Brassica oleracea capitata_ (sea kail); _Brassica rapa alba_
+(white turnip); _Brassica rapa flava_ (yellow turnip); _Raphanus sativus_
+(radish); _Lepidium sativum_ (dittandu); _Cochleaeia officinalis_ (scurvy
+grass).]
+
+Wheat, maize, and barley, also thrive at St. Paul, and their cultivation
+has only been discontinued, in consequence of their conversion into bread
+requiring a much larger amount of fuel than is at the command of the
+residents. On the other hand, all attempts to cultivate beans and peas
+have utterly failed hitherto. All kinds of nutritive plants give but one
+crop in the year. So also several kinds of trees, which promised to grow
+well, considering the resemblance between the climate here and that to
+which they were indigenous--such as _Pinus maritima_, various kinds of
+_Protea_, &c., and the successful rearing of which would ultimately prove
+an extraordinary benefit to all who frequent the island, in consequence of
+the great scarcity of firewood--were planted as seedlings by the gardener
+attached to the Expedition, in the vicinity of the two huts used for the
+observations. Assuredly it will not be one of the least important benefits
+of the _Novara_ Expedition, which it will have conferred on St. Paul, if
+the growth of the seedlings, planted in its soil with such a noble purpose
+in view, should result in the gradual and at all events partial clothing
+of the island in the forest.
+
+As to the Fauna of St. Paul, there appears to be one kind of sea-swallow
+(_storna_) not hitherto described, the bill and feet of which are of a
+coral-red colour, and delicate silver-grey plumage, undoubtedly the most
+beautiful of the feathered inhabitants, as the penguin is the most
+extraordinary and peculiar creature on the island. Besides these there is
+also a pretty grey diver (_Prion Vittatus_), which builds its nest among
+the rocks; also a brown gull (_Stercorarius antarcticus_), as also three
+kinds of albatrosses (_Diomedea exulans_, _D. fuliginosa_, _D.
+chlororhinchos_).
+
+The Crater-basin was somewhat less unproductive than the dry land. The
+depth is from 100 to 175 feet. Close to the edge, the sounding line gave a
+depth of 10 fathoms (60 feet). Experiments with the dredging-net, although
+frequently made, gave by no means satisfactory results. On the other hand,
+the rod and line brought up many an interesting addition to our
+collection, and frequent strolls at ebb-tide along the barely uncovered
+masses of rock that skirted the basin of the crater were rewarded with
+numerous discoveries of specimens of conchology. In the centre of the
+basin we came upon slimy ground at a depth of 204 feet; near the hot
+springs (about 100 feet distant), 19 fathoms (114 feet); and at a third
+point, on the south side, 23 fathoms (138 feet). Viot said, that after
+repeated soundings at different points, he had found the depth of the
+basin varied from 10 to 35 fathoms (60 to 210 feet). The seals
+(_Arctocephalus Falclandicus_) of which, according to Macartney, at the
+end of last century, thousands daily came to the coast of the island to
+bask in the sun, have almost entirely disappeared, so that these animals
+are very rarely seen or captured by the inhabitants. Even of the skeletons
+of these marine mammals, which, when the naturalists of the _Lion_ were
+roaming through the island, used to lie about in such numbers that one
+could almost walk upon bones all round the crater, not a vestige is left,
+and one can hardly realize that formerly hundreds of thousands of these
+animals were slaughtered at this island.
+
+Almost all the quadrupeds of the island are domestic animals that have
+been brought hither from Europe and the French colonies--such as swine,
+goats, cats, rabbits--which at present live here in a wild state. The
+goats, which were first introduced in 1844, are most numerous on the N.W.
+of the island; the swine, on the contrary, are not so frequently met with.
+During our residence, a boar and a wild cat were killed; a few days after,
+the five young of the cat were found, having been compelled to emerge from
+their lair in search of food. A female hare, which we had brought from
+Cape Town, was also set free on the island, and it was fortunate for the
+propagation of these useful animals that there was already a male hare on
+the island. A pair of geese was also presented to the colonists, which
+perhaps have continued to breed there.
+
+As we thought the island was uninhabited, it was originally our intention
+to leave several kinds of domestic animals of different sexes with a view
+to propagation; and with that object, when at Cape Town had made various
+purchases of useful animals; but, under the circumstances, we relinquished
+this intention, as there seemed but little chance of their being left
+undisturbed sufficiently long to secure the desired object. Occasionally
+cows would be landed from the whalers for the sake of the fresh fodder,
+and taken away again after the lapse of a month or two.
+
+The projected scientific operations of the Expedition might easily have
+been carried out within eight days, had we not been so obstinately
+persecuted with unfavourable weather. Violent north winds, which rendered
+it impossible to make any use of the surveying-board in the open air,
+alternated in an extraordinary manner with rainbows. Our astronomical
+observations were as yet nothing to speak of. Observations with the
+barometer, thermometer, current-measurer, and tide-guage, could alone be
+prosecuted, the last of which especially gave the following interesting
+result, that the hour of high water, both at full moon and new moon, is
+not 11 A.M., as given by Horsburgh (7th edition, Vol. I. p. 102), but at
+1.10 P.M.[65]
+
+[Footnote 65: According to Lord Macartney, the tide rises at full and new
+moon, between 8 and 9 feet perpendicular. A northerly wind always causes
+the highest tide, the current of which is from S.E. by S. to N.W. by N.,
+and has a velocity of about 3 miles an hour.]
+
+The proper carrying out of the objects of the geognostic enquiries was
+hampered by unforeseen obstacles and difficulties. One day the rain would
+be so heavy, that the slight covering of our apartments would be
+insufficient to protect us any longer from the beating of the rain which
+fell in bucketsfull, and began to leak through innumerable seams and
+cracks on to the beds, tables, and floor. Did any one think to shelter
+himself in the hut of a neighbour?--ere long there commenced a regular
+emigration, which very speedily came to a conclusion, by each and all
+having the melancholy satisfaction of perceiving that Fortune had set to
+work with rigorous impartiality, and had resolved to let each one of us
+feel the weight of her displeasure. And so we passed the long dreary hours
+in our comfortless huts, that gave free entrance to wind and rain, with
+umbrellas outspread or wrapped in our India-rubber cloaks, gazing moodily
+at the numerous cases full of valuable instruments, which, instead of
+being serviceable to science, were, by the loss of so many splendid
+opportunities, doomed to inactivity.
+
+[Illustration: RAINY DAY AT ST. PAUL.]
+
+Fortunately, all showed themselves animated by the utmost zeal for the
+undertaking and its successful issue; and, in a word, each fresh
+avalanche of difficulties, which sought to thwart our exertions and impair
+our forces, served only to reawaken the energies and reanimate the
+confidence of each and all amid all our calamities.
+
+So soon as the hovel we inhabited, which had enabled us to make
+observations upon the direction and strength of the wind rather than
+secured us any accommodation for sleep, had been in some degree restored
+to its original condition, we availed ourselves of the slight improvement
+in the weather, to examine a tolerably numerous collection of very
+beautifully bound books, which were found stowed away in one of the
+recesses for books running into the four partitions, and had in all
+probability much to dread from the rain-water trickling through the
+covering of the roof. These had been brought hither by a former proprietor
+of the island, and when it was sold were transferred with the rest of the
+stock of tools, &c., to M. Ottovan, who occasionally resided at St. Paul
+for a month or two, but seemed, so far as the condition of the books went,
+rarely to meddle with them. It was curious enough, however, to encounter
+in a lone desert island, so many evidences of the most refined
+civilization, so we shall cite in a note some of the most interesting of
+this library of about 150 different works, which deserved a better fate
+than to moulder away undisturbed till they fell into dust.[66]
+
+[Footnote 66: Among these were the works on Natural History, by Charles
+Bonnel (Neufchatel, 1783); J. S. Laharpe's "Abrege de l'Histoire Generale
+des Voyages, Paris, 1816;" Dacier's "Translation of Horace into French,
+with Notes and Critical Remarks. Paris, 1816;" "De la Felicite Publique;
+ou, Considerations sur le sort des Hommes dans les Differentes epoques de
+l'Histoire: A. Bouillon: from the Printing Establishment of the
+Typographical Society, Paris, 1776;" "Essay on the Life of the Great
+Conde, by Louis Joseph, Prince de Conde, at present in England, London,
+1st May, 1807;" "Precis des Journees 15, 16, 17, and 18 Juin, 1815, ou Fin
+de la Vie Politique de Napoleon Buonaparte, par M. Giraud, auteur de la
+"Campagne de Paris en 1814;" Paris, 1815, 1st vol. 8; "Histoire des
+Guerres des Gaulois et des Francais en Italie, avec le tableau des
+evenemens civils et militaires qui les accompagnerent et leur influence
+sur la civilisation et les progres de l'esprit humain." "Depuis Bellevise
+jusqu'a la mort de Louis XII., par lex Adjutant-General Auguste Jube,
+tribun." "Depuis Louis XII., jusqu'au Traite d'Amiens, par Joseph Servan,
+General de Division. Dediees a S. M. l'Empereur. Paris, an. XIII. (1805)."
+"Manuel des habitans de St. Dominique, contenant un precis de l'histoire
+de cette isle depuis sa decouverte, etc., par S. J. Duc[oe]urjoly, ancien
+habitant de St. Dominique; Paris, 1800, an. X, 2 vols.]
+
+Less fortunate were we in our researches for any document which could in
+any way throw any light, direct or indirect, upon the former history of
+St. Paul. The only piece of writing which we found that had reference to
+the island, was a licence drawn up during the reign of Louis Philippe,
+dated 20th February, 1846, to M. Adam, of St. Denis (in the Island of
+Bourbon), to proceed to carry out a certain undertaking in the schooner
+"_La Mouche_," 30 tons' burthen, under the protection of the French flag.
+"_La Mouche_," is the same boat in which Viot had made so many voyages to
+and fro between St. Denis and St. Paul. This document, which the poor old
+Frenchman drew out one evening from a drawer thickly strewn with dust,
+insensibly led the conversation to the quondam owners of St. Paul, and
+thence naturally to an enquiry, on our part, as to the number of graves
+which dotted this romantic offshoot of Pere la Chaise. "The climate is far
+too healthy, and the island far too little frequented, to admit of there
+being many graves in St. Paul," replied Viot. Of the blacks, whom M. Adam
+had once worked so unmercifully on the island, very many perished here
+owing to the severity of their treatment, but no one knows where their
+bodies lie;--very possibly their bones lie scattered about the island,
+like the remains of the much persecuted petrel (_prion turton_), which the
+predatory gull throws carelessly from him after he has stripped off the
+flesh, and gorged himself on the most delicate morsels. Only two graves
+are known to the present residents,--one is the resting-place of an
+Englishwoman, who died on board a merchant-ship which happened to be near
+the island, and whose grave was dug in the earth on the north side of the
+crater-basin; the second covers the body of a ship captain, who was
+accidentally drowned in the basin by the upsetting of a small boat, as he
+was approaching the bar in heavy weather. His grave is at a short distance
+behind the huts of the colonists, and bears traces to this day of the
+solemn feelings with which it was erected; an enclosure of large stones
+neatly arranged, make the site and its object at once recognisable.
+
+Shipwrecks are unheard of at St. Paul; at least, none such have been known
+to occur since it has been occupied by man. On the other hand, they are of
+more frequent occurrence at the sister island, as has very lately been
+evidenced by the catastrophe of the _Meridian_. However, the elements are
+not always to blame for such lamentable occurrences. Ships are sometimes
+dashed to pieces on the shores of Amsterdam in the finest weather, so that
+one is almost induced to believe that these misfortunes are occasionally
+resorted to intentionally, so as to realize some high insurance on a
+vessel which has probably already become half unseaworthy--a not very
+conscientious method of doing business, of which, however, some of the
+natives of Greece and the borders thereof are not unfrequently guilty. In
+February, 1855, a North American whaler struck upon the north-east side of
+Amsterdam in a calm, and with a clear sky overhead, so that the entire
+crew, 30 in number, were able to secure the provisions and their kits. The
+captain, with one of the ship's small boats, made for the Island of St.
+Paul, 42 miles distant, in the hope, probably, of getting assistance
+thence. A lucky destiny so willed it, that (the accident having occurred
+in the finest season of the year), a vessel of M. Ottovan's, which by a
+strange coincidence was named _L'Ange Gardien_ (the Guardian Angel), lay
+at anchor inside the crater-basin, loading with fish. The shipwrecked crew
+were indebted to his circumstance that, within 14 days more, they found
+themselves at Mauritius. A report circulated among the residents of St.
+Paul that the captain of the stranded ship had landed with some of his
+companions in a boat on the N.E. of Amsterdam, with the intention of
+searching for a sum of several thousand dollars which a previous visitant
+to this island was said to have buried there for some mysterious reasons.
+While the captain was on shore, vainly searching for a considerable time
+after the buried treasure, the shipmaster left in charge in his absence
+came too near the island, whereupon the vessel had been lost upon one of
+the numerous reefs which lie off the shore. A part, it was added, of the
+buried money had, in fact, been recovered. According to Viot, the captain
+had dug up 1000 dollars (above L200), and one of his companions 300
+dollars.
+
+At last, on the morning of 3rd December--the fifteenth of our stay at the
+island--the sky shone so brightly that one could, with more probability
+than hitherto, cherish the hope that the various operations we had been
+compelled to lay aside might finally be brought uninterrupted to a
+successful conclusion. However, the very wet day was again exceedingly
+unfavourable for open-air observations, especially astronomical, inasmuch
+as a pretty strong North-east wind incessantly drove over the island
+clouds of rain, the very heaviest of which, attracted by the mass of the
+island, broke right over our heads. Fortunately this spell of bad weather
+did not last as long as the first; and when, on 6th December, the _Novara_
+once more made her appearance at the island, and enquired by signals as to
+the progress made in our appointed work, we were so fortunate as to be
+able to reply by the same means, that the most important portion had been
+completed, and that the officers and naturalists were ready to re-embark.
+
+About 9 A.M., the frigate anchored in 25 fathoms, close to the spot where
+the English ship _Fly_, Captain Blackwood, lay in 1842. It was the third
+time that the _Novara_ anchored off St. Paul. Twice before had she
+experienced unusually tempestuous weather, which compelled her to sheer
+off from such a perilous coast, and expose herself to be lashed for days
+together by the raging giant waves of the infuriated element.
+
+One of the boats sent by the frigate to take us off to the ship, brought
+at the same time some presents, in memory of the Expedition, for the
+residents of the island, who had been so hospitable and obliging during
+our stay. The presents consisted of ship biscuit, salted meat, and various
+other edibles, wine, a musket, woollen blankets, clothes, shoes, tools,
+medicines, vinegar, oil, &c. The simple, modest fellows were immensely
+pleased with these unexpected presents, and Viot especially seemed
+overjoyed on seeing a number of tools, for want of which many of the
+repairs necessary in the interior of their anything but air-tight wooden
+habitations, were daily becoming more apparent.
+
+We left a book on the Island of St. Paul, in which the principal memoranda
+of what we had achieved were set forth in three languages (German,
+English, and French), with the view of supplying to future scientific
+visitors, data for further researches and observations, and at same time
+incite them to prosecute these we had ourselves made.
+
+We insert here this document, which will yet give witness, probably, of
+the scientific activity of the Austrian Expedition at the Island of St.
+Paul in the Indian Ocean, at a period when those engaged in it will long
+since have voyaged to
+
+    "That undiscovered country from whose bourne
+    No traveller returns."
+
+"The Imperial Austrian Frigate, _Novara_, 44, under the command of
+Commodore the Chevalier von Wuellerstorf-Urbair, engaged in a voyage round
+the globe for scientific purposes, anchored at nine in the morning of
+19th November, 1857, on the Eastern side of St. Paul, with the purpose of
+prosecuting astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, and geodesical
+observations and measurements, and at same time examine thoroughly the
+natural history of the island. Extremely unfavourable weather in great
+measure delayed the expedition; and, after having successfully carried out
+a series of observations and researches, the results of which will in due
+time be published, the officers and naturalists in charge of the various
+departments, on the 6th December of the same year, quitted St. Paul, each
+bearing with him the most pleasing reminiscences of that interesting
+island, and of its three poor, but eminently kind inhabitants.
+
+"For the guidance of future observers the following memoranda may prove
+useful:--
+
+"I. That the spot at which observations were taken was on a small
+eminence, north of the huts of the colonists, and which may be recognized
+by a small pyramid of stones, on which the Austrian Expedition marked the
+observed latitude 38 deg. 42' 55'' S., and the longitude 77 deg. 31' 18'' E. of
+Greenwich.[67] Further that:--
+
+[Footnote 67: The time, which we took from the Cape Observatory by four
+excellent chronometers, gave, on our voyage between the Cape and St. Paul,
+a period of forty-six days, a difference of 3 h. 56 min. 11 sec., which
+the island was E. of the Cape, so that adding the Longitude of the latter
+East of Greenwich (by nautical almanack), 1 h. 13 min. 55 s., we have the
+Longitude of St. Paul 5 h. 10 min. 6 s. East of Greenwich (77 deg. 31' 30''
+E.) Between Madras and St. Paul, during a long passage of sixty-seven
+days, and with six chronometers somewhat less accurately set than the
+preceding, St. Paul was found by observation to be 0 h. 10 min. 51.8 sec.
+West of Madras (2 deg. 42' 55'' W.) By the longitude of the Observatory of
+Madras, 5 h. 20 min. 57 sec. East of Greenwich (80 deg. 14' 15'' E.), as
+furnished by the Director of the Observatory, Major Jacobs (whereas the
+nautical almanack gave 5 h. 21 m. 3.77 sec. = 80 deg. 16' 0-1/2''). The
+longitude of St. Paul would be 5 h. 10 m. 5.2 s. East of Greenwich (77 deg.
+31' 23'' E.) The average of the two measurements gives as the average 5 h.
+10 m. 5.6 sec., or 77 deg. 31' 26'' E. to be assumed as the final longitude of
+St. Paul, while the latitude was taken from the various means of the
+height of the sun at the meridian on an average of days. An additional
+computation in which allowances were made for the various corrections,
+gave, as the latitude, 38 deg. 42' 47'' S.]
+
+"II. That the direction of the true meridian line drawn from this point to
+the nearest opposite shore of the South side of the crater-basin was
+marked by an oblique (St. Andrew's) cross.
+
+"III. That the tidal-gauge was situated on a rock near the landing-place,
+and that the rise of the tide above the mean level of the water (3 feet 5
+inches), was marked on a slab of rock smoothed for the purpose.
+
+"IV. Lastly. The magnetic observations were taken in a hut erected for
+that express purpose on the little plateau behind the settlers' huts,
+where at the same time various sorts of useful trees were planted by the
+Expedition.
+
+"The names of the officers and naturalists who, under the superintendence
+of the commander of the Imperial Expedition, took part in the various
+scientific operations were:--for Astronomy and Terrestrial Magnetism,
+Lieutenant Robert Muellar; Botany, Dr. Edward Schwarz and M. Jellinck;
+Geodesy and Meteorology, Lieutenant Eugen Kronowetter; for the
+Trigonometrical Measurement of the Crater-basin, Lieutenant Gustavus
+Battlogg; for Geology, Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter; Ethnology and Physical
+Geography, Dr. Karl Scherzer; Zoology, G. Frauenfeld and J. Zelebor;
+Draughtsman and Artist, Joseph Sellemy."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.--TRACK FROM ST. PAUL TO POINT DE GALLE. (CEYLON).]
+
+Towards 5 P.M. the last boat came off with the measuring and levelling
+instruments, and various articles of baggage.[68] The embarkation was
+finally completed. Half-an-hour later the _Novara_ weighed anchor, and we
+steered, favoured with most splendid weather and full of pleasing
+anticipations, for the adjacent island of New Amsterdam. Not without
+sundry twitches of sadness did we remark the sharp crater of St. Paul
+gradually fade away like a vision in the gloom of approaching night; and
+many undying memories must attach to our residence on that lonely,
+world-forsaken island.
+
+[Footnote 68: Remembering how many bottles and glass tubes were shattered,
+we have not thought it beyond our province to recommend future scientific
+travellers to bring with them a good supply of duplicates of all
+instruments liable to breakage, as it is very difficult to get such
+insignificant articles replaced out of Europe, and we frequently found on
+this occasion the want of some such little instrument interposed an
+obstacle to the further usefulness of the instruments.]
+
+And now, at the moment of our departure from the island, be it permitted
+us to cast a retrospective glance at the various results obtained by the
+Expedition of the _Novara_ during her stay at St. Paul.
+
+Never hitherto on this island, so important by its geographical position
+for ships trading with China, the East Indies, Australia, and New Zealand,
+have astronomical and magnetic observations and geodesical measurements
+been so thoroughly ascertained as by the _Novara_ expedition. Upon a
+carefully measured base-line, various points of the upper and lower
+margin of the crater were accurately laid down by means of the Theodolite,
+and the whole island submitted to a geometric network of angles. At the
+same time the geologist, with the aid of the compass and the patent
+levels, prepared a chart originally intended for geological purposes only,
+while the draughtsman of the expedition added to its value, by skilfully
+sketching in from these given points the configuration of the coast-line
+of the island. By their united efforts there has been published a chart of
+St. Paul, which gives even to the minutest details an entirely correct and
+accurate representation of the form and surface of the island. This minute
+chart, or plan, was prepared on a scale of 132 Vienna fathoms to one
+Vienna inch, or 1/9504 of the natural size. Moreover, it is intended
+preparing, from this map and from the various outlines and views taken on
+the spot, a plastic model of the island after Nature, which, moulded in
+gypsum, will give scientific inquirers the most accurate conception of its
+singular structure. Not less interesting for navigators in the Indian
+Ocean will be the publication of the various observations which, during
+our stay of 18 days, were made with the barometer, thermometer,
+tide-gauge, and gauge of the velocity of currents, taken at certain fixed
+hours, day and night, as also the soundings in the crater-basin, and on
+both sides of the bar. Although the complete publication of these _data_
+must await the appearance of the nautical portion of the present work, we
+shall give here the most important of these results. The extreme length of
+the island from N.W. to S.E., is three nautical miles; the superficial
+area is 1,600,000 Vienna square klafter--1 Vienna klafter = 1 fathom = 6
+English feet--100 English square feet = 92-986/1000 Vienna square feet.
+The highest point of the crater-basin is 846 feet; the greatest diameter
+of the upper rim of the crater is 5490 feet; the least 4590 feet; the
+greatest diameter of the basin at the level of the sea is 3984 feet, and
+the least 3444 Vienna feet.
+
+The observations on the state of the weather, taken with much difficulty,
+are not intended to include the regular observations on the exterior of
+the island, and in like manner some of those taken in the harbour, or
+basin of the crater, must be accepted with a certain limitation. For
+similar reasons, we were unable to fix the rate of the current setting
+from the sea into the basin, although we secured most extraordinary
+results considering the circumstances. The amount of specimens of natural
+history which was procured, was very limited, but on that account was the
+more valuable. To the geologist, it must be of the very highest interest
+to find that St. Paul has been classified, with scientific precision, and
+by dint of personal examination and research, in one of the four main
+divisions in which, according to the scheme of Alexander Von Humboldt, the
+volcanic formations of the earth may be divided. Measured by the latest
+distribution of the volcanic strata by the description of stone found, as
+laid down by the greatest of German naturalists, St. Paul belongs to the
+same class as Chimborazo, Popocatepetl, Teneriffe, &c., in a word, to
+what is known as the Chimborazo formation. A section of the east-side,
+taken in profile, lays bare its entire geological history, and forms one
+of the most instructive means of coming to direct conclusions as to its
+geological structure.
+
+The birth of this island from the bosom of the deep, combined with
+eruptions of lava and scoriae, was the last effort of the subterranean
+forces. Since that period it has been subject wholly and solely to the
+various terrestrial influences, although the lapse of centuries has not
+been able to extirpate the last traces of the volcanic fire which once
+poured forth its currents of molten lava. A large proportion of the level
+ground is hot, and at the lower edge of the rim of the crater appear
+several hot springs, the temperature of which, as already remarked, is so
+high that fish, eggs, potatoes, &c., can be cooked on them in a few
+minutes. The highest point of St. Paul rises 870 feet above the basin of
+the crater. Its walls rise abruptly at an angle of about 85 deg., while the
+upper surface of the island (with the single exception of a small plateau
+of about 400 feet on the north side) stretches, at first level from the
+periphery of the upper margin of the crater, gradually falling away
+towards the sea-coast, at an angle of about 13 deg. On its North-west coast,
+where it is from 100 to 200 feet in perpendicular height, the island
+presents several small pyramids of pumice, like parasitic warts on the
+principal mass.
+
+Like the geologist, the botanist also found in this wild spot an unusual
+opportunity of acquiring accurate information as to the occurrence and
+propagation of certain kinds of plants in a primitive soil. Six grasses
+and one reed (_cyperaceae_) form the vegetation of the island, one rush and
+three or four of the grasses forming the majority. The botanist having
+ascended to the plateau found there two grasses, both of which grew to a
+certain height only, and at certain places; the one (in the immediate
+vicinity of the settler's huts,) the oat, or _avena_; the second a
+_digitaria_, in the neighbourhood of the terraced fields, directly
+opposite the entrance to the crater, in warm positions, which, so soon as
+the earth is a little disturbed, emit jets of steam. It is still uncertain
+whether the other kinds of grass, _Poa_ and _Setaria Holcus_, belong
+exclusively to St. Paul, or are to be included in the more general group
+of geographical plants known as that of the islands of Edward's Island,
+Kerguelen's Island, and St. Paul.
+
+Among the grasses there spring up here and there, but on the whole very
+sparsely, some wild vegetables which have been planted by previous chance
+visitors.[69] In the crater there are also _Sonchus arvensis_ and one
+_Plantago_ (Plantain). On the south margin of the crater are _Cerastium_
+(maize-ear chickweed), and _Stellaria media_ (chickweed); both grow on a
+small piece of ground, and are far from thriving. Of _Cryptogamia_ the
+botanist found four sorts. Two _Parmelias_, one _Evernia_, and one
+_Cladonia_, the first-named overrunning the blocks on the edge of the
+crater with great luxuriance.
+
+[Footnote 69: Such as _Rumex acetosella_, _Cynara Scolcymus_ (artichoke);
+_Solanum tuberosum_ (species of nightshade); _Daucus carotta_ (carrot);
+_Petroselinum sativum_ (parsley); _Brassica oleracea_ (sea-kail);
+_Raphanus sativus_ (horse-radish).]
+
+Of _Algae_ there were found 33 species. The stones rolled backwards and
+forwards by the action of the waves, as also those surfaces which remained
+covered at lowest tide, were entirely covered with _Dicurella flabellata_.
+Most numerous was _Gigartina radula_, just in a state of fructification.
+Every movement of the water calls up slender, delicate _confervae_, and
+pale and coloured _luminariae_. The breakers have crowned the stones with
+festoons of the _Macrocystis pyrifera_. Of Liverworts there were found
+_Marchantia_ and _Jungermania_; of foliaceous mosses, _Sphagnum_
+(bog-moss), and two kinds of _Bruym_. Two ferns, just beginning to bear
+fruit, were found on the plateau, and one _Lycopodium_ (club-moss), which
+thrives pretty well, and frequently grows on the _Sphagnum_. On the whole,
+the botanist of the expedition found on the island, 11 _Phanerogamia_, 4
+_Lichens_, 33 _Algae_, 2 ferns, 2 Liverworts, 3 foliaceous mosses, 1
+_Lycopodium_. In this enumeration are included the European vegetables
+cultivated by the residents, as also some untended plants, which
+apparently have been introduced with the vegetables, or have been brought
+hither by previous visitors. The stony substratum of this island is barely
+covered with a plastic vegetable substance, which fills the cracks. The
+walls of the crater, as also the entire plateau, present to view a plain,
+unrelieved expanse of grass; not, however, like fields clothed with sward,
+but single tufts pressing one upon the other, which seem like the
+grave-mounds of a hundred bygone generations of plants. Frequently, at the
+foot of a block of pumice, all overrun with grasses of all sorts, one
+comes upon a moss or a stem of fern on one of the pieces of lava that has
+been washed up, or perceives with amazement in some out-of-the-way place,
+and utterly neglected, good old acquaintances from Europe, such as
+carrots, parsley, potatoes, &c., which apparently have been begun to be
+cultivated on some of the terraces, whence they have propagated themselves
+in a wild state all over the island. But not a tree, or bush, is to be met
+with throughout the island.
+
+In like manner, although the zoologist seemed to have but a poor prospect
+at St. Paul, it presented materials for most satisfactory speculation to
+the attentive naturalist. Only one of the grasses is infested by an
+insect, which appears in great numbers, a very tiny _cicada_ (cricket),
+the _Delphis hemiptera_, of which, according to the zoologist of the
+expedition, it is hard to say whether it became indigenous to St. Paul
+before, or contemporaneous with the arrival of man. Among other insects
+that have certainly been introduced here, the zoologist found the common
+bluebottle-fly, a gnat, the universally found cockroach, the book-tick
+(_acarus eruditus_), one kind of earwig, and the flea; besides the
+_Isopodis_, our common barrel-worm,[70] in almost fabulous quantities.
+These animals invariably follow man wherever he plants his foot, living
+upon garbage or decaying organic matter. With the exception of the
+clothes-moth, which has probably been introduced among the wool-stuffs,
+there are in the island no butterflies, none of the been tribe, no
+_Neuroptera_. Mites also need scarcely be reckoned, since the only
+representative, the common cheese-mite, is more apt to become extinct than
+to thrive; on the other hand, there are two kinds of spiders, for which
+the enormous number of flies furnish sufficient food.
+
+[Footnote 70: These loathsome animals cover the island in such quantities
+that one of the naturalists reckoned them at 6,000,000,000, counting 100
+as the minimum to each square foot of the island.]
+
+The species belonging to the sea are somewhat more plentifully
+represented, although, with few exceptions, very small and insignificant.
+The largest shell fish, a _Tritonium_, only attains a length of 3 inches;
+_Patella_, which is very plentiful all round the island, is only 1 inch
+long; several sorts of snails (such as _Buccinum_, _Defrancia_,
+_Mangelia_, _Paludinella_, _Adeorbis_, _Janthina_, _Fissurella_,
+_Scutellina_, _Lepidopleurus_, _Bulla_, _Asteronotus_, _Doto_), are barely
+a few lines in length, or even less.
+
+The _Brachiopoda_ are represented by a very inferior member, the
+_Terebratulina_, only two lines long, which, however, is a giant compared
+with one of the two only kinds of mussel, _Kellia_ and _Lima_, which are
+occasionally met with here, and are only half-a-line in length.
+
+Among the _Vertebratae_, the fishery of which is the principal object of
+the visits annually paid to the island, one, the _Cheilodactylus_, a
+spinous-finned fish, which is extraordinarily abundant all round the
+island, supports an important fishery, while _Thyrsites Atun_ were
+frequently caught with rod and line from the frigate.
+
+Of _Amphibiae_, there is not a vestige to be found on the island; the birds
+belong for the most part to the powerful-winged web-footed birds that
+frequent the open ocean, as, for example, the _Diomedea exulans_ (great
+albatross or man-of-war bird), _D. chlororhynchus_ (yellow-billed
+albatross), _D. fuliginosa_ (a new one not determined), _Lestris
+catarractes_, _Storna sp: Prion Vittatus_, of which the four last-named,
+at the time of our visit, had both eggs and young. Of birds with
+fin-shaped wings, there was the golden-crested penguin (_Apterodytes
+chrysocoma S._), living in two distinct colonies among the precipitous
+overhanging cliffs, with innumerable young, already of a pretty good
+size.[71] We also remarked several other winged denizens of the deep, which
+had alighted on our ship during the last few days immediately preceding
+our arrival at St. Paul. According to the fishery-people, the other birds
+of the island quit it altogether so soon as their young have grown
+sufficiently, and only return when the next breeding season comes round.
+
+[Footnote 71: One of the zoologists, Mr. Zelebor, endeavoured to kill two
+penguins that had been caught alive in the island, the one with arsenic,
+the other with chloroform. Of the latter, a quantity was administered
+enough to have killed a man, but which scarcely affected the penguin, who,
+in a quarter of an hour after, seemed quite restored to himself. The
+second, which had swallowed two tea-spoonsful of arsenic, died eight hours
+later.]
+
+In contradistinction to the sea-birds, M. Frauenfeld remarked but one
+single land-bird, a swallow, whose movements seemed to indicate that he
+was watching a breeding female. A stray bird on this lonely spot of earth,
+nearly 3000 miles away from the main land! Hundreds of questions
+suggested themselves on thus unexpectedly coming upon so well-known a
+wanderer. What could have condemned him to this self-imposed exile? Was he
+a straggler? Was it the first time he had selected this island for a home?
+Had it been his own cradle? And would he at some future period find
+companions to visit with him, and ultimately share these solitary desolate
+abodes?
+
+There were no seals visible,--they have retreated before the attacks and
+stratagems of their insatiate pursuer the seal-hunter, and for a long
+period have ceased to frequent the island. Indeed, St. Paul furnishes not
+a single specimen of mammal peculiar to itself; for all the members of
+this great natural division at present on it,--such as goats, swine, cats,
+&c.,--having become wild, must necessarily be classed, however unusual,
+with rats, mice, and the like. In other respects, all these have not
+varied in the slightest from the type of the domesticated animal (although
+they have probably lived wild for a hundred years past), except that they
+are very shy and avoid the presence of man.
+
+While upon these various points, the stay of the Imperial Expedition at
+St. Paul gave many splendid results by means of observations and
+scientific collections, it was also productive of a number of important
+practical benefits for seafaring people. The geodesical results, for
+instance, obtained by the Expedition, demonstrate that there is formed by
+the basin of the crater at St. Paul's, despite the small extent of its
+coast-line, a secure natural haven which would afford substantial
+facilities for ships, to which, on their voyage to China, Australia, or
+anywhere in the East Indies, any accident has happened, necessitating
+complete and speedy repair, or which might require fresh provisions for
+their crews, stricken with scurvy after a long voyage. For, although the
+depth of the basin of the crater in the centre is very considerable, and
+although the squalls of wind from the N.W. are often very violent, the
+ship can always make fast to the land, and so ensure the requisite
+security. How far the assistance so cheerfully rendered by science may
+have been called for, or how far the route at present traversed by sailing
+vessels makes that assistance desirable, must be left to the judgment of
+those nations, such as the English, French, and Dutch, which, as having
+possessions washed by the Indian Ocean, have a direct interest in the
+future condition of such a harbour of refuge, situate equidistant from
+Asia, Africa, and Australia.
+
+The morning after our departure from St. Paul, that is to say, on 7th
+Dec., we found ourselves not more than ten miles distant from Amsterdam.
+The first view of the island greatly resembles that of St. Paul, and the
+hypothesis gained constantly in probability that the geological formation
+of Amsterdam is nearly identical with that of St. Paul.
+
+A whaler was cruising in the neighbourhood of the island, while one of his
+slim whaleboats was pursuing a school of sperm whales, which sported about
+in great numbers.
+
+Towards 7 A.M., a boat approached from the whaler _Esmeralda_, Captain
+Pierce, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, to ask for surgical assistance for
+a sailor who, while engaged a few days previously in hauling a captured
+fish alongside, had had his left hand so severely injured by one of the
+lines, that amputation had seemed the sole remedy. The Captain had, in
+genuine Yankee fashion, assumed the duties of surgeon, and performed the
+operation himself. Now that it was over, and when neither praise nor
+censure could benefit the patient, he was anxious to know whether he had
+done right or wrong. While one of the ship's surgeons was getting ready,
+as requested by the captain, to proceed to the bedside of his patient, the
+whaler informed us he had already been absent from his family in the
+States five months, and would proceed hence to the Sandwich Islands and
+the Northern grounds, and finally return home round Cape Horn. If the take
+of fish proved good, he hoped to complete the voyage within two years.
+Whale-fishing, in truth, is not only a very dangerous and laborious, but
+also a most precarious pursuit. Occasionally a ship gets loaded within a
+brief space with oil and whalebone, by which, of course, the owner or
+charterer makes a splendid profit, and the entire crew obtain a handsome
+share. But frequently does it happen that, after a voyage of fifteen
+months and more, there is not a single fish taken, in which case the hardy
+sailors, who are entirely dependent for their pay upon a share of the
+spoil, have had all their labour and undergone all their privations in
+vain, while the freighter is poorer by a good round sum. The bare chance,
+however, of a rich haul is sufficient to raise to 8000, the number
+(probably on the increase) of the ships of varying tonnage and
+nationality, which at present encounter the anxieties, dangers, and
+hardships attaching to the whale-fishery. It is calculated that, were it
+possible to anchor them within signalling distance of each other, they
+would form a complete girdle round the earth at the Equator. In other
+respects, the incessant activity of the whaler is not without its
+advantages for science, since the observations and communications of many
+of the captains connected with the whaling business have essentially
+contributed to extend our acquaintance with atmospheric phenomena,
+especially in high latitudes, on both sides of the Equator.
+
+The loquacious captain, an uncommon quality in a Yankee, could not conceal
+his astonishment at encountering an Austrian man-of-war in such a latitude
+in mid-ocean, and adverted to this unexpected phenomenon. Captain Pierce
+further complained bitterly of the weather, and said that, as long as he
+had sailed the Indian Ocean, he had never at this season experienced such
+tempestuous weather as during the last week; which was further confirmed
+by several other whalers, regular visitors to these waters. Respecting
+Amsterdam, Captain Pierce, unfortunately, could give us but very little
+information. He had never set foot on the island, nor did he know whether
+it was accessible at all. But he spoke highly of the availability of the
+coasts for valuable fish. Nowhere in the Indian Ocean, the Captain
+remarked, was there such an abundance of fish of all descriptions as at
+the Southernmost point of this little-known island. Consequently most
+whalers, on their course Southwards, approach this island, and send out
+boats to bring in supplies of fish suitable for the table. Usually the
+boat is filled in a few hours with delicious food caught with the rod and
+line, when the fish are forthwith salted, in sufficient quantities to
+supply the crew for several weeks.
+
+Is Amsterdam really a sister-island of St. Paul? Is it, too, of volcanic
+origin, upheaved by the same subterranean energy, and does it still show
+similar traces of long-continued activity? These questions pressed on us
+for solution all the more vividly as we neared this inaccessible island,
+when we recalled to mind the mysterious phenomena which D'Entrecasteaux
+had observed here in March, 1792, and which have remained unexplained to
+this day.[72] The French Expedition saw, it is true, clouds of smoke
+emerging alternately from a subterranean opening close to the shore, but
+without being able to satisfy themselves whether the vegetation had been
+set on fire by the hand of man or by volcanic action, the wind which blew
+direct from the island making it impossible to land, unless one was
+prepared to run the risk of being suffocated by the rolling masses of
+smoke. There was, therefore, to be solved, at Amsterdam, the mystery as to
+whether the pillars of smoke, which were observed by the naturalists of
+the French Expedition of 1792, issuing from the soil adjoining the sea,
+were produced by an actual eruption, or were caused by subterranean fires
+in activity.[73]
+
+[Footnote 72: La Billardiere, Relation du voyage a la recherche de la
+Peyrouse, fait par ordre de l'Assemblee Constituante pendant les annees
+1791-94, Paris, 1800. (Vol. I., pp. 112, 113.)]
+
+[Footnote 73: Vide Alexander v. Humboldt's "Kosmos," Vol. IV., pp. 412 and
+585; also Physical and Geognostic Remarks, by the same author, prefixed to
+this volume.]
+
+About 11 A.M., the two jolly-boats of the _Novara_ were lowered to look
+for a landing-place on Amsterdam, while the frigate stood off and on,
+under easy sail, at an offing of five or six miles. Our whaling informant
+had told us the most abundant fishing-station was at the south point of
+the island, while the best place for disembarking was on the N.W. shore.
+As, however, upon consideration, it was deemed advisable, looking to the
+probability of a N.E. gale springing up, to get to windward of the ship,
+so as to be able to fetch her more speedily on our return, the S.E. side
+was selected, and our course laid for it accordingly. Along the
+acclivities of the coast pyramids of loose stones were visible, resembling
+those on St. Paul, but more numerous and of larger dimensions, the entire
+island seeming altogether on a much larger scale, and more lofty. On the
+West side we observed rocky precipices of from 1000 to 2000 feet in
+height, fissured with deep clefts and rents, whereas on the South and
+S.E., these presented a more gradual slope.
+
+For above an hour we steered along the shore, which rose sheer out of the
+water, without being able to detect a single point at which it was at all
+practicable to disembark, so as to scramble up to the high ground. The
+entire Eastern side is hemmed around with steep abrupt precipices of 150
+to 200 feet high, not unlike skilfully-erected bastions, and clothed with
+long thick grass.
+
+As we drew near, we could plainly discern in the water-courses that
+descend upon the upper slope--radiating, as it were, from all sides of the
+highest peak, which was enveloped in clouds--numerous streams of water,
+each pouring through a rift like a thread of silver, after which,
+precipitating itself over the steep precipices on the shore, it washed
+like a small torrent over terraces and banks of lava, till it was lost in
+the sea. If these streams are swollen by the heavy rain in winter, they
+may form waterfalls, as mentioned by early navigators, which must impart a
+far less pleasing character to the landscape. Two small patches of
+dazzling white, like fresh fallen snow, which were visible high above the
+slope, we could not make out with the utmost power of our glasses. The
+green colour which enveloped the entire island seemed to indicate the
+existence of grass vegetation resembling that of St. Paul.
+
+At last, when we had got within two cables' length of the shore, we
+encountered enormous green flakes of floating sea-weed, which, becoming
+entangled with the rudder, made further progress possible only by dint of
+most strenuous exertions. This proved to be the same gigantic sea-tangle
+of the Southern hemispheres (_Macrocystis Pyrifera_), which likewise
+constitutes a barrier of _fucus_ on the East side of St. Paul. The
+sea-calves mentioned by older describers were nowhere to be seen; but on
+the other hand we had an opportunity of satisfying ourselves as to the
+immense abundance of fish which frequent the coast of the island in a
+truly astonishing degree, although the American whaler had prepared us by
+his remarks. From bow and stern of the boat hooks and lines were hung out,
+and several of the crew were at once kept busy hauling in the lines, at
+the end of each of which there usually struggled a fish of some two or
+three feet long. These were chiefly umber fish, which are also very
+plentiful about St. Paul, where, from their delicacy, they formed a
+favourite dish at our otherwise very frugal repasts.
+
+We had now got so near, that we could distinctly perceive grass and the
+stems of ferns growing among the clefts of the rocks. However, although
+there was a dead calm, and the sea outside was as smooth as glass, the
+long ground-swell of the ocean, with its broad flat billows, caused such a
+heavy surf on the rock-bound stony beach, that the attempt to pass it was
+not to be thought of. The further we advanced along the coast in a
+northernly direction, the more distant we got from the ship, and unluckily
+in an equal degree our hopes were disappointed of finding a spot at which
+we could land, and scramble from the strand up the steep bank to the level
+ground above. The south-easternmost point, which at a distance presented
+the appearance of a low headland jutting out into the sea, behind which we
+had hoped to find a good landing-place, now that we had got close to it,
+proved to be a small detached rock; while the shore, as far as the eye
+could reach, rose like a wall to a height of from 150 to 200 feet. There
+now hove in sight five whalers, who seemed hunting that most valuable of
+all the inhabitants of the deep, of the spots frequented by which Maury's
+renowned Whale Charts have lately supplied so interesting and useful a
+code of instruction. These charts, which are based on a vast number of
+observations, of the tracts of ocean and seasons of the year at which
+whales are most frequently seen, will at the same time greatly tend to a
+solution of the question as to the migration of these enormous mammals;
+for it has never yet been settled, whether these animals flee from the
+pursuit of man to remote seas, thus continually constraining their
+pursuers to seek their prey in new waters, or whether, (as is the most
+prevalent opinion), they are always entirely extirpated from one locality,
+and accordingly are only to be met with in any numbers in some different
+area, in which man has as yet only rarely, if ever, disturbed them.[74]
+
+[Footnote 74: Some very valuable and detailed particulars of the Whale
+fishery are to be found in Maury's incomparable work, "The Physical
+Geography of the Ocean," and in Dr. Hartwigs' "Popular Treatise on
+Animated Nature in the Ocean. (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.)"]
+
+After an hour-and-a-half of continuous rowing, and when, in our very
+unsuitable boat, we had got about 7 nautical miles distant from the
+frigate, we at last found a smooth spot between two reefs, which projected
+above the level of the sea like a breakwater, and at once let go the
+boat's anchor. A regular landing-place, however, was not to be hoped for
+at this point. It was necessary first to make a spring to a block of rock,
+and thence, picking one's way among stones rendered slippery by being
+covered at flood-tide, endeavour to reach the beach. This we all
+succeeded in accomplishing over the rough rocks, without any mischance,
+and at last we stood on the firm soil of the Island of Amsterdam, at a
+spot which assuredly had never before been trodden by human feet, unless
+by some castaway. For only in consequence of the sea being perfectly calm,
+which at this season was quite unusual, were we able to reach the shore at
+this point.
+
+What a scene of wildest desolation, and inaccessible solitude now met our
+gaze! Around us nothing but huge blocks of basalt, some rolled about by
+the breakers, and so slippery with half-dry _algae_, that one was in danger
+of falling at every stride; others with their angles and indentations as
+sharp, as when first violently torn from their original bed; and behind
+these gigantic blocks, a perpendicular wall of rock rising 200 feet sheer,
+composed of a schistus of basaltic lava lying regularly and horizontally
+one over the other, intermixed with red or brown slag, and yellow tufa.
+Immense holes and cavities in the rocky wall, as also the empty spaces
+between the broken blocks that had fallen down, and the vast air-holes
+scooped out in the lava beds, furnished an undisturbed nestling-place for
+flocks of a beautiful sea-swallow, with glossy black head, silver-grey
+body, and bill and feet of carmine red--the most elegant and attractive
+contrast of colours that can well be imagined upon any bird. These pretty
+creatures afforded great amusement to the sportsmen of our little party,
+while the geologist acquired a better idea and more information as to the
+mineralogy and geognosis of the island beneath the steep wall of rock,
+than he could have obtained above, where all seemed to be covered with
+thick green grass. But the botanist and zoologist found but little to
+repay their search on the beach. The same _Algae_, the same grasses, the
+same _patellae_ (limpets), as at St. Paul, even to the same caterpillars
+swarming upon every tuft of grass in numberless quantities. At several
+points, fresh, perfectly good, sweet spring-water trickled down from the
+heights, and we could thus confirm the relations of former explorers, that
+the island contains fresh water; but whether it can be got at, still
+remains a very uncertain question. As we were convinced, after several
+examinations and much exertion, that to ascend the precipice from this
+spot was impossible, it was resolved, after the men had rested, and a few
+observations had been made with the sextant, to re-embark and endeavour to
+find a more suitable spot for disembarking.
+
+We quitted this first spot about 2 P.M., and continued to steer along the
+coast in a N.E. direction. The character of the scenery remained almost
+unaltered. The steep shore wall indeed dipped somewhat occasionally, but
+it was never less than 100 feet above the level of the sea. At various
+points there appeared, as at St. Paul, between the tufa strata, black
+veins of basalt, and fragments of scoriae, lying upon reddish-brown slag.
+Our curiosity, however, was especially excited by the appearance of small
+trees and low bushes. At first, while we were yet at some distance, we
+could barely distinguish a few dark, clear, green spots amid the universal
+dull olive appearance of the vegetation that covered the island; now that
+we were keeping closer in, we plainly saw small trees, which seemed most
+to resemble forests of pine, as also what appeared to be thick close
+brushwood of a light green colour, with which large patches of the middle
+and lower slopes of the island were covered. In vain did we watch for some
+spot in this singular island at which we might land and climb; at length,
+after steering several miles further along the coast, and passing several
+promontories advancing from the island, and numerous isolated rocks, we
+came, towards 3.30 P.M., upon a number of lava-blocks that had fallen from
+above, and, forming a sort of dam or bulwark between the sea and the
+shore, seemed to render disembarkation possible. The boat's anchor was
+again dropped, and we proceeded to make for the shore by dint of jumping,
+as before, from rock to rock; a method of reaching land more agreeable and
+better suited to penguins than decorous philosophers!
+
+Among the rocks on the strand lie fragments of shipwrecked vessels--pieces
+of masts and yards--dumb witnesses of human disaster, and suffering, and
+death! At this point the shore was not very steep. The masses of rock
+piled here on each other in wild confusion, made our ascent more
+practicable than at our former landing-place, though perhaps they
+necessitated greater circumspection. Dr. Hochstetter and M. Zelebor, as
+also Lieutenant Kronowetter, and a sailor, started for the height. A
+ridge, grown over with grass and rushes, and forming a line of
+communication between the upper and lower portions of the island, seemed
+the most accessible point. at which to mount to the high ground above. At
+first the path led over the colossal rampart of broken rocks and through
+the surf, after which came clumps of rushes and clods, in which the former
+grew, and thence upwards over masses of slag. It was a regular Sisyphean
+task. On the loose rolling _debris_ beneath the feet, for every five feet
+forwards, one slipped four backward, so that to climb this height of
+little over 100 feet, took nearly a whole hour. At last the adventurous
+scramblers stood on the top of the island, on a small bare cone of scoriae,
+whence they were able to overlook a portion of the ground. Dense rush-like
+grass, as high as a man, thickly covered the entire surface--
+half-withered, half of a lively green; here broken short off by wind and
+rain, there still standing erect. Further progress was not to be thought
+of, not even as far as the green clump of bushes which had already been
+observed from the boat, although it was scarcely a hundred paces distant,
+on the surface of the declivity, and although a closer examination
+promised to afford many interesting details as to the vegetation on the
+island. It would have been necessary to make one's way either through
+heaps of withered rushes, requiring to be broken down at every moment, or
+across thick, matted, fresh, slippery grass, in order to get anywhere near
+the copse that resembled the pinewood. Moreover, owing to the short
+allowance of daylight that remained, both were for the present
+inaccessible.[75] Evening was coming on, and it was necessary to think of
+our return, as we were at a distance of at least eight miles from the
+frigate. With the help of pocket-handkerchiefs, which they had tied to the
+reeds, the explorers readily found again the place at which they had
+ascended, and now speedily returned to the improvised landing-place,
+where, meanwhile, the naturalists that had remained behind had occupied
+themselves with collecting specimens on the beach, and amid the
+surrounding rocks. A singular spectacle now presented itself to the
+astonished view. A couple of lucifer matches that had been thrown aside
+without further thought, had burst into flames amid the parched rush beds,
+and dense volumes of black smoke forthwith rose upon the surface of the
+island. The fire speedily spreading among the thick dry grass, soon
+assumed a formidable breadth, and ere long a considerable portion of the
+east coast of the island was in a light flame. There was now presented to
+the members of the _Novara_ expedition, the same spectacle as that
+witnessed by the naturalists of the _Recherche_, when D'Entrecasteaux
+passed here some sixty years before. It may safely be assumed that the
+fire, and the thick wreaths of smoke then visible were like those of
+to-day, the result of man's hands, and not of subterranean forces--in
+fact, kindled in all probability by fishermen, who were clearing this
+uninhabitable island of the close impervious brushwood that so greatly
+impedes locomotion, and were rendering it capable of being traversed, as
+well as susceptible of cultivation. During the night of 7th and 8th
+December, 1857, the sky was clear and cloudless, and the flames crackled
+and leaped high above the beach, in an elliptical area, which must have
+measured a couple of miles in its major axis. A dense, copper-coloured,
+luminous cloud of smoke rose straight into the air, where it spread out
+horizontally, till at last a long trail of smoke stretched in a S.E.
+direction to the farthest horizon, entirely covering the upper part of
+the island. About 2 A.M., according to the report of the officer of the
+watch, the spectacle was still more grand and imposing. The conflagration
+at that time extended over an immense surface, so that the imagination
+might naturally enough be disposed to regard this as the bursting forth of
+the pent-up flames of a volcano, with the usual accompaniments of red-hot
+streams of lava, clouds of floating ashes, and pillars of flame mounting
+to heaven.
+
+[Footnote 75: One of the shipwrecked crew of the _Meridian_, in an article
+in the _Nautical Magazine_, for 1854, p. 75, describes at some length the
+difficulties of access to this island. We quote it here as a supplement to
+our own experiences:--"After we had clambered up to the top by means of
+ropes, and after much exertion and considerable danger, we found the
+island for a space of two or three miles thickly covered with reeds, from
+5 to 8 feet high; behind rose a lofty hill, also clothed with reeds.
+Fortunately, during our stay on the island, there was a sufficiency of
+fresh water, although in summer, in all probability, there is a great
+scarcity. So long as we remained, constant rain fell upon the summit of
+the mountain, and kept the numerous little brooks full of water. In order
+to signal our situation to any ship that might be passing, we set the
+reeds on fire; but the flames spread more furiously than we had
+anticipated, so that our lives were endangered. A considerable quantity of
+young birds were picked up, which had fallen victims to the flames. On the
+29th August, to our great joy, a ship, the _Monmouth_, hove in sight, and
+observed our signal; but the surf was at this time so violent that no boat
+could reach us. At last, on 31st August, a boat came near enough to the
+shore to make us a signal to proceed eastward over the rocks. We set off
+at once, but found the path very rugged, and owing to the immense masses
+of rock lying around, excessively difficult. Besides reeds and brushwood,
+there were no other plants but parsley and endive (_cichorium intybus_).
+During the first half of the following day we found no water, but we found
+the hail very grateful, which day and night fell incessantly, alternating
+with rain. At the first watering-place we came upon an English sailor,
+whom the captain of the _Monmouth_ had despatched to assist us. He
+informed us we must make for the north side of the island, as no boat
+could reach the shore at the spot where we had gone ashore. The
+south-coast is the worst part of the island; there the surf breaks
+continually against the iron-bound coast; there is nothing resembling a
+beach--only here and there enormous blocks of a hard species of stone,
+that have fallen from time to time from the cliffs above. On 2nd
+September, we had neither provisions nor water. The following day,
+however, we found water, and a few cabbage-stalks, which several years
+before had been sown by some whalers, and fortunately had thrived. On 5th
+September, we reached what is called the Cabbage Garden, and the same
+evening arrived at the place where the boat was awaiting us."]
+
+Fortunately, this gigantic conflagration must have done far more good than
+harm to this desolate island, covered as it was for the most part with
+reeds, since, without destroying any of the vegetation that could be of
+service to man, it will greatly facilitate examination by future voyagers,
+and adapt it for settlement by fishers and others, who at present seem to
+leave it utterly abandoned.
+
+Towards 6 P.M., as it was already getting dark, our two boats set out on
+their return to the frigate, from which in the course of the day they had
+been distant about fifteen miles. However a fresh Northerly breeze having
+sprung up we were able to make sail, and at 7.30 P.M. once more reached
+the frigate, when we were received with a storm of questions, principally
+turning upon the mysterious far-visible conflagration,--which had been
+kindled by a couple of humble Vienna lucifers! During our visit to the
+island a variety of observations were also made on board the frigate, to
+obtain the position of Amsterdam, as also to determine the elevation of
+the most prominent peaks of the island, and the outline of the shore. The
+results of these gave the following: latitude 37 deg. 58' 30'' S.; longitude,
+77 deg. 34,' 44'' E. of Greenwich; elevation of the highest summit (nearly
+corresponding with previous observations), 2891 English feet; of the
+second highest, 2651 feet; the length of the South coast, as measured from
+the frigate, 32,359 feet; of the Western shore, 5507 feet.
+
+There was still some faint hope that we might visit the island next day.
+However, during the night the wind sprung up, the weather became variable,
+and we saw ourselves compelled to renounce our cherished desire to
+investigate the island thoroughly, the rather that, owing to the
+unpropitious weather during the last few weeks, the stay of the _Novara_
+in these latitudes had been prolonged so considerably beyond the period
+fixed, that no more time could be spared, if it were desirous to avoid
+sacrificing the objects of the Expedition with reference to other and more
+important departments of scientific enquiry, by engaging in them at a
+season in all probability highly unfavourable for the purpose.
+
+Consequently our observations in Amsterdam remained most imperfect;
+although the geologist of the expedition was enabled to clear up the
+uncertainty hitherto prevailing as to the geological structure of the
+island, and to determine upon scientific data, that Amsterdam is an
+extinct volcanic cone, of precisely the same character, and belonging to
+the same order of volcanic formation as the sister island of St. Paul;
+that it probably contains on itself all the usual indications of its
+volcanic origin, and that its upheaval probably took place at the same
+period. On the other hand, the naturalist regretted to see slip the
+opportunity so rarely vouchsafed, of instituting a comparison between the
+respective vegetations of these islands, and of making evident how,
+simultaneously with the advance of a more luxuriant, and more multiform
+vegetable organization, there also appears an entirely new race of
+animals, and how closely allied in the economy of nature is the existence
+of individual specimens with certain fixed pre-existent types. In any case
+St. Paul, which we enjoyed an opportunity of examining in the utmost
+detail, is, of the two islands, the most important to the commerce of the
+world, not merely as a finger-post on the most frequented deep-sea route
+in the Indian Ocean, but also as a haven of refuge for ships and crews.
+Already the crater-basin of St. Paul has served in case of need as a
+desirable asylum for ships that are half unseaworthy. Not many years since
+an English man-of-war steamer came to St. Paul, after a severe storm in
+the Indian Ocean, during which her engine broke down, and her rudder was
+knocked away, after which she, for twelve days, was steered by a temporary
+rudder. The vessel, after discharging the heaviest part of her equipment,
+was easily brought into the interior of the crater-basin, and was there
+hove down for several months on the Northern barrier, undergoing repairs.
+
+On the 8th December, about 4 A.M., only a dark cloud of smoke in the
+distant cloudless horizon indicated the position of Amsterdam. The island
+itself, properly speaking, was actually out of sight, for a fresh N.W.
+breeze had driven us merrily along during the night. The last hope was now
+dissipated of being able to obtain a view of the North side of Amsterdam.
+We were now rapidly approaching the region of the S.E. Trades. The breeze
+freshened and crept gradually to the West, thence to the South, and
+finally to the Eastward. This veering of the wind proved to be a
+fore-runner of the Trades, which we got into on 14th December, in S.
+latitude 28 deg. 1', E. longitude 85 deg.
+
+On that day a merchantman hove in sight, which, with favouring breezes and
+all sail set, soon bore down on us. She came down without any flag, and
+stood right across our bows at so short a distance that we could plainly
+read her name--the _Bunker's Hill_, of Boston--on her stern. Thereupon we
+ran up our flag; and, as it is as gross a breach of the code of maritime
+politeness for a ship to pass across the bows of another in the open ocean
+without saluting, as for a man on land to brush quickly across another's
+path without apologizing, a blank shot was fired at this unmannerly
+American. To this manifestation etiquette lays it down that, as the
+hoisting of her flag by a man-of-war is a direct challenge for any
+merchantman that may be in sight to hoist its flag, any neglect of these
+universally recognized rules must involuntarily give rise to suspicions.
+After we had fired the blank shot, the American, by a telegraph of
+flag-signals, enquired the latitude and longitude, which in merchant ships
+in the open sea is pretty frequently resorted to, in order to know where
+precisely they are, as they are not able to make such frequent
+observations as ships of war. Before anything else, however, it was
+necessary to settle the question of saluting; and this the obstinate
+Yankee, in spite of the warning signal, seemed resolved not to notice,
+although he well knew the seriousness of his position, as was abundantly
+evident in the celerity with which several ladies and gentlemen, whom we
+could discern on deck, flew to seek shelter below! A second report,
+accompanied by a ball over his stern, at last brought this pertinacious
+captain to his senses, and the whistling of the shot had the desired
+effect. The "Stars and Stripes" were run up, upon which we signalled the
+required latitude and longitude. Probably it was but a petulant explosion
+of a silly national vanity, as also the consciousness of commanding a
+handsome crack "clipper," that could speedily run out of gun-shot, which
+led to this premeditated and persistent violation of one of the most
+ordinary rules of politeness. Indeed, even the vessels of the North
+American navy itself are frequently compelled in the open sea to treat
+their fellow-countrymen in a similar manner; and the captain of the
+war-steamer _Minnesota_, looking after the North American interests in
+China, was obliged, as we learned afterwards at Shanghai, to enforce a
+compliance with established sea usages on one of his seafaring
+compatriots, by dint of cannon-shot, in accordance with the undoubted
+practice of all maritime nations.
+
+The south-east Trade, which we had hoped would drive us on our destined
+course, was not so strong or so steady as we had expected, chiefly
+perhaps in consequence of the influence exercised by the Australian
+continent, the temperature of which during this, the summer season of the
+Southern Hemisphere, is raised to an extraordinary degree by its sandy
+surface, that when the air has become thus warmed, it ascends and becomes
+more rarefied in its lower strata, in consequence of which its elasticity
+becomes so great as to drive back the surrounding colder atmosphere, and
+only admit it to contact with the heated air at its most remote limits.
+This occurs the more readily, that the heated air, after it has risen to
+the more rarefied tracts, expands on all sides, and at a certain distance
+from the lower level, begins to add to the pressure of the atmosphere. In
+this self-acting zone of increased atmospheric pressure, the winds,
+however, are naturally more faint, and, to observers who happen to be on
+the exterior of this zone, always appear to take their rise from the
+further side. For this reason, probably, we fell in with easterly breezes,
+so long as we had the Northern portion of Australia to the eastward of us.
+
+At any rate, the equilibrium of the air seemed to be disturbed, as we
+could plainly perceive from the weather and the confused sea. At last on
+18th December, the heavens seemed somewhat more propitious, though the
+wind still continued easterly; indeed occasionally blew from the north,
+and frequent squalls of rain poured pitilessly down upon us. The more,
+however, we increased our distance from the Australian continent, that is,
+from all land to the eastward, the more steadily blew the south east
+Trade. And so we kept standing steadily forwards, till at last, on the
+24th December, in 6 deg. 4' S. Lat., and 82 deg. 34' E. Long., we reached the
+eastern boundaries of the Trades and got into that of calms.
+
+The heat, which thus far had spared us, began now to be most oppressive,
+and was felt all the more owing to the air being extraordinarily damp and
+dense. Frequently in the afternoon a passing shower of rain, which would
+sometimes completely flood the deck, would cool the air for a few fleeting
+moments. Occasionally indeed we had westerly and more rarely
+north-westerly breezes, but these were never of long duration, and were
+incessantly broken by rains and squalls.
+
+And at this same season, at which in our distant Fatherland, palace and
+hut are decked out with unwonted attention, when golden fruits and elegant
+presents glitter from the green fir-branches of the Christmas Tree, all
+lit up with the neat little wax-tapers, when man's heart seems to overflow
+with cheerfulness and love of his fellow-creatures,--at this season we
+were languishing far from our dear ones, tormented with the intense heat,
+scarcely able to realize to ourselves, that at home it must now be snow
+and frost, while keen Boreas is whirling the snowflakes aloft, and howling
+a grim accompaniment the while! However, we promised ourselves the
+satisfaction of enjoying these pleasures at our own firesides, whereupon
+our recollections of home and dear friends imparted to our minds a
+wholesome stimulus, arising from the soul-inspiring conviction, that we
+too were present in their minds and hearts at this hallowed season. Nay,
+several of the officers of the _Novara_ Expedition were surprised when
+far at sea, in the very midst of the Indian Ocean, with Christmas gifts,
+which thoughtful friends had many months before entrusted to the care of
+discreet fellow-voyagers.
+
+After constantly struggling against calms and contrary winds, exactly at
+the first stroke of the New Year, at midnight of 31st December-1st
+January, we reached the Equator, which we were now crossing for the second
+time, and began the year 1858 in the Northern Hemisphere.
+
+On this New Year's Day we had nearly had a great disaster. A lad who was
+coming down the shrouds fell overboard. The sea was perfectly calm and
+smooth, but already on the morning of this very day we had seen many
+sharks, those dreaded foes of man in the domain of ocean, so that the life
+of the unfortunate youth seemed seriously imperilled. The same instant in
+which the youth fell, saw a life-buoy thrown over, a boat prepared for
+lowering, and all usual appliances for a rescue made available. But
+although an excellent swimmer, he seemed to lose all presence of mind,
+probably through fear, and must undoubtedly have been drowned, had not the
+boatswain's mate, and two other sailors, leaped into the water and made
+all haste to his assistance. Meanwhile the boat had been got into the
+water, by which rescued and rescuers were got safe on board again.
+
+A few months later, the boatswain's mate, for his gallant conduct on this
+occasion, received, by the express orders of His Majesty, the silver cross
+of merit, while the sailors were advanced one grade.
+
+The current, which runs northward along the coast of Australia, but turns
+off to the westward about the tenth degree of South latitude, so as to
+pass southward of Ceylon, directly along the Equator to the Coast of
+Africa, carried us far to the westward, in consequence of which we had
+overcast, uncertain weather, with, for the most part, calms or light
+breezes. As we found ourselves approaching the fourth degree of Northern
+latitude, a rather fresh N.E. wind sprung up, probably the trade wind of
+the Northern Hemisphere, which, however, as we neared Ceylon, again died
+away to a calm.
+
+At the same time, in lat. 5 deg. 32' N., 79 deg. 5' E., we fell in with a current
+running more than two miles an hour. We had, as it turned out, got to the
+westward of the roadstead of Point de Galle, in Ceylon, and found some
+little difficulty in making headway against the current. On 7th January,
+toward 3.30 P.M., land was made to the eastward, and an hour later, a
+Cingalese canoe was perceived making for the frigate under sail. It was
+the pilot boat, whose crew, having been informed by a Hamburg brig that a
+large ship was in sight, had put to sea to meet us.
+
+At the first sight of this little canoe, it was hardly possible to refrain
+from amazement at the courage and hardihood with which the half-naked
+Cingalese boatmen could put off some 30 or 40 miles to sea in such a tiny,
+narrow boat, that barely gives them room to sit lengthwise. Two
+cross-bars, or outriggers, projecting on one side, where they are
+fastened externally to a rather massive beam, which swims parallel with
+the boat, gave this canoe, apparently so fragile, such stability and
+seaworthiness, that it is at all times not less safe than a boat of
+European construction.[76]
+
+[Footnote 76: These canoes resemble very closely the "proas," of the
+Polynesian Islands, carrying a beam on one side, which is quite straight,
+and always kept on the lee of the wind and sea, the change of course being
+effected by simply shifting the sail, and steering with the paddle from
+the opposite end.]
+
+The natives steer with short paddles, and continue an incredibly long time
+at this most exhausting work, as we must conceive it to be. And yet they
+are to appearance a feeble race, except that the muscular system of the
+upper part of the body is remarkably developed.
+
+The dress of these people is remarkably simple, and usually consists only
+of a piece of coloured linen cloth or calico, which, worn short like a
+woman's petticoat, is thrown single-fold round the loins.
+
+The pilot, though he could only make himself intelligible in broken
+English, speedily came to a good understanding, and offered to sell us
+bananas, pine-apples, and cocoa-nuts, as also Ceylon jewels, the latter of
+which he carried on his person, secured in a parti-coloured cotton belt.
+This reminded us that we were nearing the shores of the country in which
+costly stones are found, but precisely on that account, as was natural,
+our speculative pilot found but a poor market for his wares.
+
+Off the coast we caught a shark 7 feet long, and 135 lbs. weight--a rather
+juvenile specimen--whose teeth, which we examined, were already strong
+and sharp enough to seize a man, and strip the flesh off him. Also a
+number of large dolphins and other fish, sported in the dead water under
+the frigate's stern, and provided plentiful employment for the harpoon and
+the rod. Presently we found ourselves within six miles of the land, when a
+large number of pirogues forthwith came swarming about us, all of a
+construction similar to the pilot boat, and each manned by four half-naked
+bronze natives. These offered fruits for sale, especially magnificent,
+gigantic clusters of banana. On one such cluster we counted, arranged in
+five rows, one over the other, not less than 175 bananas.
+
+On the 8th January, we anchored in the unpicturesque haven of Point de
+Galle, surrounded by groves of cocoa-nut palms, directly opposite the
+lighthouse tower, and in a fine quartz sand bottom of 16-1/2 fathoms (103
+feet English). All large ships, that only intend remaining a short time,
+anchor in the open roadstead, the entrance into the inner harbour being
+rather difficult, owing to numerous coral reefs. In the roads also lay the
+English frigate _Shannon_, from which, in the absence of her captain, the
+first lieutenant immediately came on board the _Novara_, and in the
+handsomest manner put his services at our disposal.
+
+As the only Austrian Consul on the island was resident in Colombo, M.
+Sonnenkalb, the Consul for Hamburg, had the courtesy to receive us with
+the most hospitable of welcomes, and proceeded to do us the honours of the
+place.
+
+On the 10th we hauled the frigate into the small inner harbour, in order
+to facilitate the shipping of stores. The entrance is rather winding,
+owing to the numerous shoals, and it is with some little difficulty that
+one can find a comfortable, commodious berth among such a crowd of
+shipping. We only saluted the flag of the dominant nationality--a
+customary courtesy--and were replied to by the batteries on shore. An
+officer of the frigate was then dispatched to announce our arrival to the
+governor of the station--a major in the English army. This gentleman
+seemed not to think it incumbent on him to put himself in the least out of
+his way for us. Indeed, we even experienced some little difficulty in
+procuring a sufficient supply of drinking water for shipment as stores;
+but we must at the same time add, in justice to the representatives of
+England in distant countries, that during our entire voyage this was the
+one solitary instance in which English military official men did not
+display that universal readiness to oblige, which, to their credit, is so
+conspicuously and so kindly displayed by them in their intercourse with
+foreign nations.
+
+[Illustration: CINGALESE CANOE.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF ADAM'S PEAK FROM COLOMBO.]
+
+
+
+
+                               VIII.
+
+                               Ceylon.
+
+                   STAY FROM 8TH TO 16TH JAN., 1858.
+
+   Neglect of the Island hitherto by the English Government.--
+     Better Prospects for the Future.--The Cingalese, their
+     Language and Customs.--Buddhism and its Ordinances.--Visit to
+     a Buddhist Temple in the Vicinity of Galle.--The sacred
+     Bo-tree.--Other Aborigines of Ceylon.--The Weddahs.--
+     Traditions as to their Origin.--Galle as a City and Harbour.--
+     Snake-charmers.--Departure for Colombo.--Cultivation of the
+     Cocoa-nut Palm, a benevolent, Buddha-pleasing work.--
+     Polyandria; or, Community of Husbands.--Supposed Origin.--
+     Annual Exportation of Cocoa-nuts.--Rest-houses for
+     Travellers.--Curry, the National Dish.--A Misfortune and its
+     Consequences.--The Catholic Mission of St. Sebastian de Makun,
+     and Father Miliani.--Annoying Delays with restive Horses.--
+     Colombo.--A Stroll through the "_Pettah_" or Black Town.--Ice
+     Trade of the Americans with Tropical Countries.--Cinnamon
+     Gardens and Cinnamon Cultivation.--Consequences of the
+     Monopoly of Cinnamon.--Rise and Expansion of the Coffee
+     Culture in Ceylon.--Pearl-fishery.--Latest Examination of the
+     Ceylon Banks of Pearl Oysters, by Dr. Kelaart, and its
+     Results.--Aripo at the Season of Pearl-fishing.--The Divers.--
+     Pearl-lime, a Chewing Substance of wealthy Malays;--Annual
+     Profit of the Pearl-fishery.--Origin of the Pearl.--Poetry
+     and Natural Science.--Artificial Production of the Pearl.--The
+     Chank-shell--The Wealth of Ceylon in Precious Stones.--Visit
+     to a Cocoa-nut Oil Manufactory.--The Cowry-shell, a Promoter
+     of the Slave Trade.--Discovery of valuable Cingalese MSS. on
+     Palm-leaves.--The heroic Poem of "Mahawwanso," and Turner's
+     English Translation of it.--Hospitality of English Officials
+     in Colombo.--A second Visit to Father Miliani.--Agreeable
+     Reception.--The Antidote-oil against Bites of Poisonous
+     Snakes.--Adventures on the Journey back to Galle.--Ascent of
+     Adam's Peak by two Members of the Expedition.--The sacred
+     Footprint.--Descent.--The "Bullock-bandy," or Native Waggon.--
+     Departure from Galle for Madras.--The Bassos (shallows).--A
+     Berlin Rope-dancer among the Passengers.--Nyctalopia; or,
+     Night Blindness.--Fire on board.--Arrival in Madras Roads.
+
+
+The inquirer who becomes acquainted by personal examination with the
+important geographical position of the Island of Ceylon (called also
+Seilan or Singhala), her commodious harbours, her productiveness, and her
+marvellous climate, involuntarily wonders at the stepmother's part that
+England has hitherto played with respect to this renowned island of palms
+and spices, the Malta of the Indian Ocean, which of all the British
+possessions in distant parts of the earth, has, till recently, received
+the least care or attention.
+
+It must be borne in mind, however, that Ceylon is an appanage of the
+British Crown, and it is not an independent, self-supporting colony. Those
+shortcomings of administration, for which the mother country is
+exclusively responsible, have been hitherto a complete drag upon her
+development. But the English people have this advantage over all other
+nations, that once anything has been recognized to be useful and
+imperatively required, they proceed to apply it with such energy, that
+they are enabled to make up for any neglect with giant strides. During
+late years many fetters have been knocked off which formerly impeded the
+more active development of agriculture and commerce. The harbour of Point
+de Galle (also called only Galle for shortness) has become a central
+station for the steam-boat trade with the East Indies, the Burmese
+Archipelago, China, and Australia. A telegraphic wire will ere long
+stretch from Ceylon to England, such as even now unites the island with
+the Coromandel Coast and India; a railway is in course of construction
+between the most important commercial centres of the island, and so
+obvious are the fundamental benefits it must confer, that ere long the
+classical and incomparably beautiful island of Ceylon is destined to shine
+a star of the first magnitude in the azure of the Indian Ocean, one of the
+most prosperous, wealthy, and blest of islands!
+
+The scientific researches of all kinds, which have in modern days been
+instituted in Ceylon, have been attended with the most important results,
+bearing upon its history and its various tribes, as well as on its natural
+wealth; and the masterly and marvellous work Sir Emerson Tennent lately
+published on the isle of Ceylon, seems intended to compensate for many
+instances of neglect which Ceylon and its inhabitants have experienced
+from the English since they seized on it.
+
+Embracing all the three kingdoms of nature, and following up with learned
+accuracy the history of the inhabitants, from the obscure traditions
+attending their earliest settlement down to the present day, Sir Emerson
+Tennent's work is a perfect pattern of a monography, although upon this
+subject the German inquirer will involuntarily, and not without an
+emotion of pride, recall to mind Carl Ritter's admirable, well-digested
+publication upon Ceylon, in his classical work on Eastern Asia, doubly
+meritorious by the very fact that the German scholar never set foot in the
+country itself. There are, however, indeed few spots on earth which
+present such inexhaustible subjects for the study of the historian as well
+as the inquirer into physical science, of the poet and the political
+economist, as this romantically-beautiful island, which we have been
+taught to regard as the Garden of the World, as indeed the special site of
+the Garden of Eden, the first abode of the progenitors of the human race.
+
+We have not to do here, as in most of the islands of southern seas, with a
+savage people, that have only, since the first appearance of Europeans,
+emerged from a state of barbarism, and been raised one step towards
+civilization, but rather find, as in the East Indies and China, a peculiar
+type of civilization, which, although widely differing from that of
+Europe, yet seems not less valuable and extraordinary. The whites (scarce
+7000 in number, of whom 2482 are females), who live scattered over an area
+of 24,700 English square miles, have hitherto been too few in number to
+exercise any marked influence on the customs or mode of life of a native
+coloured population of 1,726,640 souls, and hence it is that Ceylon
+exhibits a more romantic and characteristic air than any other British
+settlement in distant parts of the globe.
+
+A people like the Cingalese, of such ardent imaginativeness, with a
+splendid history, and a religion professed in the various realms of the
+East by more than 300 millions of people, gains in interest the more we
+become acquainted with them, and the more we make their traditions, their
+mode of life, and their customs, the object of special inquiry.
+
+The Cingalese, or indigenous natives (so named to distinguish them from
+the other inhabitants of the island, belonging to other stocks and
+amalgamated races, who at various periods had settled here, and who call
+themselves Ceylonese), were entirely the offspring of Hindoo emigrants,
+who, about five centuries before the birth of Christ, came from Hindostan
+to Ceylon, and imported their own mode of government, and system of caste,
+as also their arts, language, and religion, from the continent into the
+island.
+
+They constitute the germ of the present population, and early divided
+themselves into four leading castes:--1st, that of the royal family;--2nd,
+the Brahmins;--3rd, the merchants, peasants, and shepherds;--and 4th, the
+sixty inferior common castes. At present there exist in Ceylon only the
+two latter. The most numerous is that of the peasants, who, however,
+meddle but little with the cultivation of the soil, but have arrogated to
+themselves the exclusive and hereditary possession of all employments, lay
+or ecclesiastical. The dress of the Cingalese usually consists of a cloth
+wound turban-fashion round their head, and long white drapery. On festive
+occasions they wear richly-adorned tight-fitting jackets of velvet or
+wool, and on such occasions rank and power assert themselves by the number
+of garments, to such an extent that frequently a wealthy man makes his
+appearance in several of these habiliments, worn one above the other. The
+Cingalese are shorter in stature than the Europeans, their average stature
+being 5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 5 inches, English. Their _physique_,
+though graceful and delicate, is powerful and muscular, with a brawny
+breast, broad shoulders, the muscles of the thigh strongly developed, but
+with disproportionately small hands and feet. Their colour is commonly a
+light-brown, their hair black and quite straight. The women are
+beautifully formed, but even when they can, like Asokamalla of historic
+fame, boast all the forty and six marks of the Cingalese ideal,[77] they
+must fall far short of the European standard of female beauty, with their
+bodies anointed with oil, and their mouths stained with the betel-nut. As
+the Cingalese girls usually marry so early as 12 years of age, they
+speedily lose the bloom of youth, and frequently have the appearance of
+crones at 20. Another especially loathsome habit of the Cingalese is the
+chewing the betel-nut, a custom so universally prevalent among all Indian
+races, that not merely the men and women, but the very children exhibit an
+extraordinary predilection for it. The ingredients of this masticatory
+consist of the green tender leaves of the Betel-pepper-shrub (_Piper
+betle_), the nut of the areca-palm (_Areca catechu_, or cabbage-tree),
+some lime made of calcined shells, and tobacco, which, according to the
+rank of the individual, they keep ready prepared by their side, in silver
+or brass boxes, resembling snuff-boxes. These corrosive substances at the
+same time stain the saliva so deep a red, that, after long use, the lips
+and teeth seem as though smeared with blood.
+
+[Footnote 77: Of these forty-six perfections of womanly beauty we extract
+the following by way of example, from a Cingalese author:--hair, glossy as
+the tail of a peacock, and hanging in ringlets to the knee, eye-brows like
+the rainbow, eyes like sapphire, and the leaves of the manilla flower, a
+hawk nose, lips lustrous and red as coral, teeth small and regular, like
+the buds of the jasmine, neck thick and round, haunches broad, breast
+firm, and conical like the cocoa-nut, the figure slight, capable of being
+spanned by the hand, the limbs spindle-shaped, the sole of the foot
+without any hollow, the skin free from any prominence of the bones,
+sweeping in rounded curves, soft and tender.]
+
+The language is an offshoot of the Sanscrit, copious, harmonious, and full
+of expression, with threefold grammar, and as many vocabularies, viz. for
+the royal tongue, the official or court tongue, and that of society at
+large. To these there must be added the Pali, the learned, but obsolete
+written language of the priestly caste, which the Cingalese have in common
+with the kingdoms of Siam and Ava, in the further Indies. In this
+language, itself but a dialect of the Sanscrit, all their sacred books,
+traditions, and poetry are written. In many parts of the island the
+knowledge of language and written lore are held in such high honour, that
+grammar and literature form the entire study of the inhabitants. Reading
+and writing are as common among the Cingalese as in England, except that
+in Ceylon the women take no part therein. They do not write as we do, with
+quill or steel pen upon paper, but engrave the characters with a
+fine-pointed iron graver, or _stylus_, upon the leaves of the Talipot
+palm-tree (_Corypha umbraculifera_), from which they slice a broad strip
+for the purpose about 2 feet long, and several inches broad. These require
+no further preparation than that they must be well smoothed beforehand,
+and all inequalities removed. In order to render the writing more clear
+and legible, the Cingalese rub it with a mixture of cocoa-nut oil and fine
+pulverized wood-ashes, which imparts to it durability and prevents
+obliteration. Great numbers, however, use the leaves of another species of
+palm for writing upon, viz. the Palmyra palm (_Borassus flabelliformis_),
+but those of the Talipot are preferred to all others for their closeness
+of texture, and are alone used in important records and other documents.
+
+The religion of the Cingalese is Buddhism, which in Ceylon still
+flourishes in these times in all its pristine vigour. Buddha is not the
+name of the founder of this belief, who is called Gautama, or Sakja-Muni,
+but is only one of the numerous titles of honour invented by that
+personage, who in the Sanscrit figures so conspicuously as a sage. Gautama
+was born in the province of Maghada (now known as Reha), in Northern
+Hindostan, B.C. 624. His parents were Suddhodana, King of Magadha, and his
+consort Maja. Contemplating the degeneracy and misery of man, sunk in
+deepest woe, Gautama attacked the doctrine of Brahma, rejected the Vedas,
+or holy books, and founded the new faith, which consists of the following
+fundamental propositions:--The Creator and Ruler of the world is a
+supreme, invisible, purely spiritual (and for that reason obviously
+impossible to be figured) Being, almighty, wise, just, beneficent, and
+merciful. Man most fitly recognizes and honours the Deity by silent
+contemplation: by the practice of chastity, temperance, and virtue he
+attains to happiness. The complete fulfilment of all his duties confers on
+him here on earth the dignity of a Buddha, or sage, and after death
+consigns him to the beatific repose of _non-existence_[78] (_Nirwana_).
+Condemned souls are born again in the forms of wild animals. According to
+Gautama's teaching a fresh Buddha always appears at certain epochs, whose
+existence is manifested by his extraordinary spiritual powers, by his
+deeds, and by his prophecies, selected by destiny for the purpose of
+enlightening the world as to the decrees of the Supreme Being, and to
+restore religion to her pristine purity. The death of a Buddha is also the
+commencement of a new reckoning of time. Gautama, who died about B.C. 542,
+or some 2400 years since, was the forty-fifth and last Buddha that
+appeared to the Cingalese; his doctrine must continue to operate for 5000
+years, when, according to the Cingalese traditions, the next Buddha, or
+Purifier, will appear. Gautama's belief, bequeathed by him to his
+disciple, the Brahmin Mahakaja, was immediately translated into Sanscrit,
+and speedily spread. Several hundred temples and monuments dedicated to
+him are scattered in various parts of the island, and remain to this day
+an evidence of the extent and influence of Buddhism.
+
+[Footnote 78: The ten precepts of the moral code of Buddhism are as
+follows:--Kill no living creature--do not steal--follow no unclean
+occupation--tell no lies or untruths--drink no fermented liquors--live
+exclusively on vegetables--anoint neither the head nor the body--go to no
+singing parties or spectacles--do not sleep on a raised nor on a wide bed--
+eat but once a day, and before noon.]
+
+[Illustration: BUDDHA TEMPLE NEAR GALLE.]
+
+On the day of our arrival we at once set off to visit one of these
+Buddhist temples, in the vicinity of Galle. The edifice is small and
+insignificant, only the carved woodwork of the door presenting any object
+of interest as a work of art. In the interior is a gigantic figure of
+Buddha, carved in wood, and in a reclining position; it is 20 feet long,
+and painted yellow and red, with long flaps to the ears, and a lotus
+flower on the head; while on the walls around, richly decorated with
+scrollwork, dragons and lions, part painted, part sculptured, various
+interesting episodes are represented in the history of Buddhism. Right in
+front of the figure are placed a number of offerings of the most
+miscellaneous description, beneath which are flowers and fruits; a small
+tin box is also particularly conspicuous, into which every stranger is
+expected to drop a piece of silver by way of present. Adjoining such a
+temple are always to be found the _wiharas_, or residences of the priests
+(_hamaduruhs_), and the spot where preaching and teaching are carried on.
+The priests wear long wide vestures, yellow or white according to their
+rank, or else only a single yellow outer garment, which falls in the form
+of graceful drapery over the naked shoulders; their heads are shaved, and
+they walk about quite barefoot, with a parasol of Talipot palm in their
+hand, and observe with strangers a reserved, distrustful demeanour.
+
+We were conducted all round by a young priest, of about 20 years of age,
+who spoke a little English, which is not a very common accomplishment,
+since the Buddhists have a great dislike for all that is foreign. Only at
+the conclusion of our visit did the old, grey, half-blind superior priest
+make his appearance, saluted us, but immediately left us to snatch from a
+boy a shaddock (_Citrus decumana_), which is especially prized by the
+Cingalese on account of the refreshing qualities of its juice.
+
+The priestly office, however, does not deter a native from indulging the
+disgusting habit of chewing the betel-nut, and this aged _hamaduruh_
+became much more sociable on receiving some.
+
+Adjoining the temple, which stands in a charming cocoa-nut grove, we first
+got an idea of the extraordinary luxuriance of the vegetation of this
+island. In a single enclosure, not much larger than an ordinary
+house-garden, we saw coffee-trees, cinnamon-bushes, clove-trees,
+nutmeg-trees, (_Areca catechu_), oranges, lemons, pine-apples, and
+bread-fruit trees (_Arctocarpus incisa_), flourishing in wildest
+profusion.
+
+A second temple, which we also visited, was the Dadale Panzela, the
+largest in the province, and the seat of the high-priest of the Buddhists.
+This worthy personage, a septuagenary, is named Nanalangara Seresumana
+Mahdamaradjiguru Ganatchari-Naikunangi, and is surrounded by a staff of
+priests of the temple who are reputed holy, and who apparently venerate
+him as a superior being. This temple did not differ much in construction
+and arrangement from the first; but the place set apart for instruction,
+where, at the time of our visit, some youths were busily engaged in
+copying the sacred books upon palm leaves, as also the residences of the
+priests, made a much more imposing impression, and spoke of a certain
+degree of opulence. In the midst of a piece of ground laid out like a
+garden was planted the sacred Bo-tree, which is looked upon as holy by the
+Buddhists, because, according to an ancient tradition, Buddha was in the
+habit of reposing under the shadow of its branches, as often as he visited
+the earth. Towering above everything wherever a Buddhist temple is raised,
+there a Bo-tree is planted; but the particular sacred tree, the original
+plant from which the legend took its rise, grows at Anaradnapura, in the
+northern part of the former kingdom of Kandi, whither it had been suddenly
+translated from a far-distant land, and spontaneously took root in the
+spot where it at present stands, in order to serve as a protection and
+shelter for Buddha.[79] Ninety Cingalese monarchs are interred around it,
+all of whom, by the temples and statues they erected to Buddha, are deemed
+worthy of this pre-eminent mark of distinction.
+
+[Footnote 79: The sacred Bo-tree (_Ficus religiosa_) of the Buddhists is
+frequently confounded with the Banyan Tree (_Ficus Indica_), held in such
+honour by the Brahmins, from which latter it differs in this, that it does
+not throw out from its branches numberless twigs which take root again in
+the earth. The incessant waving and rustling of the leaves and branches,
+which is common to both species of _Ficus_, is regarded by the faithful
+Buddhists as the effect of a fear-instilling scene of which the sage was
+once witness under the Bo-tree; just as the Syrian Christians deduce, from
+the fact that the Holy Cross was manufactured out of aspen-wood, that this
+tree is trembling, even in our days, with anguish and terror. Singular,
+what an important part the fig-tree seems to play in all religions,
+including the Christian and the Mahometan!]
+
+The grey-headed high-priest permitted the library of the temple to be
+shown to us, which consists of a large number of Pali manuscripts,
+inscribed on Talipot leaves, each of which was enclosed between two
+elegant boards made of calamander wood (_Diopyrus hirsuta_), fastened with
+strings, and enveloped in numerous folds of cloth, the whole guarded with
+singular reverence, in lofty, broad, wooden cupboards, richly carved. When
+we returned, the chief priest requested us to give him our names, and that
+of the country we came from, upon which a young priest carefully wrote
+down with a goose quill on a sheet of paper, in Cingalese language,
+apparently with the view of showing us civility, some superficial remarks
+respecting the _Novara_ Expedition.
+
+Besides the pure Cingalese, the island is also inhabited by Hindoos from
+the Malabar coast, Moors (the descendants of wandering Arabs and
+Mahometans from northern India, who at present carry on the greater part
+of the trade of the island), Malays, Javanese; then Portuguese, Dutch,
+British of the various nationalities comprised under that title; and,
+lastly, Negroes from Mozambique and Madagascar, who have formed alliances
+with the Cingalese, and are rearing a numerous mixed race.[80]
+
+[Footnote 80: What is related by various writers of the practice of
+"running a muck" (a custom that seems to recall the frightful blood-feuds
+of the Corsicans), long supposed to be peculiar to Ceylon, in which a
+Malay thirsting for revenge, and armed with a naked "_kreese_," or dagger,
+rushes through the streets like a madman, yelling "_Amock, Amock_" (kill,
+kill), and runs the fearful weapon through the body of the very first
+person he meets,--seems to be founded on a mistake. No one could give us
+any particulars on the subject from personal observation. Sir Emerson
+Tennant too, in his work on Ceylon, passes over this custom of "running a
+muck," without a syllable of mention. Evidently the custom is not
+naturalized in this island. It now prevails among the Malays of the Sunda
+archipelago, while in Ceylon no instance has occurred within the memory of
+man. That this tendency to murder is caused by the use of opium likewise
+appears improbable. Crawford, in his most excellent descriptive dictionary
+of the Indian islands, speaking of "running a muck," pretends it results
+frequently from a monomania taking this particular form, and originating
+in disorders of the digestive organs.]
+
+Deep in the interior of the island, in the province of Bintang, N.E. from
+Kandi, and towards Trincomalee and Batacalva, in holes in the earth, or
+under the palm-leaves, reside the tribe of the Weddahs or Veddahs, the
+most savage race in the island, traditionally said to be the aborigines
+proper, who go about naked, with the exception of a girdle round the
+loins, and use only bows and javelins, which however they manufacture and
+handle with great dexterity.
+
+According to one of the various Cingalese traditions, these Weddahs are
+the descendants of a very bloodthirsty, cannibal monarch, who, deposed by
+his people, was only permitted the alternative of death, or of
+withdrawing with the ministers of his cruelty to roam for ever amid the
+solitudes of the forest. The dethroned king chose the latter alternative,
+and thus became the little-to-be-envied progenitor of this rude savage
+race. At any rate it seems worthy of note, that these Weddahs, destitute
+though they are of the remotest traces of civilization, are still regarded
+as belonging to the privileged caste.
+
+Owing to the shortness of our stay, we unfortunately had no opportunity of
+visiting the interior of the island, or of seeing these Weddahs. With
+difficulty did we tear ourselves from the zone of the cocoa-nut growth,
+and therefore only got acquainted with two places on the island, Galle and
+Colombo, the latter the seat of government.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT GALLE.]
+
+Galle is, from its position, as also from its configuration, indisputably
+the best and most important harbour in the south and west of the island,
+as Colombo can only be regarded as an open, insecure roadstead. Founded in
+the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, conquered at a later period by
+the Dutch, and finally, at the peace of Amiens, transferred to the
+English, Galle displays singularly few traces of its different masters.
+The streets are narrow, but cleanly; the houses are for the most part
+constructed of earth, with verandahs, or airy colonnades towards the
+street, and rooms within, plastered to imitate stone, of spacious
+dimensions, as is desirable, considering the heat of the climate. As one
+enters from the roadway at once into the sitting apartment, and as the
+door stands wide open all day to admit a free current of air, a sort of
+open screen-work is usually put up before the entrance, to prevent a too
+minute inspection of the interior, by the prying eyes of inquisitive
+passers-by. At Galle we, for the first time, saw the "Punkah," a sort of
+fan peculiar to India, which stretches from one end of the roof of the
+room to the other, and being swung to and fro by a servant produces a
+refreshing coolness. Here, too, we first became acquainted with the
+"Gecko" (_Hemidactylus maculatus_), an elegant little house-lizard, which,
+with graceful agility, runs to and fro upon the walls, windows, and roofs,
+and speedily becomes as familiar with man as a pet-dog or kitten. They
+usually make their appearance towards evening, when, without the slightest
+symptoms of timidity, they begin their surprising evolutions, during which
+they catch gnats with astonishing dexterity, and although they are
+disagreeable objects to all new comers, one speedily becomes accustomed to
+these harmless, innocuous, playful little animals, of which the Ceylonese
+are in the habit of relating many interesting and amusing anecdotes.
+
+Of late years, during which Galle has risen into considerable importance,
+as the converging point of the lines of steamers to Eastern India, China,
+and Australia, the number of substantial houses has greatly increased, and
+several large hotels are found here replete with every comfort. Like most
+European settlements in India, the Cape, and China, Galle possesses a fort
+in which, at an earlier period, the European colonists dwelt with their
+wives and families apart from the natives, and has also a "Pettah," or
+Black Town, a sort of Cingalese Ghetto, exclusively inhabited by the black
+population. At present this separation is not so strenuously enforced as
+in earlier times, but whoever would seek to form a more accurate idea of
+the various races of this population, its mode of life and its demeanour,
+must leave the so-called "Fort," and wander through the native or
+Cingalese quarter. Here are the fruit and vegetable markets; here all was
+devoted to buying and selling, which seemed to excite the otherwise
+listless little covetous disposition of the Cingalese; here jugglers and
+snake-charmers exhibit, who excite interest rather by the horrible nature
+and the foolhardiness of the performances, than by their executing any
+surprising feats. A belief is prevalent among the people that this
+singular class of men, greatly resembling our own gipsies, possess the art
+of depriving a poisonous serpent of its venom, and rendering it
+innocuous. And, in fact, one does see them produce from a white cloth the
+dreaded Cobra di Capello, 4 or 5 feet long, and exquisitely marked,
+irritate it violently, and go through all manner of unpleasant
+performances with it on their naked bodies. Frequently the serpent, weary
+of being constantly brought out for exhibition, endeavours to escape from
+its tormentor, whereupon a general scramble for escape takes place among
+the spectators. Every one hurries off to a safe distance, and the
+unfortunate charmer is left alone on the scene with his eminently
+intractable pupil, and has, into the bargain, given his exhibition in
+vain. As, however, it not unfrequently happens that the bite of the Cobra
+di Capello is followed by fatal consequences to the snake-charmer himself,
+it is highly probable that the whole mystery resolves itself into courage,
+and the shrewdness with which, availing themselves of the uncommon dread
+and aversion with which this animal is regarded, they are able at once to
+prevent him from making use of his deadly poison fang, and to put forth
+their own sleight of hand. This explanation seems also to account for the
+very remarkable fact that men have ventured to domesticate this dangerous
+reptile in more places than Ceylon. Indeed, within the experience of Major
+Skinner, a thoroughly trustworthy personage, who has resided for many
+years on the island, and to whom the naturalists of the Expedition are
+indebted for many acts of kindness, an instance actually occurred in the
+neighbourhood of Negombo, in which a wealthy man, who keeps large sums of
+specie in his house, bethought him of the singular precaution of having
+several deadly cobras to watch the treasure in lieu of dogs. Day and night
+they glide about, a terror to thieves, while they are quite harmless to
+the inmates who feed them and attend to them!
+
+In former times snake worship (_Nagas_) was universal throughout Ceylon,
+and, as in India, the cobra received divine honours from the natives,
+because it was supposed to be a metamorphosed king. This serpent, however,
+is so singularly and wonderfully endowed by nature, its appearance and
+motions are so peculiar, that an imaginative people like the Cingalese may
+well be excused for associating the idea of metempsychosis with its aspect
+of mystery.
+
+From Galle, an excellent road, following the coast-line the entire
+distance, leads to Colombo, the seat of government, 75 English miles
+distant. Every morning there starts from Galle for that destination, the
+"Royal Mail" coach, an uncomfortable, somewhat dangerous, mode of
+conveyance, in which this distance is traversed in from 8 to 10 hours. In
+order to travel more at our ease, we engaged an extra waggon. In Ceylon
+people usually employ, on long excursions, but one horse, which is changed
+at distances varying from 6 to 10 miles. We had some difficulty in
+reconciling this custom with our predilection for travelling at our
+leisure. The first few hours of our journey passed away very pleasantly;
+the road was excellent, and the country magnificent and charming. We
+seemed as though driving through a park inhabited by thousands of men, and
+planted with cocoa-nut palms--amidst which occasionally the white dome of
+a Buddhist temple, or the minarets of a Mahometan mosque, shooting up
+above the summits of the palms, imparted an aspect of life to the
+landscape--while in the gay bazaars that fringed the road, the few
+necessaries of life required by the exceedingly frugal natives were
+exposed for sale, temptingly arranged on palm or plantain leaves. The
+whole south-western coast district is so populous that the huts of the
+natives were continually in sight, right and left, under the forest shade,
+and the scenery in consequence seemed as full of life and careless
+enjoyment as though the people had nothing else to do but walk about under
+palm-trees. This impression was the more strengthened, that we rarely
+perceived a man with anything else in his hand than a Talipot leaf, or a
+Chinese parasol, to protect himself against the burning rays of the sun,
+which shone almost directly overhead. Of the women, on whom for the most
+part fall all the troubles and hardships of life among the Cingalese, we
+only saw a few carrying to the city heavy baskets balanced on their heads.
+
+The luxuriant, widely-extending cocoa-nut forests, which on the south and
+west sides of the island stretch down to the sea-shore (whereas on the
+eastern coast they are altogether absent), seem independently of the
+necessity of paying all due care to the maintenance of one of the
+necessaries of life, to be specially indebted for their existence to the
+circumstance that additional planting of this tree, as also its careful
+cultivation, is one of the religious observances and duties of the
+servants of Buddha. Whoever plants a cocoa-nut, palm, or bread-fruit tree,
+performs a work agreeable to Buddha. At the birth of a son, or on any
+similar festive occasion, it is customary to plant a few cocoa-nut shoots
+in the earth. Cocoa-nut palms form a very important part of the property
+of a family. The father divides them as heritable property into equal
+portions for bequest to his children. Not one single palm but has an
+owner, though instances occasionally occur in which several families are
+supported by the produce of a single palm!
+
+This peculiar phenomenon has been followed by most remarkable results
+bearing upon the social condition of the native population. Increasing
+poverty, and the ever present grinding necessity of preventing any further
+subdivision of the joint property, have impelled the natives to resort to
+the unnatural remedy of the brothers of a family having but one wife among
+them! The fact that there are in Ceylon fully one-tenth more men than
+women, was the cause of the rapid spread of this custom, and upheld
+Polyandria, or plurality of husbands, as a desirable invention for
+remedying the deficient supply of females. Many a female has three, four,
+or even seven husbands, and all children that are born of such a wedlock
+have equal rights, and are (differing in this respect from the law of
+Hindostan, by which only the children of the eldest brothers are
+registered, as the entire property belongs to him, while all the younger
+brothers serve him as vassals, and can be driven by him out of the house),
+the _lawful_, recognized heirs of the different fathers. In order to guard
+against the rise of law-suits respecting birth and heritage among the
+Cingalese, in consequence of their local customs, the British courts of
+justice, singular to say, find themselves constrained to recognize this
+disgraceful custom, and to interpret the law with reference to it.
+Although in the maritime provinces plurality of husbands has been signally
+on the decrease, owing to foreign influences, it still prevails to a great
+extent in the interior of the island. The submissiveness of the Cingalese
+to their superiors and their monarchs is assigned as the origin of this in
+other respects very ancient custom, which seems to have been universally
+in use among the various races of the mainland of India from time
+immemorial. Constrained to apply their own manual labour in cultivating
+the land of their tyrants, and frequently to accompany them on distant
+journeys, they thought they could, during their absence, most surely
+protect their own fields and crops against utter ruin, by apportioning
+wife and chattels among brothers and nearest relatives, and thence the
+family tie was gradually converted into a socialist community.
+
+The almost endless cocoa forests, which we were traversing by splendid,
+broad, level roads, not alone provide the native with, to him, the most
+important necessary for supporting existence, but the fruit itself forms
+at the same time so important and valuable an article of produce, that the
+cultivation of the cocoa-nut has been regularly and systematically carried
+on by European enterprise since 1841--at present covering an area of
+23,000 English acres--while the proportion of native land on which this,
+the most useful growth of the tropics, is cultivated, amounts to about
+100,000 acres. Formerly, the nuts were shipped to foreign parts for the
+extraction of their oil; but for this purpose there are now on the island
+itself, especially in Colombo and Galle, a considerable number of
+manufactories, at which the oil already expressed from the nuts is usually
+at once put into casks for exportation. The quantity of oil thus exported
+annually is estimated at from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 gallons, worth from
+L100,000 to L150,000. Besides this, the elastic fibre of the outer husk of
+the cocoa-nut is used in the manufacture of ropes, door-mats, &c., and,
+under the name of Coir, forms an important article of export, the annual
+consumption averaging between 30,000 and 40,000 quintals (centner weight),
+worth from L20,000 to L25,000.
+
+The first station on leaving Galle for Colombo is Bentotte, where, as is
+the custom all through the country, there is a "resting-house" open to all
+travellers, similar to the "Choultries" in India, the "Caravanserais," or
+lodgings for pilgrims, in Eastern countries, or the "Pasangrahans," of
+Java. These resting-houses, which all through the interior of the island
+are found on the highways and forest roads, are among the oldest
+institutions of the country, and were formerly maintained at the expense
+of private individuals. The resting-houses, which have been erected under
+the English rule on the main roads of the island, are in all respects of a
+far higher class, and strongly resemble the waiting-rooms of our own
+(German) railroads. One is not merely provided in these with shelter, but
+also with food and drink, at a fixed tariff. A special committee (the
+Provincial Road Committee) is appointed to superintend the management of
+these resting-houses.
+
+Here we partook of a luxurious "tiffin," as the customary meal between
+breakfast and dinner is called in Ceylon, as well as throughout India; and
+in so doing, made acquaintance for the first time with the renowned Indian
+dish "Curry," which consists of flesh or fish prepared with a powder
+compounded of spices. It tastes so hot that the European palate only gets
+accustomed to it by degrees; but in these countries it is looked on as the
+favourite dish, which must never be absent from any meal, because the
+cayenne pepper plentifully sprinkled over it, stimulates the stomach and
+promotes digestion. Hence the curry-powder is in immense request, and is
+largely exported. The assertion that this dish was first invented by the
+Portuguese is quite erroneous, as the chronicles of the country establish
+that it was in request in Ceylon in the second century before Christ.[81]
+
+[Footnote 81: According to Professor Wilson, "Curry" is but a corruption of
+the Carnatic term _Majkki-Kari_, a dish composed of rice, sour milk,
+spices, and red pepper.]
+
+As we mounted into our vehicle again, after a short halt at Bentotte, in
+order to resume our journey to Colombo with a fresh horse, we perceived
+that our driver, a negro, had been too free of his visits to the
+brandy-bottle, and occasionally took to rolling on the box. In the hope
+that he might become sober by the way, we ventured to proceed, but ere
+long he lost his balance, and fell to the ground, compelling us, to avoid
+further mishap, to retrace our steps on foot to the nearest village--thus
+reversing the order of matters, and, so to speak, escorting our horse,
+coach, and driver. This occurrence, unimportant and hardly worth
+mentioning in itself, was the occasion of an interesting adventure. As it
+was only with much difficulty that we could make ourselves intelligible to
+the natives, we resolved to apply to the authorities in the very first
+place we came to. It turned out that we were in the vicinity of the
+Catholic mission of St. Sebastian de Makun, whose superior was a
+Benedictine from Rome. The church is situated amid the rich vegetation of
+the primeval forests, the gigantic trunks of whose trees, supporting a
+huge diadem of luxuriant foliage, are arched into a natural dome of the
+most graceful proportions. With curiosity whetted to the uttermost, we
+advanced along a beautiful path, beneath cocoa-palms, cabbage trees,
+bread-fruit trees, screw pines, tree-like ferns, and broad-leaved bananas,
+till we reached the dwelling-house of the Mission, and introduced
+ourselves to the missionary. Forthwith the latter, a tall, stately figure,
+with handsome features and cultivated manners, and dressed in a woollen
+robe, ushered us into a darkened chamber opposite, and received us most
+cordially. This worthy priest, by the name of Miliani, was not less
+surprised at being visited at this solitary mission by Austrian
+travellers, and with the most lively satisfaction and the utmost readiness
+to oblige, offered us all the assistance in his power. In spite of our
+hurry, we had to take a cup of coffee _a la Romagna_, with our hospitable
+missionary, and to promise to visit him on our return journey. Father
+Miliani has already lived many years in this country, and ministers to a
+Christian community of more than 1000 souls. Altogether there are in
+Ceylon about 50 Catholic missionaries under a Bishop whose residence is in
+Colombo. Our priestly host was greatly respected by the Cingalese, but he
+evidently was overjoyed at being able once more to express his thoughts
+and feelings in his native Italian.
+
+It was evening ere, with many a hearty shake of the hand, we tore
+ourselves away from the cordial hospitality of St. Sebastian de Makun.
+Horse and driver this time gave hope of faster progress. But we were
+doomed once more to experience a severe disappointment, and although we
+were only about 10 or 12 miles distant from Colombo, which was our
+destination, it took us five long hours to get over the ground. The night
+was very dark, but the road was continually illuminated with torches of
+palm, carried by the homeward plodding natives, which emitted a gloomy
+light alternating with showers of sparks.
+
+When at last we got to Colombo about midnight, pretty well knocked-up, we
+comforted ourselves with the reflection that the inconveniences attending
+personal transport between Galle and the seat of government, can by no
+means be classed among events of rare occurrence; since, in consequence of
+the inveterate obstinacy of the native horse, one must have recourse to
+the most incredible expedients to get the carriage under weigh. For
+instance, at every station the ears of the post-horse were twisted
+together and then suddenly relaxed in order to set the vehicle in motion;
+and, when this torture failed, a pole, or thick stick, was inserted under
+the tail of the recalcitrant, and rubbed up and down till the poor animal,
+smarting under this painful operation, took to the collar. Once the
+carriage is started in this extraordinary fashion, the coachman swings to
+and fro at the peril of his life, and endeavours by continually "pitching
+into" the horse, to keep him at the gallop. Thus between whooping and
+whipping the next station is reached, where the same trial of patience
+awaits the traveller, and a similar martyrdom for the next horse.
+
+Our first business the following morning was to take a walk through
+Colombo, which, like Galle, consists of "The Fort," or White City, and the
+"Pettah," or Black Quarter, in the latter of which are situated the houses
+and shops of the natives, and where the chief traffic and the greatest
+activity are combined. Here one rarely encounters a white man, for even
+the soldiers and police belong to the brown and black races. The natives,
+however, manifest, outwardly at least, a great respect for the whites, and
+everywhere draw aside reverentially when one makes his appearance.
+
+In the middle of the main street are some Buddhist temples. We were not,
+however, permitted to enter, unless we consented to take off our shoes. At
+several of the natives' houses the entrance porch and windows were gaily
+adorned with plantain leaves. On inquiring of our Cingalese attendant what
+was the occasion of this manifestation, he replied in broken English that
+the inmates were celebrating "Christmas," wishing probably to express that
+the natives celebrated a feast analogous to our Christmas.
+
+The filth and unsavoury odours which prevail in the Black Quarter, and the
+noise and yelling of the natives, speedily drive visitors back to the
+European portion of the city, which altogether, with its gloomy, decayed
+aspect, makes anything but a favourable impression. The public buildings,
+the houses of the mercantile community, the warehouses, and
+fortifications, all bear the impress of the Portuguese settlement of
+bygone centuries; and as its commerce is attracted more and more every
+year to Galle,[82] there remains but faint hope that this quaint type will
+not ere long be effaced by a new style of building, albeit the inhabitants
+of the capital promise themselves a restored reign of activity and energy,
+as the result of railway communication with Galle.
+
+[Footnote 82: The value of the produce exported annually from the island
+(chiefly cocoa-nuts, coir, cinnamon, and coffee), is above L2,000,000, and
+the imports of European manufactures are about the same amount.]
+
+During our random promenade through the streets of what is called the
+Fort, we perceived at a sugar-baker's in Chatham Street--the most select
+quarter of Colombo, and containing the most important warehouses, which,
+however, are far from elegant in their appearance--some rough ice offered
+for sale, which had a curious effect in a town so near the Equator, and
+presenting such few evidences of luxury in other respects. This ice is
+brought round the Cape of Good Hope from the United States, and is chiefly
+shipped from Boston. The daily consumption of iced-water, ices, and so
+forth, is estimated at about 1000 lbs., costing about one shilling the 8
+lbs. It is impossible to repress a feeling of astonishment at these
+speculative Yankees who, despite all obstacles interposed by temperature,
+transport in all directions and over thousands of miles an article so
+perishable, so easily destructible as ice, and are able to drive a
+profitable business in it in the hottest and most diverse regions of the
+globe--in the West Indies and South America, in Asia, and in Africa.
+
+The traveller who visits Colombo will hardly fail to make an excursion to
+the Cinnamon Garden, in order to inhale the fragrant and peculiar aroma,
+and enjoy tasting the tender rind of this remarkable shrub, which plays so
+conspicuous a part in the history of Ceylon. During the palmy days of
+cinnamon culture, the five principal cinnamon plantations of the southern
+half of the island extended some 15 or 20 miles. For this one lucrative
+product of the soil all others on the island were abandoned, with most
+deplorable consequences. The cinnamon culture, a monopoly of the various
+governments which one after another conquered Ceylon, and domineered over
+its inhabitants, was carried on, especially by the Dutch East India
+Company, with terrible severity. The slightest embezzlement of cinnamon,
+or wilful damage to the plant, was visited with death. The unintentional
+breaking off of a twig of the cinnamon bush was punished with amputation
+of the offending member. Every cinnamon bush, even to those growing in the
+gardens of private individuals, was the property of the Government, and
+the cinnamon collector, or even cinnamon-peeler alone, had the right to
+strip off the rind when ripe. To destroy such a plant, or even to dispose
+of it to any one, was regarded as a crime affecting life. The labourers,
+who were employed in the cutting off, peeling, and preparation of the
+rind, belonged to the caste of Chalias, and constituted the lowest grade
+of that class. In like manner, under the English rule, the monopoly of
+cinnamon was at first continued, with such disastrous consequences to the
+trade that it was finally abandoned in 1832, and the merchants of Colombo
+and Galle were left to divide among themselves the exportation of this
+important article, under an exporting duty of 3_s._ per lb. These duties,
+however, were found much too high, as the highest price obtainable in
+Europe was from 6_s._ to 7_s._; and this advance in the price to the trade
+of the genuine article, was the cause of foreign merchants turning their
+attention to the supply of various species of cinnamon-bearing laurels and
+cassias, growing in Cochin-China and Java.
+
+When Government, recovering at last from its delusion of treating
+cinnamons, which at first had seemed indigenous to the island of Ceylon
+alone on the earth,[83] as a national monopoly, reduced the export duty to
+one shilling, and ultimately repealed it altogether, the various
+substitutes had already found their level in Europe, as affording a larger
+supply at a much more moderate rate, and the cultivation of the finer
+kinds became less and less each year. Prices fell, and the consumption was
+diminished. Only the coarser sorts repaid exportation. Nay, it even led to
+the interesting and curious result, that just as, previous to the high
+price under monopoly, the low-priced cassia displaced the finer sort of
+genuine cinnamon, at the present day the coarser sorts of cinnamon are
+beginning to oust the cassia from the English market, whence all the world
+are supplied. At present there are from 14,000 to 15,000 acres planted
+with cinnamon, chiefly in private hands, and producing annually from
+800,000 to 900,000 lbs. of cinnamon, worth from L40,000 to L50,000
+sterling.
+
+[Footnote 83: Sir Emerson Tennent, in his work (vol. i. p. 599), challenges
+the assertion that Ceylon is the native country of the cinnamon-tree. In
+no European or Asiatic chronicles is any mention made of cinnamon as a
+product or article of commerce in Ceylon up to the end of the thirteenth
+century. Although it was from the earliest times imported into Europe from
+Africa through Arabia, the natives trading with Ceylon first knew of the
+existence on the island of this important shrub about the twelfth or
+thirteenth century. Hence Sir Emerson looks upon Africa as the native
+country of the cinnamon-tree.]
+
+The chalias, moreover, are no longer, as formerly under the Portuguese and
+Dutch, _adscripti glebae_ for life, or slaves that could be purchased with
+the soil, but free labourers, who are entitled to demand proportionate pay
+for the lightest services rendered.
+
+The Cinnamon Gardens in the neighbourhood of Colombo, although for the
+most part gone to decay, nevertheless impart to the whole scene a
+singularly cheerful, agreeable aspect. The bushes, from 4 to 6 feet in
+height, with their smooth, beautiful, light green leaves, resembling those
+of the bay-tree, and their pale, yellow flower-stamens shoot up doubly
+fresh and succulent, from the snow-white quartz soil in which they best
+thrive. The flowering season of the cinnamon is in January, and the fruit
+ripens in April, when the sap is richest in the shrub. In May the boughs
+are begun to be "barked," which process continues till October. The
+pruning and gathering of the yearling shoots, which are about the
+thickness of a man's thumb, is very laborious, and employs many hands.
+Each labourer cuts off as many as he can conveniently carry in a bundle,
+then, with the point of a crooked knife, made for the express purpose,
+strips the entire rind from the wood, carefully scrapes off the exterior
+corticle and innermost layer, and lays the stripped-off cinnamon rind, now
+reduced to the thickness of parchment, in the sun, where it dries and
+curls together. All round the hut, in which the peeling of the rind is
+carried on, is diffused a most exquisite aroma, caused by the breaking of
+the leaves or twigs. What is related, however, by various travellers of
+the fragrance of the cinnamon forests, which they have scented at a great
+distance seaward, would seem to indicate that this delicious odour
+emanates from various other aromatic plants in which Ceylon is so rich,
+rather than the cinnamon groves, the aroma of which, indeed, is not
+perceptible beyond the immediate vicinity. The best description of
+cinnamon is not so thick as stout paper, and is fine-grained, flexible,
+light brown, or golden yellow, sweet and pungent; the coarser qualities
+are thick-skinned, dark brown, acrid, stinging, and leaves a bitter
+after-taste. In the warehouses, the cinnamon rinds and canes sorted for
+shipping are piled upon each other, packed in bales of about 90 lbs.
+weight each, and carefully sewed. In all cavities and spaces between each
+layer an immense quantity of pepper is strewn, to preserve the cinnamon
+during its sea-voyage, by which both spices are benefited, the black
+pepper absorbing all the superfluous moisture, and gaining by the
+fragrance of the cinnamon.
+
+Consequent on the diminution of cinnamon cultivation, which undoubtedly
+has resulted in great measure from the altered taste of mankind and the
+consequent extraordinary falling off in the demand for this once
+highly-prized spice, the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon has, during the
+last 20 years, increased tenfold; and it is solely owing to the dearth of
+available labour that this branch of produce, considering the splendid
+profits it returns, is not even more extensively carried on. In 27
+districts there are 404 coffee plantations, covering a surface of 80,950
+acres, of which, however, only 63,771 acres are really productive. These
+produced last year, 347,100 cwt., or 5-1/2 centners per acre. To this must
+be added the quantity under cultivation by the natives, who possess about
+36,000 acres of coffee plantations, and in the year 1859 alone, exported
+180,000 cwt. We may safely assume, therefore, that the cultivation of
+coffee is on the eve of transforming this island of Ceylon, from a mere
+military station of England, into one of the most flourishing colonies of
+the British Empire. Twenty years ago there were exported barely 60,000
+centners, worth L180,000. In September, 1858, the export exceeded 600,000
+cwt., which represented on the spot a value of L1,500,000 sterling. "When
+capital and labour shall have become more plentiful," remarked to us a by
+no means over-sanguine resident, "Ceylon will have in its mountain
+districts 240,000 acres planted with coffee trees, yielding at the lowest
+estimate, 1,680,000 cwt. of coffee annually." Here, as among the high
+table-lands of Guatemala and Costa Rica, we have the reassuring evidence
+how one of the most important plants for the civilized man can be
+profitably cultivated, without having recourse to the blighting influences
+of slave-labour, at the same time making the lands in which it is produced
+both rich and prosperous.[84]
+
+[Footnote 84: The coffee-tree frequently suffers, especially in Ceylon,
+from an insect called the coffee-bug (_Lecanium Coffeae_); as, however,
+this troublesome insect has only infested the coffee plantations since
+1848, and this branch of cultivation has nevertheless increased so
+surprisingly since then, there seems no reason to dread that the coffee
+plant will suffer by these bugs, in the same manner or to the same extent
+as the vine by the ravages of the _fungus_.]
+
+While the cultivation of the coffee-plant has been followed by such
+splendid results, the repeated attempts to introduce the sugar-cane have
+been on the contrary as uniformly failures--so that of the numerous
+plantations established by Europeans, there are at present no more than
+five remaining. In all those localities where the temperature seemed
+adapted to the growth of the sugar-cane, the nature of the soil, and the
+too great humidity have prevented its thriving.
+
+On the other hand, the island possesses two natural products in which but
+few spots on the globe are qualified to enter the lists with her, and
+which may be expected to increase in value and importance in proportion as
+science assumes her share in their exploration. These products are PEARLS
+and PRECIOUS STONES.
+
+The most productive pearl banks lie on the west coast of Ceylon, between
+the 8th and 9th degrees of North latitude, near the level, dreary beach of
+Condatchy, Aripo, and Manaar. The pearl fisheries are a monopoly, and,
+therefore, under the inspection of the Government. Former governors had
+counted too much on the abundance of this natural treasure, and in their
+blind haste to fill the coffers of the State, had so exhausted the banks,
+that suddenly, from a source of revenue they became an item of
+considerable deficiency, and, from 1838 to 1854, could no longer be
+dredged. From a net annual return of L120,000 sterling, the yearly return
+had sunk to L10,000, of which nearly one-half was consumed in the
+attendant expenses. Now-a-days the work is gone about more circumspectly,
+a scientific examination having been made by a native naturalist, Dr.
+Kelaart, of all the oyster banks on the west coast. We had the pleasure,
+while at Colombo, of becoming personally acquainted with this very able,
+unassuming gentleman, who presented us with several memoirs of his own,
+touching upon the latest facts that had been ascertained with reference to
+the pearl oyster. One special result of his various researches has been
+the demonstration of two facts of the utmost importance to the pearl
+fishery, and which hitherto had not been fully ascertained--that this
+mollusc possesses locomotive powers; that its occasional disappearance is
+perfectly natural; and that, moreover, the pearl oyster may, without any
+injury, be transplanted from one locality to another--nay, even from salt
+to brackish water. The first-named observation explains the occasional
+disappearance of the pearl oyster from certain beds,[85] even when they
+have not been inordinately thinned by too keen a quest after gain; the
+latter opens up the pleasing anticipation of the pearl oyster being
+susceptible of very extensive propagation, by a process similar to that of
+pisciculture, or artificial breeding of fish (such as the colonies of
+edible oysters which are met with in the South of France), by
+transplanting them to such places as seem best suited to the conditions
+necessary to their highest development. What a splendid conception it were
+to plant the sea-coasts of Ceylon with pearls, and thus throw the wealth
+of the island in precious stones into the shade, by the treasures she
+would possess in the depths of the sea!
+
+[Footnote 85: This singular property of the oyster, in virtue of which it
+can be fed to as confirmed obesity as a prize-ox, and admits of nearly as
+much dexterity in "crossing," if we are to trust the palates of
+"gourmets," as the Southdown and Leicester breeds of sheep, has received
+its most extraordinary development in the vicinity of New York, where the
+amount of capital sunk in the oyster trade considerably exceeds
+L1,000,000! The finest of these are transferred as spawn from the beds in
+the East River, or Long Island Sound, to the "nurseries," which are
+situated in the brackish water near the head of the tide-way, just below
+the "Highlands of the Hudson." Here they are carefully tended for some
+months, till, their education being completed, they are re-transferred to
+their native beds, and fed there with oatmeal daily; while, by some
+mystery of the craft, the spawning season is postponed, except in the case
+of those that are selected for propagating the race.]
+
+Exactly at the period of our arrival at Colombo, the preparations were
+being resumed at Aripo for the take of the oysters, which commences at the
+beginning of February each year, and lasts about three weeks. It is, in
+fact, a sort of jubilee time for the people, at which the Governor and
+numbers of the wealthier classes mingle with the populace. Ordinarily this
+spot becomes at that season a rendezvous for the poor and the wretched,
+and a rallying point for all manner of abominable odours, filth,
+troublesome flies, and intolerable heat, despite which drawbacks the
+fishery is visited by thousands of boats, and hundreds of thousands of
+men, who flock hither with the alluring prospect of speedy and abundant
+wealth, or have been attracted from all parts of the Indian Continent by
+the singularity of the spectacle. Suddenly, as though evoked by the wand
+of a magician, a regular town starts into existence, of tents, or even
+neat huts, with bamboo and cabbage-tree palings, roofed over with
+palm-leaves, rice-straw, or coarse thick woollen cloth; booths for the
+sale of merchandise "rise like an exhalation" during the night to supply
+necessaries of all sorts to the converging multitudes from the interior,
+as well as the fleets of visitors from seaward; and last, not least, the
+divers themselves. Swindlers and mountebanks throng hither, adroit thieves
+creep stealthily about, all Indian customs and fashions are represented,
+all castes jostle each other. Priests, and the subordinate hangers-on of
+the various sects, hurry about, and jugglers and Nautch girls vie with
+each other in amusing the noisy multitudes.
+
+The result of numerous experiments has proved that no diving apparatus can
+replace the human machine, the cost of which, moreover, is a fixed
+definite quantity, viz., the fourth part of the pearls brought up, which
+is the diver's share. In each boat, or "Dhonie," are ten divers, each
+having an assistant. Before the divers proceed to descend, a number of
+quaint ceremonies are gone through, and incantations murmured, as well in
+the boats as on shore, by the so-called "shark-charmers;" indeed, the
+superstition of the divers, who for the most part come from the Coromandel
+coast, is so great, that not one of their number, Christian or idolator,
+would continue in this employment without the countenance of the sorcerer;
+and the Government finds itself compelled to pay the impostors.[86] They
+levy a tribute of ten oysters upon each boat.
+
+[Footnote 86: In 1857, the chief shark-charmer was a Roman Catholic!]
+
+Accidents with sharks are of rare occurrence: the noise of 1000 divers on
+the water at once seeming to scare the animals. Moreover, the dark colour
+of the skin of their bodies, acts as a considerable protection to the
+divers, so that there are numbers who blacken their legs, in order still
+more to alarm the monster.[87]
+
+[Footnote 87: An encounter in the water between a shark and an expert
+swimmer, armed only with a knife, is not so unequal an affair as might at
+first be supposed. The pearl fishers of the Gulfs of Panama and Nicoya
+only use a short stick, with which, if the sharks get _above_ them, they
+stir up the mud, under cover of which they swim along the bottom for a
+little distance, and then shoot up to the surface. Of the equality in
+which a good swimmer armed with a knife feels himself in encountering a
+shark, there are numerous instances. Many years ago, when shipping was
+more plentiful in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, than at the present day,
+vessels had occasionally to put up with somewhat awkward berths, when they
+used regularly to "foul their anchors," whereupon it became necessary, of
+course, to send some one down to free the cable. For this purpose, negro
+divers were employed, and one man attained a wide reputation from having
+himself, unscathed, slain in fair combat at different times, no less than
+five sharks! Ultimately the sharks steered clear of any black man who had
+a knife suspended round his neck.]
+
+After these preliminaries, the divers go down into the water, each
+carrying a basket-shaped net, in which to bring up the oysters, when
+selected--a stone of from 15lbs. to 25lbs. weight being fastened round the
+body, so as more readily to enable him to sink to the bottom. When at a
+depth of some 5 or 6 fathoms, the diver unfastens the stone, which is
+forthwith hauled up. He now throws himself forward on his face, and keeps
+himself as close as he can to the ground, while he rapidly rakes up and
+collects together all that is within his reach, so as to fill his landing
+net. He crawls along in this manner during the minute of his submersion,
+over a space of from 40 to 50 feet; and so soon as he pulls the cord
+attached to his plaited basket-edge, it is immediately hauled up, and he
+himself speedily follows it to the surface.[88]
+
+[Footnote 88: The divers are mostly old men, vigorous and healthy in
+appearance, thus dispelling the general notion that deep-sea diving
+weakens the body and shortens life. We were told of one diver, employed
+during the year 1856, in the pearl fishery, who was so stout and fat, that
+in addition to the ordinary diver's stone, he had to make fast a
+considerable weight to his body, in order to sink himself in the water.]
+
+The utmost depth at which the diver can safely remain seems to be about 40
+feet, beyond which blood is apt to issue from the nose and ears. They
+seldom remain above 50 or 60 seconds under water, although cases
+occasionally occur in which the stay under water is protracted to 80
+seconds. The diving is carried on for 5 or 6 hours without intermission,
+so that each of the ten divers can, in the course of a day, bring up from
+1000 to 4000 oysters. By dint of good fortune, and close packing, about
+150 oysters are brought up in each basket-net, while occasionally an
+unprolific bed does not give more than five or ten oysters. So soon as the
+oysters have been dragged to land, they are sorted in shares, of which one
+goes to the oyster fisher as his remuneration, and the remainder are sold
+in lots of 1000 each to the highest bidder. Now begins speculation. Chance
+presides here, quite as capriciously as at a lottery or another game of
+hazard. It often happens that a single oyster contains thirty or forty
+pearls, of which some may be worth a sovereign on the spot; but it more
+frequently occurs that several hundred oysters do not yield a single
+pearl. The small, valueless pearls, called also "seed pearls," are burnt
+down, and sold as pearl-lime to the wealthy Malays, by whom it is used as
+a luxurious addition to the betel and cabbage nuts, as masticatories. The
+Ceylonese mix the lustreless pearls with other grains, with which they
+feed the poultry, in whose croops the pearls regain their former
+brilliancy after a few minutes' grinding. The croop is then slit up, and
+the glittering stones extracted, white as the most beautiful
+pearl-muscular tissue.[89]
+
+[Footnote 89: This method of procedure, which is adopted by the rest of the
+Indian races, and in which the lustreless pearls are swallowed by hens,
+pigeons, and ducks, so as to be polished up, after being subjected to the
+preliminary digestion of these birds, has been proved to be anything but
+beneficial to the pearls as regards loss by attrition. Careful observation
+has established, for example, that four pearls, weighing twelve grains,
+have lost four grains by undergoing this process during twelve hours,
+while eight others, weighing thirty grains, were reduced to twenty grains
+after a sojourn of two days in the gizzard of a duck.]
+
+The pearl oysters caught on the coast of Ceylon are all of the same
+species (_Meleagrina Margaritifera_), uniformly oval in shape, and about
+9-1/2 inches in circumference. The number taken in Ceylon annually must be
+numbered by millions. In the year of our arrival to Ceylon (1858), the
+pearl fishery yielded L24,120. According to the last returns, before us as
+we write, there were in the year 1859, 1352 boats engaged during eighteen
+days in the pearl fishery, the gross take of which amounted to 9,534,951
+oysters, sold for L48,216. The divers' shares amounted together to
+2,126,749 oysters.
+
+The wide-spread popular delusion, that the pearl in the oyster is but a
+produce of disease in the animal, has long been refuted by scientific
+research, and although the great German poet, Henry Heine, in his
+"Romanzero," sings,
+
+   "Those world-famed pearls,
+    They are but the wan mucus
+    Of a sad oyster,
+    Dimly sickening in the depth of the sea!"
+
+it is rather a poetic fancy than a scientific fact. We have latterly been
+especially indebted to the German naturalist, Theodore von Hessling, for a
+very circumstantial and thoroughly exhaustive memoir on the natural
+history of the pearl oysters and their pearls,[90] in which the learned
+author seeks to establish that the enveloping matter of the germ of the
+pearl is identical with the covering of the animal, and that in the
+process of growth two influences are at work, an external and an internal.
+The first is called into play by the property peculiar to the hinge system
+that unites the double shell, of gaping wide open, in consequence of which
+extraneous substances rush in with the current of water, such as minute
+fragments of quartz, molecules of plants, &c., which, being detained
+either circling in the cavity, or eddying round the hinges, are seized on
+in the course of their revolutions, and entangled in the parenchyma of the
+various organs, which is specially secreted from the mantle, till it
+becomes enveloped by layers of solid shell. On the other hand, the
+internal development is closely allied to the conditions of deposition
+and subsequent growth of the shell-matter. Molecules, either a single
+grain or congeries of grains, varying from 9.01 to 0.05 of a line (3/4 of
+an inch down to the 1/240th of an inch), enclosed in the _epidermis_ of
+the shell, constitute usually the _nuclei_ of the pearls, which, to a
+certain extent, may be considered as nothing but a portion of the
+_epidermis_ not applied to the formation of shell. The pearls also are
+simply independent concretions growing in the creature, and consisting of
+the substance of the shell, which are with difficulty discriminated from
+the various descriptions of growths which constitute the inner surface of
+the shell.
+
+[Footnote 90: Die Perlen-Muschel, und ihre Perlen, Naturwissenschaftlich
+und Geschichtlich mit Beruecksichtigung der Perlen-gewaesser Bayerns,
+beschrieben von Theodor von Hessling, Leipzig, 1859.]
+
+The great importance of the pearl as an article of luxury and commerce,
+has naturally led to numerous attempts to manufacture them by artificial
+means, in the course of which extraneous bodies have been introduced
+between the mouth and shell of the animal, sometimes with, sometimes
+without injury to it. The Chinese especially are adepts at placing certain
+small bodies, specially prepared, in the shells of the pearl oyster,
+which, after a short time, becomes coated with mother-of-pearl, or nacre.
+This manufacture of artificial pearls is carried on on a large scale in
+the neighbourhood of Hong-Chow-Foo. During our stay at Hong-Kong and
+Shanghai respectively, we ourselves saw several mussel-shells, in which a
+mother-of-pearl covering had formed over small neatly carved figures,
+mostly sitting figures of Buddha,[91] the singular appearance of which
+would, at the first glance tend to make the observer suspect that the
+pearl had been fastened to the mussel by some adhesive substance. But we
+had so frequently an opportunity of satisfying ourselves by actually
+witnessing the entire process, that we could no longer doubt that the
+carved figures are with the utmost care introduced into the animal, and,
+after remaining a few days in the water, become attached to the mussel by
+a distinct membrane. This, their membrane, afterwards becomes
+interpermeated by the calcareous matter, till, finally, layers of
+mother-of-pearl are deposited all around the nucleus, the whole formation
+corresponding with the chalk-like concretions occurring in other
+creatures.
+
+[Footnote 91: The antiquity of this experiment is proved by the fact that
+the _Topographia_ of Ischikiang speaks of a pearl, which had been sent to
+the Imperial Palace at Pekin, 490 B.C., which resembled Buddha, and
+apparently must have been produced by this same method; although likewise
+the priests of Buddha, at that early epoch, might not have objected, in
+the interests of their religion, to make capital out of such a specimen of
+artistic skill.]
+
+Besides the pearl-shells, the northern shores of Ceylon, especially
+between the Island of Manaar and Karativoe, are especially rich in beds of
+a volute mussel (_Turbinella rapa_, or _soluta gravis_), which are
+exported in great numbers to India, where the Hindoo women saw them into
+rings of all sizes, to be worn as ornaments on the arms, legs, fingers and
+toes. The chank-shell is likewise a chief instrument of the Buddhists,
+who, amongst other devout customs, blow three times a day on this sacred
+shell, to summon believers to worship.[92] It is also used as a festive
+ornament of the Indian temples, as well as a donation to the dead, which,
+inspired by a religious feeling, the survivors place in the grave
+alongside of the corpse of their illustrious departed.
+
+[Footnote 92: According to the most ancient annals of the Cingalese, the
+chank-shell is sounded in one of the superior heavens of the demigods
+(similar to the conk-blowing Tritons of Grecian mythology), in honour of
+Buddha, as often as the latter wanders abroad on the earth.]
+
+The gems found on the island are distinguished, less for their intrinsic
+value than for the great variety of precious stones which are present.
+They are, with few exceptions, found to have been disengaged from the
+primitive rocks, and washed into the alluvial soil, especially in the
+outskirts of the mountainous districts, where they are rolled along the
+beds of the streams together with other pebbles, or are washed out of the
+alluvial deposits. Hitherto, they have only been searched for for purposes
+of trade, and then only in the most desultory and thriftless way, no one
+having as yet examined the rocks themselves, by the disintegration of
+which the valuable stones are disengaged. There was, indeed, no detailed
+information as to the wealth in precious stones of the island, until the
+researches of the English mineralogist, Dr. Gygax, who has very lately
+published on this subject many interesting observations and remarks. The
+locality in which precious stones are most abundant is, so far as present
+experience goes, the district of Saffragam, the capital of which in
+consequence takes the name of Ratnapoora, or Anarhadnaporra, "the city of
+rubies." They are also found at various other parts of the island; in the
+plains on the West coast, between Adams' Peak and the sea, at Nuwera
+Ellia, Kandy, Matelle, and Ruanwelli, near Colombo, as also in Matura, and
+the river courses on the eastern side, towards the ancient Mahagam. The
+geologist of the Expedition visited some mines of precious stones near
+Ratnapoora. These are situated on the Kaluga-Sella, a small tributary of
+the Kalu-Gunga, and lie, some in the very bed of the river, some on the
+steep bank. They are about thirty feet deep, but having been some time
+disused, they are full of water. The uppermost stratum of these pits or
+mines is a rich fertile yellow loam, exactly resembling our diluvial
+loams. This is succeeded, according to the report of the proprietor of the
+mines, by a slimy black clay, and clayey sand, beneath which again is a
+bituminous clay, holding numerous organic remains, such as leaves, trunks
+of trees converted into a substance resembling lignite, and not
+infrequently elephants' tusks and bones of animals; thereafter sand, and
+lastly a bank of rolled gravel, forming a species of conglomerate with
+red, yellow, and occasionally blue clay--being, in fact, what is known as
+stone-gravel. This bank of pebbles is the layer in which the precious
+stones occur, and these are most commonly found between the larger masses
+of agglutinated matter, that are always found especially to abound in
+gems, whenever they are superposed upon what is called malave, which
+appears to be a sort of greenish-coloured talc-like half-decomposed mica.
+The most valuable stones that are obtained from these mines are rubies and
+sapphires. In the Kalu-Gunga, also, precious stones are occasionally
+washed down, and as the geologist of the _Novara_ Expedition was
+descending the river in a boat, from Ratnapoora to Caltura, he perceived
+at several places, more particularly at the various rapids, men standing
+in the water, provided with flat pan-shaped baskets, in which they sifted
+the sand and pebbles.
+
+The gems found on the island are rubies, sapphires topazes, amethysts,
+garnets, cinnamon-stone, and tourmaline. On the other hand, all the
+diamonds, emeralds, carnelians, agates, opals, and turquoises, which the
+natives offer for sale, are imported from India. One precious stone, on
+which the Cingalese set an exceedingly high value, because they
+erroneously believe that it is peculiar to the island of Ceylon, whereas
+it is also found on the southern shores of Hindostan, is the "Cat's-eye,"
+a greenish transparent quartz, which, when polished in its natural shape,
+or "_en cabochon_," exhibits in its interior a varying reflected light,
+undoubtedly arising from the presence of fibres of asbestos, and which, in
+fact, bears some resemblance to the eye of a cat. The natives, as a rule,
+estimate the value and symmetry of this stone by the brilliancy and
+tenuity of the beam which it emits, and the clear olive-coloured ground
+upon which it shines in relief.
+
+A vast number of men give themselves up to the exciting but most uncertain
+occupation of searching for precious stones, and barter what they have
+found, chiefly to Mahometan merchants, for clothes and salt. As, however,
+the natives themselves set a high value on jewels, in consequence of
+their small bulk admitting of their being readily concealed and easily
+carried about, the finer descriptions are readily disposed of at a good
+price, and, singular to say, it has frequently happened, as we ourselves
+found by personal experience, that precious stones are dearer in Colombo
+and Galle than in the European markets! The explanation of this paradox is
+probably that the steady copious influx into the London and Paris markets
+of precious stones from all parts of the earth where jewels are found,
+admits of by no means such excessive fluctuations in value as at Ceylon,
+where the supply actually on hand is so varying, and where the value of
+the article almost always depends upon the rank and wealth of the Indian
+purchaser. The foreign traveller very often cannot restrain a feeling of
+surprise at seeing the fingers of the stately Mahometan jewellers adorned
+with rings of costly gems, which are only offered for sale to himself at
+an exorbitant sum.
+
+The value of the precious stones of all sorts found in Ceylon in the
+course of a year is estimated by Sir Emerson Tennent at about L10,000,
+one-fourth, at least, of the entire quantity finding a market on the
+island, a full half being sent to the jewel-polishers of India, so that
+only the remaining fourth is exported to Europe.
+
+The scant time allotted to us at Colombo was zealously occupied in seeing
+the utmost that we could of the many interesting objects that invited
+attention. Among others, we visited one of the largest industrial
+enterprises in Ceylon, known as Hultsdorf Mill, a cocoa-nut-oil factory,
+the proprietorship consisting in shares, of which the largest holder is
+David Wilson, Esq., the Austrian Consular Agent. Here are carried on all
+the various processes connected with the manufacture, the preparation of
+the oil-cake from the cocoa-nut, the expressure of the oil, &c., which are
+carried on by apparatus, partly sent out from England, partly put up in
+this country, all set in motion by steam-engines. The task assigned in
+these factories to the natives, of whom above a thousand are employed in
+the various departments, is, nevertheless, not the less important and
+significant, that, while machinery is used in those processes where it is
+necessary to use an agency far transcending the powers of mere human
+labour, all collateral products, such as soap, candles, perfumery, as also
+the implements and tools required for the works, and even the barrels and
+chests required for the transport of the manufactures, are prepared and
+used by handicraft labour.
+
+To the thoughtful visitor it is a scene of no ordinary interest to behold
+several hundreds of Cingalese, Hindoos, and Mozambique negroes, all
+thoroughly conversant with the management of the most magnificent
+invention of the nineteenth century. Here are a number of artisans
+employed at the hydraulic presses and iron turning-lathes; in another
+apartment the various parts of the different machines are being
+constructed or put together, which regulate the pressure of the steam
+supplied to the apparatus when in activity; in a third, persons are busy
+examining and testing the resulting products with scrupulous precision.
+With all its development, European industry has, in this quarter,
+exercised but an obscure influence; and, thus far, has been productive of
+but small results as a civilizing element among this population, which has
+hitherto shown itself so little disposed to accept the Christian form of
+civilization.
+
+In the large warehouse belonging to Mr. Wilson, we also saw huge heaps of
+"Kauris," or Cowries, (_cypraea moneta_), the renowned, or rather
+ill-reputed, species of mussel, which comes from the Maldive Islands, and
+plays so important a part in the commerce with the coast of Malabar and
+the interior of Africa; while here, it constitutes the sole medium of
+exchange, which is used by way of barter for almost all sorts of
+agricultural produce, chiefly among the blacks.[93] These mussels are sent
+from Ceylon to London, and thence back to the Eastern Coast of Africa, and
+thus indirectly uphold the slave-trade, as, the native merchants of that
+region barter these shells, so greatly sought after by all African tribes,
+as ornament, for negroes and negresses, who are in turn sold to the
+"speculators in human flesh." A ton of these shells, of which the smaller
+description are most in request, and therefore the most valuable, costs
+in Ceylon about L70 to L75.
+
+[Footnote 93: The Malay name for this mussel is "beya," implying duty,
+toll, tax, thus leaving it open to conjecture that that nation, in their
+commerce with the Asiatic and African continents, have for untold ages
+employed the same principles of currency and expressions of value as
+ourselves.]
+
+To the kindness and active interest in our objects of Mr. Wilson, in whose
+agreeable villa at Mootwall--the plan and method of construction of which
+reminded us of the beautiful planters' houses on the sugar estates of
+Louisiana--we spent the last night of our stay at Colombo, we are also
+indebted for a copy, with which he presented us, of the most ancient
+annals of Ceylon, inscribed with an iron graver upon Talipot palm-leaves
+in the highly-esteemed Pali language, and preserved between richly-carved
+boards of the costly wood of the Kalamander tree (_Diospyrus Hirsuta_).
+This carefully-preserved MS. includes, among others, the celebrated epic
+poem "Mahawanso," (an abbreviation "Mahantaman Wanso," "Genealogy of
+mighty men,") which recites under 100 heads, and in 9175 verses, the most
+important events connected with the interior constitution and history of
+the island, as also of all the battles fought by the inhabitants in
+foreign countries from B.C. 543 to the year 1758, A.D. Of these, the most
+renowned historic relics of the Cingalese, 38 chapters, of 262 pages 4to,
+were translated into English by George Tumour, Esq., an eminent Pali
+scholar, and printed at Ceylon, in the year 1837. Unfortunately, his
+earnest desire to publish the rest of this highly-interesting work was
+destined not to be gratified. The grave closed over him ere he could
+realize his wish. At present, however, there is a prospect of the
+translation of the "Mahawanso" being completed by Mr. James de Alwis, a
+worthy follower in the footsteps of Mr. Turnour, chiefly through the
+munificence of Government and of the Scientific Institutes, which were
+invoked to supply the requisite assistance for the prosecution of an
+undertaking likely to prove so unremunerative.
+
+In addition to the copy of the "Mahawanso," we also procured a number of
+other important Cingalese MSS. on Talipot palms, which were made use of by
+Tumour, partly in his translation of the "Mahawanso," partly in his other
+works upon Ceylon, and which embrace numerous valuable historical details
+not comprised in the "Mahawanso." This complete collection of the most
+antique annals of the Island of Ceylon, in the purchase of which we were
+kindly favoured with the advice and assistance of Mr. Wilson at Colombo,
+together with a variety of other Cingalese MSS. on palm leaves, collected
+at a subsequent date, now form part of the collection of valuable books in
+the Imperial Royal Library at Vienna.
+
+Besides Mr. Wilson, our very best thanks are due to the Colonial
+Secretary, Sir C. J. McCarthy, who had the kindness to provide several of
+the members of the _Novara_ Expedition with the requisite letters of
+introduction to the authorities in the interior of the Island: also to Mr.
+John Selby, the very obliging proprietor of the _Examiner_; to Dr.
+Kelaart, physician and naturalist; to Charles P. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent for the Western Provinces; and to Captain Gosset,
+Surveyor-General, for their numerous attentions. The last-mentioned
+gentleman very kindly provided us with a pair of level-tubes which we
+urgently needed for one of our levelling instruments, and which, in this
+quarter of the globe, were more rare and difficult to be met with than
+pearls or precious stones.
+
+Our return from Colombo to Galle, was not less marked by misadventures
+than our journey thither. As far as Caltura, where our amiable Father
+Miliani was in waiting for us with his neat single-horse equipage, to
+convey us to the beautiful parsonage of St. Sebastian Makun, all went
+tolerably smoothly with us. We arrived, as had been concerted, to
+breakfast with this hospitable shepherd of souls. On our way to the
+parsonage, we noticed that great respect was paid to the worthy Father, by
+such of the Cingalese as met us. Their usual salutation was to bend
+themselves to the earth, veiling their eyes at the same time, and bending
+forward the outstretched head as though to implore a blessing. Father
+Miliani, who held the reins in his left hand, while his right hand
+flourished a long heavy whip, slightly inclined his body upon the
+cabriolet, and so dismissed in peace the poor folk that besought his
+benediction. When we had now got pretty near the parsonage, we were
+suddenly brought to a halt by a couple of natives, of whom one implored
+the spiritual ministration of the Father for his wife, then lying almost
+_in articulo mortis_, while the other had brought with him, from the
+sacristy of Makun, the Communion-plate required for the purpose. The
+priest, to whom this interruption seemed to come as a matter of course,
+stopped, apologized for the unexpected delay, threw the reins to one of
+the party, sprang from the waggon, and disappeared in the gloom of the
+forest. It was not for long, as it proved; for the stately, handsome
+figure of the priest of Makun presently appeared between the cocoa-palms.
+He had found the woman much less dangerously ill than he had been led to
+expect by the report of the husband, the native converts to Christianity
+being very much given to requesting the administration of the rites of the
+Church, upon being attacked by the slightest indisposition, because they
+anticipate much more benefit from spiritual treatment than from the
+medicines of their body-curers. And now we proceeded on our way to the
+parsonage at a smart gallop, which, however, did not prevent a zealous,
+much-believing Cingalese from keeping up with the mettled horse, stride
+for stride, for the entire distance, keeping close to the waggon as he ran
+alongside. We were not then aware, indeed, whether this violent bodily
+exercise was undertaken as a matter of choice or as a penance, but it
+seemed to us, in any case, an act far less meritorious than prejudicial to
+health.
+
+In St. Sebastian de Makun, the entire community were awaiting our arrival,
+and escorted us by a romantic hill, and through a delicious palm-forest,
+to the priest's abode. Here we found the porch of the house gaily adorned,
+and metamorphosed with tropical fruits and flowers into a smiling fragrant
+bower, with the feathery leaf of the cocoa-palm cut into thin strips. The
+inventive ingenuity of the Cingalese had endeavoured to represent the
+various birds found in tropical forests, which were suspended in
+ornamental baskets of green leaves among the festoons. Over the entrance
+to this bower, improvised out of materials supplied by the primeval
+forest, was placed a picture painted by the good Father himself,
+representing a large anchor, with the superscription in Italian "La
+speranza non confunde!" (Hope never disappoints!) This was evidently a
+delicate allusion of our kind-souled entertainer to the hope which he had
+expressed during our previous visit, that he should see us on our return
+from Colombo, "which had not been disappointed."
+
+In the interior of the arbour appeared an elegantly appointed table, that
+seemed ready to give way under the weight of good things spread upon it,
+around which were placed a number of arm-chairs, worked in tapestry, while
+the plastered floor was strewed with the glistening green leaves of the
+_Ficus religiosa_. As soon as we had taken our seats, the members of the
+community, consisting of more than a hundred tawny, half-naked Cingalese
+(principally men and children), arranged themselves in a circle, and some
+half-dozen dancers began to execute a very ordinary-looking dance to the
+sound of a drum. The entire figure consisted in their simply approaching
+each other from opposite sides, during which they struck the
+hollow-sounding instrument pretty sharply, holding it in their hand the
+while, after which they drew away from each other, and wound up by
+dancing round in a circle in couples. A boy of eight, in glittering
+costume, next performed a dance, in which he was accompanied by a grown-up
+Cingalese who sung, occasionally accompanied by drum and fife. Frequently
+we enquired what was the meaning of the vocal accompaniment to the dance,
+but could get no information upon the subject. But we have always had
+occasion to remark among the various primitive races, that they are rarely
+able to give any connected account of the history of their dances or even
+their songs, but simply go through a set of mechanical figures which they
+have learned, or rehearse a set of words by rote, without being able to
+assign any signification to either. Over and over again have we put the
+question, only to receive the same stereotyped answer from Hindoos,
+Negroes, Chinese, Malays, and Polynesians, that they could tell us nothing
+more than that these songs and dances took their origin in the "olden
+times." Breakfast was served in the arbour by Cingalese boys. As often as
+the hospitable Father turned to apologize for his scanty means, which
+prevented him from ministering to our entertainment as he could wish, some
+new dish would be forthcoming, or some fresh kind of wine would be
+produced, till one knew not which most to admire, the variety of the
+entertainment, or its cost in preparation.
+
+On inquiring of Father Miliani, in the course of conversation, whether he
+had any acquaintance with the plants to which the natives ascribe healing
+properties, he sent for a phial containing an oily substance, which;
+according to the Cingalese herbalists, is composed of 57 different roots
+and as many flowers, and has already been wonderfully efficacious in cases
+of persons bitten by poisonous serpents. It is called by the natives,
+_Visanili-Katail_ (oil against poison); and the priest of Makun remarked
+to us, he had himself had an opportunity of satisfying himself as to the
+marvellous curative qualities of this vegetable substance, in the case of
+persons who had been bitten by the most venomous snake in the whole
+island, the _Cobra di Capello_, who had entirely recovered by the copious
+use of this antidote. The application is very simple. The mouth is rinsed
+out with it, and the patient further takes from 15 to 20 drops of the oil
+internally. Unfortunately, we were not able to inquire more particularly
+as to the ingredients from which the Visanili-Katail is compounded, of
+which we eventually got a small quantity to carry away with us, after much
+entreaty; but by way of compensation, Father Miliani was able to give us
+much valuable information as to the manners, customs, and traditions of
+his flock. He regretted, however, that they were all of a highly
+impassioned strain, and that they constantly passed from one extreme to
+the other. The following trait, which was pointed out to us by the Father
+in the course of conversation, may serve to indicate the modes of thought
+and observation of the natives. When the Cingalese perceived how eagerly
+and with what warmth of friendship the Father received us, they inquired
+of him whether he had been previously an acquaintance of ours, as they
+were unable to conceive the existence of such hearty good-will between
+persons who were utter strangers to each other. The priest, readily
+appreciating the results which must flow from the reply he should give, in
+confirming the devout souls of his children, replied that the reputation
+of his name had long since penetrated to us, and we were unwilling to ride
+by without turning aside to salute him, to which he had readily expressed
+his assent, and had also long since been apprized of the important mission
+of the Austrian ship of war, whose commander was termed by the natives,
+with the bombast of their native tongue, "King of the Sea." At our
+departure, the kind Father presented us with several interesting articles,
+as _souvenirs_ of Makun, while we, on our part, left with him a donation
+in money to defray the expenses of erecting his church.
+
+Father Miliani, the band of musicians, consisting of ten or twelve
+wild-looking fellows, with all manner of barbarous musical instruments, of
+which they made not less barbarous use, together with a laughing, yelling,
+gesticulating crowd of half-naked Cingalese, with long raven locks
+floating over their shoulders, accompanied us to our travelling chariot.
+Here we took leave of the hospitable Father, the vehicle set out on its
+route, and the whole brown retinue at once dispersed.
+
+Hardly had we left the Mission of St. Sebastian Makun behind us, ere our
+troubles began afresh. At almost the very first station we came to, we
+had to hire a horse from a resident at an exorbitant rate--the animal
+belonging to the station, and which had been engaged for us, being utterly
+useless. This gave occasion for fresh delays. The party letting the horses
+was what is called a native doctor, who assumed the title of "native
+vaccinator," and bitterly complained, that for his attendance four days in
+every week, as required by the law, for the purpose of inoculation, he
+only received from Government a monthly salary of L2 5_s._ sterling.
+Whatever deficiency existed in his salary, he seemed determined to make up
+for in the hire of his horse, which he charged for at the rate of ten
+shillings for six miles! On the cash being forthcoming, our "native
+vaccinator" did not disdain himself to take the reins, and, with his own
+hands, apply the whip to his mare between the shafts of our vehicle. But
+this mark of distinction was destined, ere long, to cost us dear. Hardly
+had we proceeded a couple of miles under his care, when the hind-wheels of
+the vehicle sunk into a rut, whence our AEsculapian steed lacked the
+strength to extricate us. To complete the sum of our misfortunes, at the
+very moment we were using our utmost endeavours to replace the waggon on
+the regular track, it came on to rain heavily, and we were, in a
+twinkling, wet to the skin. Some thirty young Cingalese, in the full dress
+of Adam before the Fall, who were standing open-mouthed round the waggon,
+could only be roused by threats from their passive attitude; and when,
+finally, they lent a hand to assist, they, in their ill-timed zeal, came
+near oversetting the waggon into the ditch on the opposite side. Next, we
+exchanged this stubborn brute for one that was blind. For a brief space we
+hoped the latter might probably be the more easily driven in consequence
+of his not seeing what was going on around him; but these anticipations
+were speedily dispelled, and in a rather unpleasant manner. The short
+distance that now separated us from our destination seemed as though it
+would never have an end; and, in a word, it was already verging on
+midnight ere we reached Galle, where we had been expected to dinner five
+hours before, by our hospitable friend, the Consul for Hamburg. Some of
+the invited guests had already left this agreeable house, while others
+were still seated at the whist-table, as, wearied and exhausted, we
+entered the drawing-room. The circumstances that had so seriously delayed
+our arrival were explained by way of apology, and proved the subject of
+some goodnatured quizzing on our misfortunes by the guests present; and in
+such agreeable society, and over a sumptuous supper, we speedily forgot
+the trifling annoyances of our latest experiences.
+
+In the course of a desultory agreeable conversation about the natural
+beauties of the island, many were the plans of more distant excursions
+which we projected this evening--which, however, upon more mature
+consideration, all proved impracticable, owing to the scanty time at our
+disposal. Thus we found ourselves, much against our wishes, compelled to
+forego a visit to Kandy, and its beautiful environs, in which is situated
+the renowned temple that enshrines the tooth of Buddha, the occupation of
+which by the English was, in the eyes of the Cingalese, the most manifest
+indication of their being the legitimate conquerors of the kingdom.[94]
+Neither were we able to take part in an elephant hunt, although these
+animals are found in the island in such quantities, that it is related,
+with every appearance of accuracy, of a single elephant hunter, the late
+Major Rodgers, who was struck dead by a flash of lightning a few years
+since in the midst of the forest, that he had, in the course of his life
+of active exercise, laid low fifteen hundred elephants with his own hand!
+But permission was granted by the commander of the Expedition to the
+geologist and one of the zoologists to remain in Ceylon, and rejoin the
+frigate at Madras by the steamer which runs fortnightly, so as to enable
+them to ascend the world-famous Adam's Peak, 7000 feet high, one of the
+loftiest peaks in Ceylon, where, according to tradition, the founder of
+the Buddhist doctrine, when last he visited the earth, in answer to the
+supplications of a priest, left behind the print of his footstep
+(_Sri-pada_), as a visible sign of his presence.
+
+[Footnote 94: The legend relating to these relics, about which so many wars
+were waged, goes back as far as the third century of the Christian era,
+when Mahasana, a true believer, having become King of Ceylon, purchased
+these teeth for numerous valuable presents, of one of his kindred, a
+Calinga king in Bengal, who sent them over by his princes. The tooth
+Dahata Wahansa immediately achieved a miracle--it illumined the entire
+island, and supplanted all heretical teaching. It was forthwith enveloped
+in a hundred cloths, and a temple erected to enshrine it, since which it
+has been regarded as the Palladium of Ceylon. When, in 1560, this tooth
+was transferred to the temple at Manaar by the Portuguese under Constantin
+de Braganza, the king offered the Portuguese bigots 600,000 pieces of gold
+by way of ransom. Braganza judged it more advisable to destroy the tooth.
+But he little knew the adroitness and subtlety of the Buddhist priesthood.
+The very next morning the tooth, that had been supposed to be destroyed
+was marvellously found in a Lotos leaf in the temple, where it had been
+deposited by Buddha himself!]
+
+We cite, in the following extract, the most prominent features of this
+venture, as supplied by the two members of the Expedition who undertook
+it, so as to complete the description of the _Novara's_ visit to Ceylon:--
+
+"On 13th January, 1858, we proceeded from Colombo to Ratnapoora, _en
+route_, to visit Adam's Peak, a tolerably long and tedious journey. On the
+margin of a river we encountered an elephant, who was engaged in assisting
+the labourers on the public roads in that vicinity. While our car and the
+baggage were being embarked here, and again put in order, this animal went
+through a number of tricks, such as swaying to and fro, lying down,
+raising his trunk, and trumpeting, the latter of which, at a sign from his
+driver, he did with a vengeance, and for so doing was rewarded with a few
+plantains. These exercises seem to constitute the first steps in taming,
+as they were gone through in a similar manner by all the elephants we
+afterwards saw, whether employed like this one in task-work, or maintained
+for show, or made use of in the Temple service.
+
+At mid-day we reached Ratnapoora, and as we were anxious to shorten as
+much as possible our next day's journey, we decided on pushing forward in
+the course of the afternoon, as far as the little village of Gilli-Mali,
+seven miles further on. We had been provided by C. W. Layard, Esq., the
+Government Agent in Colombo, with letters of introduction to his deputy,
+Mr. Mooyart, at Ratnapoora, who, however, we unfortunately found was
+absent from home. Next day, however, we had unmistakable evidence that our
+letters had, very shortly after our departure, reached the hands they were
+intended for, by a variety of precautions which the hospitable gentleman
+must have at once arranged with a view to our greater comfort. While yet
+on the second-half of our road to Gilli-Mali, night overtook us, and we
+prosecuted our march by torch-light through the dense jungle. Our guides
+and porters had shown some reluctance to enter this jungle, partly on
+account of the swarms of land-leeches (_litchies_, as they are termed
+here, doubtless by a corruption of the English name), which are especially
+active during the night, partly from other causes of anxiety. Accordingly,
+they kept reciting Cingalese ditties, alternated with shrill yells, or
+shouted, so as to be heard at a distance; whether to drive away evil
+spirits, or to frighten the _chetah_ or leopard, we could not ascertain.
+No long time elapsed ere we ourselves began to perceive traces of having
+been victimized by that most uncomfortable of guests, the land-leech. The
+naked Hindoos were incessantly occupied with pulling off these painful
+blood-suckers, and we had to call a halt from time to time, in order to
+loosen and carefully fling them away, as they had succeeded in reaching
+the skin, through the trousers immediately above the boot. They are found
+up to an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea on the mountains, chiefly in
+damp or wet localities, and are most active during the evening and night
+in the selection of a victim.
+
+At Gilli-Mali, we fell in with Mr. Braybrooke, an English engineer, who
+most hospitably invited us to his bungalow, and with whom we conversed
+upon topics relating to Ceylon, till far into the night.
+
+Next day we had to ascend the Peak itself; which is in so far a difficult
+undertaking on the side from which we approached it, that one has gained
+no vantage-ground at Gilli-Malli, our last night's resting-place, towards
+reaching the summit, so that one sees it in its entire colossal height of
+above 7000 feet directly in front; whereas, in ascending from Kandy, one
+has already, at Neuwera Ellia, attained an elevation of 4000 feet, which
+can be performed in a carriage. We set out at 7 A.M., and after an
+hour-and-a-half's march, gained the last village, Balahab-a-Dullu, in the
+Buddhist temple of which is kept a flat metal dish, adorned with silver
+_rosettes_, with which the imprint of the holy footstep is covered over at
+the season of the annual pilgrimage. On the table, before a colossal
+figure of Buddha, were strewn, as usual, a quantity of flowers presented
+by the faithful; these were the flower-shrubs of the _Areca palm_,
+_Hibiscus_, _Alamanda_, _Tagetes_; also, close to the wooden statue, are
+placed several small figures of silver or wood, 3 or 4 inches long. The
+priest also showed us a magnificent manuscript of at least 1000 palm
+leaves, closely and beautifully engraved on both sides with Cingalese
+characters, which belonged to the temple, and was guarded with great care.
+
+At a solitary house on the road, we left our guides and porters to discuss
+their modest repast, which, in consequence of the strict ordinances of the
+Buddhist faith, consists of vegetable substances only. Reclining on a mat
+spread on the ground, each took a piece of green plantain leaf, scattered
+upon it a little rice which they had just brought with them, and some
+chili (red Spanish pepper), and thence conveyed their simple food to their
+mouth with the hand. This frugal meal was speedily concluded, and we once
+more pushed forward. From this point we had the dense covert of the high
+forest trees, the lofty foliage of which afforded a most agreeable shade,
+and kept us comparatively cool. The path, which consists simply of
+ravines, formed by the rush of torrents during the rainy season, is so
+steep that it seems like one uninterrupted flight of stairs, the steps of
+which seem partly constructed by Nature, partly by the hand of man.
+Frequently they are artistically chiselled in the solid rock; at one
+stupendous precipice a Cingalese monarch has had four flights, of 250
+steps in all, hewn out of the living rock. Here and there, also, ladders
+have been contrived, the rounds of which are composed of pieces of bamboo
+bound together, by which one clambers up. The whole route bears marks of
+being much used, and is considerably worn, the stones being rubbed quite
+smooth. Under the damp shade of the forest are found a vast quantity of
+the most beautiful ferns and _Lycopodium_ (Club-moss; or Wolf's-claw, as
+it is called in Sweden, whence the Linnaean name); from the delicate beauty
+of the _Jungermania_ (Star-tip), to the tree-like fern, _Filius
+Phyllophisidos_, which vies with the giants of the forest. The more deeply
+shaded spots are adorned here with beautiful balsams, a genus of plants
+which, besides being unusually luxuriant and beautiful in this district,
+exhibits certain peculiarities of form not usually met with.
+
+At one place, called Nihilabellagalla, there was pointed out to us, at a
+few paces to the side of the road, near a rugged projecting rock with a
+steep declivity in front, a narrow valley which seemed to be closed in by
+perpendicular walls of rock on the opposite side. This _cul de sac_, we
+were informed, was a favourite resort of numerous wild elephants. A shot
+fired at this point, with the gun directed towards the rocks opposite,
+returned a thundering echo.
+
+By 4 P.M. the last halt, or resting-place, was reached, above which the
+singular-looking cone towers sheer overhead, some 500 or 600 feet high.
+The vapours which, during the entire day, had been playing about the
+summit, from time to time lifted like a veil, as though to indulge us with
+an opportunity of beholding this sublime mountain-peak under the magical
+effect of twilight. Our native retinue, which had gathered fresh
+accessions of strength at every place we passed, and now consisted of from
+24 to 30 persons, showed no inclination to proceed farther, but appeared
+desirous of passing the night at the last halting-place, which was nothing
+but a sort of hovel. It was only by a resolute expression of our
+determination to reach the summit the same evening that they gave in.
+Their reluctance arose from an idea that no one could with impunity pass
+the night on the highest point of the mountain--which, indeed, is natural
+enough, since the sharp night-air at such an elevation may well be
+prejudicial to the health of those who are not sufficiently protected
+against its attacks.
+
+The last portion of the ascent is so steep, and so difficult, that all
+superfluous baggage was left behind, and we took with us only what was
+absolutely indispensable. Thus far we had seen occasional traces of
+elephants, sometimes so fresh, that they could not have been more than an
+hour old. According to a report of Major Skinner, the unmistakable marks
+of one of these animals was remarked in the year 1840 quite close to the
+rock which bears the sacred footprint! At the steepest points, iron
+ladders have been made fast, by which the visitor has to scramble up.
+There were, also, innumerable chains fastened to the rock, of every
+description and variety of link, which swung to and fro by dozens on
+either hand, some eaten away with age and rust, some forged quite lately,
+it being considered a meritorious work to provide such as a protection
+against the occurrence of accidents. By 6 P.M., we at last reached the
+summit, and were rewarded with a panoramic view of indescribable
+magnificence. The mists were almost entirely dispersed, and in the clear,
+calm, evening light, the eye wandered at pleasure over the vast, almost
+limitless, panorama at our feet, as far as the sea, barely visible in the
+grey distance. Bounding our view from north-west to east, the mountain
+ranges rose by three distinct terraces of hills, each behind the other,
+and in regular gradations, till they culminated in the highest peak on the
+island, the Pedro-talla-galla, which overtops Adam's peak by nearly 1000
+feet,[95] but presents no pre-eminent peak, similar to that on which we now
+stood. The remainder of the horizon was filled with low mountains, which
+gradually became more and more flat as they approached the coast. The
+followers of three religions,--Buddhists, Brahmins, and Mahometans, stand
+face to face with each other on this space of barely a few steps, in order
+to bow before these visible emblems, in sincere devotion to the invisible
+Deity. The highest surface, which is nearly level, is of an irregular oval
+form, and is about 60 or 70 feet in length, by from 36 to 40 feet in
+breadth, and is inclosed within a wall 5 feet in height, with two
+entrances on the west and south, while the north-east corner is shut out
+by an artificially rounded rock, easily surmounted, however, by any one
+who ascends it. In the middle of this enclosure stands a block of rock
+some 10 or 11 feet high, which, on the extreme top, has a depression, the
+divine _Sri-pada_, or Holy Footstep. The adoration consists chiefly of
+offerings of flowers which are brought up hither, and presented with
+innumerable genuflections, invocations, and exclamations of "_Sadoo_,"
+which corresponds to the Christian Amen. The impressed foot-print is
+ascribed by the Buddhists to the last incarnation of Buddha, the gentle
+hermit Gautama; while it is regarded by the Brahmins as the footstep of
+Siva, and by the Mahometans as that of Adam, as being the spot on which
+the progenitor of the human race stood so long, doing penance after his
+expulsion from Paradise, until the Almighty pardoned him.
+
+[Footnote 95: The precise relative elevations of the two mountains are,
+Pedro-talla-galla 8280 feet, Adam's Peak 7420 feet. Two other peaks of the
+main range are also higher than Adam's Peak, viz. Totapella 7720 feet, and
+Kirrigal-potta 7810 feet, while the plains, or table-lands, of Welinani
+and Neuwera Ellia are, respectively, no less than 6990 feet and 6210 feet
+above the level of the sea.]
+
+This depression, in which only the most unbridled imagination can see any
+resemblance to the human foot, is about 5 feet in length by 2-1/2 in
+breadth, and is set, as it were, in a level stratum of mortar, several
+inches in height, by six in breadth, shaped to resemble the outline of the
+human foot. At its anterior extremity, it presents a straight line, on
+which the five toes are artificially formed by several tolerably thick,
+narrow crevices, filled with mortar, and about 8 or 9 inches in length,
+which jut inwards, the great toe being on the right or east side, and thus
+indicating that it is a representation of the left foot. At the heel end
+the setting of mortar is somewhat narrowed and rounded off. Over the whole
+affair a wooden temple with balustrades open on all sides, has been
+erected, which is fastened by iron chains to the rock, and to beams of
+rhododendron fastened on the N.W. side, outside the wall, to prevent its
+being swept away by the storms which, on this lofty, exposed peak,
+occasionally rage with great vehemence. These cables, as also several of
+the poles by which the temple was supported, were thickly hung with carved
+figures of Buddha enveloped in linen cloth, which, originally the votive
+offerings of pilgrims, and bleached by long exposure, fluttered in the
+breeze. On the front of the temple is erected a penthouse roof, shading a
+bench beneath, on which several of our porters, who regarded our impious
+presence, and still more impious admeasurements of the holy footprint,
+with a horror which they flattered themselves was unobserved, deposited
+their offerings of flowers, and humbly bent the knee. On the west side,
+under two small distinct roofs, were two bells, and quite apart, on the
+rock itself, and somewhat in the background, a smaller temple. Between the
+block of rock and the inner half of the enclosure, a small house has been
+erected, 12 feet long by 6 feet broad, which is used as a shelter at night
+by the priests who are on duty during the pilgrimage season,[96] in which
+we too took up our quarters. Suddenly, from the depths below there arose,
+through the unbroken silence of the night, a confused murmur, in which the
+sounds of human voices were plainly recognizable. The singularity of such
+a phenomenon produced a certain degree of excitement among our
+superstitious spectre-dreading followers, inasmuch as it had never
+happened that strangers undertook the ascent of the peak at night, seeing
+it gives trouble enough to reach the summit by daylight. By degrees we
+perceived a number of torches borne by natives, who, with loud and
+long-continued cheers, set about slowly ascending the ladders. To the
+inquiries of our followers they made no reply; and we had, in a word, to
+wait a considerable interval, until, indeed, the leading torch-bearer had
+reached the summit, ere we were enlightened as to the object of this
+mysterious nocturnal visit. How great, and let us add, agreeable was our
+surprise at finding ourselves suddenly surrounded by a choice array of
+wines, with food of various sorts, which the overflowing hospitality of
+Mr. Mooyart had dispatched after us to the summit of Adam's Peak, together
+with his card, the whole being conveyed in huge baskets by the supposed
+spectres! A cheerful fire speedily blazed up, at which our tea and
+provisions were cooked, and, as may well be supposed, while, enjoying our
+delicate fare, we thankfully toasted the kind and thoughtful donor.
+
+[Footnote 96: The dry season, occurring in the south-west side of the
+island from January to April, is likewise the chief season of pilgrimage,
+at the end of which the entire amount of the offerings, annually averaging
+from L250 to L300 sterling, is handed over to the High-Priest of Buddha.]
+
+Deep silence once more fell on all around, no cry of any wild beast
+reached us at this elevation, no hum of insect broke upon the awful
+stillness. Our coolies lay cowering together around the drooping blaze,
+seeking some shelter against the night air. One division stowed themselves
+away in a second sleeping-house for priests, which had been run up some
+twenty paces distant, in which we also were in the end fain to seek
+shelter from the ever-increasing keenness of the air, the temperature of
+which fell to 54 deg.5 Fahr., where, with our wrappers drawn close around us,
+and stretched at full length on the bare rock, we awaited the approach of
+morning.
+
+The first faint glimmer of dawn invited us once more to the open air, in
+order to contemplate the wonderful aspect of Nature at this elevation. We
+had, after leaving Ratnapoora, taken barometrical and thermometrical
+observations, with the view of determining the elevation at nine different
+stations, which had been, wherever practicable, selected in such manner,
+that by means of them the various limits of certain classes of vegetation
+were indicated, which in many instances are marked out with extraordinary
+distinctness upon the perpendicular side of the peak. These series of
+observations, which were at the same time supplemented by investigations
+as to the temperature of the soil and of various springs, will be compared
+with the results of previous scientific visitors to the summit of Adam's
+Peak, and published in another form. The geology of the isolated pinnacle
+of Adam's Peak, so far as the dense covering of primeval forests permitted
+us to observe, is uncommonly simple and uniform. The chief directions of
+the lofty chain of mountains in Southern Ceylon, separated from each other
+by level plateau-like depressions, is from S.S.E. to N.N.W., corresponding
+likewise with the chief directions of the strata of gneiss, of which these
+mountains are composed. The gneiss is uniformly of a species not often met
+with, studded with garnets, and between its strata are inserted single
+beds of hornblende-gneiss and splinters of pure hornblende, as also
+granulite-gneiss and pure granulite. The steep, final cone of the rock
+consists of a granulitic gneiss of varying texture from coarse to fine,
+and abounding in garnets. Everywhere, even up to the highest summit, the
+gneiss is decomposed on the surface into laterit-like products. The huge
+blocks of brown ironstone, however, which are found near the summit, in
+the hollow path by which it is customary to ascend, owe their origin to
+the decomposition of the hornblende.
+
+After these interesting observations, admeasurements, and investigations,
+made at the summit of the most remarkable peak in the world, had been
+brought to a conclusion, we set out on our return to Gilli-Mali, which we
+reached late at night. Here we found, at the abode of our hospitable
+entertainer, Mr. Braybrooke, a fresh guest, who likewise intended to
+ascend Adam's Peak the following day. This was the well-known Count Medem,
+a Russian gentleman, who has frequently traversed both the old and new
+worlds, and was now about making a second visit to China.[97] The next day
+saw us at Ratnapoora, from which point we continued our return journey on
+the waters of the Kalu-Gunga, or Black River, as far as Caltura.
+
+[Footnote 97: Count Medem died the same year at Shanghai.]
+
+Our boat consisted of two trunks of trees hollowed out and fastened
+together, upon which was erected a semicircular tilt, covered with the
+leaves of the Fan Palm (_Borassus Flabelliformis_), under which one might
+sit or lie at pleasure, sheltered from the sun. As the mail-car that runs
+daily from Colombo to Caltura was already full, we were compelled, in
+order to pursue our journey to Galle, to make use of the native waggon, or
+bullock-bandy. This is a two-wheeled cart drawn by oxen, and covered with
+a semicircular tilt of palm-leaves, beneath which there was room for two
+persons to lie at full-length packed closely together. The oxen, of a
+breed that have humps and erect horns, are small, and walk with a quick,
+short tramp, while their entire bodies are tattooed with Cingalese
+characters and ornaments. The horns are usually adorned with metal tips,
+and frequently are dyed, the one red, the other green. The cross-piece of
+the pole is fastened to the neck instead of the customary yoke, and the
+cord for guiding the animal passes through the nose. The driver either
+strides along between the two oxen, or sits with his back to them on the
+pole. The rate of progression by this national conveyance is so slow, that
+the mail-car which left Colombo the day after overtook us long ere we
+reached our destination, and it was with some difficulty we reached Galle
+in time for the overland steamer which was to bring us to Madras."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.--TRACK FROM POINT DE GALLE TO MADRAS.]
+
+At 6 A.M. of the 16th January, the _Novara_ set sail from the roads of
+Point de Galle with light breezes off the land, and steered southerly in
+order to avoid the Basses or Baxos, a much-dreaded rocky shoal,
+traditionally alleged to be the remains of the island of Giri, swallowed
+up by the sea, and which, owing to the very strong current, require the
+utmost care to be observed, in order to avoid drifting right upon them.[98]
+
+[Footnote 98: A late survey, instituted with the intention of erecting a
+lighthouse on the "Basses," proved a failure, in consequence of the ground
+having sunk in while an examination was being made by the diver, and left
+nothing but holes filled with water, in which, according to the report of
+the fishermen, besides fish and molluscs, sea-snakes are occasionally
+seen, of a light-gray colour, and about 4 or 5 feet in length.]
+
+The evening before our departure, the Consul for Hamburg had requested
+from the Commander of the Expedition the favour of a free passage to
+Madras, on board our frigate, for a native of Berlin, named Neupert. This
+man had come to Ceylon a long time previously with a company of
+rope-dancers, and had at first made a good deal of money as an acrobat and
+juggler, despite the dangerous competition of the Indian practitioners,
+but had afterwards lost his all, and had been for some weeks in a pitiable
+plight. The request was at once acceded to, and Neupert came on board
+during the night. His luggage did not encumber him much. However, although
+the greatest part of his effects had disappeared in Galle, he fortunately
+had kept his various apparatus; and, by way of showing his gratitude for
+the free passage that had been accorded to him, professed his willingness,
+in the course of the voyage, to give us some specimens of his skill on
+deck. Accordingly, one fine afternoon, he gave us an entertainment out on
+the open ocean, which not alone hugely pleased the sturdy tars grouped
+together on the forecastle, but ultimately, in consequence of a collection
+set on foot for the unfortunate Berlin acrobat, procured him enough ready
+money to enable him to pass the first week after his arrival at Madras
+free from anxiety, besides supplying him with a fresh outfit.
+
+Within a few days after our departure from Galle, several severe cases
+occurred of hemeralopia, chiefly among members of the ship's band. Every
+evening, as darkness set in, these men lost all power of distinguishing
+objects, and had to be led about like blind men. In Vienna, we had been
+advised by various physicians there, with a view to the confirmation or
+refutation of the popular belief, to try the use of boiled ox-liver;[99]
+and, as one of the oxen shipped at Ceylon had been slaughtered, we were in
+a position to make the desired experiment, which, it must be confessed,
+proved eminently successful. This time, moreover, several of those thus
+afflicted were treated with cooked pig's-liver, which was given them to
+eat, while the steam rising from the dish was applied to their eyes. But
+we had, on our return voyage, the most convincing proof of the efficacy of
+the liver of animals of the ox tribe in cases of night-blindness, when
+above twenty of those afflicted, after frequent relapses during the voyage
+from Valparaiso to Gibraltar, were treated in the last-named port with
+ox-liver, and dismissed permanently cured.[100]
+
+[Footnote 99: This cure is likewise very much resorted to, even of late
+years, among the Highlands of Scotland!]
+
+[Footnote 100: During the entire voyage round the globe, there occurred 75
+cases of _Hemeralopia_; the largest number of which, 60, occurred between
+Cape Horn and Gibraltar. The remainder were isolated cases, occurring at
+Rio, Ceylon, the Nicobar Islands, and on the voyage from China to Sydney.]
+
+The voyage from Ceylon to Madras was, on the whole, monotonous and void of
+interest, with the exception of one single event, which no one on board is
+likely to forget for the remainder of his life. About 3.30 P.M. of the 2nd
+January, 1858, there suddenly resounded from the hold, the astounding cry
+of "Fire! fire!" Everyone rushed, in the utmost excitement, on deck. It
+turned out that a by no means insignificant quantity of pure alcohol,
+which was stowed away in the hold for the preservation of specimens of
+natural history, had, from some unknown cause, caught fire. Forthwith the
+pumps were manned, the sails clewed up, all the portholes closed, so as to
+cut off the slightest draught, and all the hammocks of the crew trundled,
+_pele-mele_ on deck anyhow, out of the quarter-nettings, in which they are
+stowed away during the day, there to be dipped in sea-water, and in that
+wringing-wet condition applied, partly in extinguishing the flames, partly
+in preventing the fire from spreading. In less than a quarter of an hour
+the worst danger was over, and our wonted quiet restored, despite the
+first terrible excitement. On a more searching investigation, several of
+the tin carboys in the hold, filled with spirits of wine, and kept between
+layers of sand in iron chests, were found to have been corroded till the
+liquor had oozed through, while the air, having free access to the sand,
+had become strongly impregnated with gas. This atmosphere, impregnated as
+it was with alcoholic fumes, took fire on one of the sailors carelessly
+entering the hold with a badly-fastened lantern, and in a moment the light
+flames which speedily enveloped the man in such a confined space, at once
+gave the alarm. The full carboys remained uninjured by the fire. Had such
+a catastrophe happened, and the whole quantity of spirit (about 40
+gallons) taken fire, considering the immense quantities of combustible
+matter we had on board, among the rest a ton-and-a-half of gunpowder, the
+upshot must have been of a far less agreeable nature. The extraordinary
+lightning-like activity displayed by the entire ship's company on this
+occasion was something wonderful. Each man seemed to have got wings. There
+was the most laudable emulation displayed by all hands in seeking to save
+the lives of themselves and others from such a terrible doom.
+
+On the 30th January, at 7.30 P.M., we anchored in Madras Roads, so dreaded
+for their insecurity, about three nautical miles from the shore, and in 9
+fathoms (56 feet English). Even in the calmest weather there is a
+tremendous surf on this coast, and from October to December, in which
+strong gales blow from the N.E., it is all but unapproachable. For this
+reason, so soon as the wind increases so as to endanger the ships in the
+roads, a flag is hoisted on a staff at the Master Attendant's office, that
+they may put to sea at once. On the second signal, all ships must quit the
+Roads for fear of being dashed through the surf upon the beach.
+
+From the city we heard a running fire of musketry and some salutes with
+cannon, which, considering the prevalence of warlike rumours and movements
+in the then circumstances of India, made us conjecture that the natives of
+the Coromandel coast were also in insurrection against the English.
+However, we learned afterwards that the musketry and salvoes proceeded
+from the troops stationed near the drilling-ground, who were receiving
+their general on his return from parade with a salute. The following day
+(Sunday, the 31st January, 1858) the European community of Madras fell
+into a precisely similar error in consequence of our salute, which they,
+being at that hour assembled at worship, mistook for a much less peaceful
+and agreeable intimation, so that the majority, dreading an outbreak,
+hurried to their houses in deep anxiety.
+
+[Illustration: MASULI BOAT AT MADRAS.]
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF MADRAS (AND PROPOSED PIER).]
+
+
+
+
+                                 IX.
+
+                               Madras.
+
+      DURATION OF STAY FROM 30TH JANUARY TO 10TH FEBRUARY, 1858.
+
+   "Catamarans" and "Massuli" boats.--Difficulty of disembarkation,
+     and plans for remedying it.--History.--Brahminism.--Festival
+     in honour of Vishnu.--Employment of Heathens under a Christian
+     Government.--Politics and Religion.--Laws of Brahminic faith.--
+     The Observatory.--Museum of Natural History and Zoological
+     Garden.--Academy of Fine Arts.--Medical School.--Infirmary.--
+     Orphan Asylum.--Dr. Bell.--Lancastrian Method of Teaching
+     Children first applied in Madras.--Colonel Mackenzie's
+     Collection of Indian Inscriptions and Manuscripts.--The Palace
+     of the former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.--Journey by rail
+     to Vellore.--_Fete_ given by the Governor in Guindy Park.--
+     Visit to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.--
+     Excursion to Pulicat Lake.--Madras Club.--_Fete_ in honour of
+     the members of the _Novara_ Expedition.--"Tiffin" and dance on
+     board.--Departure from Madras.--Zodiacal light.--Shrove
+     Tuesday in the tropics.--Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.
+
+
+The morning after our arrival in Madras Roads, a native boat came
+alongside, of the sort known as "Catamarans," having on board two
+natives, who brought off from the authorities of the port the customary
+papers to be filled up. This extraordinary and very primitive boat
+consists of merely two or three trunks of trees bound together
+raft-fashion, on which these daring boatmen kneel. As a great part of
+their body is necessarily under water, they carry the papers and letters
+entrusted to them for transmission to the ships in the Roads, in
+turban-like wrappings which envelope their heads. Ordinarily, these men
+are excellent swimmers, a most requisite accomplishment to enable them to
+regain their boats, in the event of being swept off by the waves, or to
+save themselves and others from the innumerable sharks, which frequent the
+entire Coromandel coast, and render it eminently dangerous. About noon, a
+larger boat approached us, manned by from 15 to 20 natives, who offered
+their services as caterers, washers, agents, servants, in short as
+"Dubashes" a sort of Hindoo _factotum_; while each individual, shrieking
+and vociferating at the top of his voice, held high in the air, with
+outstretched arm, a number of written testimonials of ship-captains that
+had already employed him. These boats, called "Massuli," or "Musli" boats
+(from _Muchly_--fish), about 36 feet long by 5 or 6 in width, and in which
+alone it is possible to bring passengers and goods to land, are light, as
+flexible as if made of leather, and are fastened together with the elastic
+fibres of the cocoa-nut, being in every particular specially adapted to
+yield to the tremendous blows of the heavy surf, which a boat of ordinary
+construction could not possibly live through. They are for the most part
+pretty deep, and are usually manned with from 12 to 15 naked natives, who
+make use of an exceedingly smooth pallette-shaped paddle. In one of these
+boats, the officers of the frigate on leave, and the naturalists of the
+Expedition, were conveyed to land in the midst of a fresh breeze from the
+N.E. The more we approached the shore, the more formidable was the
+appearance of the tumultuous tempest-driven waves. Amid frightful yells
+and hurrahs, we passed in safety the first and second lines of surf. But
+we had yet to encounter the third, and by far the most furious. The
+boatmen spread a couple of cloths over our heads, to prevent our getting a
+soaking; the boat made several violent plunges forward, and was for an
+instant apparently covered by the tremendous foaming billows, but seemed
+to glide in a most extraordinary manner over these, and finally was neatly
+laid alongside the beach on the crest of the last breaker. This is the
+critical moment, and the most disagreeable, because the boat is, by this
+manipulation, thrown on its side, and one feels disposed to rush out, ere
+the returning wave throws the boat high and dry on the sand. The noisy
+shrieks of the boat's crew and Coolies, or Lascars (Indian porters), with
+which the disembarkation is accompanied, combine to render it still more
+annoying and unpleasant. One feels a sensation of satisfaction at having
+gone through this remarkable, and to some extent wholly peculiar,
+experience; but no one was ever known to encounter it voluntarily a second
+time. The glowing picture, which numbers of travellers have drawn of the
+landing at Madras, might impress many readers with the idea that their
+representations were most probably tinged somewhat with a colouring of
+romance; but, in view of our own experience at what is confessedly the
+pleasantest season of the year, there can be at certain times no
+description, however vividly sketched, but what must lag behind the
+reality.
+
+There could hardly have been selected a more unsuitable site for a city,
+than that of Madras, and it is only the circumstance that the entire
+Coromandel coast presents no more eligible haven, as also the importance
+of the place as the chief city of the Carnatic, which alone has a
+population of 5,000,000, that has enabled Madras to boast a population of
+700,000 inhabitants, and a commerce of such magnitude that 6000 vessels,
+British and foreign, are annually[101] cleared inwards and outwards, laden
+with upwards of 650,000 tons of produce and goods of a total value of more
+than L8,000,000 sterling.
+
+[Footnote 101: In the year 1857, the number of trading vessels was 6241,
+carrying 652,146 tons merchandise, of which 1438 were square-sailed ships;
+and 4803 native boats and Chinese junks. The imports of goods and metals
+amounted to Rs. 40,563,826 (about L4,050,000 in round numbers); the
+exports to Rs. 40,060,656 (about L4,000,000 in round numbers). We are
+indebted to the kindness of Dr. Balfour for a variety of interesting
+statistical _data_, the information contained in which must be transferred
+to the statistical portion of the _Novara_ publications.]
+
+The spot at which vessels anchor can by no stretch of terms be called a
+roadstead, being in fact nothing but an open strip of coast running nearly
+due north and south, so that during the N.E. monsoons, the sea that sets
+in is something extraordinary, and produces a tremendous surf. At no
+season of the year is it practicable to reach the shore by ordinary
+ship-boats, because the beach, being utterly unprovided with any
+artificial appliances, is left in its natural state--that is to say,
+covered with fine sand, which lies so level that the depth is only nine
+fathoms two miles out at sea! Singular to say, no steps have to this day
+been taken to carry out the proposition, made many long years ago, of
+remedying this difficulty in reaching land, by the construction of a mole
+or pier, although three or four plans have already been presented by
+distinguished engineers. The last and most feasible scheme, and the most
+likely to be put in execution, consists in constructing a mole 1000 feet
+in length and 60 feet in breadth, to be erected upon iron piles driven
+into the sand, and with a cross-piece at the seaward extremity--the mole
+construction resembling the letter =T=. On either side of the mole,
+tramways will be laid down to facilitate the transport of goods that have
+been discharged. The entire cost of this undertaking would be about
+L100,000--an entirely disproportionate, and, indeed, insignificant amount,
+when one takes into consideration the important consequences which must
+result to trade and passenger traffic on the completion of this erection.
+
+The earliest British settlement was at Armegon, about 36 miles north of
+Pulicat (or about 78 miles N. by W. of Madras). The cession of a piece of
+land by the native Rajah of Besnayor induced the president of the old
+factory at Armegon, Mr. Francis Day, to abandon the latter, and in the
+year 1639, the Fort of St. George was erected at the newly-selected
+station, where formerly stood the little Hindoo village of Ischinapatam.
+This fort formed the nucleus, at a later period, of the city of Madras,
+which is built on the flat alluvial soil along the coast, and at present
+comprises an area of about 30 (English) square miles. Its extent along the
+beach from north to south is about 9 miles by an extreme width of 3-3/4
+miles. Madras, like all the rest, consists of a White town, exclusively
+inhabited by Europeans, and a Black town, or _Pettah_, in which the
+natives and all coloured residents carry on business.
+
+The White town, which, however, presents none of the carefully laid-out
+streets and compact blocks of houses involuntarily suggested by the word
+"town," but rather resembles a gigantic park, in which are situated a vast
+number of comfortable ornamental villas, rises at its highest point 20
+feet above the sea; whereas the Black town, at several points--for
+instance, Popham's Broadway--is hardly 8 feet above the level of spring
+floods.
+
+While in Ceylon we had had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
+influence exercised by Buddhism over the political and social condition of
+the island; here we, for the first time, found ourselves confronted with
+the followers of Brahmah. At the moment of our arrival, the principal
+festival of the year was being celebrated in honour of Vishnu, one of the
+three godheads of the Brahminical faith. It lasted fourteen days, and was
+celebrated with much pomp. Temples were improvised, and some dancing
+platforms erected for the female servants of the temple and "_bayaderes_."
+In one of these dancing saloons, adorned in the most marvellous manner, a
+sort of altar rose in the background, richly hung with gold filagree work
+and stained cut-glass, and fringed with singular representations of the
+god. In the doorway stood, on the left hand side, a copy of the statue of
+the Venus de' Medici; on the right, of the Apollo Belvedere; on a small
+table were visible butterflies, fire-flies, and conchs, in ornamental
+glass cases. On the walls, of plain deal boards, were suspended on one
+side, adjoining the portrait of Anthony da Padua, a number of
+representations of voluptuous Oriental "_odalisques_;" on the other, near
+an engraving in copper of Carlo Barromeo, all sorts of obscene engravings,
+such as are offered for sale only in the most abandoned quarters of Paris
+and London, and then under the cover of night. For that matter, we believe
+that the Hindoo priests, who superintended the erection of this hall
+consecrated to the worship of Vishnu, gave themselves less anxiety
+respecting the subjects treated of in the pictures suspended round, than
+that the walls should appear richly decorated with engravings and
+pictures. Adjoining this half-open dancing booth for the women in
+attendance on the temple, rises the chief Hindoo temple in Madras, a
+stately edifice of blocks of syenite, and surrounded by a lofty wall
+painted with the usual white and red streaks; and on which a fleecy-coated
+long-tailed baboon was performing his antics. Two gloomy pyramidal towers
+shoot up from the wall of the temple, and a beautiful colonnade leads to
+the entrance porch. A huge tank, almost resembling a pond, in which the
+Hindoos thrice daily performed their ceremonies, and went through their
+ablutions, lies in front of the temple, surrounded on its remaining sides
+by buildings for various purposes, while a stately elephant, specially
+consecrated to the service, is kept on the side next the temple, which
+carries up a pitcher of water every forenoon from the pool in front of the
+pagoda, one of the servants attached to the temple sitting on his back
+holding it, while a second, seated behind him, keeps waving a fan in
+either hand. The elephant is first conducted round the temple and then
+inside, in order to present the water to the god. This elephant (which
+animal it seems is itself an incarnation of Vishnu) had the distinguishing
+mark of the sect, as also several other indications of a similar nature
+richly tatooed upon his huge broad forehead. Every evening during the
+continuance of the fourteen days' festival, the various temples and
+dancing booths were brilliantly illuminated with wax tapers and oil lamps,
+but admission was refused to the profane, and in the eyes of Brahmah,
+unbelieving Europeans, a rule which was everywhere enforced with much
+politeness but unvarying firmness. Moreover, everything that the hand of a
+European has touched is unclean to the Hindoo. Only the _Pariah_, or
+"outcaste," the very lowest class of the people, eats any food that has
+been prepared in the kitchen of a Christian.
+
+The most substantial part of the festival, however, was fortunately not
+confined to the interior of the temple, but took place in the streets,
+through which, during the period the festival lasted, immense processions
+of Hindoos, praying, singing, and dancing, used to pass every evening
+about 11 P.M. on their way from one temple to another, so that we were in
+no want of picturesque objects. First, a band of musicians would lead the
+way, with the peculiar little drum or tom-tom, whining pipes, and blaring
+clarinets. It was more like the noise of a lot of children's instruments
+than music. Next came a Hindoo riding on a gaily-bedizened ox, after whom
+appeared a number of girls and "_Bayaderes_," dressed in white clothes,
+their hair richly dressed, and with rings through their nostrils, while
+the flaps of their ears were adorned with richly-gemmed ear-rings hanging
+down to the neck, and moving both hands and feet as they danced before the
+sacred figure, which was drawn along by 24 sturdy believers in Vishnu. The
+image was placed on a dais thickly overspread with flowers, filagree work,
+and small mirrors, approached by steps, and with a parasol outspread
+overhead; in a vehicle in front was a sort of figure dressed up in
+flowers. On either side a multitude of torch-bearers strode along, with
+sulphurous lights and other means of illumination, or iron frames, on
+which were disposed in pyramidal form or like a bow, from 7 to 13
+fireballs, which, let off at intervals alternately with Bengal lights and
+rockets, formed a veritable ocean of light. A tub filled with cocoa-nut
+oil was dragged behind, from which the cotton wicks were kept constantly
+replenished, so that the flames continued unintermittently. Wherever the
+procession passed the by-standers stood with hands reverentially folded.
+Many had the thresholds of their houses gaily adorned with flags and
+illuminated with paper lamps, others let off sky-rockets. From time to
+time, the procession halted for a moment, the female dancers formed two
+rows, and some of their number went through a sort of dance, in which they
+performed a set of stereotyped motions with their hands, and chanted the
+praises of the god in a most monotonous chorus. Thousands upon thousands
+of Hindoos joined the procession, so that we could hardly make way through
+the crowds. The yelling, heat, odour of oil, and stink of sulphur were
+absolutely intolerable. As often as the procession paused, the noise was
+redoubled, the confusion became tenfold. Itinerant confectioners, who
+offered for sale all sorts of sweetmeats, prepared either from the kernel
+or milk of the cocoa-nut, drew back reluctantly when the eye of a stranger
+was directed towards their piled-up delicacies, through dread lest a mere
+glance from him should blight their stock in trade. On the other hand, we
+remarked some of these vendors pressing forward with eagerness to satisfy
+the curiosity of strangers by offering small samples of their eatables, so
+as the more easily to propitiate and get rid of these dangerous guests,
+and leave the poor Hindoo in peace and unharmed! As Christianity makes but
+slow progress among the Hindoos, and as the tendencies of the English
+residents in India do not point, as of yore among the Spaniards in
+America, towards the violent conversion of the heathen natives with the
+alternative of annihilation, but rather towards political and commercial
+influences, we find the British Government regarding with placid
+indifference the abominations of Hindoo worship, which, even to this hour,
+take the form of laceration of the flesh and self-immolation, rather than,
+by ruling with the strong hand, fan the religious fanaticism of the
+multitude, without the possibility of Christianity becoming a gainer.
+Among the thousands upon thousands who were celebrating the festival of
+Vishnu in such a heathenish fashion, there undoubtedly were many who are
+in the employ of Government, which has no scruples about appointing
+Hindoos of all sorts to the various posts in the public service. The
+English State Church which held that such appointments tended, not very
+indirectly, to support heathenism,[102] earnestly remonstrated against the
+practice, but the Government becoming daily more convinced that the
+doctrines and homilies of the Christian faith continued to be entirely a
+dead letter among the Hindoos, seems to hold fast to a policy of seeking
+gradually to introduce Christianity and European civilization among the
+Indian races, by means of equality of rights and assimilation of laws, by
+a system of well-organized national, trade, and industrial education, and,
+above all, by the influence of personal example. This, to be sure, is a
+very slow and arduous method of conversion, inasmuch as a life of
+religious observances is more deeply intertwined with the very foundations
+of the social system in India than in any other country of the globe, and
+fairly blocks the way against the expansiveness of European civilization.
+For as simple as the Hindoo religion appears in its primitive principles,
+the proper observance of its various rites is proportionately difficult,
+and full of subtle distinctions for the sincere Hindoo believer.
+
+[Footnote 102: The East India Company even undertook the maintenance of the
+Hindoo temples, and defrayed the receipts of the annual festival in honour
+of Vishnu out of the revenues. There exist in the Presidency of Madras
+alone 8292 Hindoo temples, with an annual revenue of about L100,000, all
+under the protection and control of the Company. (See "India, Ancient and
+Modern," by David O. Allen, Boston, 1856.)]
+
+The worship of Brahma, according to the doctrines enunciated by Brahma's
+own lips in the Vedas, or holy books, took its rise in the adoration paid
+to the powers of nature, regarded as so many divinities, especially in the
+exalted transcendentalism of their ideas respecting the sun, the moon, the
+stars, and the firmament. Thence was readily developed the belief in a
+sole, eternal, Almighty Creator and Ruler of the world, Brahma,
+represented as having four faces looking to the four quarters of the
+globe, and reposing on a swan. This simple monotheistic belief was
+gradually developed into the divine manifestation of Brahma as a Triune
+divinity, namely, as the Creating power (Brahma), the preserving power
+(Vishnu), and the destroying, and at the same time renewing, energy of
+nature (Siva).
+
+Although the revelation of Brahma has long since been completed, while
+Vishnu and Siva are still active agencies in the world as Supporter and
+Augmenter respectively, Brahma is assigned a very inferior rank in the
+worship of the masses, although, according to the lawgiver Menu, the Moses
+of India, he created the Brahmins out of the substance of his head, to
+guide and instruct man; from his arms the Chetriyas, to protect and defend
+him; from his trunk the Veisigas, to nourish and support him; and, lastly,
+from his feet the Sadras, to serve and be the property of all the other
+castes.
+
+To Brahma, the fulness of whose existence no earthly notions can embrace,
+there are no temples dedicated, these being rather erected in honour of
+Vishnu, the Intercessor and Supporter, who manifests himself in the
+atmosphere and in water, and Siva the destroyer and regenerator of the
+various races, as also to the other divinities whom the Hindoo religion
+numbers by millions, although the majority of these have several names,
+and the lower classes are simply Avatars, that is incarnations or
+manifestations, of the superior deities. This peculiarity of the Hindoo
+religion makes it impossible correctly to classify or define Indian
+mythology. The god Rama, for example, is frequently named for Krishna, and
+the latter again for Vishnu. Vishnu, on his part, sometimes figures as
+Rama, when he is to destroy Ravana, the tyrant of Ceylon, or as Buddha, in
+order to found Buddhism. Like the Proteus of Grecian fable, the Hindoo
+mythology assumes a thousand different shapes,--it is, in short, Pantheism
+in its most perfect development.
+
+A zealous Hindoo requires about four hours of each day to get through his
+religious ceremonies, these being performed at different periods, as he
+must bathe in the morning, at noon, and again at night, in a tank or pool
+before the temple, and recite certain prayers. For purposes of
+recognition, the two chief castes wear special marks, the worshippers of
+Vishnu having a trident painted on the forehead in either white or yellow,
+while those of Siva, on the other hand, sport three horizontal stripes, or
+one round spot marked with the ash of burnt sandal-wood. Many Hindoos
+write on their foreheads the distinguishing insignia of both Vishnu and
+Siva, and look thus the more strange and peculiar.
+
+After every ablution these marks are painted afresh, and with much care
+upon the forehead, so that paint and rouge-boxes play an important part in
+a native household. No Hindoo can partake of his exclusively vegetable
+nutriment, if cooked in a European kitchen, such being entirely contrary
+to the principles of his faith. Every servant, therefore, leaves his
+master regularly at noon, in order to partake of his simple meal of rice
+and vegetables, either with his family or in one of the numerous Hindoo
+cook-shops. The frequent holidays of the Hindoos, of which there are
+twenty-one within two months, seriously interfere with trade among the
+natives, and still more with the instruction of the young.
+
+Hindooism, however, appears to have lost much of its originality by
+constant contact with Europeans, and by the various political revolutions,
+and although many of these ceremonies are still kept up, and the bodies of
+their dead are still burned on pyres, yet the modern Hindoo has so far
+relaxed from his ascetic austerity, as to admit of his being employed in
+the various pursuits of active life. And it is not a little surprising to
+see these handsome, tall, brown figures, with their insignia of Vishnu or
+Siva marked on their foreheads, and dressed in their sweeping plaited
+togas of pure white, employed on the telegraph, the railway, the arsenal,
+and even the observatory, all which employments demand the utmost
+exactness and punctuality, and thus afford the most gratifying evidence of
+the adaptability of the Hindoo race to be impressed and to benefit by
+European civilization. With the exception of Major Jacob, the director of
+the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the whole of the _employes_ are
+natives, who are not indeed employed in making the actual observations,
+but are found perfectly competent to compute the various calculations, and
+make the requisite reductions. The institution itself is at present of but
+little importance as a place of scientific observation, in consequence of
+the small support it receives, but it is to be provided with a meridian
+circle, similar to that in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope,
+when it must become an important station. Strange to say, here, as at the
+Cape, there are no observations made on the Sundays, which in the course
+of a year gives rise to lamentable deficiencies, especially when some
+natural phenomenon of rare occurrence happens to fall upon a Sunday.
+
+We were greatly surprised at the flourishing condition of the Central
+Museum, with which is united a Zoological Garden, both set on foot in
+1851. In the spacious rooms of this stately edifice are ranged costly
+Indian antiquities and sculptures, inscriptions in Sanscrit, in stone, or
+marble slabs, antique fragments of Indian monuments,[103] as also an
+instructive collection of technical and ethnographical subjects, models of
+fortresses, ships, agricultural implements, instruments, tools, machines,
+and native forts. The geological department of the Museum is the weakest
+and poorest department; and as spirits of wine and glass jars are
+expensive articles in India, the greatest number of the animals, even the
+fish and snakes, are simply stuffed. In the garden which surrounds the
+museum buildings are a considerable number of cages inclosing living
+animals, such as monkeys, panthers, bears, giraffes, stags, gazelles,
+cobras, Indian hens, pigeons, marsh-birds, and singing-birds. In addition
+there were _Aquaria_ with fishes arranged in groups at various spots all
+round the garden. Of objects of special interest there was a powerful
+baboon (_Pithecus Satyrus_), above 5 feet high, fastened to a chain in a
+large monkey-house, around whom were gambolling a number of smaller
+species, as also a number of cobras in a large box with glass sides, so
+that one could examine them at leisure on every side. Here we witnessed
+the uncomfortable spectacle of a native engaged in cleaning the panes
+inside the cage and directly beneath these formidable animals, which
+thronged around him in such numbers that he was continually compelled with
+one hand to resist their importunate caresses. Anyone not aware of the
+fact that these animals have been rendered harmless by the extraction of
+their poison-fangs, must experience a feeling of terror and astonishment
+at the sight of this brood of malign, stealthy-moving, hissing serpents,
+with a naked Hindoo in their midst!
+
+[Footnote 103: These important inscriptions are explained and described in
+the Selections from the Records of the Madras Government, Report on the
+Elliot Marbles (p. 191) by R. W. Taylor, Madras, 1857.]
+
+Most astonishing and gratifying is the immense number of casual visitors
+that frequent this institution for advancing education. The book for
+inscribing names lying in the Museum, showed for a single month no less
+than 36,522 visitors, mostly natives, and this it seems has been about the
+average number since the foundation of the Museum. There is also a small,
+valuable library, which, by means of purchases, gifts, and exchanges, is
+being visibly added to with each year, and is accessible to visitors of
+all classes, the custodian and inspectors being all natives.
+
+The Madras Literary Society, an offshoot of the Royal Asiatic Society in
+London, and now reckoning but a small number of associates, publishes from
+time to time the most valuable information as to the latest achievements
+of science in India, and serves in a measure as a medium by which to
+compare the intellectual progress of Asia and Europe. To the members of
+this society the naturalists of the _Novara_ Expedition are specially
+beholden for their great attention during their stay in Madras, as also
+for their hearty participation in the objects of the Imperial Expedition
+as evidenced by their sending copies of their own various and useful
+publications.
+
+There are in Madras numerous institutes devoted to the diffusion of useful
+knowledge among the masses, part founded and maintained by Government,
+part by private enterprise, and this liberality is the more praiseworthy
+that the European community of Madras does not comprise much more than
+1600 persons, of whom only a very few settle any length of time. The
+Europeans resident here are chiefly military men and merchants, who leave
+the country after remaining five or ten years, as almost every one regards
+his stay in this hot, sandy capital of the desert Coromandel coast, as
+purely provisional, and views it as a stepping-stone towards attaining
+some better post, or becoming suddenly wealthy by some favourable
+conjuncture of circumstances. That the majority of these institutions have
+more practical objects in view admits of ready proof, and is but one
+instance the more of the moulding power of surrounding circumstances. In
+the school of arts for instance, under Dr. Hunter's superintendence, there
+are 20 pupils, mostly Hindoos, who are receiving instruction in drawing,
+sculpture, lithography, woodcutting, etching, and photography. But in
+order to reduce, as far as possible, the expenses of this institution,
+there is also included a manufacture of earthenware, the proceeds arising
+from the sale of which are applied to the support of the school.
+
+Another eminently useful institution, the Medical College, which, as well
+as most of the other professional foundations, we visited in the company
+with our hospitable and influential friend, Dr. Kelly, possesses one
+division, in which such of the natives as purpose to set up as
+apothecaries, are at the same time so far educated as to be able, in case
+of necessity, to perform a few of the minor surgical operations. Of the
+hundred of an auditory who at the period of our visit were attending a
+lecture on chemistry, the majority were half-blooded Indians, dressed in
+the European fashion, with a sprinkling of barely 9 or 10 Hindoos in their
+white robes, and with the Vishnu or Siva marks on their forehead. We
+frequently heard the professors, among whom are several gentlemen of high
+scientific attainments, such, for instance, as Messrs. Evans, Lorimer,
+Mudge, Montgomery, Mayr, &c., express their regret at the severe check
+which the development of science sustained by the outbreak of the late
+revolt. Plans for a new university, a hospital, and a medical school to
+correspond are all ready, and but for that ruinous catastrophe would have
+been by this time in working order.
+
+In other respects the present Infirmary is an ugly and unsuitable
+building, making up about 100 beds for patients. Several of these were
+occupied by soldiers, who had been severely wounded under Havelock at the
+storming of Delhi. The introduction of punkahs, or wind-fans, into the
+wards has proved so salutary, that there is an intention to have them
+worked without intermission day and night, by means of water power,
+instead of by manual labour as hitherto. In order to be able to estimate
+the boon conferred by such an improvement upon the condition of the poor
+invalids, we must call to mind that the average annual temperature of
+Madras is about 94 deg. Fahr., which is slightly in excess of the average
+temperature at the equator, although Madras is 10 degrees north of the
+line. Under such climatic conditions, it is no wonder that the
+invigorating wholesome breeze is known at Madras as "The Doctor."
+
+Among the benevolent institutions visited by us, we found the twin asylums
+for male and female orphans of soldiers well worthy of notice in many
+particulars. These are for the most part the offspring of European
+soldiers married to native women, and are known as "half-castes," or
+"Mestizoes." In the Military Female Asylum, there were at this time 216
+girls, who were brought up to all manner of female work, as well as taught
+reading, writing, and arithmetic, and remained in the institution until
+suitably provided for in marriage. The marriage outfit, as also a small
+wedding present of Rs. 50 (L5), for each girl is provided by Government,
+and the entire working expenses, which amount to about Rs. 30,000 (L3000)
+annually, are defrayed by a Government grant of Rs. 1000 (L100) a month,
+together with the interest of the funded capital, upon which Government
+pays 8 per cent. interest.
+
+The Military Male Orphan Asylum was founded in 1788 by means of voluntary
+contributions, supplemented by a Government Subvention, and possesses a
+special historical interest from the circumstance that it was here that
+Dr. Bell, who held the post of Head-Master in the establishment, first
+projected and put into execution the method of imparting elementary
+instruction, afterwards so widely renowned as the Lancastrian method of
+teaching, which since that period has traversed the globe, and has been
+introduced into every capital in Europe. The course of instruction of the
+institution includes writing, reading, arithmetic, grammar, geography,
+history, English, Tamil, and music. The capital of the institution is
+vested by Government in the 4 per cent. stocks, paying 8 per cent.
+interest, which, with the large amount realized within the establishment
+itself, is sufficient to defray all expenses without any further
+assistance. The number of boys is about 242. The head teacher, who
+obligingly conducted us over the whole establishment, which is very
+handsome, called a dozen boys forward just as we were leaving, who played
+a few simple pieces on wind instruments, on which they performed a variety
+of national airs with great precision. The music master was a German.
+
+Among its casual attractions, Madras has occasionally flower shows, and
+exhibitions of industry, and it is exceedingly gratifying to observe how
+European science is even here called in to elicit the treasures of nature,
+and administer to the necessities of mankind. The catalogue of the
+industrial exhibition of 1857 shows, _inter alia_, 17 sorts of spices, 20
+varieties of resin, 64 plants suitable for the distillation of oil, and 41
+different drugs, and Dr. Kirkpatrick, a physician in Mysore, has taken the
+trouble to enumerate, by their botanical and Indian names, 240 native
+drugs, which had been sent to the Madras exhibition, as also their market
+value, and at the same time has subjoined the modes in which the natives
+use them.
+
+Among the most remarkable private museums which have been formed at
+Madras for the illustration of the history and monuments of the southern
+provinces of the Deccan, must undoubtedly be included the collection of
+native inscriptions and manuscripts of the well-known Colonel Mackenzie,
+which first attracted the attention of all friends of Oriental science, as
+also the British Government, through a memoir[104] of Alexander Johnston,
+Esq. It is a magnificent testimony to the conservative spirit of the
+British resident among heathen nations, as compared with the barbarous
+spirit of destruction that characterized the Spanish colonists. From an
+erroneous idea that they were in so doing promoting the interests of
+Christianity, these Romanist conquerors destroyed all sculptures and
+monuments of the pagan Indian races, and, by this fanatical Vandalism, at
+the same time prevented the hand of science from unfolding, as it might
+have done from these important vestiges, the history of these very
+remarkable races from the most remote ages.
+
+[Footnote 104: On Colonel Mackenzie's Collection, in the Journal of the
+Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain. London, 1835, p. 4, vol. ii.]
+
+In the immense old palace, surrounded by adjacent edifices and gardens,
+once occupied by the King of the Coromandel coast, the renowned nabob of
+the Carnatic, the offices of the English Government _employes_ are at
+present located. The last of these sovereigns died a few years since, and
+his former minister receives from the British Government a pension of Rs.
+1300 (L130) a month. Great men who have fallen do not ordinarily like to
+be sought out or gazed at. There is, however, on the contrary, no
+difficulty in obtaining access to the last minister of the last monarch of
+the Coromandel coast, who seems to feel flattered by a visit from
+strangers. On our entering, the venerable old gentleman rose from a rich
+thick carpet, on which he was sitting cross-legged, held out his hand in
+the most affable manner, and did us the honour of accompanying us through
+the palace. He had a long white beard, and wore a white turban on his
+head, while his person was enveloped in white linen. A splendid staircase
+conducted to a council-room, adorned with a portrait of the late nabob,
+life-size, executed in London. A second room has a likeness of George
+Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, dedicated to his friend,
+Omadal-Omrah, nabob of the Carnatic, 1st January, 1797, and of Lord
+Cornwallis, arm in arm with a nabob, the former represented as walking
+among pines, the latter among palms. In the harness-room and coach-house
+adjoining, our obliging attendant revealed to us an endless array of
+golden howdah trappings, gilt with cunning hand, which seemed to have
+formerly borne the mighty nabob, when riding on his elephant. As we
+emerged from this lumber room, filled with dust and mud, we perceived in
+the square before us an immense dust-cloud, which approached nearer and
+nearer in its gyrations, and gradually assumed the shape of an elephant.
+It was a gigantic and magnificent specimen, and proved to be the favourite
+elephant of the last nabob, which, like the minister himself, was reduced
+to eat the bread of charity. His enormous tusks were sawn half off, for
+which his attendant assigned the singular reason that the tusks of an
+elephant must be cut, just as we pair our nails! This pensioner-elephant,
+however, seemed to find himself in very good quarters, and was a
+carefully-tended gentle creature, who carried about his chain with his
+proboscis, and knelt down at the word of command.
+
+Among the other spacious apartments of this deserted palace was the
+banquetting hall, as it is called, which was represented by various
+writers as one of the largest rooms in the world, which, however, is a
+transparent fallacy. It is hard to believe that above a thousand persons
+could find room in it. At the period of our visit this apartment was used
+as a barrack for the English troops, in consequence of which the splendid
+full-length pictures already mentioned were carefully covered. One of the
+soldiers, anxious to show them to us, tore away the covering of one before
+we could interfere, when we found it to be a splendid likeness, painted in
+London, of Sir Thomas Monroe, a former governor of Madras.
+
+In the first few days of our stay in Madras, we made an excursion to the
+fort of Vellore, distant about 80 miles (English) from Madras, formerly a
+renowned native fort, which is now reached in a few hours by rail. This
+line passes through a flat uninteresting country, which is barely relieved
+here and there by a couple of solitary palms or a Hindoo temple, and
+altogether presents a strongly African character in its scenery. Only at
+those points, at which there are tanks, or artificial basins, either
+excavated or formed by damming the water, does there occur a luxuriant
+green vegetation covering the parched, brown, dusty soil. These tanks are
+filled in the rainy season, and during the dry season, which continues for
+months, supply the rice-fields with water for irrigation, the culture of
+that plant requiring an unusually large supply of water.
+
+If English railroads are proverbially comfortable in the mother-country,
+they certainly fall off lamentably in that particular in the cars used in
+India. This deficiency is the more provoking and remarkable, considering
+the various other appliances for comfort which are to be found in this
+country. The conductor, as well as the other servants of the Company, was
+a Hindoo. On the entire line we saw but five or six white men employed.
+The fares are pretty moderate, that for the entire distance, 80 miles,
+being Rupees 7-1/2 (15_s._), for first-class, and Rupees 3 (6_s._), second
+(about 2-1/4_d._ and 1_d._ per mile, respectively). The line is to be
+extended from Bejapoor, so as to unite the eastern and western coasts of
+the peninsula. There are also lines projected from Madras to Bombay by
+Poonah and Bellary, and from Madras to Calcutta. The Governor, who (the
+evening previous to our departure, as we were being entertained at his
+summer residence, Guindy Park,) had been apprized of our intention to
+visit Vellore, was so attentive as to order the commandant to be informed
+by telegraph of our projected excursion at a late hour of the evening,
+and when we reached Vellore at 11 A.M., Captain Stevens was awaiting us at
+the station, to greet the voyagers by the _Novara_ in the name of the
+commandant of the fort, and convey them to the fort, three miles off, in a
+waggon drawn by oxen, as is the custom of the country. The waggon was
+about as large as an ordinary sized sitting-room, and contained several
+arm-chairs and cane stools, the position of which could be altered at
+pleasure.
+
+Vellore was once one of the strongest fortresses in India, the wells of
+which were formerly rendered inaccessible by numerous colonies of
+alligators. These Hindoo fortifications have, however, lost their military
+importance for Europeans, as they are on all sides "overcrowed," as
+Rittmeister Dugald Dalgetty would say, by eminences, from which they could
+easily be cannonaded. Within the fort itself are several extraordinary
+buildings, once pagodas and houses of entertainment for priests and
+pilgrims (_choultries_). The former sanctuary, now used as an arsenal, is
+a _chef-d'[oe]uvre_ of architectural skill, with splendid _relievos_ and
+figures sculptured in granite blocks. Most of the divinities have four
+arms, symbolical of the universality of their power. The various edifices
+seem to have been once an abode of Brahmins, a sort of Hindoo monastery in
+which, in addition to the pagoda, there were ranged all round, a temple,
+colonnades, and halls for the residence of the priests. In some of the
+smaller apartments there still are openings for windows, with a finely
+carved grating hewn out of the solid granite, the workmanship of which
+even the stone-cutters of our own days might feel proud of. Captain
+Mitchell, an English officer stationed at Madras, had hit upon the idea of
+photographing the most interesting of these monuments.
+
+The fortress of Vellore has been fortified for about 1000 years! Captured
+by the English at the close of the last century, the then Nabob, a
+Mussulman, was taken prisoner, and his descendants have ever since
+inhabited the fort as State prisoners, without ever being permitted to
+leave it. We inquired of the officer who accompanied us, whether the Nabob
+was permitted at least to make use of the space within the fortress for
+exercise in the open air. "The Mussulmen," replied the cautious
+Englishman, "do not care to show themselves in public; they prefer taking
+their exercise in the court in front of their residence, or in the
+garden." Accordingly, the aged prince is rarely known even to take an
+airing in a palanquin. The town of Vellore itself is, in a great measure,
+another place altogether, whose inhabitants are Mahometans, about 80,000
+in number, chiefly engaged in rice culture.
+
+We originally intended to return the same day to Madras, the length of the
+journey, as well as the distance of the fort from the railway station,
+having been represented to us as much shorter than was actually the case.
+Accordingly, we telegraphed to the Austrian Consul, M. Campbell, Esq., an
+exceedingly courteous gentleman, that we should not return till the
+following morning. How great was our astonishment to find that the
+telegraph _employes_ at Vellore, both in the transcribing department, and
+in the management of the apparatus, which was on Morse's system, were
+Hindoos, with their curious marks upon their foreheads, and their
+old-fashioned costume! They went, however, through the duties connected
+with this modern invention with great adroitness. The telegraph is already
+in operation to Bombay, and in this direction has two separate lines.
+There are, moreover, other lines in course of construction,--along the
+coast to Calcutta,--along the coast to Pondicherry by Adam's Bridge,[105]
+from Madras to Point de Galle, and from Madras to Hyderabad, Bangalore,
+and Bellary.
+
+[Footnote 105: Adam's Bridge--called by the Hindoos Rama's Bridge,--is a
+bank extending between Ceylon and the mainland of Hindostan, by the
+islands of Manaar and Ramisseram. It is about 30 miles in length, running
+in a N.W. by W. direction, about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and
+principally composed of shelving sand, through which are three main
+openings or channels, that admit the passage of boats of very light
+draught.]
+
+In proceeding from the fort to the town of Vellore, which is charmingly
+situated and regularly laid out, and is inhabited by numerous pensioners
+of the East India Company, we must cross the river Palaar (or Peliar),
+which, during the rainy season, is a headlong dangerous torrent, while in
+the dry season its bed, 1000 feet wide, is but a bare expanse of sand. It
+is only by dint of strenuous exertions that the traveller is able to pass
+this sand waste in a waggon, as it sinks at some points above the hubs of
+the wheels. We had four buffalo oxen yoked, and even then had to be
+propelled at certain points by the assistance of some 30 coolies or Indian
+porters besides. This serious inconvenience was shortly after our visit to
+be remedied by the erection of a splendid bridge of solid masonry, which
+was to span the river by 42 arches, and will reduce the time of transit
+from the station from 1-1/4 hour to 20 minutes. Hereabouts oxen are
+usually employed for draught, which are of the same humped species as
+those we had previously seen in Ceylon. These animals trot with uncommon
+swiftness, so that the rapidity of transport may stand comparison with
+that where horses are employed.
+
+A few miles distant from Vellore, and visible from the hills around, lies
+Arcot (Arucati), the residence of the nominal nabob of the Carnatic, who
+has long been a pensioner of the British. The population of Arcot are
+mostly Mahometans, who speak a dialect of Hindustani, and drive a very
+active trade.
+
+At Vellore we resided in the house of the hospitable Lieut.-Colonel
+McCally, who, in the absence of the Commandant, did the honours of the
+Fort to the members of the _Novara_ Expedition. Here we experienced a most
+cordial reception, and passed a few most delightful hours in the domestic
+circle of his amiable family. In the evening we made out an excursion to
+an adjoining eminence, 1400 feet above sea-level, 300 above Vellore, from
+which there is a commanding view over the town and neighbourhood. Seen
+from this point, the Fort looked charming, presenting itself to us,
+surrounded as it is by moats and watercourses, like an island in the
+foreground. On the top of this hill is the bungalow or country-seat of the
+collector of revenue, W. A. Sulivan, Esq., where we revelled in the
+enjoyment of the exquisite natural scenery, and partook of refreshment.
+
+In the evening a number of officers, with their wives, met us at dinner at
+Lieut.-Colonel McCally's house. The gaieties were prolonged till far in
+the evening, music and songs alternating with round games and dancing, so
+that we had hardly composed ourselves to sleep ere we were awakened by the
+servants, in order to avoid missing the train, which leaves Vellore for
+Madras at 6.30 A.M. By 11 A.M., we were once more in the chief city of the
+Carnatic.
+
+The same afternoon the officers of the _Novara_, and the naturalists of
+the Expedition, were invited to an Indian fete, which Lord Harris gave
+every year at this season in his palace at Guindy Park, and to which it
+was customary to invite the majority of the European residents at Madras,
+together with their families,--military, civil service, and mercantile
+community, all being honoured with cards. This festival originated in a
+children's entertainment, which the governor had been in the habit of
+giving on the birthday of his son; the latter had long since gone to an
+English University, but the custom had survived, and the day was equally
+carefully observed this year also, having been looked forward to for
+months before by the "white" young folks of Madras. The entertainment
+still retains the character of a children's party, inasmuch as on the
+present occasion there were assembled above 250 children of both sexes,
+varying from 5 to 12 years of age. The total number of guests who, in
+addition to these, shared in the festivities was probably more than a
+thousand. The fete began with the performances of some 30 Indian jugglers
+and acrobats, on a large lawn in the park. These, as may be conceived, had
+been selected from among the most athletic and skilful. They presented a
+singularly-picturesque appearance, from the diversities of age, agile
+boys, athletic young men, slender voluptuous-looking _Bayaderes_, old
+grey-headed men, and marvellous-looking old hags, with streaming white
+hair, and dark, piercing, gleaming eyes, recalling in their manners and
+appearance our own gipsies. All played at once, and performed with the
+most astonishing precision a succession of breakneck feats, that set the
+spectator's hair on end. It was a spectacle entirely _sui generis_,
+thoroughly Indian in short, to behold these wild-looking brown figures,
+unawed by the presence they were in, going through their various
+performances and feats of agility. In front of us knelt an old man who
+played with a dozen knives, which he kept circling around him with wild
+yells, apparently without looking at them, till he finally turned them in
+such a manner that it seemed as though the sharp points of the knives had
+transfixed his hand. Next youthful acrobats sprang through paper balloons
+set on fire,--girls in boys' dresses climbed up bamboo poles 100 feet
+high, in the midst of continual yells,--boys executed on the damp meadow
+ground the most extraordinary feats of agility and contortions of the
+limbs, while one old fellow, to the intense astonishment of the assembled
+children, swallowed swords, as also tow and other combustible matter,
+whereupon flames presently seemed to issue from his month. These, indeed,
+are feats of conjuring which have been performed in Europe, _usque ad
+nauseam_, but here all was done with such precision and dexterity (each
+man especially playing entirely _con amore_, evidently not to impress the
+spectators, but because he felt a pleasure in it himself), that the whole
+exhibition left quite a different impression from anything of the sort
+elsewhere.
+
+After this introductory amusement, the children invited were regaled with
+a refection under an enormous tent. This was for the grown-up guests
+another source of great amusement. More than 300 children took their seats
+at a long well-covered table, while their fathers, mothers, governesses,
+&c., stood behind the benches, and took special care to supply the little
+watering mouths with a sufficient supply of the many delicacies before
+them.
+
+A distribution of souvenirs to the various children present succeeded the
+repast, the various articles being fastened to a gigantic tree under a
+tent. The tree was profusely hung with elegant paper lamps, and although
+there were no pine-branches, only palm leaves, the "_tout ensemble_," bore
+a strong resemblance to a genuine Christmas tree. Fathers and mothers
+expressed to us their own feelings of pleasure at beholding the glee of
+their children, and, indeed, seemed to think this the most entertaining
+part of the fete. The distribution lasted a considerable time, and many of
+the children affected to coquette disparagingly with the presents of
+their neighbours, which these latter held fast with both hands, till at
+length the whole joyous train were dismissed homewards, thoroughly pleased
+with the day's proceedings.
+
+After this interlude there were fireworks on the lawn for the grown-up
+children, which seemed intended to serve merely as a stop-gap to while
+away the time between the distribution of the presents to the children and
+the supper, which was laid out in the brilliantly-illuminated dining-room
+of the palace. The fine band, which a few days previously had so pleased
+us by its performances during dinner at Guindy Park, drew up on the large
+lawn fronting the ball-room, and during this interval played a few select
+pieces with admirable precision. At last, supper was announced by a
+flourish of trumpets. Despite the spacious proportions of the apartment,
+the company was too numerous to admit of all sitting down at once. We
+calculated the number of guests still remaining at at least 500. The
+ladies supped first, and afterwards the gentlemen--the Governor, Lord
+Harris, doing the honours in person, in the most courteous and kindly
+manner. After supper the party proceeded in couples to a splendid
+ball-room, where dancing speedily began, while over their heads an
+omnipresent punkah, of rich tapestry-paper, and elegantly adorned with
+beautiful arabesques, swung to and fro, and kept the half-breathless
+dancers continually fanned by its currents of air.[106] In spite, however,
+of this artificial ventilating machine overhead, one must have had an
+extraordinary love for the dance to find pleasure in a polka or galop at a
+temperature of 86 deg. of Fahrenheit.
+
+[Footnote 106: In many English families in India there prevails a sort of
+punkah mania, so that there is a regular hurricane incessantly blowing
+over their heads. Undoubtedly these artificial gales are particularly
+agreeable in apartments where, a large number of persons being assembled,
+the atmosphere becomes intolerable--as, for instance, courts of justice,
+churches, hotels, and hospitals. Under such circumstances, they are,
+indeed, a most valuable contrivance. But their application is entirely
+overdone; and there are persons who, even while they are sleeping, have a
+Hindoo servant continually working the punkah, which, under such
+circumstances, is usually worked from an adjoining room by means of silken
+cords, so that the motive power is not visible from the apartment, but
+only the effect felt. Strangers at first find these artificial currents
+very apt to superinduce headache, until continued residence makes him
+regard the punkah as a most necessary article of furniture.]
+
+Lord Harris had taken measures for ensuring our proceeding direct from his
+residence in Guindy Park upon the favourite excursion from Madras--that,
+namely, to the Seven Pagodas. We had accordingly provided ourselves with
+only what was indispensable in the way of luggage; and towards 1 A.M., we
+left the ball-room, and proceeded on our way to the renowned Hindoo
+Temples to the south of Madras. A waggon conveyed us to the Adyar bridge,
+where a Government boat was in waiting for us, together with some Hindoo
+servants of the Governor, who were to be our guides to the Seven Pagodas.
+One of these _peons_, as they are called in India, named Iritschapa,
+presented us with a document, in which he was commissioned to place
+himself at our disposal during the whole period we were absent, and
+anticipate all our requirements without further authorization, to the best
+of his ability, so as to ensure our comfort and assist the objects we had
+in view. The Government boat was supplied with everything that could
+minister to our comfort, a second boat following us exclusively for the
+conveyance of our heavy baggage, personal effects, tents, and provisions.
+Towards 2 A.M., we embarked on the Eastern Coast Canal, which goes as far
+as Sadras, and by which we reached the Seven Pagodas, called also
+Mahamalaipuram, the city of the Great or Holy Mountain, at 9 A.M.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOLY MOUNTAIN.]
+
+These singular and majestic specimens of architecture are about 3 miles
+from Sadras, being situated on the coast northwards, and about 500 paces
+from the canal. They consist of temples, grottoes, bas-reliefs, cisterns,
+stone-benches, and thousands of sculptures in long ranges of bas-reliefs,
+which afford an abundant store of antiquarian research. They go by the
+name of the Seven Pagodas (from _Baghavati_--Holy House, whence the
+European corruption, Pagoda), from the circumstance, that there are, upon
+the very brink of the ocean, seven temples hewn out of one piece of rock.
+The Brahminical legends speak of an entire city having existed here, of
+which only the fragments are now washed by the sea. But, according to
+Babington's and Heber's minute researches in this neighbourhood,[107] there
+seems no doubt that there never existed any large city here, but that the
+whole was a mere myth of the Brahmins, who procured a royal gift, an
+Agrabaram in this neighbourhood, and with subtle forethought left here a
+caste of stone-cutters, who from time to time, under the guidance of their
+priests, executed these sculptures for the adornment of their sanctuary,
+which are justly the objects of wonder to their descendants. To this day,
+even, there dwell here certain families of stone-cutters, who work these
+singular rocks as granite quarries, and make money by the trade. The Seven
+Pagodas, specially so-called, are monolith temples, hewn on the spot out
+of massive blocks of rock. The mountain itself, a huge block of granite,
+to which the entire locality owes its reputation as a site of works of
+art, is covered, behind as well as in the front slope, with innumerable
+figures.
+
+[Footnote 107: Benjamin Guy Babington. An Account of the Sculptures and
+Inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, illustrated by Plates I.-XVIII., in the
+Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, London, 1819,
+p. 258. Bishop Heber's Narrative, London, 1828, Vol. III., p. 216.]
+
+After our arrival, we made a hasty circuit through the place, so as first
+of all to be able to identify them, and be in a position to recognize the
+various sculptures and bas-reliefs cut out in the solid granite rock. The
+greater number of the sculptures represent either the one or the other
+descriptions of the Avatars (the incarnations or transfigurations) of
+Vishnu, to whom the larger proportion of the temples is dedicated. In one
+of these temples, we perceived the god Vishnu in the fifth, or Dwarf
+Incarnation, in the course of which he had, under the guise of a
+Brahminical dwarf, begged of King Balitscha-Kravathi--who, by his piety,
+had acquired so much power over the gods, that they had to transfer to him
+the dominion of sea and land, and had in consequence waxed arrogant--as
+much soil as he could traverse in three steps! The wealthy Rajah made no
+objection to complying with the apparently moderate request of the pigmy
+being before him. On the opposite wall of the temple we now see, in a
+large admirably executed bas-relief, how Vishnu, represented on this
+occasion with eight arms, at once embraced heaven and earth with his left
+foot, and as there was thus no more room left for the next step, Vishnu
+released the haughty Rajah from his promise, on condition that he should
+descend to the infernal regions. From this feat, Vishnu bears the name of
+Triwikrama and Tripadas (thrice-stepper).
+
+In the next rock grotto we came to, we beheld the Life of Krishna, the
+shepherd-god, represented, first as tending his sheep, surrounded by cows,
+goats frisking about, &c. Walter Elliot names this representation
+"Krischna's Choultry," or the abode of the priests. The temple has a
+frontage of 50 feet, is from 30 to 40 feet in depth, and has about twenty
+figures.
+
+From this spot, our guide, a Brahmin, brought us to what is called the
+Ganeza Temple, a monolith Pagoda. When we expressed a wish to touch the
+face of Ganeza (a son of Siva), cut in stone and plentifully besmeared
+with oil and lard, one of the Hindoo attendants hurried forwards to
+prevent us from being guilty of insult to this much-beloved divinity. The
+inscription to the right, in front of the niche in which Ganeza, hewn out
+of a single block of granite, is represented in a sitting posture,
+consists of verses and prayers to Siva, written in Sanscrit.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOD GANEZA.]
+
+We also remarked, on our way to the village, an ellipsoidal block of rock,
+68 feet in circumference, by 25 in height, which, from its very peculiar
+position, seems to shift every moment, and presents a very extraordinary
+appearance.
+
+As we were proceeding to the beach, we came upon the Pagoda of
+Kovulgobrom, which is at present in use (first constructed in the days of
+Rajah Apatsch, 400 or 500 years since), situated on a large oblong plot of
+ground, which is surrounded by a wall from 6 to 8 feet high. We were not
+permitted to cross the threshold of the pagoda, the door of which always
+stands wide open, and the minor apartments of which, so far as we could
+discern at a little distance away, were quite empty. We could just descry
+a few sculptures on the walls.
+
+The whole village contains at present about 400 inhabitants,[108] who
+reside in eighty small dwellings. Of these, three, built of bricks and
+with tiled roofs, belong to the caste of Brahmins, thirty to the Pariahs,
+five to families occupied in fishing, and two mere hovels of palm-wood to
+the Willis, the lowest and most wretched caste of all. The families of
+stone-cutters reside outside the village. One remarks here that the walls
+of the houses are hidden by heaps of cow and horse-dung, which the
+inhabitants, as in Egypt, use for fuel, and which they pile up to dry
+against those of the walls which are most exposed to the sun. The _peon_
+of the settlement, by name Randghajaneik, a sort of overseer, gave us a
+drawing of the various groups of houses, their inhabitants, and also the
+names of the various castes in Tamil, engraved as usual with an iron tool
+upon palm-leaves, and very elegantly rolled up in a small envelope. Among
+the customs and fashions of the inhabitants which attracted our notice, we
+were informed that they always burn their dead from four to five hours
+after life has departed--usually four hours and forty minutes--alleging
+that the released soul takes that length of time to reach heaven! The
+bones are collected and thrown into the sea. Widows are no longer
+required, on the death of their husbands, to ascend the pyre with them.
+Accordingly, the mortality upon this score is small enough in
+Mahamalaipuram. All seem hale and hearty, although for the most part they
+live upon rice and fruits, tasting flesh but seldom, as it is never used
+by the Brahmin caste. The Brahmins will not even eat eggs, because they
+are the produce of hens; nor drink milk because it is procured from cows!
+The girls generally marry at thirteen. They are, however, usually
+betrothed from the time they are two or three years of age, the
+bridegroom-elect taking the bride-elect to reside with himself.
+
+[Footnote 108: Of these inhabitants 50 belong to the Brahmin caste, 250 to
+the Malabar, Sentu, and Siva castes, and 100 are Pariahs.]
+
+All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write, but the
+Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite unintelligible to
+them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telugu, and Malabar. The greater number
+had their foreheads painted according to the caste they belonged to. Those
+worshipping Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver
+amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed. The adherents
+of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no distinguishing mark upon the
+forehead, except that those that are married wear a five-ply cord
+(_panul_), tied obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not,
+however, attach too much faith to these varieties of external markings,
+since many tattoo their foreheads with red, or yellow, or ashen-gray
+punctures, which usually have no special signification, but simply imply
+that on account of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence,
+they have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing insignia
+of their caste properly designed. According to the natives, the yellow
+colour is procured from the crushed, yellow-tinted root of the _Curcuma
+longa_, (a species of spice), the red from the Cardomum (_Amomum repens_),
+citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from common chalk.
+
+[Illustration: BIVOUAC AT MAHAMALAIPURAN.]
+
+Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most admirable
+arrangements for our accommodation while at the Seven Pagodas. When, after
+our first survey of the locality, we came down to the beach, we found two
+large and two small tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected
+round a fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our astonishment,
+on entering the first tent, to find it spread with carpets, with an
+elegant sleeping-apartment with two large commodious bedsteads, and fitted
+up with all the usual necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage
+which ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two immense
+baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate our exhausted frames!
+Ere we had recovered from our surprise, we were advised of the voice of
+the Government Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second
+tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and reception room, and was
+also furnished with every conceivable appliance to promote our comfort.
+His lordship was even so attentive as to send his own travelling canteen
+for our use on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls, with
+a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with blue, by means of
+which the glare of the sun and of the blinding white sand was rendered
+less painful and more tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were
+employed in sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained sand,
+which produced a most refreshing coolness all around. The Government Peon,
+as also the chief of police of the district, wore their best uniforms of
+white, with bran new bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red
+scarves, with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate, with
+the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number of men and children
+ran hither and thither,--in a word, the whole village seemed in an uproar
+to see the strange gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of
+receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 P.M., the thermometer suspended
+within the tent marked 84 deg. Fahr., although a gentle breeze was blowing
+from seaward through the fragrant luxuriant grass (_Kus-kus_, or
+_Vetiveyr_), which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an
+exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant _Kus-kus_, (_Andropogon
+muricatum_) in the manufacture of mats, which are intended to be suspended
+in the entrance-halls of houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon
+the penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine damp
+texture, which thus at once tempers the heat, and fills the air with
+perfume.
+
+Towards 5 P.M., the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled to the Five
+Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our encampment. The prevalent
+tree in this locality is the _Palmyra_ palm, which, though it does not
+boast the majestic proportions of the _Oreodoxia Regia_, or the cocoa-nut
+palm, presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance. Generally
+speaking, however, the district is quite bare and destitute of trees; and,
+in short, like all the rest of this coast, has very much the appearance of
+the flat coasts of Africa.
+
+Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the brothers of
+Vishnu, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and Sawadewen, the fifth being
+excavated in honour of Dubrotis, the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend
+relates that the four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality
+of husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species of Amazon.
+All these temples are tolerably sculptured, which, indeed, constitutes
+their chief claim to attention; but they are far from showing the artistic
+finish of the bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy
+Mount.
+
+Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not the most
+important of these artificial grottoes. The sculptures here are
+incontestably the most highly-finished. The upper portion, to which access
+is obtained by some steps cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite
+block, known as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of one
+piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed allegories.
+
+Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga, Siva's wife,
+riding on a lion (according to the natives, on a tiger), and bending her
+bow in conflict with Mahishasura, a giant with the head of a buffalo, who
+brandishes a club. According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this
+represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and heroine, Donga, the
+representative of active virtue, and the bull-headed Mahishasura, the
+personification of brute strength and animal passion. Over the head of
+either figure, a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread,
+giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.
+
+[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF ON ONE OF THE MONOLITH TEMPLES.]
+
+The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnu
+(Rhanganatha), 9-1/2 feet high, apparently representing the idea of the
+Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five heads, encircles his head.
+At his feet one perceives two rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in
+a praying attitude, with uplifted hands, only the bust being represented.
+In one of the niches at Swami are two busts, life-size, of Siva, and his
+wife Paravathi, the latter holding an infant at the breast, his offspring
+Supramanion. Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from
+the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma, on the left
+Vishnu, each with four arms, symbolical of their power and dominion.
+
+The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of platform of loose
+stones accurately fitted to each other without mortar, so as to make an
+ornamental whole. The interior is adorned with much more highly-finished
+specimens of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing penance,
+annually climb, with great difficulty, into this part of the building, and
+make their way into the unfinished interior apartments. While we were
+giving free scope to our surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed
+in our contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of flowers,
+wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players (_Pulanpolen_) who
+were passing, made their appearance to give us a specimen of their musical
+skill. One old man, of whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnu, neatly
+carved in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there was in
+the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a manuscript, known as the
+_Istalam-puranam_ which gave the history of the Seven Pagodas, written in
+Tamil.
+
+The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter Elliot, who
+formed an extensive collection of the various valuable Hindoo manuscripts
+and inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a
+translation of them,[109] told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil
+Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give one single
+reliable particular as to the history of the Seven Pagodas.
+
+[Footnote 109: Journal of the Madras Literary Society, 1846, Nos. 30 and
+31.]
+
+In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and surrounded by a
+modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on the exterior of the Temple,
+an inscription in Tamil, which is, however, utterly unintelligible to the
+natives. This inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a
+donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and gives the most
+complete detail, together with signature of the donor. The name
+Mahamalaipur,[110] the "City of the Sacred Hill," occurs frequently in it.
+
+[Footnote 110: Dr. Elliot writes Mamallaipuram; the natives call the place
+Mahawalipuram, obviously a mere corruption of the customary mode of
+spelling.]
+
+In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo followers, we
+remarked that they made no difference between a "kovuel" or praying-house,
+in which the divinities are never produced, but are guarded under lock and
+key, and a pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they can
+be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it is that a pagoda is
+more readily accessible than a kovuel, the sanctity of which it is
+forbidden him to violate.
+
+In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the Brahmins, was
+permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (L3), to break away the partition which
+divided the inscriptions into two portions, in order to prepare three
+copies, and have them translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these
+translators was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The
+inscription contains the history of two donations, on the enlargement and
+laying the foundation-stone of the temple, accomplished by the "Kanattan"
+of the village, and, lastly, a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin
+Paramesvara-Mahavara, on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept
+constantly burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073. It
+results from this interpretation that the inscription was put up towards
+the end of the 11th century, thus supplying some clue to the age of this
+rock temple, which, according to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed
+a thousand years.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO ONE OF THE TEMPLES.]
+
+To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole history, the
+natives wander regularly every morning, and sometimes two or three times
+during the day, to offer flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight
+of steps cut in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is an
+excellent view over these monumental edifices.
+
+That fancy has been called in to invest these unique unfinished sculptures
+with the character of pleasure-grottoes, baths, &c., &c., of historical
+personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the guide does not
+fail to point out to the stranger a sort of stone cistern hewn out of the
+solid rock, traditionally reported to have been once the plunge-bath of
+Dubrotis. This colossal basin has about 2-1/2 feet water during the rainy
+season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use. The water,
+tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves a mark behind on the
+stone sides, which naturally becomes very visible during the dry season.
+This the natives maintain marks the height of the water as often as
+Dubrotis, (Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another similar
+block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch, and is called Dharma
+Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which, near the head, a tiger is crouched
+to guard it. This gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as
+though balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor made to
+oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock piled up above the
+grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so forth. All these spots, however,
+have in reality not the slightest historic significance; it is only the
+present generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions, and
+interpretations, which assuredly never were in the intention of the
+constructors.
+
+On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of sculptures of
+remarkable beauty, representing the history of Tapasa, or the deep
+penitence of Ardschuna. On the right hand, close to the figure of the
+penitent Ardschuna, one perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as
+large as life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half woman
+half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have seen, is a huge
+sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in height, comprising hundreds
+of figures, with an idol in the centre, to which from all sides
+worshipping deities, men, and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory
+attitudes; along the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The
+colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal, tends still
+more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder doubt whether he is looking
+upon sculptures or upon living elephants. Elliot and others who have
+described these rock temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a
+comparatively small antiquity. They are representations borrowed from the
+poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo mythology. The five roundish temples to
+the south of the village are beyond all question the oldest of these
+monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed; solid, and
+here and there showing marks of work, but only adorned externally, the
+interiors being masses of unhewn granite; each of these temples is 30 feet
+in length by 20 in breadth and height. Thus far, the inscriptions have
+been ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are as yet
+undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to decipher them, or at
+all events to find the key by which to decipher them. The most important
+has been copied and interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the
+various representations give the slightest historical clue as to the
+object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to establish the fact,
+that in the 17th century this district was inhabited by the Corumbas, a
+half-civilized race of the Dschaina religion. About this period, or a
+little later, in the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals
+were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced to this
+neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however, their nature, and the
+immense expense incurred, all point to a long-continued influence of the
+Brahmins. Most of these temples seem to have been first erected in the
+17th century, under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several
+even a much later date.
+
+As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old pyramidal
+pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the sea, peering up from amid
+the furious foaming surf, it seems to be altogether a myth, so that such
+enquirers as Ellis, Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo
+traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble of searching
+for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of seeking to recover the ruins of
+the submerged city. Several writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea
+on the Cormandel coast is retiring; but this appears to be a mistake, for
+here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is the case at Fort St. George,
+which 80 years ago was at some distance from the sea-shore, whereas its
+walls are at present washed by the tremendous surf.
+
+But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden and extensive
+as to have swallowed up an entire city, without leaving any traces. Not
+one of the natives to whom we spoke in the place could say for certain,
+that the sea had materially gained upon the land within the memory of man.
+Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a city. One can
+safely assert that there never existed such a city at Mahamalaipuram, but
+that it has always been a mere abode of priests, with temples,
+sanctuaries, &c., without any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan,
+Quirigua, or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more
+artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of the artist.
+The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at Mahamalaipuram is too low, to
+admit of our supposing that since their erection the greater part had been
+swallowed up in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to
+any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they are all
+susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo mythology, with the
+aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata, all referring to Vishnu and his
+world of deities.
+
+While some of the _Novara_ expedition were visiting Mahamalaipuram, others
+made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake, near the shore, northwards from
+Madras. About 40 or 50 miles on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or
+Blue Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the gray horizon
+to the N.W., the height of which may be about 1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow
+bulwark or quay of unequal breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles,
+separates this salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some
+narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters. The lake
+varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about 60 to 70 miles long.
+The level of its bed is so remarkably regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5
+feet, that when the wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be
+pushed along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked inhabitants of
+the coast standing in the very middle of the water, with their landing or
+drag-nets, or busily occupied with rod and line! Being but a few hours
+distant from Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial
+canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets, carefully faced
+with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining land into lagoons, in which
+during the rainy seasons the strongly brackish water enters, and is used
+to make sea-salt.
+
+In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by fishing-boats, as by
+those laden with wood and fruit, which they convey to the city for
+disposal. Most especially remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds,
+which frequent its shores and all around it. At several places where the
+shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere swamps with barely a foot of
+water, they are literally covered with myriads of curlews, which fly
+about in flights of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long
+rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the earth, seeking
+their food in the mud; far as the eye can reach, one saw whole ranks of
+these birds blending with storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in
+the water itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the
+sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in the air. As
+evening came on, the naturalists of the _Novara_ were sailing as though in
+a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish, as they sprang out of the water, left a
+fiery wake behind them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured
+ever-widening circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again.
+Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round the boat,
+united with the singular melancholy cry of the jackal, which resounded
+from the shore, while overhead flights of birds flew restlessly about in
+the air, whirring in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.
+
+From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the artificial canals,
+which unite this basin of water at various points and in different
+directions with the surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta
+Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a sort of
+underwood or brush, which grows again within the extraordinary short space
+of ten to twelve years. _Sisyphus vulgaris_ (_Rhamnea_), _Gardenia Ficus_,
+tamarinds, and several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the
+forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of climbers. The
+wood is cut by the natives, who have constructed huts in the jungle, into
+pieces of about 2 feet in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the
+shore, whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.
+
+When the members of the _Novara_ Expedition had returned, greatly pleased,
+from their various excursions, the Madras Club gave a grand banquet in
+honour of the captain and staff, to which the _elite_ of Madras society
+were invited. Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the
+club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific members of the
+Expedition upon the free list of the club during the ship's stay. The
+Madras Club-house, though not so luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of
+London, fairly surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in
+fact, a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds assembled
+all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable mode of existence;
+parlours, with wide arm-chairs and American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms,
+in which are all the best journals and an excellent assortment of the best
+and newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine in either
+the English or French style; billiard-rooms, shower and plunge-baths, and
+a large swimming-bath. Members from the country, or strangers, can be
+accommodated with lodging as well.
+
+At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at which above 200
+persons sat down, the chair was taken by the Chief Justice Sir Christopher
+Rawlinson--next to the Governor, the most influential person in the
+community. The extremely friendly disposition manifested on that occasion
+found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few, but appropriate
+words, welcomed the foreign guests; while, on the other side, they gave
+unmistakable evidence of the admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by
+the _Novara_ carried away with them from the hospitable shores of
+Madras.[111]
+
+[Footnote 111: After the customary official toasts had been proposed by the
+chairman, and thanks returned by the Commander-in-chief of the Expedition,
+the health was also proposed of the scientific staff, on which occasion
+one of the naturalists present expressed his thanks for this honour, in
+his name and that of his colleagues, in the following speech, which may be
+permitted to find a place here, as best showing with what impression the
+members of the Expedition left Madras.
+
+"Gentlemen,--It is not without some feeling of anxiety that I am rising,
+for I have so many things to say, and yet it is but the thousandth part of
+what I, of what my fellow travellers all feel! Surely, it is always
+flattering to a man to be distinguished by his fellow-men; but such a
+distinction becomes the more honouring if those who concur to distinguish
+him are--as this is the case with you--a most estimable part of the
+_British_ nation! Of a nation, which has done more than any other on the
+globe for the propagation of Christianity, the diffusion of knowledge, the
+advancement of science, for the progress of civilization, industry, and
+commerce. I do not intend, gentlemen, to return with the shiny currency of
+flattery the many proofs of attention and kindness which all the members
+of the Expedition have witnessed during our short, but most pleasant,
+ever-remembered stay in this city, the birth-place of hospitality! What I
+say is but truth! Every page in modern history certifies my words! Which
+nation has done more for the propagation of Christianity among savage
+tribes all over the world? Some years ago, when I was rambling in British
+America, and along the north shores of Lake Superior, I often found
+villages of 300 or 400 Indians, and but one single white man amongst them.
+And who was that white man, who voluntarily shared their misery, their
+wants, and their privations? He was an _English missionary_!
+
+"And again! Which nation has made greater and more serious efforts to
+suppress the slave trade, and to abolish slavery in all countries where it
+still exists, a shame to the nineteenth century?--Slavery! that hideous
+leprosy on the limb of the gigantic body, called the United States! Who is
+even now anxiously engaged to open, with the heartblood of its noblest
+sons, a vast empire--the Chinese kingdom--to civilization, to
+Christianity, to the traffic of all seafaring nations of the globe!
+
+"And is not this very city, Madras, where we have been so heartily
+welcomed, the best proof of the energy and perseverance of the political
+and commercial greatness of the British nation? Nothing but English
+steadiness and English perseverance could succeed to build on this barren,
+inhospitable, and even most perilous coast, a vast, flourishing city,
+rivalling in size and the number of inhabitants the largest capitals in
+Europe! And what is still more pleasing and satisfactory, is the
+intellectual and physical condition in which one finds the Indians,
+especially if compared with the condition of the natives in North and
+Central America, &c. There he meets a population, rapidly dying away, in
+proportion as the axe of civilization is resounding from the backwoods.
+One may almost determinate the day when the last of the red men will have
+disappeared from the North American Continent, the land of his ancestors!
+Here in India, on the contrary, the traveller meets with a thriving,
+industrious population. Who can see Hindoos, Malabar, Sentus, &c., occupy
+most important employments at the observatory, at the telegraph offices,
+at the railroad, in any branch almost of the public service, and still
+believe the Hindoo race like the Indians of North America to be a _doomed_
+people--to be a people that has no future? No, it HAS a future, and, under
+the wise and humane government of the British Crown, I am sure the
+coloured race of India will even have a most _glorious_ future!
+
+"These are the impressions and feelings, gentlemen, with which we part
+from Madras, with which I and my scientific colleagues bid you all a most
+sincere and heartfelt farewell."]
+
+As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish, notwithstanding the
+difficulties of getting out to, and back from the roads, to visit our
+ship, the commodore invited some forty guests, shortly before our
+departure, to a "tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty
+heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the company of some
+twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After "tiffin," which was served on the
+poop, under a tent improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt
+sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck, our band of
+music being called into requisition for quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes;
+and, indeed, our guests paid so little attention to the approach of
+night, that their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of
+which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our pleasant guests
+homewards with Bengal lights.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII.--TRACK FROM MADRAS TO THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.]
+
+At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set sail. As the
+frigate was perceived, from Fort George to weigh anchor, a thundering
+salute was fired of 21 guns--an extraordinary honour and mark of
+attention, to which we responded by a similar salute. In consequence of
+calms and light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and it
+was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our voyage. For several
+evenings after, that magnificent, and as yet unexplained, phenomenon, the
+Zodiacal light, which is conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age,
+to be the beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving in
+the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was visible with much
+regularity. What was afterwards observed, however, of this remarkable zone
+of light, during the course of our voyage, will be found detailed in the
+meteorological portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather
+accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar Islands, our next
+station. But although, as was rendered necessary by the climate so near
+the Equator, we were clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was
+nothing to remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our sailors
+did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without celebrating that day, to be
+marked with a white stone, by masking and dancing according to ancient
+custom. Jack has an especially good memory for the return of such
+junketings, and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of
+the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near the line also,
+not because he had any pleasure therein, but because it has always been
+his custom to do so at carnival-time!
+
+The state of health of the ship's company was excellent, there being but
+eight on the sick list, of whom only two were seriously ill.
+
+On the 22nd February towards 10 A.M. the Island of Kar-Nicobar hove in
+sight, and towards afternoon we found ourselves but a few miles distant.
+The land seemed for the most part level, only a low eminence thickly
+covered with frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown with
+cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three Malay boats at
+anchor. On the beach were some huts of beehive-like shape, in and out of
+which naked brown figures were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous
+lights glimmered from the shore.
+
+The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we anchored off the
+N.W. side of the island, in 14-1/2 fathoms coral sand, about 2 miles
+distant from the shore, and just between the two villages of Mosse and
+Saui, each consisting of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4
+cable-lengths of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay
+bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies covered in the
+most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European clothes, approached the
+frigate while she was being secured, in small but elegant canoes, and
+called out anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive tone
+and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we interpreted into an
+inquiry as to whether they had anything to fear, and whether we were
+disposed to be friendly. When, however, we did not immediately throw them
+a rope to make fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our
+numerous guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.
+
+[Illustration: ARRIVAL AT KAR-NICOBAR.]
+
+                            END OF VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+                            APPENDIX A.
+
+
+           LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE "NOVARA" EXPEDITION.
+
+          Commodore--B. v. Wuellerstorf-Urbair, Commander-in-Chief.
+          Captain--Frederick Baron Poeck.
+          First Lieutenant--Bela Saal de Gyula.
+          Lieutenants--Maurice Monfroni de Montfort.
+              "     "   Alexander Count Kielmansegge.
+              "     "   William Lund.
+              "     "   Robert Mueller.
+              "     "   Ernest Jacoby.
+              "     "   Eugen Kronowetter.
+              "     "   Gustavus Battlogg.
+          Purser--Antonio Basso.
+          Principal Surgeon--Dr. Francis Seligmann.
+          Assistant Surgeons--Dr. Ave Robert Lallemant.
+                 "       "      Dr. Edward Schwarz.
+                 "       "      Charles Ruziczka.
+          Chaplain--Edward de Marocchini.
+          Midshipmen--Henry Fayenz.
+            "    "    Joseph Natty.
+            "    "    Gustavus v. Semsey.
+            "    "    Richard Baron Walterskirchen.
+            "    "    Louis Meder.
+            "    "    Alexander Kalmar.
+            "    "    Augustus Baron Skribanek.
+            "    "    Andreas Count Borelli.
+            "    "    Francis Baron Cordon.
+            "    "    Frederick Baron Haan.
+            "    "    Edward Latzina.
+            "    "    Michal de Mariassi.
+            "    "    Eugen Prince Wrede.
+            "    "    Joseph Berthold.
+          Engineer--Wenceslas Lehmann.
+
+
+                           _Naturalists._
+
+               Geology--Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter.
+               Botany--Dr. Edward Schwarz.
+                  "    Mr. Anthony Tellinek, horticulturist.
+               Zoology--Mr. George Frauenfeld.
+                  "     Mr. John Zelebor.
+               Ethnography--Dr. Charles Scherzer.
+               Artist--Mr. Joseph Selleny.
+
+The entire crew, including sailors, marines, gunners, servants, and the
+ship's band, amounted to 352 men.
+
+
+
+
+                             APPENDIX B.
+
+ _List of the various Provisions and Stores furnished to the Frigate
+           "Novara" before her departure from Trieste._
+
+
+ Coals--23 tons (at 260 pounds daily consumption)           for 198 days
+ Water--86 tons (the daily consumption was
+   furnished by the distilling apparatus)
+ Biscuit--50,965 pounds (Vienna weight)                      "  145  "
+ Wine--(light red Istrian wine), 8777 mass (= 3510 gallons)  "   50  "
+ Rum--7913 mass (= 3165 gallons)                             "  226  "
+ Salt Beef--17,800 pounds            for 105 days \ Meat
+ Preserved Meat (in tins)                122   "  | (boned)  "  264  "
+ Pork--5760 pounds weight                87    "  /
+ Rice--6850 pounds                       77    "  \ (for
+ Essence--3184 pounds                    58    "  /  Soup)   "  135  "
+ Melanges d'Equipage, 40,000 rations    114  days \
+ Sour-crout, 16,000 rations              46    "  | Vege-
+ Cabbage, 16,000 rations                 46    "  | tables   "  298  "
+ Potatoes, 32,000 rations                92    "  /
+ Cocoa--10,290 pounds (Vienna weight)                        "  610  "
+ Sugar--3494     "                                           "  156  "
+ Salt--1000      "                                           "  100  "
+ Vinegar--831 mass (= 332-1/5 gallons)                       "   95  "
+
+
+
+
+                             APPENDIX C.
+
+                        SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURE
+
+        DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE "NOVARA."
+
+
+ KEY:
+ A - Pay of Commodore, in Austrian currency.
+ B - Pay of Staff.
+ C - Pay of Naturalists, and incidental Expenses of this department.
+ D - Pay of Crew, including extras.
+ E - Victuals for Crew and Hospital (Sick).
+ F - For Sundries, Repairs, and Ship's Material.
+ G - Purchase of Books, Instruments, and Medicines.
+ H - Pilots and Tug Steamers.
+ I - Pay of Servants, including extras.
+ J - Boat-hire, Postages, Travelling Expenses of the Staff, &c.
+ K - Totals.
+
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+       Period of       |         |          |         |          |
+      Expenditure.     |    A    |    B     |    C    |    D     |
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+                       | Florins.| Florins. | Florins.| Florins. |
+                       |  Kr.    |   Kr.    |   Kr.   |   Kr.    |
+ April to June, 1857   | 2,112 ..|  5,413 51| 1,744 53|  7,522 52|
+ III. Quarter    "     | 2,327 10|  8,214 10| 3,302 40| 10,562 37|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 3,261 20|  9,604 50| 4,816 57| 10,560 50|
+ I.    ditto    1858   | 3,118 ..|  9,377 ..| 4,073 ..| 10,557 49|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 3,212 ..| 10,542 30| 4,358  5| 10,755 39|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 5,102 30|  9,638 30| 5,421 17| 10,245 24|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 2,217 10|  6,931 50| 5,272 56| 10,020  6|
+ I.    ditto    1859   | 4,914 20| 16,958 20| 9,578 23| 10,840 43|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 3,227 16| 11,008 ..| 4,090 20| 11,151 56|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 3,117  7| 10,911 41| 3,857 14| 11,009 29|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|   984 18|  2,564  5| 1,990  5|  3,314 16|
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+     Grand Total       |33,593 11|101,164 47|48,505 50|106,541 41|
+ ----------------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+---
+
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+       Period of       |          |         |        |        |
+      Expenditure.     |    E     |    F    |   G    |   H    |
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+                       | Florins. | Florins.|Florins.|Florins.|
+                       |   Kr.    |   Kr.   |  Kr.   |  Kr.   |
+ April to June, 1857   |    133 55|   146  7|   37 10|  ... ..|
+ III. Quarter    "     |  2,316 40|   362 47|   16 28|   28 ..|
+ IV.   ditto     "     | 27,344 29| 2,839  3|  644 49|  356 26|
+ I.    ditto    1858   |  2,099 39|   646 10|   36 34|   85 53|
+ II.   ditto     "     | 21,514 37| 2,170 53|  349 54|  ... ..|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 17,443 32| 5,925 48|  338 14|  645 50|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |  5,762 30|   ... ..|  212 34|2,197 55|
+ I.    ditto    1859   | 30,715 17|18,185 34|2,286 40|  647 54|
+ II.   ditto     "     |  3,179 24|   767  4|   23  2|   94 23|
+ III.  ditto     "     | 11,444 ..| 7,551 15|  306 24|  ... ..|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|  2,163 40|   ... ..|   33 30|  ... ..|
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+     Grand Total       |124,009 43|38,594 41|4,285 19|4,056 21|
+ ----------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------+---
+
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+       Period of       |        |         |          |
+      Expenditure.     |   I    |    J    |    K     |
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+                       |Florins.| Florins.| Florins. |
+                       |  Kr.   |   Kr.   |   Kr.    |
+ April to June, 1857   |  811 34| 5,277 59| 23,200 21|
+ III. Quarter    "     |  363 53|   186 18| 27,680 43|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |  435  9| 2,027 31| 61,891 24|
+ I.    ditto    1858   |  397 28|    96 22| 30,487 55|
+ II.   ditto     "     |1,144 43|   814 25| 54,764 46|
+ III.  ditto     "     |  566  8| 1,351 46| 56,678 59|
+ IV.   ditto     "     |   29 24|   651 59| 33,296 24|
+ I.    ditto    1859   |1,592 30| 1,258 51| 96,978 32|
+ II.   ditto     "     |  200  5| 1,258 32| 35,000 2 |
+ III.  ditto     "     |1,910 ..|   793 ..| 50,900 10|
+ IV.   ditto (not full)|  269 46|     5 ..| 11,324 40|
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+     Grand Total       |7,720 40|13,721 43|482,193 56|
+ ----------------------+--------+---------+----------+
+
+Thus the Expenditure, during the voyage, amounting to 483,193 florins 56
+kreuzer, Austrian currency, which, calculated at the rate of 10 florins to
+a pound sterling at par, is equal to about L48,219 sterling. To this sum
+must be added the outfit and armament of the frigate for the purposes of
+the voyage, amounting to about L6000 sterling, and the expenses for four
+months' provisions, taken in at Trieste before our departure, and
+estimated at about L4500 sterling, so that the entire Expenditure of the
+Expedition, from the time of starting till its return, amounted to about
+L58,000 sterling.
+
+
+
+
+                              LONDON:
+
+                    PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
+
+                     ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+                                66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, W.
+
+                   MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, & CO.'S
+                       LITERARY ANNOUNCEMENTS.
+
+
+   THE VOYAGE OF THE NOVARA ROUND THE WORLD. The Circumnavigation
+     of the Globe, by the Austrian Frigate Novara. English Edition.
+     Containing an Unpublished Letter from Baron Humboldt. With
+     numerous wood engravings. Dedicated, by special permission, to
+     Sir Roderick Murchison. 3 vols., 8vo.
+
+   THE MARQUIS OF DALHOUSIE'S ADMINISTRATION of BRITISH INDIA. By
+     Edwin Arnold, M.A., of University College, Oxford.
+
+   THE POLITICAL LIFE of the EARL of DERBY.
+
+   THE LIFE of the RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN DISRAELI, M.P.
+
+   THE SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES of the LORD BISHOP of OXFORD from
+     1841 to the Present Time. Edited by the Author. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE LIVES of the SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. By William
+     Nathaniel Massey, Esq., M.P., author of "The History of
+     England," and Chairman of Ways and Means.
+
+   THE LATITUDINARIANS. A Chapter of Church History, from the
+     Accession of Archbishop Tillotson in 1691, to the Death of
+     Archdeacon Blackburne, in 1787. By Edward Churton, M.A.,
+     Archdeacon of Cleveland.
+
+   THE LIFE OF THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   ECCLESIA RESTITUTA. By F. C. Massingberd, M.A., Prebendary of
+     Lincoln and Rector of Ormsby.
+
+   SEVEN ANSWERS to the 'ESSAYS and REVIEWS,' BY SEVEN WRITERS IN
+     SEVEN SEPARATE ESSAYS.
+
+   THE HISTORY OF THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY, from the Defection of Sir
+     Robert Peel to the Present Time. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, from the Death of
+     Elizabeth to the Present Time. By the Rev. Geo. G. Perry,
+     M.A., Rector of Waddington, late Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln
+     College, Oxford. 3 vols., 8vo.
+
+   CHURCH RATE A NATIONAL TRUST. By the Venerable Archdeacon
+     Denison. 1 vol., 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST. By the Rev. George Williams, B.D.,
+     Senior Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 1 vol., 8vo.
+
+   THE AMERICAN CHURCH and the AMERICAN UNION. By Henry Caswall,
+     D.D., of Trinity College, Connecticut, and Prebendary of
+     Sarum. 1 v., post 8vo.
+
+   PHILOSOPHY; or, THE SCIENCE of TRUTH, being a Treatise on First
+     Principles, Mental, Physical, and Verbal. By James Haig, Esq.,
+     M.A., of Lincoln's Inn.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS OF GENERAL GARIBALDI; or, TRAVELS FROM ROME TO
+     LUCERNE, comprising a Visit to the Mediterranean Islands of La
+     Madalena and Caprera, and the Home of General Garibaldi. 1
+     vol. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF DR. WOLFF, the Bokhara Missionary.
+     2d. edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 36s.
+
+   AN AUTUMN TOUR IN SPAIN. By the Rev. R. ROBERTS, B.A., of
+     Trinity College, Cambridge, and Vicar of Milton Abbas. With
+     numerous Engravings. 21s.
+
+   HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE SUCCESSORS OF ST. PATRICK AND
+     ARCHBISHOPS OF ARMAGH. By James Henthorne Todd, D.D., F.S.A.,
+     President of the Royal Irish Academy, Treasurer of St.
+     Patrick's Cathedral, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the
+     University, and Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. 2
+     vols., 8vo.
+
+   THE LIFE OF GEORGE FOX, The Founder of the Quakers. From
+     numerous original sources. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE PRIVATE JOURNAL OF THE MARQUESS OF HASTINGS,
+     Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief in India. Edited by
+     his Daughter, SOPHIA, the Marchioness of Bute. Second Edition,
+     2 vols. post 8vo, with Map and Index. 21s.
+
+   NAPOLEON THE THIRD ON ENGLAND. Selections from his own writings.
+     Translated by J. H. SIMPSON. 5s.
+
+   THE HUNTING GROUNDS OF THE OLD WORLD. By H. A. L. (the Old
+     Shekarry). Second Edition. 21s.
+
+   HIGHLANDS AND HIGHLANDERS; As they were and as they are. By
+     WILLIAM GRANT STEWART. First and Second series, price 5s.
+     each; extra bound, 6s. 6d.
+
+   THE ENGLISHMAN IN CHINA. With numerous Woodcuts. 10s. 6d.
+
+   LECTURES ON THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. By the Rev. R. J.
+     M'GHEE. Second Edition. 2 vols, Reduced price, 15s.
+
+   PRE-ADAMITE MAN; or, THE STORY OF OUR OLD PLANET AND ITS
+     INHABITANTS, TOLD BY SCRIPTURE AND SCIENCE. Beautifully
+     Illustrated by Hervieu, Dalziel Brothers, &c. 1 vol, post 8vo,
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   LOUIS CHARLES DE BOURBON: THE "PRISONER OF THE TEMPLE." 3s.
+
+   A HANDY-BOOK FOR RIFLE VOLUNTEERS. With 14 Coloured Plates and
+     Diagrams. By Captain W. G. Hartley, author of "A New System of
+     Drill." 7s. 6d.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS of a WINTER CAMPAIGN IN INDIA, in 1857-58. By
+     CAPTAIN OLIVER J. JONES, R.N. With numerous illustrations
+     drawn on stone by Day, from the Author's Sketches. In 1 vol.
+     royal 8vo, 16s.
+
+   TWO YEARS IN SYRIA. By T. LEWIS FARLEY, Esq., Late Chief
+     Accountant of the Ottoman Bank, Beyrout. 12s. Second Edition.
+
+   DIARY OF TRAVELS IN THREE QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. By an
+     AUSTRALIAN SETTLER. 2 vols, post 8vo, 21s.
+
+   RECOLLECTIONS of the COURT of NAPLES in OUR OWN TIMES.
+
+   MOUNT LEBANON AND ITS INHABITANTS: A Ten Years' Residence from
+     1842 to 1852. By Colonel CHURCHILL, Staff Officer in the
+     British Expedition to Syria. Second Edition. 3 vols, 8vo,
+     L1.5s.
+
+   FROM SOUTHAMPTON TO CALCUTTA. Sketches of Anglo-Indian Life.
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   THE TABLETTE BOOKE of LADYE MARY KEYES, OWNE SISTER TO THE
+     MISFORTUNATE LADYE JANE DUDLIE. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   TRAVEL and RECOLLECTIONS of TRAVEL. By Dr. JOHN SHAW. 1 vol,
+     post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
+
+   LETTERS ON INDIA. By EDWARD SULLIVAN, Esq., Author of 'Rambles
+     in North and South America;' 'The Bungalow and the Tent;'
+     'From Boulogne to Babel Mandeb;' 'A Trip to the Trenches;' &c.
+     1 vol. 7s.
+
+   CAMPAIGNING IN KAFFIRLAND; or, SCENES AND ADVENTURES IN THE
+     KAFFIR WAR OF 1851-52. By Captain W. R. KING. Second Edition.
+     1 vol. 8vo, 14s.
+
+   THE RELIGIOUS TENDENCIES OF THE AGE. 6s. 6d.
+
+   ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A HORSE. By SIR GEORGE
+     STEPHEN. With illustrations by Cruikshank. New and cheaper
+     Edition, 5s.
+
+   THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, Elegant Gift Book for the Season.
+     Beautifully bound in green watered silk, with coloured plates.
+     Containing the Art of Conveying Sentiments of Esteem and
+     Affection. Eleventh edition, dedicated, by permission, to the
+     late Duchess of Kent. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES; With a description of the "Ladies'
+     Safety Hive." By SAMUEL BAGSTER, Jun. 1 vol., illustrated. 7s.
+
+   THE HANDBOOK OF TURNING, With numerous plates. A complete and
+     Practical Guide to the Beautiful Science of Turning in all its
+     Branches. 1 vol. 7s. 6d.
+
+   TEXTS FOR TALKERS. By FRANK FOWLER. 3s. 6d.
+
+   THE SUMMER TOUR of an INVALID. 5s. 6d.
+
+   ARMY MISRULE: BARRACK THOUGHTS. By a COMMON SOLDIER. 3s.
+
+
+                              Fiction.
+
+   WHY PAUL FERROLL KILLED HIS WIFE. By the Author of "Paul
+     Ferroll." Third Edition. 10s. 6d.
+
+   OUR NEW RECTOR. Edited by the Author of 'Mr. Verdant Green.'
+     10s. 6d.
+
+   THE RECTOR'S DAUGHTERS. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+
+   SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. A Novel. By MARGUERITE A. POWER. 3 vols.,
+     31s. 6d.
+
+   AN M.P. IN SEARCH OF A CREED. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ROTTEN ROW. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   CRISPIN KEN. By the Author of 'Miriam May.' Dedicated, by
+     special permission, to the Right Hon. Sir E. B. Lytton, Bart.,
+     M.P. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   WHO SHALL BE DUCHESS? or, THE NEW LORD OF BURLEIGH. A Novel. 2
+     vols., 21s.
+
+   THE LIGHTHOUSE. A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE SKELETON IN THE CUPBOARD. By Lady Scott. 2 vols., 21s.
+     Cheaper Edition, 5s.
+
+   TOO LATE! By Mrs. DIMSDALE. 7s. 6d.
+
+   HELEN. A Romance of Real Life. 7s. 6d.
+
+   THE CASTLE and the COTTAGE in SPAIN. By Lady Wallace, Author of
+     'Clara; or, Slave Life in Europe.' 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   CYRUS. By Lady Julia Lockwood.
+
+   GERTRUDE MELTON; or, NATURE'S NOBLEMAN. A Tale. 7s. 6d.
+
+   RUTH BAYNARD'S STORY. 1 vol., 10s. 6d.
+
+   VANITY CHURCH. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   MY WIFE'S PINMONEY. By E. E. NELSON, a grand niece of the great
+     Lord Nelson. 5s.
+
+   THE EMIGRANT'S DAUGHTER. Dedicated, by permission, to the
+     Empress of Russia. 5s.
+
+   MIRIAM MAY. 4th Edition. 10s. 6d.
+
+   WHISPERING VOICES OF THE YULE. Tales for Christmas. 5s.
+
+   THE SENIOR FELLOW. A Tale of Clerical Life. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ALMACK'S. A Novel. Dedicated to the Ladies Patronesses of the
+     Balls at Almack's. New Edition, 1 vol, crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   NELLY CAREW. By MISS POWER. 2 vols, 21s.
+
+   MEMOIRS OF A LADY IN WAITING. By the Author of 'Adventures of
+     Mrs. Colonel Somerset in Caffraria.' 2 vols, 18s.
+
+   HULSE HOUSE. A Novel. By the Author of 'Anne Gray.' 2 vols, post
+     8vo, 21s.
+
+   THE NEVILLES OF GARRETSTOWN. A Historical Tale. Edited, and with
+     a Preface by the Author of 'Emilia Wyndham.' 3 vols, post 8vo,
+     31s. 6d.
+
+   CORVODA ABBEY. A Tale. 1 vol, post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE VICAR OF LYSSEL. The Diary of a Clergyman in the 18th
+     century. 4s. 6d.
+
+   GOETHE IN STRASBOURG. A Dramatic Nouvelette. By H. Noel
+     Humphreys. 7s. 6d.
+
+   SQUIRES AND PARSONS. A Church Novel. 1 vol. 10s. 6d.
+
+   THE DEAN; or, the POPULAR PREACHER. By BERKELEY AIKIN, Author of
+     'Anne Sherwood.' 3 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d.
+
+   CHARLEY NUGENT; or, PASSAGES IN THE LIFE OF A SUB. A Novel, 3
+     vols, post 8vo. 31s. 6d.
+
+   PAUL FERROLL. By the Author of 'IX Poems by V.' Fourth Edition.
+     Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+
+   LORD AUBREY; or, WHAT SHALL I DO? By the Author of 'Every Day.'
+     A Novel. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE IRONSIDES. A Tale of the English Commonwealth. 3 vols., 31s.
+     6d.
+
+   AGNES HOME. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+   LA CAVA; or, RECOLLECTIONS OF THE NEAPOLITANS. 10s. 6d.
+
+   ANSELMO. A Tale of Modern Italy. 2 vols., 21s.
+
+   THE DALRYMPLES; or, LONG CREDIT AND LONG CLOTH. 10s. 6d.
+
+   INSTINCT; or, REASON. By Lady JULIA LOCKWOOD. 5s. 6d.
+
+   CARELADEN HOUSE. A Novel. 10s. 6d.
+
+
+                              Poetry.
+
+   Sir E. L. Bulwer Lytton's Eva, AND OTHER POEMS.
+
+   Sacred Poems. By the late Right Hon. Sir Robert Grant, with a
+     Notice by Lord Glenelg.
+
+   Eustace; An Elegy. By the Right Hon. Charles Tennyson
+     D'Eyncourt.
+
+   Oberon's Empire. A Mask.
+
+   The Shadow of the Yew, AND OTHER POEMS. By Norman B. Yonge.
+
+
+
+
+                MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.'S
+
+                     EAST INDIA ARMY AND COLONIAL
+                               AGENCY.
+
+                  66, BROOK STREET, HANOVER SQUARE,
+                             LONDON, W.
+
+    (_In the immediate vicinity of the New East India House and
+                        the Oriental Club._)
+
+
+Messrs. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, and Co. beg to invite the attention of Regimental
+Messes, Officers, Members of the Civil Service, and other Residents in
+India, Australia, and the Colonies to their East India Army and Colonial
+Agency, and to the advantages it offers.
+
+
+                         BANKING DEPARTMENT.
+
+PAY, PENSIONS, FUND ALLOWANCES, DIVIDENDS, &C., drawn and remitted with
+regularity. SALES of, and INVESTMENTS in, Government Stock, Foreign
+Securities, &c., effected. Every other description of FINANCIAL BUSINESS
+transacted.
+
+
+                         SUPPLY DEPARTMENT.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, including Provisions, Wines,
+Plate, Jewellery, Books, Guns, Band Instruments, Clothing, &c., carefully
+selected and despatched by Overland Route, or Sailing Ship, to Regiments
+and Messes in India, Australia, and the Colonies.
+
+PRIVATE ORDERS from Officers, Members of the Civil Service, and Residents
+in India, Australia, and the Colonies generally, are executed with care,
+economy, efficiency, and promptitude.
+
+All orders should be accompanied by full and detailed directions.
+
+
+                    PERSONAL AGENCY DEPARTMENT.
+
+The Constituents of Messrs. Saunders, Otley, and Co. may depend upon
+receiving every attention to their requirements and instructions. Every
+assistance will be afforded to their Constituents and their Families on
+their arrival in England, with the view to relieve them from every
+possible inconvenience.
+
+Charge, when required, will be taken of children coming from India and the
+Colonies, and arrangements will be made for their education in England.
+
+To those going out to India, Australia, and the Colonies, Messrs.
+Saunders, Otley, and Co. offer their services to secure passages Overland,
+or by Ship, and to afford them all necessary information connected
+therewith.
+
+All Letters, Parcels, &c., will be received by Messrs. Saunders, Otley,
+and Co., for their Constituents (whether in England, India, or the
+Colonies), to whom they will be forwarded regularly.
+
+
+                               TERMS.
+
+NO COMMISSION CHARGED on the execution of Orders, whether from Regimental
+Messes or Private Individuals, WHEN ACCOMPANIED BY A REMITTANCE, and a
+small Discount at all times allowed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+             LITERARY AND POLITICAL NEWSPAPER FOR INDIA
+                        AND THE COLONIES.
+
+                       THE ORIENTAL BUDGET,
+
+                  PRICE ONE SHILLING (POST FREE).
+
+   Published on the First of every Month by Saunders, Otley, and Co.,
+                66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Changes to the original document: Footnotes and
+illustrations may have been moved. Minor punctuation inconsistencies or
+errors have been corrected. To the table of illustrations have been added
+entries for the preceding illustrations. The publisher's corrections
+listed at the end of Volume III have been applied. The following
+additional changes were made:
+
+ analagous[analogous] to the mountain chains
+ to be reaped from European emigation[emigration]
+ Namely: 9159 Portuguese[Two footnotes were improperly swapped]
+ we were still able vividly to recal[recall]
+ If any one desires [to] see a veritable
+ towards the end of the rainy reason[season],
+ their bite produces on the the[del 2nd the] hand
+ that such soundings are only succesful[successful] when
+ they cannot recal[recall] having perceived,
+ Terrestrial Magnetism, Liuteenant[Lieutenant] Robert Muellar;
+ of New Bedford, Massachussets[Massachusetts],
+ pendant les annes[annees] 1791-94
+ there there[del 2nd there] is nothing resembling a beach
+ custom that seems to recal[recall] the frightful
+ This time, morever,[moreover]
+ and chaunted[chanted] the praises
+ all to be able to indentify[identify] them,
+ thirty to the Parias[Pariahs],
+ Ry[By] T. LEWIS FARLEY, Esq.,
+ effected. Every other descripion[description]
+
+Also, the publisher on one occasion confused the degrees Reaumur and
+Fahrenheit used in measuring temperature with degrees and minutes used to
+determine lattitude and longitude:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as 24 deg.
+5', (87 deg. 12' Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16 deg. to 18 deg. (68 deg. to 72 deg.5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18 deg. to 19 deg. (72 deg. 5' to
+74 deg. 75' Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12 deg. 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13 deg. 8' to 10 deg. 5' (63 deg.05 to 5 deg. 62'
+Fahr.); between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from
+18 deg. 8' to 9 deg. 2' (74 deg. 3' to 52 deg. 7').
+
+The corrected paragraph is as follows:
+
+Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
+the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
+24 deg.5, (87 deg.12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
+carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
+of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
+current, in December 1824, he found from 16 deg. to 18 deg. (68 deg. to 72 deg.5 Fahr.);
+between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18 deg. to 19 deg. (72 deg.5 to
+74 deg.75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12 deg. 39' S.) and
+Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13 deg.8 to 10 deg.5 (63 deg.05 to 55 deg.62 Fahr.);
+between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18 deg.8 to
+9 deg.2 (74 deg.3 to 52 deg.7).]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Narrative of the Circumnavigation of
+the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I, by Karl Ritter von Scherzer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIAN FRIGATE NOVARA, VOL I ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38456.txt or 38456.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38456/
+
+Produced by Thorsten Kontowski, Henry Gardiner and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+(This file made from scans of public domain material at
+Austrian Literature Online.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.