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diff --git a/38428.txt b/38428.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c8218a --- /dev/null +++ b/38428.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2452 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Through a Microscope, by +Samuel Wells and Mary Treat and Frederick Leroy Sargent + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Through a Microscope + Something of the Science Together with many Curious + Observations Indoor and Out and Directions for a Home-made + Microscope. + +Author: Samuel Wells + Mary Treat + Frederick Leroy Sargent + +Release Date: December 28, 2011 [EBook #38428] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THROUGH A MICROSCOPE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, David E. Brown and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + THROUGH A MICROSCOPE + + SOMETHING OF THE SCIENCE + TOGETHER WITH MANY CURIOUS OBSERVATIONS + INDOOR AND OUT + AND DIRECTIONS FOR A HOME-MADE MICROSCOPE + + + BY + SAMUEL WELLS, MARY TREAT AND + FREDERICK LEROY SARGENT + + + + CHICAGO + THE INTERSTATE PUBLISHING COMPANY + BOSTON: 30 FRANKLIN STREET + + + COPYRIGHT, 1886, + BY + INTERSTATE PUBLISHING COMPANY. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER. PAGE. + +I. Through a Microscope 7 + +II. The Outfit 14 + +III. The Objects 20 + +IV. Home Experiments 26 + +V. Cochituate Water 33 + +VI. Interesting objects 39 + +VII. The Brickmaker 46 + +VIII. The Vorticellas 54 + +IX. The Utricularia 61 + +X. Free Swimming Animalcules 70 + +XI. On the Beach 78 + +XII. Rizopods 86 + +XIII. How to See a Dandelion 97 + +XIV. How to See a Bumble Bee 107 + +XV. Some Little Things to See 114 + + + + +PART I + +THROUGH A MICROSCOPE + +BY SAMUEL WELLS + + + + +THROUGH A MICROSCOPE + + +I + +An object one hundredth of an inch in diameter, or of which it would +take one hundred placed side by side to make an inch, is about the +smallest thing that can be easily seen by the unassisted eye. Take a +piece of card and punch a little hole through it with the point of a +small needle, hold it towards a lamp or a window, and you will see the +light through it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +This hole will be about the size just mentioned, and you will find that +you can see it best and most distinctly when you hold it at a certain +distance from your eye; and this distance will not be far from ten +inches, unless you are near-sighted. Now bring it towards your eye and +you will find it becomes blurred and indistinct. You will see by this +experiment that you cannot see things distinctly when held too close to +your eye, or in other words, that you cannot bring your eye nearer to an +object than eight or ten inches and see it well at the same time. + +You could see things much smaller than one hundredth of an inch if you +could get your eye close enough to them. How can that be done? By a +microscope? yes, but what is that? This name comes from two Greek words +that mean "to see small things;" and a microscope is an instrument by +which your eye can get very close to what you want to see. + +To understand this, take out one of your eyes and look at it with the +other one. You see that it is a little round camera; most boys have seen +a camera and some boys can make one. The simplest way to do that is to +take a box, say a cigar box (empty, of course); pull off the cover and +fasten in the place of it a piece of ground glass if you have one: if +not a piece of white letter paper, oiled, will do; bore a hole in the +middle of the bottom with a small gimlet and your camera is done. Point +the bottom with the hole in it out of the window, and throw a piece of +cloth over your head and over the box, as the photographers do, to shut +out the side light, but mind and not cover up the hole; look at the +ground glass (or oiled paper) and you will see things upside down. (Fig. +1.) But what has it to do with my eye? you say. Why, your eye is just +like it, only round, as in fig. 2. And if you hold a doll or anything +else about ten inches in front of the eye you have taken out and look at +the inside of it (the eye, not the doll) just as you look at the ground +glass of your box camera, you will see the doll upside down on the back +of the eye. + +But how, do you say, can I see things right side up when they are upside +down in my eye? This is a very good conundrum and it will keep a long +time, till you are about seventy years old and have spare time to sit +down and think about it. + +Now you see how your eye is a camera; the pupil is the hole and the +back of the eye, called the retina, is the ground glass. + +But you will find that the camera you have just made does not show +things distinctly and beautifully as the photographer's camera does; how +can they be distinct in the eye then? + +Because in the photographer's camera, in the hole is a lens, which is a +piece of glass, shaped like a sun glass; and so in your eye just behind +the pupil is a lens, not made of glass, but still almost as transparent +as if it were. In order to see what effect this lens has, take your box +camera, make the hole larger and put a lens in it; one of your magic +lantern lenses will do; and if the lens has the right focus you will see +the images sharp and distinct on your ground glass. The focus probably +will not be just right, so make a paper tube, into which fasten your +lens and slide the tube in and out of the hole until you find the right +focus. + +When you have got that right so that you see a boy on the sidewalk +upside down and see his teeth when he laughs, put some small object, the +little doll will do, about three feet in front of your lens, and you +will find the image of it is blurred and indistinct, and that you must +pull your tube out to get the focus on the doll; or if you had another +lens of just the right shape to hold in front of your camera, you would +with that get the focus on the doll. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Thus you can see how it is with your eye, and why you cannot see things +distinctly held close to it. The lens in the eye can change its shape a +little, so that it will focus objects a mile off, or ten inches off, but +it cannot be pushed in and out like the tube in your camera. You can do +this, however, if you take another lens and hold it outside your eye and +let the light go through that first before it comes to the lens in your +eye, and in this way you can get a focus in your retina, and the outside +lens thus forms a part of that optical instrument called your eye. Does +your grandma know that her spectacles are a part of the cameras that she +calls her eyes? + +How is it that a lens bends (refracts is the big word for it) the rays +of light? You will learn by and by. You can see that it does so by a few +experiments with your sun glass or any such lens. Hold it between the +sun and a piece of white paper until the white spot in the centre is as +small as you can make it. You will see that the rest of the lens casts a +shadow although it is all glass; this is because the rays of sunlight +that fall on the lens are all bent towards the centre, and so you have a +small white spot on which is concentrated the light and the heat, and +before you have found out how it is all done, your paper takes fire and +the experiment ends in smoke. + +Take another piece of paper, and when the white spot is at its smallest, +measure the distance between the lens and the paper, and you will have +the focal distance of the lens. + +You have now found out how to get your eye close to an object and see +something that is very small; this is usually called magnifying it, +because it seems to make it look large. Suppose you have a lens that +will let you see a flea through it held just one inch from it, this lens +is now an addition to your eye, as we measure from the lens. If you had +another flea held ten inches off, so big that it would just be hidden by +the little flea, the one farthest off would be ten times as large as the +near one. (Fig. 3.) In this case it is said that the lens having a focal +length of one inch magnifies ten times, or has a power of ten. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The shortest usual distance of objects seen distinctly being taken as +ten inches, microscopists have agreed to consider that as the standard +of measurement, and objects seen through a lens are considered magnified +to the size they would have if projected ten inches off, like our little +flea. + + +II.--THE OUTFIT. + +Now that we have got hold of the idea that the eye is an optical +instrument, and that to increase its capacity for seeing small things we +add to it other optical contrivances, making with it one instrument +composed of several parts, let us look at such additions more +particularly. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--OPEN AND CLOSED.] + +One pleasant September afternoon, three gentlemen were strolling along +the banks of the Wissahickon, in Philadelphia's beautiful park, and +stopping now and then to examine some little flower or insect with +pocket lenses, when they discovered that some little boys out for a +holiday were watching their proceedings with a curious and mystified +interest. One of the gentlemen had a pocket microscope with three lenses +of different sizes, as in Fig. 1. Calling the boys up to him he showed +them a little flower magnified. They had never dreamed of such a sight, +and their wonder and amazement were as great as if they suddenly beheld +a new world. You will be as surprised as they were when you take your +first peep, but you must learn to see such things _by yourselves_. The +first thing you need is a simple microscope, that is, one with a single +lens, small enough to be carried in the pocket. There are different +forms and sizes of such microscopes, varying in quality and price. Those +like the one just mentioned are made with from one to four lenses each, +and are perhaps the most generally useful. Then there is the Coddington +lens (Fig. 2) which is still more compact; and it is sometimes made in +the form of Fig. 3. It has a very short focus, and is not, therefore, +very easy to use. Achromatic doublets and triplets are made of two or +more lenses cemented together and mounted in the same style as the +Coddington lens; they are very much better than the Coddington, but are +more expensive. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +There are several devices for mounting these simple microscopes on +stands so that they can be kept steady and the objects to be examined +placed behind them. One of these is illustrated in Fig. 4. An ingenious +boy with a block of wood for a base, some stout wire and corks, can make +one almost as useful, though not so handsome. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +A more elaborate form is shown in Fig. 5. It has a glass stage to hold +transparent objects, and a brass one for opaque objects, and a mirror +below to reflect light up through transparent objects. + +It is much better to use a good simple microscope than a poor and cheap +compound one; be sure and remember this and not be enticed to buy such +an one by any representations as to its great magnifying power. + +A compound microscope is one with a tube from four to ten inches long, +an arrangement for holding the object to be looked at, and a mirror +below to reflect light upon or through it. The lenses at the end next +the object are small, and are set in a small brass tube, which is called +an "objective." It screws into the large tube. The lenses at the end of +the large tube next the eye are set in a tube, called the eye-piece, +which slides in and out of the large tube. Different objectives contain +lenses of different sizes according to the magnifying power desired, and +they are named "two inch," "one inch," "half inch," and so on down to +"one seventy-fifth." Eye-pieces are sometimes named "A," "B," "C," but +more properly "two inch," and so on down to "one eighth." There is a +very great variety in the forms of compound microscopes, from the very +simple up to the very elaborate, and the prices vary accordingly. A +simple but useful form is given in Fig. 6. + +A great deal of money can be expended on a microscope and the various +instruments made to use with it and which are called "accessory +apparatus"; but it is best not to buy these instruments until you know +just what you want, and not to spend much money at first except under +the advice of a "microscopist." + +Some simple things, however, you will need at once, such as a few slips +of glass three inches long and one inch wide, called "glass slides," +some pieces of very thin glass, called "cover glass," a pair of +tweezers, some needles fastened into pen-holders for handles, and a few +glass tubes commonly called "pipettes," or "dipping tubes." These can be +readily bought, and some of them easily made. + + [Illustration: CATCHING ANIMALCULA WITH A PIPETTE.] + + +III.--OBJECTS. + +As soon as you have a microscope you will begin to look at everything +and anything: dust, crumbs of bread, flour, starch, mosquitoes, flies, +and moth millers in their season; flowers and leaves, cotton, wool, and +silk. But this scattering kind of observation will soon weary you. In +order to get the greatest pleasure and best results from your work, you +must proceed with some system. + + [Illustration: BULL'S EYE LENS.] + +There are so many objects visible only through the microscope that life +is not long enough for you to see them all, much less to study them. +Some microscopists devote the time they have for such studies to the +observation of single classes of objects; the physician observes the +various parts of the animal structure, and calls his work "histology;" +the botanist examines the vegetable kingdom; the entomologist, insects; +but in all these departments there are numerous subdivisions. As a guide +to your work, you will find some book on the microscope very useful; the +best one is _The Microscope and its Revelations_, by Dr. William B. +Carpenter. + + [Illustration: MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS.] + + [Illustration: FLY'S EYE--5 DIAMETERS.] + +Objects through which you can see light are called "transparent," and +are the easiest to look at with the microscope, because you can lay them +on a glass slide and throw light up through them with your mirror. Thick +objects through which light cannot pass are called "opaque," and are +more difficult to examine, and can only be seen with low powers and a +bright light. + +In order to see such objects in the evening, you will need a "bull's +eye" lens mounted on a stand, which you can place beside your microscope +and between the lamp and the stage, condensing the light of the lamp on +the object. (_Fig. 1._) There are other methods of illuminating opaque +objects, but they are expensive and difficult to manage, yet by and by +if you persevere in this delightful occupation you will learn what they +are. + + [Illustration: Scale of Butterfly + MAGNIFIED 200 DIAMETERS.] + + [Illustration: HEAD OF MOSQUITO. MAGNIFIED 15 DIAMETERS.] + +Some persons will expect you to show them a fly as big as a horse; but +you will soon be able to prove to them that you know more about the +matter than they do. With a large hand-lens, you can see a whole fly at +once and magnify it two or three times; but when you put it on the stage +of your compound microscope and try to magnify it still more, you will +find that you can only see a part of it at a time, and the higher the +power you use, the less can you see; in other words, the more you +magnify an object, the smaller is the field of view. + +An inch-objective will show the head of an housefly, which in a bright +light is a very beautiful object. No picture can equal the delicacy of +the color of the eyes of a live fly. + + [Illustration: SECTION OF WOOD. + MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS.] + +After a little practise you will be able to separate the different parts +of insects and look at them with higher powers. The moth fly will soon +be on the wing, and your aunt will not call you cruel if you kill and +cut up large numbers of them. Put a little of the dust that comes off +from the wing of a moth on a glass slide, look at it with a high power, +and you will find that each particle of dust is a pretty leaf-like +scale. You have seen in summer the dust on the wings of butterflies; +remember this, and look at this butterfly dust with your microscope. + +Flowers and leaves you can always easily obtain; but in looking at them +you must remember what has already been said about "transparent" and +"opaque" objects. + +Thin slices or sections of stems, leaves, and portions of flowers, can +be made with a sharp knife, and examined as transparent objects, so that +thus you can observe the internal or cellular structure of the vegetable +kingdom. + + +IV.--HOME EXPERIMENTS. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +During the cold weather it is not pleasant to make excursions into the +country and search for objects for the microscope; so you will look +about and see what you can find at home; and if you live in Boston, +Cochituate water will invite your inspection. The best way to get at the +minute objects in this or any water that is supplied through pipes, is +to make a bag of cotton cloth, not too fine, well washed in water +without soap, about a foot long, large enough at the top to slip over a +faucet that has a screw on it (like the common kitchen faucet adapted +for a filter), so that it can be tied with a string, and small enough at +the bottom to be tied on to the neck of a small bottle such as is used +for homoeopathic pills. This bag should taper gradually in size from +the top to the bottom. (_Fig. 1._) + + [Illustration: The Water Flea + FIG. 2. CYCLOPS QUADRICORNIS. MAGNIFIED 20 DIAMETERS.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. CANTHOCAMPTUS MINUTUS. 40 DIAMETERS.] + +If there is a strong head of water where your faucet is, you must reduce +the pressure by opening other faucets on the same floor, such as those +in the laundry, otherwise many of the small creatures will be crushed in +the interstices of the bag. Now let the water run. The bag will swell +out and the water ooze through its sides, and all objects too small to +pass through it will fall down and settle in the little bottle at the +bottom. When you see that there is a considerable amount of sediment in +the bottle, shut off the water and gently squeeze the bag between your +thumb and forefinger, beginning at the top and moving your hand down +towards the bottle. This movement will cause much of the sediment that +has adhered to the sides of the bag to fall down. Now untie your bottle +and set it aside and let the water run through the bag to clean it. If +you have a filter attached to your kitchen faucet you can get a very +good idea of the solid contents of the water by unscrewing it, or +turning it over if it is made so as to reverse, and letting the sediment +that has collected on it drip into a tumbler, but the bag gives much +better results, as many of the delicate forms that live in the water are +crushed to death on the filter. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4. CHYDORUS SPHOERICUS. 50 DIAMETERS.] + +Having got the sediment in either a tumbler or a bottle, you must make +your first observation on it with the naked eye by holding it up to the +light and looking through it. You will find it of a brown color, because +a large part of it consists of particles of earth and decayed vegetable +matter, but you will presently see many little white specks moving about +with a jumping or hopping movement. These are commonly called +"water-fleas," on account of their peculiar movements, but the name is +misleading, as they belong to the crustacea (animals having a shell or +crust like the lobster), and not to the insects. + +They are found abundantly in ponds and ditches, and in salt water. +Sometimes they are so abundant in drinking water that has not been +filtered, as to alarm a timid person, but you will find them just as +good to eat raw as they are cooked. The most common of these little +creatures is the _Cyclops Quadricornis_, so called because he has one +eye and four horns. (_Fig. 2._) + +This picture represents a female, and she carries her eggs in the two +little black bags that you see fastened on each side of the abdomen. You +will find it very interesting by and by to watch the eggs hatch and see +the little cyclops hop away. When young they do not look much like their +parents; they are rounder and their legs are more prominent. The female +cyclops (the male is comparatively rare) is the most common creature in +Cochituate water, and as it is constantly eating, it helps to purify the +water, and, in its turn, is eaten by the fishes. + +In swimming it contracts its four horns and its fringed feet with a +quick movement that throws it forward through the water with a leap. + +Its one eye is of a brilliant red, and is a beautiful object under the +microscope. The shell also is sometimes beautifully colored, and is +often transparent, so that the internal organs are plainly visible +through it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Another of the family of _Cyclopidae_ is the _Canthocamptus minutus_ +(_fig. 3_), which you see is longer and more tapering in its form than +the _Cyclops Quadricornis_. It is also very common and very active. + +_Chydorus Sphoericus_ (_fig. 4_) is a very pretty round form +interesting to study when transparent. + +All these and some others with rather hard names are in that division of +the _Crustacea_ called _Entomostraca_, meaning shelled creatures whose +shells are cut and do not cover them all round. On this principle, an +oyster on the half-shell might be called an _Entomostracan_. + +Now to catch these lively fellows, you must take a dipping tube and be +patient, and when you have got one in the tube, carefully drop it on the +bottom of the "live-box" (_fig. 5_), and put on the cover. Examine it +first with the lowest power you have. By careful management of the cover +you can catch it between the top and bottom without breaking the shell, +and in this prison you can study it at leisure. + + +V.--COCHITUATE WATER. + +You have read or been told that if you look at a drop of water through a +microscope you will find it full of animalculae, and showmen will +sometimes exhibit water containing _entomostraca_ hopping about, and +will try to persuade you that all water looks in the same way. + + [Illustration: ROTIFER VULGARIS.] + +But this is a common mistake, as you will soon find out for yourselves. +Water such as is commonly used for drinking purposes, whether it comes +from a well, spring, river, or pond, contains but little animal or +vegetable life in proportion to its quantity; you may place drop after +drop under the microscope without finding anything visible, and you can +only tell what is in it by filtering a great deal of it. Water standing +in ditches or pools for a long time, becomes full of growth of various +kinds, and is then so discolored and slimy that no one would think of +drinking it. + + [Illustration: CARAPACE OF ANURAE STIPITATA.] + +Let us return to the little bottle which you filled with Cochituate +filterings last month. Take a little from the bottom with your +dipping-tube; put it in the live box and examine it with a half-inch +objective. You will see many forms that are strange to you, and we will +suppose that the first is that of one of the rotifers. These little +creatures are called by this name because of two Latin words meaning +wheel-carriers, for on their heads they have an arrangement which looks +like a wheel, sometimes in rapid motion. + + [Illustration: FLOSCULARIA ORNATA.] + +The most common kind is called _Rotifer vulgaris_ (_fig. 1_), and is a +very interesting and elastic being. Sometimes he is gloomy and draws +himself in so that he looks like a ball; then he will stretch out full +length, and opening his wheel, shoot through the water with great speed. +Again he will attach his tail to some fixed object, and by the aid of +his wheel draw a rapid current of water through his mouth; it is thus +that you can best observe him, and by and by you will discover that the +apparent wheel is only a result of the rapid sweeping movement of the +long hairs or cilia which fringe the opening in the top of the head. +Through this opening the water passes, the rotifer gathers his food from +the current, and the food passes into the mastax, where it is ground by +the masticating apparatus, which is easily seen in motion. + + [Illustration: DINOBRYON TORTULARIA.] + +There are several different rotifers found in Cochituate water; among +them the most common is the _Anurae Stipitata_. (_Fig. 2._) It is like a +turtle, with a shell, or carapace, beautifully ornamented. You will see +plenty of these empty shells, and sometimes you will find one inhabited, +when you will see that the creature has a bright red eye, and several +bundles of cilia, in front of the projecting spires. + +One of the families of the rotifers is called _Floscularia_, because it +resembles a flower; it is attached at the base to small plants, or algae, +and occupies a sheath so transparent that it is hardly visible. One +species is occasionally found in the Cochituate, the _Floscularia +ornata_. (_Fig. 3._) It is a beautiful object, with its elongated +radiating cilia, which remain quiet, and do not vibrate. The specimen +figured has three eggs attached to its stem. + +You will find other rotifers in the Cochituate, some formed like vases, +others with long spires, but all graceful and beautiful. The _Dinobryon +Tortularia_ is sometimes very common in this water. + +In October, 1881, when the taste of the water was very bad, the +_Dinobryon_ was very abundant, though we do not know that it had +anything to do with the bad taste. You will see by the figure, that it +is like a tree, with an individual of the family at the end of every +branch. Each one has its own organs of existence, although attached to +its brothers by its stem. Each has a bright red eye, and a long slender +whip, called a _flagellum_, with which it lashes the water, and when all +the _flagellae_ are in motion, the whole tree swims about. The +individuals are very small indeed, and it will take your best objective +to show the _flagellum_. + + [Illustration: VORTICELLA NEBULIFERA.] + +Another tree-like group is that of the _Vorticella_, of which you will +sometimes find in the Cochituate, the species _Vorticella nebulifera_. +Each animal is at the top of a stem, and this stem has the peculiar +property of being able to coil up and draw its head down close to the +bottom. This appears to be a defensive movement, for whenever a big ugly +creature comes by, down go the whole family so quickly that your eye +cannot follow the movement. Sometimes they will all bob down when you +tap the stage of the microscope so as to jar them. At a certain period +of its life the animal suddenly leaves its stem, and goes swimming about +with great speed. + + +VI.--INTERESTING OBJECTS. + + [Illustration: STEPHANODISCUS NIAGARAE.] + +The most beautiful of the small _algae_ or water plants are the +_Diatomaceae_ and the _Desmidiaceae_, sometimes called for brevity diatoms +and desmids. They are remarkable for the geometrical character of their +forms, consisting of circles, triangles and polygons of infinite +variety. They are very small, and cannot be satisfactorily seen with an +objective of less power than a four tenths. The diatoms are found +everywhere in both fresh and salt water, but the desmids live only in +fresh water. One of the most common diatoms in Cochituate water is the +_Stephanodiscus Niagarae_. (_Fig. 1._) It is in shape like a pill box, +and its sides, which would be called its top and bottom if it were a +pill box, are beautifully ornamented with dots in radiating lines with a +ring of spines near the edge. This circle of spines or thorns explains +its name, _Stephanodiscus_, from the proto-martyr, Saint Stephen. The +name _Niagarae_ is from Niagara River, where it was found. Like all +diatoms, it contains when alive a yellowish brown matter with small +globules of oil, which is called _endochrome_. The box or shell, called +_pustule_, is of silex or quartz, and is therefore almost +indestructible; and when the diatom dies, sinks to the bottom of the +water. In this way beds of shells of diatoms are sometimes formed of +considerable thickness. + + [Illustration: ASTERIONELLA BLEAKLEYII.] + + [Illustration: TABELLARIA FENESTRATA.] + +Under the city of Richmond, Va., there is such a deposit, varying from +ten to twenty feet in depth, and extending for many miles. Some of the +diatoms, especially those shaped like a boat, called _Navicula_, have a +peculiar motion which at one time led observers to think them animals. +No one knows how this motion is produced, and if you can find this +out, you will make a very important discovery. The most common diatom in +Cochituate water is _Asterionella Bleakleyii_. It resembles a star with +rays, or the hub and spokes of a wheel. (_Fig. 2._) This diatom is often +found in abundance in the water supplies of cities. It never forms a +complete circle, but grows into spirals or whorls which easily break up. + + [Illustration: SPONGILLA FLUVIATILIS.] + + [Illustration: DESMIDIUM SWARTZII. FRONT AND SIDE VIEW.] + +Another diatom common in Cochituate is _Tabellaria Fenestrata_, which +grows in ribbon-like forms. (_Fig. 3._) The desmids resemble the diatoms +in the geometrical character of their forms, but they have no shell of +silex, and are therefore easily destroyed. They are readily +distinguished at sight by the beautiful green color of the contained +matter. In many of them there is a curious circulation of small +particles, especially in the ends of those of a crescent or new-moon +shape. This circulation can only be seen with a high power. Desmids are +easily found in ponds and ditches; and there are several species in +Cochituate. Among them is _Desmidium Swartzii_ (_fig. 4_), and +_Closterium moniliferum_. (_Fig. 5._) Their beauty depends so much on +color that they do not appear to advantage in the figures. You will find +in examining the filterings of Cochituate water, many objects which have +not been described in these papers, and among them many fragments of +green filaments of the small plants belonging to the _confervae_ and the +_oscillatoriae_; sometimes you will find small round opaque forms of +brown or green color, which are probably spores of plants of a larger +growth; sometimes you will see the pollen of pine-trees which has fallen +into the water and looks like three small balls fastened together; +sometimes, though rarely, you may find one of those curious little +creatures called water bears, or _tardigrada_; and you may be fortunate +enough to catch a water spider. + + [Illustration: CLOSTERIUM MONILIFERUM.] + +But you will often see the _spiculae_ of the sponge, called _Spongilla +fluviatilis_. They look like pins of glass, blunt at one end and +pointed at the other, and are sometimes very abundant. You may have +heard that this sponge has been considered the source of the +occasionally bad taste and smell of Cochituate water. When it is alive, +it is not disagreeable, but when it decays it imparts to the water a +very unpleasant taste and odor. It certainly is one cause of the bad +quality of the water, but whether it is entitled to the sole credit is +still open to question. + +You can see what it looks like in _fig. 6_. When alive, it is of a +light-green color, but when decayed it becomes brown. It is full of the +_spiculae_ above described, which serve to stiffen it, but it easily +crumbles and scatters them through the water. + +Though the microscope shows us many beautiful and interesting objects, +yet in the present state of our knowledge we cannot ascertain by its use +whether the water we examine is harmless or injurious. + + +VII.--THE BRICKMAKER. + +The microscope reveals so many strange odd-looking water creatures and +plants that we can easily imagine ourselves transported to some new +world. Look at this field of view as seen through the microscope. In the +centre stands a brickmaker. He is a queer little animal, and so small +that he looks like a mere speck to the naked eye, but through the +microscope we see how wonderfully curious and strange a creature he is. +He is no idle, lazy fellow. He is instead a most busy mechanic. + +Just now he is building a house out of tiny bricks, and he manufactures +the bricks himself, making them one at a time, and when one is finished +he lays it down carefully by the side of the last, and fastens it firmly +in its place with a kind of cement. The bricks are laid in regular tiers +one above the other. + +We find these brickmakers in still water where various water-plants +grow, especially the water-milfoil and bladderwort. They seem to be +social beings. They live in large communities, attaching their houses to +the stems and leaves of the plants so thickly sometimes that they almost +touch one another. They look, to the naked eye, like lines about one +eighth of an inch in length. Sometimes they are very thick on the plants +in New Jersey ponds. + +If you take some of the plants and water, and put them in a bottle, you +can carry a large number of the brickmakers home, where you can watch +them at your leisure. Take a glass slide which has a little cup-shaped +hollow to hold a few drops of water, and put a tiny piece of the plant +with the house attached into this hollow and fill it with some of the +water from the bottle. Now cover it with a very thin piece of glass and +lay it over the stage of the microscope, and it is ready to be looked at +and studied. You will look with both eyes, for your microscope is a +binocular--one that has two tubes to look through. The size of the +objects will depend upon the magnifying power you have chosen. + +The first thing you see is a dark, brick-colored, cylinder-shaped house +which looks to be about the size of a cigar. The little builder who +lives in this house has been disturbed by the means we have taken to +make his acquaintance; he has stopped work and gone within. But he is so +industrious a fellow that he will not remain within very long. As soon +as it is quite still he will probably come to the door of his house, and +you will see him thrust out two horns. He will move these horns to the +right and left, cautiously feeling all around him. He seems very +cautious indeed. But at last he is satisfied that no enemy is near. Now +he ventures out. He unfolds his wheels. + +These wheels are surrounded with a band of _cilia_, or flexible hairs, +which he can put in rapid motion, making the wheels have the appearance +of revolving very fast. This rapid motion of the cilia forms a swift +current in the water; and this current brings tiny particles of various +things to the little mechanic. Some of these particles he uses for food; +of others, he makes brick. They are carried into an opening between the +wheels where you can see them revolving very fast until they are +gathered into a little round, dark-colored pellet. The particles are +probably held together by a sticky secretion made by the builder. + +It takes him about three minutes to make a brick. As soon as it is +finished, he bends his head over, takes it from its mould between the +wheels, and lays it down carefully by the side of the last. Then he +raises his head and begins to make another. The tube thus constructed is +quite firm and strong. Sometimes when I have found a long tube, I have +cut off a portion from the top. This can be done, with care, for the +brickmaker drops to the bottom when disturbed. It is very amusing to +watch him repair damages and rebuild. Sometimes I have forced one out of +his tube, but it always soon died. But though industrious, he is so +cautious, or timid, that he is easily frightened, and therefore he is +often interrupted in his work. For instance, like some people that we +know, he is very afraid of snakes. If a harmless little tiny snake comes +wriggling along through the water anywhere near him, he folds his wheels +and drops down into his house as quick as a flash. One day a little boy +was delighted with the fast-revolving wheels. Suddenly, by and by, he +turned toward me with great disgust plainly showing in his face: "He's +gone in, 'fraid of a little snake!" he exclaimed. + + [Illustration: FIGURE 1, BRICKMAKER; 2, CURRENT IN WATER; 3, 4, 5, 6, + DIATOMS; 7, 8, DESMIDS; 9, ALGAE; 10, 11, TRICHODA LYNCEUS; 12, + SNAKE-LIKE LARVA; 13, PART OF PLANT TO WHICH BRICKMAKER IS ATTACHED; + 14, BATRACHOSPERMUM MONILIFORM.] + +He is always a great favorite with those who have watched him through +the microscope. I do not know how long they live, but I have kept the +same individuals three months or more. I think no one knows the entire +life-history of any of these little creatures, so here is a grand chance +for any young microscopist to investigate and become famous. + +On the left of the brickmaker in our field of view is a delicate, +beautiful plant. Only a small part of it is seen in the engraving. It +has a long, floating stem, thickly set with rosettes of a pearly green +color. To the naked eye it looks like green slime, and is called "frog's +spawn;" but the microscope shows us that it is a lovely plant, and some +wise man has given us a long fine name to call it by if we +choose--_Batrachospermum moniliform_. Let us see if this long name has +any meaning: _Batrachia_, a frog, _spermum_, spawn; ah, after all, only +another name for frog spawn! The other name, _moniliform_, means a +bead-like necklace; and this was given it because the threads that make +the rosettes look like strings of small pearly-green beads. + +All of the strange-looking plants and animals that we see in the +microscope are known as well by sight and by name by those who make them +a study, as are the larger animals and plants that we see around us +every day. + +A bright little girl once asked me why such long hard names are given to +everything in nature. We told her if there was but one language spoken +in the world there would be no need of using Latin names. But as there +are many languages, it was found necessary to agree upon some system, so +that all peoples of different nations might have the same name for an +animal or plant, and a long time ago all the civilized world agreed to +use Latin names. Thus our little brickmaker is known all over the world +as _Melicerta ringens_. + +"A field of view" depends for its interest and variety upon what kind of +water we put under the microscope. In the one here represented, I first +took a tiny spray of plant with a brickmaker's house attached, and laid +it on the hollow glass slide and then used the dipping-tube and brought +up some of the sediment from the bottom of the bottle; this proved to +contain several singular-looking plants and animals shown here. + +_Figures_ 3, 4, 5 and 6, are diatoms, and _figures_ 7 and 8 are +desmids. Naturalists formerly placed both diatoms and desmids in the +animal kingdom, but now all agree that the desmids are plants, while +some few still maintain that the diatoms are animals. But the weight of +evidence is on the plant side of the question. + +The desmids are wonderfully beautiful plants; the markings and colors +are exquisite. A number of species are found in the sediment of every +swamp and pond. + +The diatoms often grow in long ribbon-like masses (_fig. 3_), and then +partially separate, remaining joined together at the angles so as to +form a zigzag chain as seen at _figure 4_. They have the power of moving +through the water, changing their places like animals. + +A great variety of forms are found, both diatoms and desmids, many still +undescribed, inviting the young microscopist to study and name them. + +_Figures_ 10 and 11 are different forms of a little animal, _Trichoda +lynceus_. It undergoes a great many changes. In some of its stages, it +looks so different from the figures here represented that you would +never dream of its being the same creature. + + +VIII.--THE VORTICELLAS. + + [Illustration: CARCHESIUM POLYPINUM.] + +The tree-vorticellas must ever stand first among all the varied and +beautiful objects which the microscope reveals. A species common in New +England and the Middle States is known scientifically by the name of +_Carchesium Polypinum_. It is impossible to convey a true idea of its +beauty from a dead black and white drawing. To be appreciated it must be +seen in all its living glory--charming little animals resembling +bell-shaped lilies on the ends of lovely transparent stems. + +How curious nature is in the microscopic world! Only think of a tree of +living animals! The stems of the tree are jointed, and the little +creatures can sway the branches about and even throw them into a spiral +coil so as to bring themselves near the main stem. This gives them the +appearance of being very polite toward each other; they bow and courtesy +as if preparing for a grand quadrille, and they are decked out in gay +colors, red, green, and yellow. The margins of the little cups are +fringed with hairs, or _cilia_, which they can put in such rapid motion +that it makes a current in the water and brings little particles to +their mouths which they consume as food. They do not accept everything +that comes in the current. They seem to know what they like as well as +the higher animals, and act as if they were vexed with some of the +particles, rejecting and sending them off with a rapid whirling motion. + +The largest of these fairy-like trees are visible to the naked eye, but +it will be necessary for a novice in such matters to use a good strong +lens to be able to find them readily. They are attached to plants +growing in water. I have always been most successful in finding them +among the water-milfoil (_Myriophillum_) several species of which grow +in New England and the Middle States. Some of the species are found in +deep water, others in shallow ponds. + +The Bladderworts (_Utricularia_) are also good plants to search among. +They grow in similar places. On either of these plants we shall be sure +to find a good many interesting creatures. If we fail to find the tree, +we may secure other species of vorticella, all of which are very +beautiful. + +Do you know the _Utricularia_? I will devote the next chapter to these +curious plants, and to the microscopic animals which they capture. + +It will take a little practice to learn where and how to collect +material for the microscope. We should not depend too much upon books in +any branch of natural history. To be successful, you must observe for +yourselves, experiment and examine independently, consulting books that +you may name and classify, that you may recognize and name what you +find. If you fail to find specimens in one spot, try another. + +You should not fill your collecting bottles more than two thirds full of +water, nor crowd too many plants in them. These little creatures must +have air in order to live, as well as the higher animals. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The finest tree-vorticellas I ever found were in Florida, in the St. +John's River. These trees were attached to long, floating stems of +_Myriophillum verticillatum_, and were unlike any species that I ever +found at the North. They were very large--in a microscopic +sense--plainly visible to the naked eye, and it took only a moderate +power to bring out their beauty. + +_Vorticella nebulifera_ is quite common in swamps and ponds. We find it +attached to a great number of water plants. This species is not built up +in the form of a tree, but it is nevertheless beautiful and graceful. +The delicate, slender stems start from a node, or rounded mass, +sometimes fifty or more of these fairy like creatures in one colony, all +attached to a common centre, swaying about, coiling their delicate +transparent stems, and again uncoiling quick as a flash, apparently +dallying and playing, but never interfering nor becoming entangled one +with another. + +The _Stentor_ is another member of the _Vorticellinae_ family. It is one +of the largest of the infusoria, plainly visible to the naked eye, and +one of the most interesting and curious of all the strange animals in +the microscopic world. It assumes various forms. When swimming, it looks +round and plump (_Fig. 2_), and rushes through the water pell-mell, +knocking the smaller animals right and left, always seeming to be in a +great hurry, unless two friendly ones happen to meet, when they +frequently stop and put their heads together a moment as if exchanging +greetings, then away they sail again, dashing through the water, +capturing and devouring the smaller creatures as they go. And now a +couple meet that are very communicative--two gossips, no doubt! At all +events, they put their heads together and conclude to have a good +sociable time. + +And they are sensible enough to know that they cannot stand around loose +in the water or public highway. So they select a cosey spot and fasten +their feet to a plant or some firm object, and stretch out their +footstalks sometimes to a great length, making veritable trumpets of +themselves. (_Fig. 3._) + +And who knows what grave matters may be settled during these conclaves? +or perhaps they are only rehearsing gossip, as they have had every +possible chance to see what was going on among their neighbors. + + [Illustration: THE STENTORS.--"VERITABLE TRUMPETS."] + +Sometimes one settles down alone near a group of others, and seems to +proclaim in stentorian voice that it is reception day and he is ready to +receive. Or perhaps he is simply a herald as his name indicates, whose +business it is to conduct ceremonies and regulate affairs! At any rate, +though our ears are too dull to catch the voices of these curious beings +of a lower world--so near, and yet in another sense, so far away, it +would be difficult to believe that these animated creatures have no +means of communication and nothing to communicate. + + + + +PART II + +THROUGH A MICROSCOPE + +BY MARY TREAT + + +IX.--THE UTRICULARIA. + +It seems strange that innocent-looking plants should capture and kill +animals; but this is really what the Bladderworts (_Utricularia_) are +all the time doing. They grow in ponds and swamps, some species in deep, +still water, others in shallow ponds. + +Fig. 1 shows a portion of the stem of _Utricularia clandestina_, natural +size. The little bladders are so nearly transparent, that on bringing +them under the microscope, or even under a good lens, you can see the +numerous creatures that they have captured, some partly consumed, others +still alive. + +The bladders on these curious plants remind one of some of the +_Entomostracans_ which Mr. Wells described in his fourth paper. Look at +_Chydorus sphericus_ for instance, and then at the magnified bladder +(_Fig. 2_) in this article. The branched horns at the mouth or entrance +have very much the appearance of the antennae of some of the minute +animals, and the stem when it is attached to the main branch may be +likened to a tail. But the way in which they capture and devour the +pretty little creatures that come within their grasp makes them appear, +even more than they look, like wicked animals. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. PORTION OF A STEM OF UTRICULARIA CLANDESTINA; + NATURAL SIZE.] + +I have found almost every swimming animalculae with which I am +acquainted, caught in these vegetable traps; and when caught they never +escape. Their entrance is easy enough; there is a sensitive valve at the +mouth of the bladder, which, if they touch it, flies open and draws +them in as quick as a flash. These downward-opening bladders not only +entrap animalculae, but, more wonderful still, the strong larvae of +insects. The larvae most frequently caught are those of the mosquito and +chironomus. Often the mosquito is caught tail first--the entire body +inclosed and the head left sticking out. It always looks as if the +victim might walk or wriggle out, but it never does; and you may be sure +that it never backed in there of its own accord. + +You all know how the mosquito larva wriggles in the water, and is known +by the common name of "wriggler," or sometimes inaccurately, "wiggler." +Now just as sure as the tail of this wriggler strikes the mouth of the +bladder, just so sure is he caught--drawn in by some unknown power +quicker than you can speak. + +There is yet much to learn about these curious plants. How it is that +the valve or trap can so firmly hold these strong larvae is still a +mystery. I have seen a mosquito larva caught by the head when the first +joint of the body was too large to be admitted through the entrance of +the bladder, and have patiently watched its frantic efforts to escape, +but it was never released. The more it thrashed about, the tighter grew +the fatal trap until death put an end to its struggles. + +The chironomus larva is quite unlike that of the mosquito. The +chironomus has brush-like feet which it can withdraw from sight--a sort +of telescopic arrangement--or extend when it wishes to crawl along the +plants, while the mosquito wriggles and swims. + +The chironomus is caught more often even than the mosquito larva. At +certain seasons of the year it is almost impossible to find a bladder +without one or more of these victims entrapped. + +They feed on the water plants, and seem to have a special liking for the +long-branched antennae which grow at the mouth of the bladders, and, all +unconscious of the trap, on, on they go, their sickle-shaped jaws +cutting the antennae which they eat as they advance, until their heads +reach the mouth of the bladder, when they heedlessly touch the valve and +the trap is sprung and they are drawn within, never more to escape, but +to be slowly devoured. + +There is another interesting species of _Utricularia_, the _Purfurea_, +quite different in many particulars from the first. It grows in deep, +still water. The stems are long, sometimes two feet or more in length, +and the branches radiate in every direction, so that one plant often +covers quite a large surface of water. The flowering stems stand above +the water, and each stem bears three or four very pretty violet purple +flowers, and it blossoms nearly all summer. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. BLADDER OF U. CLANDESTINA MAGNIFIED TWENTY + DIAMETERS.] + +The flowers are about half an inch broad and quite conspicuous. Most of +the other species have yellow flowers. + +There are no little thread-like leaves on this species, and the bladders +are on the ends of the little branchlets, and they have no sharp-pointed +antennae as in the other species; but in their place is an elegant +cluster of transparent glassy-like ornamental appendages. The ornaments +are just above the entrance, and who knows but this is a contrivance set +there to lure unwary creatures into the trap. + +One of the most common little creatures that was caught in this trap, +was the _Tardigrada_, or water bear. He looks like a tiny cub, but +unlike his great namesake, he has eight legs, and he frequently slips +out of his old skin and comes out in a new suit. + +I often find them crawling in a forest of these plants, peering out of a +thick jungle--now ascending a branch and out on a limb, holding fast +with their long claws, and apparently looking around to see what they +can find. + +Now one seems to be attracted to this elegant glassy cluster of +_Utricularia_. At all events he is soon pushing his head among the +delicate stems, then stops a moment, standing perfectly still as if +listening. Perhaps he hears the groans of his dying comrades, but all +unheeding the warning, he steps forward, touches the fatal spring, when +in he goes to perish with his comrades. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. CHIRONOMUS LARVA: BACK VIEW WITH FEET DRAWN IN + AND JAWS CLOSED; SIDE VIEW WITH FEET EXTENDED AND JAWS CLOSED.] + +Young microscopists may like to know that the _Utricularia_ can be +preserved in the house a long time by putting the stems or sprays in an +open, shallow dish of water where they will grow readily. I have kept +the plants months together in a large glass dish where they looked +charmingly beautiful and were the admiration of all who saw them. It is +very interesting to watch their growth. The ends of the growing sprays +unroll like ferns, and with a magnifying glass you can see the +development of the little bladders, and you may make discoveries--who +knows? I know that for a long time it was a mystery to me how the +bladders captured and imprisoned the little animals. Every day I saw +they were entrapped and never escaped, and I studied and pondered over +the matter a long time, and was so interested and determined to learn +the secret that I spent night after night looking through the +microscope, watching the strange, unwary creatures fall into the trap. + +At last I concluded to adopt the following plan: I took sprays of the +plants that I had grown in clear water that contained no animalcules, so +that all the bladders were empty and quite transparent. In another dish +I had put a great many masses of mosquito eggs. Mosquito eggs are found +floating on almost any standing water, in dark, compact masses. In warm +weather they hatch in a few hours. So you can understand how quickly I +could swarm a small vessel of water with the mosquito larvae by +introducing the eggs where I wished them to hatch. When they were +hatched I put some of the water in which was a large number of the tiny +creatures into the live box with a spray of the plant containing empty +bladders. I placed the box under the microscope and closely watched the +manner of capture. I became certain that in almost every instance the +larvae were caught tail first. The tail is brush-like, and when it swept +over the door or valve that leads into the bladder, I saw that the door +would immediately fly open and always draw the larva in. I soon became +satisfied that the valve was very sensitive when touched at the right +point, but to this day I cannot tell what the power is that so quickly +draws the creatures within. I earnestly hope that some young +microscopists will yet be able to ferret out the cause of this singular +power. + +Those who have read Mr. Darwin's very interesting book on _Insectivorous +Plants_, will have noticed that he says the valve of _Utricularia_ is +not in the least sensitive, and that the little creatures force their +way into the bladders--their heads acting like a wedge. But this is not +the case, as Mr. Darwin himself was convinced some years before his +death. In his usual kind, gracious manner he admitted that he was wrong, +and gracefully says the valve must be sensitive, although he could never +excite any movement. In a letter to me bearing date June 1st, 1875, he +says: + +"I have read your article (in _Harpers Magazine_) with the greatest +interest. It certainly appears from your excellent observations that the +valve is sensitive.... I cannot understand why I could never with all my +pains excite any movement. It is pretty clear I am quite wrong about the +head acting like a wedge. The indraught of the living larva is +astonishing." + + +X.--FREE SWIMMING ANIMALCULES. + +The Brickmaker, Floscules, and Vorticellas are quiet peaceable citizens +of the microscopic world, and seem to be impressed with the graver +duties of life; they set up housekeeping and settle down for life moored +to one spot. But there are many others that live a free-and-easy sort of +life--a wandering gypsy kind of an existence, always on the move; and +there is not much satisfaction in trying to follow these rovers if we +wish to make a careful study of their structure. + + [Illustration: SKELETON WATER WHEEL.] + +So to be enabled to examine them you will be compelled to imprison them +in the live-box and bring just as much pressure to bear upon them as +they will stand without crushing, which with careful practice you may +soon learn to do. But if you are simply making the acquaintance of these +little creatures for amusement, it is more interesting and satisfactory +to watch them while they are unrestrained, and see the curious feats +they perform. + +One of the most amusing of these little animals is the Skeleton +Wheel-bearer (_Dinocharis pocillum_). His portrait is seen at _Figure +1_. He has a long foot consisting of three joints, and these joints are +as perfect as those of our own knees and elbows, and can be moved as +easily forward and sideways, but not backward. The joints and foot are +not covered with any fleshy substance, from which fact--the joints being +so conspicuous--it probably received the name Skeleton. Two long slender +toes extend from the last joint, and from the tips of these the Skeleton +can show us more wonderful feats than any circus performer. + +The toes can be widely separated, or brought close together, like a pair +of tongs. Sometimes he stands on the tip of one toe and throws his body +forward, or from side to side with a rapid motion; then straightening +himself up, he stands on the tips of both toes as if posing, remaining +perfectly still for a few moments and giving us an opportunity to take a +good look at his curious body which is encased in a pretty vase-shaped, +three-sided transparent shell. The head extends from the top of the +vase, and is surmounted with the usual cilia, or wheel, which we see +among all the rotifera. When he is tired of posing, away he swims in a +graceful, easy manner, with his long foot straightened out and the toes +brought close together. + +You sometimes will find these pretty creatures, especially in +summer-time, very numerous in the sediment at the bottom of your +collecting bottles. Often I have found dead specimens, and very +beautiful objects they sometimes are. Great numbers of tiny scavengers +have completely cleaned out all of the soft parts of the body in a most +neat and perfect manner, leaving the beautiful shell and vertical +column, that runs through it, and the foot and toes, entire and perfect +in all of their parts. + +Think of the minuteness of these scavengers--untold numbers of them +preying upon the body of an object invisible to the naked eye; and yet +this body is a mammoth by the side of one of the scavengers! The mind +can scarcely grasp the minuteness of these tiny creatures--creatures +that seem to enjoy existence, eating, and apparently playing and +entertaining each other like the higher animals. + + [Illustration: WHIPTAIL.] + +The whiptail (_Mastigocerca carinata_) (_Fig. 2_) is another delicate +pretty little creature, and, like the skeleton, is encased in a glassy +shell. It has a long, tapering, spine-like foot, or, more properly +speaking, a toe which is attached to a very short foot by means of a +flexible joint which allows free motion. You often will find him in +company with the Skeleton, and they seem to vie with each other in +performing strange feats. The Whiptail, if possible, looks even more +comical than the Skeleton when it stands on the tip of its long toe, a +toe which is longer than the entire length of the body, now bending over +and nibbling at the plants, now whisking around as if looking and +inquiring into some passing object, then sailing through the water with +a graceful, easy motion beyond sight. + +_Brachionus pala_ is also a lovely creature encased in a delicate +transparent shell. It is considerably larger than the Skeleton or +Whiptail, and is just visible to the unassisted eye. If you drop it in a +phial of clear water and hold it up to the light, you can distinctly see +it gliding through the water like a revolving white speck. A moderate +power of the microscope reveals its beauty. The shell is swelled at the +sides, and narrow at the mouth, and round over the back, while the under +side is flat. + + [Illustration: LARGE ROTIFER.] + +Like the Skeleton and Whiptail, the head of the little Brachion is seen +protruding from the upper part of the shell; but instead of one wheel +this charming little creature has two, and nothing can be more lovely +than a sight of these fast revolving wheels, like two beautiful crowns. + +The reason the wheel looks so strikingly beautiful in _Brachionus_ is +owing to the long cilia which is longer in this genus than in other +genera of this great family. + +The foot of _Brachionus_ is more curious than that of the Skeleton. It +is telescopic, and the little animal has the most perfect control over +it. He can draw it within the body so that it looks like a ball, and +again quickly thrust it out and whisk it around in all directions like a +tail. It has two short toes at the end which can be separated or brought +together at pleasure. And he can firmly anchor himself by the toes and +stretch forward, showing you the great length of the foot. Now he rolls +from side to side without letting go his hold and performs other strange +feats, and all the while the wheels are rapidly revolving, he has +stopped his headlong career through the water and has settled down to +get his supper. + +_Fig. 3_ represents one of the largest rotifers with which I am +acquainted. I have never been able to find a description or engraving +of it in any work on microscopy. But it is probably well known to +microscopists, for it has a wide range. I have found it in New +Hampshire, New Jersey and Florida. + +You cannot get a true idea of its graceful beauty from the drawing, as +it is represented as it was seen in the live box with sufficient +pressure upon it to keep it from moving, while serving as a model. And +no engraving, however perfect, can give you any idea of its brilliant +transparency and delicate coloring. + +The play of the muscles and internal organs are plainly visible, and you +can always tell what he has chosen for dinner. Diatoms and desmids form +a portion of his diet. His mouth is below the wheel. When he is hungry +he anchors himself by his forked tail and sets his wheel in rapid +motion, which makes a powerful current sufficient to bring quite large +objects to his head, frequently too large to admit into the mouth. He +will often repeatedly try to take a desmid entirely too large for his +mouth, and his manoeuvres are quite comical as he whirls it round and +round, nipping it on all sides. You will see by looking at the figure +that everything has to be swallowed or taken within the body before it +reaches the mouth. While the desmid is within the body the rotifer has +control over it sufficient to take it into the mouth if it is of the +right size, but if it is too large he soon becomes disgusted and ejects +it with a sudden movement which sends it whirling rapidly away. And now +he takes a smaller one and his jaws work vigorously a moment or two, +when he swallows it almost entire, and we can plainly see the pretty +markings and brilliant green color after it has passed into the stomach. + +This large rotifer is plainly visible to the naked eye, and you will +find it in both shallow and deep ponds, wherever water plants grow, +during the months of July and August. + + +XI.--ON THE BEACH. + +Many of our young people spend the month of August at the seaside, and +if those who wish to learn something of the curious microscopic animals +will stroll along the beach when the tide has receded, until they come +to rocky places and little pools filled with salt water and various +marine plants, they will find a form of animal life quite different from +that in fresh water ponds. These little pools along the rocky coast are +the homes of countless numbers of zoophytes--animals which have a +stronger resemblance to plants and flowers than any we have found in +fresh water. + +Look for specimens for microscopic work on the surface of the rocks, on +dead sea shells, and on the sea-weeds. On the sea-weeds you will often +find a white filmy network which to the unassisted eye looks like simple +white threads running and spreading in every direction, and at every +angle of the network a tiny stem shoots up, branching out like a tree +and making a miniature forest. + +Now if you apply a low power of the microscope, you will find the little +forest is made up of a strange animal called _Laomeda geniculata_. +(_Fig. 1._) Each branch of this compound animal terminates and expands +into a lovely vase and is the home of a polype. The polype is not a +separate individual any more than the end of a growing branch is +separate from the tree on which it grows. + + [Illustration: LAOMEDA.] + +When the creature is hungry he sends out from the margin of the vase +from fifteen to twenty tentacles, ranged around the rim like the petals +of a flower. _Figure 1_ shows one of these expanded polypes as seen +through the microscope. + +The tentacles or feelers are fishing rods to bring game to the fleshy +mouth which is protruded from the centre of the vase. A great many such +mouths surrounded with their tentacles are necessary to feed this +singular compound creature. + +All that I can tell you of these microscopic animals will be nothing +compared to a study of them with your own eyes, so I will only give you +hints of what you may expect, thereby hoping to create sufficient +interest to induce you to stroll to out-of-the-way places, where you may +find many of Nature's marvellous works. We want more field workers in +every department of Natural History, and especially in microscopy where +unexplored fields are awaiting you. + +When the tide has receded, various objects of interest will meet your +eye at every step. Look at that old dead sea shell covered with a rough, +shaggy nap. Ah, as we approach, the shell is moving off! What can it +mean? Why, it means that a hermit crab has set up housekeeping in the +old shell, and he, no doubt, thinks us suspicious characters and wants +none of our company. But we are after microscopic objects now, and this +hermit, interesting as he is, is not to claim our attention to-day. The +rough coat on the outside of the shell is of more interest. + +With the aid of a pocket lens you will find it another zoophyte. You +can see the polypes, as thick as they can well stand, rising erect and +straight from the shaggy coat like a miniature field of wheat. With a +higher power you will see that each mouth is surrounded with tentacles +like those of _Laomeda_, but yet it is quite a different looking +creature. If we touch one of these polypes ever so lightly, the great +army immediately close their tentacles, for the same life pervades the +entire colony, and those on the extreme outer edge feel the contact as +quickly as the one we touched. + + [Illustration: LARES.] + +One of the most comical and amusing creatures of all the zoophyte tribe, +is figured and described by Mr. Gosse under the name of _Lar +Sabellarum_. He was the first observer of this curious creature; he +found it inhabiting the outer edge of the tube of a worm--the Sabella. +So when you are looking for microscopic objects do not overlook any tube +that you may see standing above the surface of sand and mud, as it may +be surrounded by this singular zoophyte. The tubes usually extend an +inch or two above the surface, and about as far below. I have found the +tubes surrounded with the creatures, but not in as good condition for +investigation as those Mr. Gosse mentions. Mine were too thick and +crowded to distinguish clearly. But as Mr. Gosse describes them, they +have a most close resemblance to the human figure as they stand erect +around the mouth of the tube of Sabella. + +A loose network surrounds the top of the tube and the strange forms +spring from the angles of the meshes. The creatures are furnished with +heads, and immediately below the head are two arms. (_Fig. 2._) The head +moves to and fro on the neck, while the arms are tossed wildly about as +if gesticulating in the most earnest manner. Or, as in the wild and +disorderly dances of savages the body sways back and forth while the +arms are thrown upward and downward in a frantic way. + +One summer I found a colony standing so thickly together that they did +not show off to very good advantage. Apparently they were like a packed +army of Liliputians, striking out with their arms and struggling with +one another. But when I came to observe them more carefully, I found +they were not interfering with one another at all, but each was intent +on his own business of obtaining a livelihood. + + [Illustration: HAND OF BARNACLE.] + +The Sabella which inhabits the tube, is of itself a most attractive +object. Most elegant fringed filaments proceed from the head, and wave +back and forth like a fan, and near the ends of these delicate slender +filaments are little black balls, supposed to be eyes. If they are eyes, +the Sabella has no lack of vision, and this may account for his seeming +watchfulness. He is always on the alert and drops down into his house at +any approach. Only with the utmost caution will you have an opportunity +to leisurely look at his rare beauty. + +When for the first time I saw this elegant, beautiful creature rising +out of the tube, and waving its fringed fan-like filaments, I did not +wonder at Mr. Gosse's enthusiasm. Neither was I surprised that he should +be reminded of the old Roman mythology and call the zoophytes which +surround the tube, "Lares," for the rare beauty of Sabella would suggest +the protection of guardian spirits. He says: + +"These curious creatures have afforded much entertainment, not only to +myself, but to those scientific friends to whom I have had opportunities +of exhibiting them. When I see them surrounding the mansion of the +Sabella, gazing, as it were, after him as he retreats into his castle, +flinging their wild arms over its entrance, and keeping watch with +untiring vigilance until he reappears, it seems to require no very vivid +fancy to imagine them so many guardian demons; and the Lares of the old +Roman mythology occurring to memory, I described the form under the +scientific appellation of _Lar Sabellarum_. You may, however, if it +pleases you better, call them 'witches dancing round the charmed pot.'" + +When the tide is out you will frequently notice barnacles adhering to +the rocks, or to the timbers used in the construction of wharves. Pray +stop and examine them critically and see what admirable fishers they +are. Their fishing-nets are composed of several long, flexible, jointed +fingers, thickly beset with sensitive hairs. When the fisher wants a +meal he thrusts his long hand (_Fig. 3_) out the door of his stone +house; the sensitive fingers quickly tell when they come in contact with +anything good to eat, and they curl over and grasp it and convey it to +the mouth. + +These barnacles are wonderful creatures and well worthy your continuous +study. They pass through several stages. When young they are a gay +rolicking set, swimming freely in the water; but as maturity approaches +they settle down in stone houses, never more to rove about, and set up +fishing for a living. + + +XII.--RHIZOPODS. + +Rhizopods are the lowest creatures in the animal kingdom. Some of them +are apparently nothing more than animated protoplasm. Protoplasm +pertains to the first formation of living bodies, whether vegetable or +animal, and it appears to be only a viscid, glutinous, unformed mass of +jelly-like substance, yet these rhizopods seem endowed with something +more than simple life. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. AMOEBA PRINCEPS, IN DIFFERENT FORMS.] + +Let us take the lowest of these lowly creatures, the _amoeba_, or +proteus, which we may find during the summer in almost every fresh water +pond. I cannot describe it, for, like its namesake, it is constantly +changing its form, slipping away from us, as it were, right before our +eyes, and assuming a new shape. As Proteus of old could assume any form, +either plant or animal as he pleased, so our _amoeba_ can assume +various forms at pleasure. + +You will remember that Homer introduces Proteus in the fourth book of +the _Odyssey_. He makes him the servant of Neptune, and says his office +was to take care of the seals or sea-calves. And who knows but his +namesake may have some such office among the curious beings of the +microscopic world which is peopled with as many strange creatures as +those we read of in ancient mythology? + +We frequently see our proteus adhering to a leaf of some water plant +when it looks like a little ball of jelly; and while we are looking at +it, it pushes out an arm here, and now another there, and still another, +as if feeling for something. (_Fig. 1, Amoeba princeps._) Not finding +anything to its taste, it moves or crawls along with its temporary arms +extended--all the while changing them, throwing one out on this side, +then on that, then contracting and pushing out in another place. It +seems to be actively in search of something. At last it has reached a +moving diatom with one of its long arms, which it immediately wraps +around it, and now the other arms are contracted and the creature +actually folds itself around its dinner! He turns himself outside in, +and makes a temporary stomach, and proceeds to digest the soft parts of +the diatom. After he has extracted all the nourishing part, he squeezes +or pushes out the clear, transparent shell, and starts in search for +something more. + +It is not known to a certainty how the _amoebae_ are produced, but this +much is known: If a portion of the body is detached from the rest, it +does not die, but becomes an independent _amoeba_. If a portion of one +of the arms becomes separated from the main body, it does not seem to +incommode the creature in the least, and the small part soon begins to +extend tiny arms and behave in every way like its parent. And this may +be the only way in which the children of Proteus are made--veritable +children of his own flesh. + +How strange it seems that a jelly-like mass of substance without form or +organization should be endowed with life and sufficient sense to go in +search of food and have the power of selection. + +Life manifested in the lowest animal or plant is just as wonderful and +hard to understand as that which pervades the higher animals. + +Some of the species of the fresh water _amoeba_ live in shells of +various forms and patterns. One which we often see has a little house +made of tiny particles of sand and minute bits of shell soldered +together with a kind of cement which hardens in water; these are vase or +pitcher-shaped and always look rough on the outside. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. TESTACEOUS FORMS OF AMOEBAN RHIZOPODS.] + +We may always know the different species by the forms and patterns of +the shells in which they live. Some have very regular shells and +prettily marked. These are usually rounded or arched on one side and +flat on the other. + +When you are looking for various microscopic objects in pond water you +will often see these tiny shells among the sediment on your slides, and +if you will patiently wait a few moments you will soon see delicate, +transparent arms slowly pushing out on every side like cautious feelers. +(_Figure 2, Amoeba in Shell._--_Carpenter_, p. 445.) + +But the most beautiful forms, and by far the greatest variety of these +microscopic shells are found in the ocean and in marine deposits. If we +look at the seaweeds which grow on the rocks we may see many white +specks adhering to every part of the plants. With a lens we find the +minute specks are spiral shells of many species belonging to the class +_Foraminifera_, and very closely allied to the _amoeba_. The shells +are of most elegant form and pattern. The large sea-shells which we so +much admire are not half so lovely in form or color as these seen +through a microscope. Some of the living animals and the castles in +which they dwell are crimson in color, others a delicate pink. + +Let us take one of these living shells while it clings to the sea-weed +and carefully cut off the smallest portion of the plant to which it +adheres, so as to disturb the occupant as little as possible; and now +place it in the live box with some of the salt water and we shall soon +have a most beautiful sight. + +See, the creature is throwing out delicate, transparent threads or +filaments in every direction, like fine-spun glass. How charming it +looks with the beautiful shell in the centre, surrounded by this moving, +filmy halo, and how slowly and cautiously the filaments are extended! He +is not a heedless, reckless creature, rushing into needless danger, but +a quiet, timid citizen. Although he was such a long time throwing out +his misty arms, when he scents danger he withdraws them as quick as a +flash. The least jar of the live-box, or a little wriggling larva--much +too large for him to manage, however--are sufficient to make him take in +all of his lines; but when quiet is restored, they are again stretched +out. And for what purpose are these slender filaments extended? Ah, an +innocent animalcule has become entangled among the shimmering, filmy +threads, and now the threads coalesce, run together like the arms of +_amoeba_, and disappear, and the animalcule is drawn within the walls +of the beautiful castle, and we are left to conjecture the fate of the +little victim. _Figure 3, Rotalia Ornata_--which shows its delicate +filaments extended. + +These tiny creatures have been so numerous way back in the early ages of +the world, that entire strata of rocks, several feet in thickness, in +various parts of the world, are made up of their skeletons. The city of +Richmond, Virginia, is built over rocks, composed largely of the minute +fossils of _Diatomaceae_ intermingled with the _Foraminifera_ and others. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. ROTALIA ORNATA.] + +A single prepared slide of these fossils will afford entertainment for +an entire evening, so great is the diversity of form and so many +hundreds on one slide. The Bahama Islands furnish the finest specimens +of these fossils. The slides can be procured of any large dealer in +optical instruments, or, what is still better, the young microscopist +can soon learn to prepare them for himself, as ample directions are +given in the books on the microscope. + +In bidding my young readers adieu I shall not lose entire thought of +them, but often when I am engaged in looking through the microscope, I +shall think and ask myself, "Are they, too, absorbed in this pleasant +work, and how many will become true workers and original investigators +in this great field?" We shall all know in due time, for no earnest +worker in any branch of science can long remain unknown. He will be +found out sooner or later. A devoted student in microscopy will become +so happy over the marvellous creatures and their curious ways that he +cannot keep his pleasure to himself. + + + + +PART III + +A HOME-MADE MICROSCOPE, AND HOW TO USE IT + +BY FREDERICK LEROY SARGENT + + +XIII.--HOW TO SEE A DANDELION. + +A simple microscope, some mounted needles, a sharp knife and a pair of +small forceps, are the only things needed to begin with. + +There are many kinds of simple microscopes sold, some of which are of +moderate price and answer every purpose; but if one has a little +mechanical skill the cheapest way is to buy a magnifier and make the +rest of the microscope one's self. What is known as the "bellows +pattern," with three lenses, is one of the best of the cheaper forms of +magnifiers, and is an admirable little instrument. + +_Fig. 1_ shows a home-made microscope ready for use. It will be seen +that the main part consists of a wooden box having a hole in the top and +open in front. To the back is attached a cork by means of a piece of +thin metal as shown in _fig. 2_. Through this cord slides a rod on which +slides another cork. A piece of brass wire has one end wound round the +upper cork while the other end projects as an arm at right angles to the +rod, and this projecting end sharpened and upturned, passes through +holes drilled in the handle of the magnifier, and thus supports it. The +lenses are focused, _i. e._ brought to the right distance from the +object viewed, by sliding the cork up and down on the rod. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The object rests on a piece of glass laid over the hole in the top of +the box. A piece of wood covered with white paper and placed below the +object at an angle of about forty-five degrees answers for a reflector +to illuminate those objects through which the light can pass. The pure +white surface is better for the purpose than a mirror. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The most delicate part of the construction is making the holes in the +corks for the rod to slide through. This may be done perfectly, however, +by making the holes with a rat-tail file, trying the rod now and then +until it moves just right. The best thing for the rod is a piece of +brass wire one quarter of an inch thick; a lead pencil however is a good +substitute. Before bending the end of the brass wire arm it is well to +heat it red-hot at the point of bending, to take out the temper: as +otherwise it may break. The holes in the handle of the magnifier should +be drilled as near the front as possible and so arranged that when the +magnifier is in position the smallest lens will be near the object. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The mounted needles are shown in _fig. 3_. One pair of each kind will be +enough to start with. To make one, take a fine needle, break off about a +third, so it will not be too long and springy; then with a pair of +pincers force it into the handle point first, withdraw it and finally +force it in again with the point out. It may be easily bent with the +pincers by first heating it to redness in a flame. When bent, heat it +red once more and plunge quickly into water to re-temper it. Rubbing on +an oil stone may be necessary to remove roughness. Should the handles +show any tendency to split, it would be well to wrap the end tightly +with waxed thread. + +The forceps (_fig. 4_) may be purchased either of brass or steel at no +great expense. Although not necessary it is more convenient to have them +curved than straight. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +If the reader will carefully follow the directions given below and +endeavor to see for himself all the parts spoken of, he will probably +have very little difficulty afterward in the use of the instruments just +described; and the enjoyment he will have when he has learned how to +examine little things, will amply repay for careful and persistent +efforts at the start. Get a Dandelion in full bloom and also one that +has gone to seed. + +Have the microscope and the other instruments ready for use. The best +place to work is on a table in front of a window where there is plenty +of light, but not the direct rays of the sun. + +Now cut the blossom in halves from the stem up. It will be seen that the +stem is hollow and ends above in a cushion-like expansion. From the +upper surface of this grow a number of little flowers, while from the +sides there sprang two rows of little green organs that enclose the +flower cluster like a cup. Remove one of the flowers with the forceps +and place it in a drop of water on the glass stage of the microscope. +Examine with one and one half inch power.[A] + +Be careful to get just the focus. You are now ready to see the general +form of the flower. At the base is a little body with roughened sides +and slightly narrowed above (the ovary). Springing from the top of the +ovary are a number of fine bristles (the pappus). Inside the bristles is +a yellow portion, tubular below and flat above (the corolla). +Projecting from the tube of the corolla is a little yellow rod (the top +of the stamens joined together); and coming from among the stamens are +two slender recurved organs (the stigmas). + +Now take a mounted needle in each hand and holding one needle on the +flat part of the corolla split open the tubular part with the other. By +keeping the lower part spread open with the needles, you will see that a +number of delicate yellow threads grow from the sides of the corolla and +are connected with the yellow stamen rod. These threads are another part +of the stamens. In the middle of the flower is a single thread-like +organ (the style) which comes from the top of the ovary and passing +through the stamens projects beyond them, divided into two stigmas. + +Most of my readers have probably studied enough botany to know the names +of the different parts of a flower, but very likely many of them do not +recognize the parts of the Dandelion flower as looking anything like the +parts of the flower with which they are familiar. + +Before proceeding further, therefore let us take a Morning-Glory +flower--which you all know and can easily obtain, or at least some +flower like it--and let us see that the parts of the two correspond. + +Commencing in the centre we find in both a pistil, consisting of an +ovary at the base and a stigma at the top and a style between. In the +Dandelion the stigma is split in halves, while in the morning-glory it +is not split but has three little knobs. Around the pistil come the +stamens in each case. Each stamen is composed of two parts: a slender +stem (the filament) and a little sac at the end (the anther) which is +filled with pollen dust. In both cases the filaments grow out of the +sides of the corolla. But while in the Morning-Glory the anthers are +entirely free from one another, in the Dandelion they are joined +together by their sides and form a tube around the style. The corolla in +both cases is all of one piece, but in the Dandelion it is as if the +upper part of the corolla were split open one side and then made flat. +Instead of a green calyx as in the Morning-Glory, the Dandelion has a +number of delicate white bristles. And, finally, in the Morning-Glory +both the calyx and corolla grow out from below the ovary, while in the +Dandelion its calyx of bristles and its corolla issue from above the +ovary. So after all, you will see that corresponding organs are in both, +and the difference between the two flowers is not so great as one might +think at first. + +Let the different parts of the Dandelion be examined now more minutely. +First take some of the bristles and examine them with one quarter inch +power. They are not perfectly smooth, but are more or less saw-like on +the edge. With the same power look at other parts of the flower; notice +the hairiness of the stigmas, the pollen grains coming out of the +anthers (some grains may be found on the stigmas) also the roughness of +the ovary and the delicate ribs or veins in the corolla. Examine one of +the seed-like fruits with one and one half inch power. It is a ripened +ovary. Compare the fruit with the ovary of a flower. The nutlet has +become hard, rougher and more strongly ribbed. The narrowed upper part +of the ovary has become much elongated and the pappus is spread out like +an inverted umbrella. + +Examine some bristles with one quarter inch power. They show the +saw-like edges much more developed than in the younger bristles of the +flower. We see throughout a beautiful adaptation of every part for +fitting the little parachute to be carried long distances by the wind +and finally to catch on some suitable place in which to sprout. + + +XIV.--HOW TO SEE A BUMBLE BEE. + +You will first need to catch your Bumble Bee. A little chloroform poured +on one will kill it instantly. Make a general examination at the outset +of the insect. The outside of the body is horny and covered thickly with +hairs. On the upper side the hairs are much more numerous than on the +under side. The whole body is divided into three regions: the head, +bearing the feelers and mouth-parts; a middle part (thorax) bearing the +four wings and six legs; and a hind part (abdomen) armed with the sting. + +Remove the head and examine with one and one half inch power. At the +sides are two prominent oval bodies (compound eyes) which seem to be +crossed by five lines; near the top of the head, between the compound +eyes, are three little shiny bead-like organs (simple eyes); starting +from about the middle of the face are the two feelers (antennae) and at +the lower part of the head are the mouth-parts. The sides, top and front +of the head are all covered with hair. + +Examine one of the compound eyes with one fourth inch power. The surface +is made up of innumerable little facets, something like a cut diamond. + +Cut off a piece of one of the compound eyes, remove some of the black +pigment on the back and examine the piece in a drop of water. Each facet +is a tiny hexagon. Some care is necessary to see them well. + +Remove an antenna and examine it with three fourths inch power. It is +thickly covered with minute hairs which give it a velvety appearance. +Count the joints. At the base is the longest joint; at the lower end of +which is a little knob that fits into a socket in the head. The next +joint is quite small while those beyond are much alike. + +Scrape the hairs from the face and examine the horny shell with three +fourths inch power. The surface is full of little pits. In the upper +part of the face there is a groove, in the middle of which is one of +the simple eyes. Just below the antennae sockets is a groove which +extends crosswise a short distance on either side and then bends +downwards to the mouth. The portion of the face bounded by this groove +is called the clypeus. At its lower part is hinged a little oblong piece +(labium) which may be moved up and down with a needle. + +Melt a piece of sealing wax on the centre of a slip of glass (taking +care not to break the glass by too sudden heating) and before the wax +hardens press the head into it face downwards. + +Examine with one inch power. The hole near the top of the head shows the +position of the neck. The portion of the head around this hole is +destitute of hairs and is hollowed in, to make room for the rounded +front part of the thorax. Below this one there is another cavity which +contains a portion of the mouth parts when they are retracted. At each +side of the mouth in front of the base of the sucking organs, are the +two jaws (mandibles) each with a little tuft of hair on the outer side. +The jaws move freely to and from each other, sideways instead of up and +down as do the jaws of the higher animals. The sucking apparatus +consists of five pieces viz: two outermost pieces each tapering to a +fine point, two, each of which ends in three little joints and one in +the centre which projects beyond the others. It may be necessary to +spread these out with the needle, to see them well. + +Separate the thorax from the rest of the body. Scrape off the hairs on +the back. Two principal grooves extend across the back, one near the +front and one near the hind margin. The thorax is composed of three +divisions and these grooves show where they are joined together. The +hind division bears the hind wings and the hind pair of legs; the middle +division, much the largest division of the three, bears the fore wings +and the middle pair of legs; and the foremost division is quite small +and bears only the front pair of legs. + +Remove the wings of one side and examine in a drop of water with one and +one half inch power. The wings consist of a shining transparent membrane +strengthened by numerous horny veins running through it. Examine with +one half inch power. The membrane is seen to be covered with minute +hairs and little dots. On the front edge of the hind wing a short +distance from the outer end is a row of hooks. At a corresponding place +on the hind edge of the fore wing there is a thickening or ridge. When +flying, the hooks catch onto the ridge and thus the wings are held +together and act as one large wing. + +Examine this grappling apparatus with one fourth inch power and with the +needles hook the wings together and pull them apart. If you look through +the magnifier while you do this you will get a good idea of the form of +the ridge and of how the hooks catch onto it. Remove one of the +forelegs, being sure that none remains attached to the body. Examine +with one and one half inch power. The extremity is armed with two claws; +then come four short joints followed by one about as long as the others +together. All these make up the foot. The next joint above is the shank, +then comes the thigh and then quite a small joint, the lower hip, and +lastly attached to the body is the upper hip. + +Remove the last five joints of the foot (the claw part, and the other +four joints) examine with one third inch power. The claws have each a +branch projecting from the inner edge. Between the claws is a little +velvety pad. Each of the small joints is covered with short closely +appressed hairs and from the lower end of each joint project several +spines. Now examine the remaining long joint of the foot attached to the +shank. At the upper end of the inner side is a deep semicircular notch, +the upper portion of which is light colored. Beside the notch is a +peculiarly shaped movable spine which projects from the lower end of the +shank. This queer arrangement is what the bee uses to clean his feelers. +The reader has probably seen the operation performed by a bee or a wasp. +The leg is thrown over the feeler, the latter is grasped at that +particular bend of the leg where the cleansing apparatus is situated and +then drawn through from base to tip; and this is repeated several times +with each feeler. + +Examine with one and one half inch power a leg from each of the other +pairs and compare the corresponding parts. They differ chiefly in size +and in the absence of the cleansing apparatus. You cannot fail to +admire the many beautiful forms of the different portions. On the outer +side of the hind shank is a smooth flattish surface destitute of hairs, +excepting a fringe of long ones at the margin. At this place may +sometimes be found a sticky mass of pollen intended for bee-bread. +Examine the abdomen with one and one half inch power. It is composed of +several wings. If some of the hairs are scraped off this will be shown +more clearly. From the hind extremity projects the sting. + +We have far from exhausted all the beautiful and interesting points in +the make-up of a Bumble Bee, not even those that may be seen with the +limited powers of a simple microscope; but probably enough has been said +to show the reader that such things are well worthy of study and it is +hoped that enough directions have been given to render future use of the +instruments comparatively free from difficulty. + + +XV.--SOME LITTLE THINGS TO SEE. + +There is no end to the beautiful and wonderful things one can see with +the simple microscope. Only a few of the more attractive and easily +obtained of these are now to be mentioned. + +To begin with, there are ever so many pretty flowers to look at. The +asterworts, that is, such flowers as the daisy, aster, golden rod, +dandelion and thistle, are particularly full of beauty. The blossoms are +all made up of a number of little flowers as in the dandelion; but the +shapes and colors and so forth, of the different kinds are exceedingly +various. Some, such as the asters and daisies, have two kinds of flowers +in the same blossom--flowers with strap-shaped corollas (like the +dandelion's) are arranged along the margin of the blossom, while in the +centre are little flowers with star-shaped corollas presenting a much +different appearance. Flowers of many of the Parsley Family, for +example wild carrot, wild parsnip and caraway, are quite odd. Very +pretty flowers are found among the grasses, sedges and common weeds. The +different trees as they bloom in spring--the maples, elms, willows, +poplars, sassafras and hosts of others--all have flowers that are +perfectly lovely. Most of these flowers need to be picked to pieces +under the magnifier to show up their full beauty. The parts of flowers, +both small and large ones, deserve attention. Frequently one meets with +remarkable forms. + +Seeds are highly interesting. They are often handsomely marked with +series of pits or projections, grooves or ridges. One meets with many +curious appendages by means of which the seeds are carried off and sown +at a distance from the plant. Some, like the dandelion, have a parachute +attachment; others have wings to catch the wind, and others still are +covered with hooked spines whereby they become attached to the fur of +animals, there to remain until brushed off onto the ground. + +Leaves and stems sometimes have on them beautiful hairs and oil-glands. +The wooly covering of common mullein, for example, is made up of +innumerable slender-branched hairs. These show best when a piece of the +leaf broken off is looked at edgewise. + +If you examine the fruit-dots on the backs of the different kinds of +ferns you will be surprised to find how pretty they are and of how many +different shapes. Sometimes the fruit is not borne on the back of the +leaf but forms little clusters by themselves, which are sometimes at the +end of the fern, sometimes in the middle, sometimes on a separate stalk. + +Mosses, lichens and sea-weeds are well worth looking at. + +Early in the summer an exquisite little fungus called "Cluster cups" may +be found on the underside of barberry leaves. Hawthorn and other plants +have handsome fungi on them later in the season. + +By observing closely while out in the fields or woods, one sees hovering +about in swarms, myriads of tiny insects. Under the lens some of them +are very odd, others very beautiful. The easiest way to catch these +little midgets, is to wet the palm of the hand and then sweep it among +them, or in the same way use a piece of sticky paper. + +The study of the different parts of insects is one of the most +fascinating of the many uses of the Simple microscope. Although all +insects are made up on the same general plan and corresponding organs +occur in most of them, there is an endless variety in the forms under +which we see the different organs and the uses to which they are put. + +Take for example the antennae. In the grasshopper it is long and +threadlike; in the butterflies always ending in a knob; in moths always +tapering to a point, although sometimes threadlike and sometimes much +branched, forming a beautiful plume; in the beetles, sometimes fan-like, +sometimes like a comb; and in other insects assuming still other forms. +Insects' eyes are often colored beautifully. A horse-fly's eyes are +striped. Butterflies' eyes have usually a soft liquid coloring, and +moths' eyes in the dark shine like little fiery beads. + +The mouths of insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers and dragon flies, +have strong jaws for biting; flies, bugs, moths and butterflies, have +the mouth-parts transformed into sucking organs, while bees, wasps and +the like have both sucking organs for honey, and biting organs for +leaf-cutting, wood-tearing etc. as we saw was the case in the Bumble +Bee. + +Butterflies' wings and moths' wings are covered with little scales of a +variety of shapes. These should be examined attached to the wing to show +their arrangement which is like that of shingles on a roof; but to show +their form they should be looked at when brushed from the wing onto a +piece of glass. Many other peculiarities may be noticed in the wings of +other kinds of insects. + +Legs, the same as the other organs, have various forms, markings and +appendages, and so it is with the abdomen and its stings or its +egg-laying apparatus. + +The hairs of "Wooly Bears" and caterpillars of that kind are peculiarly +branched. + +The four hind pairs of feet in caterpillars are armed each with a row +of little hooks which are used in walking to get a firm hold. The larger +caterpillars show the hooks best. + +Sometimes you will find pretty insect eggs on the underside of leaves or +on stems, and also little silken cocoons in similar places. If you are +near a pond-hole, or an old hogshead that collects rain water, you can +find a good many little animals, some of them very frisky--young +mosquitoes or "polywogs," water-fleas, cyclops, little worms, young +dragon-flies and lots of others. When you go to collect them take a +small wide-mouth bottle and, having found a place where there is what +you want, lower your bottle, mouth down, in the midst of them and when +it is well under water turn the mouth upwards. A good many of the +animals will run in with the water. If the first time you do not get +what you want, the second time you may. When you want to examine them at +home you can fish them out with a glass tube and put them in a watch +crystal or on the glass stage of the microscope. In using the tube take +it between the thumb and middle and third fingers, and close the top +with your first finger; then put the lower end of the tube in the water +close to the thing you want to catch; now lift your first finger quickly +and the water will run in the lower end of the tube carrying with it +your little squirmer, unless he has been too quick for you. Close the +top of your tube again and the water will not run out when you remove +the tube, until you lift your finger. Sometimes it takes a good deal of +patience and skill to catch the more agile of the little water animals. +Glass tubes are sold in drug stores for five or ten cents. + +If you begin by examining the objects already spoken of, you will while +looking for these be continually discovering for yourselves new objects +possessing new beauties and will soon see that not half the interesting +things you can find have been ever hinted at. + +The way to find out about all these things is to go out into the fields +and woods, and form the habit of observing closely what is around you. +Carry your magnifier along and look at this flower, that fern, this +insect, that moss, with different powers of the magnifier; and when you +come across any objects worthy of a more careful examination carry them +home and examine them systematically with Simple microscope, needles, +knife, and so forth. Insects may be kept well in alcohol until winter, +and then careful studies may be made of them. + +When using the magnifier in the field, hold it in such a way that the +smallest lens will be nearest the object when the lenses are combined +and be careful not to shade the object with the hand or the hat brim. +Just enough light should fall on the object to make its examination +comfortable for the eyes. If you rest the hand holding the magnifier on +the hand that holds the object, both lens and object can be held much +steadier. When commencing to examine an object it is best to have the +three lenses spread apart, for in this way you can use first the lowest +power then those higher and finally, if you wish to, the three lenses +combined. The dissecting forceps are very handy to have in the field, +both for picking up anything too small for the fingers and for holding +an object to be examined. + +A collection of some of these little things preserved and ready for +examination adds greatly to the pleasures of studying them. Of course +all the different kinds of objects cannot be preserved so as to show +their full beauty, but many can be and the following directions will +tell how to make a very good collection: + +Seeds, fern-fruit, insects and other opaque objects like these may be +mounted on pasteboard slides. One of these slides consists simply of a +stout piece of pasteboard, having a hole cut in the centre and a piece +of thick paper or cardboard glued on the under side. The object is +attached to the cardboard at the bottom of the hole. + +It is best to make a number of these slides at a time. Having procured +some quite thick pasteboard, from old paper boxes, rule lines on the +surface dividing it up into spaces three inches long by one inch wide. +In the centre of each space cut out a hole about half an inch in +diameter. A sharp knife will make a neat square hole or a good round one +may be made with a gun-wad punch. This done, the spaces may be cut apart +with a sharp knife and ruler, along the lines already drawn. Pieces of +cardboard for the backs should be cut a trifle larger than the +pasteboard portion of the slide; after they are glued onto the latter +they may be trimmed down neatly with a pair of scissors. Glue or +mucilage containing glycerine (in the proportion of one or two +teaspoonfuls to an ordinary bottle of mucilage) is the best thing to use +for sticking on the backs. While the slides are drying they should be +either under a weight or in a clamp screwed up tightly, so as to prevent +their twisting out of shape. The mucilage may be prevented from being +squeezed in round the edges of the hole, by taking care when putting it +on not to have it come too near the hole. One or two coats of India Ink +may be painted on the middle of some of the pieces of cardboard, either +before or after they are put onto the slides; and thus a black +background may be obtained for the lighter-colored opaque objects. Many +of the objects will however show best on a white background. + +When you have the slides all made, nothing more is needed to mount an +object, than simply to attach it to the bottom of the hole with a +little mucilage and glycerine, or something of that sort, and finally to +write the name of the object on the front part of the slide, and on the +back any desirable notes. A good way to mount such objects as fine seeds +is to put them in the hole loosely and then cover them with a piece of +mica such as will be spoken of presently. + +Objects which are to be examined by the light shining through them, for +example a bee's wing or a butterfly's scales, must be mounted on glass +slides. + +A glass slide three inches by one is taken, on the centre is placed the +object; over this is laid a thin piece of clear mica three fourths of an +inch square, and this is attached to the glass by pasting narrow strips +of tissue paper around the edges of the cover, partly on the cover and +partly on the slide. Finally the slide is covered with some pretty +colored paper and labeled. + +Two pieces of paper are needed to cover each slide. One for the under +part is cut about one and one half by three and one half inches, with a +hole in the centre (round or square). This piece is first pasted on, +the corners being cut and the edges brought over onto the front. The +upper piece, which has a hole in the centre similar to that in the lower +piece, and is cut a trifle larger than the three by one inch slide, is +next pasted on so that the hole will correspond with the one below. The +upper piece of paper is now trimmed down to the slide and the label +attached. Window glass will answer for the slides and you can get any +glazier to cut up a piece for you into the right-sized slips. Mica can +be bought at a stove store, in sheets which may be cut up into three +fourths of an inch squares with a pair of scissors. The mica should be +as clear as you can get it. You will find it handy to have some tissue +paper all mucilaged like postage stamps and cut up in strips the right +size ready to use. The same may be said of the colored paper covers and +the labels. + +The dust may be excluded from the uncovered opaque objects by keeping +the mounted slides in small groups, held together by elastic bands. This +will also serve to classify them so that all the insects will be +together, all the seeds, and so on; and the transparent slides may also +be treated in the same way. When an elastic band wears out, it is no +great trouble to replace it. + +In working with the Simple microscope there is a fine chance to display +ingenuity, not only in making the instruments and mounting the objects +but in discovering new things to look at and in seeing how much can be +found out about those things which are the most common. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[A] In these directions "1-1/2 _in._ power" means a lens having + a focus of 1-1/2 inches; "1/2 _in._ power" means a lens or combination + of lenses having a focus of 1/2 inch; and so on. All the different + powers mentioned in the directions may be obtained in the small-sized + 3-lens, bellows form magnifier, either by using the lenses singly or + combined in different ways. The magnifying power of any single lens or + simple combination is easily found by dividing 10, by the focus in + inches. Thus the magnifying power of a 1/2 _in._ lens is found in this + way: 10/1/2 = 10x2/1 20. The lens magnifies therefore 20 diameters + _i. e._ makes an object appear twenty times as long and twenty times as + broad as it is. + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: + + +Text in italics is surrounded with underscores: _italics_. + +Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained from the original. + +Obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows: + + Page 8: hundreth changed to hundredth + Page 11: iustrument changed to instrument + Page 15: diferent changed to different + Page 17: he changed to the + Page 20: wil changed to will + Page 44: or changed to of + Page 72: staightened changed to straightened + Page 86: DIFFRENT changed to DIFFERENT + Page 125: fouths changed to fourths + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Through a Microscope, by +Samuel Wells and Mary Treat and Frederick Leroy Sargent + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THROUGH A MICROSCOPE *** + +***** This file should be named 38428.txt or 38428.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/2/38428/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, David E. 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