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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Artistic Anatomy of Animals, by &Eacute;douard Cuyer.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Artistic Anatomy of Animals, by �douard Cuyer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Artistic Anatomy of Animals
+
+Author: �douard Cuyer
+
+Release Date: December 15, 2011 [EBook #38315]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lam� and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="bbox" style="padding: 1em; margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%;">
+<p class="center">Please see <a href="#TN">Transcriber's Notes</a> at the end of this document.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1><span class="fsize80">THE</span><br />
+ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS</h1>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/title.png" alt="ARTISTIC&middot;ANATOMY&middot;OF&middot;ANIMALS&middot;
+BY&middot;&Eacute;DOUARD&middot;CUYER&middot;
+SUPPLEMENTARY&middot;PROF&middot;OF&middot;ANATOMY&middot;AT&middot;THE&middot;SCHOOL&middot;OF&middot;
+FINE&middot;ART&middot;PARIS&middot;
+PROF&middot;OF&middot;ANATOMY&middot;
+AT&middot;THE&middot;SCHOOL&middot;OF&middot;FINE ART ROUEN&middot;
+TRANSLATED &amp; EDITED&middot;BY&middot;
+GEORGE&middot;HAYWOOD&middot;
+LECTURER&middot;ON&middot;ANATOMY&middot;AT&middot;THE&middot;ROYAL&middot;
+COLLEGE&middot;OF&middot;ART&middot;SOUTH KENSINGTON&middot;&middot;
+LONDON&middot;
+BAILLI&Egrave;RE, TINDALL &amp; COX&middot;
+8&middot;HENRIETTA&middot;ST&middot;COVENT&middot;GARDEN&middot;
+ANNO&middot;DOMINI&middot;
+MDCCCCV&middot;
+ALL&middot;RIGHTS&middot;
+RESVD" width="341" height="550" /></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>A few lines will suffice to explain why we have compiled
+the present volume, to what wants it responds, and what
+its sphere of usefulness may possibly embrace.</p>
+
+<p>In our teaching of plastic anatomy, especially at the &Eacute;cole
+des Beaux-Arts&mdash;where, for the past nine years, we have
+had the very great honour of supplementing the teaching
+of our distinguished master, Mathias Duval, after having
+been prosector for his course of lectures since 1881&mdash;it is
+our practice to give, as a complement to the study of human
+anatomy, a certain number of lessons on the anatomy of
+those animals which artists might be called on to represent.</p>
+
+<p>Now, we were given to understand that the subject
+treated in our lectures interested our hearers, so much so
+that we were not surprised to learn that a certain number
+repeatedly expressed a desire to see these lectures united
+in book form.</p>
+
+<p>To us this idea was not new; for many years the work in
+question had been in course of preparation, and we had
+collected materials for it, with the object of filling up a
+void of which the existence was to be regretted. But our
+many engagements prevented us from executing our project
+as early as we would have wished. It is this work
+which we publish to-day.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="FigI" id="FigI"></a>
+<img src="images/illo007.jpg" alt="Fig. I" width="600" height="315" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. I.&mdash;Reproduction of a Sketch by Barye (Collections of the Anatomical Museum of the &Eacute;cole des
+Beaux-Arts&mdash;Huguier Museum).</p></div>
+
+<p>Putting aside for a moment the wish expressed by our
+hearers, we feel ourselves in duty bound to inquire whether
+the utility of this publication is self-evident. Let it be
+clearly understood that we wish to express here our opinion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+on this subject, while putting aside every personal sentiment
+of an author.</p>
+
+<p>No one now disputes the value of anatomical studies
+made in view of carrying out the artistic representation of
+man. Nevertheless&mdash;for we must provide against all contingencies&mdash;the
+conviction on this subject may be more or
+less absolute; and yet it must possess this character in an
+intense degree in order that these studies may be profitable,
+and permit the attainment of the goal which is
+proposed in undertaking them. It is in this way that we
+ever strive to train the students whose studies we direct;
+not only to admit the value of these studies, but to be
+materially and deeply convinced of the fact without any
+restriction. Such is the sentiment which we endeavour to
+create and vigorously encourage. And we may be permitted
+to add that we have often been successful in this
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it is that, at the beginning of our lectures, and
+in anticipation of possible objections, we are accustomed
+to take up the question of the utility of plastic anatomy.
+And in so doing, it is in order to combat at the outset the
+idea&mdash;as mischievous as it is false&mdash;which is sometimes
+imprudently enunciated, that the possession of scientific
+knowledge is likely to tarnish the purity and freshness of
+the impressions received by the artist, and to place shackles
+on the emotional sincerity of their representation.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="FigII" id="FigII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo009.jpg" alt="Fig. II" width="600" height="313" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. II.&mdash;Reproduction of a Sketch of Barye (Collections of the Anatomical Museum of the &Eacute;cole des
+Beaux-Arts&mdash;Huguier Museum).</p></div>
+
+<p>It is chiefly by employment of examples that we approach
+the subject. These strike the imagination of the
+student more forcibly, and the presentation of models of
+a certain choice, although rough in execution, is, in our
+opinion, preferable to considerations of an order possibly
+more exalted, but of a character less clearly practical. Let
+us, then, ask the question: Those artists whose eminence
+nobody would dare to question, did they study anatomy?
+If the answer be in the affirmative, we surely cannot permit
+ourselves to believe that we can dispense with a similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>
+course. And, as proof of the studies of this class which
+the masters have made, we may cite Raphael, Michelangelo,
+and, above all, Leonardo da Vinci; and, of the
+moderns, G&eacute;ricault. And we may more clearly define
+these proofs by an examination of the reproductions of
+their anatomical works, chosen from certain of their special
+writings.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Mathias
+Duval and A. Bical, &#8216;L&#8217;anatomie des Ma&icirc;tres.&#8217; Thirty plates
+reproduced from the originals of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael,
+G&eacute;ricault, etc., with letterpress and a history of plastic anatomy, Paris,
+1890.</p>
+
+<p>The manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci of the Royal Library, Windsor,
+&#8216;Anatomy, Foli&aelig; A.,&#8217; published by Th&eacute;odore Sabachnikoff, with a French
+translation, written and annotated by Giovanni Piumati, with an introduction
+by Mathias Duval. &Eacute;douard Rouveyre, publisher, Paris, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Mathias Duval and &Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;History of Plastic Anatomy: The
+Masters, their Books, and Anatomical Figures&#8217; (Library of Instruction of the
+School of Fine Arts), Paris, 1898.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Accordingly, there is no scope for serious discussion, and
+it only remains for us to enunciate the opinion that it is
+necessary that we should imitate those masters, and, with
+a sense of respectful discipline, follow their example.</p>
+
+<p>Here, with regard to the anatomy of animals, we pursue
+the same method, and the example chosen shall be that of
+Barye. His talent is too far above all criticism to allow
+that this example should be refused. The admiration
+which the works of this great artist elicit is too wide-spread
+for us to remain uninfluenced by the lessons furnished by
+his studies. It is sufficient to see the sketches relating
+to these studies, and his admirable casts from nature
+which form part of the anatomical museum of the &Eacute;cole
+des Beaux-Arts, to be convinced that the artistic temperament,
+of which Barye was one of the most brilliant
+examples, has nothing to lose by its association with researches
+the precision of which might seem likely to check
+its complete expansion.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="FigIII" id="FigIII"></a>
+<img src="images/illo011.jpg" alt="Fig. III" width="600" height="372" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. III.&mdash;Reproduction of a Sketch of Barye (Collections of the Anatomical Museum of the
+&Eacute;cole des Beaux-Arts&mdash;Huguier Museum).</p></div>
+
+<p>In those sketches we find proofs of observation so scrupulous
+that we cannot restrain our admiration for the man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>
+whose ardent imagination was voluntarily subjected to the
+toil of study so profound.</p>
+
+<p>If the example of Barye, with whom we associate the
+names of other great modern painters of animals, can determine
+the conviction which we seek to produce, we shall be
+sincerely glad. To contribute to the propagation of useful
+ideas, and to see them accepted, gives a feeling of satisfaction
+far too legitimate for us to hesitate to say what we
+should feel if our hope be realized in this instance.</p>
+
+<p class="right" style="margin: 1.5em 10% 1.5em auto;">&Eacute;DOUARD CUYER.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="FigIV" id="FigIV"></a>
+<img src="images/illo013.jpg" alt="Fig. IV" width="600" height="378" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. IV.&mdash;Reproduction of a Sketch of Barye (Collections of Anatomical Museum of the
+School of Fine Arts&mdash;Huguier Museum).</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></p>
+<p class="leftlink"><a href="#SectionToC">Detailed<br />Table of<br />Contents.</a></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table summary="ToC">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center fsize125" style="line-height: 2em;">INTRODUCTION</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right padl1 fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="top left">GENERALITIES OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center fsize125" style="line-height: 2em;">CHAPTER I</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="top left">OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 2em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">THE TRUNK</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">THE POSTERIOR LIMBS</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">THE POSTERIOR LIMBS IN SOME ANIMALS</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">THE SKULL OF BIRDS</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center fsize125" style="line-height: 2em;">CHAPTER II</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="top left">MYOLOGY:</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR LIMBS</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR LIMBS</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">MUSCLES OF THE HEAD</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center fsize125" style="line-height: 2em;">CHAPTER III</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="top left">EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center fsize125" style="line-height: 2em;">CHAPTER IV</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="top left">PROPORTIONS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="center fsize125" style="line-height: 2em;">CHAPTER V</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="top left">THE PACES OF THE HORSE</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv"></a></p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table style="margin: auto 10%;" summary="LoI">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center fsize80">FIG.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig001">1.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">A Human Skeleton in the Attitude of a Quadruped, To give a General Idea of the Position of the
+Bones in other Vertebrates</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig002">2.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Size of the Atlas compared with the Transverse Dimensions of the Corresponding Parts of the Skull
+in Man</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig003">3.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Size of the Atlas compared with the Transverse Dimensions of the Corresponding Regions of the
+Skull in a Dog</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig004">4.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap"> Lumbar Vertebr&aelig; of a Quadruped (the Horse): Superior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig005">5.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">A Transverse Section of the Thorax of a Man placed Vertically&mdash;that is to say, in the
+Direction which it would assume in a Man placed in the Attitude of a Quadruped (a Diagrammatic Figure)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig006">6.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">A Vertical Section of the Thorax of a Quadruped (Diagrammatic)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig007">7.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Sternum of a Bird (the Cock): Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig008">8.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Anterior Limb of the Bat: Left Side, Anterior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig009">9.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Anterior Limb of the Seal: Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig010">10.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Situation and Direction of the Scapula in the Human Being, the Trunk being Horizontal, as in
+Quadrupeds. Vertical and Transverse Section of the Thorax (Diagrammatic Figure)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig011">11.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Position and Direction of the Scapula in Quadrupeds. Vertical and Transverse Section of the
+Thorax (Diagrammatic Figure)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig012">12.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Scapula of the Human Being, Posterior Surface, placed in the Position which it would Occupy
+in the Skeleton of a Quadruped</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig013">13.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Scapula of a Horse: External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig014">14.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Vertical and Transverse Section, at the Site of the Shoulders, of the Thorax of the Horse
+(Diagrammatic Figure)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig015">15.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Vertical and Transverse Section, at the Plane of the Shoulders, of the Thorax of the Dog
+(Diagrammatic Figure)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig016">16.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Clavicle of the Cat: Superior Surface (Natural Size)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig017">17.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Clavicle of the Dog (Natural Size)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig018">18.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Shoulder of a Bird (Vulture): Antero-External View of the Left Side</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig019">19.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Extremity of the Left Humerus of a Felid&aelig; (Lion)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig020">20.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Extremity of the Left Human Humerus, showing the Presence of a Supratrochlear
+Process</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig021">21.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of a Bird (Vulture): Left Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig022">22.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Human Hand resting for its Whole Extent on its Palmar Surface: Left Side, External
+Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">35</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig023">23.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Human Hand resting on its Phalanges: Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">36</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig024">24.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Human Hand resting on the Tips of some of its Third Phalanges: Left Side, External
+View</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">36</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig025">25.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Superior Extremity of the Bones of the Human Forearm: Left Side, Superior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">39</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig026">26.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Superior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of a Dog: Left Limb, Superior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">39</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig027">27.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Superior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of the Horse: Left Limb, Superior
+Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">40</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig028">28.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of a Man: Left Side, Posterior Surface, Position
+of Supination</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">41</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig029">29.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of a Dog: Left Side, Anterior Surface, Normal
+Position&mdash;that is, the Position of Pronation</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">41</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig030">30.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Extremity of the Bone of the Forearm of the Horse: Left Side, Anterior
+Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">42</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig031">31.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Superior Limb of a Bird (Vulture): Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">47</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig032">32.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Superior Limb of the Human Being, the Different Segments being placed in the Attitude which the
+Corresponding Parts occupy in Birds: Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">48</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig033">33.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Bear: Left Lateral Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig034">34.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Dog: Left Lateral Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">52</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig035">35.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Scapula of the Dog: Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig036">36.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Scapula of the Cat: External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">53</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig037">37.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Finger of a Felide (Lion): Left Side, Internal Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">57</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig038">38.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Pig: Left Lateral Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">58</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig039">39.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Ox: Left Lateral Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">61</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig040">40.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Horse: Left Lateral Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">64</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig041">41.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Flexion of the Humerus: Right Anterior Limb of the Horse, External Surface (after a
+Chromophotographic Study by Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">74</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig042">42.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Extension of the Humerus: Right Anterior Limb of the Horse, External Surface (after a
+Chromophotographic Study by Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">74</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig043">43.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Left Iliac Bone of the Human Being: External Surface, placed in the Position which it would
+occupy in the Skeleton of a Quadruped</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">79</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig044">44.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Iliac Bone of a Quadruped (Horse): External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">79</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig045">45.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Pubic Region of the Pelvis of a Marsupial (Phalanger, Fox</span>)</td>
+<td class="right bot">81</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig046">46.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Pelvis of a Bird (the Cock): External Surface, Left Side</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">82</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig047">47.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Posterior Limb of the Horse placed in the Position which it should occupy if the Animal Were a
+Plantigrade: Left Limb, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">89</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig048">48.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Foot of a Bird (the Cock): Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">90</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig049">49.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Pelvis of the Dog, seen from Above</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">91</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig050">50.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Pelvis of a Felide (Lion), viewed from Above</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">92</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig051">51.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Pelvis of the Ox: Superior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">95</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig052">52.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Tarsus of the Ox: Posterior Left Limb, Antero-external Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">97</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig053">53.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Pelvis of the Horse: Superior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">101</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig054">54.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Tarsus of the Horse: Left Posterior Limb, Anterior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">104</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig055">55.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Extension of the Leg: Right Posterior Limb of the Horse, External Surface (after a Chronographic
+Study by Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">107</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig056">56.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Human Skull: Measure of the Facial Angle by the Method of Camper. Angle BAC = 80&deg;</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">110</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig057">57.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Horse: Measure of the Facial Angle by the Method of Camper. Angle BAC =
+13&deg;</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">110</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig058">58.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of one of the Felid&aelig; (Jaguar): Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">113</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig059">59.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Lion: Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">113</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig060">60.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Dog: Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">115</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig061">61.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Pig: Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">117</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig062">62.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Ox: Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">119</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig063">63.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Horse: Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">121</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig064">64.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Hare: Left Lateral Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">123</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig065">65.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Skull of the Cock: Left Lateral Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">128</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig066">66.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Anterior Aspect of the Trunk</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">132</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig067">67.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Inferior Aspect of the Trunk</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">135</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig068">68.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Superficial Layer of Muscles</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">141</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig069">69.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Ox: Superficial Layer of Muscles</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">143</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig070">70.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Superficial Layer of Muscles</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">146</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig071">71.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Panniculus Muscle of the Trunk</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">148</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig072">72.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse&mdash;Shoulder and Arm: Left Side, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">166</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig073">73.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Left Anterior Limb, External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">178</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig074">74.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Ox: Left Anterior Limb, External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">180</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig075">75.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Left Anterior Limb, External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">182</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig076">76.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Left Anterior Limb, Internal Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">190</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig077">77.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Anterior Limb, Left Side, Internal Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">192</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig078">78.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Anterior Limb of the Horse: Internal Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">194</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig079">79.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Anterior Limb of the Horse: External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">196</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig080">80.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Anterior Limb of the Horse: External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">196</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig081">81.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Diagram of the Posterior Part of a Transverse Section passing through the Middle of the Left
+Fore-limb of the Dog: Surface of the Inferior Segment of the Section</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">198</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig082">82.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Diagram of a Horizontal Section of the Middle of the Forearm of the Left Leg of the Horse:
+Surface of the Interior Segment of the Section</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">198</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig083">83.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: the Anterior Tibial Muscle (Flexor of the Metatarsus), Left Leg, Anterior
+View</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">214</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig084">84.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Left Hind-limb, External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">216</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig085">85.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Ox: Left Leg, External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">218</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig086">86.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Left Hind-limb, External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">220</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig087">87.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Left Hind-limb, Internal Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">222</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig088">88.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Left Hind-leg, Internal Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">223</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig089">89.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Masticatory Muscles (a Deeper Dissection than that shown in Fig.
+90)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">233</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig090">90.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Dog: Muscles of the Head</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">235</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig091">91.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Ox: Muscles of the Head</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">237</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig092">92.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Myology of the Horse: Muscles of the Head</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">239</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig093">93.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Claw of the Dog: Inferior Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">249</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig094">94.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Hand of the Dog: Inferior Surface, Plantar Tubercles</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">249</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig095">95.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Vertical Antero-posterior Section of the Foot of a Horse</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">250</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig096">96.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Third Phalanx of the Horse: Left Anterior Limb, External Surface</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">251</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig097">97.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Anterior Foot of the Horse: Anterior Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">253</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig098">98.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Anterior Foot of the Horse: External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">254</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig099">99.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Vertical and Transverse Section of a Left Human Foot: Outline of the Surface of the Posterior
+Segment of this Section (Diagrammatic Figure)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">255</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig100">100.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Surface of a Fore-hoof of the Horse: Left Side</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">256</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig101">101.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Third Phalanx of the Horse: Left Anterior Limb, Inferior View</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">257</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig102">102.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Third Phalanx of the Horse: Left Posterior Limb, Inferior View</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">257</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig103">103.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Inferior Surface of a Hind-hoof of a Horse: Left Side</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">258</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig104">104.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Left Posterior Foot of a Horse: External Aspect</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">259</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig105">105.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Foot of the Ox: Left Side, Antero-external View</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">260</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig106">106.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Proportions of the Horse (after Bourgelat)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">265</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig107">107.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Proportions of the Horse (after Colonel Duhousset)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">270</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig108">108.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Proportions of the Head of the Horse, viewed in Profile (after Colonel Duhousset)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">274</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig109">109.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Same Design as that of Fig. 108, on which we have indicated, by Similar Lines, the Principal
+Corresponding Measurements</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">275</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig110">110.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Proportions of the Head of the Horse, seen from the Front (after Colonel Duhousset)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">276</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig111">111.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Same Figure as Fig. 110, on which we have marked, by Similar Lines, the Principal
+Measurements which correspond thereto</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">277</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig112">112.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Horse of which the Length contains more than Two and a Half Times that of the Head, and of which
+this Dimension (A, B) exceeds the Height</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">279</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig113">113.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Horse of which the Length contains more than Two and a Half Times that of the Head, and of which
+this Dimension (A, B) exceeds the Height</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">280</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig114">114.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Horse of which the Length contains more than Two and a Half Times that of the Head, and of which
+this Dimension (A, B) is Inferior to the Height</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">281</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig115">115.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Experimental Shoes, intended to Record the Pressure of the Foot on the Ground</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">284</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig116">116.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Runner furnished with the Exploratory and Registering Apparatus of the Various Paces</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">285</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig117">117.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Tracing of the Running of a Man (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">286</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig118">118.</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of a Tracing of the Running of a Man (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">287</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig119">119.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of Various Modes of Progression of a Man (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">287</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig120">120.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Swing of the Raised Anterior Limb (after G. Colin)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">289</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig121">121.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Swing of the Anterior Limb on the Point of Pressure (after G. Colin)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">290</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig122">122.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Posterior Limb, giving the Impulse (after G. Colin)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">291</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig123">123.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of the Ambling Gait in the Horse (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">292</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig124">124.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Amble: Right Lateral Pressure</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">293</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig125">125.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of the Gait of the Trot in a Horse (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">294</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig126">126.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Trot: Right Diagonal Pressure</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">295</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig127">127.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Trot: Time of Suspension</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">295</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig128">128.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of the Pace of Stepping in the Horse (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">296</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig129">129.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Step: Right Lateral Pressure</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">297</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig130">130.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Step: Right Diagonal Pressure</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">297</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig131">131.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Gallop: First Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">298</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig132">132.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Gallop: Second Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">298</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig133">133.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Gallop: Third Period</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">299</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig134">134.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Gallop: Time of Suspension</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">299</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig135">135.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of the Gallop divided into Three Periods of Time (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig136">136.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Notation of the Gallop of Four Periods in the Horse (after Professor Marey)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig137">137.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">Leap of the Hare (after G. Colin)</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">301</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig138">138.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Leap</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">302</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig139">139.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Leap</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">302</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig140">140.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Leap</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">303</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig141">141.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Leap</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">303</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig142">142.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Leap</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">305</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="right top padr1"><a href="#Fig143">143.</a></td>
+<td class="just top"><span class="smcap">The Leap</span></td>
+<td class="right bot">305</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></p>
+<h2 style="margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 175%;">THE ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS</h2>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<h3>GENERALITIES OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY</h3>
+
+<p>Of the animals by which we are surrounded, there are some
+which, occupying a place in our lives by reason of their
+natural endowments, are frequently represented in the works
+of artists&mdash;either as accompanying man in his work or in
+his amusements, or as intended to occupy the whole interest
+of the composition.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity of knowing, from an artistic point of view,
+the structure of the human body makes clear the importance
+we attach, from the same point of view, to the study of the
+anatomy of animals&mdash;that is, the study of comparative
+anatomy. The name employed to designate this branch of
+anatomy shows that the object of this science is the study
+of the relative position and form which each region presents
+in all organized beings, taking for comparison the corresponding
+regions in man. The head in animals compared with
+the human head; the trunk and limbs compared to the
+trunk and limbs of the human being&mdash;this is the analysis we
+undertake, and the plan of the subject we are about to
+commence.</p>
+
+<p>Our intention being, as we have just said, the comparison
+of the structure of animals with that of man, should we
+describe the anatomy of the human being in the pages<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+which follow? We do not think so. Plastic human
+anatomy having been previously studied in special works,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+we take it for granted that these have been studied before
+undertaking the subject of comparative anatomy. We
+will therefore not occupy time with the elementary facts
+relative to the skeleton and the superficial layer of muscles.
+We will not dilate on the division of the bones into long,
+short, large, single, paired, etc. All these preliminary
+elements we shall suppose to have been already studied.</p>
+
+<p>This being granted, it is, nevertheless, necessary to take
+a rapid bird&#8217;s-eye view of organized beings, and to recall the
+terms used in their classification.</p>
+
+<p>Animals are primarily classed in great divisions, based
+on the general characters which differentiate them most.
+These divisions, or <i>branches</i>, allow of their being so grouped
+that in each of them we find united the individuals whose
+general structure is uniform; and under the name of vertebrates
+are included man and the animals with which our
+studies will be occupied. The vertebrates, as the name
+indicates, are recognised by the presence of an interior
+skeleton formed by a central axis, the vertebral column,
+round which the other parts of the skeleton are arranged.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebrate branch is divided into classes: fishes,
+amphibians or batrachians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The mammals&mdash;from the Latin <i>mamma</i>, a breast&mdash;are
+characterized by the presence of breasts designed for the
+alimentation of their young. Their bodies are covered with
+hair, hence the name <i>pilif&egrave;res</i> proposed by Blainville; and,
+notwithstanding that in some individuals the hairs are few,
+the character is sufficient to distinguish them from all other
+vertebrates.</p>
+
+<p>We find united in this class animals which, at first, seem
+out of place, such as the whale and the bat; and, from their
+external appearance alone, the former would appear to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+belong to the fishes, and the latter to birds. Yet, on studying
+their structure, we find that, not only do these animals
+merit a place in the class which they occupy, because they
+possess the distinctive characters of mammals; but, still
+further, their internal structure is analogous to that of man
+and of the other individuals of this class.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this similarity of structure, the whale
+is not without some points of difference from its neighbours
+the horse and the dog; therefore, in order to place each of
+these animals in a position suitable to it, mammals are
+divided into secondary groups called <i>orders</i>. The first of
+these orders includes, under the name <i>primates</i>, man and
+apes. The latter contain animals which approach birds in
+certain characters of their organism, forming a link between
+the latter and mammals.</p>
+
+<p>We find, in studying the regions of the body in some of the
+vertebrates, that, while they present differences from the
+corresponding regions of the human body, they also offer
+most striking analogies. We can, for example, recognise
+the upper limb of man in the anterior one of quadrupeds,
+in the wing of the bat, in the paddle of the seal, etc. It is,
+so to speak, those variations of a great plan which give
+such a charm to the study of comparative anatomy.</p>
+
+<p>The division of classes into orders, which we have just
+mentioned, being still too general, it was found necessary to
+establish subdivisions&mdash;more and more specialized&mdash;to
+which the names <i>families</i>, <i>genera</i>, <i>species</i>, and <i>varieties</i> were
+given.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Mathias Duval,
+&#8216;Pr&eacute;cis of Anatomy for the Use of Artists&#8217;: Paris,
+1881. &#8216;Artistic Anatomy of the Human Body,&#8217; third edition, plates by
+Dr. Fau, text with figures by &Eacute;douard Cuyer: Paris, 1896. &#8216;Artistic
+Anatomy of Man,&#8217; by J. C. L. Sparkes, second edition, text with 50 plates:
+Bailli&egrave;re, Tindall and Cox, London, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY</h3>
+
+<h4>THE TRUNK</h4>
+
+<h5>The Vertebral Column</h5>
+
+<p>We commence the study of the skeleton with a description
+of the trunk.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig001" id="Fig001"></a>
+<img src="images/illo026.png" alt="Fig. 1" width="500" height="361" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 1.&mdash;A Human Skeleton in the Attitude of a Quadruped. To
+give a general Idea of the position of the Bones in other
+Vertebrates.</p></div>
+
+<p>The trunk being, in quadrupeds, horizontal in direction
+(<a href="#Fig001">Fig. 1</a>), the two regions of which it consists occupy, for this
+reason, the following positions: the thorax occupies the
+anterior part, the abdomen is placed behind it; the vertebral
+column is horizontal, and is situated at the superior aspect
+of the trunk; it projects beyond the latter: anteriorly, to
+articulate with the skull; and, posteriorly, to form the
+skeleton of the tail, or caudal appendix.</p>
+
+<p>The number of the vertebr&aelig; is not the same in all mammalia.
+Of the several regions of the vertebral column, the
+cervical shows the greatest uniformity in the number of the
+vertebr&aelig; of which it consists, with but two exceptions
+(eight or nine in the three-toed sloth, and six in the manatee);
+we always find seven cervical vertebr&aelig;, whatever the length
+of the neck of the animal. There are no more than seven
+vertebr&aelig; in the long neck of the giraffe, but they are very
+long ones; and not less than seven in the very short neck
+of the dolphin, in which they are reduced to mere plates of
+bone not thicker than sheets of cardboard. If the cervical
+region presents uniformity in the number of its bones, it is
+not so with the other regions of the column.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>The following table shows their classification in some
+animals:</p>
+
+<h6><span class="smcap">Vertebr&aelig;.</span></h6>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table page 5">
+
+<tr class="bt bb">
+<td class="bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Cervical.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Dorsal.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Lumbar.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Bear</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">14</td>
+<td class="center br">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Dog</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Cat</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Rabbit</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">12</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Pig</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">14</td>
+<td class="center br">6 or 7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Horse</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">18</td>
+<td class="center br">6 or 5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Ass</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">18</td>
+<td class="center br">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Camel</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">12</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Giraffe</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">14</td>
+<td class="center br">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Ox</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Sheep</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="center br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>It is worthy of notice that in birds the number of the
+cervical vertebr&aelig; is not constant, as in mammals; they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+more numerous than the dorsal. These latter are almost
+always joined to one another by a fusion of their spinous
+processes; the two or three last vertebr&aelig; are similarly
+united to the iliac bones, between which they are fixed. The
+dorsal vertebr&aelig; thus form one piece, which gives solidity to
+the trunk, and provides a base of support to the wings,
+for the movements of flying. There are, so to speak, no
+lumbar vertebr&aelig;, the bones of that region, which cannot be
+differentiated from the sacrum, having coalesced with the
+bones of the pelvis.</p>
+
+<h6><span class="smcap">Vertebr&aelig;.</span></h6>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table page 6-1">
+
+<tr class="bt bb">
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Cervical.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Dorsal.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Vulture</td>
+<td class="center br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Eagle</td>
+<td class="center br">13</td>
+<td class="center br">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Cock</td>
+<td class="center br">14</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Ostrich</td>
+<td class="center br">18</td>
+<td class="center br">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Swan</td>
+<td class="center br">23</td>
+<td class="center br">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Goose</td>
+<td class="center br">18</td>
+<td class="center br">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Duck</td>
+<td class="center br">15</td>
+<td class="center br">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>In reptiles, the relation between the number of the cervical
+vertebr&aelig; and that of the dorsal is very variable; some
+serpents are devoid of cervical vertebr&aelig;, having only dorsal
+ones&mdash;that is, vertebr&aelig; carrying well-developed ribs.</p>
+
+<h6><span class="smcap">Vertebr&aelig;.</span></h6>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table page 6-2">
+
+<tr class="bt bb">
+<td class="bl br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Cervical.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Dorsal.</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Lumbar.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Crocodile</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">14</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Caiman</td>
+<td class="center br">7</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">12</td>
+<td class="center br">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Boa</td>
+<td class="center br">3</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">248</td>
+<td class="center br">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Python</td>
+<td class="center br">0</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">320</td>
+<td class="center br">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left padl1 padr1 bl br">Viper</td>
+<td class="center br">2</td>
+<td class="right padr3 br">145</td>
+<td class="center br">0</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig002" id="Fig002"></a>
+<img src="images/illo028.png" alt="Fig. 2" width="350" height="365" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 2.&mdash;Size of the Atlas compared with the Transverse Dimensions
+of the Corresponding Parts of the Skull in Man.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Atlas; 2, mastoid process; 3, external occipital protuberance;
+4, inferior maxilla.</p></div>
+
+<p>Regarding the direction of the vertebral column in animals,
+in which the trunk is not vertical, it is evident that the
+spinous processes point upward, and that in comparing them
+with those of man they must be arranged so that the superior
+surface of the human vertebra will correspond to the anterior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+surface of that of the quadruped. Of the cervical vertebr&aelig;,
+the atlas and axis call for special notice. Apropos of the
+atlas, we find that it, in the human being, is narrower than
+the corresponding parts of the skull, and is therefore hidden
+under the base of the cranium (<a href="#Fig002">Fig. 2</a>); in quadrupeds its
+width is equal to that of the skull, and sometimes exceeds,
+because of the great development of its wing-shaped transverse
+processes, that of the neighbouring parts of the head
+(<a href="#Fig003">Fig. 3</a>). On this account those transverse processes often
+project under the skin of the lateral surfaces of the upper
+part of the neck.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig003" id="Fig003"></a>
+<img src="images/illo029.png" alt="Fig. 3" width="350" height="401" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 3.&mdash;Size of the Atlas compared with the Transverse Dimensions
+of the corresponding Regions of the Skull in a Dog.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Atlas; 2, zygomatic arch; 3, external occipital protuberance; 4,
+inferior maxilla.</p></div>
+
+<p>The axis is furnished on its anterior surface with the odontoid
+process, which articulates with the anterior (or inferior)
+arch of the atlas, according to the direction of the neck.
+The spinous process, flattened from without inwards, is
+more or less pointed; it is elongated from before backwards,
+so as partly to overlap the atlas and the third cervical
+vertebra.</p>
+
+<p>We find that this process overlaps less and less the neighbouring
+vertebr&aelig; when we examine in succession the bear,
+the cat, the dog, the ox, and the horse. With regard to the
+other vertebr&aelig; of this region, they diminish in width from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+the second to the seventh; and, in some animals, the anterior
+surface of the body presents a tubercle which articulates
+with a cavity hollowed in the posterior surface of that
+of the vertebra before it; this feature dwindles away in the
+dorsal and lumbar regions.</p>
+
+<p>The spinous process, slightly developed in the third
+cervical vertebra, gradually increases in size to the seventh,
+the spinous process of which, long and pointed, well deserves
+the name of <i>the prominent</i> which is bestowed on it; but it
+should not be forgotten that the spinous process of the axis
+is equally developed.</p>
+
+<p>On the inferior surface of the body of each of the vertebr&aelig;
+is found a prominent crest, especially well marked at the
+posterior part; this crest is but slightly developed in the
+bear and in the cat tribe, and is not found in swine.</p>
+
+<p>The transverse processes of the cervical vertebr&aelig;, from
+their relation to the trachea, are known as the <i>tracheal
+processes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The most marked characteristic of the dorsal vertebr&aelig; is
+furnished by the spinous processes. They are long and
+narrow. As a rule, the spinous processes of the foremost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+dorsal vertebr&aelig; are the most developed and are directed
+obliquely upwards and backwards. As we approach the
+last vertebr&aelig; of this region, the processes become shorter
+and tend to become vertical, and the last ones are even, in
+some cases, directed upwards and forwards; this disposition
+is well marked in the dog and the cat. In the cetaceans, on
+the contrary, the length of the spinous processes increases
+from the first to the last.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the spinous processes of the first dorsal
+vertebr&aelig; produce the prominence at the anterior limit of the
+trunk, where the mane ends, which is known as the <i>withers</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig004" id="Fig004"></a>
+<img src="images/illo030.png" alt="Fig. 4" width="350" height="432" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 4.&mdash;Lumbar Vertebr&aelig; of a Quadruped (the Horse): Superior
+Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Spinous process; 2, anterior articular process and transverse process
+of the first lumbar vertebra of the left side; 3, costiform process.</p></div>
+
+<p>The lumbar vertebr&aelig; are thicker than the preceding;
+they are known by their short and latterly-flattened spinous
+processes, and still more readily by their transverse processes,
+which, as they are evidently atrophied ribs, it is more
+accurate to denominate costiform processes (<a href="#Fig004">Fig. 4</a>). These
+are long, flattened from above downwards, and directed
+outwards and forwards.</p>
+
+<p>The true transverse processes are represented by tubercles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+situated on the superior borders of the articular processes
+of each of the vertebr&aelig; of the lumbar region. Apropos of
+these different osseous processes, we are reminded that they
+are also present in the human skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the costiform processes of the fifth and sixth
+lumbar vertebr&aelig; articulate, and are sometimes ankylosed,
+one with the other; the terminal ones articulate with the base
+of the sacrum. Sometimes the processes of the fourth and
+fifth are thus related; this is the case in the figure (<a href="#Fig004">4</a>) given;
+here the costiform processes of the fourth and fifth vertebr&aelig;
+articulate, and the two terminal ones have coalesced.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the same processes are more developed than in
+the horse; their summits elevating the skin, produce,
+especially in animals which have not much flesh, prominences
+which limit the flanks in the superior aspect. The costiform
+processes of the last lumbar vertebr&aelig; are separate from each
+other; those of the latter are not in contact with the sacrum.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sacrum.</b><a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"
+class="fnanchor">[3]</a>&mdash;This bone, single and median, is
+formed by the mutual coalescence of several vertebr&aelig;, which
+vary in number according to the species observed.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> In
+human anatomy, the sacrum and the coccyx are studied as part
+of the pelvis; we, therefore, in the study of the artistic anatomy of
+man, study these bones with the bones of the lower limbs. Here we do
+not follow this plan. In animals the sacrum and the coccyx, as a matter
+of fact, clearly continue the superior border of the skeleton of the trunk;
+hence we study them with the vertebral column.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Vertebr&aelig; Constituting the Sacrum.</i>&mdash;Bears, 5; dogs, 3;
+cats, 3; rabbits, 4; swine, 4; horses, 5; camels, 4;
+oxen, 5; sheep, 4.</p>
+
+<p>The sacrum is situated between the two iliac bones; with
+which it articulates, and contributes to the formation of the
+pelvis. It is obliquely placed, from before backwards, and
+from below upwards; immediately behind the lumbar
+section of the vertebral column; and is continued by the
+coccygeal vertebr&aelig;, which form the skeleton of the tail.</p>
+
+<p>It is triangular in outline, and is generally more narrow in
+proportion than in the human being. All things considered,
+it is more large and massive, and of greater density, in species
+which sometimes assume the upright posture, rather than in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+those which cannot assume that attitude; for example, the
+sacrum of the ape, of the bear, of the dog, and of the opossum
+are proportionately larger than those of the horse.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> This
+is particularly striking only in those portions of the sacrum that
+are not in relation with the other bones of the pelvis. We think that
+the general form of this bone depends on the mode of its connexions with
+the iliac bones and the extent of the articular surfaces by which it is in
+contact with the latter.</p></div>
+
+<p>Its superior surface presents a crest, formed by the fusion
+of the spinous processes of the vertebr&aelig; which form it. In
+certain species these processes are attached only by their
+bases, and are separated from each other superiorly. In
+the pig they are wholly wanting.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Coccygeal Vertebr&aelig;.</b>&mdash;These vertebr&aelig;, few in
+number (and sometimes ankylosed) in the human being,
+form in the latter a small series, the coccyx; which is inclined
+forwards, that is to say, towards the interior of the
+pelvis. In quadrupeds, on the contrary, their number is
+large; they are not ankylosed, and they form the skeleton
+of the caudal appendix.</p>
+
+<p>The first coccygeal vertebr&aelig;&mdash;that is, those which are next
+the sacrum&mdash;present characters which are common to those
+of other regions: they have a body, a foramen, and processes.
+As we trace them backwards, these characters become
+gradually effaced; and they become little more than
+small osseous cylinders simply expanded at their extremities.</p>
+
+<h5>Direction and Form of the Spinal Column</h5>
+
+<p>The curves of the vertebral column are, in quadrupeds,
+slightly different from those which characterize the human
+spine. First, instead of their being, as in the latter, curves
+in the antero-posterior aspect, because of the general attitude
+of the body, they are turned in the supero-inferior direction.</p>
+
+<p>The cervical region is not a single curve, as in the human
+being. It presents two: one superior, with its convexity
+looking upwards; the other inferior, the convexity of which
+is turned downwards. This arrangement reminds one of
+that of a console.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>The dorsal and lumbar regions are placed in a single curved
+line, more or less concave downwards; so that in the lumbar
+region there is no curve analogous to that which exists in
+man; a form which, in the latter, is due to the biped attitude&mdash;that
+is to say, the vertical position of the trunk.
+Briefly, there is in quadrupeds one dorso-lumbar curve; and
+not both a dorsal and a lumbar, with convexities in opposite
+directions.</p>
+
+<p>At the extremity of the dorso-lumbar region is the
+sacrum and the caudal appendix, which describe a curve
+of which the concavity is directed downwards and forwards.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to point out that it is not the curves of the
+three anterior portions of the spinal column which determine
+the form of the superior border of the neck and
+shoulders, and of the same part of the trunk. For the first
+portion, there is a ligament which surmounts the cervical
+region, and substitutes its modelling influence for that of the
+vertebr&aelig;. It is the <i>superior cervical ligament</i>, which arises
+from the spinous process of the first cervical vertebr&aelig;, and is
+inserted into the external occipital protuberance on the
+upper part of the posterior surface of the skull. The summits
+of the spinous processes of the vertebr&aelig; alone give form to
+the superior median border of the trunk. In this connection
+we here repeat that it is not the general curvature of the
+vertebral column which produces the withers, but the great
+length of the spinous process of the first vertebr&aelig; of the
+dorsal region.</p>
+
+<h5>The Thorax</h5>
+
+<p>The dorsal vertebr&aelig; form the posterior limit in man, and
+superior in quadrupeds, of the region of the trunk known
+as the <i>thorax</i>. A single bone, the sternum, is situated at
+the aspect opposite; the ribs bound the thorax on its sides.</p>
+
+<p>In its general outlines the thorax in quadrupeds resembles
+that of man&mdash;that is to say, that, as in the latter, the anterior
+portion&mdash;superior in the human being&mdash;is narrower than the
+part opposite. But the progressive widening takes place in
+a more regular and continuous fashion, so that it presents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+a more definitely conical outline. This purely conical form
+is nevertheless found in the human species, but only during
+infancy; the inferior portion of the thoracic cage being then
+widely expanded, because of the development of the abdominal
+viscera, which at that period are relatively large.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig005" id="Fig005"></a>
+<img src="images/illo034.png" alt="Fig. 5" width="350" height="223" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 5.&mdash;A Transverse Section of the Thorax of a Man placed
+Vertically&mdash;that is to say, in the Direction which it would
+assume in a Man placed in the Attitude of a Quadruped (a
+Diagrammatic Figure).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Dorsal vertebra; 2, sternal region; 3, costal region of one side;
+3&#8242;, costal region of the other side.</p></div>
+
+<p>But the proportionate measurements of the thorax are
+different. Indeed, we may recall that in man the thorax is
+flattened from before backwards, so that the distance
+between the sternum and the vertebral column is shorter
+than the distance from the rib of one side to the corresponding
+one of the opposite side (<a href="#Fig005">Fig. 5</a>). In animals, on the
+contrary, it is flattened laterally. Its vertical diameter&mdash;measured
+from the sternum to the vertebral column&mdash;is
+greater than the transverse measurement (<a href="#Fig006">Fig. 6</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig006" id="Fig006"></a>
+<img src="images/illo035.png" alt="Fig. 6" width="200" height="390" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 6.&mdash;A Vertical Section of the Thorax of a Quadruped
+(Diagrammatic).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Fifth dorsal vertebra; 2, sternal region; 3, costal region of one side;
+3&#8242;, costal region of the opposite side.</p></div>
+
+<p>From this results a peculiar arrangement of the muscles
+that we are able to bring directly into prominence, which
+presents points of interest from the point of view of the contraction
+of the subcutaneous layer. Indeed, in man the
+region occupied by the pectorals is very broad; it is a wide
+surface turned directly forward. In quadrupeds, this region
+of the pectorals is narrowed. It is not spread out, as in the
+preceding instances; and the appearance it presents is
+explained by the fact that the thorax is compressed laterally.
+If we examine the thorax on one of its lateral surfaces, the
+muscles, on the contrary, are more extended. We see the
+contour of the vertebral column, and the median part of the
+abdomen; and, especially in the horse, between the great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+dorsal and the great oblique of the abdomen, we find a large
+space, in which the ribs, with the intercostals which join them,
+are uncovered; the muscles in question separate the one
+from the other, under the influence, it would seem, of the
+great dimensions of the lateral wall of the thorax.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sternum.</b>&mdash;The sternum is, in quadrupeds, directed
+obliquely downwards and backwards; its form varies in
+different species. In the carnivora, it consists of eight bones,
+irregularly cylindrical in form, being slightly flattened from
+within outwards, and thickened at their extremities. They
+remain separate, and this contributes elasticity and flexibility
+to the thorax. The first nine costal cartilages articulate
+directly with the sternum. The first of these cartilages
+articulates with a nodule situated a little above the middle
+of the first bone of the sternum.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the sternum is flattened laterally in its
+anterior portion, and from above downwards in its posterior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+half. The six bones which form the sternum are connected
+by cartilage. The keel-shaped piece, situated in front of the
+sternum, is also cartilaginous. This process, but slightly
+marked posteriorly, becomes more and more prominent in
+front, and terminates at its anterior extremity by a prolongation,
+slightly curved backwards, which projects for some
+centimetres beyond the cavity in which the first costal
+cartilage is received. This process is known as the <i>tracheal
+process</i>, or <i>rostral cartilage</i>. The posterior extremity of the
+sternum, flattened from above downwards, ends in a cartilaginous
+plate; concave superiorly, and convex inferiorly:
+this is the abdominal prolongation, or <i>xiphoid appendix</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the sternum is formed of two distinct bones,
+which are united by an articulation. One, the anterior, is
+short, and forms the first portion of the sternum; it is
+slightly flattened from side to side, and vertical in direction.
+The other, the posterior, is longer, and is formed by the
+fusion of several small bones; it is placed horizontally, and
+is flattened from above downwards. At the level of articulation
+of these two portions, and because of their different
+directions, the bone is bent. This bend occurs at the point
+of articulation of the second costal cartilage. On the
+superior border of the anterior segment the cartilage of
+the first rib is articulated. The xiphoid appendix, which
+is cartilaginous, is attached to the extremity of a long
+process of the last bone of the sternum.</p>
+
+<p>The shape of the anterior extremity of the sternum is
+influenced by the presence or absence of clavicles. We have
+seen that in some quadrupeds the clavicles are wanting. In
+the first case, this extremity is large, and approaches in shape
+to the corresponding part of the human sternum, which is so
+clearly designed to give a point of support to the anterior
+bone of the shoulder. In the second, on the contrary, this
+extremity is narrow.</p>
+
+<p>The sternum in birds is very different from that in mammalia,
+which we have been studying. It varies greatly in
+extent and shape, under the influence of certain conditions.
+To understand the cause of these variations it is necessary
+to remember that in man (as, indeed, in other animals; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+the example of man, for that which follows, will be more
+striking, on account of the mobility of his upper limbs) the
+sternum gives origin to the pectoral muscles, and that these
+muscles are inserted into other parts of the thoracic limbs,
+designed by their contraction to draw the arms downwards,
+forwards, and inwards&mdash;that is, when these are in a state of
+abduction and in a horizontal direction, they draw them
+towards the anterior surface of the thorax and downwards.
+Now, this movement is similar to that made by birds
+during flight. It is necessary to add that, in the latter
+case, the more the displacement of the upper limbs has
+of force and extent, the more the pectoral muscles are
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons, birds, in which, during flight, the movements
+of the thoracic limbs&mdash;the wings&mdash;are necessarily
+energetic, present a great development of the pectoral
+muscles; having consequently, because an extent of surface
+for the origin of the muscles commensurate with their development
+is necessary, a very large and peculiarly shaped
+sternum (<a href="#Fig018">Figs. 18</a>, 6; and <a href="#Fig021">21</a>, 6). Indeed, not only is the
+sternum large, but, further, in order to form a deeper surface,
+proportionately adapted to the muscles which arise from and
+cover it, its anterior surface presents, in the median line, a
+prominent crest known as the <i>keel</i>. This prominence forms
+two lateral foss&aelig;. We cite as examples, the sternum of the
+eagle, the vulture, the falcon, and the hawk.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig007" id="Fig007"></a>
+<img src="images/illo038.png" alt="Fig. 7" width="350" height="477" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 7.&mdash;Sternum of a Bird (the Cock): Left Side, External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Keel; 2, internal slot; 3, external slot; 4, internal process; 5, external
+process; 6, inferior ribs; 7, costal process; 8, surface for articulation
+with the coracoid bone.</p></div>
+
+<p>All birds are not, however, equally adapted to flight, for
+in the domestic cock, which flies but a short distance, and
+badly, the sternum is less developed (<a href="#Fig007">Fig. 7</a>); it is also
+diminished by slots, which diminish its surface. These slots,
+two on each side, are called from their position the internal
+and external slots. They are bounded by narrow, elongated,
+bony processes, an internal and an external; the expanded
+lower extremity of the latter overlaps the last inferior ribs
+(see <a href="#Page_19">p. 19</a>). The part of the external border which surmounts
+this external process is hollowed out into grooves, which
+receive the inferior ribs, and terminates superiorly in an
+osseous projection known as <i>the costal prominence</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the ostrich, the cassowary, and the apteryx, which run,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+but do not fly, the sternum has the form of a plate of bone
+slightly convex, but without a keel.</p>
+
+<p>The shape of the sternum, correlated to the faculty of
+flight (or of swimming; apropos of which we may cite the
+penguin, of which the rudimentary wings resemble fins,
+and perform their functions only), or the absence of this
+faculty, has furnished the division of birds into two groups.
+In one are included, under the name <i>Carinates</i> (<i>carina</i>, keel),
+those in which the sternum is provided with a keel; in the
+other division are those in which the sternum is not furnished
+with one. These latter, on account of their unique mode of
+progression, are more nearly allied to the mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The keel is developed in flying mammals (bats).</p>
+
+<p><b>Ribs and Costal Cartilages.</b>&mdash;There are on each side
+of the thorax as many ribs as there are dorsal vertebr&aelig;.
+In animals, as in man, the ribs which articulate with the
+sternum by their cartilages are called <i>true</i>, or <i>sternal</i> ribs;
+those whose cartilages do not articulate with the sternum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+are called <i>false</i>, or <i>asternal</i>. The longer ribs are those
+situated in the middle region of the thorax.</p>
+
+<p>The ribs are directed obliquely downwards and backwards,
+and this obliquity is more marked in the posterior ones than
+in the anterior. They are, however, less oblique than in
+the human being; what proves this is that the first rib in man
+is oblique, while in quadrupeds it is vertical.</p>
+
+<p>The curvature of the ribs is less pronounced in quadrupeds
+than in the human being, but this is not equal in all animals.
+The ribs of the bear are more curved than those of the dog;
+the latter has ribs more curved than those of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>Each rib, at its vertebral extremity, presents, from within
+outwards, a wedge-shaped head for articulation with two
+dorsal vertebr&aelig;, a neck, and a tuberosity. External to the
+tubercle are found some rough impressions, for muscular
+attachments, which correspond to the angle of the human
+rib.</p>
+
+<p>In the following table, we give the number and classification
+of the ribs of some animals:</p>
+
+<h6><span class="smcap">Number of the Ribs on Each Side of the Thorax.</span></h6>
+
+<table class="fsize80" summary="Table page 18">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Sternal.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">Asternal.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Bear</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">14</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">divided</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">into</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">9</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">and</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Dog</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">13</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">9</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Cat</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">13</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">9</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Rabbit</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">12</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">7</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Pig</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">14</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">7</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Horse</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">18</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">8</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Camel</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">12</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">8</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Ox</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">13</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">8</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Sheep</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">13</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">8</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">&#8222;</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The costal cartilages, by which the first ribs are united to
+the sternum (sternal ribs), whilst the latter are united one
+to the other without being directly connected with the
+sternum (asternal ribs), are, as a rule, in quadrupeds, directed
+obliquely downwards, forwards, and inwards; each forms,
+with the rib to which it belongs, an obtuse angle more or less
+open anteriorly. Their length is proportionate to that of
+the ribs. The cartilages, which are continued from the
+asternal ribs, unite and form the borders, directed obliquely
+downwards and forwards, of the fossa which is found at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+inferior and posterior part of the thorax, and which forms
+the lateral limits of the epigastric region. In the dog and cat
+the ribs are thick and almost cylindrical; the costal cartilages
+are thicker at the margin of the sternum than at their
+costal extremity. In the ox, the ribs are flattened laterally
+and are very broad, the more so as we examine a portion
+further from the vertebral column. From the second to the
+twelfth they are quadrangular in the superior fourth, and
+thicker than in the rest of their extent. The first costal
+cartilage is vertical; the following ones are progressively
+more oblique in a direction downwards and forwards. The
+four or five cartilages which succeed the first unite with slight
+obliquity to the sternum; their union with that bone gives
+the impression of a very strong, well-knit apparatus. The
+costal cartilages which unite with the sternum are flattened
+laterally in the portions next the ribs, and flattened from
+front to back in the rest of their extent.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the ribs increase in length from the first to the
+ninth; they are flattened from without inwards, and increase
+in width from the first to the sixth or seventh, and the following
+ones become narrower. The costal cartilages, from
+the second to the eighth, are, as in the ox, at first flattened
+laterally, near the ribs; while near the sternum they are
+flattened from front to back.</p>
+
+<p>In birds, the ribs are each furnished with a flat process
+(<a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>, 10), which springs from the posterior border, is
+directed backwards, and overlaps the external surface of
+the succeeding rib. These processes are not found, as a rule,
+on the first or last ribs.</p>
+
+<p>As for the costal cartilages, they are, as a rule, ossified,
+and receive the name of inferior ribs (<a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>, 11), united to
+the preceding (superior ribs; <a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>, 9) by articulation;
+by the other extremity they are joined to the sternum; the
+first superior ribs generally want them. Sometimes the last
+inferior rib becomes connected with the one that precedes it,
+not articulating with the sternum; and thus recalls the
+relations of the asternal ribs which we have noticed in our
+study of the mammals.</p>
+
+<p>In the bat, as in birds, the costal cartilages are ossified.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></p>
+
+<h4>THE ANTERIOR LIMBS<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5"
+class="fnanchor" style="font-weight: normal;">[5]</a></h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Consult
+<a href="#Fig021">Figs. 21</a>, <a href="#Fig033">33</a>, <a href="#Fig034">34</a>, <a href="#Fig038">38</a>,
+<a href="#Fig039">39</a>, <a href="#Fig046">46</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The anterior limbs, homologous to the upper limbs in
+man, are formed, as in the latter, of four segments: the
+shoulder, the arm, the forearm, and the hand. These limbs,
+considered in the vertebral series, present themselves under
+very different aspects, which are determined by the functions
+they are called upon to perform.</p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig008" id="Fig008"></a>
+<img src="images/illo041.png" alt="Fig. 8" width="600" height="335" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 8.&mdash;Anterior Limb of the Bat: Left Side, Anterior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Clavicle; 2, scapula; 3, humerus; 4, radius; 5, cubitus; 6, carpus;
+7, thumb; 8, metacarpus; 9, phalanges.</p></div>
+
+<p>They constitute the forepaw in terrestrial mammals; in
+aerial vertebrates they form wings; in aqueous mammals
+they act as paddles. In whatever series we study them,
+we can readily find the relationship of the different parts;
+it is very easy to recognise the same bones in the upper limbs
+of the human being, the wings of the bat (<a href="#Fig008">Fig. 8</a>) and of
+birds (<a href="#Fig021">Fig. 21</a>), and in the anterior paddles of the seal (<a href="#Fig009">Fig. 9</a>)
+and of the dolphin.</p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig009" id="Fig009"></a>
+<img src="images/illo042.png" alt="Fig. 9" width="600" height="395" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 9.&mdash;Anterior Limb of the Seal: Left Side, External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, radius; 4, ulna; 5, carpus;
+6, metacarpus; 7, phalanges of the fingers.</p></div>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds, the shoulder and arm are hidden, the
+latter more or less completely, in the muscular mass which
+binds it to the lateral wall of the trunk; so that the anterior
+limbs only present; free from the trunk: the elbow, forearm,
+and hand.</p>
+
+<h5>The Shoulder</h5>
+
+<p>In some vertebrates, the shoulder is formed of two bones&mdash;the
+scapula and clavicle; in others of only one bone&mdash;the
+scapula; the clavicle in this case does not exist.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span><b>The Scapula or Omoplate.</b>&mdash;The scapula is situated
+on the lateral surface of the thorax, and is directed obliquely,
+from above downwards and from behind forwards.</p>
+
+<p>We must first recall, so as to be able to make a comparison,
+that in man this bone is placed at the posterior surface of the
+thoracic cage; so that if we look at the human thorax
+on one of its lateral aspects we see chiefly the external
+border of the scapula; it is the external surface (homologous
+to the posterior surface of the human scapula) which
+we see in its full extent when we look on the same surface
+of the thorax in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig010" id="Fig010"></a>
+<img src="images/illo043a.png" alt="Fig. 10" width="250" height="196" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 10.&mdash;Situation and Direction
+of the Scapula in the
+Human Being, the Trunk being
+Horizontal, as in Quadrupeds.
+Vertical and Transverse Section
+of the Thorax (Diagrammatic
+Figure).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Contour of the thorax; 2, 2, the
+scapula.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig011" id="Fig011"></a>
+<img src="images/illo043b.png" alt="Fig. 11" width="200" height="370" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 11.&mdash;Position and Direction
+of the Scapula in Quadrupeds.
+Vertical and Transverse Section
+of the Thorax (Diagrammatic
+Figure).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Contour of the thorax; 2, 2, the
+scapula.</p></div>
+
+<p>To sum up, if we fancy the human being in the position
+of the quadruped, the scapula will have its surfaces almost
+parallel to the ground (<a href="#Fig010">Fig. 10</a>); while in quadrupeds, the
+surfaces are situated in a plane which is almost perpendicular
+to the ground (<a href="#Fig011">Fig. 11</a>). This position of the scapula in an
+almost vertical plane is designed to give the necessary point
+of support to the osseous columns that form the skeleton
+of the other portions of the anterior limbs.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig012" id="Fig012"></a>
+<img src="images/illo044a.png" alt="Fig. 12" width="250" height="259" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 12.&mdash;Left Scapula of
+the Human Being, Posterior
+Surface, placed
+in the Position which
+it would Occupy in the
+Skeleton of a Quadruped.</p>
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cervical border; 2, spinal border&mdash;the
+scapula here represented, being from
+a hoofed animal, has a cartilage of extension
+attached to its spinal border; 3,
+axillary border; 4, supraspinous fossa;
+5, subspinous fossa; 6, spine of the
+scapula; 7, glenoid cavity; 8, coracoid
+process. The scapula of the horse has no
+acromion process, but it is easy, if we
+compare the human scapula, to judge of
+the position which this process would
+occupy if it were present.</p></div>
+
+<p>Because of this position of the scapula (<a href="#Fig012">Figs. 12</a> and <a href="#Fig013">13</a>),
+the spinal border is superior, the cervical, anterior, and the
+axillary, posterior. In direct contrast to what obtains in the
+human scapula, the spinal border is the shortest of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+three; except in the bat, and the majority of the
+cetaceans.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig013" id="Fig013"></a>
+<img src="images/illo044b.png" alt="Fig. 13" width="300" height="374" />
+<p class="caption top">Fig. 13.&mdash;Left Scapula of a Horse:
+External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cervical border; 2,
+spinal border; 3, axillary
+border; 4, supraspinous fossa;
+5, subspinous fossa; 6,
+scapular spine; 7, glenoid
+cavity; 8, coracoid process;
+9, acromion process.</p></div>
+
+<p>In certain animals (in the ungulates [<i>hoofed</i><a name="FNanchor_6_6"
+id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>]&mdash;pigs, oxen,
+sheep, horses) the superior, or spinal, border of the scapula is
+surmounted by a cartilage called <i>the cartilage of prolongation</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> For
+the definition of the word <i>hoofed</i>, see <a href="#Page_37">p. 37</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig014" id="Fig014"></a>
+<img src="images/illo045a.png" alt="Fig. 14" width="200" height="311" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 14.&mdash;Vertical and Transverse
+Section, at the Site of the
+Shoulders, of the Thorax of the
+Horse (Diagrammatic Figure).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Outline of the thorax at the level
+of the third dorsal vertebra; 2, 2,
+scapula; 3, spinal border of the
+scapula; 4, cartilage of prolongation;
+5, contour of the skin.</p></div>
+
+<p>This is the cause why the border to which it is fixed is so
+slightly noticeable under the skin in these animals; indeed,
+in the upper part, the bone and cartilage are not distinguishable
+in the contour of the corresponding region of the back;
+being applied to the lateral surfaces of the spinous processes,
+the prominence formed by the extremities of which is directly
+continuous with the plane of the scapula (<a href="#Fig016">Fig. 16</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig015" id="Fig015"></a>
+<img src="images/illo045b.png" alt="Fig. 15" width="200" height="294" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 15.&mdash;Vertical and Transverse
+Section, at the Plane
+of the Shoulders, of the
+Thorax of a Dog (Diagrammatic
+Figure).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Outline of the thorax at the
+level of the third dorsal vertebra;
+2, 2, scapula; 3, spinal border of
+the scapula; 4, contour of the skin.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>In quadrupeds whose scapula, on the contrary, is wanting
+in the cartilage of prolongation (in the <i>clawed</i>,<a name="FNanchor_7_7"
+id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> such as the
+cat and dog), the superior border of the scapula is visible,
+especially when the animal is resting on its fore-limbs, particularly
+when it crouches; at such a time the skin is markedly
+raised by that border; and the spinous processes of
+the vertebr&aelig;, beyond which it projects, occupy the bottom
+of a fossa (<a href="#Fig015">Fig. 15</a>). The internal surface of the scapula
+is turned towards the ribs; it is known, as in man (in whom
+this surface is anterior), as the subscapular fossa.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> For
+the definition of this word, see <a href="#Page_37">p. 37</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig016" id="Fig016"></a>
+<img src="images/illo047a.png" alt="Fig. 16" width="200" height="54" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 16.&mdash;Left Clavicle of the Cat:
+Superior Surface (Natural Size).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption center">1, Internal extremity; 2, external extremity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig017" id="Fig017"></a>
+<img src="images/illo047b.png" alt="Fig. 17" width="62" height="83" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 17.&mdash;Clavicle of the
+Dog (Natural Size).</p></div>
+
+<p>Its external surface is divided into two parts by the spine
+of the scapula; which, in some animals, terminates inferiorly
+in a flat and clearly distinct process, the homologue of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+acromion process of the human scapula. The two regions
+separated by the spine are known as the supraspinous fossa
+and the infraspinous fossa. The supraspinous fossa is anterior
+to the spine, and the infraspinous is posterior to it. The
+surfaces of the scapula are, in quadrupeds, flatter than
+in the human being, and in particular the subscapular fossa,
+which is also less concave. Some authors attribute this to
+the lesser curvature of the ribs in quadrupeds. A few words
+will suffice to prove that there must be another reason.
+The scapula is not in immediate contact with the ribs; the
+subscapular fossa is not moulded on them. Besides, the
+form of the scapula is, as in other parts of the skeleton,
+dependent on the disposition of muscles, and the development
+of these latter is correlated to the extent and energy
+of the movements which the individual is able or required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+to execute. But the movements which those muscles
+produce (more especially the rotation of the humerus) are,
+in quadrupeds, less extensive than in the human being;
+and, consequently, the muscles which produce them are,
+proportionally, less strongly developed. The inferior angle
+(superior and external in man), situated at the junction of
+the cervical and axillary borders, presents the glenoid
+cavity, which, looking downwards, receives the articular
+surface of the superior extremity of the bone of the arm&mdash;that
+is to say, the head of the humerus. Above this
+cavity, on the lower part of the cervical border, is situated
+a tubercle which reminds us of the coracoid process of
+the human scapula. The region occupied by the glenoid
+cavity is separated from the body of the bone by a constriction&mdash;the
+neck of the scapula.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig018" id="Fig018"></a>
+<img src="images/illo048.png" alt="Fig. 18" width="300" height="352" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 18.&mdash;Skeleton of the Shoulder of a Bird (Vulture): Antero-External
+View of the Left Side.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Left clavicle; 2, inferior portion of the right clavicle, forming by its
+ankylosis with that of the other side the fourchette; 3, coracoid bone;
+4, scapula; 5, articular surface for humerus; 6, superior half of the
+sternum; 7, keel of sternum; 8, spinous process of the dorsal vertebr&aelig;;
+9, superior ribs; 10, process of one of these ribs; 11, inferior ribs.</p></div>
+
+<p>In birds the scapula is elongated in a direction parallel to
+the vertebral column, and very narrow in the opposite
+(<a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>): it is also flat, and has no spine. Its coracoid
+process is represented by a peculiar bone&mdash;the coracoidean
+or coracoid bone&mdash;which we shall describe later on when
+we come to the study of the clavicle and of the anterior
+region of the shoulder (see <a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Clavicle.</b>&mdash;The clavicle is found only in the human
+being, and in animals whose anterior limbs, possessing
+great freedom of movement in all directions, require
+that the scapula should possess a point of support which,
+while affording this, can be displaced with it, or draw it
+in certain directions. Now, this point of support is
+furnished by the clavicle.</p>
+
+<p>In animals possessed of hoofs (ungulates), such as the
+sheep, ox, and horse, the clavicle does not exist. Indeed,
+in them the freedom of movement of the anterior limbs is
+limited; they move by projection in the forward and
+backward directions only; they merely fulfil the functions
+of giving support to and carrying about the body. The
+clavicle is rudimentary in the cat and the dog; in the cat
+it is a small, elongated bone (<a href="#Fig016">Fig. 16</a>), 2 centimetres in
+length, thin and curved, connected with the sternum and
+the scapula by ligamentous bundles. In the dog it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+represented by a small osseous plate only (<a href="#Fig017">Fig. 17</a>),
+which is not connected with any of the neighbouring
+bones.</p>
+
+<p>It is on the deep surface of a muscle which passes from
+the head and neck to the humerus (mastoido-humeral, a
+muscle common to the arm, neck, and head) in which this
+rudimentary bone is found to be developed.</p>
+
+<p>The clavicle exists in perfect state in mammals which
+use their limbs for digging, grasping, or flying; the insectivora
+(hedgehog, mole) and some rodents (squirrel, woodchuck)
+are provided with it.</p>
+
+<p>The cheiroptera (bats) possess an extremely well-developed
+clavicle, on account of the varied movements which their
+thoracic limbs execute.</p>
+
+<p>This formation of the shoulder which favours flight in
+the bat is even more remarkable in birds. In these latter
+(<a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>) the clavicles, fused together by their lower extremities,
+form one bone, having the shape of the letter V or U,
+which is known as the <i>fourchette</i>; this bone, acting as a
+true spring, keeps the shoulders apart, and prevents their
+approximation during the energetic movements which flight
+necessitates.</p>
+
+<p>In birds whose power of flight is strong, the two limbs
+of this bone are widely separated and thick, and the fourchette
+is U-shaped. Those whose flight is awkward and
+but slightly energetic have the limbs of the fourchette
+slender; they unite at a more acute angle, and the bone is
+V shaped.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, a bone named the <i>coracoid</i> joins the scapula
+to the sternum; this bone, often fused with the scapula,
+where it contributes to the formation of the glenoid cavity,
+represents in birds the coracoid process of the human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+scapula. If we fancy this process directed inwards, and
+sufficiently lengthened to join the sternum, we shall have
+an idea of the disposition of the bone we are now discussing,
+and the reasons for which the name has been chosen by
+which it is designated. The coracoid bone, like the fourchette
+which it reinforces, offers to the wings a degree of support
+proportionate to the efforts developed by those limbs; for
+this reason it is thick and solid in birds of powerful flight.</p>
+
+<p>The superior extremity of each branch of the fourchette,
+at the level of its junction with the coracoid and the scapula,
+bounds, with these latter, a foramen which gives passage to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+the tendon of the elevator muscle of the wing, or small
+pectoral. The importance of the fourchette being, as we
+have seen, in proportion to the movements of flying, it is
+easy to understand that the bone is not found in the ostrich.</p>
+
+<h5>The Arm</h5>
+
+<p>A single bone, the humerus, forms the skeleton of this
+portion of the thoracic limb.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Humerus.</b>&mdash;The bone of the arm is, in quadrupeds,
+inclined from above downwards and from before backwards.</p>
+
+<p>It is, with relation to other regions, short in proportion
+as the metacarpus is elongated, and as the number of digits
+is lessened. In the horse, for example, whose metacarpus
+is long, and in which but one digit is apparent, the humerus
+is very short. The slight development in length of the
+humerus explains its close application to the side of the
+animal as far as the elbow.</p>
+
+<p>In animals in which the humerus is longer, the bone is
+slightly free, as well as the elbow, at its inferior extremity.
+<a href="#LongerHumerus">Later on</a> we will return to the consideration of this
+peculiarity and of the proportions of the humerus, after
+we have studied the other parts of the fore-limbs.</p>
+
+<p>The humerus in quadrupeds is inflected like the letter S;
+in man this general form is less accentuated, the humerus
+being almost straight. On its body, which appears twisted
+on its own axis, we find the musculo-spiral groove,<a name="FNanchor_8_8"
+id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> which
+crosses the external surface, and is very deep in some animals.
+Above this groove, and on the external surface, there exists
+a rough surface which is the impression of the deltoid. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+some species this rugosity is very prominent, and is called
+<i>the tuberosity of the deltoid</i>; it is prolonged downwards by
+a border which forms the anterior crest of the musculo-spiral
+groove and limits this latter in front. The external border
+of the bone, or posterior crest of the groove, limits it behind.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> It
+would be going outside our province to discuss whether the
+humerus is really twisted on its axis. This question, often discussed, has
+been solved in some recent works in the following manner: the humerus
+has undergone torsion at the level of its superior extremity, and not
+at the level of its body; this does not authorize us further to accord any
+definite sense to the denomination &#8216;groove of torsion&#8217; (musculo-spiral
+groove). That which we must especially remember in connection with
+this fact, is, as we shall afterwards see, the difference of direction which the
+articular head presents according as the torsion has been more or less
+considerable: because this is established, according to the same order, in
+man and in quadrupeds.</p></div>
+
+<p>The superior extremity is enlarged, and remarkable in
+three portions which it presents; these are: an articular
+surface and two tuberosities.</p>
+
+<p>The articular surface, or head of the humerus, smooth and
+round, is in contact with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
+This head in the human skeleton is directed upwards and inwards;
+in quadrupeds its direction is upwards and backwards.
+The inferior extremity, having in both one and
+the other its long axis directed transversely, and the point
+of the elbow looking backwards in all, the result is that the
+head of the humerus is not situated vertically above the
+same regions; in the first, it is almost directly above the
+internal part of this extremity; in the latter, it is situated
+above its posterior surface, or the point of the elbow in
+the complete skeleton. This difference of direction is correlated
+with the position of the scapula, the glenoid cavity
+of which, as we have already seen, is in man turned outwards,
+whereas in quadrupeds it looks downwards. In
+the latter case the scapula consequently rests on the head
+of the humerus; and this position is most favourable for the
+performance of the functions which the anterior limbs have
+to fulfil in these latter.</p>
+
+<p>Of the tuberosities of the head of the humerus, one is
+situated on the external aspect&mdash;it is the great tuberosity, or
+<i>trochiter</i>; the other is placed internally&mdash;it is the small
+tuberosity, or <i>trochin</i>. The great tuberosity is divided into
+three parts&mdash;summit, convexity, and crest; these different
+parts give insertion to the muscles of the shoulder. We
+recollect that the facets (anterior, middle, and posterior) of
+the great tuberosity of the humerus in man give attachment
+to the muscles of the same region. The head of the humerus
+in the human body projects above the tuberosities. We
+shall see afterwards, when dealing with some special quadrupeds,
+that in some of these, on the other hand, the tuberosities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+are on a higher level than the articular head of the
+bone. Between the two tuberosities is the bicipital groove.</p>
+
+<p>In man, the superior extremity of the humerus, although
+covered by the deltoid, reveals its presence by elevating
+the corresponding portion of the latter. In quadrupeds, the
+anterior part of this extremity, although similarly covered by
+muscular bundles, produces a prominence under the skin.
+This prominence is situated at the summit of the angle
+formed by the opposing directions of the scapula and the
+bone of the arm, and constitutes what is known by
+the name of the <i>point of the shoulder</i>, or of the <i>point of
+the arm</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior extremity, transversely enlarged, presents an
+undulating articular surface, which reminds us of the trochlea
+and the condyle of the human humerus; on which, however,
+the condyle is more sharply defined from the trochlea.</p>
+
+<p>In the human skeleton, the internal lip of the trochlea
+descends lower than the external; and also lower than the
+condyle. In the bear, the cat, and the dog, it is the same.
+In the ox and the sheep, the condyle is lower than the
+trochlea, but only very little lower. In the horse the
+arrangement is still the same, but a little more accentuated.</p>
+
+<p>On the lateral parts of this extremity we find: internally,
+a prominence, the epitrochlea; and, externally, another,
+the epicondyle. It is from this latter that the crest arises,
+which, passing upwards, forms the posterior limit of the
+groove of torsion.</p>
+
+<p>The two prominences, which we have just described from
+a general point of view, present special arrangements which
+it is necessary to point out. When we examine the form
+of the outline of the inferior extremity of the humerus in
+man, the bear, the cat, the dog, the ox, and the horse, we
+find in following this order that the extremity tends to
+become narrow transversely, and that the epicondyle and
+the epitrochlea are less and less prominent on the external
+and internal aspects respectively. These two processes,
+indeed, project backwards; the epitrochlea always remaining
+more developed than the epicondyle. Because of this
+projection backwards, the cavity situated on the posterior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+surface of the inferior extremity, the olecranon fossa, is
+very deep, more so than in the humerus of man. Its borders
+being thus formed by the two processes, are very prominent.
+In front we find the coronoid fossa, which is less deep than
+that of which we have just spoken.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig019" id="Fig019"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052a.png" alt="Fig. 19" width="300" height="343" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 19.&mdash;Inferior Extremity of
+the Left Humerus of a Felide
+(Lion).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Epitrochlea; 2, supra-epitrochlear
+foramen.</p></div>
+
+<p>There exists in some mammals an osseous canal, situated
+above the epitrochlea, and known as the <i>supratrochlear
+canal</i> (<a href="#Fig019">Fig. 19</a>). It is bounded by a plate of bone which
+at its middle portion is detached from the shaft of the
+humerus, and blends with the latter at both its extremities.
+The brachial artery and median nerve pass through the
+foramen.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig020" id="Fig020"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052b.png" alt="Fig. 20" width="300" height="369" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 20.&mdash;Inferior Extremity of
+the Left Human Humerus,
+showing the Presence of a
+Supratrochlear Process.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Epitrochlea; 2, supra-epitrochlear
+process.</p></div>
+
+<p>A similar condition is sometimes found, as an abnormality,
+in man, which presents itself under the following aspect
+(<a href="#Fig020">Fig. 20</a>): an osseous prominence more or less long, in the
+shape of a crochet-needle&mdash;supra-epitrochlear process&mdash;situated
+5 or 6 centimetres above the epitrochlea; the
+summit of this process gives attachment to a fibrous band,
+which is inserted by its other end into the epitrochlea and
+the internal intermuscular aponeurosis. The fibro-osseous
+ring thus formed gives passage to the brachial artery and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+median nerve, or in case of a premature division of this
+artery to the ulnar branch of the same.<a name="FNanchor_9_9"
+id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> For
+further details of this anomaly, see Testut, &#8216;The Epitrochlear
+Process in Man&#8217; (<i>International Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, 1889);
+A. Nicolas, &#8216;New Studies on the Supratrochlear Process in Man&#8217; (<i>Review
+of Biology of the North of France</i>, t. iii., 1890-1891).</p></div>
+
+<p>There is also found in some mammals a perforation of
+the thin plate of bone which, in others, separates the olecranon
+fossa from the coronoid. This perforation is sometimes
+found as an abnormality in the human humerus.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig021" id="Fig021"></a>
+<img src="images/illo054.png" alt="Fig. 21" width="500" height="401" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 21.&mdash;Skeleton of a Bird (Vulture): Left Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, cervical vertebr&aelig;; 4, spinous processes of
+the dorsal vertebr&aelig;; 5, coccygeal vertebr&aelig;; 6, sternum; 7, keel; 8,
+superior ribs; 9, inferior ribs; 10, clavicle; 11, coracoid bone (for the
+details of the skeleton of the shoulder, see <a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>); 12, humerus; 13,
+radius; 14, ulna; 15, carpus; 16, hand (for details of the skeleton of
+this region, see <a href="#Fig031">Fig. 31</a>); 17, ilium; 18, ischium; 19, pubis (for the details
+of the pelvis, see <a href="#Fig046">Fig. 46</a>); 20, femur; 21, tibia; 22, fibula; 23, osseous
+nodule, which some anatomists think represents the calcaneum; it is
+the sole vestige of the tarsus; 24, metatarsus; 25, foot; 26, first toe (for
+the details of the skeleton of the foot, see <a href="#Fig048">Fig. 48</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>As does the sternum and the skeleton of the shoulder, the
+humerus of birds presents differences correlated to the
+functions which the thoracic limbs are destined to fulfil.
+Lying on the side of the thorax, directed obliquely downwards
+and backwards (<a href="#Fig021">Fig. 21</a>), it is proportionately longer
+in individuals of powerful flight than in those which fly
+less or not at all. In the vulture it projects beyond the
+posterior part of the pelvis; in the cock it does not even
+reach the anterior border of the same. To these differences
+in length are added differences in volume and in the development
+of the processes which serve for muscular attachment,
+which are more considerable in birds of powerful flight.</p>
+
+<p>The humerus is so placed that the radial border, external
+in man and quadrupeds, looks upwards, with the result that
+the surface of the bone of the arm, which in these latter is
+anterior, in the former looks outwards. The humeral head,
+which is turned forwards and a little inwards, is convex
+and elongated in the vertical direction. Behind and above
+this head is found a crest for the insertion of muscles. It is
+the same for the region below, where there is a tuberosity
+whose inferior surface presents a pretty large opening
+which looks inwards to a fossa from the floor of which a
+number of minute openings communicate with the interior
+of the bone. This is the pneumatic foramen of the humerus.</p>
+
+<p>It is of interest to remember in connection with this subject
+that in birds, in keeping with the conditions of flight, every
+system of organs is adapted to diminish the weight of the
+body. We particularly draw attention to the osseous
+framework, the structure of which is such that the weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+of the animal is greatly lessened. This condition is secured
+by the pneumaticity. The bone consists of a cover of
+compact tissue, which, instead of enclosing marrow, is
+hollowed out by cavities which contain air, and communicate
+with special pouches, the air-sacs, which are appendages of
+the lungs.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+The presence of air in the bones does not seem to be always associated
+with the power of flight; as a matter of fact, we find air spaces in the bones
+of some birds which do not fly (E. J. Marey, &#8216;The Flight of Birds,&#8217; Paris,
+1890, p. 51).</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>The antibrachial extremity of the humerus is flattened
+from without inwards. It terminates in two articular
+surfaces, which articulate with the radius and ulna.</p>
+
+<p>The olecranon process of the ulna being slightly developed,
+it follows that the olecranon fossa is not large; neither is
+the coronoid.</p>
+
+<h5>General View of the Form of the Forearm and Hand</h5>
+
+<p>We now proceed to the study of the two regions of the
+fore-limbs which present the greatest variety in regard to
+the number of bones and also in regard to form and proportions.
+These two regions are the forearm and the hand.</p>
+
+<p>It is first of all necessary to say that in man, when the
+fore-limb hangs beside the body, and the dorsum of the hand
+looks backwards, the two bones of the forearm are parallel,
+and that this position is known by the name of <i>supination</i>.
+It is also necessary to remember that there is another
+attitude, in which the radius, crossing the ulna, and carrying
+the hand with it, displaces the latter in such a way that the
+palmar surface looks backwards. This second position is
+known as <i>pronation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now suppose that a man wishes to walk in the
+attitude of a quadruped. It will be necessary, in order that
+his upper limbs, being for the moment anterior ones, may act
+as members of support, to place the forearm in pronation, in
+order that, as is more normal, the hands may rest on the
+ground by their palmar surfaces. In this position the radius,
+being rotated on its own axis at its upper extremity and
+around the ulna in the rest of its extent, shall have its
+inferior extremity situated on the inner side of the corresponding
+extremity of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the situation of the bones of the forearm and the
+attitude of the hand in quadrupeds. In short, quadrupeds
+have their anterior members in the position of pronation.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig022" id="Fig022"></a>
+<img src="images/illo056.png" alt="Fig. 22" width="350" height="344" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 22.&mdash;The Human Hand resting for its Whole Extent on its
+Palmar Surface: Left Side, External Surface.</p></div>
+
+<p>The individual whom we have just supposed placed in the
+attitude of a quadruped would be able to maintain this
+position by pressing on the ground more or less extensive
+portions of his hands; the whole palm of the hand may
+be applied to the ground (<a href="#Fig022">Fig. 22</a>); or the fingers
+only&mdash;that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+is to say, the phalanges (<a href="#Fig023">Fig. 23</a>); or the extremities of
+the fingers only&mdash;that is to say, the third phalanges (<a href="#Fig024">Fig. 24</a>).
+This last position, which is certainly difficult to maintain,
+should here be regarded rather as theoretical.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig023" id="Fig023"></a>
+<img src="images/illo057a.png" alt="Fig. 23" width="300" height="458" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 23.&mdash;The Human Hand resting
+on its Phalanges: Left
+Side, External Surface.</p></div>
+
+<p>We shall meet with each of these modes of support in
+certain groups of animals. Thus, the bear, badger, and the
+majority of rodents, have the paws applied to the ground
+by the whole extent of the palmar surface of the hand, from
+the wrist to the tips of the fingers. They are therefore called
+plantigrade, from the analogy, in this case, of the palm of
+the hand to the plantar surface, or sole of the foot.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig024" id="Fig024"></a>
+<img src="images/illo057b.png" alt="Fig. 24" width="125" height="520" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 24.&mdash;The Human Hand resting
+on the Tips of some of its
+Third Phalanges: Left Side,
+External View.</p></div>
+
+<p>In others, such as the lion, tiger, panther, cat, wolf, and
+fox, the support is made no longer on the whole extent of
+the palmar surface, but on the corresponding surface of the
+fingers only&mdash;the metacarpus is turned back, and, consequently,
+the wrist&mdash;that is to say, the carpus&mdash;is removed
+from the ground. These are the digitigrades.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the ruminants (sheep, oxen, deer, etc.), and also the
+pig, ass, and horse, rest on the third phalanx only. In
+them not only is the metacarpus turned back, but also the
+two first phalanges. The wrist is very far removed from
+the ground. In these animals, the third phalanx is
+enclosed in a case of horn, a nail (the hoof), and because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+the support of the limb is on that nail, the name of unguligrades
+has been given them. Nevertheless, as the point
+of support is on the third phalanx, which is also known by
+the name of phalangette, we are of opinion that, in order to
+specify definitely, although they walk on their fingers, as
+do the digitigrades, the support is provided not by the
+whole extent of those appendages, they might receive
+the name of phalangettigrades.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary among the ruminants to make an exception
+of the camel and the llama, which are digitigrades.</p>
+
+<p>Just in proportion as the hand is raised from the ground, as
+we have just seen in passing from the plantigrades to the
+digitigrades and unguligrades, the number of bones of that
+region diminishes, the bones of the forearm coalesce, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+the ulna tends to disappear; the hand becomes less and less
+suitable for grasping, climbing, or digging, so as to form
+an organ exclusively adapted for walking and supporting
+the body.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, the bear (plantigrade) has five digits, and the
+power of performing the movements of supination and
+pronation. Indeed, we know with what facility this animal
+is able to move his paws in every direction, and climb a tree
+by grasping it with his fore-limbs. It is well known,
+however, that no animal except the ape can perform the
+movements of rotation of the radius around the ulna
+with the same facility as man; and that none possesses the
+same degree of suppleness, extent, and variety of movements
+of the forearm and hand.</p>
+
+<p>In the digitigrades there is one finger which is but slightly
+developed, and which is always removed from the ground&mdash;that
+is, the thumb: there is also a little less mobility of the
+radius around the ulna.</p>
+
+<p>In the ungulates the limbs are simply required to
+perform the movements of walking, and form veritable
+columns of support, which become the more solid as
+they are less divided. The bones of the forearm are fused
+together; there is therefore no possibility of rotation
+of the radius around the ulna. The metacarpus is
+reduced to a single piece, which in the horse constitutes
+what is known as the <i>canon</i>. The number of digits
+becomes diminished, so that in ruminants there are not
+more than two, and in the horse but one. We should,
+however, add that, up to the present, we have taken into
+account only perfect digits, those that rest on the ground.
+We shall see further on that there exist supplementary
+digits, but that they are only slightly developed, and are
+represented in some cases by mere osseous spurs; it is this
+fact that has permitted us to ignore them in the general
+study which we have just made.</p>
+
+<p>Because, as we have already said, the unguligrades have
+the inferior extremity of the digit encased in a horny sheath,
+which forms the hoof of the horse and the corresponding
+structures (<i>onglons</i>) in the ox, those animals have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+placed in a special group, which is based on that peculiarity&mdash;that
+is, the group of ungulate mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The plantigrades and digitigrades, of which the paws
+have their surfaces of support strengthened by an epidermic
+sole and fatty pads, have the free extremities of the third
+phalanges covered on their dorsal surface by nails or claws;
+hence they are named <i>unguiculate</i> mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The bat and birds have the bones of the forearm so
+arranged that the radius cannot rotate around the ulna. This
+is necessary in order that during flight, when the wing is
+being lowered, the radius and hand shall not be able to turn;
+for, if such rotation took place, each stroke of the wing would
+place it in a vertical position, which would occasion a loss of
+resistance incompatible with the effect to be obtained.</p>
+
+<h5>The Forearm</h5>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the forearm in quadrupeds is vertical in
+direction; consequently, it forms with the arm an angle
+open anteriorly; this is well seen on examining the lateral
+surface. If we examine it on its anterior surface, we find
+a slight obliquity directed downwards and inwards. In
+animals in which the bones of the forearm are separate&mdash;that
+is to say, susceptible of supination and pronation&mdash;we
+find a more close resemblance to those of the human
+skeleton. The ulna, the superior extremity of which always
+projects beyond that of the radius, has a shaft which gradually
+narrows from above downwards. Its inferior extremity
+is terminated by a round head in those animals in which the
+ulna is fully developed; in others, as it is atrophied, it ends
+in a thin, long process.</p>
+
+<p>The ulna presents at its superior extremity a posterior
+process, the olecranon, which forms the point of the elbow.
+We find on the anterior surface of the same, another process,
+the coronoid.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig025" id="Fig025"></a>
+<img src="images/illo060a.png" alt="Fig. 25" width="250" height="189" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 25.&mdash;Superior Extremity of
+the Bones of the Human Forearm:
+Left Side, Superior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, olecranon
+process; 4, coronoid process.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig026" id="Fig026"></a>
+<img src="images/illo060b.png" alt="Fig. 26" width="250" height="279" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 26.&mdash;Superior Extremity of
+the Bones of the Forearm of
+the Dog: Left Limb, Superior
+Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, olecranon
+process; 4, coronoid process.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is necessary to dwell on the relations of these parts.
+In man the head of the radius is situated at the anterior
+part of the external surface of the superior extremity of the
+ulna (<a href="#Fig025">Fig. 25</a>); indeed, the small sigmoid cavity with
+which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+the head articulates is situated on the outer side of the
+coronoid process, and this apophysis is placed in front.
+In the plantigrades and digitigrades the head of the radius
+is placed still more forward, so much so that it is situated
+almost in front of the superior extremity of the ulna (<a href="#Fig026">Fig. 26</a>).
+In the unguligrades it is placed directly in front of this
+latter (<a href="#Fig027">Fig. 27</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig027" id="Fig027"></a>
+<img src="images/illo061.png" alt="Fig. 27" width="300" height="376" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 27.&mdash;Superior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of
+the Horse: Left Limb, Superior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, olecranon process; 4, coronoid process.</p></div>
+
+<p>Further, the displacement of the radius is made at the
+expense of the superior extremity of the neighbouring bone;
+the radius appears to appropriate more and more the parts
+which in man belong exclusively to the ulna&mdash;for example,
+the coronoid process. In the plantigrades and the digitigrades
+half of the process still belongs to the ulna and the
+remainder to the radius. In the ungulates&mdash;the horse, for
+example&mdash;the coronoid process belongs to the radius; the
+ulna, situated behind the latter, is correspondingly diminished
+in size.</p>
+
+<p>In brief, when we study this region of the skeleton in
+plantigrades, then in digitigrades, and finally in unguligrades,
+we find a kind of progressive absorption of one of the two
+bones (ulna) by the other (radius), which thus becomes the
+more developed.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to explain this partial disappearance of the
+ulna. When the forearm is capable of performing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+movements of pronation and supination, the ulna is completely
+developed, for it is in its small sigmoid cavity that
+the head of the radius revolves, and it is around its inferior
+extremity, the head, that the corresponding extremity of
+the radius turns. But when the movements of rotation
+of the forearm do not exist, the inferior extremity of the
+ulna becomes functionally useless and disappears. As to
+its r&ocirc;le in the movements of the region of the wrist,
+that is nil, for we may remember&mdash;we will observe it again
+when we come to treat of the <a href="#ArticAnterLimbs">articulations</a>&mdash;that the hand
+articulates with the radius alone (radio-carpal articulation);
+this is the reason that, when the forearm possesses the
+fullest mobility, the hand follows the movements which
+that bone makes around the ulna.</p>
+
+<p>It is not so with the articulation at the elbow-joint; there
+it is the ulna, which, with the humerus, forms the essential
+parts (humero-ulnar articulation); its olecranon process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+limits the movement of extension of the forearm. It is for
+this reason that, even in those quadrupeds in which the ulna
+is atrophied, the olecranon process presents a relatively
+considerable degree of development.</p>
+
+<p>We know that on the posterior surface of the inferior
+extremity of the bones of the human forearm are grooves
+in which pass the tendons of the posterior and external<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+muscles which, belonging to this region, are directed for
+insertion towards the hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig028" id="Fig028"></a>
+<img src="images/illo062a.png" alt="Fig. 28" width="300" height="282" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 28.&mdash;Inferior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of a
+Man: Left Side, Posterior Surface, Position of Supination.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; A, groove for the long abductor and short extensor
+muscles of the thumb; B, groove for the radial muscles; C, groove for the
+long extensor of the thumb; D, groove for the special extensor of the index
+finger and of the common extensor of the fingers; E, groove for the proper
+extensor of the little finger; F, groove for the posterior ulna.</p></div>
+
+<p>In animals, because of the movement of rotation of the
+radius, the surface of this bone, which is anterior, corresponds
+to the posterior surface of the same in man. (To
+possess a clear conception of this, it is necessary to remember
+that, in this latter, the bones of the forearm are always
+described as in the position of supination; they are thus
+represented in <a href="#Fig028">Fig. 28</a>. The direction of the surfaces of
+the radius is the reverse of that in animals, since the latter
+have the radius always in a state of pronation.)</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig029" id="Fig029"></a>
+<img src="images/illo062b.png" alt="Fig. 29" width="250" height="322" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 29.&mdash;Inferior Extremity of the Bones of the Forearm of the
+Dog: Left Side, Anterior Surface, Normal Position&mdash;that
+is, the Position of Pronation.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; A, groove for the long abductor and for the short
+extensor of the thumb; B, groove for the radials; D, groove for the long
+extensor of the thumb, the special extensor of the index-finger, and the
+common extensor of the fingers; E, groove for the special extensor of the
+little finger.</p></div>
+
+<p>Consequently it is on the anterior surface of the bone that
+we find the grooves concerning which it is necessary to give
+some details. Regarding them in passing from the radius
+towards the ulna, those grooves give passage to the tendons
+of the muscles whose names occupy the columns on <a href="#Page_43">p. 43</a>.
+The letters which are referred to each serve to define their
+order, and to facilitate reference to <a href="#Fig028">Figs. 28</a>, <a href="#Fig029">29</a>, and <a href="#Fig030">30</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig030" id="Fig030"></a>
+<img src="images/illo063.png" alt="Fig. 30" width="300" height="245" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 30.&mdash;Inferior Extremity of the Bone of the Forearm of the
+Horse: Left Side, Anterior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; A, groove for the long abductor and the short extensor of
+the thumb; B, groove for the radials; D, groove for the common extensor
+of the digits; E, groove for the special extensor of the little finger.</p></div>
+
+<p>We should mention that the groove E is situated, both in
+man and in the dog, at the level of the inferior radio-ulnar
+articulation; but that in the horse, as the ulna does not
+exist at that level, the groove is situated on the external
+surface of the inferior extremity of the radius. It is necessary
+to add that, in some horses, the ulna is, nevertheless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+represented in this region by a tongue-like process of bone;
+and in such cases the groove is situated in front of this
+process, at the level of the line of coalescence, which there
+represents the articulation.</p>
+
+<table class="fsize80" style="margin: 2em 5%;" summary="Table page 43">
+
+<tr class="bt bb">
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br"><span class="smcap">Man.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br"><span class="smcap">Dog.</span></td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1"><span class="smcap">Horse.</span></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">A.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br" style="width: 30%;">Long abductor of the thumb, and short extensor of the thumb.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">A.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br" style="width: 30%;">Long abductor of the thumb and short extensor of the thumb united as one muscle,
+<i>the oblique extensor of the metacarpus</i>.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11"
+class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">A.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1" style="width: 30%;"><i>Oblique extensor of the metacarpus</i>, the homologue of the long abductor of the
+thumb and the short extensor of the thumb, united as one muscle.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">B.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">First and second external radials (<i>extensor carpi radialis longior</i> and <i>brevior</i>).</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">B.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">The two radials blended superiorly, distinct inferiorly; this is <i>the anterior extensor of the
+metacarpus</i>.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">B.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">The radials represented by a single muscle, <i>the anterior extensor of the metacarpus</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">C.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">Long extensor of the thumb.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">C.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">Long extensor of the thumb and special extensor of the index finger united superiorly. These muscles pass
+in the following groove.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">C.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">The long extensor of the thumb and the special extensor of the index are absent.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">D.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">Special extensor of the index finger and the common extensor of the fingers.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">D.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">Common extensor of the digits and the two preceding muscles.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">D.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1"><i>Anterior extensor of the phalanges</i>, the homologue of the common extensor of the digits.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">E.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">Special extensor of the little finger.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">E.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br"><i>Extensor of the third, fourth, and fifth digits</i>, or <i>the lateral extensor of the digits</i>, the
+homologue of the special extensor of the little finger.</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">E.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1">Lateral extensor of the phalanges, the homologue of the special extensor of the little finger.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class="bb">
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">F.</td>
+<td class="left top padr1 br">The posterior ulnar (<i>extensor carpi ulnaris</i>).</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top padl1 padr1">There does not exist on the forearm a groove for the posterior ulnar muscle, or <i>external
+flexor of the metacarpus</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+The words printed in italics are the names used in veterinary
+anatomy.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is also useful to note, with reference to the groove F,
+in which passes, in man, the tendon of the posterior ulnar
+muscle, that, when the forearm is in pronation, the radius
+alone being displaced, we can only see this groove on the
+surface which looks backwards; and that it is then separated
+from the groove which contains the tendon of the special
+extensor of the little finger by an interval equal to the thickness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+of the head of the ulna.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> When
+the forearm is supinated,
+the two grooves are found, on the other hand, one
+beside the other: and the tendons which they contain are
+very naturally in contact.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+&Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;Shape of the Region of the Wrist in Supination and
+Pronation&#8217; (<i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&#8217;Anthropologie</i>, Paris, 1888).</p></div>
+
+<p>In birds the forearm is flexed on the arm, and the latter
+being directed downwards and backwards, the former is,
+consequently, directed upwards and forwards. Further,
+because of the position of the humerus, which, as we mentioned
+on <a href="#Page_32">p. 32</a>, has its inferior extremity so turned that
+the surface which is anterior in man becomes external, the
+radius, instead of being outside the ulna, is placed above it.
+This latter is larger than the radius, but its olecranon process
+is very slightly developed.</p>
+
+<h5>The Hand</h5>
+
+<p>The hand in animals, as in man, is formed of three parts&mdash;the
+carpus, metacarpus, and fingers. In man, the forearm
+and the hand being described in the position of supination;
+the bones of the carpus are named in passing from the most
+external to the most internal&mdash;that is to say, from that
+which corresponds to the radial side of the forearm to that
+which corresponds to the ulnar side. In animals in which,
+as we know, but it is not unprofitable to repeat, the hand
+is in pronation, the radial side of the forearm being placed
+inside, we enumerate the carpal bones in counting the
+most internal as the first; this is the only method which
+permits us, in taking our point of departure from the human
+skeleton as our standard, to recognise the homologies of the
+bones of the carpal region.</p>
+
+<p>These bones, eight in number, are arranged in two transverse
+rows, of which one, the first, is superior or anti-brachial;
+the other, the second, is inferior or metacarpal.
+Each of these rows contains four bones. Considered in
+the order we have indicated above&mdash;that is to say, proceeding
+from the radial to the ulnar side&mdash;they are thus named:
+scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, and pisiform, in the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+row; trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform, in
+the second. The number of these bones is not the same
+in all animals on account of the coalescence or absence of
+some. In each row the bones are placed side by side, with
+the exception of the pisiform, which being placed on the
+palmar surface of the cuneiform, produces a small projection
+in man, but a very pronounced one in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>The pisiform is called the <i>hooked bone</i> in some veterinary
+anatomies. If we consider the hook which it forms, we
+may recognise that the name is appropriate; but from
+the point of view of comparison with the human carpus,
+the name is unfortunate, for it creates confusion between
+the true pisiform (the fourth bone in the upper row), and
+the last bone in the lower row, which is the veritable unciform
+bone. We do not here seek for similarity of form, but
+homology of regions; and it is only by using the same
+names to denote the same things that we can succeed in
+determining such homology.</p>
+
+<p>Taken as a whole, the bones of the carpus form a mass
+which, by its superior border, articulates with the bones
+of the forearm, and by its inferior border is in relation with
+the metacarpal region. Its dorsal surface (anterior in
+quadrupeds) is slightly convex; its palmar surface (posterior
+in quadrupeds) is excavated, and forms a groove in
+which pass the tendons of the flexors of the fingers. This
+last, in man, has the appearance of a gutter, because of the
+prominences caused by the projection of the internal and
+external bones beyond their fellows.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds the palmar groove is especially determined
+by the pisiform bone, of which we have just mentioned the
+great development.</p>
+
+<p>The region occupied by the carpus, in the unguligrades,
+is known as the <i>knee</i>; it would have been more appropriately
+named had it been called the <i>wrist</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The number of the metacarpal bones in mammals never
+exceeds five, but it often falls below it; the same is true
+for the digits. The first are generally equal in number to
+the latter; an exception is met with in ruminants, whose
+two metacarpals coalescing soon after birth, form but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+one bone; this, the <i>canon</i> bone, articulates with two
+digits.</p>
+
+<p>The number of metacarpals and digits diminishes in proportion
+as the limbs cease to be organs of prehension, and
+become more exclusively organs of support and locomotion.</p>
+
+<p>The number of phalanges is two for the thumb and three
+for each of the other digits; except in the cetaceans, in
+which they are more numerous.</p>
+
+<p>In the bat, the metacarpals and phalanges are very long,
+and form the skeleton of the wing; these phalanges are
+not furnished with nails; the thumb, which is very short,
+is alone provided with one (<a href="#Fig008">Fig. 8</a>).</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the relative dimensions of the bones of
+the metacarpus, it is necessary to remember that, in the
+human being, the second metacarpal is the longest; then,
+in the order of decrease, come the third, fourth, fifth, and
+first. In quadrupeds we shall also find differences in
+length (see the chapter relating to the anterior limbs in
+certain animals), but the order of decrease is not always
+that which we have just mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>In man the articular surface, situated at the inferior extremity
+of each of the metacarpals, is rounded, and is
+called the head. This allows the first phalanx, which is
+in relation with that surface, to be displaced in every
+direction; indeed, this phalanx can not only be flexed and
+extended, but it can also be moved laterally; this latter
+movement allows of the fingers being separated and drawn
+together.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds which can only perform the movements of
+flexion and extension of the digits&mdash;for example, the horse&mdash;the
+inferior extremity of the metacarpal has not a rounded
+head of a regular outline; it is marked by a prominent
+median crest, directed from before backwards, so that the
+articular surfaces, which fit more exactly, form a sort of hinge
+which allows of backward and forward movements only, and
+permits no lateral displacement. In man, at the level of the
+inferior extremity of the first metacarpal, in the vicinity of the
+articulation of this bone with the first phalanx of the thumb,
+we find two sesamoid bones&mdash;small bones developed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+the fibrous tissue which surrounds the articulation. We
+also meet with such structures, but more rarely, at the level
+of the corresponding articulation of the index and auricular
+digits; and, more rarely still, at those of the middle and
+ring fingers. In quadrupeds, these bones are normally
+developed, and we shall see afterwards that in some
+animals, as they reach a considerable size, they are able to
+influence the external outlines; we shall see this, for example,
+in the horse.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig031" id="Fig031"></a>
+<img src="images/illo068.png" alt="Fig. 31" width="450" height="248" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 31.&mdash;Skeleton of the Superior Limb of a Bird (Vulture):
+Left Side, External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Humerus; 2, radius; 3, ulna; 4, radial bone of the carpus; 5, ulnar
+bone of the carpus; 6, first metacarpal; 7, second metacarpal; 8, third
+metacarpal; 9, first digit, the homologue of the thumb; 10, first phalanx
+of the second digit; 11, second phalanx of the second digit; 12, third
+digit.</p></div>
+
+<p>The hand, in birds, is directed obliquely downwards and
+backwards (<a href="#Fig031">Fig. 31</a>). For the better understanding of its
+position in relation to the forearm, we should remember
+that this latter, as we have described (<a href="#Page_44">p. 44</a>), directed
+obliquely upwards and forwards, has the radius placed
+above the ulna; the hand being oblique in the opposite
+direction and placed under the forearm is, by this arrangement,
+inclined towards the ulnar border of the latter.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig032" id="Fig032"></a>
+<img src="images/illo069.png" alt="Fig. 32" width="450" height="330" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 32.&mdash;Superior Limb of the Human Being, the Different
+Segments being placed in the Attitude which the Corresponding
+Parts occupy in Birds: Left Side, External Surface.</p></div>
+
+<p>For the rest, in order to be able to distinguish readily the
+corresponding parts in the hand of a bird and that of a man,
+we merely have to place the human forearm obliquely, in a
+direction upwards and forwards (<a href="#Fig032">Fig. 32</a>), the radius being
+above; this position we can obtain by semi-pronation;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+then, to incline strongly the hand downwards and backwards,
+moving the ulnar border of the hand towards
+the ulna; the thumb is then anterior, the little finger
+posterior, and the palm of the hand is turned towards the
+trunk.</p>
+
+<p>The carpus in birds is formed by two bones only, with
+which the skeleton of the forearm articulates. That
+which is in contact with the radius is called the <i>radial bone
+of the carpus</i>; and that with which the ulna articulates
+is named the <i>ulnar bone</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The metacarpus is formed of three bones; the first,
+which is very short, is fused at its superior extremity with
+the adjoining one; this latter and the third, both longer than
+the first, but of unequal size, are fused at their extremities.
+The metacarpal, which articulates with the radial bone of
+the carpus, is larger than the one which is in line with the
+ulna. To the metacarpus succeed three digits, of which the
+central is the longest, and is formed of two phalanges; the
+other two are formed each by a small, stylet-shaped bone.
+The middle finger, situated on the prolongation of the
+metacarpal, which articulates with the radial bone of the
+carpus, has its first phalanx large and flattened transversely;
+this phalanx seems to have been formed by the union of
+two bones of unequal development; the second phalanx<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+is styloid in form. As to the other two fingers, they are
+placed, one in front and the other behind; the first, which
+articulates with the short metacarpal, fused at its upper
+end with the principal bone of the metacarpus, in position
+represents the thumb. The other, which is the third
+finger, articulates with the inferior extremity of the thinnest
+bone of the metacarpus; it is sometimes closely united
+to the corresponding border of the first phalanx of the large&mdash;that
+is to say, of the median&mdash;digit.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="LongerHumerus" id="LongerHumerus"></a>The Anterior Limbs in Certain Animals</h5>
+
+<p><b>Plantigrades: Bear</b> (<a href="#Fig033">Fig. 33</a>).&mdash;The scapula of the bear
+approaches in shape to a trapezium, of which the angles
+have been rounded off. The anterior border (cervical) is
+strongly convex in the part next the glenoid cavity. The
+junction of the superior (spinal) and the cervical border
+forms almost a right angle, the summit of which corresponds
+to the origin of the spine. At its posterior angle
+there is a prominence, directed downwards, the surface of
+which is hollowed and is separated from the infraspinous
+fossa by a crest, so that at this level a third fossa is added to
+the infraspinous one. The neck of the scapula is but slightly
+marked. The acromion is prominent, and projects a little
+beyond the glenoid cavity.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig033" id="Fig033"></a>
+<img src="images/illo071.png" alt="Fig. 33" width="600" height="373" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 33.&mdash;Skeleton of the Bear: Left Lateral Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1. Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, fourteenth and
+last dorsal vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebr&aelig;; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebr&aelig;; 11, sternum; 12, ninth and last
+sternal rib; 13, costal cartilages; 14, acromion process; 15, third fossa on the external surface of the scapula;
+16, great tuberosity of the humerus; 17, musculo-spiral groove; 18, epicondyle; 19, radius; 20, ulna; 21,
+olecranon process; 22, carpus; 23, pisiform; 24, metacarpus; 25, phalanges; 26, ilium, external fossa;
+27, pubis; 28, tuberosity of the ischium; 29, obturator foramen; 30, great trochanter of the femur; 31,
+condyles of the femur; 32, patella, or knee-cap; 33, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 34, fibula; 35, tarsus;
+36, calcaneum, or heel-bone; 37, metatarsus; 38, phalanges.</p></div>
+
+<p>The clavicle is rudimentary, but, as an example of the
+complete development of this bone in plantigrade quadrupeds,
+we may cite the marmoset.</p>
+
+<p>The humerus is furnished at its superior extremity with a
+large tuberosity, wide, and situated in front of the head of
+the bone; the effect of this is that the bicipital groove is
+internal. As in man, the great tuberosity does not reach so
+high as the humeral head, but it approaches more nearly
+to that level. The deltoid impression is very extensive,
+and descends pretty far down on the body of the bone. The
+epitrochlea is prominent; the epicondyle is surmounted by
+a well-marked crest, curved and flexuous in outline.</p>
+
+<p>The articular surface, which is in contact with the
+radius, is not a regularly formed condyle; it is a little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+flattened on its anterior surface, and presents at this level
+a slight depression which corresponds to a small eminence
+on the anterior aspect of the superior extremity of the
+radius. The surface which articulates with the ulna, viewed
+on its anterior aspect, has the shape of a slightly-marked
+trochlea; except at the level of the internal lip, which, as
+in man, descends lower than the surface for articulation
+with the radius (condyle). Behind, the trochlea is more
+clearly defined.</p>
+
+<p>The bear possesses a considerable power of rotation of
+the radius; the bones of the forearm are joined only at
+their extremities, while in the remainder of their extent
+they are widely separated. The ulna terminates below in
+a head and a styloid process; these articulate with the two
+last bones of the first row of the carpus&mdash;viz., the cuneiform
+and pisiform. The bones of the carpus are seven
+in number, the scaphoid and the semilunar being fused
+together.</p>
+
+<p>The metacarpals, five in number, differ very little from
+one another in regard to length, though they increase in
+size from the first to the fifth; this may be demonstrated
+by looking at the palmar surface of the hand. It is the
+reverse of that which we find in man, for the fifth metacarpal
+is the thickest of all, and the first is the most
+slender.</p>
+
+<p>At the level of each metacarpo-phalangeal articulation
+are two sesamoid bones.</p>
+
+<p>The third digit is the longest. The terminal phalanges
+present two very different portions: one, the anterior, is
+curved and pointed; it serves to support the nail, whose
+shape it assumes; the other, posterior, forms a sort of
+sheath into which the base of the nail is received.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior portion of the posterior surface of this latter
+part articulates with the second phalanx in the case of
+each of the last four digits, but with the first phalanx in
+the case of the thumb.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig034" id="Fig034"></a>
+<img src="images/illo073.png" alt="Fig. 34" width="600" height="421" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 34.&mdash;Skeleton of the Dog: Left Lateral Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, thirteenth
+and last dorsal vertebra; 7, lumbar vertebr&aelig;;
+8, sacrum; 9, coccygeal vertebr&aelig;; 10, anterior extremity of the sternum; 11, xiphoid appendix; 12, ninth and last sternal
+rib; 13, costal cartilages; 14, spinal border of the scapula; 15, supraspinous fossa of the scapula; 16, infraspinous fossa of the
+scapula; 17, great tuberosity of the humerus; 18, deltoid impression; 19, musculo-spiral groove; 20, olecranon process; 21,
+radius; 22, carpus; 23, pisiform; 24, metacarpus; 25, sesamoid bones; 26, phalanges; 27, ilium, iliac crest; 28, pubis;
+29, tuberosity of the ischium; 30, great trochanter of the femur; 31, patella, or knee-cap; 32, anterior tuberosity of the tibia;
+33, fibula; 34, tarsus; 35, calcaneum, or heel-bone; 36, metatarsus; 37, sesamoid bones; 38, phalanges.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Digitigrades: Cat</b>, <b>Dog</b> (<a href="#Fig034">Fig. 34</a>).&mdash;In these animals the
+anterior (cervical) border of the scapula is convex; the
+posterior (axillary) border is straight or slightly concave.
+The supraspinous and infraspinous foss&aelig; are of equal extent
+(<a href="#Fig035">Figs. 35</a> and <a href="#Fig036">36</a>). The neck is short. The spine of the
+scapula becomes more and more prominent towards its
+inferior extremity, where it ends in a twisted and inflexed
+portion, which represents the acromion process; this process
+terminates at the level of the glenoid cavity. The
+coracoid process is represented by a small tubercle, slightly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+curved inwards; this tubercle is situated above the glenoid
+cavity, at the inferior part of the cervical border.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig035" id="Fig035"></a>
+<img src="images/illo074a.png" alt="Fig. 35" width="300" height="313" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 35.&mdash;Scapula of the Dog: Left Side, External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Posterior or axillary border; 2, superior or spinal border; 3, anterior
+or cervical border; 4, spine of scapula; 5, coracoid process; AA&#8242;, length
+of spinal border.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig036" id="Fig036"></a>
+<img src="images/illo074b.png" alt="Fig. 36" width="300" height="224" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 36.&mdash;Left Scapula of the Cat: External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Posterior or axillary border; 2, superior or spinal border; 3, anterior
+or cervical border; 4, spine of the scapula; 5, coracoid process; AA&#8242;,
+length of the spinal border.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the dog, the posterior angle, formed by the junction
+of the axillary and the superior (spinal) borders, is obtuse;
+the spine rises perpendicularly from the surface of the bone.
+The width of the scapula, measured at the level of the
+spinal border (from A to A&#8242;, <a href="#Fig035">Fig. 35</a>), equals about half the
+length of the spine. We must, however, make an exception
+for the turnspit dog, in which the superior border
+equals three-fourths of that length. The scapula is, in this
+case, of a more compact type; it is broader, but shorter.
+In the cat, the anterior outline of the scapula, formed by
+the union of the cervical border and the corresponding half
+of the spinal, is more convex; the posterior angle is not
+obtuse, as in the dog. The spine is bent slightly downwards
+and backwards; before terminating in the acromion
+process it presents a triangular projection, the apex
+of which is directed downwards. The tubercle which represents
+the coracoid process is curved inwards more
+strongly than that of the dog, thus resembling more
+closely the appearance of this process in the human
+being.</p>
+
+<p>All proportions considered, the scapula of the cat is
+broader than that of the dog; its width, measured along
+the length of its spinal border (from A to A&#8242;, <a href="#Fig036">Fig. 36</a>),
+equals three-fourths of the length of the spine.</p>
+
+<p>The clavicle is rudimentary; it is, however, better developed
+in the cat than in the dog. The clavicle of the cat
+is represented by a small, elongated bone, curved in outline,
+the convexity being turned forward; it is united to
+the acromion and the sternum by ligamentous fibres; that
+of the dog is merely a scale-like osseous plate situated on
+the posterior surface of a muscle of this region (see <a href="#Fig016">Figs. 16</a>
+and <a href="#Fig017">17</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The humerus is long and twisted in the shape of an S. The
+inferior articular surface has the form of a simple pulley,
+for the condyle is very slightly marked. The internal part
+of this articular surface descends lower than the external;
+this condition resembles that found in the human being,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+where the inner lip of the trochlea is lower than the
+condyle.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, the olecranon fossa communicates with the
+coronoid by an opening.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat, there is a supra-epitrochlear canal (see <a href="#Fig019">Fig. 19</a>),
+but no olecranon perforation.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the forearm articulate at their extremities.
+The body of the radius is united to the body of the ulna by
+a short, thick, interosseous ligament; the fibres of this
+ligament, though short, do not prevent the production of
+some movements at the articulations of the bones.</p>
+
+<p>The radius so crosses the ulna that above, it is in
+front and external to the latter, while below, it is internal.
+This bone is flattened from front to back, and slightly
+convex anteriorly. Its superior extremity is formed,
+externally, of a portion which represents the head of the
+radius in man; internally, by another portion which
+represents half of the coronoid process of the ulna, which,
+in the human being, belongs exclusively to the latter (see
+<a href="#Page_39">p. 39</a>, the encroachment of the radius on the ulna). This
+extremity is surrounded with a vertical articular surface
+which is placed in contact with a small cavity which is
+hollowed out on the ulna (the lesser sigmoid cavity); and
+presents at its superior aspect a surface which articulates
+with the inferior extremity of the humerus. The shaft of
+the bone has on its internal border rugosities analogous to
+the imprint of the pronator radii teres of the human skeleton;
+these rugosities, indeed, give insertion to a muscle of the
+same function, and bearing the same name. The inferior
+extremity, broader than the superior, is hollowed on its
+external aspect by a small cavity which receives the inferior
+extremity of the ulna; its inferior surface (concave)
+articulates with the carpus; its anterior surface (the homologue
+of the posterior surface of the corresponding extremity
+of the human radius) presents grooves which serve for
+the passage of the tendons of the muscles which pass
+from the forearm to the back of the hand. (For the
+names of the muscles whose tendons pass in these grooves,
+see <a href="#Fig029">Fig. 29</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>The ulna is furnished at its superior extremity with an
+olecranon process, which is more prominent than that of
+the human ulna; this process is compressed laterally, and
+its internal surface is hollowed; there we also find a great
+sigmoid cavity, and a coronoid process situated at the
+internal part of the anterior surface, a process which, as we
+have previously shown, it shares with the radius.</p>
+
+<p>The shaft of the bone, prismatic and triangular, diminishes
+in thickness as it approaches the lower extremity, which
+articulates with the corresponding extremity of the radius.
+In the dog, the ulna terminates inferiorly in a blunt point,
+without enlargement, analogous to the head of the human
+ulna; in the cat, by a head which is prolonged into a
+styloid process, by which it articulates with a portion of
+the carpus.</p>
+
+<p>The carpus consists of seven bones&mdash;three in the superior
+row and four in the inferior. In the superior row the
+scaphoid and semilunar bones are fused together. The
+pisiform is elongated and expanded at its two extremities;
+it forms a prominence which, directed backwards, projects
+beyond the level of the other bones of this region.</p>
+
+<p>The metacarpal bones are five in number; they are enumerated
+from within outwards; they articulate with the carpus
+and with each other. The inferior extremity of each metacarpal
+bone presents the form of a condyle in front; and is
+divided behind so as to form two lateral condyles, which are
+separated by a median crest; on these posterior condyles
+are applied two small sesamoid bones. The metacarpal
+bone of the thumb is very short; the third and fourth are
+the longest. The metacarpus, as a whole, is directed vertically.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig037" id="Fig037"></a>
+<img src="images/illo078.png" alt="Fig. 37" width="400" height="337" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 37.&mdash;Skeleton of the Finger of a Felide (Lion): Left Side,
+Internal Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Metacarpus; 2, sesamoid bones; 3, first phalanx; 4, second phalanx;
+5, third phalanx; 6, gutter for the reception of the base of the nail; 7,
+prominent osseous crest formed to lodge in the concavity of the nail.</p></div>
+
+<p>The phalanges are three in number for each finger, except
+the thumb, which has but two. The first phalanx, directed
+almost horizontally forwards, is the longest; the second is
+directed downwards and forwards; the third consists of
+two portions: a posterior part, which forms a sort of sheath
+into which the base of the nail is received; and an anterior,
+conical in form, and curved in crochet shape, which forms a
+support for the nail (<a href="#Fig037">Fig. 37</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>The third and fourth digits are the longest; the second
+and fifth are of equal length; the thumb is the shortest;
+it does not touch the ground, and does not even reach the
+articulation of the metacarpal bone and first phalanx of the
+second finger.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat, the metacarpal bone of the thumb, although
+shorter than any of the others, is quite as thick. The
+third digit is a little longer than either the second or
+fourth. In animals of this genus, the claws, in the condition
+of repose, are retracted, and removed from the
+ground; this prevents their being worn, and thus preserves
+their sharpness. At such times the third phalanx
+is received into a groove which is found on the external
+surface of the second phalanx. In the dog, the claws are
+not tractile.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig038" id="Fig038"></a>
+<img src="images/illo079.png" alt="Fig. 38" width="600" height="344" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 38.&mdash;Skeleton of the Pig: Left Lateral Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra;
+6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, fourteenth and last dorsal
+vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebr&aelig;; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebr&aelig;; 11, anterior extremity of the sternum; 12, xiphoid
+appendix; 13, seventh and last sternal rib; 14, costal cartilage; 15, cartilage of prolongation of the scapula; 16, great
+tuberosity of the humerus; 17, olecranon process; 18, radius; 19, ulna; 20, pisiform; 21, metacarpus; 22, phalanges of
+the two great toes; 23, phalanges of the external toe; 24, ilium; 25, pubis; 26, tuberosity of the ischium; 27, great
+trochanter; 28, knee-cap; 29, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 30, fibula; 31, tarsus; 32, calcaneum; 33, metatarsus;
+34, phalanges of the two great toes; 35, phalanges of the external toe.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span><b>Unguligrades</b>:
+<b>Pig</b> (<a href="#Fig038">Fig. 38</a>).&mdash;The scapula is markedly
+narrowed in the region above the glenoid cavity. The
+spine is atrophied at both its extremities, so that at its
+inferior part we do not find the acromion process. In
+its middle portion the spine is prominent, and presents a
+triangular process which turns backwards, overlapping a
+part of the infraspinous fossa; this latter is much larger
+than the supraspinous. The spinal border is surmounted
+by the cartilage of prolongation, the superior margin of
+which is convex; this cartilage extends posteriorly beyond
+the posterior (axillary) border of the bone.</p>
+
+<p>The small tuberosity of the superior extremity of the
+humerus is but slightly developed; the great tuberosity, on
+the contrary, is very large. The bicipital groove is situated
+internal to this. The deltoid impression is scarcely marked.</p>
+
+<p>The forearm is short, directed obliquely downwards and
+inwards, thus forming with the hand an angle, of which the
+apex is directed inwards. The two bones of the forearm
+are strongly bound to one another by an interosseous ligament,
+which is formed of very short fibres. The radius
+appropriates, at its superior extremity, the coronoid
+process of the ulna. The latter is, notwithstanding, well
+developed in the rest of its extent; it has a flattened
+shaft which almost completely overlaps the posterior
+surface of the radius; its inferior extremity reaches to the
+carpus.</p>
+
+<p>The carpus is formed of eight bones&mdash;four in the superior
+row, and four in the inferior. The third bone of the
+superior row (cuneiform) is more in contact with the ulna
+than with the radius.</p>
+
+<p>There are but four metacarpal bones; there is no metacarpal
+of the thumb. The two median metacarpal bones
+are the longest; they are those which correspond to the
+digits which alone touch the ground. The internal digit
+and the external one are thin and short; they are functionless,
+as a rule, taking no part in supporting the limbs on
+the ground. Notwithstanding this, they are formed, as
+the other digits, of a number of phalanges, which give
+them the semblance of perfect digits. (We shall soon see
+that in certain animals there exist digits which, being incomplete
+with regard to the numbers of their constituent
+bones, more accurately merit the name of imperfect
+digits.)</p>
+
+<p>The third phalanges are each enclosed in a horny hoof,
+to which the name of <i>onglon</i> has been given.</p>
+
+<p>We have already drawn attention to the smaller lateral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+digits, and noted the general fact that they do not come in
+contact with the ground. It is necessary to modify this
+statement by adding that under certain conditions they
+give a slight amount of support; for example, when the
+individual is the subject of excessive obesity, the limbs
+yield under the weight, and the nails of the lateral digits
+may touch the ground.</p>
+
+<p>A similar fact may be noticed in pigs of ordinary bulk at
+the moment when, during walking, each of the fore-limbs
+commences to bear the weight&mdash;that is to say, when it is
+directed obliquely downwards and forwards; then all the
+digits are in contact with the ground.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenumpic"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig039" id="Fig039"></a>
+<img src="images/illo082.png" alt="Fig. 39" width="600" height="328" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 39.&mdash;Skeleton of the Ox: Left Lateral Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra;
+6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, thirteenth and last dorsal
+vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebr&aelig;; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebr&aelig;; 11, sternum; 12, xiphoid appendix; 13, eighth and
+last sternal rib; 14, costal cartilages; 15, spine of scapula; 16, cartilage of prolongation of the scapula; 17, great tuberosity
+of the humerus; 18, musculo-spiral groove; 19, olecranon process; 20, radius; 21, carpus; 22, pisiform; 23, metacarpus;
+24, rudimentary metacarpal; 25, sesamoid bones; 26, first phalanges; 27, second phalanges; 28, third phalanges; 29, anterior
+iliac spine; 30, pubis; 31, tuberosity of the ischium; 32, great trochanter; 33, supracondyloid fossa of the femur; 34,
+patella, or knee-cap; 35, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 36, fibula; 37, coronoid tarsal bone; 38, tarsus; 39, calcaneum; 40,
+metatarsus; 41, rudimentary metatarsus; 42, sesamoid bones; 43, first phalanges; 44, second phalanges; 45, third phalanges.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Unguligrades (Ungulates): Sheep</b>, <b>Ox</b> (<a href="#Fig039">Fig. 39</a>).&mdash;The
+scapula, which is of elongated form, is very narrow in the
+vicinity of the glenoid cavity. The spine, which becomes
+more and more salient towards its inferior part, terminates
+abruptly in a border, which, forming an acute angle with the
+crest, produces a projection which represents the acromion
+process&mdash;a very rudimentary acromion, for it does not reach
+the level of the glenoid cavity. The supraspinous fossa is
+much smaller than the infraspinous; it hardly equals one-third
+the extent of the latter. The anterior border, thin and
+convex in its superior portion, is concave in the rest of its
+extent; the posterior border is thick and slightly concave;
+the spinal border is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation.
+In the ox the spine of the scapula, in its middle
+portion, is flexed a little backwards on the infraspinous
+fossa.</p>
+
+<p>The great tuberosity of the humerus is highly developed;
+its summit, very prominent, is flexed over the bicipital
+groove; a prominence of the small tuberosity also bends
+over the groove, with the result that at this level the latter
+is converted into a sort of canal. At the inferior extremity
+the condyle, although not large, is recognisable; for it is
+separated from the trochlea by a depression in form of a
+groove. In contrast to the condition found in man, the
+condyle descends to a level a little below that of the internal
+lip of the trochlea. (For the arrangement of the
+epicondyle and the epitrochlea, see <a href="#Page_30">p. 30</a>.) In
+the sheep,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+the deltoid impression is but slightly marked; in the ox,
+it is more evident.</p>
+
+<p>The forearm is directed obliquely downwards and inwards,
+so as to form, with the hand, an angle of which the
+apex is internal; this angular outline of the <i>knee</i> (wrist) is
+so characteristic of ruminants that the corresponding region
+of the horse, when salient inwards, receives the name of
+<i>ox-knee</i>. The radius bears the coronoid process, and the
+larger part of the articular surface which comes in contact
+with the inferior extremity of the humerus; the condyle
+and the trochlea articulate with the radius in front; while
+behind, the trochlea articulates with that part of the sigmoid
+cavity which belongs to the ulna. The posterior
+surface of the shaft of the radius is flattened; its anterior
+surface is slightly convex. The inferior extremity articulates
+with the carpus by a surface which is directed obliquely
+downwards and inwards. The shaft of the ulna is very
+slender, and fused in its middle third with the body of the
+radius; it terminates below, at the level of the external
+part of the inferior extremity of the radius, by a slightly
+expanded portion which, fused with this latter, forms the
+articular surface for the carpal bones.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox the forearm is short; in the sheep it is proportionally
+longer.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the carpus are six in number&mdash;four in the
+upper row, and two in the lower; they form an irregular
+cuboid mass which contributes to the formation of the
+region known as <i>the knee</i> in ruminants, as in the horse; we
+have already remarked that the name &#8216;wrist&#8217; would be
+more accurate. The anterior surface in its foremost part
+is vertical, and is slightly convex from side to side. At its
+posterior and external part the pisiform bone forms a prominence.</p>
+
+<p>The metacarpus consists of two bones only&mdash;one, well
+developed, which is known as the principal metacarpal, or
+the <i>canon</i> bone (this is the name given to the region in the
+hoofed animals); and a rudimentary one, which is situated
+at the superior and external aspect of the preceding metacarpal.
+Sometimes there is found a third metacarpal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+at the internal aspect; but, when present, it is but very
+slightly developed.</p>
+
+<p>The principal metacarpal consists of two metacarpals
+fused together; on this account the bone is longitudinally
+marked in the median line by a slight depression which
+marks the junction of the two bones of which it is
+formed. In some ruminants (certain species of chevrotains)
+the coalescence does not take place, and the two metacarpals
+remain separate.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior surface of the principal metacarpal is convex
+transversely; its posterior surface is flattened. The superior
+extremity of this bone articulates by two facets with the
+two bones of the inferior row of the carpus; on the internal
+part of the anterior surface of this extremity is found a
+tubercle. The inferior extremity is divided into two parts
+by a fissure or notch; each part is articular, and consists
+of two separate condyles, which are separated from each
+other by an antero-posterior crest; on each side of this
+crest, and behind, are found two sesamoid bones. As for
+the external rudimentary metacarpal bone, it is nothing
+more than a small, short tongue of bone; which, in goats
+and sheep, is often absent.</p>
+
+<p>The division of the inferior extremity of the principal
+metacarpal into two parts is correlated with the two perfect
+digits which give the foot of the ruminant its forked appearance.
+Each digit consists of three phalanges, which are
+directed obliquely downwards and forwards; further, these
+phalanges are inclined a little outwards from the axis of
+the limb, so that the two digits diverge from each other as
+they descend.</p>
+
+<p>The first phalanx, which is the longest, articulates
+superiorly with the principal metacarpal; its inferior
+extremity terminates in a trochlea, and the lip of this,
+which is situated towards the axis of the limb, descends
+lower than that of the opposite side; this arrangement is
+correlated with the divergent direction of the digits. The
+second phalanx has its superior extremity moulded on the
+trochlea which terminates the extremity of the first; its
+inferior extremity is articular, and elongated from before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+backwards. On the posterior surface of this extremity is
+found a sesamoid bone.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the third phalanx, it presents the form
+of a triangular pyramid, and displays a postero-superior
+concave surface with which the second phalanx articulates;
+an anterior, convex surface, which terminates in a point
+on its anterior part; and an internal surface, which is
+flattened. The third phalanx of each digit is contained
+in a hoof (<i>onglon</i>).</p>
+
+<p>There is also found in ruminants two imperfect rudimentary
+digits, which are represented by two small bones
+situated behind the articulation of the metacarpal and the
+digits which we have just been studying. These rudimentary
+digits are each enveloped in a layer of horn; they
+constitute the <i>spurs</i>. The two digits of the ruminants
+represent the third and fourth fingers of the human hand;
+the two lateral digits, greatly atrophied, are the homologues
+of the second and fifth fingers; the thumb is not
+present.</p>
+
+<p>It is the same as regards the metacarpal bones, which form,
+by their union, the principal metacarpal; the external represents
+the fourth metacarpal, and the internal the third. It is
+to the latter that the tubercle, of which we have already
+made mention, belongs; and with the signification of which,
+because it gives attachment to a muscle, we shall concern
+ourselves in the section on myology (see Radial Muscles).</p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig040" id="Fig040"></a>
+<img src="images/illo086.png" alt="Fig. 40" width="600" height="440" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 40.&mdash;Skeleton of the Horse: Left Lateral Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical
+vertebra; 6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, eighteenth and last dorsal vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebr&aelig;;
+9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebr&aelig;; 11, sternum; 12, xiphoid appendix;
+13, eighteenth and last sternal rib; 14, costal cartilage; 15, scapula; 16, cartilage
+of extension; 17, great tuberosity of the humerus; 18, deltoid crest; 19,
+olecranon process; 20, radius; 21, carpus; 22, pisiform; 23, principal metacarpal;
+24, metacarpal, external rudimentary; 25, large sesamoids; 26, first phalanx;
+27, second phalanx; 28, third phalanx; 29, ilium, showing external iliac
+fossa; 30, pubis; 31, tuberosity of the ischium; 32, great trochanter; 33,
+infratrochanteric crest, or third trochanter; 34, supracondyloid fossa of the
+femur; 35, knee-cap; 36, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 37, the fibula; 38,
+tarsus astragalus; 39, calcaneum; 40, principal metatarsal; 41, rudimentary
+external metatarsal; 42, large sesamoids; 43, first phalanx; 44, second phalanx; 45, third phalanx.</p>
+<p class="right fsize80"><i>To face p. 64.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Unguligrades: Horse</b> (<a href="#Fig040">Fig. 40</a>).&mdash;The scapula is narrow,
+compared with that of the animals we have just been considering.
+The anterior border is convex in its superior
+portion, and concave in its inferior; the posterior border
+is slightly hollowed out. The supraspinous fossa is less in
+extent than the infraspinous; but the difference is less than
+that between the same foss&aelig; in the ox and the sheep; in
+the ox, as we have already indicated, the proportion is one-third;
+in the horse, one-half. The spine, which disappears
+at the extremities, is rough and thick in its middle third,
+there forming a kind of tuberosity&mdash;<i>tuberosity of the spine</i>.
+Above and in front of the glenoid cavity is found a strong
+process consisting of a rugous base, and a summit which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+directed inwards. This forms a kind of hook curved
+towards the inside; it represents the coracoid process.
+The scapula is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation,
+of which the superior border, which is thin and curved,
+is parallel to the superior border of the prominence of the
+withers; the cartilage forms, consequently, the lateral
+surface of this region. The cartilage of prolongation
+undergoes ossification in old horses. The humerus is short;
+the bicipital groove, situated on the anterior surface of the
+superior extremity, separates the greater tuberosity from
+the lesser, and is divided into two parts by a median ridge;
+it is this portion of the humerus which forms the prominence
+known as the <i>point of the shoulder</i>, or <i>point of the arm</i>. The
+deltoid impression well deserves the name of tuberosity
+which has been given to it, for it is very prominent; the
+musculo-spiral groove is very deep.</p>
+
+<p>At the inferior extremity, the trochlea is large; the
+portion corresponding to the condyle of the humerus in
+man is, in proportion to the latter, of small extent. The
+olecranon fossa is deep. The epicondyle and the epitrochlea
+are somewhat different from those of the human bone. In
+the latter, the epitrochlea is salient towards the inner side,
+causing an increased transverse diameter of the inferior
+extremity of the humerus. In the horse&mdash;it is the same in
+ruminants&mdash;this tuberosity projects backwards, folds on itself
+in forming the internal boundary of the olecranon cavity,
+and exceeds in diameter, in the antero-posterior direction,
+the prominence of the epicondyle, which presents a nearly
+similar arrangement. This latter has, however, a part
+which, projecting externally, is situated at the inferior
+part of a crest, that forms the posterior boundary of the
+musculo-spiral groove. The result is that, contrary to the
+condition found in the human being, the epicondyle is more
+prominent transversely than the epitrochlea, but this latter
+is more salient on the posterior aspect. The epitrochlea
+and the epicondyle offer a larger surface for the origin of
+muscles of the forearm than the same prominences in the
+human bone do for the analogous muscles of the same
+region.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>Some veterinary anatomists have given to the inferior
+and external articular surface of the humerus the name of
+trochlea; and to the internal one, that of condyle. On
+this account they designate the external prominence as the
+epitrochlea, and the internal one as the epicondyle. In
+addition to the fact that this point of view is not legitimate,
+it produces inevitable confusion when comparing the parts
+with those of the human humerus, and this confusion exists,
+not alone in describing the bone, but also in the description
+of the muscular attachments, and in the comparison of the
+muscles of the forearm of quadrupeds with the corresponding
+muscles in the human species.</p>
+
+<p>The radius is placed in front of the ulna; its body,
+slightly convex forwards, has the anterior surface convex
+transversely, and the posterior surface plane in the same
+direction. It is to the external part of this latter that the
+ulna is applied, which is completely fused with the radius.</p>
+
+<p>The superior extremity of the radius is a little larger than
+the inferior. Its superior aspect, concavo-convex, moulded
+on the inferior articular surface of the humerus, presents
+internally two cavities, which receive the lips of the trochlea,
+and, externally, another, smaller, cavity, which receives the
+condyle. The radius articulates with the trochlea and the
+condyle, having appropriated a portion of the ulna, as is
+proved by the presence of the coronoid process, which belongs
+to the former. This superior extremity presents, internally,
+a tuberosity into which the biceps is inserted; this is the
+bicipital tuberosity; and on the other side is another tuberosity,
+which is a little more prominent than the preceding.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior extremity, which is flattened from before
+backwards, is furrowed on its anterior surface by grooves for
+the passage of muscles (the names of the muscles whose
+tendons pass in these grooves have already been given on
+<a href="#Page_43">p. 43</a>). It articulates at the lower end with the superior
+row of the carpus, and it terminates laterally in tuberosities:
+one, external, on which is found a groove for the tendon of
+the lateral extensor of the phalanges, the homologue of the
+special extensor of the little finger; the other, internal, is a
+little more prominent than the one we have just described.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+These tuberosities are visible under the skin which covers
+the superior and lateral parts of the region known as the
+<i>knee</i>; but which, we again repeat, is no other than the
+wrist.</p>
+
+<p>The ulna has a triangular shaft, situated at the posterior
+surface of the radius, with which it is fused. It disappears
+completely at the level of the inferior third of the forearm.
+Occasionally, in some horses, the ulna is abnormally long,
+in the form of a slender tongue of bone; and extends to the
+neighbourhood of the external tuberosity of the inferior
+extremity of the radius (see <a href="#Fig079">Fig. 79</a>, p. 196). Its superior
+extremity is chiefly represented by the olecranon process,
+which is voluminous in bulk, and forms the projection known
+as the point of the elbow. This process is flattened laterally;
+its internal surface is excavated; the anterior surface, which
+is concave, forms a part of the great sigmoid cavity; the
+remainder of the cavity is formed by the radius.</p>
+
+<p>In the ass, the ulna is a little longer than in the horse&mdash;that
+is to say, it descends lower; and the radius is a little
+more convex anteriorly.</p>
+
+<p>The carpal bones are seven in number&mdash;four in the superior
+row, and three in the inferior. The trapezium is wanting in
+the latter. Sometimes, however, in certain varieties of horses
+the trapezium is developed, but then it is no more than a very
+small osseous nodule. The pisiform bone, situated at the
+external part of the first row of bone, is prominent posteriorly.
+It is of rounder form and flattened from without
+inwards. It articulates with the trapezium and the radius.
+It presents, on its external surface, a groove for the passage of
+the tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle, which is named by
+veterinary anatomists the <i>external flexor of the metacarpus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The carpus, as a whole, is of an irregularly cuboid shape;
+its anterior surface, slightly convex from side to side, forms
+the skeleton of the region of the <i>knee</i> (wrist). The metacarpus
+is formed of three bones: the principal metacarpal
+and the two rudimentary ones.</p>
+
+<p>The principal metacarpal, which forms the region of the
+<i>canon</i>, is directed vertically; its anterior surface is slightly
+convex transversely. This surface is covered by a number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+of tendons, which slightly alter its appearance; so that it is
+the principal base of this part of the fore-limb. Its posterior
+surface is flattened. The superior extremity of this metacarpal
+presents plane surfaces, variously inclined, with which the
+bones of the inferior row of the carpus articulate. On the
+anterior surface, and a little to the inner side, is found a
+tuberosity, which is destined for the insertion of <i>the anterior
+extensor of the metacarpus</i>, the homologue of the radial
+muscles. The inferior extremity is formed by two condyles,
+an internal and an external; between which is found a
+median crest.</p>
+
+<p>This extremity, the superior extremity of the first phalanx,
+which articulates with it, together with two sesamoid bones&mdash;the
+great sesamoids&mdash;which are situated on its posterior
+surface, collectively form the region which from its rounded
+outlines is called the <i>ball</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the rudimentary metacarpals, external
+and internal, to which some authors give the name of <i>fibul&aelig;</i>,
+they are applied to the sides of the posterior surface of the
+principal metacarpal. They are elongated bones, of which
+the superior extremity, which is a little thickened, is called
+the <i>head</i>; the lateral bones of the second row of the
+carpus partly rest on the heads of these. They become
+more slender as they descend, and terminate opposite
+the inferior fourth of the principal metacarpal. Each ends
+in a slight swelling, to which the name <i>button</i> has been
+given. The internal one is the better developed.</p>
+
+<p>The rudimentary metacarpals are vestiges of atrophied
+digits, as will be explained <a href="#RudimMetaCarp">further on</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The single finger of the horse consists of three phalanges.
+The first phalanx, which is directed obliquely downwards
+and forwards, corresponds to the constricted region situated
+below the &#8216;ball,&#8217; and known as the <i>pastern</i>. It is flattened
+from before backwards; its anterior surface is convex transversely,
+while the posterior surface is plane. Its superior
+extremity is moulded on the inferior extremity of the
+principal metacarpal, and its inferior extremity, which is
+smaller, presents a trochlea with which the second phalanx
+articulates. This is also directed downwards and forwards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+and is shorter. It corresponds to the region which, situated
+between the pastern and the hoof, is known as the <i>cornet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The third phalanx, situated entirely within the hoof,
+has the same direction as the first and second. It is
+large and broad, and presents three surfaces separated by
+well-marked angular borders (see <a href="#Fig096">Fig. 96</a>). The anterior
+surface is oblique downwards and forwards; it is convex
+transversely. The inferior surface is slightly hollowed,
+and is in relation with the sole, or plantar surface of the
+hoof.</p>
+
+<p>The superior surface, which is articular, is divided by a
+median ridge into two lateral cavities, which correspond to
+the trochlea on the inferior surface of the lower extremity
+of the second phalanx. The inferior border corresponds
+in shape with the hoof. The superior border presents
+in its median part a projection, <i>the pyramidal eminence</i>,
+which prolongs at this level the anterior surface of the bone.
+Finally, the posterior border, which is concave, is in contact
+with a sesamoid bone, <i>the lesser sesamoid</i>, which increases
+the superior articular surface behind, and is also in contact
+with the second phalanx.</p>
+
+<p><a name="RudimMetaCarp" id="RudimMetaCarp"></a>As we have just seen, the horse possesses but one digit.
+In the ancestors of the animal&mdash;that is, in the prehistoric
+species which are now extinct (<i>orohippus</i>, <i>miohippus</i>, <i>protohippus</i>,
+or <i>hipparion</i>)&mdash;the number of digits was larger; this
+fact conclusively proves that the rudimentary metacarpals of
+the existing horse are vestiges of digits which have disappeared
+through want of use. In the first of those ancestors&mdash;orohippus&mdash;there
+were four digits; all save the first, the
+thumb, being then developed. In the others of the series
+there existed but three digits. It must, however, be noted
+that in those animals it is always the digit which corresponds
+to the middle finger of the pentedactyl hand that is longest.
+In other less ancient species the lateral fingers are reduced
+to the condition of mere splints of bone. It follows from
+what has been said that the digit which persists in the equine
+species should be considered as the third finger, and that the
+rudimentary metacarpals represent lateral digits considerably
+atrophied.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>This disappearance of the lateral digits cannot excite
+surprise when we consider the functions of the organs.
+Becoming useless, they must undergo gradual atrophy from
+want of use.</p>
+
+<p>There undoubtedly is, in this former existence of supplementary
+digits in the horse, something analogous to what
+we still find in the pig; where the two principal digits are
+accompanied by two shorter ones, which very probably,
+from their infrequent use, are destined to disappear in a
+more or less distant future.</p>
+
+<h5>Proportions of the Arm, the Forearm, and the
+Metacarpus</h5>
+
+<p>As a supplement to the study of the anterior limbs which
+we have just finished, it appears necessary to give some
+indications of the relative proportions of certain of the
+segments which form these limbs in the plantigrades, the
+digitigrades, and the ungulates.</p>
+
+<p>First, we would remark that, in following this order of
+classification, the scapula becomes less and less narrow,
+and assumes a form more and more elongated. In order to
+convince ourselves of this, it will be sufficient to study the
+bone first in man, then in the bear, the cat, dog, ox, and
+finally in the horse.</p>
+
+<p>As to the proportions of length, which are those we
+should chiefly study, we shall commence with the
+comparison of the forearm and arm&mdash;that is to say,
+the radius and the humerus. The radius is found to
+be longer in proportion to the humerus, as the number
+of digits is smaller, and the hand loses more and more the
+functions of an organ of prehension. In man, the radius is
+shorter than the humerus; in the horse, on the contrary, it
+is longer.</p>
+
+<p>To give an idea of this proportion, we shall employ what
+is known as the antibrachial index. This index gives the
+relation which exists between the length of the forearm and
+that of the humerus; the length of this latter, whatever
+may be the actual measurement, is represented by a fixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+figure, the number 100. A very simple arithmetical operation
+gives the proportion&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="formula" summary="Formula page 71">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb nowrap">forearm &times; 100</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">, the quotient obtained furnishes the index.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center">humerus</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The index is less than 100 if the forearm is shorter than
+the bone of the arm. The index is more than 100 if, on the
+contrary, the forearm is longer.</p>
+
+<p>In man, the radius is shorter than the humerus; indeed,
+in adult individuals of the white race the average index is 74.</p>
+
+<p>In the bear, the length of the radius approaches closely
+to that of the humerus; the index is about 90. In the
+skeleton of a bear in the anatomical museum of the &Eacute;cole
+des Beaux-Arts, the humerus is 33 centimetres in length,
+and the radius 30 centimetres.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat, the radius is very little shorter than the
+humerus. In the dog they are equal. The antibrachial
+index of the latter is, accordingly, 100.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, the radius is longer than the humerus; the
+index is therefore above 100. Thus, in the skeleton of the
+horse which we have in the museum of the &Eacute;cole des Beaux-Arts, the index is 113&mdash;length of humerus, 29 centimetres;
+length of radius, 33 centimetres. In other skeletons which
+we have measured we found: in one, 108&mdash;humerus, 34
+centimetres; radius, 37 centimetres; in another, 116&mdash;humerus,
+25 centimetres; radius, 29 centimetres.</p>
+
+<p>The metacarpal bone undergoes, relatively to the humerus,
+a proportional elongation, analogous to that of the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>In man, the length of the metacarpus is contained about
+5<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> times in that of the humerus; in the bear, it is contained
+4 times; in the dog, 2<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> times; in the horse, 1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub> times only.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that the proportions vary according to
+race, and that what we have here given are but the general
+indications.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="ArticAnterLimbs" id="ArticAnterLimbs"></a>The Articulations of the Anterior Limbs</h5>
+
+<p>The knowledge of human arthrology which we presume
+the reader to have previously acquired makes it unnecessary
+for us to enter into numerous details regarding the configuration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+of the articular osseous surfaces and the disposition of
+the fibrous bands that retain them in position. Accordingly,
+in the description which follows, and also in that of the articulations
+of the posterior limbs, we shall occupy ourselves but
+very briefly with the details above referred to, so as to devote
+ourselves especially to the indication of the movements&mdash;that
+is to say, of that which, while easily comprehended
+on recollection of former studies, presents the greatest
+interest from the artistic standpoint in these studies in
+comparative anatomy.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Scapulo-Humeral Articulation.</b>&mdash;The head of the
+humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula being in
+contact, the two bones are bound together by a rather loose
+articular capsule, which is strengthened by the muscles of
+this region which fulfil the function of active ligaments.</p>
+
+<p>This articulation, so movable in every direction in the
+human species, is not so much so in quadrupeds; the arm in
+the latter, as also the shoulder, being kept in contact with
+the lateral region of the thorax by the numerous muscles
+which surround it.</p>
+
+<p>Of the movements performed by the humerus, flexion and
+extension are the most extensive; those of abduction and
+adduction are much less so.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary, before proceeding further, to determine
+what the two principal movements which we have just
+mentioned really are, viz., flexion and extension.</p>
+
+<p>We know that in man the displacements of the humerus
+which take place in the antero-posterior direction are known
+as movement or projection forwards, and movement or projection
+backwards, respectively. We do not say that
+the humerus is flexed or extended, because, in reality, on
+account of the position which the skeleton of the shoulder
+occupies, it is not able to flex or place itself on the line of
+prolongation of the scapula with which it articulates.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds it is not so. The humerus and the scapula
+are contained in almost the same vertical plane; and the
+bone of the arm can take, in relation to the latter, the
+positions characteristic of flexion and extension&mdash;that is, of
+approach to the scapula and removal from it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>What makes the meanings of these terms a little confusing
+is that, in human anatomy, some authors consider the
+backward movement of the humerus as extension, and the
+forward movement as flexion; in order to be able to
+compare these movements to those that the femur executes
+in relation to the pelvis.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in our opinion, the indication of this correspondence
+is not absolutely necessary; since it ceases to be exact if
+we wished, from the point of view of the direction given to
+other segments of the skeleton, to establish the same relation
+between the elbow and the articulation of the knee.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore indispensable, when discussing quadrupeds,
+to discontinue these terms, in order the more readily to
+recognise that: in flexion the inferior extremity of the
+humerus is directed backwards; in extension, on the contrary,
+it is directed forwards. In the first case the humerus
+approaches the scapula; in the second, on the contrary, it
+moves away from it.</p>
+
+<p>These movements, which take place during walking, are
+executed in the following manner: When one of the anterior
+limbs is at the end of that stage of progression which is called
+support (see <a href="#Page_289">p. 289</a>, Displacements of the Limbs)&mdash;that is to
+say, during the time that the foot remains in contact with the
+ground, whilst the trunk is moving forward&mdash;the direction of
+this limb becomes more and more oblique downwards and
+backwards. At a certain moment the limb is raised from
+the ground, to be carried forwards, in order to be again
+pressed on the ground, and recommence a new resting stage.
+In these different phases the humerus is flexed. But at
+the moment that the limb, when carried forwards, is about
+to resume its contact with the ground it becomes directed
+obliquely downwards and forwards; then the humerus is in
+the position of extension.</p>
+
+<p>During these movements of the humerus, there exists an
+essential factor&mdash;that is, the scapular balance. (It is the
+same as what occurs in man when he balances his arm in
+the antero-posterior plane.) When the humerus is flexed,
+the scapula moves in such a way that the superior portion
+projects forwards; when it is extended, the scapula, on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+other hand, is inclined more backwards. But it is necessary
+to add that, during these displacements, the scapulo-humeral
+angle varies; it tends to close during the flexion
+of the humerus, and becomes more open during extension.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig041" id="Fig041"></a>
+<img src="images/illo097a.png" alt="Fig. 41" width="200" height="370" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 41.&mdash;Flexion of the
+Humerus: Right Anterior
+Limb of the Horse, External
+Surface (after a Chromophotographic
+Study by Professor
+Marey).</p></div>
+
+<p>The movements and the relations of the humerus and
+the scapula are clearly represented in <a href="#Fig041">Figs. 41</a> and <a href="#Fig042">42</a>,
+reproduced from the chromophotographic studies of Professor
+Marey&mdash;studies relative to the analyses of the movements
+of the horse.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13"
+class="fnanchor">[13]</a> They show clearly the movements of flexion
+and extension of the humerus, also the balancing of the
+scapula which accompanies the movements.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+E. J. Marey, &#8216;Analyses of the Movements of the Horse by the Chromophotograph&#8217;
+(<i>La Nature</i>, June 11, 1898).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig042" id="Fig042"></a>
+<img src="images/illo097b.png" alt="Fig. 42" width="125" height="377" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 42.&mdash;Extension of the
+Humerus: Right Anterior
+Limb of the Horse, External
+Surface (after a Chromophotographic
+Study by Professor
+Marey).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Articulation of the Elbow, or the Humero-ulnar
+Articulation.</b>&mdash;In this articulation, which is constructed in
+the form of a true hinge, the movements of flexion and extension
+alone are possible. In flexion, the forearm, directed
+forwards, is folded on the arm, with which, in certain circumstances,
+it comes in contact. For example, in a horse of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+mettle which leaps over an elevated obstacle, the animal
+forcibly raises his fore-limbs by flexing them. Flexion is
+produced to the same extent, and even more so, and for a
+longer period, in felides which crouch.</p>
+
+<p>In extension, on the contrary, the forearm is carried backward.
+This movement being limited only by the contact of
+the tip of the olecranon with the bottom of the olecranon
+fossa of the humerus, the forearm is enabled, in this case, to
+move until it is in line with the arm. For example, during
+walking, when one of the anterior limbs, having reached the
+end of its resting stage, is considerably inclined downwards
+and backwards.</p>
+
+<p>The apex of the olecranon process&mdash;that is to say, the point
+of the elbow&mdash;forms a marked prominence, more salient in
+flexion than in extension, as in the corresponding region of
+the human elbow.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Radio-ulnar Articulation.</b>&mdash;It is in the dog and
+the cat, in which the two bones of the forearm articulate by
+their extremities only, and remain separate in the rest of
+their extent, that the articulations call for special notice.</p>
+
+<p>In the upper part, the radius rotates on itself; while
+below, it rotates around the ulna. It follows that the forearm,
+which in all quadrupeds is in a state of permanent
+pronation, can, in carnivora, take the position of supination,
+or rather, of demi-supination. In fact, whatever be the
+mobility of the two bones of the forearm, the movement is
+not able to bring the palmar surface to the front, but only to
+direct it towards the median line.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Articulation of the Wrist.</b>&mdash;Here are found, as in
+man, three superimposed articulations: the radio-carpal,
+intercarpal, and carpo-metacarpal.</p>
+
+<p>If we remember the movements which take place at the
+plane of these articulations in man, and take account of the
+fact that the mobility of the limbs is reduced just in proportion
+as they are simplified in structure so as to become organs of
+support only, we can easily comprehend that, in the horse and
+the ox, and, in a word, animals that have a canon bone, the
+movements of the wrist are little varied in character, while
+in carnivor&aelig;, on the other hand, they are relatively more so.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>We will remember that in the ox and the horse the region
+of the wrist is called the <i>knee</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In flexion, the hand is bent backwards; in extension it
+is carried forwards. These two movements take place
+especially in the radiocarpal and intercarpal articulations.
+In the first of these articulations, it is the superior row of
+the carpus which glides backwards and forwards on the
+corresponding articular surface of the forearm. In the
+second articulation, it is the second row which moves;
+gliding on the inferior articular surfaces of the row above
+it. This inferior row carries the metacarpus with it; for
+the carpo-metacarpal articulation is much less mobile than
+either of the other two.</p>
+
+<p>In flexion, the articular surfaces are separated from one
+another in front; and the changes of form which result
+from this are noticeable on the anterior surface of the
+&#8216;knee.&#8217; Moreover, at that moment this region contrasts
+markedly in its outlines with the parts above it and below
+it&mdash;that is to say, with the corresponding surfaces of the
+forearm and of the canon bone.</p>
+
+<p>As for the lateral movements, by which the hand is
+inclined outwards and inwards in its movements at the
+wrist, they exist to an appreciable extent in the cat and the
+dog only; in order to understand this, it is enough to compare
+the shape of the articular surfaces of this region in
+carnivora and the horse, for example. In the latter, those
+surfaces are almost plane; in the cat, on the contrary, they
+are curved (inferior surface of the forearm, concave; superior
+border of the carpus, convex). These latter, then, are, in
+form, similar to those which exist at the same level in the
+human being; this explains the possibility of analogous
+movements of the whole hand&mdash;that is to say, of the movements
+of abduction and adduction.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Metacarpo-phalangeal Articulations.</b>&mdash;With regard
+to the mobility, it is in these articulations, as in those of the
+wrist&mdash;that is to say, although in all quadrupeds the first
+phalanges can be flexed and extended on the metacarpus,
+it is only in the cat and dog that lateral movement is possible.
+Indeed, in the horse, in which the principal metacarpal terminates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+inferiorly in two convex surfaces, which are separated
+by a crest; and where the whole articulates with a
+cavity on the superior extremity of the first phalanx;
+because of the hinging of these surfaces, there can only
+be movements of opening and closing of this articulation.
+The first phalanx is directed backwards during flexion
+and forwards during extension. In the dog and the cat the
+digits can be separated from each other, and also drawn
+together&mdash;that is to say, abducted and adducted; but, as
+in man, these movements can be made only when the first
+phalanges are in the state of extension. During flexion
+they are impossible, because of the tension of the lateral
+ligaments, which increases as the flexion is more pronounced.
+This can be demonstrated, for example, in the cat, which,
+in order to separate the digits, opens the hand widely&mdash;that
+is to say, forcibly raises the first phalanges.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Interphalangeal Articulations.</b>&mdash;The phalanges
+are in contact with one another by surfaces, which,
+on one side, are of trochlear form, and, on the other, are
+moulded on these trochle&aelig;; accordingly, at the level of
+these articulations, the movements of flexion and extension
+only can take place.</p>
+
+<p>In the felid&aelig;, the claws which the third phalanges bear
+cannot be utilized when the latter are in a state of extension,
+at which time, being forcibly raised, they are, in fact,
+placed on the outer sides of the phalanges, which are
+grooved to receive them. But when the animal wishes
+to use them, it flexes those third phalanges, of which
+the terminal extremity is then projected forward, and
+the claws are ready to fulfil their function. But at
+the same time it extends the first phalanges, to produce
+a certain tension of the flexors of the digits, and thus
+enable the latter to act with greater efficacy, with a
+minimum of contraction. We can demonstrate this action
+experimentally on ourselves. It is enough to carry the
+first phalanges forcibly into a state of extension; the
+third phalanges then become flexed, quite spontaneously,
+by the tension of the tendons of the flexors which are
+inserted into them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>At the same time, if we examine the felid&aelig; which we have
+taken as examples, when the first phalanges are in the state
+of extension, the digits will be found to be separable, as we
+have already indicated in connection with the metacarpo-phalangeal
+articulations, with the result that the claws are
+then able to lacerate a wider surface.</p>
+
+<p>The extension of the ungual phalanx, which determines
+the retraction of the claw and stops its action, is the
+mechanical result of an elastic, fibrous apparatus which is
+attached to each of the third phalanges, and has its origin
+of the second.</p>
+
+<h4>THE POSTERIOR LIMBS<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor"
+style="font-weight: normal;">[14]</a></h4>
+
+<p>The posterior limbs are divided, as are the inferior limbs
+of the human being, of which they are the homologues, into
+four parts: pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+Examine <a href="#Fig021">Figs. 21</a>, <a href="#Fig033">33</a>, <a href="#Fig034">34</a>, <a href="#Fig038">38</a>,
+<a href="#Fig039">39</a>, <a href="#Fig049">49</a>.</p></div>
+
+<h5>The Pelvis</h5>
+
+<p>The pelvis, which incompletely limits the abdominal
+cavity, inferiorly in the vertical position of the body and
+posteriorly in the normal attitude of quadrupeds, is formed
+by the iliac bones and sacrum&mdash;the coccyx forming a prolongation
+of the latter. We have already described the two
+latter (<a href="#Page_10">pp. 10</a> and <a href="#Page_11">11</a>) in connection with the vertebral
+column, of which they form the inferior or posterior portion
+or segment, according to the attitude of the individual.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Iliac Bone.</b>&mdash;The iliac or coxal bone, is a paired or non-symmetrical
+bone, united below to its fellow of the opposite
+side, while it is separated from it above by the sacrum.</p>
+
+<p>In all animals, as well as in man, the iliac bone, at the
+beginning of life, consists of three parts, which afterwards
+unite and fuse together and join at the middle of the bottom
+of a deep cavity which is situated on the outer aspect of the
+bone&mdash;the cotyloid cavity.</p>
+
+<p>Of those three portions when examined in the human iliac
+bone, that above the cavity is the ilium; that on the inside
+is the pubis; and the last, the lower one, is the ischium. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+quadrupeds, the iliac bone being, in its entirety, directed
+much more obliquely downwards and backwards, the relative
+position of these constituent parts is a little modified: the
+ilium is in front, the pubis is still internal, but in a more
+inferior position, and the ischium is behind the cotyloid
+cavity. We notice this peculiarity of the development of
+the iliac bone because it is customary to continue to apply to
+the osseous regions which correspond to these parts the
+names by which they were known when independent bones.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig043" id="Fig043"></a>
+<img src="images/illo102a.png" alt="Fig. 43" width="250" height="309" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 43.&mdash;The Left Iliac
+Bone of the Human
+Being: External Surface,
+placed in the Position
+which it would
+occupy in the Skeleton
+Of a Quadruped.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cotyloid cavity; 2, ilium;
+3, iliac crest; 4, anterior iliac
+crest; 5, posterior iliac spine;
+6, pubis; 7, tuberosity of the
+ischium; 8, obturator foramen;
+9, ischiadic spine.</p></div>
+
+<p>The bones which form the skeleton of the pelvis of quadrupeds
+are proportionally more elongated and less massive
+than those of the human pelvis (<a href="#Fig043">Figs. 43</a> and <a href="#Fig044">44</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig044" id="Fig044"></a>
+<img src="images/illo102b.png" alt="Fig. 44" width="300" height="289" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 44.&mdash;Left Iliac Bone of A
+Quadruped (Horse): External
+Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cotyloid cavity; 2, ilium, external
+iliac fossa (directed upward in the horse);
+3, iliac crest; 4, anterior iliac spine
+(directed inwards in the horse, it is the
+angle of the haunch); 5, posterior iliac
+spine (directed inwards in the horse; it
+is the angle of the haunch); 6, pubis;
+7, tuberosity of the ischium; 8, obturator
+foramen; 9, ischiadic spine, or
+subcotyloid foramen.</p></div>
+
+<p>We find, on the external surface of the iliac bone, the
+cotyloid cavity, whose border is interrupted by the cotyloid
+notch; a deep notch which looks downwards.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>In front of this cavity is the ilium. This portion, narrow
+in the part which is next the cavity, is directed forwards and
+upwards, expanding more and more as it passes upwards.
+It presents an external or superior surface (external in some
+animals, superior in others), which recalls the external
+iliac fossa; and an internal or inferior surface, at the superior
+part of which is found the auricular surface for articulation
+with the sacrum.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior border of the ilium is rough; this is the iliac
+crest, at the extremities of which we find, below or outside,
+a prominence which corresponds to the anterior superior
+iliac spine of man; and internally another projection which
+corresponds to the posterior iliac spine.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately above the cotyloid cavity is a rough crest,
+which is known as the <i>supracotyloid crest</i>, which is, however,
+no other than the homologue of the sciatic spine. In
+front of this prominence, the border of the ilium, which is
+notched, forms the great sciatic notch.</p>
+
+<p>If, still taking the cotyloid cavity as the point of
+departure, we proceed inwards&mdash;that is, towards the median
+line of the body&mdash;we find the pubis; if in a posterior
+direction, the ischium. These two portions, pubis and
+ischium, limit an oval orifice, the subpubic foramen.</p>
+
+<p>In the human skeleton, the pubis of one side is united
+to that of the opposite side, to form the pubic symphysis.
+In the animals which we are now studying a portion of the
+ischium enters into the formation of the symphysis; in
+other words, it is formed, not only by the body of the pubis,
+but also by the descending branch or ramus of the pubis
+and a portion of the ascending branch or ramus of the
+ischium, which are fused with those of the opposite side. It
+results that, though in the human being the symphysis
+is short and the ischio-pubic arch large, in quadrupeds it
+is the opposite. In them the arch is a mere slot, and being
+formed by the ischium alone, merits the name of the
+ischial arch. The ischio-pubic symphysis is very large, and
+forms a horizontal surface relatively extensive, a sort of
+floor, on which rest certain organs which occupy the
+cavity of the pelvis.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig045" id="Fig045"></a>
+<img src="images/illo104.png" alt="Fig. 45" width="250" height="323" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 45.&mdash;Pubic Region of the Pelvis of a Marsupial (Phalanger,
+Fox).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Symphysis pubis; 2, obturator foramen; 3, marsupial bones.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>The posterior and external angle of the ischium is rough
+and prominent; it is the tuberosity of the ischium. This
+forms a projection under the skin; it also does in man when
+the trunk is strongly inclined forwards, while the thighs are
+maintained in the vertical position. In marsupials&mdash;opossum,
+kangaroo, and phalanger&mdash;the pelvis at its pubic
+region is surmounted by two bones, situated one on each side
+of the median line, and arranged in the form of a fork of two
+prongs (<a href="#Fig045">Fig. 45</a>). These, which are called <i>marsupial bones</i>,
+support the pouch which, in animals of this genus, lodges
+their young, which, at the time of birth, are incapable of
+supporting a separate existence, their development being
+absolutely incomplete.</p>
+
+<p>In the cetaceans&mdash;for example, the dolphin&mdash;because of
+the absence of posterior limbs, the pelvis is represented
+by two separate bones only, which have no connection with
+the vertebral column. In birds, the pelvis is remarkable
+for its elongated form (see for its form <a href="#Fig021">Fig. 21</a>, and for
+details <a href="#Fig046">Fig. 46</a>). The cotyloid cavity is pierced by an
+opening, and presents on its posterior border, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+here a little prominent, a surface with which the great
+trochanter is in contact.</p>
+
+<p>The ilium is very highly developed, and is fused in the
+median line with the ilium of the opposite side, the last dorsal
+vertebr&aelig;, the lumbar vertebr&aelig;, and the sacrum. Because
+of these relations with the dorsal vertebr&aelig;, it is in contact
+anteriorly with the last ribs, which consequently emerge
+from each side of the iliac region of the pelvis.</p>
+
+<p>The ischium forms a plate of bone which, in part, closes
+the external portion of the cavity of the pelvis. Its superior
+border is separate for a certain distance from the external
+border of the ilium; there is thus left an opening of more
+or less considerable size, which represents or takes the place
+of the great sciatic notch.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig046" id="Fig046"></a>
+<img src="images/illo105.png" alt="Fig. 46" width="400" height="321" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 46.&mdash;Pelvis of a Bird (the Cock): External Surface, Left Side.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Ilium; 2, ischium; 3, pubis; 4, inferior extremity of the pubis;
+5, sciatic foramen; 6, oval foramen, homologous to the obturator; 7,
+coccygeal vertebr&aelig;.</p></div>
+
+<p>The pubis, long and slender, is in connection with the
+inferior border of the ischium, of which it follows the general
+direction; and circumscribes with this latter, below the
+cotyloid cavity, an oval orifice, which is the homologue of
+the obturator foramen. Its inferior extremity reaches
+beyond the corresponding part of the ischium, bending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+towards the middle line, but without joining the pubis of
+the opposite side. On this account there is no symphysis
+pubis in birds. Nevertheless, an exception must be noted
+in the case of the ostrich, the pubic bones of which meet in
+the middle line, and are articulated in form of a symphysis.</p>
+
+<h5>The Thigh</h5>
+
+<p>A single bone, the femur, forms the skeleton of this
+portion of the lower limb.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Femur.</b>&mdash;The bone of the thigh is, in man, directed
+downwards and inwards; this obliquity, we may remind
+the reader, is due to the difference in length of the two
+condyles which form its inferior extremity; the internal
+is the more prominent, the result of which is that when
+the femur is held vertically, the internal condyle descends
+lower than the external. Now, as those two articular
+expansions rest on the horizontal plane formed by the upper
+extremity of the tibia, it follows that the superior part of
+the femur inclines towards the side of the shorter condyle&mdash;that
+is to say, outwards&mdash;and that, the leg being
+vertical, it and the bone of the thigh unite in forming an
+angle, of which the apex is directed towards the inner side
+of the knee.</p>
+
+<p>In many mammals the two condyles are equally prominent,
+the result of which is that the femur inclines neither
+inwards nor outwards, but is contained in a plane parallel
+to the axis of the trunk; while the leg is included in the
+same plane. Nevertheless, although contained in the
+plane which we have just indicated, the femur is obliquely
+placed, and directed downwards and forwards; it accordingly
+forms, with the pelvis, an angle, of which the opening
+is directed to the anterior aspect of the body.</p>
+
+<p>In reptiles and in birds the femur and leg are both placed
+in the same plane, but this plane is not parallel to the
+axis of the trunk. This is the result, on the one hand, of
+the thorax being wide, and, on the other hand, of the femur,
+which is directed forwards, being in contact by its anterior
+extremity with the lateral aspect of the costal region, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+thus necessarily placed in a direction forwards and outwards,
+and the knee is further removed from the axis of the trunk
+than is the articulation which unites the thigh with the
+pelvis.</p>
+
+<p>The femur, like the humerus, is almost completely enveloped
+by muscular masses, which bind it to the lateral
+walls of the abdomen. Its inferior extremity alone is free,
+and is always the more so in proportion to its elongation&mdash;that
+is to say, as it belongs to an animal whose foot is more
+divided. The femur in this respect conforms to the law
+which we have indicated in connection with the bone of the
+arm, in which the development, as to length, is in proportion
+to the division of the hand.</p>
+
+<p>If we compare the femur of certain animals with that
+of man, we see that the corresponding details of form
+are readily recognisable, but they are slightly modified.
+Thus, on examining the superior extremity, we find there
+a head, a neck, a great trochanter, and a lesser; but the
+neck is usually short and thick, and the great trochanter
+does not occupy the same level with regard to the articular
+head of the bone. In man, the great trochanter does not
+rise to the level of the head of the femur; in the dog and
+the cat it approaches that level; in the horse and in
+ruminants it rises above it.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the inferior extremity, its surfaces
+undergo modifications which are further accentuated as
+we pass from the digitigrades to the ungulates, or unguligrades.
+We know that in man the femoral trochlea
+is continuous behind, without interruption, with the condyles&mdash;that
+is to say, that each of the condyles is the continuation
+of one of the lips of the trochlea. We have just
+said that the trochlea is continuous without interruption
+with the condyles; this is accurate. Nevertheless, we
+must remark that, at the level of the junction of these
+surfaces, the bone presents a slight constriction, which is
+more marked on the external than on the internal aspect.
+This constriction, which is but slightly marked in man, is
+accentuated in the dog and the cat; in the ruminants and
+the solipeds it is still more pronounced so that we may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+say that in these latter the trochlea and the condyles are
+almost completely separated.</p>
+
+<p>There is another modification in regard to the prominence
+and extent of the two lips of the trochlea. In
+man, the external lip of the trochlea reaches higher than the
+internal, and it is more prominent in front. In the dog,
+these lips are equal with regard to thickness, but the
+external still reaches higher than the internal; in the
+cat, they are equal in every respect; in ruminants and
+solipeds the internal lip is wider, thicker, and rises higher
+than the external.</p>
+
+<p>In animals the trochlea is, as a general rule, narrower
+than in man, and the condyles are more prominent posteriorly;
+so that, when viewed from one of the lateral
+aspects, the inferior extremity of the femur is, in them,
+better developed in the antero-posterior direction.</p>
+
+<p>In birds, the femur is shorter than the bones of the leg;
+its great trochanter is in contact with a prominence which
+occupies the posterior part of the border of the cotyloid
+cavity. Instead of articulating at the level of the knee,
+with the knee-cap and tibia only, as in man, it articulates,
+in addition, with the superior extremity of the fibula. A
+similar arrangement is found in marsupials and reptiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Knee-cap.</b>&mdash;This bone, developed in the thickness of
+the tendon of the triceps muscle of the thigh, is in contact,
+by its posterior surface, with the femoral trochlea. The
+two articular surfaces which are applied to the lips of the
+trochlea present, with regard to their extent, an inequality
+which is in proportion to the arrangement which we have
+above indicated&mdash;that is, while in man it is the external
+surface which is the larger, in the horse it is the internal.
+We shall see what the general form of the knee-cap is
+when we come, <a href="#TarsusBones">later on</a>, to study more particularly the
+posterior limbs of some animals.</p>
+
+<h5>The Leg</h5>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the leg consists of two bones: the tibia
+and the fibula. The tibia is the more internal and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+larger of the two; the fibula is slender, and situated on the
+outer side, and a little posterior to, the preceding. The
+fibula is more or less developed according to the species;
+in some it is complete, in others it is very much atrophied.</p>
+
+<p>This peculiarity may be compared with that which we
+have drawn attention to regarding the development of the
+ulna; but here the seriation is less distinct. Not only in
+the different species, but even in the individuals of the same
+species, the development of the fibula presents little regularity.
+In quadrupeds, the bones of the leg are directed
+obliquely downwards and backwards, so that they form,
+with the femur, which is directed obliquely downwards
+and forwards, an angle, the apex of which is placed at the
+anterior surface of the knee.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tibia.</b>&mdash;The tibia of quadrupeds is readily comparable
+with that of man; as in the case of the latter, its shaft has
+three surfaces&mdash;an external, which is hollowed out in its
+upper portion, and becomes anterior below; an internal,
+slightly convex and subcutaneous; the posterior, which
+presents, in its superior part, a crest, the oblique line of the
+tibia, and some rugosities. The borders separate the
+surfaces. The anterior border, or crest of the tibia, is
+prominent in its superior part; below it gradually disappears
+in passing towards the internal aspect of the
+inferior extremity. The external and internal borders
+separate the corresponding surfaces from the posterior one.</p>
+
+<p>The superior extremity is thick, and expands in forming
+three tuberosities: two lateral and an anterior. The
+anterior tuberosity, situated at the superior part of the
+crest of the tibia, is very prominent; for this reason the
+superior extremity is very much expanded in the antero-posterior
+direction&mdash;hence it results that this diameter is
+equal to the transverse, and sometimes even greater. In
+man, it is the latter which is the larger. The anterior
+tuberosity is visible under the skin.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior extremity, less thick, is prolonged internally
+by a prominence which corresponds to the internal malleolus
+of man. In animals whose fibula is but slightly
+developed the tibia presents, on the external part of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+inferior extremity, a small prominence, which replaces the
+fibular malleolus. The ruminants must, however, be excepted,
+in which we find in this region a special bone, which
+certain authors look on as the inferior part of the fibula
+(see <a href="#Page_97">p. 97</a>). The inferior surface of this extremity of the
+tibia is articular; and is in contact with one of the tarsal
+bones, the astragalus. Because the superior surface of
+this latter has the form of a pulley, a pulley much more
+marked than that on the human astragalus, the corresponding
+surface of the tibia, which has the opposite form,
+presents two lateral cavities, separated by a median ridge,
+which is directed forwards and slightly outwards; this
+ridge projects into the groove of the pulley.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Fibula.</b>&mdash;This bone, situated at the back of the
+external surface of the tibia, is, as we have said, more or
+less developed. Its superior extremity, or head, articulates
+with the external tuberosity of the tibia. Its inferior
+extremity, when it exists&mdash;it is this which disappears in
+animals which have the fibula incompletely developed&mdash;forms
+a prominence which, placed on the external surface
+of the inferior extremity of the tibia, articulates with the
+astragalus, and recalls the external malleolus of man.</p>
+
+<p>We have stated above that it is the inferior extremity
+of the fibula which disappears when the bone is incompletely
+developed; it is necessary to except the bat, in
+which the fibula, fairly well developed at its inferior
+extremity, by which it articulates with the tibia, thins
+off in its superior portion, and does not reach the corresponding
+extremity of the latter. Further, as in this
+animal the surface of the knee, which corresponds to the
+anterior surface of the same region in other animals, is
+turned backwards, the result is that the fibula is situated
+on the inner side of the tibia, instead of being placed on
+the outer.</p>
+
+<h5>The Foot</h5>
+
+<p>The foot, in animals, as well as in man, is formed of three
+portions, which, as we pass from the part which articulates
+with the leg towards the terminal extremity, are: the tarsus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+the metatarsus, and the toes. These three portions are the
+homologues of the carpus, the metacarpus, and the fingers,
+which, as we have already seen in the case of the hand, are
+the osseous groups which form its skeleton. The tarsus
+is formed of short bones, as the carpus is; these are, in
+man, seven in number. The bones are arranged in two
+rows: one, the posterior, formed of two bones superimposed&mdash;the
+astragalus, by which the tarsus articulates with the leg,
+and the calcaneum, which forms the prominence of the heel;
+and an anterior row formed of five juxtaposed ones&mdash;the
+cuboid, situated externally, and the scaphoid internally, in
+front of which are found the three cuneiforms. To the
+tarsus succeeds the metatarsus, whose form reminds us very
+much of that of the metacarpals.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the toes, which we enumerate in proceeding
+from the most internal to the most external, they are formed
+of phalanges, which are three in number for the four outer
+toes; but the number is reduced to two in the case of the
+first&mdash;that is, the so-called great-toe.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the tarsus are not seven in all animals; they
+are fewer in ruminants and solipeds. We already know
+that, in the latter, the metacarpals and the digits are
+equally reduced in number; the same is the case for the
+metatarsals and the toes. We will analyze these differences
+when dealing with the <a href="#TarsusBones">species individually</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig047" id="Fig047"></a>
+<img src="images/illo112.png" alt="Fig. 47" width="500" height="227" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 47.&mdash;Posterior Limb of the Horse placed in the Position which
+it should occupy if the Animal were a Plantigrade: Left Limb,
+External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Tibia; 2, astragalus; 3, calcaneum; 4, metatarsus; 5, first phalanx;
+6, second phalanx; 7, third phalanx.</p></div>
+
+<p>When we studied the anterior limbs, we saw in passing
+from the plantigrades to the digitigrades, and finally the
+ungulates, or unguligrades, as the hand became hyperextended,
+the carpus was raised and more and more removed
+from the ground. We shall establish the existence
+of the same condition in the posterior limbs; in the
+plantigrades the tarsus rests on the ground; in the digitigrades
+it is removed from it; while in the unguligrades the
+distance which separates it from the point of support is
+still more considerable; and it is, indeed, necessary to
+imagine that if these latter were plantigrades, would
+occupy the position on the ground which is indicated by
+<a href="#Fig047">Fig. 47</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In veterinary anatomy the tarsus is called the <i>ham</i>; a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+name we adopt in conformity with usage, but which we
+cannot but regret, as in human anatomy the ham is the
+region of the posterior surface of the knee.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of the region of the digits of the
+posterior limbs in birds, presents some points of interest.</p>
+
+<p>We shall merely say with regard to the metatarsus, that
+it is formed by a single bone, which in the cock is furnished
+towards its inferior third with a pointed process, the <i>spur</i>.
+At the inferior part, there is, however, found another, which
+is but very slightly developed, and with which the first
+phalanx of the innermost toe articulates.</p>
+
+<p>The toes are, in the majority of species, four in number:<a name="FNanchor_15_15"
+id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+an internal, which is directed backwards, and corresponds to
+the great-toe; the others are directed forwards. This
+arrangement is constant in grallatores (wading birds), gallinace&aelig;<a name="FNanchor_16_16"
+id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+(domestic fowls), and raptores (birds of prey).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span
+class="label">[15]</span></a> In spite of the fact that the custom is to designate the terminal portions
+of the foot of birds by the name of digits, we prefer to employ here
+the terms <i>foot</i> and <i>toes</i>. In adopting this decision we believe we are
+acting according to a more didactic method. Homology of names should,
+in our opinion, always accompany homology of regions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span
+class="label">[16]</span></a> With regard to the gallinace&aelig;, we must add that in certain varieties
+the number of toes is five; those which are directed forwards are three
+in number; the internal one which passes backward, is double. The two
+toes which are the subject of this special arrangement are placed very
+close together, and are nearly always superimposed. This condition is
+found in the Houdan and Dorking breeds.</p></div>
+
+<p>In climbing birds (parrots, woodpeckers, and toucans), the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+innermost toe is not only directed backward, but the external
+toe accompanies it in that direction; consequently, there are
+two posterior and two anterior toes. Sometimes they are
+all directed forwards; this disposition is found in the
+martins. In some birds, the number of toes is reduced to
+three: the cassowary shows this reduction; in others, the
+number is still further diminished&mdash;the ostrich, for example,
+has but two.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig048" id="Fig048"></a>
+<img src="images/illo113.png" alt="Fig. 48" width="400" height="310" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 48.&mdash;Skeleton of the Foot of a Bird (the Cock): Left Side,
+External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption">1, Metatarsus; 2, spur; 3, rudimentary metatarsal; 4, first toe;
+5, second toe; 6, third toe; 7, fourth toe.</p></div>
+
+<p>Further, we find that, in general, the number of the
+phalanges increases, when we examine the toes in commencing
+with the most internal (<a href="#Fig048">Fig. 48</a>): this has two;
+then the following one three; that which comes next in
+order has four; and the most external toe has five. The
+phalanges of this last are short; so that, although it is
+formed by a larger number of bones, it is not the longest of
+the toes.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="TarsusBones" id="TarsusBones"></a>THE POSTERIOR LIMBS IN SOME ANIMALS.</h4>
+
+<p><b>Plantigrades: Bear</b> (<a href="#Fig033">Fig. 33</a>, p. 50).&mdash;The external
+iliac fossa is very deep. The femur is longer than the
+bones of the leg; the great trochanter does not reach the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+level of the head of the femur. The fibula is well developed;
+it is united to the tibia at its superior and inferior extremities
+only.</p>
+
+<p>The foot, which, as in the case of the hand, rests on the
+ground by the whole extent of its plantar surface, presents
+five toes; the shortest of these is the internal&mdash;that is, the
+toe which corresponds to the great-toe in man; the third
+and fourth are the longest, and they are almost equal; there
+is a very slight difference in favour of the fourth, which is
+slightly superior in dimensions to the third.</p>
+
+<p><b>Digitigrades: Cat</b>, <b>Dog</b> (<a href="#Fig034">Fig. 34</a>, p. 52).&mdash;The external
+iliac fossa, which looks outwards, is deep; the iliac
+crest is convex anteriorly, the convexity is continued from
+one iliac spine to the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig049" id="Fig049"></a>
+<img src="images/illo114.png" alt="Fig. 49" width="300" height="359" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 49.&mdash;Pelvis of the Dog, seen from Above.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA&#8242;, bi-iliac diameter;
+BB&#8242;, bi-ischial diameter.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the dog, the distance which separates the anterior
+iliac spines is less than that which separates the ischia
+(<a href="#Fig049">Fig. 49</a>). On a skeleton which we measured, the transverse
+diameter, the distance from the anterior iliac spine of one
+side to that of the opposite side, was 8 centimetres, whilst the
+distance which separated the ischia was 105 millimetres;
+on another skeleton, the first measurement was 127 metres,
+and the second was 146 millimetres. It seems to us unnecessary
+to multiply examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig050" id="Fig050"></a>
+<img src="images/illo115.png" alt="Fig. 50" width="250" height="371" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 50.&mdash;Pelvis of a Felide (Lion), viewed from Above.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA&#8242;, bi-iliac diameter;
+BB&#8242;, bi-ischial diameter.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the cat, the iliac spines are but slightly marked; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+result is that the iliac crest is almost confounded with the
+inferior and superior borders of the ilium. The two diameters
+referred to above are almost equal (<a href="#Fig050">Fig. 50</a>).</p>
+
+<p>We draw particular attention to what we have just
+noted in regard to the transverse proportions of the
+iliac and ischiatic regions of the dog and the cat. These
+relations are evidently of importance with regard to shape,
+since the iliac crests and the ischia are noticeable beneath the
+skin.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, the shaft of the femur is slightly convex in
+front; but in the cat it is straight. The borders of the shaft
+are slightly marked, so that it is almost cylindrical. The <i>linea
+aspera</i>, less prominent than in man, gains in width what it
+loses in elevation; it constitutes what may almost be called
+a rough <i>surface</i>. This surface is narrower in its middle
+portion than at its extremities, where it bifurcates to go
+upwards to the two trochanters, and downwards to the two
+condyles. At the superior extremity, the neck is short, the
+great trochanter reaching almost to the level of the head of
+the femur; the digital <i>cavity</i>, which is situated on the internal
+surface of the great trochanter, is very deep. At its
+inferior extremity it projects strongly backward. The
+trochlea is narrow; in the cat its two lips are equally prominent,
+while in the dog the external is a little more elevated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+than the internal, which on its part is a little thicker. The
+trochlea is still more independent of the condyles than in the
+human femur; it is separated from these latter by a slight
+constriction.</p>
+
+<p>The knee-cap is long and narrow.</p>
+
+<p>The tibia of the dog is slightly curved from before backward:
+it has the form of an elongated S; this conformation
+is in great part due to the very marked projection of the
+anterior tuberosity and of the superior portion of the crest,
+which, a little below that tuberosity, turns abruptly backwards,
+and thus describes a curve the concavity of which
+is directed forward. The superior part of the external
+surface is very much hollowed out.</p>
+
+<p>The superior extremity is much thicker than the inferior
+one. It is not only wide in the transverse direction, but is
+more especially extended from before backwards; the prominence
+of the anterior tuberosity is the cause of the elongation
+of this antero-posterior diameter. On the posterior part of
+the external tuberosity is found a surface to which the
+superior extremity of the fibula is applied.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior extremity presents an articular surface, which
+is formed of two lateral cavities, separated by a crest, which
+is directed obliquely forwards and outwards. The internal
+part is prominent, and forms the internal malleolus.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the fibula, it is united to the tibia by its
+extremities and by the inferior half of its shaft. This latter
+is more expanded below than in its upper part. The
+superior extremity is flattened from without inwards. The
+inferior extremity projects beyond the articular surface of the
+tibia, and forms the external malleolus, which, instead of, as
+in man, descending further than the tibial malleolus, stops
+at the same level, and even descends a little less than does
+the latter.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat, the curve of the tibia is less pronounced; this is
+due to the fact that the crest, instead of being concave in its
+middle portion, is slightly convex anteriorly. The fibula, less
+flattened than that of the dog, is united to the tibia by
+its extremities only, and is separate in the rest of its extent.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the tarsus are seven in number, and arranged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+as in man, with this difference (which is easily comprehended),
+that their general relations are changed on account of the
+vertical direction of the tarsus. For example, the astragalus,
+instead of being above the calcaneum, is situated in front of
+it; the cuneiform bones, instead of being situated in front
+of the scaphoid, are found below it, etc.</p>
+
+<p>These animals have but four well-developed metatarsals;
+that which corresponds to the great-toe is represented merely
+by a small style-shaped bone, situate at the internal part of
+the region.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, we find this toe fully developed in some dogs.
+Notwithstanding this, the bones which form it are, however,
+but rudimentary, and much smaller than those of the innermost
+digit of the fore-limb.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes it is double; this condition is demonstrable
+in individuals belonging to breeds of large size. The median
+metatarsals are more fully developed than the other bones
+of the same region which are next them. Viewed as a whole,
+the metatarsal bones are a little longer than the metacarpals;
+the result is that the distance which separates the tarsus
+from the ground is a little greater than that which separates
+the carpus from the plane on which the anterior limbs rest.
+The length of the calcaneum still further exaggerates this
+difference, and, as in the animals with which we shall occupy
+ourselves later on, the projection which this bone forms is
+distinctly higher than that which is produced by the pisiform.</p>
+
+<p>The metatarsus, as a whole, is a little narrower than the
+metacarpus; not only on account of the presence of a thumb
+in the anterior limb, but, further, because the bones of this
+latter region are wider than those of the corresponding part
+of the posterior limb.</p>
+
+<p>The phalanges closely resemble those of the anterior
+limbs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Unguligrades: Pig</b> (<a href="#Fig038">Fig. 38</a>, p. 58).&mdash;The pelvis in
+this animal presents a few of the characters which we
+shall again meet with in the ruminants and the solipeds;
+however, the posterior (or internal) iliac spines are relatively
+more widely separated from one another than in the latter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+This arrangement reminds us of that found in the carnivora.</p>
+
+<p>The femur presents nothing very special. The knee-cap
+is thick, and ovoid in outline.</p>
+
+<p>The fibula is completely developed, as in the carnivora;
+and is connected with the tibia at both its extremities.</p>
+
+<p>The tarsus consists of seven bones. The astragalus and
+the calcaneum differ slightly from those of ruminants.</p>
+
+<p>The foot, like the hand, has two median digits which rest
+on the ground by their third phalanges; and an internal and
+an external digit, which are removed from it. The metatarsals
+are a little longer than the metacarpals.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig051" id="Fig051"></a>
+<img src="images/illo118.png" alt="Fig. 51" width="350" height="322" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 51.&mdash;Pelvis of the Ox: Superior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA&#8242;, bi-iliac diameter;
+BB&#8242;, bi-ischiadic diameter.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Unguligrades: Sheep</b>, <b>Ox</b> (<a href="#Fig039">Fig. 39</a>, p. 61).&mdash;The
+pelvis of ruminants of this group closely resembles that of
+the horse, which we will study later on (see <a href="#Page_99">p. 99</a>). That
+which we must at once point out is that, with regard to
+the ratio formed by a comparison of the bi-iliac and bi-ischiatic
+diameters, it may be placed between the ratio
+obtained in comparing those diameters in the pelvis of the
+carnivora and that of the solipeds. Indeed, in the ruminants,
+the distance which separates the ischia exceeds the
+width of one iliac only, and does not equal, as in the
+felide, the total width of the anterior part of the pelvis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+(<a href="#Fig051">Fig. 51</a>). In the skeleton of the ox, which forms part of the
+anatomical museum of the &Eacute;cole des Beaux-Arts, the bi-ischiadic
+diameter is 39 centimetres, whilst the width of one
+iliac crest is 29 centimetres, so that, in contrast to that which
+we find in the dog, the width of the ischiadic region is less
+than that formed in front by the addition of the iliac crests.</p>
+
+<p>The great trochanter is large, and extends beyond the level
+of the plane in which the head of the femur is found.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the linea aspera, instead of being a narrow crest,
+is spread out, and forms in reality a surface; the posterior
+surface of the femur. At the inferior and external part of this
+surface is situated a cavity which surmounts the corresponding
+condyle, and is known as the <i>supracondyloid fossa</i>. On the
+internal part of the same region there are a series of tubercles,
+which, because of their position in relation to the corresponding
+condyle, constitute the <i>supracondyloid crest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The internal lip of the trochlea is much thicker and much
+more prominent than the external.</p>
+
+<p>The details which we have just now examined in connection
+with the ox are less marked in the sheep.</p>
+
+<p>The trochlea, narrow as a whole, is clearly separate from
+the condyles by a very marked constriction.</p>
+
+<p>The patella, which is thickened in the antero-posterior
+direction, has the shape of a triangular pyramid with the
+base upwards. Its posterior surface, which articulates
+with the trochlea, presents an arrangement which is adapted
+to the disposition of this latter&mdash;that is to say, the surface
+which is in contact with the internal lip is larger
+than that which articulates with the lip of the opposite
+side.</p>
+
+<p>The tibia of the ox is proportionately shorter than that of
+the sheep. The shaft of this bone is flattened from before
+backwards, in its inferior half. The median crest of the
+articular surface of the inferior extremity is the most prominent
+part of that region.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig052" id="Fig052"></a>
+<img src="images/illo120.png" alt="Fig. 52" width="250" height="440" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 52.&mdash;Tarsus of the Ox: Posterior Left Limb, Antero-external
+Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Tibia; 2, coronoid bone of the tarsus; 3, superior articular surface
+of the astragalus; 4, inferior articular surface of the astragalus; 5,
+calcaneum; 6, cuboido-scaphoid bone; 7, great cuneiform bone&mdash;the
+small cuneiform bone is situated at the back of the latter; 8, principal
+metatarsal&mdash;the small, or rudimentary, metatarsal bone is very small;
+it is situated at the back of the preceding, and is not to be seen in the
+sketch. It would be visible if the view were directly lateral, but then
+the superior and inferior articular surfaces of the astragalus would be less
+apparent.</p></div>
+
+<p>The fibula is extremely atrophied. The shaft and superior
+extremity of this bone are represented merely by a simple
+ligamentous cord, which is sometimes ossified. There remains
+of the fibula, as a portion well and distinctly developed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+the inferior extremity only. This presents itself under
+the form of a small bone situated in the region ordinarily
+occupied by the inferior extremity of the outer bone of the
+leg&mdash;that is to say, the external part of the inferior extremity
+of the tibia; this little bone articulates with the
+astragalus and the calcaneum. Some authors consider it
+to be a tarsal bone, and describe it under the name of the
+coronoid bone of the tarsus (<a href="#Fig052">Fig. 52</a>, 2). It is not, perhaps,
+quite legitimate to describe it as a bone of this region, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+it has not a homologue in the tarsus of other animals. Its
+external surface is rough; its superior border is furnished
+with a small pointed process occupying a depression which
+is provided for it by the tibia. It reaches lower down than
+the latter, and forms in this way a sort of external malleolus,
+which frames, on the outer aspect, the mortise in which the
+astragalus is maintained.</p>
+
+<p>The tarsus, as a whole, has an elongated form; it is formed
+of five bones: the astragalus, calcaneum, cuboid and scaphoid,
+which coalesce, to form a single bone, and two cuneiform
+bones, which correspond to the second and third cuneiform
+bones of the human foot. These cuneiforms are called, from
+their size, commencing internally, by the names small and
+great cuneiform.</p>
+
+<p>The calcaneum is long and narrow; it is longer than that
+of the horse; it is on the anterior and external part that
+the bone (coronoid tarsal bone) which represents the inferior
+extremity of the fibula is situated. It forms the prominence
+known as <i>the point of the ham</i>, a prominence which is no
+other than the heel, which, in the unguligrades, is, as we
+have already said, very far removed from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The astragalus, which is elongated in the vertical direction,
+has three articular surfaces disposed in the form of
+trochle&aelig;: a superior trochlea, which is in contact with the
+skeleton of the leg, and which is present in all animals; an inferior,
+which replaces the articular head found on the anterior
+aspect of the astragalus in man; this articulates with the
+portion of the scaphoido-cuboid that corresponds to the
+scaphoid; and, lastly, a posterior trochlea with which the
+calcaneum articulates. Of these three trochle&aelig;, the superior
+is the most strongly marked. Between this latter and the
+inferior is found, on the anterior surface of the astragalus,
+a deep depression, which, during flexion of the foot on the
+leg, receives a prominence which the inferior extremity of
+the tibia presents in its median portion.</p>
+
+<p>We can easily recognise the trochle&aelig; which we have been
+discussing, in the little bones which children use &#8216;to play
+at bones&#8217;; these bones are no other than the astragali of
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>We have already mentioned that the scaphoid and the
+cuboid are ankylosed; they form by their union an irregular
+bone, on which the astragalus and calcaneum are supported.</p>
+
+<p>The cuneiforms articulate with the internal half of the
+superior extremity of the principal metatarsal; the external
+half of this metatarsal articulates with the portion of
+bone which represents the cuboid.</p>
+
+<p>The metatarsus is represented by a principal metatarsal,
+formed by the coalescence of two metatarsals; we also find
+in this region a very small rudimentary metatarsal.</p>
+
+<p>The metatarsus is a little longer than the metacarpus; its
+transverse measurement is a little less; on the other hand,
+it is a little thicker in antero-posterior direction; from these
+two differences it results that the body of the metatarsus
+is quadrilateral, whereas the metacarpus presents only an
+anterior and a posterior surface.</p>
+
+<p>The rudimentary metatarsal is a very small roundish
+bone, situated at the back of the superior extremity of the
+principal metatarsal.</p>
+
+<p>The phalanges closely resemble those of the anterior limbs;
+nevertheless, the first and second phalanges differ from the
+latter in the fact that they are a little longer and narrower.</p>
+
+<p>At the back of the metatarso-phalangeal articulations, as
+in the corresponding region of the anterior limbs, are found
+the sesamoid bones. Such also exist at the articulations of
+the second and third phalanges.</p>
+
+<p><b>Unguligrades: Horse</b> (<a href="#Fig040">Fig. 40</a>, p. 64).&mdash;The pelvis of
+the horse presents a general form which sharply differentiates
+it from that of the carnivora; in fact, the ilium is twisted in
+such a way that the external iliac fossa does not look outwards,
+but upwards. It results from this twist that the anterior
+iliac spine, which we have seen to be directed downwards in
+the carnivora, has become external; and this prominence is
+much farther removed from the vertebral column than in
+the dog or cat. On the other hand, the posterior iliac spine,
+which is directed upwards in the carnivora, has become
+internal; it is also placed nearer to the vertebral column,
+with the result that the distance which separates this spine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+from that of the bone of the opposite side is proportionately
+less.</p>
+
+<p>The internal iliac spine, which is conical in shape, and
+curved upwards, forms a prominence known as <i>the angle of
+the crupper</i>; the external iliac spine, thick and provided
+with tuberosities, forms a clearly-defined prominence; this is
+the angle of the <i>haunch</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The iliac crest, extending directly from one spine to the
+other, is curved, its concavity being turned upwards. The
+external iliac fossa, which looks upward, is limited anteriorly
+by this crest, and is, like the latter, slightly hollowed. The
+portion of the bone which connects the ilium to the region
+occupied by the cotyloid cavity is extremely narrow; posteriorly,
+the bone enlarges again to form the ischial and
+pubic portions.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig053" id="Fig053"></a>
+<img src="images/illo124.png" alt="Fig. 53" width="400" height="342" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig 53.&mdash;Pelvis of the Horse: Superior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA&#8242;, bi-iliac diameter;
+BB&#8242;, bi-ischiatic diameter.</p></div>
+
+<p>The tuberosity of the ischium, thick and curved upwards,
+but less so than in the ox, forms the most prominent part of
+the posterior border of the region of the thigh; this projecting
+portion, so sharply defined in spare subjects, is known
+as the <i>point</i> or <i>angle of the buttock</i>. Contrary to what we have
+indicated in the case of the dog, the distance which separates
+the ischiatic tuberosities is inconsiderable in proportion to
+that which we find between the external iliac spine of one
+side and that of the opposite. The bi-ischiatic diameter
+does not even equal the width of one iliac bone measured
+at the level of its crest (<a href="#Fig053">Fig. 53</a>). On the skeleton of the
+horse in the &Eacute;cole des Beaux-Arts, the distance which separates
+the tuberosities of the ischia is 225 millimetres; that
+between the two spines of each iliac bone is 25 centimetres.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior region of the crupper is thus much broader
+than that occupied by the ischia.</p>
+
+<p>The femur is relatively short. Its shaft is rectilinear, and
+does not present the anterior convexity which is found on
+the human femur, and which we indicated when discussing
+that of the dog. The shaft of the bone, instead of being
+prismatic and triangular, presents four surfaces; the
+anterior, internal, and external, almost pass into each other,
+being separated one from the other merely by rounded
+and slightly marked borders; the posterior surface, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+is plane, replaces the linea aspera, which in the horse, instead
+of presenting the appearance of a crest, is considerably
+widened. The numerous irregularities which this surface
+presents give insertion to the muscles which correspond to
+those attached to the linea aspera.</p>
+
+<p>Between this posterior surface and the external is found
+a rough prominence which curves forward; this was designated
+by Cuvier the <i>third trochanter</i>; it replaces the external
+branch of the superior line of bifurcation of the linea aspera;
+other authors call it the <i>infratrochanteric crest</i>, because it is
+situated below the great trochanter. At the inferior part of
+the same region is found a deep fossa, the borders of which
+are rough; this is the <i>supracondyloid fossa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Between the posterior surface and the internal are found:
+above, the lesser trochanter, which is long and rough;
+below, at the level of the supracondyloid fossa, an equally
+rough surface known by the name of the <i>supracondyloid
+crest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The superior extremity is flattened from before backwards.
+The neck is not well marked. The great trochanter is very
+prominent, and projects beyond the level of the head of the
+femur. We divide the great trochanter into three parts:
+the summit, which is the most elevated portion; the convexity,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+which is situated in front; and the crest, formed by
+muscular impressions, situated outside and below the convexity.
+The digital fossa is situated behind and below the
+summit of the great trochanter. With regard to the lesser
+trochanter, it is placed so far down that it really forms
+part of the shaft of the bone, with which, besides, we have
+described it.</p>
+
+<p>On the inferior extremity of the femur are two condyles
+and a trochlea; the condyles are clearly separated from this
+latter by a marked constriction.</p>
+
+<p>The trochlea is directed with a slight obliquity downwards
+and inwards; its internal lip is much thicker and more
+prominent than the external; this is, accordingly, a condition
+exactly the opposite of that which characterizes the
+corresponding region of the human femur.</p>
+
+<p>The knee-cap is lozenge-shaped; its superior angle projects
+upward, and produces a prominence at the part which
+corresponds to the base of the human patella, the part
+which is here the thickest portion of the bone. Its anterior
+surface is convex and rough. Its posterior surface presents
+two lateral articular facets, separated by a crest; this
+surface is in contact with the trochlea of the femur, and,
+as it is the internal lip of the latter which is the more
+developed, it results therefrom that the internal articular
+surface of the knee-cap is larger than the external.</p>
+
+<p>The knee-cap contributes to the formation of the region of
+the posterior limb which is called the <i>stifle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The tibia is large in its upper portion; in its inferior part
+it is flattened from before backwards. The posterior surface
+of the shaft presents an oblique line, below which are found
+vertical rough lines for the insertion of muscles. The external
+surface is hollowed out in its upper part. The
+anterior tuberosity of the tibia rises just to the level of the
+flat articular surface; it is hollowed in its median portion
+by a vertical groove of elongated form, which receives the
+ligament that binds the knee-cap to the tibia. The external
+tuberosity is more prominent than the internal; in it is
+found a groove for the passage of the anterior tibial muscle.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior extremity, flattened from before backwards,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+presents a surface which is moulded on the trochlea of the
+astragalus; the median crest of this surface is thick, and
+descends lower posteriorly than the tuberosities which are
+situated on the external and internal aspects of this
+extremity.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two tuberosities, that which is internal is comparable
+to the internal malleolus of man, the one on the outer
+side forms a sort of external malleolus; but this latter here
+belongs to the tibia, and not to the fibula.</p>
+
+<p>The fibula, in fact, does not reach the inferior extremity
+of the tibia; it is a poorly developed bone, elongated and
+terminating inferiorly in a point, at the middle of the shaft
+of the tibia or at its lower third. Its superior extremity,
+which is slightly expanded, articulates with the tuberosity
+which occupies the outer aspect of the corresponding extremity
+of the tibia.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig054" id="Fig054"></a>
+<img src="images/illo127.png" alt="Fig. 54" width="200" height="354" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 54.&mdash;Tarsus of the Horse: Left Posterior Limb, Anterior
+Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Tibia; 2, internal tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia
+(homologue of the internal malleolus of man); 3, external tuberosity
+of the inferior extremity of the tibia (homologue of the external malleolus);
+4, median crest lodged in the groove of the pulley of the astragalus; 5,
+pulley of the astragalus; 6, internal tuberosity of the astragalus; 7,
+calcaneum; 8, cuboid; 9, scaphoid; 10, great cuneiform, the small cuneiform
+is placed behind this latter; 11, principal metatarsal; 12, external
+rudimentary metatarsal. The internal rudimentary metatarsal, being
+more slender than the external, does not appear in the figure.</p></div>
+
+<p>The bones of the tarsus are six in number: the calcaneum
+and astragalus form the upper row; the cuboid, scaphoid,
+and two cuneiforms form the lower (<a href="#Fig054">Fig. 54</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The astragalus has not, as in ruminants, an inferior
+trochlea for articulation with the scaphoid; this portion of
+the bone presents a surface which is slightly convex. It
+articulates with the tibia by a trochlea that occupies not only
+the superior surface, but also the anterior. This trochlea,
+which is directed slightly obliquely downwards and outwards,
+has a very pronounced form; its lips, which are extremely
+prominent, determine by their anterior part one of the
+features which we recognise on the anterior aspect of the
+<i>ham</i>&mdash;a feature which is still more accentuated when the
+metatarsus (<i>canon</i>) is extended on the leg. On the internal
+surface of the astragalus is found a tubercle, which forms a
+projection in the corresponding region of the ham.</p>
+
+<p>The calcaneum, which is not quite so long as that of
+the ox, forms by its summit a prominence which is called
+<i>the point of the ham</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The cuboid is small; the scaphoid is large, and flattened
+from above downwards. Of the two cuneiforms, the more
+external is the larger; it closely resembles the scaphoid;
+it is flattened from above downwards as is the latter; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+it is a little smaller in size. The small cuneiform, which
+occupies the inner side of the tarsus, is the smallest bone in
+this region; it is sometimes divided into two parts; this
+raises the number of the cuneiforms to three, and that of the
+bones of the tarsus to seven.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the metatarsus and the phalanges are equal
+in number to the corresponding bones in the anterior limbs;
+they are formed on a type analogous to that of these latter.
+Accordingly, we shall merely indicate the differences which
+characterize them.</p>
+
+<p>The principal metatarsal is longer than the metacarpal of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+the same class; its shaft is more cylindrical; its inferior
+extremity is somewhat thicker. The external rudimentary
+metatarsal is better developed than the internal; in the
+metacarpus the reverse is the case.</p>
+
+<p>The phalanges so far resemble those of the anterior limb
+that, as differential characters, we need point out only the
+following: the first phalanx of the hind-foot is a little
+shorter than that of the fore-foot; its inferior extremity
+is a little narrower, and its superior extremity a little
+thicker. The second phalanx is a little less expanded
+laterally.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in appearance which the three phalanges,
+anterior and posterior, respectively present are to be borne
+in mind; for they are correlated to the general form of the
+fore and hind feet. We will establish this point when we
+come to study the hoof (see <a href="#Fig101">Figs. 101</a> and <a href="#Fig102">102</a>, p. 257). In
+the fore-foot the ungual phalanx has its inferior surface
+limited externally by a circular border, while the same bone
+of the hind-foot has this surface a little narrower, more concave,
+and limited by two curved borders which unite
+anteriorly to form an angle&mdash;an arrangement which gives to
+the general outline of this region the form of the letter V.</p>
+
+<h5>Articulation of the Posterior Limbs</h5>
+
+<p><b>The Coxo-femoral Articulation.</b>&mdash;The head of the
+femur is received in the cotyloid cavity; these are the osseous
+surfaces in contact in this articulation. They are maintained
+in position by a fibrous capsule and a round ligament.
+To this latter is found attached, in the horse, a fasciculus
+which, commencing, as does the round ligament, at the depression
+on the head of the femur, emerges from the cotyloid
+cavity by the notch which is present in its circumference,
+and is attached to the anterior border of the pubes, to blend
+with the tendon of the rectus muscle of the abdomen. This
+is the pubio-femoral ligament.</p>
+
+<p>The movements which this joint permits are the same in
+the quadrupeds as in man, but less extensive. They are:
+flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+latter being much more limited than the former. There is
+also rotation.</p>
+
+<p>By flexion, the inferior extremity of the femur is directed
+forwards; the bone of the thigh then takes a more oblique
+direction than the normal. This movement takes place, for
+example, when the animal carries forward one of its hinder
+limbs. Extension, which takes place in an inverse sense, is
+produced when the foot is fixed on the ground, while the
+body is projected forward. It is also produced in the
+action of kicking.</p>
+
+<p>As for the lateral movements&mdash;viz., abduction and adduction&mdash;they
+are less extensive than the preceding movements.
+The absence of the pubio-femoral ligament in other
+quadrupeds than the horse explains why in them abduction
+is less limited than in the latter. Indeed, it is the tension of
+this ligament, occasioned by the abduction of the thighs,
+which arrests more quickly the movement in question.</p>
+
+<p><b>Articulation of the Knee.</b>&mdash;This articulation, as in man,
+is formed by the femur, the patella, and the tibia.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the ligament of the patella is not single, but
+consists of three parts, designated, on account of their
+position, by the respective names of external, internal, and
+median patellar ligaments. The two former come from the
+angles on the corresponding borders of the knee-cap; the
+median springs from the anterior surface and inferior angle of
+the same bone. They all three pass to their termination on
+the anterior tubercle of the tibia. The external ligament
+is the strongest, and the internal ligament the least
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, the cat, the pig, and the sheep, the patellar
+ligament consists of a single band. The articulation is
+further strengthened on the sides by lateral ligaments&mdash;an
+internal and an external.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the principal movements, these are flexion
+and extension, to which may be added movements of rotation
+of limited extent. In flexion, the leg bends on the thigh;
+its inferior extremity is directed upwards and backwards;
+the angle which the tibia naturally forms with the femur
+becomes less obtuse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>But
+it should be understood that one part of this description&mdash;that
+which has relation to the leg&mdash;holds good
+only when the femur is in its normal condition, or in flexion.
+Indeed, at the close of the movement in which, during a step,
+the foot is in contact with the ground&mdash;that is, at the termination
+of the resting stage&mdash;the inferior extremity of the tibia
+is directed backwards. But the femur is then in a state of
+extension, and in regard to this latter the attitude of the
+leg is unchanged.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig055" id="Fig055"></a>
+<img src="images/illo130.png" alt="Fig. 55" width="225" height="371" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 55.&mdash;Extension of the Leg: Right Posterior Limb of the
+Horse, External Surface. (After a Chronographic Study by
+Professor Marey.)</p></div>
+
+<p>At this moment, notwithstanding the direction, which
+recalls that which it has at the time of flexion, the leg is not
+bent on the thigh; on the contrary, it is almost in the line
+of its continuation (<a href="#Fig055">Fig. 55</a>). As we have done in connection
+with the articulations of the anterior limbs, we borrow
+this figure from the interesting chronophotographic studies
+of Professor Marey.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+E. J. Marey, &#8216;Analysis of the Movements of the Horse by the Chronophotograph&#8217;
+(<i>La Nature</i>, June 11, 1898).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Tibio-tarsal Articulations and of the Bones of the
+Tarsus.</b>&mdash;In the region which veterinary anatomists call the
+ham, the articulations of the leg and foot alone call for special<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+study in the case of the horse. The articulations of the
+bones of the tarsus, and of these with the metatarsus, do not
+offer any interest with regard to mobility, this being almost
+wholly absent at that level.</p>
+
+<p>The leg and the astragalus, in a general way, are placed in
+contact by such articular surfaces that the resulting joint,
+which is a true hinge, permits movements of flexion and extension
+only. Indeed, as we have indicated above, the tibia
+is furnished, on the inferior surface, with a crest that fits into
+the deep groove which is situated on the corresponding
+surface of the astragalus.</p>
+
+<p>During flexion, the anterior surface of the foot tends to
+approach the anterior surface of the leg, the angle formed
+by these two segments becoming more and more narrowed.
+The displacement in the opposite direction characterizes
+extension.</p>
+
+<p>In other quadrupeds, the articulations which bind together
+the bones of the tarsus possess a little more freedom of movement.
+The shape of these bones, and particularly the shape
+of the surfaces of the astragalus, which are in contact with
+them, allow movements in this region, in the case of the dog
+and cat, which, without being so extensive as those of the
+human foot, in the subastragaloid articulation, nevertheless,
+recall the mobility which we find in the human species
+at this level&mdash;that is to say, rotation, abduction, and
+adduction of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>As for the articulations of the metatarsus with the
+phalanges, and of the phalanges with one another, they resemble
+those of the anterior limb too closely that it should
+be necessary to study them here. Such a study would
+be, in this case, but a repetition (see <a href="#Page_76">p. 76</a>, a description of the
+articulations in question).</p>
+
+<h4>THE HEAD IN GENERAL, AND IN SOME
+ANIMALS IN PARTICULAR.</h4>
+
+<p>When we compare, by the examination of one of their
+lateral aspects, the skull of man and the same region in other
+mammals, it is easy to observe that the relative development
+of the cranium and face is entirely different. In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+case of man the cranium is large, and the face relatively
+small; in animals the face is proportionally much more
+highly developed. The measure of the facial angle permits
+us to note these differences, and the figures relative to the
+value of this angle are sufficiently demonstrative to induce us
+to indicate those which are, in a general way, connected with
+some of the forms in individuals which here occupy our
+attention. In the first place, we must remember that the
+angle in question is more acute, as the cranium is less developed
+in proportion to the facial region (<a href="#Fig056">Figs. 56</a> and <a href="#Fig057">57</a>). It
+is especially to this character that we wish to draw attention.</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 109">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Man</td>
+<td class="right">70&deg;</td>
+<td class="left">-80&deg;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Cat</td>
+<td class="right">41&deg;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Dog</td>
+<td class="right">28&deg;</td>
+<td class="left">-41&deg;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Sheep</td>
+<td class="right">20&deg;</td>
+<td class="left">-25&deg;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Ox</td>
+<td class="right">18&deg;</td>
+<td class="left">-20&deg;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Ass</td>
+<td class="right">12&deg;</td>
+<td class="left">-16&deg;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr5">Horse</td>
+<td class="right">11&deg;</td>
+<td class="left">-13&deg;</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig056" id="Fig056"></a>
+<img src="images/illo133a.png" alt="Fig. 56" width="350" height="287" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 56.&mdash;Human Skull: Measure of the Facial Angle by the
+Method of Camper. Angle BAC = 80&deg;.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">The internal wall of the cranial cavity is marked by the dotted line.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig057" id="Fig057"></a>
+<img src="images/illo133b.png" alt="Fig. 57" width="400" height="360" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 57.&mdash;Skull of the Horse: Measure of the Facial Angle by
+the Method of Camper.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18"
+class="fnanchor" style="font-size: 100%; vertical-align: 20%;">[18]</a> Angle BAC = 13&deg;.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">The internal wall of the cranial cavity is shown by the dotted line.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> We have indicated on this sketch of the skull of the horse the facial
+angle measured by the method of Camper, in order that the correspondence
+with <a href="#Fig056">Fig. 56</a> may be more complete. But it is certain that the procedure
+here employed is in practice not satisfactory, since the apex of the angle,
+as we can demonstrate, is found to be situated within the contour of
+the head, and that, consequently, it is rather difficult to localize it precisely
+in the case of a given skeleton. Further, because of the absence of the
+base of the nose in the complete skull, the auriculo-nasal line cannot
+be accurately fixed. It would be the same for most other animals. This
+is why the method employed for these latter is preferably that of Cuvier,
+or, again, that of Cloquet. In the former, the apex of the angle of
+Camper is transferred to the free border of the upper incisors, but these
+teeth may be absent, and, on the other hand, ruminants are destitute of
+them. In the second, the same apex is placed at the alveolar border,
+and the angle then becomes fairly easy to appreciate.</p></div>
+
+<p>Besides, in animals the cranium is very prominent
+superiorly, and the face, more or less elongated, is sharply
+projected downwards and forwards; in man the cranial region
+occupies not only the superior, but also the posterior part;
+the face is short and of a compact form. The human head,
+in its general aspect, may be compared to a sphere, while
+the skull of the quadrupeds presents the aspect of a quadrangular
+pyramid, with the base turned upwards and the
+summit at the incisor teeth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Direction of the Head.</b>&mdash;Before entering on the study
+of the bones of the head, it is necessary, in our opinion, to
+agree as to the position in which we shall suppose it to be
+placed.</p>
+
+<p>The question may seem to be one of little importance;
+nevertheless, it cannot be regarded as indifferent, since
+authors are not all agreed on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>Some suppose it to be placed vertically&mdash;that is, with the
+incisor teeth turned directly downwards. Others, on the
+contrary, suppose it to be placed horizontally, resting on the
+whole length of the lower jaw, the face being then turned
+upwards. These two extreme methods of arrangement appear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+to us to possess inconveniences&mdash;at least, for comparison
+with the human head.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, if, when the head is vertical, the same regions of the
+face (forehead, nose) are, in the case of animals as well as man,
+turned forward, the lower jaw ceases to merit its appellation,
+as it is then situated, not below, but behind the upper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+Furthermore, if this position is chosen, for example, for modelling
+or drawing, it cannot be obtained without difficulty
+when we have to deal with an isolated piece of the skeleton,
+on account of the absence of equilibrium, which it is necessary
+to obviate. It is true that the question of convenience
+should not take precedence of all others, and it suffices for
+us in this connection to recall, in regard to the human pelvis,
+that, although the older anatomists used to represent it as
+resting commodiously on the three angles which terminate
+it at its lower part (ischial tuberosities and coccyx), this
+attitude being false, it is customary now to incline the
+superior aspect forwards, inasmuch as this arrangement
+more nearly conforms to reality, in spite of the fact that it
+is a little more difficult so to dispose an isolated pelvis.
+Further, to return to the head; if its vertical direction can
+be demonstrated, for example, in many horses, it is not sufficiently
+general to be adopted as the classic position.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the facility of placing in position, the horizontal
+direction is certainly to be preferred; but this is also
+far removed from the natural position in the animal while in
+the state of repose. On the other hand, the mind is not
+satisfied with the idea that certain regions of the face,
+such as the nose and the forehead, are then directed upwards.
+And yet it is necessary to come to a decision, seeing that
+what we are now investigating applies also to the position
+to which it is necessary to give the preference in placing the
+skeleton of the head when we wish to draw it in profile.
+That which we adopt is a compromise, but to us it seems
+more rational.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the head of the horse, to be normal,
+should be such as to give it an inclination of 45&deg;. In this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+case the lower jaw is still posterior; and, for this reason, we
+see in adopting this position some inconveniences from a
+didactic point of view. Accordingly, we will suppose the
+head brought a little nearer to the horizontal, and this, from
+the imaginative point of view, has certainly an advantage
+which we cannot afford to neglect when addressing artists.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, let us suppose that to a clay model of a human
+head we wish to give the aspect of the head of a quadruped.
+We should elevate the occiput; and then, taking hold of the
+lower part of the face, we should lengthen it, not in a direction
+precisely antero-posterior, but downwards and forwards. It
+is obviously this latter procedure which, on the other
+hand, is carried out when a person wishes to give to his
+own face some resemblance to the muzzle of a quadruped.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that, in the position we have adopted, the face
+is directed obliquely downwards and forwards, and that there
+may result a certain confusion in describing the position
+of its different parts. On this account, with the object
+of not making complications, we purpose, for the present,
+to substitute, for example, for the term &#8216;antero-superior&#8217;&mdash;which
+when speaking of the position of the forehead and
+nose would be more exact&mdash;the term &#8216;anterior,&#8217; which is
+sufficiently comprehensible. The mouth will be, for the
+same reason, referred to as being situated at the inferior
+part of the face, and not the antero-inferior.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Skull.</b>&mdash;The elevation of the cranial region becomes
+especially appreciable when we examine the occipital
+bone. Before verifying this fact, it is not superfluous to
+recall the general arrangement which this bone presents in
+the human skull. A portion of the occipital bone occupies
+the base of the skull; but this base in man is horizontal; to
+this region succeeds the shell-shaped portion of the occipital
+bone, which, passing vertically upwards, forms with the
+preceding portion an angle situated at the level of the external
+occipital protuberance, and of the curved line which
+starts from it on each side. In animals a portion of the
+occipital bone is horizontal, it is true; but this bone being
+sharply bent at the level of the occipital foramen and condyles,
+the result is that the portion which surmounts these latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+looks backwards, and is limited above by the external
+occipital protuberance, which forms the culminating
+point of the skull; this point is situated between the
+ears.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig058" id="Fig058"></a>
+<img src="images/illo136a.png" alt="Fig. 58" width="500" height="349" />
+<p class="caption just"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a></span>Fig.
+58.&mdash;Skull of one of the Felid&aelig; (Jaguar): Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Posterior surface of the occipital bone; 2, external occipital
+protuberance; 3, condyle of the occipital bone; 4, jugular process;
+5, parietal bone; 6, frontal bone; 7, orbital process; 8, orbital cavity;
+9, squamous portion of the temporal bone; 10, external auditory canal,
+in front of which is situated the zygomatic process; 11, tympanic bulla;
+12, superior maxillary bone; 13, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 14,
+nasal bone; 15, anterior orifice of the nasal cavity; 16, malar bone;
+17, ungual or lachrymal bone; 18, inferior maxillary bone; 19, condyle
+of the inferior maxillary bone; 20, coronoid process; 21, incisor teeth;
+22, canine teeth; 23, molar teeth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig059" id="Fig059"></a>
+<img src="images/illo136b.png" alt="Fig. 59" width="450" height="250" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 59.&mdash;Skull of the Lion: Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">This figure is intended to show that in the lion the contour of the face
+between the nasal bones and the cranial region is more flattened than
+in other felid&aelig;, such as the tiger, jaguar, panther, and domestic cat.
+This difference is shown by comparison of this figure with the preceding
+one (<a href="#Fig058">Fig. 58</a>). We are indebted to M. Tramond, the well-known
+naturalist, for the indication of this differential character which, from
+the artistic plastic point of view, is one of real interest.</p></div>
+
+<p>This protuberance, prolonged on each side by the superior
+curved line of the occipital bone, is so much the more
+prominent as this bone bends sharply a second time, so
+as to form a third portion, which, looking forwards, forms
+part of the anterior aspect of the skull, and proceeds to
+articulate with the parietals. On this third portion is
+found a crest which, proceeding from the occipital protuberance,
+is continuous in front with the <a href="#ParietalCrest">parietal crests</a>,
+to which we will again refer in speaking of the parietal
+bones.</p>
+
+<p>On the inferior surface of the human occipital bone are
+found, at the level of, and external to, the condyles two bony
+elevations which bear the name of <i>jugular eminences</i>. They
+are long in quadrupeds, and constitute what are designated
+by some authors the <i>styloid processes</i>, but they must
+not be confounded with the processes of the same name
+which in the case of man form part of the temporal bone.
+These processes are very highly developed in the pig, horse,
+ox, and sheep.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the occipital bone is deprived of the protuberance,
+and is not bent on itself in the anterior portion,
+neither does it form the most salient part of the skull; this
+latter, which is situated at the level of the horns, belongs
+to the frontal bone. In the pig, also, the occipital bone
+is not bent upon itself in its anterior portion, but forms
+the summit of the head. The occipital protuberance,
+hollowed on its posterior surface, rises vertically, and
+rests upon the parietal bone, with which it forms an acute
+angle.</p>
+
+<p>The parietals, two separate bones in the dog and the
+cat, but fused in the median line in the ox, sheep, and horse,
+are of special interest in regard to the two crests which, in
+the carnivora, and also in the pig and the horse, occupy
+their external surface, and, after diverging from one
+another, are continued by a crest which crosses the frontal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+bone and ends at the external orbital process of the latter
+bone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ParietalCrest" id="ParietalCrest"></a>These crests, known as the <i>parietal</i> or <i>temporal crests</i>,
+recall both in position and relations the temporal curved
+line of the parietal bone of man. They contribute, as in
+the case of the latter, to the formation of the boundaries
+of the temporal fossa.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig060" id="Fig060"></a>
+<img src="images/illo138.png" alt="Fig. 60" width="450" height="328" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 60.&mdash;Skull of the Dog: Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Posterior surface of the occipital bone; 2, external occipital protuberance;
+3, occipital condyle; 4, jugular process; 5, parietal bone;
+6, frontal bone; 7, orbital process; 8, orbital cavity; 9, external auditory
+canal, in front of which is found the zygomatic process; 10, tympanic
+bulla; 11, superior maxillary bone; 12, intermaxillary or incisor bone;
+13, nasal bone; 14, anterior opening of the cavity of the nasal foss&aelig;;
+15, malar bone; 16, lachrymal bone; 17, inferior maxillary bone; 18, condyle
+of the inferior maxillary bone; 19, coronoid process; 20, incisor
+teeth; 21, canine teeth; 22, molar teeth.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the carnivora, these crests are situated, throughout their
+whole length, in the median line, the temporal foss&aelig; being,
+accordingly, as extended as they possibly can be. In certain
+species, the development of these crests is such that they
+form by their union a vertical plate, which, in separating the
+two temporal foss&aelig;, gives them a greater depth. In the pig,
+the parietal crests, analogous in this respect to the temporal
+curved lines of the parietal bones of man, are separated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+an interval, proportionately less extended, however, than
+that of the human skull. The parietal bone in the ox and the
+sheep does not enter into the formation of the anterior surface
+of the skull; it is formed by an osseous plate, narrow and
+elongated transversely, which, with the occipital bone, constitutes
+the base of the region of <i>the nape of the neck</i>. It is
+bent upon itself at the level of its lateral portions so as to
+occupy the temporal fossa.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior surface of the frontal bone, which is depressed
+in the median line in the dog, but plane in the horse, is
+limited by two crests, which, situated on the prolongation
+of the parietal crests, diverge more and more from one
+another in proportion as they occupy a lower position.
+This surface terminates externally in two processes, which
+are the homologues of the external orbital processes of the
+human frontal bone.</p>
+
+<p>The superior border of these orbital processes, situated
+on the prolongation of the corresponding parietal crests,
+contributes to limit the temporal fossa. Each of these
+orbital processes terminates in the following manner: In the
+bear, dog, cat, and pig, in which the orbital cavities are incompletely
+bounded by bone, this process, slightly developed,
+is not in connection, by its inferior extremity, with any other
+part of the skeleton of the region. In the ox and the sheep,
+it articulates with a process of the malar bone. In the
+horse, it articulates with the zygomatic process of the
+temporal bone. The inferior margin of this process forms
+a part of the boundary of the anterior opening of the orbital
+cavity.</p>
+
+<p>The supra-orbital foramen, which does not exist in carnivora,
+occupies in the horse the base of the orbital process. In
+the ox, it is situated a little nearer the middle line; and its
+anterior orifice opens into an osseous gutter which is directed
+upwards towards the base of the horn, while inferiorly it
+meets the inferior border of the frontal bone; in the sheep this
+groove is but slightly developed. In this latter, as in the ox,
+it is the frontal bone which forms the most elevated portion
+of the skull. In fact, being bent upon itself at a certain level,
+its external surface is formed of two planes: one, posterior,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+which is inclined downwards and directed backwards; the
+other, anterior, is also inclined downwards, but with a forward
+obliquity. At the union of these planes the bone forms an
+elbow, on either side of which are found the osseous processes
+on which the horns are mounted.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig061" id="Fig061"></a>
+<img src="images/illo140.png" alt="Fig. 61" width="450" height="415" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 61.&mdash;Skull of the Pig: Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Occipital bone; 2, condyle of the occipital; 3, jugular process;
+4, parietal bone; 5, parietal crests; 6, frontal bone; 7, orbital process;
+8, orbital cavity; 9, external auditory canal; 10, zygomatic process;
+11, superior maxillary bone; 12, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 13,
+nasal bone; 14, anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal foss&aelig;; 15,
+malar bone; 16, lachrymal bone; 17, inferior maxillary bone; 18, condyle
+of the inferior maxillary bone; 19, incisor teeth; 20, canine teeth;
+21, molar teeth.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the bear, the anterior margin of the frontal bone is
+prolonged by two small tongues of bone, which, descending
+on the lateral borders of the nasal bones, articulate with the
+superior half of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The temporal bone is, as in man, furnished with a squamous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+portion, from which springs the zygomatic process, which
+is directed towards the face, to terminate in the following
+manner: in the carnivora, the pig, and ruminants, it
+articulates with the malar bone by its inferior border;
+in the horse, it insinuates itself as a sort of wedge between
+the malar bone and the orbital process of the frontal bone,
+with which it articulates, as we have already pointed out,
+and contributes, by a portion situated in front of this
+articulation, to form the boundary of the anterior opening
+of the corresponding orbital cavity. As in man, the zygomatic
+process arises by two roots: one, transverse, behind
+which is situated the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone;
+the other, antero-posterior, which proceeds to join above
+with the superior curved line of the occipital bone.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the glenoid cavity is found the external auditory
+canal, and, further back still, the mastoid process. This
+latter, but slightly developed in the carnivora, a little more
+so in the ruminants, and still more in the horse, has its
+external surface traversed by a crest, <i>the mastoid crest</i>,
+which, after becoming blended with the antero-posterior
+root of the zygomatic process, proceeds with this latter to
+join the superior occipital curved line.</p>
+
+<p>Below the auditory canal is situated a round prominence,
+highly developed in carnivora; this is <i>the tympanic bulla</i>,
+also called <i>the mastoid protuberance</i>; it is an appendage of
+the tympanum.</p>
+
+<h5>The Face</h5>
+
+<p>The bone of this region, around which all the others come
+to be grouped, is, as in man, the superior maxillary. The
+relations of this maxillary with the neighbouring bones is
+not exactly the same in all animals; for example, in the ox,
+sheep, and horse, in which the bones of the nose are wide in
+their upper part, and in which the lachrymal bone, which is
+very highly developed, encroaches on the face, the superior
+maxillary does not meet the frontal bone; it is separated
+from it by the above-named bones. It unites with it, on the
+other hand, in the dog and the cat. In the bear, it is separated
+from the bones of the nose by a small tongue of bone which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+springs from the anterior border of the frontal&mdash;a process
+which we have noticed in connection with this latter.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig062" id="Fig062"></a>
+<img src="images/illo142.png" alt="Fig. 62" width="450" height="353" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 62.&mdash;The Skull of the Ox: Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Occipital condyle; 2, jugular process; 3, parietal bone; 4, frontal
+bone; 5, osseous process, which serves to support the horn (horn-core);
+6, orbital cavity; 7, external auditory canal, in front of which is found
+the zygomatic process; 8, temporal fossa; 9, superior maxillary bone;
+10, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 11, nasal bone; 12, anterior orifice
+of the cavity of the nasal foss&aelig;; 13, malar bone; 14, lachrymal bone;
+15, inferior maxillary bone; 16, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone;
+17, incisor teeth; 18, molar teeth.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the pig, ox, sheep, and horse, the external surface is
+traversed, to a greater or less extent, by a crest which is
+situated on the prolongation of the inferior border of the
+malar bone. This crest, which is straight in the horse, but
+curved with its convexity upwards in the ox and the sheep,
+is known as <i>the maxillary spine</i> or <i>the malar tuberosity</i>: it
+gives attachment to the masseter muscle, and, in the horse,
+is distinctly visible under the skin. It does not exist in the
+carnivora. On the same surface is situated the sub-orbital
+foramen.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior border is hollowed out into alveoli, in
+which are implanted the superior molar and canine teeth.
+This border is prolonged forwards from the alveolus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+which corresponds to the first molar tooth, to terminate,
+after a course more or less prolonged, at the alveolus
+of the canine. This space, more or less considerably expanded,
+which thus separates these teeth is called the <i>interdental
+space</i>; but this denomination is not applicable to
+ruminants, because these latter possess neither canine nor
+incisor teeth in the upper jaw (see <a href="#Page_125">p. 125</a>, dentition of the
+ox and sheep). The superior maxillary bone of one side and
+that of the opposite side do not meet in the median line in the
+region which corresponds to the incisor teeth; they are separated
+by a bone which, in the human species, is present only
+at the commencement of life, and afterwards coalesces with
+the maxilla; this is the intermaxillary or incisor bone.
+This bone, which is paired, is formed of a central part, which
+bears the superior incisor teeth; it is prolonged upwards
+and backwards by two processes: one, external, which insinuates
+itself between the superior maxillary and the nasal
+bone, except in the sheep, in which it remains widely separated
+from the latter; the other, internal, which is united to
+that which belongs to the bone of the opposite side to form
+part of the floor of the cavity of the nasal foss&aelig;; the external
+border of this process, which is separated from the body of the
+bone by a notch, forms the internal boundary of the corresponding
+<i>incisor opening</i> or the <i>incisor slit</i>. Owing to the
+absence of superior incisors in ruminants, the intermaxillary
+bone presents no alveoli.</p>
+
+<p>The malar bone, and the os unguis or lachrymal, are
+more or less developed according to the species considered.
+With regard to the malar bone, it is most important to
+notice the part which it takes in the formation of the
+zygomatic arch, and that its inferior border contributes
+to form the crest to which is attached the masseter
+muscle.</p>
+
+<p>As for the nasal bones, they present differential characters
+which, as they affect the form of the region which they
+occupy, are worthy of notice.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig063" id="Fig063"></a>
+<img src="images/illo144.png" alt="Fig. 63" width="450" height="420" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;Skull of the Horse: Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Posterior surface of the occipital bone; 2, external occipital protuberance;
+3, occipital condyle; 4, jugular process; 5, parietal bone;
+6, frontal bone; 7, orbital cavity; 8, zygomatic process of the temporal
+bone; 9, external auditory canal; 10, mastoid process; 11, superior
+maxillary bone or <i>maxilla</i>; 12, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 13, nasal
+bone; 14, malar bone; 15, lachrymal bone; 16, inferior maxillary
+bone or <i>mandible</i>; 17, inferior maxillary fissure; 18, condyle of the inferior
+maxillary bone; 19, coronoid process of the inferior maxillary bone;
+20, incisor teeth; 21, canine teeth; 22, molar teeth.</p></div>
+
+<p>Their dimensions in length are proportional to those of
+the face. Very small in man, they are more developed
+in carnivora. We recognise in the latter the two curves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+which characterize them in the human species, and which
+we clearly notice when we view them on one of their
+lateral aspects: a concavity above, and a convexity below.
+These curves are more or less accentuated&mdash;very strongly
+marked in the bulldog, and scarcely at all in the greyhound.
+Moreover, in the carnivora also the nasal bones are wider
+below than above, and form, by their junction, a semicircular
+notch which limits, in its superior portion, the
+anterior opening of the cavity of the nasal foss&aelig;. In the
+horse they present an opposite arrangement with regard to
+their dimensions in width; broad above, each terminates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+below by forming a pointed process which, separated from the
+intermaxillary bones, is prolonged in front of the nasal orifice.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior maxillary bone is, as in man, formed of a
+body and two branches. But among the many special
+characteristics of form and size which sharply differentiate
+it from the human bone, one detail must be
+indicated; this is the absence of a mental prominence.
+Hence it results that the anterior border of the body of the
+lower jaw, instead of being directed obliquely downwards
+and forwards, is, on the contrary, oblique downwards
+and backwards, and that in certain animals this border is
+actually found almost exactly on the prolongation of the
+inferior border of the body of the bone.</p>
+
+<p>On the external surface of the body are found the three
+mental foramina. The superior border is hollowed out by
+alveoli.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the branches (<i>rami</i>), they terminate in two
+processes: one, the posterior, is the condyle; the other,
+situated more forwards, is the coronoid process, which gives
+insertion to the temporal muscle. These two processes are
+separated by the sigmoid notch.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig064" id="Fig064"></a>
+<img src="images/illo146.png" alt="Fig. 64" width="450" height="295" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 64.&mdash;Skull of the Hare: Left Lateral Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, External occipital protuberance; 2, occipital condyle; 3, parietal
+bone; 4, frontal bone; 5, orbital process; 6, orbital cavity; 7, zygomatic
+process; 8, external auditory canal; 9, superior maxillary bone;
+10, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 11, nasal bone; 12, anterior opening
+of the nasal fossa; 13, malar bone; 14, inferior maxillary bone; 15,
+condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 16, incisor teeth; 17, molar
+teeth.</p></div>
+
+<p>For reasons which we will explain further on (see <a href="#Page_127">p. 127</a>,
+movements of the lower jaw), the condyle presents differences
+of form. In the carnivora, it is strongly convex from
+before backwards, expanded transversely, and firmly mortised
+in the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone; in the
+ruminants, it is less convex from before backwards, it is
+more slightly concave in the transverse direction; in the
+rodents&mdash;we give as an example the hare (<a href="#Fig064">Fig. 64</a>)&mdash;the
+condyle is still convex from before backwards, but it is
+flattened from without inwards.</p>
+
+<p>In the animals in which the muscles of mastication are
+very highly developed, and especially in the carnivora, the
+osseous regions occupied by these muscles are more extensive
+and more deep than in the human species. The length of
+the coronoid process, the depth of the temporal fossa, the
+extent of the zygomatic arch, the appearance of the external
+surface of each of the rami of the lower jaw, deeply hollowed
+out for accommodation of the masseter, and to provide extensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+surfaces of insertion for this muscle, are sure proofs
+furnished by the skeleton of the occasionally enormous development
+of the muscles of mastication.</p>
+
+<p>In the carnivora, a rather strong process, which is directed
+backwards, occupies the angle of the inferior maxilla; it is,
+accordingly, situated below the region of the condyle.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth which the jaws carry vary in number, and even
+in appearance, according to species; it is useful to note their
+differences. In order to establish the nature of these latter
+more effectively, we will first recall the fact that in man the
+teeth, thirty-two in number, are equally distributed between
+the jaws, and are divided into incisors, canines, and molars,
+of which the arrangement is thus formulated:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 123">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">5<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">2<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">2<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">5<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;32.<a name="FNanchor_19_19"
+id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">5<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">2<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">2<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">5<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span
+class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i>, <i>i</i>, incisors; <i>c</i>, canines; <i>m</i>, molars.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>We also note that the incisors are edged, the canines are
+pointed, and that the molars, cubical in shape, have their
+surface of contact provided with tubercles.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth of the cat are thirty in number; they are thus
+arranged:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 124-1">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">4<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">4<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;30.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">3<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">3<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Those of the dog number forty-two:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 124-2">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;42.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">7<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">7<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>In these animals, the incisors, such as are not damaged by
+use, are furnished, on the free border of their crown, with
+three tubercles, of which one, the median, is more developed
+than those which are situated laterally. We denote these teeth,
+commencing with those nearest the median line, by the names
+<i>central incisors</i> or <i>nippers</i>, <i>intermediate</i> and <i>corner incisors</i>.
+The canines, or <i>fangs</i>, are long and conical; they are curved
+backwards and outwards. The upper canines, which are
+larger than those of the lower jaw, are separated from the most
+external of the incisors (<i>corner</i>) by an interval in which the
+canines of the lower jaw are received. The lower canines, on
+the other hand, are in contact with the neighbouring incisors,
+and are each separated from the first molar which succeeds
+them by a wider interval than that which is situated between
+the corresponding teeth in the upper jaw.</p>
+
+<p>The molars differ essentially from the teeth of the same
+class in the human species. Their crown terminates in a
+cutting border bristling with sharp-pointed projections; this
+formation indicates that these teeth are principally designed
+for tearing. During the movement of raising the lower jaw,
+which is so energetic in the carnivora, they act, indeed, in
+the same manner as the two blades of a pair of scissors. The
+largest molars are: in the dog, the fourth of the upper jaw,
+and the fifth in the opposite one; in the cat, the third both
+above and below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>The pig has forty-four teeth disposed in the following
+manner:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 125-1">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">7<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">7<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;44.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">7<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">7<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>Of the incisors, the nippers and the intermediate ones of the
+upper jaw have their analogues in those of the horse; in the
+lower jaw, the corresponding teeth, straight, and directed forward,
+rather resemble the same incisors in rodents. The
+corner incisor teeth are much smaller, and are separated from
+the neighbouring teeth. The canine teeth, also called <i>tusks</i>
+or <i>tushes</i>, are greatly developed, especially in the male. The
+molars increase in size from the first to the last; they are not
+cutting, as in the carnivora, but they are not flattened and
+provided with tubercles on their surfaces of contact as in the
+herbivora.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox and the sheep the teeth are thirty-two in
+number:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 125-2">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">0<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">0<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;32.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">4<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">4<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>As we see from this dental formula, the incisors are found
+only in the lower jaw; they are replaced in the upper jaw
+by a thick cartilaginous pad on which the inferior incisors
+find a surface of resistance.</p>
+
+<p>These have their crowns flattened from above downwards,
+and gradually become thinner from the root to the anterior
+border, which is edged and slightly convex. These teeth
+gradually wear away. In proportion to the progress of this
+wear, on account of the fact that it involves the anterior
+borders and upper surfaces of the incisor teeth, and that
+these teeth are narrower towards the root than at the opposite
+extremity, the intervals which separate them tend to
+become wider and wider; and when the roots become exposed
+by the retraction of the gums, they are then separated
+from one another by a considerable interval. The molars
+have their grinding surface comparable to that of the horse;
+they increase in size from the first to the sixth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>The teeth of the horse are forty in number; they are
+thus distributed:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 126-1">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;40.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">3<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>As they become worn, these teeth continue to grow, and as,
+on the one hand, this phenomenon takes place throughout
+the whole life of the animal, and, on the other hand, the
+process of wear brings out and makes visible at the surface
+of friction parts formerly deeper and deeper, and of which
+the configuration varies at different levels, there result
+special features which permit the determination of the age of
+the animal by an examination of its jaws. The incisors are
+called, commencing with those situated nearest the middle
+line, <i>central incisors</i> or <i>nippers</i>, <i>intermediate</i> and <i>corner incisors</i>.
+The canines, also designated as the <i>fangs</i>, exist only
+in the male. It is exceptional to find them in the mare, and
+when they exist in this latter they are less developed than
+those of the horse. The molars have cuboid crowns; the
+surface of friction is almost square in the case of the upper
+molars, and is inclined so as to look inwards; in the case of
+the inferior ones, it is a little narrowed, and is inclined so
+as to look outwards. In the upper jaw the external surface
+of the crown is hollowed by two longitudinal furrows;
+in the lower jaw the same surface has only one furrow,
+which at times is but slightly marked.</p>
+
+<p>In the hare the teeth are twenty-eight in number:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table page 126-2">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb br padl2 padr2">2<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">2<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center bb padl2 padr2">6<i>m.</i></td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="left">&nbsp;=&nbsp;28.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">5<i>m.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center br padl2 padr2">1<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">1<i>i.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">0<i>c.</i></td>
+<td class="center padl2 padr2">5<i>m.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The four incisors of the upper jaw are divided into two
+groups; one of these is formed by the two principal teeth,
+the other by two very small incisors which are placed behind
+the preceding.</p>
+
+<p>Having studied the jaws and examined the arrangement
+of the teeth, we should say a few words on the movements
+which the lower jaw is able to execute. In
+man, these movements are varied in character: the jaw
+is lowered and raised; it can also be projected forwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+and drawn backwards, or carried to the right or left side
+by lateral movements. Owing to the different modes of
+nutrition of animals, with which the shape of the teeth
+is clearly correlated, being more specialized than in the
+human species, the lower jaw is moved in a fashion less
+varied and in the direction most suitable for the mastication
+of the foods which form the aliment of the species considered.
+Moreover, this is plainly shown in the skeleton by the shape
+of the condyle of the lower jaw (see <a href="#Page_122">p. 122</a>, different forms of
+this condyle). In the carnivora, whose teeth, as we have
+seen, are all cutting ones, the jaw rises and falls; the food
+then is, if we consider the two jaws, cut as by the blades
+of a pair of scissors. In the ruminants, the incisors exist
+only in the lower jaw, but the molars are thick and well
+developed; the food is ground by these latter as by millstones,
+and the movements which favour this action are,
+above all, the lateral. As for the rodents, in which the
+incisors are formed for filing down and cutting through hard
+resisting bodies, their lower jaw moves in the antero-posterior
+direction, in such a way that the inferior incisors alternately
+advance and recede beneath those of the upper jaw. The
+free cutting border of these teeth effectively fulfils the function
+to which they are destined; their constant wear preserves
+and revivifies the chisel edge which characterizes
+them, without leading to their destruction, for the incisors
+in rodents are of continuous growth.</p>
+
+<h3>THE SKULL OF BIRDS</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Skull of Birds</b> (<a href="#Fig065">Fig. 65</a>).&mdash;If, because it is less
+important from the artistic point of view, we do not consider
+it necessary to describe in detail the skull of birds,
+we yet think it useful to indicate, in their general lines, the
+peculiarities it presents.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig065" id="Fig065"></a>
+<img src="images/illo151.png" alt="Fig. 65" width="400" height="220" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 65.&mdash;Skull of the Cock: Left Lateral Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Occipital bone; 2, parietal bone; 3, frontal bone; 4, ethmoid bone;
+5, cavity of the tympanum; 6, quadrate bone; 7, superior maxillary
+bone; 8, malar bone; 9, nasal bone; 10, 10, intermaxillary bone; 11,
+nasal orifice; 12, os unguis or lachrymal bone; 13, inferior maxillary bone.</p></div>
+
+<p>In this group the skull is generally pear-shaped; to the
+cranium, of which the bones are arranged in such a way
+as to give it a form more or less spherical, succeeds a face
+more or less elongated, according as the bill is more or less
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the bones of the skull coalesce very early, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+the result that it is only in very young individuals that we
+can determine their presence.</p>
+
+<p>We find the skull to consist of an occipital bone, two
+parietals, a frontal, etc.; we will indicate but one detail in
+connection with these bones: it is the presence of a single
+condyle for the articulation of the occipital bone with the
+atlas. We also note the quadrate bone, which is situated on
+the lateral part of the cranium, is movable on this latter,
+and acts as an intermediary between it, the bones of the face,
+and the lower jaw. The quadrate bone is regarded as a
+detached portion of the temporal; on the signification of
+this we do not now propose to dwell.</p>
+
+<p>On the anterior portion of the face we find the nasal bones,
+which, articulating with the frontal on one side, circumscribe,
+on the other, the posterior border of the nares. The nasal
+bone of the one side is separated from that of the opposite by
+the intermaxillary or premaxillary bone, which forms the
+skeleton of the superior mandible.</p>
+
+<p>The superior maxillaries, which are rudimentary, are
+situated on the lateral parts, and prolonged backward by an
+osseous style which articulates with the quadrate bone;
+this styloid bone, the homologue of the malar, is designated
+by certain authors as the <i>jugal</i> or <i>quadrato-jugal</i> bone.</p>
+
+<p>It is with the quadrate bone also that the inferior
+maxillary articulates.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>MYOLOGY</h3>
+
+<p>The first point to decide in commencing this study is the
+order in which we shall consider the different muscles which
+we have to examine. It must not be forgotten that in the
+present work we compare the organization of animals with
+that of man, which we already know, and that it is on the
+construction of this latter that, in these studies, the thought
+must at each instant be carried back in order to establish
+this comparison. Now, the general tendency which we
+notice in our teaching of anatomy, when one regards the
+region of the trunk in the human figure (a living model or
+a figure in the round), is first to consider the anterior aspect.
+It is the latter that, for this reason, we study at the very
+beginning; we next deal with the posterior surface of the
+trunk, because it is opposite; lastly, the lateral surfaces,
+because they unite with the preceding surfaces, the one to
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>In studying an animal, it is usually by one of its lateral
+aspects that one first observes it; it is, in fact, by these
+aspects that it presents its greatest dimensions, and that the
+morphological characters as a whole can be more readily
+appreciated. Hence, possibly, the order of description
+adopted in most texts, or in the figures which accompany
+them. The first representation of the human figure as a
+whole, in a treatise on anatomy, represents the anterior
+aspect; the first view of the horse as a whole, in a treatise
+on veterinary anatomy, for example, is, on the other hand,
+a lateral view.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>We break with this latter custom, and, without taking into
+account the tendency above indicated, we will commence
+our analysis with the study of the aspect of the trunk,
+which corresponds to the anterior aspect of the same region
+in man.</p>
+
+<p>The first muscles usually presented for study to artists
+being the pectorals, it is their <a href="#Pectorals">homologues</a> that we will first
+describe here. We will afterwards describe the <a href="#Abdominals">abdominal
+region</a>, then the muscles which occupy the <a href="#Dorsals">dorsal aspect</a>
+of the trunk. With regard to the lateral surfaces, they will
+be found, by this fact alone, almost completely studied,
+since the muscles of the two preceding (back and abdomen),
+spreading out, so to speak, over them, contribute to their
+formation. Nothing further will remain but to incorporate
+with them the <a href="#Shoulders">muscles of the shoulder</a>; but these will be
+studied in connection with the anterior limbs, from which
+they cannot be separated.</p>
+
+<p>The neck, in man, may be considered in an isolated fashion,
+because, on account of its narrowness in proportion to the
+width of the shoulders, it is clearly differentiated from the
+trunk; for this reason we combine the study of it with
+that of the head. In animals, because of the absence or
+slight development of the clavicles, the neck is generally
+too much confounded with the region of the shoulders to
+make it legitimate to separate it from that region in too
+marked a fashion. It will, accordingly, be considered <a href="#NeckMuscles">next</a>.</p>
+
+<p>We will then undertake the study of the <a href="#LimbMuscles">muscles of the
+limbs</a>, and end with the <a href="#HeadMuscles">myology of the head</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></p>
+<h4>THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK</h4>
+
+<p>We shall divide them into muscles of the thorax, of the
+abdomen, and of the back.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="Pectorals" id="Pectorals"></a>Muscles of the Thorax</h5>
+
+<p><b>The Pectoralis Major</b> (<a href="#Fig066">Fig. 66</a>, 1, 2; <a href="#Fig067">Fig. 67</a>, 3, 4;
+<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 7; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 10; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 11).&mdash;Further designated
+by the name of <i>superficial pectoral</i>, this muscle is described
+in treatises on veterinary anatomy as formed of two portions:
+an anterior one, called the <i>sterno-humeral</i> muscle;
+the other, situated below and behind the preceding, bearing
+the name of <i>sterno-aponeurotic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It occupies the region of the breast, and, as a whole, it
+takes origin from the median portion of the sternum, from
+which it is directed towards the arm and forearm.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior portion (sterno-humeral muscle)&mdash;thick,
+forming an elevation under the skin, and really constituting
+the pectoral region&mdash;is directed downwards and outwards
+to be inserted into the anterior margin of the humerus&mdash;that
+is to say, to the ridge which limits in front the spiral
+groove of this bone.</p>
+
+<p>The other part (sterno-aponeurotic muscle) is situated
+more posteriorly, and corresponds to the region known in
+veterinary anatomy as the <i>inter-fore-limb space</i>, which is
+limited laterally on each side by the superior portion of
+the forearm, of which the point of junction with the trunk
+bears the name <i>ars</i>. Arising from the sternum, as we
+have above indicated, this portion is directed outwards,
+to be joined with the terminal aponeurosis of the sterno-humeral,
+and with that which covers the internal surface
+of the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>All things considered, the sterno-humeral muscle may be
+regarded as the representative of the upper fibres of the
+great pectoral of man, of which the attachments, owing to
+the more or less complete absence of the clavicle in the
+domestic mammals, the fibres must be concentrated on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+sternum; the sterno-aponeurotic portion then representing
+the inferior fascicul&aelig; of the same muscle.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig066" id="Fig066"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155.png" alt="Fig. 66" width="350" height="364" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 66.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Anterior Aspect of the Trunk.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Pectoralis major (sterno-humeral); 2, pectoralis major (sterno-aponeurotic);
+3, mastoido-humeralis; 4, point of the shoulder; 5, sterno-mastoid
+or sterno-maxillary: 6, inferior portion of the platysma myoides
+of the neck, divided; 7, triceps cubiti; 8, brachialis anticus; 9, radialis
+(anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 10, scapular region.</p></div>
+
+<p>The great pectoral muscle of one side is separated from
+that of the opposite side along the median line, and especially
+above and in front, by a groove which is more or less
+deep, according as the muscles are more or less developed.
+At the bottom of this groove, suggestive of that which
+exists in the corresponding region in man, is found, as in
+this latter, the median portion of the sternum.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding description particularly applies to the
+arrangement which the great pectoral presents in the horse;
+in other animals it is marked by some distinctive characters.
+In the pig, it is inserted into the sternum as far only as the
+level of the third costal cartilage; in the ox and sheep, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+extends as far as the sixth; in the dog, it is attached to the
+two first sternal pieces only&mdash;that is to say, as far as the
+third costal cartilage. Moreover, in the latter, as in the
+cat, the two portions which we have indicated are less
+readily distinguished.</p>
+
+<p>The great pectoral, by its contraction, draws the
+fore-limb towards the middle line&mdash;that is to say, adducts
+it.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Pectoralis Minor</b> (<a href="#Fig067">Fig. 67</a>, 6; <a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 8; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>,
+11; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 12, 26).&mdash;This muscle, also called the <i>deep
+pectoral</i>, is, in animals, larger than the superficial pectoral,
+therefore certain authors prefer to give to this muscle and
+the preceding one the names of deep and superficial pectoral
+respectively. This nomenclature is evidently legitimate,
+and conforms more to reality, since it does not bring in
+the notion of dimensions which here is found in contradiction
+to nomenclature; but, in order to establish more
+clearly the parallelism with the corresponding muscles in
+man, we think it better, nevertheless, to give them the
+names by which it has been customary to designate them
+in connection with the latter.</p>
+
+<p>We will recall at the outset that the lesser pectoral
+muscle in man is completely covered by the great. In
+animals this is not the case; the lesser pectoral being
+very highly developed, projects beyond the great pectoral
+posteriorly, and occupies to a greater or less extent the
+inferior surface of the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>It also consists of two parts: one anterior, which we
+designate by the name of <i>sterno-prescapular</i>; the other,
+posterior, bearing that of <i>sterno-humeral</i>.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20"
+class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+This division of the pectorals certainly complicates the nomenclature
+of these muscles; nevertheless, it introduces no insuperable difficulty
+from the mnemonic point of view. But where the study becomes less
+profitable, and comparison with the corresponding muscles in man
+more complicated, is in adopting the nomenclature of Bourgelat.
+Indeed, the great pectoral is designated by this author the &#8216;common
+muscle of the arm and forearm,&#8217; while the lesser pectoral (or deep
+pectoral) is called the &#8216;great pectoral&#8217; in its sterno-trochinian and
+&#8216;lesser pectoral&#8217; in its sterno-prescapular portion. We do not consider
+it necessary to give the other theories relative to the homologies of these,
+notwithstanding the very real interest which they present from the
+purely anatomical point of view, as they have but few applications in the
+study of forms.</p></div>
+
+<p>The sterno-prescapular muscle, being covered by the
+sterno-humeral, has little interest for us. It arises from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+the sternum, and is directed towards the angle formed by
+the junction of the scapula and humerus; then it is reflected
+upwards and backwards, to terminate on the
+anterior margin of the shoulder by insertion into the
+aponeurosis, which covers the supraspinatus muscle.</p>
+
+<p>We can, especially in the horse after removal of the skin,
+recognise it, at the level of this region, in the interspace
+limited by the superficial muscles (<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 26).</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and cat this portion of the muscle does
+not exist. The other division of the muscle, the sterno-trochinian,
+is more interesting. It arises from the abdominal
+aponeurosis and the posterior part of the sternum;
+hence it passes forward, turns under the superficial pectoral,
+and is inserted into the lesser tuberosity (trochin) of the
+humerus.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, dog, and cat, it is inserted into the greater
+tuberosity (trochiter) of the bone of the arm.</p>
+
+<p>The superior border of this muscle is in relation with
+a superficial vein, which is distinctly visible in the horse&mdash;the
+subcutaneous thoracic vein, which in this animal is
+called the vein of the spur.</p>
+
+<p>The sterno-humeral muscle, in contracting, draws the
+shoulder and the whole anterior limb backwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Serratus Magnus</b> (<a href="#Fig067">Fig. 67</a>, 2;
+<a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 8; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 9).&mdash;This
+muscle, which is situated on the lateral aspect of
+the thorax, is covered to a considerable extent by the
+shoulder, the posterior muscular mass of the arm, and by
+the great dorsal muscle.</p>
+
+<p>It arises by digitations from the external surface of the
+dorsal vertebr&aelig;; from the first eight in the horse, ox, and
+dog.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig067" id="Fig067"></a>
+<img src="images/illo158.png" alt="Fig. 67" width="300" height="460" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 67.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Inferior Aspect of the Trunk.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Anterior extremity of the sternum; 2, point of the shoulder and
+inferior portion of the mastoido-humeral muscle; 3, pectoralis major
+(sterno-humeral); 4, pectoralis major (sterno-aponeurotic); 5, point of
+the elbow; 6, pectoralis minor (sterno-trochinian); 7, serratus magnus;
+8, external oblique; 9, sheath of the rectus abdominis; 10, linea alba;
+11, the umbilicus; 12, external oblique divided in order to expose the
+rectus abdominis; 13, rectus abdominis.</p></div>
+
+<p>The muscular bundles, converging as they proceed, towards
+the scapula, pass under this bone, to be inserted
+into the superior portion of the subscapular fossa, near<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+the spinal border. The inferior portion of its posterior
+digitations is visible in the ox and in the horse; these
+digitations are less visible in the pig. They are not seen
+at all in the dog (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>) or cat, for in these animals the
+great dorsal muscle covers them completely.</p>
+
+<p>The great serratus muscle, by the position which it
+occupies and the arrangement that it presents, forms with
+the corresponding muscle of the opposite side a sort of
+girth, which supports the thorax, and at the same time
+helps to fix the scapula against the latter.</p>
+
+<p>When it contracts, in taking its fixed point at the ribs,
+it draws the superior portion of the scapula downwards and
+backwards in such a way that this bone has its inferior
+angle directed forwards and upwards. If it takes its fixed
+point at the shoulder, it then acts on the ribs, raises them,
+and so becomes a muscle of inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the connections of the serratus magnus with the
+levator anguli scapul&aelig;, some authors consider it as united
+with the latter. But as the latter muscle is visible only
+in the region of the neck (see <a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>), and as it is separately
+described in man, we prefer to distinguish them from one
+another. We shall recall the connections to which we
+have just made allusion when describing the cervical
+region.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="Abdominals" id="Abdominals"></a>Muscles of the Abdomen</h5>
+
+<p>The abdominal wall is, as in man, formed by four large
+muscles: the external oblique, the internal oblique, and
+the transversalis, which form the lateral walls, and the
+rectus abdominis, situated on each side of the middle
+line of the abdomen. This latter, because of the general
+direction of the trunk in quadrupeds, has its superficial
+surface directed downwards.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of these muscles closely corresponds to
+that which we find in the human species.</p>
+
+<p><b>The External Oblique Muscle</b> (<a href="#Fig067">Fig. 67</a>, 8, 12; <a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 5;
+<a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 9; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 10).&mdash;This muscle arises, by digitations,
+from a number of ribs, which varies according to the species,
+the number of the ribs being itself variable for each of them,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+as we pointed out in connection with the osteology of the
+thorax. Indeed, the great oblique arises from the eight or
+nine posterior ribs in the dog and the ox, and from the
+thirteen or fourteen posterior in the horse. It is attached,
+besides, to the dorso-lumbar aponeurosis.</p>
+
+<p>These attachments are arranged in a line directed obliquely
+upwards and backwards, and the first digitations&mdash;that is
+to say, the most anterior ones&mdash;dovetail with the posterior
+digitations of origin of the great serratus muscle.</p>
+
+<p>The fleshy fibres are directed downwards and backwards,
+and terminate in an aponeurosis which covers the inferior
+aspect of the abdomen, and proceeds to form the linea alba
+by joining with that of the muscle of the opposite side,
+and also to be inserted into the crural arch.</p>
+
+<p>This aponeurosis of the external oblique is covered by
+an expansion of elastic fibrous tissue, which doubles it externally,
+and which is known as the <i>abdominal tunic</i>. This
+latter is further developed as the organs of the digestive
+apparatus are more voluminous, and their weight, consequently,
+more considerable. For this reason, in the
+large herbivora, as the ox and the horse, this tunic is extremely
+thick, whereas in the pig, cat, and dog it is, on the
+contrary, reduced to a simple membrane. Indeed, in these
+latter, the abdominal viscera being less developed, the
+inferior wall of the abdomen does not require so strong a
+fibrous apparatus for supporting them. The great oblique,
+when it contracts, compresses the abdominal viscera in all
+circumstances under which this compression is necessary;
+it also acts as a flexor of the vertebral column.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Internal Oblique Muscle.</b>&mdash;This muscle, which is
+covered by the preceding, arises from the anterior superior
+iliac spine (external angle in ruminants and solipeds) and
+the neighbouring parts. From this origin its muscular
+fibres, the general direction of which is opposite to that of
+the fibres of the external oblique, diverging, proceed to
+terminate in an aponeurosis, which contributes to the
+formation of the <i>linea alba</i>, and to be attached superiorly
+to the internal surface of the last costal cartilages. It
+has the same action as the great oblique. What it presents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+of special interest is the detail of form which it determines
+in the region of the flank; this detail is <i>the cord of the flank</i>.
+It is characterized by an elongated prominence which,
+starting from the iliac spine, is directed obliquely downwards
+and forwards, to terminate near the cartilaginous
+border of the false ribs.</p>
+
+<p>Often very apparent in the ox, and still more so in the
+cow, the cord in question contrasts with the depression
+which surmounts it; this depression is situated below the
+costiform processes of the lumbar vertebr&aelig;, and is called
+the <i>hollow of the flank</i>. It is so much the more marked
+as the mass of the intestinal viscera is of greater weight.</p>
+
+<p>We sometimes meet with a case of the presence of this
+hollow in the horse. But when in the latter, the flank
+is well formed, the hollow is scarcely visible, and the cord
+but slightly prominent. It is only in emaciated subjects
+that these details are found clearly marked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Transversalis Abdominis.</b>&mdash;This muscle being deeply
+situated does not present any interest for us. We will,
+however, point out, in order to complete the series
+of muscles which form the abdominal wall, that the
+direction of its fibres is transverse, and that they extend
+from the internal surface of the cartilages of the false
+ribs, and the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebr&aelig;
+to the <i>linea alba</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rectus Abdominis</b> (<a href="#Fig067">Fig. 67</a>, 13; <a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 6).&mdash;This
+muscle, enclosed, as it is in man, in a fibrous sheath
+(<a href="#Fig067">Fig. 67</a>, 9) formed by the aponeuroses of the lateral
+muscles of the abdomen, is a long and wide fleshy band,
+which, as in the human species, reaches from the thorax to
+the pubis.</p>
+
+<p>What distinguishes it in quadrupeds is that there are
+costal attachments which extend further on the sternal
+surface of the thorax, and the number of its aponeurotic
+insertions, which, in general, is more considerable. These
+are, indeed, six or seven in number in the pig and in
+ruminants, and about ten in the horse.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that we may find but three in the cat and
+dog; still, we often find as many as six. These intersections<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+are not marked on their exterior by transverse grooves,
+such as we find in the human species in individuals with
+delicate skin and whose adipose tissue is not very much
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>The rectus abdominis is covered, in its anterior portion,
+by the sterno-trochinian muscle (posterior segment of the
+small pectoral). In contracting, this muscle brings the
+chest nearer the pelvis, and as a result flexes the vertebral
+column. It also contributes to the compression of the
+abdominal viscera.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pyramidalis Abdominis.</b>&mdash;This unimportant little
+muscle, which in man is situated at the lower part of the
+abdomen, extends from the pubis to the <i>linea alba</i>. It is
+not present in the domestic animals.</p>
+
+<p>We consider it interesting, however, to point out, although
+the fact is not a very useful one as regards external form,
+that this muscle is distinctly developed in marsupials.</p>
+
+<p>We know that in the opossum, the kangaroo, and the
+phalanger fox, the young are brought forth in an entirely
+incomplete state of development, and that, during a certain
+period, they are obliged to lodge in a pouch which is placed
+at the lower part of the abdomen of the mother. Now,
+this pouch contains the mammary glands; but the young,
+being too feeble to exercise the requisite suction, the
+pyramidal muscles come to their assistance. These muscles,
+in contracting, approximate to one another two bones which
+are placed above the pubis, the (so-called) marsupial bones
+(see <a href="#Fig080">Fig. 80</a>); by their approximation the bones in question,
+which are placed behind and on the outer side of the
+mammary glands, compress the latter, and thus is brought
+about the result which the little ones, on account of their
+feebleness, would, without that intervention, be incapable
+of obtaining for themselves.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></p>
+
+<h5><a name="Dorsals" id="Dorsals"></a>Muscles of the Back</h5>
+
+<p><b>Trapezius</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 1, 2; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>,
+1, 2; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 1, 2).&mdash;This
+muscle, more or less well developed, according to the
+species, is divided into two portions, of which the names
+indicate the respective situations&mdash;a cervical and a
+dorsal.</p>
+
+<p>These two parts, considered in the order in which we find
+them, take their origin from the superior cervical ligament
+and from the spinous processes of the first dorsal vertebr&aelig;.
+From these different points the fibres are directed towards
+the shoulder; the anterior are, consequently, oblique
+downwards and backwards, and the posterior are directed
+downwards and forwards. They are inserted into the
+scapula in the following manner: the fibres of the dorsal
+portion are attached to the tuberosity of the spine; those
+of the cervical region are also fixed into the same spine,
+but into a considerably larger surface.</p>
+
+<p>The cervical portion occupies, in the region of the neck,
+an area relatively smaller than the corresponding portion
+of the trapezius in man. This diminished degree of development
+results from the absence, complete, or nearly
+so, of the clavicle in the animals which we are now considering.
+We remember, that the trapezius of man is partly
+inserted into the clavicle, and the disappearance of this
+latter cannot fail to bring modifications in the general disposition
+of the corresponding portion of the muscle. There
+results a disconnection of this latter, and it becomes
+united to other muscular fibres to form a muscle with
+which we shall soon have to deal&mdash;the mastoido-humeral
+(see <a href="#Page_150">p. 150</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig068" id="Fig068"></a>
+<img src="images/illo164.png" alt="Fig. 68" width="600" height="309" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 68.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Superficial Layer of Muscles.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Trapezius, cervical portion; 2, trapezius, dorsal portion; 3,
+superior outline of the scapula; 4, latissimus dorsi;
+5, external oblique muscle; 6, rectus abdominis; 7, pectoralis major of the right side; 8, pectoralis minor (sterno-trochinian);
+9, 9, mastoido humeral muscle; 10, tendinous intersection, at the level of which is found a rudimentary
+clavicle; 11, sterno-mastoid muscle; 12, infrahyoid muscles; 13, omo-tracheal or acromio-tracheal muscle;
+14, splenius; 15, levator anguli scapul&aelig;; 16, deltoid muscle, spinal portion; 17, deltoid, acromial portion; 18, superior
+extremity of the humerus; 19, supraspinatus; 20, infraspinatus; 21, biceps cubiti; 22, brachialis anticus; 23, triceps
+cubiti, long head; 24, triceps cubiti, external head; 25, olecranon process; 26, radialis (anterior extensor of the metacarpus);
+27, iliac crest; 28, gluteus maximus; 29, gluteus medius; 30, biceps cruris; 31, semitendinosus; 32, semi-membranosus;
+33, gastrocnemius; 34, tensor of the fascia lata; 35, sartorius; 36, fascia lata drawn up by the triceps;
+37, the patella or knee-cap; 38, ischio-coccygeal muscle; 39, superior sacro-coccygeal; 40, lateral sacro-coccygeal;
+41, inferior sacro-coccygeal.</p></div>
+
+<p>As specific differences we should add that the trapezius
+occupies a more or less extensive portion of the median
+and superior regions of the neck; terminating at a considerable
+distance from the head in the dog and horse, it,
+on the contrary, approaches it in the pig and in ruminants.
+The cervical portion, when it contracts, draws the scapula
+upwards and forwards, the dorsal portion draws it upwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+and backwards. When the trapezius acts as a whole the
+scapula is raised.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Latissimus Dorsi</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 4; <a href="#Fig069">Fig.
+69</a>, 5; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 5).&mdash;This
+muscle arises by an aponeurosis, the so-called dorso-lumbar
+aponeurosis, from the spinous processes of the last
+dorsal vertebr&aelig; (the seven last in the dog, fourteen or
+fifteen last in the horse), from the spinous processes of the
+lumbar vertebr&aelig;, and from the last ribs. Its fleshy fibres
+are directed downwards and forwards, being more oblique
+in direction posteriorly, and pass on the inner side of the
+posterior muscular mass of the arm, to be inserted into
+the internal lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus,
+or, a little lower down, on the median portion of the
+internal surface of the same bone. This latter mode of
+insertion is met with in the horse and the ox.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior fibres cover the posterior angle of the scapula
+(as in man, where the corresponding angle, but in this case
+inferior, is covered by the same muscle), and, a little higher
+up, are in their turn concealed by a portion of the dorsal
+fibres of the trapezius. It covers, to a greater or less
+extent, the great serratus muscle. These relations are
+similar to those found in the human species.</p>
+
+<p>We find that the fleshy fibres of the great dorsal are
+prolonged more or less backwards if we examine this muscle
+in the dog, the ox, the pig, and the horse. Indeed, the fibres
+reach to the thirteenth rib in the dog and the cat (that is
+to say, the last rib), the eleventh in the ox, tenth in the
+pig, and twelfth only in the horse. We say &#8216;only&#8217; in connection
+with this last because it is necessary to remember
+that the ribs are eighteen in number on each side of the
+thorax of this animal, and that, accordingly, the fleshy
+fibres of the great dorsal muscle are, relatively, of small
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>When this muscle contracts it flexes the humerus upon
+the scapula, and helps to draw the whole of the anterior
+limb backwards and upwards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig069" id="Fig069"></a>
+<img src="images/illo166.png" alt="Fig. 69" width="600" height="329" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 69.&mdash;Myology of the Ox: Superficial Layer of Muscles.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Trapezius, cervical portion; 2, trapezius, dorsal portion; 3, outline of the scapula; 4, spine of the scapula;
+5, latissimus dorsi; 6, small posterior serratus; 7, prominence caused by the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebr&aelig;;
+8, serratus magnus; 9, external oblique; 10, pectoralis major (sterno-humeral); 11, mastoido-humeralis; 12, atlas;
+13, atlas; 14, parotid gland; 15, sterno-mastoid muscle; 16, infrahyoid muscles; 17, omo-trachelian or acromio-trachelian
+muscle; 18, deltoid; 19, brachialis anticus; 20, triceps, long head; 21, triceps, external head; 22, olecranon;
+23, radialis (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 24, anterior iliac spine; 25, gluteus maximus; 26, gluteus medius;
+27, biceps cruris; 28, semitendinosus; 29, gastrocnemius; 30, tensor of the fascia lata; 31, fascia lata covering the triceps
+of the thigh; 32, patella; 33, ischio-coccygeal muscle; 34, superior ischio-coccygeal; 35, lateral ischio-coccygeal;
+36, inferior ischio-coccygeal.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is a muscular fasciculus which, because of its
+relations with the muscle we have just been studying, is
+known as the <i>supplementary muscle of the latissimus dorsi</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+But as, on the other hand, this fasciculus is in relation
+with the triceps, we shall in preference consider it in relation
+with this latter (see <a href="#Page_173">p. 173</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The aponeurosis by which the great dorsal arises from
+the vertebral column covers, as in man, the muscles which
+occupy the grooves situated on each side of the spinous
+processes&mdash;the spinal muscles or common muscular mass,
+if we regard them as a whole (<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 7); the sacro-lumbar
+and the long dorsal muscles covering the transverse spinal,
+if we consider them as distinct.</p>
+
+<p>It would be superfluous to enter here into a detailed
+examination of these muscles.</p>
+
+<p>If they are but little developed the spinous processes
+become prominent under the skin; if they are more so they
+may by their thickness project beyond the level of these
+processes, and these latter thus come to lie in a groove more
+or less marked, which, on account of the division which is
+determined by its presence, has caused the regions which
+it occupies to be designated by the names <i>double back</i> and
+<i>double loins</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles are extensors of the vertebral column.</p>
+
+<p>Under the aponeurosis of the great dorsal muscle there is
+found in man another muscle, the serratus posticus inferior,
+which, on account of being deeply placed and its slight
+thickness, offers nothing of interest in connection with
+the study of external form. It arises from the spinous
+processes of the three last dorsal vertebr&aelig; and those of
+the three first lumbar; it then passes upwards and outwards,
+and divides into four digitations, to be inserted into
+the inferior borders of the four last ribs. We repeat that
+it is covered by the great dorsal muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, ox, and horse, which have this latter muscle
+less developed in its posterior portion, the same small
+serratus muscle, known as the <i>posterior serratus</i>, is visible
+in the superficial layer of muscles (<a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 6; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 6).
+The number of its digitations is more or less considerable
+according to the species examined.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Rhomboid Muscle</b> (<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 21).&mdash;In order to
+make intelligible the position of the rhomboid in the superficial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+layer in quadrupeds, it appears to us necessary to
+recall the anatomical characters of the muscle as found in
+man. The rhomboid arises from the inferior portion of the
+posterior cervical ligament, from the spinous process of the
+seventh cervical vertebr&aelig; and the four or five upper dorsal;
+thence passing obliquely downwards and outwards, it is inserted
+into the spinal border of the scapula, into the portion
+of this border which is situated below the spine; it sometimes
+extends to the middle of the interval which separates
+this latter from the superior internal angle of the same
+bone.</p>
+
+<p>The portion of the muscle which arises from the cervical
+ligament and the seventh cervical vertebra is often separated
+from the lower portion by a cellular interspace. For this
+cause some anatomists have described the rhomboid as
+consisting of two parts&mdash;the superior or small rhomboid
+and the inferior or large rhomboid, on account of the position
+occupied by each, and of their difference in volume.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle can only be seen in the region of the back, in
+the space limited externally by the spinal border of the
+scapula, below by the latissimus dorsi, and internally by the
+trapezius, which covers it in the rest of its extent. It is
+not in this space that it is seen in certain quadrupeds. As
+we pointed out in the section on osteology, the spinal border
+of the scapula is short, and it seems to be due to this
+limitation in length that the trapezius and the latissimus dorsi
+muscle are, at this level, in contact the one with the other
+in such a way that they fill up the interval in which the
+rhomboid is seen in man.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse we can partly see it in the superficial muscular
+layer, but in the region of the neck only, at the superior
+border of the shoulder. Indeed, as we have already pointed
+out, the trapezius does not reach the occipital protuberance;
+for this reason a part of the anterior portion of the rhomboid
+may be seen&mdash;that is, the portion which corresponds to the
+superior part of the human muscle.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig070" id="Fig070"></a>
+<img src="images/illo169.png" alt="Fig. 70" width="600" height="347" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 70.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Superficial
+Layer of Muscles.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Trapezius, cervical
+portion; 2, trapezius,
+dorsal portion;
+3, superior outline
+of the scapula;
+4, spine of the scapula;
+5, latissimus dorsi
+muscle; 6, small posterior
+serratus; 7,
+spinal muscles, or
+common muscular
+mass; 8, ribs; 9, serratus magnus; 10,
+external oblique; 11, pectoralis major
+(sterno-humeral); 12, pectoralis minor
+(sterno-trochinian); 13, atlas; 14, parotid gland; 15, mastoido-humeralis; 16, point of the arm; 17, sterno-mastoid, or sterno-maxillary;
+18, jugular groove; 19, infrahyoid muscles; 20, omo-trachelian muscle; 21, rhomboid; 22, splenius; 23, levator
+anguli scapul&aelig;; 24, deltoid; 25, supraspinatus; 26, terminal part of the sterno-prescapular, a portion of the small
+pectoral muscle; 27, brachialis anticus; 28, triceps cubiti, middle or long head; 29, triceps cubiti, external head; 30, olecranon;
+31, radial extensor (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 32, anterior iliac spine; 33, anterior portion of the gluteus maximus&mdash;the
+aponeurosis of the muscle has been divided in order to expose the gluteus medius; 34, posterior portion of the
+gluteus maximus; 35, gluteus medius; 36, biceps cruris; 37, semitendinosus; 38, point of the buttock; 39, gastrocnemius;
+40, tensor of the fascia lata; 41, triceps cruris; 42, ischio-coccygeal muscle; 43, superior sacro-coccygeal; 44, lateral sacro-coccygeal;
+45, inferior sacro-coccygeal.</p></div>
+
+<p>But whether it be covered by the trapezius, or, as we
+find in the cat and dog, by the <i>mastoido-humeral muscle</i>
+(see <a href="#Page_150">p. 150</a>), which is very broad in this region, we do not
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+less recognise its presence; and in the horse and ox, in particular,
+it forms an elongated prominence beginning at the
+level of the scapula, and tapering as it ascends, towards
+the posterior part of the head.</p>
+
+<p>Its origins are similar to those which we have already
+described in the human rhomboid. It arises from the cervical
+ligament and the spinous processes of the foremost
+dorsal vertebr&aelig;; its fibres converge and pass to the scapula,
+to be inserted into its superior or spinal border, or into the
+internal surface of the cartilage of prolongation.</p>
+
+<p>It assists in keeping the scapula applied to the thoracic
+cage, and when it contracts, draws the scapula upwards
+and forwards.</p>
+
+<p>Taking its fixed point at the scapula, it acts on the neck
+by its anterior fibres, and extends it.</p>
+
+<p>We shall soon have occasion to mention this muscle again,
+in connection with the study of the muscles of the neck.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cutaneous Muscle of the Trunk</b> (<a href="#Fig071">Fig. 71</a>).&mdash;Immediately
+beneath the skin which covers the neck,
+shoulders, and trunk is found a vast cutaneous muscle,
+analogous to that which, in the human species, exists only
+in the cervical region.</p>
+
+<p>This thin muscle, whose function is to move the skin
+which strongly adheres to it, and in this way to remove
+from it material causes of irritation (insects, for example),
+is of considerable thickness in the region of the trunk;
+where it constitutes what certain authors have designated
+by the name of <i>panniculus carnosus</i>. In this region it extends
+from the posterior border of the shoulder to the thigh, and,
+in the vertical direction, from the apices of the spinous
+process of the dorso-lumbar vertebr&aelig; to the median line of
+the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>Arising above from the supraspinous ligament of the dorso-lumbar
+and sacral regions (except in the carnivora; see
+below) by an aponeurosis which, posteriorly, covers the
+muscles of the hind-limbs, its fibres are directed to the elbow,
+on which they are arranged in two layers: a superficial,
+which becomes continuous with the panniculus muscle of
+the shoulder; and a deep, which passes on the inner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+side of the shoulder to be inserted into the internal surface
+of the humerus; this latter exists only in the dog and
+cat.</p>
+
+<p>The most inferior fibres, behind, at the level of the
+knee-cap form a triangular process which in the horse
+receives the name of the <i>stifle fold</i>, from the name
+veterinarians give to the region of the articulation of the
+knee. This fold of skin, which commences on the antero-internal
+surface of this region, is directed upwards, and
+then forwards, to end by gradually disappearing over the
+corresponding part of the abdomen.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig071" id="Fig071"></a>
+<img src="images/illo171.png" alt="Fig. 71" width="450" height="210" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 71.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Panniculus Muscle of the Trunk.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the same animal the muscular fibres of the panniculus
+of the trunk arise along a line which connects the stifle-joint
+to the withers, a line which is, consequently, oblique upwards
+and forwards. Now, as the fleshy layer is thicker
+than the aponeurosis, the result is that the mode of constitution
+of this muscle can be recognised under the skin.
+Indeed, we can see in some animals, occasionally very distinctly,
+a slight elevation starting from the region of the
+abdomen in the neighbourhood of the knee, and thence
+directed obliquely upwards and forwards. This elevation
+is produced by the fleshy portion of the panniculus.</p>
+
+<p>In the carnivora, the panniculus of the trunk is not
+attached to the supraspinous ligament; it is blended with
+the same muscle of the opposite side, passing over the
+spinous region of the vertebral column.</p>
+
+<p>From this arrangement results a great mobility of the
+skin which covers the back. Further, it explains why it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+possible to lift up this skin along with the panniculus which
+it covers, and to which it adheres, throughout the whole
+extent of the dorso-lumbar column. As we pointed out
+above, there is also a panniculus muscle of the shoulder
+and one of the neck. We will deal with them when treating
+of the regions to which those muscles belong.</p>
+
+<h5>The Coccygeal Region</h5>
+
+<p>As a sequel to the study of the muscles of the region of
+the trunk very naturally comes the description of those which,
+belonging to the region of the coccyx, are destined for the
+movements of the caudal appendix, of which this latter
+constitutes the skeleton. The muscles may not seem to
+be of much importance with regard to external form, but,
+as they form part of the superficial muscular layer, and
+as the mass of each is seen in the form of the tail in some
+animals (the lion, for example), they merit our attention for
+a moment. A few lines will suffice to give an idea of them.
+They are: the <i>ischio-coccygeal</i>, <i>superior sacro-coccygeal</i>, <i>lateral
+sacro-coccygeal</i>, and <i>inferior sacro-coccygeal</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Ischio-coccygeal</b> (<a href="#Fig018">Fig. 18</a>, 38; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>,
+33; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 42).&mdash;This
+muscle, triangular in shape, better developed in the
+carnivora than in the horse, arises from the spine of the
+ischium, or from the supracotyloid crest, which replaces
+this latter in the solipeds and the ruminants. Thence its
+fleshy mass is directed upwards, expanding as it proceeds to
+be inserted into the transverse processes of the first two
+coccygeal vertebr&aelig; after insinuating itself between two of the
+following muscles, the lateral and inferior sacro-coccygeal.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and cat, the muscle is in great part covered by
+the great gluteal. In the ox, by a peculiar arrangement of
+the corresponding region of the <a href="#ThighMuscles">muscles of the thigh</a>&mdash;an
+arrangement which we will examine in connection with the
+study of the latter&mdash;it is more exposed than in the horse,
+and gives origin to an outline which corresponds to its general
+form in the region situated immediately below the root of
+the tail.</p>
+
+<p>It is a depressor of the whole caudal appendix.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span><b>The
+Superior Sacro-coccygeal</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 39; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 34;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 43).&mdash;The fasciculi which form this muscle
+arise from the crest of the sacrum, and proceed thence to
+end successively on the coccygeal vertebr&aelig;. It is in contact
+in the middle line with the corresponding muscle of the
+opposite side.</p>
+
+<p>It raises the tail and inclines it laterally; if the muscle
+of one side contracts at the same time as that of the other
+the tail is elevated directly.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Lateral Sacro-coccygeal</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 40; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 35;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 44).&mdash;Situated on the lateral part of the caudal
+region, this muscle arises, in the dog, from the internal border
+of the iliac bone and the external border of the sacrum; in
+the horse, it arises from the crest of the sacrum. It is inserted
+into the coccygeal vertebr&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>It produces lateral movement of the tail.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Inferior Sacro-coccygeal</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 41; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 36;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 43).&mdash;This muscle, which is fairly thick, arises from
+the inferior surface of the sacrum and the corresponding
+surface of the sacro-sciatic ligament; it is inserted into
+the coccygeal vertebr&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>It depresses the caudal appendix.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="NeckMuscles" id="NeckMuscles"></a>Muscles of the Neck</h5>
+
+<p><b>Mastoido-humeralis</b> (<a href="#Fig066">Fig. 66</a>, 3; <a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 9, 9, 10;
+<a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 12; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 15).&mdash;One of the most important
+muscles of the region of the neck in man is the sterno-cleido
+mastoid. We recollect that, in its inferior part, it is divided
+into two bundles, one of which arises from the manubrium
+of the sternum, and the other from the inner third of the
+clavicle, whence the denominations of the <i>sternal</i> portion
+and <i>clavicular</i> portion. The muscle formed by the union
+of these two portions is then directed obliquely outwards,
+backwards, and upwards, to be inserted into the mastoid
+process of the temporal bone and the two external thirds of
+the superior curved line of the occipital bone.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the animals which we are here considering have but
+a rudimentary clavicle or are entirely without it. From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+the absence of this item of the skeleton there necessarily
+result modifications in the arrangement of the muscles of
+this region, which we must at the very outset explain, before
+undertaking the special study of the muscle which is the
+subject of the present paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose, for the more definite arrangement of our
+ideas, that the clavicle is altogether absent, although we
+do find it in a rudimentary state in some animals and
+completely developed in others (marmot, bat), and we will
+proceed to indicate what this absence determines.</p>
+
+<p>The great pectoral muscle in man arises in part from the
+clavicle; this origin not being possible in animals which have
+no clavicle, its attachments, as we have already seen, are
+concentrated on the sternum. The trapezius in man similarly
+arises in part from the clavicle; for the reasons above indicated
+its clavicular fasciculi cannot exist in distinct form in
+the animals which have no clavicle.</p>
+
+<p>The sterno-cleido mastoid, whose inferior attachments we
+mentioned above, cannot have a clavicular portion.</p>
+
+<p>It is the same in the case of the deltoid, which, we know,
+arises in part from the anterior bone of the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four muscles which have partial clavicular origins
+in man, two are known to us in connection with animals&mdash;the
+great pectoral and the trapezius. What has become
+of the other two, the sterno-cleido mastoid and the
+deltoid?</p>
+
+<p>It is this which we now proceed to investigate. After a
+fashion simple enough, but which it is necessary to describe,
+the clavicular fasciculi of the trapezius and the corresponding
+fasciculi of the sterno-cleido mastoid are united the one
+to the other; the portion of the deltoid which in man
+arises from the clavicle, by reason of the absence of this
+latter, is also combined with the fleshy mass formed by
+the preceding muscles. From this fusion results the
+muscle known as the mastoido-humeral. This muscle,
+which consists of a long fleshy band situated on the
+lateral aspect of the neck, takes its origin, as a general
+rule, from the posterior surface of the skull and the upper
+part of the neck, from which it passes obliquely downwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+and backwards, covering the scapulo-humeral angle&mdash;that is,
+the region known as the point of the shoulder or arm&mdash;and
+is inserted into the anterior border of the humerus, the
+border which, limiting anteriorly the musculo-spiral groove,
+forms a continuation of the deltoid impression. On account
+of the regions with which it is related, Bourgelat named this
+muscle <i>the muscle common to the head, neck, and arm</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is at the level of the scapulo-humeral angle that the
+vestiges of the clavicle are found.</p>
+
+<p>This bone is represented in some animals&mdash;the pig, ox,
+and horse&mdash;by a single tendinous intersection, more or less
+apparent, which extends transversely from the scapula to
+the anterior extremity of the sternum. In the dog and the
+cat, we find, besides, on the deep surface of the muscle and
+at the level of this tendinous intersection, the rudiment of
+the clavicle of which we made mention in the section on
+Osteology (see <a href="#Page_25">p. 25</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It is beneath the intersection, the existence of which we
+have just pointed out, that is found that portion of the
+mastoido-humeral muscle which corresponds to the clavicular
+fasciculi of the deltoid; that portion which is situated above
+the intersection corresponds to the clavicular fibres of the
+sterno-cleido-mastoid and of the trapezius.</p>
+
+<p>The mastoido-humeral presents certain varieties in different
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat, this muscle, which is blended above
+with the sterno-mastoid (see <a href="#Page_153">p. 153</a>), to be inserted with it
+into the mastoid process and the mastoid crest, covers the
+neck for a considerable extent from the superior curved line
+of the occipital bone to which it is attached, to the trapezius
+with which it unites posteriorly, but from which it separates
+below. Between these two extreme points of its superior
+portion it is attached to the cervical ligament.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig and in ruminants, in which the trapezius
+approaches more closely to the head, the mastoido-humeral
+occupies, in consequence, a less extent of the cervical region.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, the mastoido-humeral neither covers the
+neck nor joins the trapezius; indeed, we have already
+shown that it is separated by a considerable distance from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+the head. In the limited interval between these two
+muscles a part of the rhomboid and parts of other muscles
+are seen with which we shall soon be occupied.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle, as regards the horse, is described by some
+anatomists as consisting of two parts: one anterior, or
+superficial; the other posterior, or deep. In reality, the
+first only corresponds to the mastoido-humeral, which
+we are considering; the posterior may be more exactly
+regarded as representing a special muscle of quadrupeds,
+but which is here a little deformed, the <i>omo-trachelian</i> (see
+<a href="#Page_155">p. 155</a>).</p>
+
+<p>When the mastoido-humeral contracts, taking its fixed
+point above, it acts as an extensor of the humerus, and
+carries the entire fore-limb forwards. If it takes its fixed
+point below&mdash;that is to say, at the humerus&mdash;it inclines
+the head and neck to its own side. If it contracts at the
+same time as the mastoido-humeral of the opposite side,
+then the head and the neck are carried into the position of
+extension.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sterno-mastoid</b> (<a href="#Fig066">Fig. 66</a>, 5; <a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 11; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 15;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 17).&mdash;Having described the clavicular portion of
+the sterno-cleido-mastoid in connection with the mastoido-humeral,
+because it forms a part of the latter, we have,
+in order to complete the homologies of this muscle, to study
+now that which corresponds to its sternal portion. This is
+the <i>sterno-mastoid</i> muscle. In all the quadrupeds with which
+we are here concerned this muscle arises from the anterior
+extremity of the sternum; narrow and elongated in form,
+it passes towards the head in a direction parallel to the
+anterior border of the mastoido-humeral, from which it is
+separated by an interspace which, along its whole length,
+lodges superficially the jugular vein; hence the name of
+<i>jugular groove</i>, which is given to this part of the neck
+(<a href="#Fig010">Fig. 10</a>, 18).</p>
+
+<p>It is inserted, in the case of the dog and cat, into the
+mastoid process, where it is united with the mastoido-humeral;
+in the ox it is divided into two portions&mdash;one
+which goes to the base of the occipital bone, the other
+passing in front of the masseter is by the medium of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+aponeurosis of this latter attached to the zygomatic crest.
+This latter part is considered by some writers as forming
+a portion of the panniculus muscle of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it is attached to the angle of the lower jaw
+by a tendon, which an aponeurosis that passes under the
+parotid gland binds to the mastoido-humeral muscle and
+the mastoid process.</p>
+
+<p>By reason of this insertion into the jaw, in the case of
+the solipeds, this muscle is further named the <i>sterno-maxillary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When it contracts, it flexes the head, and inclines it
+laterally. This movement is changed to direct flexion when
+the two sterno-mastoid muscles contract simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>In man, the sterno-cleido-mastoid and the trapezius
+leave a triangular space between them, which, being limited
+inferiorly by the middle third of the clavicle, is known as
+the supraclavicular region; this region, being depressed,
+especially in its inferior part, has also been given the name
+of supraclavicular fossa&mdash;popularly called the &#8216;<i>salt-cellar</i>.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>The muscles which form the floor of this region, passing
+from above downwards, are: a very small portion of
+the complexus, splenius, levator anguli scapul&aelig;, posterior
+scalenus, and anterior scalenus; then, crossing these latter,
+and most superficial, is the omo-hyoid muscle.</p>
+
+<p>An analogous region, but of only slight depth, exists in
+quadrupeds; its borders are formed by the mastoido-humeral
+and trapezius muscles.</p>
+
+<p>It is not limited below by the clavicle&mdash;we know, indeed,
+that this, or the intersection which represents it, belongs
+to the mastoido-humeral muscle&mdash;but by the inferior portion
+of the spine of the scapula.</p>
+
+<p>It is of greater or less extent according to the species
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, cat, pig, and ox, it is narrow, for the muscles
+which bound it approach one another pretty closely. It has,
+as in man, the form of a triangle, with the apex above.
+In the horse it is much broader, and, contrary to the
+arrangement which it presents in the human species, the
+widest part is directed upwards.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>The muscles which we find there are, consequently, more
+or less numerous. In the dog and cat they are: a portion
+of a muscle which we do not normally meet with in man&mdash;the
+<i>omo-trachelian</i>&mdash;then in a decreasing extent: supraspinatus,
+levator anguli scapul&aelig; and splenius.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig: the omo-trachelian, supraspinatus, and the
+terminal portion of the sterno-prescapular&mdash;the anterior
+part of the lesser or deep pectoral muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox: the omo-trachelian only.</p>
+
+<p>But in the horse we find the omo-trachelian, the supraspinatus,
+and the terminal extremity of the sterno-prescapular;
+then in a larger extent of area the levator anguli
+scapul&aelig; and the splenius; and, finally, the anterior portion
+of the rhomboid.</p>
+
+<p>Among the muscles which we have just enumerated are
+some that we have already studied; these are the sterno-prescapular
+and the rhomboid. We will examine the <a href="#Supraspinatus">supraspinatus</a>
+muscle in connection with the region of the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>As to the scaleni muscles and the complexus, they are
+deeply situated, whereas the omo-hyoid is visible in the
+anterior region of the neck only.</p>
+
+<p>There remain for us, accordingly, to examine, at the
+present juncture, but the omo-trachelian, levator anguli
+scapul&aelig;, and splenius muscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Omo-trachelian Muscle</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 13; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 17;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 20).&mdash;Also called the <i>acromio-trachelian</i>, <i>levator
+ventri scapul&aelig;</i>,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21"
+class="fnanchor">[21]</a> the <i>angulo-ventral muscle</i>, and the
+<i>transverso-scapular</i>,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+etc., this muscle is described by some hippotomists
+as belonging to the mastoido-humeral, of which it then
+forms its posterior or deep portion (see <a href="#Page_153">p. 153</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+Ventri, because inserted into the inferior part of the spine of the
+scapula, towards the acromion&mdash;that is, on the ventral side&mdash;by contrast
+with the trapezius, which is attached higher up (dorsal side) on the same
+process.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+Among the many names given to this muscle, Arloing and Lesbre
+recommend the adoption of the name &#8216;transverse scapular&#8217; given by
+Straus-Durckheim, or &#8216;transverse of the shoulder&#8217; (Arloing and Lesbre,
+&#8216;Suggestions for the Reform of Veterinarian Muscular Nomenclature,&#8217;
+Lyons, 1898).</p></div>
+
+<p>The omo-trachelian muscle is found in all mammalia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+man alone excepted. It is, however, sometimes found in
+the human being; but it then constitutes an anomaly.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, pig, and ox, it arises from the inferior part
+of the spine of the scapula, in the region of the acromion, and
+terminates on the lateral portion of the atlas.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat it is attached besides to the base of the occipital
+bone. It is visible in the space limited by the trapezius
+and the mastoido-humeral, the direction of which it crosses
+obliquely.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it appears to be blended in clearly defined
+fashion with the mastoido-humeral. Attached below, like
+this latter, to the anterior border of the humerus, it covers
+the scapulo-humeral angle; and is attached by its upper
+portion to the transverse processes of the first four cervical
+vertebr&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>We remember that the transverse processes are often,
+from their relation with the trachea, known as the tracheal
+processes. Hence the word &#8216;trachelian,&#8217; which forms part
+of the name of the muscle with which we are now dealing.</p>
+
+<p>By its contraction it helps to draw the anterior limb
+forwards.</p>
+
+<p>When this muscle, as an abnormality, exists in man, it
+arises from the clavicle or the acromion process, traverses
+the supraclavicular fossa, and is inserted into the transverse
+processes of the atlas or axis, or of both these
+vertebr&aelig;, or of the cervical vertebr&aelig; below these latter.
+It is then known by the names of the <i>elevator of the clavicle</i>
+or <i>elevator of the scapula</i>, and, finally, as the <i>cleido-omo-transversalis</i>
+(Testut).<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+L. Testut, &#8216;Les anomalies musculaires chez l&#8217;homme expliqu&eacute;es
+par l&#8217;anatomie compar&eacute;e,&#8217; Paris, 1884, p. 97. A. F. Le Double, &#8216;Trait&eacute;
+des variations du syst&egrave;me musculaire de l&#8217;homme et de leur signification
+au point de vue de l&#8217;anthropologie zoologique,&#8217; Paris, 1897, t. i., p. 235.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Levator Anguli Scapul&aelig;</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 15; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 23).&mdash;As
+we have pointed out (p. 136), the levator anguli scapul&aelig;,
+because of its connections with the great serratus, is sometimes
+described with it. But inasmuch as in human anatomy
+these two muscles are considered separately, and that, in
+the superficial layer of muscles, they are seen in different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+regions&mdash;the great serratus in the thoracic, and the levator
+anguli scapul&aelig; in the cervical&mdash;we prefer to study them
+separately.</p>
+
+<p>We remember that in man this muscle arises from the
+transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebr&aelig; and is
+inserted into the superior portion of the spinal border of the
+scapula, into the portion of this border which is situated
+above the spine; it also contributes to the formation of the
+floor of the supraclavicular region.</p>
+
+<p>When it contracts, it draws the superior portion of the
+scapula forwards and upwards, and causes a see-saw movement,
+for at the same time the inferior angle of the scapula
+is directed backwards. Taking its fixed point at the
+shoulder, it directly extends the neck if the muscle of one
+side acts at the same time as that of the opposite; but
+if only one muscle contracts it inclines the neck to the corresponding
+side.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be noticed that during movements a little more
+active than the ordinary the levator anguli scapul&aelig;, as
+moreover the other muscles of the neck do, becomes very
+distinct. We have, indeed, often remarked that, apart from
+these movements, each time the support of one of the fore-limbs
+is brought into requisition a brusque contraction of the
+muscles of this region accompanies it.</p>
+
+<p>This contraction gives the impression that, as on the one
+hand, each support determines a momentary arrest of
+progression, a jolt, and on the other hand, the head continues
+to be projected in the forward direction, the latter
+should be retained. But it cannot be so except by an effort
+in the opposite direction&mdash;that is to say, by the brusque
+contraction which we have just pointed out.</p>
+
+<p>Analogous contractions also take place in a man while
+running at the beginning of each contact of the lower limbs
+with the ground.</p>
+
+<p>We may add, apropos of this latter, that displacements
+of the head, sometimes in very pronounced fashion, take
+place during simple walking, and that every time one of
+the lower limbs is carried forwards the head is projected
+in the same direction. These displacements, which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+also find take place in the horse in pacing, especially in
+the region of the neck and head, seem then to have the
+effect of aiding the progression of the body forwards.</p>
+
+<p>They occur especially in animals when drawing a heavy
+load, and in individuals whose walking movements are
+executed with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to repeat that, in these cases, the individual
+appears to assist the movement of his body by the impetus
+which the projection of his head forward determines, in
+order to add&mdash;and it is for this that we have referred to the
+subject&mdash;that during the intervals between each projection
+the head is carried backwards by a muscular contraction
+similar to that above discussed.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Splenius</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 14; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 22).&mdash;In man, this
+muscle is attached in the median line to the inferior half
+or two-thirds of the posterior cervical ligament, to the
+spinous processes of the seventh cervical, and four or five
+upper dorsal vertebr&aelig;; it passes obliquely upwards and outwards,
+becomes visible in the supraclavicular region, passes
+under the sterno-cleido-mastoid, and proceeds to duplicate
+the cranial insertions of this latter; and, further, the most
+external fasciculi of this muscle are inserted into the transverse
+processes of the atlas and the axis.</p>
+
+<p>These separate superior attachments, and the division of
+the muscle which results, have caused the splenius to be
+regarded as formed of two portions: splenius of the head,
+and splenius of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, this muscle, which is of voluminous dimensions,
+arises from the superior cervical ligament, and the
+spinous processes of the first four or five dorsal vertebr&aelig;;
+thence it proceeds to be inserted into the mastoid crest,
+and the transverse processes of the atlas and three or four
+vertebr&aelig; following.</p>
+
+<p>The region occupied superficially by the splenius is remarkable
+for the prominence which this muscle, with the
+deeply-seated complexus, which is equally bulky, determines
+at this level; it is situated above that region of the
+neck, in which are seen in part the fasciculi of the levator
+anguli scapul&aelig;. It terminates above and in front in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+ridge, which is sometimes very pronounced, which the
+transverse processes of the atlas make on each side of this
+part of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat, the superior and anterior region
+of the neck is thick and of rounded form, on account of the
+development which the splenius presents in those animals;
+but it is covered by the mastoido-humeral.</p>
+
+<p>This latter relation is also found in the ox, but the splenius
+in this case is but slightly developed.</p>
+
+<p>When the splenius contracts it extends the head and neck,
+while inclining them to its own side.</p>
+
+<p>If the splenius of one side contracts at the same time as
+that of the opposite, the extension takes place in a direct
+manner&mdash;that is to say, without any modifying lateral
+movement.</p>
+
+<h5>Infrahyoid Muscles</h5>
+
+<p>Having studied the lateral surfaces of the neck, we must
+now examine the anterior part of this region. Here, between
+the two sterno-mastoid muscles, we find a space broader
+above than below, in which are situated the larynx and the
+trachea, to the general arrangement of which is due the
+cylindrical form which this region presents. This space
+corresponds to that which in the neck of man is limited
+laterally by the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, below by
+the fourchette of the sternum, and above by the hyoid
+bone. In animals, as in man, it is called the infrahyoid
+region.</p>
+
+<p>The hyoid bone in quadrupeds is situated between the two
+rami or branches of the lower jaw. Owing to this disposition,
+the region above this bone, instead of having its surface
+projecting a little beyond the inferior border of the maxillary
+bone, is depressed. This is especially so in the horse. It
+is there that we find in this animal the region known as the
+<i>trough</i> (<i>auge</i>); the larynx corresponds to that part known as
+the <i>gullet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles which occupy the infrahyoid region are: the
+sterno-thyroid, the sterno-hyoid, and the omo-hyoid. There<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+is also a thyro-hyoid, but because of its deep situation and
+its slight importance it offers no interest from our point of
+view.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sterno-thyroid and the Sterno-hyoid Muscles.</b>&mdash;These
+two muscles, long, narrow, and flat, arise from the anterior
+extremity of the sternum; then, covering the anterior
+surface of the trachea, they proceed to terminate, the one
+on the thyroid cartilage, and the other on the hyoid bone.
+The sterno-hyoid is superficial; it covers the sterno-thyroid,
+which, however, projects a little on its outer side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Omo-hyoid.</b>&mdash;This muscle does not exist in the dog or
+cat. It arises, in the horse, from the cervical border of the
+scapula, where it blends with the aponeurosis that envelops
+the subscapularis muscle, but in the pig and the ox it arises
+from the deep surface of the mastoido-humeral muscle. It
+is directed obliquely upwards and inwards, becoming superficial
+at the internal border of the sterno-mastoid, and
+is inserted into the hyoid bone.</p>
+
+<p>The region in which are united the portion of the neck
+which we have just studied and the neighbouring part
+of the thorax&mdash;that is, the breast&mdash;has certainly, in our
+opinion, a form less expressive than the corresponding
+region in man.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter, indeed, the fourchette of the sternum, with
+the hollow which it determines, the heads of the clavicles,
+and the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, by the elevations
+which they produce, and the trachea, by the situation which
+it occupies in the inferior part, constitute a whole in which
+are admirably indicated, not only the forms of the organs
+which constitute this region, but also the relations which
+these organs have one with another; and, to a certain extent,
+their respective functions.</p>
+
+<p>In making an exception in the case of the ox, in which a
+fold of skin, the <i>dewlap</i>, which passes from the neck to the
+breast, constitutes an element of form which possesses
+some expressive value; in the horse and in the dog, which
+possess no sternal fourchette and no heads of clavicles, the
+bones and the muscles are found nearly on the same plane.
+This produces a uniformity which is evidently inferior, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+an &aelig;sthetic point of view, to the modelling of the corresponding
+region of the human body. Such, at least, is our
+impression.</p>
+
+<h5>Suprahyoid Muscles</h5>
+
+<p>As their name indicates, these muscles are found above
+the hyoid bone; amongst those which should arrest our
+attention for a moment are the mylo-hyoid and the digastric.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mylo-hyoid.</b>&mdash;This muscle, forming a sort of fleshy sling
+which contributes in great measure to form the floor
+of the mouth, is situated between the lateral halves of
+the inferior maxillary bone. Arising on each side from the
+internal oblique line of the mandible, its fibres are directed
+towards the median line, to be inserted posteriorly into the
+hyoid bone, and, between this bone and the anterior part of
+the mandible, into a median raphe which unites these latter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Digastric.</b>&mdash;This muscle arises from the styloid process
+of the occipital bone and from the jugular process; it
+thence passes downwards and forwards, and terminates
+variously, in different species. In the ox and the horse it
+terminates in its anterior portion on the internal surface
+of the inferior maxillary bone, close to the chin. But
+in the horse a bundle of fibres is detached from the upper
+portion of the muscle, to be inserted into the recurved
+portion of the jaw. It is to this fasciculus that Bourgelat
+has given the name of &#8216;<i>stylo-maxillary muscle</i>.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, dog, and cat, the digastric differs more from
+the corresponding muscle in man; it is not, as in the latter,
+formed of two parts. The anterior portion only exists.
+This consists of a thick muscular mass, which is inserted into
+the middle of the internal surface of the lower jaw.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and cat it is clearly recognisable in the superficial
+layer of muscles by the long and thick prominence
+which it produces below the masseter, against the inferior
+border of the mandible (see <a href="#Page_235">pp. 235</a> and <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, the two figures
+showing the myology of the head of the dog).</p>
+
+<p>By its contraction, it draws the lower jaw downwards and
+backwards.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span><b>Panniculus of the Neck.</b>&mdash;This very thin muscle, which
+cannot be recognised on the exterior, calls for little notice.</p>
+
+<p>We shall merely point out that it duplicates the skin of the
+cervical region; but as the latter is only slightly adherent to
+it, the panniculus of this region seems rather destined to
+maintain in position the muscles which it covers than to displace
+the cutaneous covering.</p>
+
+<p>We recall the fact that in man, on the contrary, the muscle
+is very evident at the instant of its contraction, and, for this
+reason, it presents a very great interest with regard to
+external modelling, and it plays an important part in the
+expression of the physiognomy.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="LimbMuscles" id="LimbMuscles"></a>MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR LIMBS</h4>
+
+<h5><a name="Shoulders" id="Shoulders"></a>Muscles of the Shoulder</h5>
+
+<p><b>Deltoid</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 16, 17; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>,
+18; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 24).&mdash;This is
+the first muscle we study in connection with the shoulder in
+human anatomy. Indeed, its wholly superficial position, and
+especially the manner in which it is separated from the surrounding
+muscles, its volume, and its characteristic modelling,
+give it such an importance that, from the didactic point of
+view, there is every indication for commencing with this
+muscle in studying the region to which it belongs. If, in
+regard to quadrupeds, we also commence with it, it is merely
+in deference to the spirit of method, and for the sake of symmetry;
+for it is far from presenting, in the latter, characters
+so distinctive and so clearly defined.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to remark, at the outset, that in quadrupeds,
+on account of the absence or slight development of
+the clavicle, the clavicular portion of this muscle is, as we
+have shown, united to bundles of the same kind belonging
+to the sterno-cleido-mastoid and trapezius to form the mastoido-humeral
+(see <a href="#Page_151">p. 151</a>). There exists, therefore, in an
+independent form, the scapular portion only.</p>
+
+<p>It is this latter which, by itself alone, forms the deltoid of
+quadrupeds, a muscle known, in veterinary anatomy, as <i>the
+long abductor of the arm</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>In the dog and the cat it consists of two parts, one of
+which arises from the spine of the scapula; the other from
+the acromion process. Thence it passes to the crest of the
+humerus, which limits the musculo-spiral groove anteriorly,
+to be attached at a point which is found, as in other quadrupeds,
+to be the homologue of the human deltoid impression,
+or deltoid <span class="lettsymb">V</span>, of the human humerus.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, in which the acromion process, which is
+very rudimentary, does not attain the level of the glenoid
+cavity, the acromion portion is but slightly marked off
+from that which takes its origin from the spine of the
+scapula.</p>
+
+<p>Still, in the horse, which is completely deprived of an
+acromion process, the deltoid muscle is correspondingly
+divided into two parts, separated from one another by
+superficial interstices, but of which the arrangement differs
+from that of the portions above indicated; one part, the
+posterior, arises above from the superior part of the posterior
+border, and the postero-superior angle of the scapula (exactly
+as if, in man, certain fasciculi of the deltoid took their
+origin from the axillary border and inferior angle of the
+scapula); the other, anterior, arises from the tuberosity of
+the spine of the same bone. The two parts, united inferiorly,
+proceed to be inserted into the deltoid impression
+or infratrochiterian crest of the humerus.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to add that the deltoid is inserted into the
+humerus, above the insertion of the mastoido-humeral.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle flexes and abducts the humerus, and also
+rotates it outwards.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the other muscles of the human shoulder,
+subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and
+teres major, they are also present in quadrupeds, but in a
+form more elongated, as the scapula has its dimensions more
+extended from below upwards&mdash;that is, from the glenoid
+cavity towards the superior or spinal border.</p>
+
+<p><b>Subscapularis.</b>&mdash;This muscle occupies the subscapular
+fossa, from which it takes its origin, leaving free the superior
+part where the surface is found, to which are attached the
+serratus magnus and the levator anguli scapul&aelig;. It passes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+towards the arm, to be inserted into the small tuberosity
+of the humerus. It is an adductor of the arm.</p>
+
+<p>The subscapularis does not offer any interest from the point
+of view of external form, for it is completely covered by the
+scapula.</p>
+
+<p>We speak of it, however, because we mention it in
+human anatomy, and that it affords us here a new opportunity
+of bringing into prominence the differences which exist
+in connection with the mobility of the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>We remember that in man, when the arm is abducted, and
+then raised a little above the horizontal, the scapula see-saws,
+is separated, to a certain extent, from the thoracic cage
+inferiorly and externally, and that, on the superficial layer of
+muscles, we are then able to see in the bottom of the armpit,
+at the level of the deep portion of the posterior wall of the
+latter, a small part of the subscapularis muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In the animals with which we are here occupied it is not
+the same; for they are incapable of performing with their
+fore-limbs a movement analogous to that to which we have
+just referred, the humerus in their case being retained in
+contact with the trunk by the muscular masses which
+surround it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Supraspinatus" id="Supraspinatus"></a><b>Supraspinatus</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 19; <a
+href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 25; <a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>, 7).&mdash;This
+muscle, as its name indicates, occupies the supraspinous
+fossa&mdash;that is to say, that which, by reason of the
+direction of the scapula in quadrupeds, is situated in front of
+rather than above the spine. It arises from this fossa; and,
+further, from the external surface of the cartilage which
+prolongs the scapula upwards in solipeds and ruminants. It
+projects more or less beyond the supraspinous fossa in front.</p>
+
+<p>After passing downwards towards the humerus, it is inserted
+into the summit of the great tuberosity or trochiter&mdash;that
+is to say, to a part of this osseous prominence which
+represents the anterior facet of the great tuberosity of the
+human humerus, into which, as we know, the corresponding
+muscle is inserted.</p>
+
+<p>In solipeds and ruminants it is inserted, by a second
+fasciculus, into the small tuberosity.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig and the horse its anterior border is in relation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+with the terminal portion of the sterno-prescapular anterior
+portion of the small or deep pectoral.</p>
+
+<p>The supraspinatus, which in man is completely covered
+by the trapezius, is partly visible in the superficial layer of
+the cat, dog, pig, and horse, in the lower part of the space
+limited by the mastoido-humeral and the trapezius. It is
+crossed by the scapulo-trachelian.</p>
+
+<p>It is, in the ox, completely covered by these muscles, but
+its form, notwithstanding this, is easily discerned by the
+prominence which it produces. When it contracts, the
+supraspinatus muscle carries the humerus into the position
+of extension.</p>
+
+<p><b>Infraspinatus</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 20; <a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>, 8).&mdash;This muscle,
+which occupies the infraspinous fossa, which, in quadrupeds,
+is situated behind the spine of the scapula, arises from the
+whole extent of this fossa, and in solipeds and ruminants
+encroaches on the cartilage of prolongation. Its fibres are
+directed downwards and forwards, to be inserted into the
+great tuberosity of the humerus&mdash;the trochiter&mdash;below the
+insertion of the supraspinatus.</p>
+
+<p>It is completely covered (ox and horse), or in part only
+(cat and dog), by the portion of the deltoid which arises from
+the spine of the scapula; nevertheless, its presence is revealed
+by the prominence which it produces.</p>
+
+<p>It is an abductor and external rotator of the humerus.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this muscle, which, as we have just
+pointed out, is less seen in the superficial muscular layer than
+the supraspinatus, we will draw attention to the fact that
+this arrangement is exactly the reverse of that which is found
+in the human shoulder. In this latter it is the supraspinatus
+which is not visible; while, on the contrary, the infraspinatus
+is uncovered in a considerable part of its extent. We
+further notice that it is accompanied by the teres minor, and
+that the teres major, situated inferiorly, forms with these two
+muscles a fleshy mass which, below, ends on the superior
+border of the great dorsal muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds, in which the infraspinatus is so slightly
+visible, the teres major and minor are not found at all in the
+superficial muscular layer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>Accordingly, we will say but few words about them.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig072" id="Fig072"></a>
+<img src="images/illo189.png" alt="Fig. 72" width="350" height="429" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 72.&mdash;Myology of the Horse&mdash;Shoulder and Arm: Left Side,
+External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Cartilage of prolongation of the scapula; 2, tuberosity of the spine
+of the scapula; 3, superior extremity of the humerus; 4, inferior extremity
+of the humerus; 5, radius; 6, ulna; 7, supraspinatus muscle;
+8, infraspinatus; 9, teres minor; 10, biceps; 11, tendon of the biceps
+passing over the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the humerus;
+12, brachialis anticus; 13, triceps, long head; 14, external head of the
+triceps divided; 15, external head of the triceps reflected, in order to
+expose the anconeus; 16, region normally occupied by the external head of
+the triceps; 17, anconeus.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Teres Minor</b> (<a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>, 9).&mdash;This muscle, also called in
+veterinary anatomy <i>the short abductor of the arm</i>, arises
+from the posterior border of the scapula (the external
+border in man), and is inserted below the great tuberosity
+of the humerus, between the attachments of the infraspinatus
+and deltoid.</p>
+
+<p>It is covered by the deltoid and the infraspinatus.</p>
+
+<p><b>Teres Major.</b>&mdash;This muscle is known to veterinarians
+as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+<i>the abductor of the arm</i>; it arises from the postero-superior
+angle of the scapula (the inferior angle of the human
+scapula), from which it passes to be inserted into the internal
+surface of the humerus.</p>
+
+<p>It is covered by the latissimus dorsi and the posterior
+muscular mass of the arm.</p>
+
+<p>In brief, for the better understanding of the relations of the
+teres major and minor muscles in quadrupeds, we may fancy
+the corresponding muscles in man modified in the following
+manner: The infraspinatus, thicker, covering the teres minor;
+latissimus dorsi, more extended in its superior part, covering
+a large proportion of the teres major. As to the relations
+of the teres minor with the deltoid, they exist in man,
+seeing, in this case, the same muscle is, in its external
+portion, covered by this latter. With regard to the relations
+of the teres major with the posterior muscular mass of the
+arm, they also exist in man, since the external surface of
+this muscle is covered by the triceps.</p>
+
+<p>These modifications are sufficient to render the small and
+large teres muscles completely invisible in the superficial
+layer.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles of the shoulder which we have just been
+studying fulfil, with regard to the articulation which they
+surround, the function of active ligaments. This r&ocirc;le
+is made necessary by the laxity of the scapulo-humeral
+capsule&mdash;a laxity which renders it incapable by itself of
+maintaining the bones in contact at this joint.</p>
+
+<p>The same condition exists in man.</p>
+
+<p><b>Panniculus Muscle of the Shoulder.</b>&mdash;This thin muscle
+covers, as its name implies, the region of the shoulder, and
+is the continuation forward of the panniculus muscle of the
+trunk.</p>
+
+<p>It arises, by its superior part, from the region of the
+withers and from the superior cervical ligament; thence its
+fibres descend directly towards the elbow, to terminate at
+the level of the region of the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>The muscle is not found in the pig or in the carnivora.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Arm</h5>
+
+<p>We should remember, at the outset, that in man the
+muscles of the arm are divided into two groups: one
+anterior, which contains the biceps, brachialis anticus, and
+the coraco-brachialis; the other, posterior, which is constituted
+by a single muscle, the triceps.</p>
+
+<p>In animals, we find them in the same number and arranged
+in analogous fashion&mdash;that is to say, in two groups&mdash;with
+respect to the bone of the arm. But then we find that they
+have undergone a transformation with regard to their length,
+and it is the change of general aspect which results from this
+modification that we proceed to examine.</p>
+
+<p>We know that in quadrupeds, and especially in the
+domestic animals, the humerus is relatively short in proportion
+to the forearm. We have already seen, in dealing with
+the bones, that whilst in the human species the humerus
+is longer than the forearm, in the dog and cat these two
+segments of the fore-limb are of equal length, and that the
+humerus of the horse is, on the contrary, much shorter.
+Now, let us suppose the human humerus to be shorter than
+it is in reality; the anterior muscles undergoing, very naturally,
+the same reduction, will be uncovered only slightly by
+those above&mdash;the deltoid and the great pectoral&mdash;or will
+remain completely hidden by them. Thus would be found
+realized the disposition which we meet with in quadrupeds
+of the muscles of this region.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the posterior muscular mass of the arm, it
+does not undergo the same change. The muscle which
+constitutes it&mdash;the triceps cubiti&mdash;occupies, on the contrary,
+a greater area. Let us suppose, further&mdash;for it is
+the best method of comprehending the homologies which
+now occupy our attention&mdash;the humerus of man to be
+shortened as before, and directed downwards and backwards
+(as in quadrupeds), this bone would form an acute angle
+with the axillary border of the scapula. Let us suppose
+also that the long portion of the triceps, instead of arising
+solely from the superior part of this axillary border, is
+attached to the whole length of the latter, and that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+triceps fills the whole interior of the angle formed by the arm
+and the shoulder. We then shall have an idea of what the
+triceps is in quadrupeds. It is necessary to add that the
+general resemblance would be still more complete if the arm
+were firmly supported by the side of the thorax, because in
+quadrupeds it occupies an analogous position, determined
+by the arrangement of the muscles which, proceeding from
+the trunk and neck, are attached to it.</p>
+
+<h5>Anterior Region</h5>
+
+<p><b>Biceps Cubiti</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 21; <a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>, 10, 11).&mdash;This
+muscle, also called <i>the long flexor of the forearm</i>, does
+not merit the name except by its analogy with the corresponding
+muscle in man. Indeed, in the domestic animals
+it is not divided into two parts; it is represented by a
+single fasciculus, long and fusiform, situated on the front of
+the humerus, and directed obliquely downwards and backwards,
+as the latter, on its part, is also inclined.</p>
+
+<p>It arises above from a tubercle at the base of the coracoid
+process, which surmounts the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
+Its tendon, which is highly developed in the solipeds, occupies
+the bicipital groove. We remember that in these latter
+the groove in question is divided into two channels by a
+median prominence.</p>
+
+<p>The tendon in which the muscle ends is inserted into a
+tuberosity, situated on the internal surface of the superior
+extremity of the radius&mdash;the bicipital tuberosity. In the pig,
+the cat, and the dog, there is detached from the tendon to
+which we have just referred a fasciculus of the same nature,
+which, after having wound round the radius, is inserted into
+the internal surface of the ulna, towards the base of the
+olecranon process. From the inferior part of the muscle
+arises a fibrous band, comparable to the aponeurotic expansion
+of the human biceps; but, instead of passing downwards
+and inwards, as does the latter, it terminates on
+the muscular mass which constitutes the antero-external
+part of the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>The biceps is not seen in the superficial layer, except in
+the dog and cat (in which the humerus is, in fact, proportionately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+long); and even in them only to the slightest
+extent. It is covered partly in these latter, and completely
+in other animals, by the great pectoral and the inferior
+portion of the mastoido-humeral&mdash;that is to say, that part
+of the latter which represents the whole of the clavicular
+fibres of the human deltoid.</p>
+
+<p>The biceps is a flexor of the forearm on the arm. It also
+contributes to the movement of extension of the humerus.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brachialis Anticus</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 22; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 19; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>,
+27; <a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>, 12).&mdash;In veterinary anatomy further designated
+as <i>the short flexor of the forearm</i>, this muscle, which is
+thick, occupies the musculo-spiral groove, and arises from
+it, reaching upwards to just below the head of the humerus.
+But it does not, as in man, extend to the internal surface of
+the bone.</p>
+
+<p>Situated on the outside of the biceps, it is directed towards
+the forearm, and terminates by a flattened tendon, which,
+dividing into two slips, passes below the bicipital tuberosity,
+on the internal surface of the radius, into which one of
+these slips is inserted, while the other proceeds to terminate
+on the ulna.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior half of this muscle is visible on the superficial
+layer, in the space limited posteriorly by the triceps brachialis,
+and below by the muscles of the forearm, which correspond
+to the external muscles of the human forearm, and in
+front by the great pectoral and the mastoido-humeral. It
+is in the upper part of the interspace which separates these
+latter from the brachialis anticus that the deltoid insinuates
+itself to proceed to its insertion into the humerus.</p>
+
+<p>These relations precisely recall those which we meet with
+when we examine the external surface of the human arm,
+with this difference, however&mdash;that in the latter the anterior
+brachialis anticus is extensively related, in front, to the biceps.
+However, in animals it is not absolutely the same, since,
+as we have shown above, the biceps is covered, more or
+less completely, by the mastoido-humeral and the great
+pectoral.</p>
+
+<p>The brachialis anticus flexes the forearm on the arm.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coraco-brachialis.</b>&mdash;In man this muscle, which occupies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+the superior half, or third, of the internal surface of
+the humerus, is visible only when the arm is abducted,
+and then especially when it approaches the vertical position;
+indeed, it is only in this attitude that the region
+which it occupies is accessible to view.</p>
+
+<p>But an analogous attitude not being possible in domestic
+animals, in which the arm is fixed along the corresponding
+parts of the trunk, the result is that the coraco-brachialis is
+always covered, and that, consequently, it presents nothing
+of interest from our point of view. We speak of it, then,
+merely in order to complete the series of the muscles of the
+anterior surface of the arm, among which we rank it, in spite
+of the fact that in veterinary anatomy it is described as a
+muscle of the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>It arises above from the coracoid process, and thence
+passes downwards towards the internal surface of the
+humerus into which it is inserted, more or less high up,
+according to the species. The coraco-brachialis is an
+adductor of the arm.</p>
+
+<h5>Posterior Region</h5>
+
+<p><b>Triceps Cubiti</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 23, 24; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 20, 21;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 28, 29; <a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>, 13, 14, 15, 16).&mdash;This muscle, which
+is voluminous in the quadrupeds with which we are here concerned,
+fits more or less completely the angular space between
+the scapula and the humerus. Its bulk forms a thick
+prominence, which surmounts the elbow and the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>We should say, with regard to this mass, that if the deltoid
+does not constitute in quadrupeds a prominence sufficient to
+remind one of that which this muscle produces in man,
+the triceps, in producing an analogous elevation, seems to
+replace in the general form of the body the relief which the
+deltoid is incapable of producing.</p>
+
+<p>The triceps is divided into three portions, which, as in
+man, have the names middle, or long head; external and
+internal heads. But that which renders the nomenclature a
+little complicated is that veterinary anatomists have given
+other names to these three parts: that of <i>great extensor of
+the forearm</i> (caput magnum) to the long head; <i>the short</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+<i>extensor of the forearm</i> (caput parvum) to the external head;
+and of <i>medium extensor of the forearm</i> (caput medium) to the
+internal.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span
+class="label">[24]</span></a> Other names given by certain authors to the parts of this muscle
+which we have just enumerated still further complicate this nomenclature.
+</p><p>
+The long head is further designated by them under the names of the
+<i>long</i> or <i>great anconeus</i>; the <i>external head</i> under those of <i>external anconeus</i>,
+or <i>lateral</i> or <i>short anconeus</i>; whilst the internal head becomes the <i>internal
+anconeus</i>, or <i>median</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is more especially the long portion and the external
+head which, being visible on the external surface of the arm,
+contribute to the external form.</p>
+
+<p>The long portion, which is triangular in shape and of
+considerable development, arises in the cat and the dog from
+the inferior half or two-thirds of the posterior border of the
+scapula (axillary border); from the whole extent of that
+border as far as the superior posterior angle in the pig, the
+ox, and the horse; it then passes downwards towards the
+articulation of the elbow, to terminate in a tendon which is
+inserted into the olecranon process. The portion of this
+muscle which is next the scapula is covered by the deltoid.</p>
+
+<p>The external head, situated below the long portion, is
+directed obliquely downwards and backwards. It arises
+from the curved crest which, from the deltoid impression
+of the humerus, is directed upward to meet the articular head
+of the same bone. This crest limiting the musculo-spiral
+groove superiorly, and the brachialis anticus arising from the
+whole extent of this groove, the result is that at this level
+the external head is in relation with the brachialis anticus.
+From this origin it is directed towards the elbow, to be
+inserted into the olecranon, either directly or by the medium
+of the tendon of the long portion. The part of this muscle
+which arises from the humerus is covered by the deltoid.</p>
+
+<p>As for the internal head (<a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 4), which, in the superficial
+layer, is only visible in its inferior part, on the internal
+aspect of the arm in those animals in which the elbow is
+free of the lateral wall of the thorax (the dog and the cat,
+for example), it arises from the internal surface of the
+humerus, and thence proceeds to be inserted into the olecranon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>The triceps extends the forearm on the arm.</p>
+
+<p>A fourth muscle exists, which veterinary anatomists
+include in the study of the three portions of the triceps which
+we have just been discussing, in giving it the name of
+<i>small extensor of the forearm</i>. But, as this muscle is no other
+than the <a href="#Anconeus">anconeus</a>, and as, in human anatomy, we describe
+the latter, according to custom, in connection with
+the forearm, it is when on the subject of the latter that we
+will concern ourselves with it. This grouping of muscles
+cannot fail to give greater clearness to the description of the
+muscles of these regions.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Supplemental or Accessory Muscle of the Latissimus
+Dorsi</b> (<a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 2; <a href="#Fig077">Fig. 77</a>, 1).&mdash;Because of the
+relations, to which we have already referred (see <a href="#Page_142">p. 142</a>),
+of this muscle with the triceps cubiti, its description very
+naturally follows that of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, this supplementary muscle of the great dorsal is
+further designated in zoological anatomy under the name
+of <i>long extensor of the forearm</i>; and this name indicates that
+its study may be united to that of the triceps.</p>
+
+<p>Situated on the internal surface of the arm, it arises
+from the external aspect of the tendon of the latissimus
+dorsi; it is very highly developed in the horse, in which it
+also arises from the posterior border (axillary) of the
+scapula; then, covering in part the internal head of the
+triceps and also the long portion, on the superior border of
+which it is folded, it proceeds to be inserted into the olecranon
+process and the anti-brachial aponeurosis.</p>
+
+<p>It extends the forearm on the arm. Further, it makes
+tense the aponeurosis into which it is inserted; this explains
+the name of <i>tensor of the fascia of the forearm</i>, which is sometimes
+given to it.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to us interesting to add that, abnormally, we
+sometimes find in man an analogue of this muscle. It is
+given off from the latissimus dorsi, near the insertion of the
+latter into the humerus; it accompanies the long head of
+the triceps and becomes fused with it. Sometimes it is
+inserted into the olecranon process, at other times into the
+antibrachial aponeurosis or the epitrochlea. It is on account<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+of its insertion into the last-mentioned, in some cases, that
+it is also designated by the name of <i>dorso-epitrochlear</i>
+muscle.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+L. Testut, &#8216;Anomalies musculaires chez l&#8217;homme expliqu&eacute;es par
+l&#8217;anatomie compar&eacute;e,&#8217; Paris, 1884, p. 118. A. F. Le Double, &#8216;Trait&eacute;
+des variations du syst&egrave;me musculaire de l&#8217;homme et de leur signification
+au point de vue de l&#8217;anthropologie zoologique,&#8217; Paris, 1897, t. i., p. 203.
+&Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;Anomalies musculaires&#8217; (<i>Bulletins de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Anthropologique</i>,
+Paris, 1893).</p></div>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Forearm</h5>
+
+<p>Before commencing the special examination of each of
+the muscles of this region, it is absolutely indispensable to
+consider their general arrangement, and to determine very
+clearly how we should study them. We are too well convinced
+of the importance of this preliminary examination
+to dismiss it without entering rather fully into it. Indeed,
+the region on the myological study of which we are now
+entering is, unquestionably, one of the most complicated
+with which we have to deal. We know besides, in regard
+to the study of the forearm in man, how much a definite
+method is necessary in order that the arrangement of the
+muscles of this region be fixed in the memory, and that we
+are unable to obtain this result otherwise than by grouping
+the twenty muscles which constitute it in clearly defined
+regions.</p>
+
+<p>We also know that these muscles are first studied with the
+forearm in the position of supination, and that it is only
+when they are well known after having considered them in
+this position that we are able to analyze and comprehend
+their forms when it is in pronation.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as we have pointed out in the section on osteology
+(see <a href="#Page_34">p. 34</a>), the forearm in quadrupeds is always in the
+position of pronation. Should we, then, in order to maintain
+the symmetry with human anatomy, first study the
+forearm in the position of supination? Evidently not.
+Besides the fact that this would in some cases be impossible
+since&mdash;as in the horse, for example&mdash;the radius and ulna<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+are fused together, we should not gain any advantage; this
+position being never completely realizable even in those
+quadrupeds which have the radius relatively movable&mdash;as,
+for example, in the cat.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, it is pronation which here, in connection
+with animals, becomes the standard attitude from the point
+of view of description. This is why, supposing that the
+reader knows well the muscles of the human forearm in the
+position of supination, we should recall what is the general
+arrangement occupied by these muscles when it is in pronation.</p>
+
+<p>The fore-limb, being viewed on its anterior surface, presents
+above the anterior aspect of the region of the elbow;
+but below, it is the posterior surface of the wrist which is
+seen. Consequently, in the superior part, we see the external
+and anterior muscles limiting the hollow in front of
+the elbow; interiorly are found the posterior muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The long supinator, passing obliquely downwards and
+inwards, divides, in fact, the forearm into two parts: one
+supero-internal, the other infero-external. In the first we
+see, but to an extent less and less considerable, the pronator
+teres, the flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris longus,
+and the flexor ulnaris; as to the flexors of the digits, on
+account of the rotation of the radius, they are only visible on
+the opposite surface&mdash;that is to say, on the surface of the
+wrist, which is now posterior. In the second part we see the
+two radial extensors, the common extensor of the fingers,
+the proper extensor of the little finger, and the ulnar extensor
+which, inferiorly, remains behind, by reason of the position
+of the ulna being unchanged, whilst the anconeus is wholly
+posterior, since the direction of the elbow is not modified.
+We also find, in this region, the long abductor of the thumb,
+the short extensor of the thumb, the long extensor of the
+thumb, and the special extensor of the index-finger, in the
+region where these deep muscles become superficial.</p>
+
+<p>So that, to summarize, the external and posterior muscles
+occupy the anterior and external regions of the forearm,
+whilst the anterior muscles occupy rather the internal and
+posterior. It is in regarding them after this manner&mdash;that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+is to say, arranged in these two regions&mdash;that we proceed
+to study these muscles in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<h5>Anterior and External Region</h5>
+
+<p><b>Supinator Longus.</b>&mdash;We know that this muscle, which
+is especially a flexor of the forearm on the arm, plays, notwithstanding
+the name which has been given it, a part of
+but little importance in the movement of supination.</p>
+
+<p>It acts slightly, however, as a supinator, for, being very
+oblique downwards and inwards at the time of pronation, it
+is able, while tending to resume its vertical direction, to
+carry the radius outwards; it places, in fact, the forearm
+in a position midway between pronation and supination.</p>
+
+<p>We have just recalled these details, in order that it may
+be more easy to understand why it does not exist in animals
+in which the radius and ulna are fused together (horse, ox);
+and why, on the other hand, we find traces of it in the cat
+and the dog, in which the radius&mdash;to a slight extent, it is
+true&mdash;is able to rotate on the ulna. This displacement
+being a little more considerable in the felide, the long supinator
+is a little further developed than it is in the canine
+species; but, notwithstanding, it is only rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>The long supinator arises, above, from the external border
+of the humerus; thence, in the form of a very narrow
+fleshy band, it passes obliquely downwards and inwards,
+to be inserted into the inferior part of the internal surface
+of the radius.</p>
+
+<p>It assists in turning the radius outwards and placing it
+in front of the ulna, the movement of supination being
+capable of being but little further extended.</p>
+
+<p><b>First and Second External Radial Muscles</b>: <i>Extensor
+carpi radialis longior and brevior</i> (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 8; <a href="#Fig074">Fig. 74</a>, 8, 9;
+<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 8, 9).&mdash;Fused together, these muscles form by their
+union what veterinary anatomists call <i>the anterior extensor of
+the metacarpus</i>. But we should add that these two muscles
+are united so much the more intimately as we examine
+them in passing successively from the cat to the dog, pig,
+ox, and horse. Thus, in the cat they are often distinct; in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+the dog, they unite only at the level of the middle third of
+the radius, and interiorly they have two tendons; in the
+pig, the ox, and the horse they are completely united, and
+there exists but a single tendon.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>anterior extensor of the metacarpus</i>, which is situated
+behind the long supinator when the latter exists, occupies
+the external aspect of the forearm; its well-defined form
+absolutely recalls the prominence on the superior part of the
+external margin of the human forearm.</p>
+
+<p>It arises superiorly from the portion of the external border
+of the humerus which is situated above the epicondyle and
+behind the musculo-spiral groove. Its fleshy mass appears in
+the angular space bounded by the brachialis anticus and the
+triceps. The superior portion is covered by the external head
+of the triceps; yet, in the dog, the superior portion of its
+humeral attachment is the only part so covered. This muscle
+is directed forward and downwards; it is also inclined a little
+inwards in such manner as to proceed to occupy the anterior
+aspect of the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>Its fleshy belly is narrowed below, and, towards the
+inferior part of the forearm, is continued by a tendinous
+portion which is situated on the anterior surface of the
+carpus, after having traversed the median groove of the
+inferior extremity of the radius.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat and the dog, in which the union of the two
+radial extensors is incomplete, the two tendons are
+inserted into the front of the base of the second and third
+metacarpal bones; consequently, as in man, into the metacarpals
+of the index and middle fingers.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the tendon, which is single, is inserted into the
+internal and anterior half of the superior extremity of the
+principal metacarpal.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, this tendon is attached to the base of the large
+internal metacarpal.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, the corresponding tendon is attached to a
+tubercle which is situated on the anterior surface of the base
+of the principal metacarpal, a little internal to the median
+plane of the latter.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig073" id="Fig073"></a>
+<img src="images/illo201.png" alt="Fig. 73" width="350" height="473" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 73.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Left Anterior Limb, External
+Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Mastoido-humeralis; 2, biceps; 3, brachialis anticus; 4, triceps, long
+portion; 5, triceps, external head; 6, olecranon process; 7, epicondyle;
+8, radialis muscles (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 9, extensor
+communis digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 10, extensor
+minimi digiti (lateral extensor of the phalanges, or common extensor of
+the three external digits); 11, posterior ulnar (external flexor of the metacarpus);
+12, pisiform bone; 13, anconeus; 14, extensor ossis metacarpi
+pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis (oblique extensor of the
+metacarpus); 15, radius; 16, anterior ulnar (oblique flexor of the metacarpus);
+17, external border of the hypothenar eminence (abductor of
+the little finger).</p></div>
+
+<p>In order to properly understand and remember the respective<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+positions occupied by these inferior insertions, it
+must be remembered that the human forearm being in the
+position of pronation, the tendons of the radials are attached
+to the bases of the metacarpals nearest to the thumb&mdash;that
+is to say, those occupying an internal position as regards
+the fourth and fifth metacarpals.</p>
+
+<p>As its name indicates, this muscle extends the metacarpus.
+Consequently it is, in the horse, an extensor of the canon-bone.</p>
+
+<p>It is also an adductor of the hand in those animals (cat,
+dog) in which the radio-carpal articulation, analogous
+in form to the corresponding articulation in man, permits
+lateral movements of the hand on the forearm. The union
+of the fleshy bodies of the two radials is sometimes found
+in the human species.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supinator Brevis.</b>&mdash;As in the case of the long supinator,
+the short supinator is found only in animals in which the
+radius can be rotated to a greater or less extent around
+the ulna; therefore this muscle is not found in the pig, the
+ox, or the horse; but it forms part of the forearm of the cat
+and the dog.</p>
+
+<p>Deeply situated at the region of the elbow, the short
+supinator has little interest for us. All that we will say of
+it is that it goes from the external part of the inferior extremity
+of the humerus to the superior part of the radius;
+and that it is, in carnivora, the essential agent in the production
+of the movement of supination.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extensor Communis Digitorum</b> (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 9, 10, 11;
+<a href="#Fig074">Fig. 74</a>, 10, 11, 12).&mdash;Also named in veterinary anatomy
+the <i>anterior extensor of the phalanges</i>, this muscle is situated
+external to and behind the anterior extensor of the metacarpus
+already described.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig074" id="Fig074"></a>
+<img src="images/illo203.png" alt="Fig. 74" width="300" height="528" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 74.&mdash;Myology of the Ox: Left Anterior
+Limb, External Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Mastoido-humeralis;
+2, pectoralis
+major; 3,
+deltoid; 4, brachialis
+anticus; 5,
+triceps; 6, triceps,
+external
+head; 7, olecranon;
+8, radial extensors
+(anterior
+extensor of the
+metacarpus); 9,
+insertion of the
+tendon of the anterior extensor
+of the metacarpus
+to the tubercle of the superior
+extremity of the principal
+metacarpal; 10, 11,
+extensor communis digitorum
+(10, proper extensor
+of the inner digits; 11,
+common extensor of the
+two digits); 12, tendon of
+the common extensor of
+the two digits; 13, band
+of reinforcement from the
+suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 14, external tuberosity of the superior
+extremity of the radius; 15, extensor minimi digiti (proper extensor
+of the external digit); 16, tendon of the proper extensor of the external
+digit; 17, posterior ulnar (external flexor of the metacarpus); 18, pisiform;
+19, extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis
+(oblique extensor of the metacarpus); 20, ulnar portion of the deep flexor
+of the toes; 21, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes (superficial
+flexor of the phalanges); 22, tendon of the deep flexor of the toes (deep
+flexor of the phalanges); 23, suspensory ligament of the fetlock.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the human being, the common extensor of the fingers
+springs, in its superior part, from the bottom of a depression,
+situated on the outer side of and behind the elbow, and limited
+in front by the muscular prominence which the long supinator
+and the first radial extensor form at that level. At the
+bottom of this hollow or fossette is found the epicondyle,
+which gives origin, amongst other muscles, to the common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+extensor of the fingers. It is necessary to add that it is most
+prominently visible during supination, and that it tends to
+be effaced during pronation.</p>
+
+<p>An analogous arrangement is met with in animals. But
+the muscular prominence is formed by the united radial
+extensors, and the fossette, because of the permanent pronation
+of the forearm, is scarcely recognisable. Likewise,
+with regard to the dog, we may say that it does not exist,
+on account of the prominence which the epicondyle forms
+in that animal (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 7).</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this prominence of the epicondyle,
+it is interesting to add that this detail recalls the relief
+which the same process produces on the external aspect of
+the human elbow when the forearm is flexed on the arm.
+We know that, in this case, the epicondyle is exposed,
+because the muscles which mask it in supination (long supinator
+and long radial extensor) are displaced and set it free
+during flexion. But, in the dog, as in other quadrupeds
+besides, the forearm is, in the normal state, flexed on the
+arm; the latter being oblique downwards and backwards,
+and the former being vertical. Further, the epicondyle is
+well developed.</p>
+
+<p>The muscle with which we are now occupied, long and
+vertical in direction, arises from the inferior part of the
+external border of the humerus (there it is covered by
+the anterior extensor of the metacarpus, from which
+it is freed a little lower down) and from the external
+and superior tuberosity of the radius. In the carnivora,
+it arises from the epicondyle. Its fleshy body is fusiform
+in shape, becomes tendinous in the lower half of the forearm,
+and then divides into a number of slips, varying in
+number according to the species; this division is correlated
+to that of the hand&mdash;that is to say, with the number of the
+digits. Before reaching this latter, the common extensor
+of the digits passes through the most external groove on
+the anterior surface of the inferior extremity of the
+radius.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig075" id="Fig075"></a>
+<img src="images/illo205.png" alt="Fig. 75" width="275" height="566" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 75.&mdash;Myology of the Horse:
+Left Anterior Limb, External
+Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Mastoido-humeral; 2,
+pectoralis major; 3, deltoid;
+4, brachialis anticus; 5, triceps,
+long head; 6, triceps,
+external head; 7, olecranon;
+8, radial extensors (anterior
+extensor of the metacarpus);
+9, insertion of the tendon of
+the anterior extensor of the
+metacarpus into the tubercle
+of the superior extremity of
+the principal metacarpal; 10,
+extensor communis digitorum
+(anterior extensor of
+the phalanges); 11, tendon
+of the anterior extensor of the
+phalanges; 12, reinforcing
+band arising from the suspensory
+ligament of the fetlock;
+13, external tuberosity of the
+superior extremity of the
+radius; 14, extensor minimi
+digiti (lateral extensor of the
+phalanges); 15, tendon of the
+lateral extensor of the phalanges; 16, fibrous band which this latter
+receives from the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges; 17,
+fibrous band which the same tendon receives from the carpal region;
+18, posterior ulnar (external flexor of the metacarpus); 19, pisiform;
+20, extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis
+(oblique flexor of the metacarpus); 21, ulnar portion of the deep flexor of
+the digits; 22, flexor digitorum profundus; 23, 23, tendon of the flexor
+digitorum sublimis (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 24, 24, tendon
+of the flexor digitorum profundus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 25, sesamoid
+prominence; 26, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 27, external
+rudimentary metacarpal.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the cat and the dog, the four tendons which result
+from the division of the principal tendon go to the four last<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+digits, and each of them is inserted, as in the human species,
+to the second and third phalanges.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the anterior extensor of the phalanges is rather
+complicated in its arrangement. Its fleshy body is divided
+into four bundles terminated by tendons, which in turn
+divide and join certain digits; whence the special names
+given to each of these fasciculi, commencing with the most
+internal, of: <i>proper extensor of the great inner toe</i>; <i>common
+extensor of the two inner toes</i>; <i>common extensor of the two
+outer toes</i>; and <i>proper extensor of the great outer toe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the same muscle is divided into two bundles:
+the internal proceeds to the internal toe, the external is
+common to the two toes.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, the tendon of the anterior extensor of the
+phalanges is divided into two parts of unequal bulk. The
+smaller of these tendinous slips, which is the more external,
+unites at the level of the superior part of the metacarpus
+with the tendon of the muscle which we are about to
+study in the following paragraph (<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 16). The larger,
+after having reached the anterior surface of the digit, is
+attached to the anterior aspect of the first and second
+phalanges, and then forms a terminal expansion which is
+inserted into the pyramidal eminence of the third.</p>
+
+<p>At the level of the first phalanx this tendon receives on
+each of its lateral aspects a strengthening band, which
+proceeds from the terminal extremity of <i>the suspensory
+ligament of the fetlock</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> and crosses obliquely downwards
+and forwards over the surface of the first phalanx to join
+the extensor tendon (<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 12).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+See <a href="#Page_200">p. 200</a> for a description of this ligament.</p></div>
+
+<p>A similar arrangement is found in the ox.</p>
+
+<p>This band is noticeable under the skin which covers the
+lateral aspects of the ham.</p>
+
+<p>As the name indicates, this muscle extends the phalanges,
+one upon the other. It also contributes to the extension
+of the hand, as a whole, on the forearm.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extensor Minimi Digiti</b> (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 10; <a href="#Fig074">Fig. 74</a>, 15, 16;
+<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 14, 15).&mdash;This muscle, <i>the lateral extensor of the
+phalanges</i> of veterinary anatomy, situated on the external<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+surface of the forearm, behind the common extensor
+of the digits, arises, as a rule, from the epicondyle
+(dog, cat), or from the external surface of the superior
+extremity of the radius (horse). The tendon succeeding
+to the fleshy body appears towards the lower third
+of the forearm, and at the level of the wrist lies in a
+groove analogous to that which in man is hollowed out
+for the passage of the corresponding tendon at the level
+of the inferior radio-ulnar articulation. This groove corresponds
+to the same articulation in animals in which the
+ulna is well developed, such as the dog and the cat; but
+it belongs to the radius when the inferior extremity of the
+ulna does not exist&mdash;for example, in the horse. Indeed,
+in this animal the groove in question is found on the external
+surface of the carpal extremity of the radius.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, the tendon is divided into three parts, which,
+crossing obliquely the tendons of the common extensor of
+the digits, pass to the three external digits, to be inserted
+by blending with the corresponding tendons of the latter
+into the third phalanges of those digits.</p>
+
+<p>Thus is explained the name of <i>common extensor of the three
+external digits</i> which is sometimes given to this muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat, there is a fourth tendon, which passes to the
+index-finger, so that the name <i>common extensor of the four
+external digits</i> is in this case legitimate, and the lateral extensor
+of the phalanges is also a common extensor, as is
+the anterior extensor of the phalanges, or common extensor
+of the digits.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the tendon, which is single, is inserted into
+the external digit, for which reason it has received the
+name of the <i>proper extensor of the small external digit</i>. This
+muscle is, then, really the homologue of that which exists
+in the human species.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, it is called the <i>proper extensor of the external
+digit</i>; it is as thick as the common extensor.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in the horse, the muscle is little developed. Its
+fleshy body, thin and flattened from before backwards,
+becomes distinctly visible only below the middle of the
+forearm. Above, it is enclosed in a limited space, bounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+in front by the common extensor of the digits, and behind
+by the posterior ulnar; there these two muscles approach
+each other so closely that from the point of view of external
+form they seem to be nearly in contact.</p>
+
+<p>The tendon, after receiving the small fasciculus from the
+common extensor (<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 16), as well as a fibrous band
+emanating from the external surface of the carpus (<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>,
+17), is situated at the external side of the tendon of the
+anterior extensor of the phalanges, and is inserted into the
+anterior surface of the superior extremity of the first
+phalanx.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle extends the digit or digits into which it is
+inserted. It also assists in the movement of extension of
+the hand as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><b>Posterior Ulnar</b> (<i>Extensor carpi ulnaris</i>) (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 11;
+<a href="#Fig074">Fig. 74</a>, 17; <a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 18).&mdash;Designated by veterinary
+anatomists as the <i>external flexor of the metacarpus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> or
+<i>external cubital</i>, this muscle is situated in the posterior region
+of the external surface of the forearm, behind the lateral
+extensor of the phalanges.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
+Certain authors give it the name of <i>ulnar extensor of the wrist</i>. It is true
+that in the human being this is its action; but in quadrupeds, owing to its
+insertion into the pisiform, it draws the hand into the position of flexion.</p></div>
+
+<p>It arises from the epicondyle; its fleshy body, thick but
+flattened, is directed vertically towards the carpus, and its
+tendon is inserted into the external part of the superior
+extremity of the metacarpus, after having given off a
+fibrous band, which takes its attachment on the pisiform.</p>
+
+<p>It is inserted, in the cat and the dog, into the superior
+extremity of the fifth metacarpal; in the pig to the external
+metacarpal; in the ox to the external side of the canon-bone;
+in the horse to the superior extremity of the external
+rudimentary metacarpal.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle flexes the hand on the forearm, and in animals
+in which the radio-carpal articulation permits, by its
+formation, it inclines the hand slightly outwards&mdash;that is,
+abducts it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Anconeus" id="Anconeus"></a><b>Anconeus</b> (<a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>,
+17; <a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 13).&mdash;We have already
+stated (<a href="#Page_174">p. 174</a>) that the anconeus is included with the triceps<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+brachialis in zoological anatomy, and that veterinary
+anatomists give it the name of <i>small extensor of the forearm</i>.<a name="FNanchor_28_28"
+id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
+It is also called by some authors, the <i>small anconeus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the dog it recalls, as to position, the human anconeus,
+but with this difference&mdash;that, in the latter, the anconeus,
+triangular in outline, has one of its angles turned outwards
+(the epicondyloid attachment) and one of its sides turned
+towards the olecranon. Here it is entirely the opposite.
+The anconeus, similarly triangular, is broader externally.
+At this level it takes its origin from the external border of
+the humerus, the epicondyle, and the external lateral ligament
+of the articulation of the elbow; thence its fibres
+converge towards the external surface of the olecranon, to
+be there inserted.</p>
+
+<p>It is in relation, anteriorly and inferiorly, with the posterior
+ulnar muscle. It is covered superiorly by the external head
+of the triceps. In the cat the disposition of the anconeus
+is analogous. But in the other quadrupeds with which we
+are here concerned it is completely covered by the external
+head of the triceps. It really participates in the
+formation of the triceps; and seeing that it takes origin from
+the posterior surface of the humerus at the margin of the
+olecranon fossa (<a href="#Fig072">Fig. 72</a>), and proceeds thence towards the
+olecranon to be inserted, we can understand why veterinary
+anatomists have connected its study with that of the
+posterior muscular mass of the arm.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle is an extensor of the forearm on the arm.</p>
+
+<p>We proceed now to inquire what the deep muscles of the
+posterior region of the human forearm become in quadrupeds:
+the long abductor of the thumb, the short extensor
+of the thumb, the long extensor of the thumb, the proper
+extensor of the index. We know that in every instance
+these muscles, which are deeply seated at their origin,
+become superficial afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds, on account of the position in which the
+forearm is placed&mdash;viz., pronation&mdash;the corresponding
+muscles occupy the anterior aspect of this region.</p>
+
+<p><b>Long Abductor of the Thumb</b> (<i>Extensor ossis metacarpi</i><span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+<i>pollicis</i>) <b>and Short Extensor of the Thumb</b> (<i>Extensor primi
+internodii pollicis</i>) (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 14; <a href="#Fig074">Fig. 74</a>,
+19; <a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 20).&mdash;United
+one to the other in man, blended in quadrupeds,
+they form in the latter the muscles to which veterinary
+anatomists give the name of <i>oblique extensor of the metacarpus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle arises from the median portion of the skeleton
+of the forearm. There it is covered by the common extensor
+of the digits and that of the small digit (anterior extensor
+and lateral extensor of the phalanges). Then, at the internal
+border of the first of these muscles, it becomes superficial,
+passes downwards and inwards, crosses superficially
+the anterior extensor of the metacarpus, reaches the inferior
+extremity of the radius, and becomes lodged in the most
+internal of the grooves situated on the anterior surface
+of this extremity, passes on the internal side of the carpus,
+and is inserted into the superior extremity of the most
+internal metacarpal&mdash;that is, to the first metacarpal, or metacarpal
+of the thumb&mdash;in the dog and cat; to the internal
+rudimentary metacarpal in the horse.</p>
+
+<p>It is an extensor of the metacarpal into which it is inserted;
+but as, if we recall the extreme examples given
+above, in the dog the first metacarpal is not very mobile,
+and in the horse the internal rudimentary metacarpal is
+absolutely fixed to the bone which it accompanies, it is
+more exact to add that this muscle is principally an extensor
+of the metacarpus as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, in the cat and the dog, it is also able to adduct
+the first metacarpal bone. It must be understood that this
+movement would be abduction, if the hand could be placed
+in the position of complete supination, as in the human
+species.</p>
+
+<p><b>Long Extensor of the Thumb</b> (<i>Extensor secundi internodii
+pollicis</i>) <b>and Proper Extensor of the Index</b> (<i>Extensor indicis</i>).&mdash;These
+two muscles are blended together by their fleshy
+bodies, so that the single name of <i>proper extensor of the thumb
+and index</i> is preferable. This muscle is but of slight importance
+from our point of view, for it is extremely atrophied,
+and so much the more as the number of the digits is lessened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>It arises, as the preceding, from the skeleton of the forearm,
+and there it is deeply placed. Below, towards the
+carpus, its tendinous part becomes superficial, to end in the
+following manner:</p>
+
+<p>In the carnivora, the tendon divides into two very slender
+parts, which are inserted into the thumb and the index.
+In the pig, the tendon is blended with that of the common
+extensor of the internal digits. Finally, in the ox and the
+horse, it is sometimes regarded as being blended with the
+common or anterior extensor of the phalanges. But to us it
+appears more rational to say that it does not exist, which,
+moreover, is explained by the digital simplification of the
+hand.</p>
+
+<h5>Internal and Posterior Region</h5>
+
+<p><b>Pronator Teres</b> (<a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 8).&mdash;This muscle, as may easily
+be understood, undergoes, as do the supinators, a degree
+of degeneration in proportion to the loss of mobility of the
+radius on the ulna. In animals in which the bones of the
+forearm are not fused it exists; in those, on the other
+hand, in which this segment has become simply a supporting
+column, it is not developed&mdash;at least, in a normal
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>It is, consequently, found best marked in the dog and
+the cat.</p>
+
+<p>Forming, as in man, the internal limit of the hollow of the
+elbow, the pronator teres has a disposition analogous to that
+which characterizes the corresponding muscle in the human
+species. It arises from the epitrochlea (internal condyle),
+proceeds downwards and outwards, and is inserted into the
+middle portion of the body of the radius.</p>
+
+<p>It is into the hollow in front of the elbow, which this
+muscle contributes to limit, that the biceps and the brachialis
+anticus dip.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig and the ox it is atrophied.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it does not exist. We may, however,
+sometimes find it, but in an abnormal form. We were
+able to demonstrate its presence in the form of a fleshy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+tongue situated on the internal side of the elbow (<a href="#Fig078">Fig. 78</a>)
+in a horse which we dissected many years ago in the laboratory
+of the School of Fine Arts. Moreover&mdash;and the fact
+seemed to us an interesting one&mdash;the forearm to which the
+muscle belonged had an ulna of relatively considerable
+development (<a href="#Fig079">Figs. 79</a> and <a href="#Fig080">80</a>).<a name="FNanchor_29_29"
+id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
+&Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;Abnormal Length of the Ulna and Presence of a
+Pronator Teres Muscle in a Horse&#8217; (<i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&#8217;Anthropologie</i>,
+Paris, 1887).</p></div>
+
+<p>This muscle is a pronator.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flexor Carpi Radialis</b> (<a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 10; <a href="#Fig077">Fig. 77</a>, 7).&mdash;Called
+by veterinary anatomists <i>the internal flexor of the
+metacarpus</i>, this muscle, which is found on the internal
+aspect of the forearm, is situated behind the pronator
+teres when this muscle exists, whilst in the animals which
+are deprived of the latter the flexor carpi radialis has in
+front of it the internal border of the radius, which separates
+it from the anterior extensor of the metacarpus.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to add that the flexor carpi radialis is
+similarly separated from the anterior extensor of the metacarpus
+by the internal border of the radius in animals
+in which the pronator teres exists, but then only in that part
+of the forearm which is situated below this latter.</p>
+
+<p>The flexor carpi radialis arises from the epitrochlea. Its
+fleshy body, fusiform in shape, descends vertically, and
+terminates in a tendon on the posterior surface of the
+bases of the second and third metacarpals in the dog and
+the cat, on the metacarpal of the large internal digit in
+the pig, on the internal side of the metacarpus in the ox,
+and on the superior extremity of the internal rudimentary
+metacarpal in the horse.</p>
+
+<p>We see clearly, in this latter, a superficial vein which, in
+the shape of a strong cord, passes along the anterior border
+of the flexor carpi radialis; it is the subcutaneous median
+or internal vein, which, forming the continuation of the
+internal metacarpal vein, joins the venous system of the
+arm, after having crossed obliquely the corresponding part
+of the radius.</p>
+
+<p><b>Palmaris Longus.</b>&mdash;This muscle, which exists distinctly in<span class="pagenum"><a
+name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+some animals, but whose absence is far from being rare in
+the human species, is not developed as a distinct muscle in
+any of the domestic quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig076" id="Fig076"></a>
+<img src="images/illo213.png" alt="Fig. 76" width="300" height="514" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 76.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Left Anterior Limb, Internal Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Biceps; 2, long extensor of the forearm (supplementary or accessory
+muscle of the great dorsal); 3, triceps, long head; 4, triceps, internal
+head; 5, olecranon; 6, epitrochlea (internal condyle); 7, radial extensors
+(anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 8, pronator teres; 9, radius; 10,
+flexor carpi radialis (internal flexor of the metacarpus); 11, anterior ulnar
+(oblique flexor of the metacarpus); 12, superficial flexor of the digits;
+13, deep flexor of the digits; 14, flexor longus pollicis (radial fasciculus
+of the deep flexor of the digits); 15, pisiform bone.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>And yet some authors announce its presence in the
+dog, and describe it as becoming detached, in the form
+of a cylindrical bundle, from the anterior surface of the
+fleshy mass of the deep flexor of the digits (see <a href="#Page_196">p. 196</a>)
+to proceed then by a tendon which divides into two parts,
+to terminate in the palm of the hand, where it blends
+with the tendons of the superficial flexor, which are destined
+for the third and fourth digits.</p>
+
+<p>These authors give to this muscle the name of <i>palmaris
+longus</i>, and attribute to it the action of flexing the hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anterior Ulnar</b> (<i>Flexor carpi ulnaris</i>) (<a href="#Fig073">Fig. 73</a>, 16; <a href="#Fig076">Fig.
+76</a>, 11; <a href="#Fig077">Fig. 77</a>, 8).&mdash;Called by veterinary anatomists the
+<i>oblique flexor of the metacarpus</i>, or <i>internal ulnar</i>, this
+muscle occupies the internal part of the posterior aspect of
+the forearm in the ox and the horse, while in the dog it
+occupies rather the external part.</p>
+
+<p>This difference arises from the fact that in this latter, as
+in man, the anterior ulnar is separated from the flexor carpi
+radialis by an interval in which we see, on the internal aspect
+of the forearm, just at the level of the elbow, the flexors of
+the digits. This interval is so much the wider as there is
+no palmaris muscle to subdivide its extent (<a href="#Fig081">Fig. 81</a>). In
+the horse, the interval in question does not exist. In this
+animal, indeed, the anterior ulnar is in contact with the
+radial flexor, so that this muscle can occupy only a region
+belonging rather to the internal surface of the forearm
+(<a href="#Fig082">Fig. 82</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In the dog the anterior ulnar is in contact with the posterior
+ulnar. This relation recalls that which is found in man,
+where the two muscles are merely separated by the crest of
+the ulna (<a href="#Fig081">Fig. 81</a>). But in the horse, in which the anterior
+ulnar has, so to speak, slid towards the internal aspect,
+this muscle is separated above from the posterior ulnar,
+and it is in the interval separating these two muscles that
+we are able to perceive, but this time at the back of the
+forearm, the muscular mass of the flexors of the digits
+(<a href="#Fig082">Fig. 82</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig077"  id="Fig077"></a>
+<img src="images/illo215.png" alt="Fig. 77" width="275" height="567" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 77.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Anterior Limb, Left Side,
+Internal Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Long extensor of the forearm (supplementary or accessory muscle of
+the latissimus dorsi); 2, radialis muscles (anterior extensor of the metacarpus);
+3, tendons of extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis extensor
+primi internodii pollicis united (oblique extensor of the metacarpus);
+4, tendon of extensor communis digitorum (anterior extensor of the
+phalanges); 5, strengthening band from the suspensory ligament of the
+fetlock; 6, internal surface of the radius; 7, flexor carpi radialis (internal
+flexor of the metacarpus); 8, anterior ulnar (oblique flexor of the metacarpus);
+9, pisiform bone; 10, 10, tendon of the superficial flexor of the
+digits (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 11, 11, tendon of the deep
+flexor of the digits (deep flexor of the phalanges); 12, sesamoid prominence;
+13, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 14, internal rudimentary metacarpal.</p></div>
+
+<p>The anterior ulnar arises above from the epitrochlea and
+the olecranon; thence it is directed towards the carpus,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+to be inserted into the pisiform bone. It proceeds therefore
+from the inner side of the elbow to the outer side
+of the upper part of the hand; it consequently crosses the
+posterior surface of the forearm obliquely. This is why, as
+we have pointed out above, it receives the name of the
+oblique flexor of the metacarpus.</p>
+
+<p>It is not unprofitable to recall in this connection that
+there is an internal flexor of the metacarpus, which is the
+flexor carpi radialis; and an external flexor of the metacarpus,
+which is the posterior ulnar (in human anatomy,
+extensor carpi ulnaris). It is between these two muscles
+that we find the oblique flexor&mdash;the anterior ulnar which we
+have just been studying.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle flexes the hand on the forearm.</p>
+
+<p><b>Superficial Flexor of the Digits</b> (<i>Flexor digitorum sublimis</i>)
+(<a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 12; <a href="#Fig077">Fig. 77</a>, 10, 10).&mdash;This muscle arises from
+the epitrochlea; thence it passes towards the hand, becomes
+tendinous, passes in a groove on the posterior aspect of the
+carpus, and terminates on the palmar surface of the phalanges
+in furnishing a number of tendons proportioned to the digital
+division of the hand. Whatever the number, to which we
+will again refer, each tendon is attached to the second phalanx,
+after bifurcating at the level of the first, so as to form a sort
+of ring, destined to give passage to the corresponding tendon
+of the deep flexor. This ring and this passage have gained
+for the muscle the name of <i>perforated flexor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat the principal tendon is divided
+into four parts, which go to the four last digits.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox it is divided into two parts only; as, moreover,
+in the pig, whose superficial flexor is destined for
+the two large digits only, the lateral digits receiving no
+part of it.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, in the horse the tendon is single.</p>
+
+<p>We have previously pointed out that in the carnivora
+this muscle is visible on the internal and posterior aspects
+of the forearm, in the interval which is limited in front by
+the flexor carpi radialis and behind and outside by the
+anterior ulnar.</p>
+
+<p>Certain details are still to be added to the description of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+this muscle. We will enter on an analysis of them after we
+have given some indications relative to the following muscle:</p>
+
+<p><b>Deep Flexor of the Digits</b> (<i>Flexor digitorum profundus</i>)
+(<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>, 21, 22; <a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 12; <a href="#Fig077">Fig. 77</a>, 11, 11).&mdash;This muscle
+is covered by the superficial flexor. It arises from the
+epitrochlea, from the radius, and from the ulna, either from
+the olecranon process&mdash;as in the ox, pig, and horse&mdash;or from
+almost the whole extent of the shaft of the same bone, as in
+the cat and dog.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig078" id="Fig078"></a>
+<img src="images/illo217.png" alt="Fig. 78" width="300" height="441" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 78.&mdash;Left Anterior Limb of the Horse: Internal Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Internal flexor of the metacarpus or great palmar; 2, inferior part
+of the biceps; 3, inferior part of the brachialis anticus; 4, internal lateral
+ligament of the elbow; 5, pronato teres muscle.</p></div>
+
+<p>The radial fasciculus represents in the domestic quadrupeds
+the long proper flexor muscle of the thumb in man.
+For this reason we shall describe the muscle afresh in the
+following paragraph:</p>
+
+<p>The fleshy bundles of which we have just spoken terminate
+in a tendon which afterwards divides into slips, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+number of which is in proportion to the digital division of
+the hand. These slips then pass through the slit or <i>buttonhole</i>
+in the tendon of the superficial flexor, and proceed
+to terminate on the third phalanx; hence the name of
+<i>perforating</i>, which is also given to the deep flexor of the
+digits.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat the tendon is divided into five
+portions, each of which proceeds to one of the digits. The
+internal tendon, which is destined for the thumb, terminates
+on the second phalanx of this digit.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig the tendon divides into four tendons destined
+for the four digits.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox there are but two tendons.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the tendon is single.</p>
+
+<p>As their names indicate, these muscles, both superficial
+and deep, flex the digits. In addition to this, they flex
+the hand on the forearm.</p>
+
+<p>We mentioned above that certain details relative to
+the superficial flexor must be analyzed in a special way.
+We now add that this should also be done with regard to
+the deep flexor. The point in question is the arrangement
+which the tendons of these muscles present at the level of
+the palmar region of the hand.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy, in the case of the dog or the cat, to picture to
+one&#8217;s self this arrangement, especially if we recollect that
+which exists in the human species. The tendons of the
+flexors are placed on a kind of muscular bed formed by the
+union of the muscles of the region, but, moreover, from the
+point of view of external form, these tendons are not of very
+great importance.</p>
+
+<p>But in the ox and the horse it is quite otherwise. From
+the simplification of the skeleton of the hand, and the
+reduction of the number of movements which the bones
+that form it are able to execute, there naturally results a
+diminution of its muscular apparatus. Apart from the
+existence of muscular vestiges of but little importance, we
+can say that, in reality, the hand does not possess any
+muscles. On its palmar aspect are found only the tendons
+of the flexors of the digits, and as these tendons are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+large, and the hand long, they give origin to external
+forms which it is necessary to examine.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig079" id="Fig079"></a>
+<img src="images/illo219a.png" alt="Fig. 79" width="125" height="487" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 79.&mdash;Left Anterior Limb
+of the Horse: External
+Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Ulna of abnormal length.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig080" id="Fig080"></a>
+<img src="images/illo219b.png" alt="Fig. 80" width="125" height="389" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 80.&mdash;Left Anterior Limb
+of the Horse: External
+Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Normal ulna.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the horse, which we take as a type, the tendons
+of the flexors, after being retained in position at the carpus
+by a fibrous band, the <i>carpal sheath</i>, which recalls the anterior
+annular ligament of the human carpus, and having passed
+this region, descend vertically, remaining separated from
+the posterior surface of the metacarpus, so that the skin
+sinks slightly on the lateral parts in front of the thick cord
+which these tendons form. This cord is known by the name
+of <i>tendon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The flexors then reach the fetlock, and occupy the groove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+formed by the peculiar arrangement of the two large sesamoid
+bones. They are retained in position at this level by
+a fibrous structure, which forms the metacarpo-phalangeal
+sheath. They then reach the phalanges, being directed
+obliquely downwards and forwards, as, moreover, the latter
+are also inclined. Then the tendon of the superficial flexor
+divides into two slips, which are inserted into the second
+phalanx, between which slips passes the tendon of the deep
+flexor, which in its turn goes to be inserted, in the form of an
+expansion, into the semilunar crest, by which the inferior
+surface of the third phalanx is divided into two parts.<a name="FNanchor_30_30"
+id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+See, as regards this crest, in the paragraph relative to the hoof of the
+solipeds, the figures which represent the third phalanx, viewed on its
+inferior surface (<a href="#Fig101">Figs. 101</a> and <a href="#Fig102">102</a>, p. 258).</p></div>
+
+<p>The part which these tendons play is of great importance
+in the large quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>These tendons, in fact, in addition to the action determined
+by the contraction of the fleshy fibres to which
+they succeed, maintain the angle formed by the canon-bone
+and the phalangeal portion of the hand, and prevent
+its effacement under the weight of the body during
+the time of standing. Their strong development, and the
+position they occupy, make this understood, without it
+being necessary to insist on it further.</p>
+
+<p>We mentioned above that the &#8216;tendon&#8217; descends vertically
+from the carpus towards the fetlocks. This is as it
+should be. But, in some horses, it is oblique downwards
+and backwards, so that the canon, instead of being of equal
+depth from before backwards in its whole length, is a little
+narrower in its upper part.</p>
+
+<p>This results from the fact that the tendons of the flexors,
+too firmly bound by the carpal sheath, gradually separate
+as they pass from the metacarpus, going to join the fetlock;
+hence the obliquity pointed out above. This abnormality
+producing a deleterious result, in the sense that the
+tendinous apparatus acts with less strength as an organ of
+support, it constitutes a defect of conformation which is
+expressed by saying that the tendon has &#8216;failed.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p><b>Long Proper Flexor of the Thumb</b> (<i>Flexor longus</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+<i>pollicis</i>) (<a href="#Fig076">Fig. 76</a>, 14).&mdash;As we have already pointed out,
+this muscle is represented in quadrupeds by the radial
+bundle of the deep flexor of the digits, so that the two
+muscles are in reality blended the one to the other. This
+union is sometimes found, but only as an abnormality, in
+the human species. We have met some examples of this
+in the course of our dissections.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pronator Quadratus.</b>&mdash;This muscle conforms to the general
+law which we have already pointed out in connection with
+those which have for their action the rotation of the radius
+around the ulna. We remember, indeed, that when the
+bones of the forearm are fused with one another, the muscles
+which are destined to produce a mobility which has then
+become impossible disappear at the same blow.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig081" id="Fig081"></a>
+<img src="images/illo221a.png" alt="Fig. 81" width="250" height="197" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 81.&mdash;Diagram of the Posterior
+Part of a Transverse
+Section passing
+through the Middle of
+the Left Fore-limb of the
+Dog: Surface of the
+Inferior Segment of the
+Section.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, posterior
+ulnar; 4, anterior ulnar;
+5, great palmar (<i>flexor carpi
+radialis</i>); 6, flexors of the digits.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig082" id="Fig082"></a>
+<img src="images/illo221b.png" alt="Fig. 82" width="250" height="219" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 82.&mdash;Diagram of a Horizontal
+Section of the
+Middle of the Forearm of
+the Left Leg of the Horse:
+Surface of the Inferior
+Segment of the Section.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, posterior
+ulnar; 4, anterior ulnar; 5, great
+palmar (<i>flexor carpi radialis</i>); 6,
+flexors of the digits.</p></div>
+
+<p>For this cause we do not find the square pronator in
+either the ox or the horse, but can demonstrate its presence
+in the dog and the cat.</p>
+
+<p>It is very deeply situated. This is why, and also on
+account of the plan which we have traced for ourselves, we
+will simply say that it is situated on the postero-internal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+aspect of the skeleton of the forearm, and that it extends
+from the ulna to the radius.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to us, however, sufficiently interesting to add
+that, instead of occupying, as in the human species, the
+inferior fourth of the two bones, it extends, particularly in
+the dog, over their whole length, with the exception of their
+superior and inferior extremities.</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Hand</h5>
+
+<p>We will first recall that, in man, the palm of the hand
+is divided into three regions: a median palmar region,
+which is occupied by the tendons of the flexors of the
+digits, the lumbricales, and, deeply, by the interosseous
+muscles; an external region, or thenar eminence, formed
+by the muscles destined for the movements of the thumb;
+an internal region, or hypothenar eminence, which contains
+the muscles proper to the small digit and the palmar
+cutaneous muscle.</p>
+
+<p>These muscles are found, more or less developed, in the
+dog and the cat.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox and the horse we meet with no vestige of the
+muscles of the thenar or hypothenar eminences. Nevertheless,
+in these animals we find the muscles which belong
+to the central region of the palm. We refer to the
+lumbricales and the interosseous.</p>
+
+<p>Although this fact has no relation to the object of our
+study, it appears to us interesting to announce that there
+are traces of the lumbricales found in the solipeds.
+These muscles are represented by two fleshy bundles,
+situated one on each side of the tendon of the deep flexor,
+above the ring of the tendon of the superficial flexor.
+These small muscles are continued as slender tendons,
+which become lost in the fibrous tissue of the <i>spur</i>, which
+is the horny process situated at the posterior part of the
+fetlock, and which is covered by the hairs, more or less
+abundant, which constitute the <i>wisp</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As for the interosseous muscles, they are represented by
+the <i>suspensory ligament of the fetlock</i>, and by two other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+small muscles, tendinous throughout, which are situated
+between the principal metacarpal and the rudimentary ones.</p>
+
+<p>The suspensory ligament of the fetlock is considered an
+interosseous muscle, on account of the red fleshy striations
+which it contains, and from certain relations which it forms
+with the tendon of the common extensor of the digits or
+anterior extensor of the phalanges. This ligament (<a href="#Fig075">Fig. 75</a>,
+26; <a href="#Fig077">Fig. 77</a>, 13), which plays an important part in the
+standing position as a support of the foot, is a fibrous
+band situated between the tendons of the flexors of the
+digits and the principal metacarpal. It arises above, from
+the second row of the carpals, descends towards the fetlock,
+where it divides into two branches, which are inserted into
+the large sesamoid bones. At the same level, this ligament
+gives off two fibrous bands which, passing downwards and
+forwards, join the tendon of the anterior extensor of the
+phalanges, blending with it, after having each crossed one
+of the lateral aspects of the pastern. We have already
+referred to these bands (<a href="#Page_183">p. 183</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It is with these latter that are blended the long and
+slender tendons which form in a great measure the two
+other interosseous muscles previously described.</p>
+
+<p>A ligament of the same kind is found in the ox
+(<a href="#Fig074">Fig. 74</a>, 23).</p>
+
+<h4>MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR LIMBS</h4>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Pelvis</h5>
+
+<p>The muscles which specially interest us in this region,
+because of their superficial position, are the gluteus maximus
+and the gluteus medius. As for the gluteus minimus, it is
+deeply situated, and more or less sharply marked off from
+the second of the preceding muscles.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the gluteus medius is more simple in arrangement
+than the maximus, and will aid us in arranging our
+ideas in connection with the latter, it is with the study of it
+that we will commence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gluteus Medius</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 29; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 26;
+<a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 35).&mdash;This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+muscle, as in man, occupies the external iliac fossa.
+But this latter being directed differently in the digitigrades
+and the ungulates, as we have pointed out in the section
+on osteology (see <a href="#Page_91">pp. 91</a> and <a href="#Page_99">99</a>), the muscle in question
+has consequently not the same direction in the two groups
+of animals, being turned outwards in the first, and upwards
+in the second.</p>
+
+<p>It is the thickest of the glutei, and gives to the region
+which it occupies a rounded form.</p>
+
+<p>From the iliac fossa from which it arises the fleshy fibres
+are directed towards the femur, to be inserted into the
+great trochanter. It is covered by an aponeurosis, and
+in part by the great gluteal. It completely covers the
+small gluteal, which veterinary anatomists designate by
+the name of the <i>deep gluteal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the carnivora it does not pass in front of the iliac
+crest, but, in the ox, and more particularly in the horse, it is
+prolonged anteriorly, and thus covers, to a certain extent,
+the muscles of the common mass.</p>
+
+<p>When it contracts, taking its fixed point at the pelvis,
+the gluteus medius extends the thigh, which it is also able
+to abduct. If, on the other hand, its fixed point is on
+the femur, it acts on the trunk, which it raises, producing
+oscillating movements of the pelvis. It contributes in
+this way to the action of rearing. We also see it distinctly
+appear by the prominence which it produces in
+the dog, which, according to the time-honoured phrase,
+<i>fait le beau</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gluteus Maximus</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 28; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 25; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>,
+33, 34).&mdash;The great gluteal muscle, further designated in
+veterinary anatomy the <i>superficial gluteal</i>, is proportionately
+less developed in quadrupeds than in man. Indeed, in the
+latter, where it is of very great thickness, its volume is
+due to the important function which it fulfils in maintaining
+the biped attitude.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds it contributes to form the superficial part
+of the crupper and the external surface of the thigh. It is
+divided into two parts: one anterior, the other posterior.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to this latter, it will be necessary to indicate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+how it has been sometimes regarded, and to what portion
+of the muscular system in man it corresponds. But we
+believe that it is better to see beforehand, without any preconceived
+idea, how these two parts are arranged.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, the anterior portion of the gluteus maximus
+arises from the sacrum, while some fibres situated further
+forward arise from the surface of the gluteus medius, near the
+iliac spine, and from the tensor of the fascia lata with which
+these fibres are blended. The posterior portion, united to
+the preceding&mdash;that is to say, to those of its fibres which
+arise from the sacrum&mdash;takes its origin from the first
+coccygeal vertebra. These two portions are directed
+towards the femur, to be inserted into the great trochanter,
+and to the external branch of the superior bifurcation of
+the linea aspera.</p>
+
+<p>In the cat, the posterior bundle is less definitely blended
+with the anterior. By a long and slender tendon which,
+behind, turns around the great trochanter, and passes along
+the surface of the fascia lata, it proceeds to join the knee-cap.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the posterior portion is much more developed.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, the anterior portion arises from the internal
+iliac spine (posterior in man), from the external iliac spine
+(anterior in man), and, between these two osseous points,
+from the aponeurosis, which covers the gluteus medius.
+Between these two origins the muscle is deeply grooved,
+so that the tendency is to divide into two portions, each of
+which is directed towards one of the iliac angles. In this
+groove the gluteus medius is to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The fleshy bundles converge, and are directed towards the
+external aspect of the femur, to be inserted into the osseous
+prominence known as the third trochanter, after passing
+beneath the fleshy fibres of the posterior portion. The
+latter, which is more considerable than the preceding portion,
+arises above from the sacral crest, from the aponeurosis
+which envelops the coccygeal muscles, from the sacro-sciatic
+ligament, and from the tuberosity of the ischium.
+From this origin it passes downwards, expands, then,
+describing a curve with the convexity behind, it becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+narrowed, and proceeds to be inserted by a deep fasciculus
+into the third trochanter, to the fascia lata, and, lastly,
+to the knee-cap by the inferior part of its tendon.</p>
+
+<p>Above, its posterior border is covered by the semi-tendinosus;
+interiorly, the same border is in relation with the
+biceps femoris.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, the two parts of the great gluteal muscle are
+blended together.</p>
+
+<p>The long and broad fleshy band which they form
+arises in a manner corresponding to that which we have
+just indicated in connection with the horse, except that it
+has no attachment to the femur. The fascia lata adheres
+strongly to its anterior border for a considerable length.
+The form of the superior border of the great gluteal muscle
+of this animal differs from that of the analogous portion
+in the horse. This difference results from the peculiar
+aspect which the corresponding region of the pelvis presents,
+and from the fact that, in the ox, as the semi-tendinosus
+does not cover the portion of the great gluteal which
+arises from the tuberosity of the ischium, the attachments
+of this muscle to the sacro-sciatic ligament are
+uncovered.</p>
+
+<p>Its descending portion, as a whole, has a rectilinear form,
+and does not form a curve such as we indicated in the case
+of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>The anterior portion of the great gluteal flexes the thigh.
+As regards the posterior portion, it extends the thigh, and
+abducts it.</p>
+
+<p>The action of this latter portion is particularly interesting
+as regards the horse, because of the great development of
+the muscular mass which this region presents in this animal.
+If the muscle takes its fixed point above, it acts, in the
+extension of the thigh during walking, by projecting the
+trunk forward during the whole time that the hind-limb to
+which it belongs is in contact with the ground. If, on the
+contrary, it takes its fixed point below, it makes the pelvis
+describe a see-saw movement, upwards and backwards, on
+the coxo-femoral articulation, and so contributes to the
+action of rearing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>Now that we have a knowledge of the disposition of the
+great gluteal muscle, the moment has come to inquire what is
+the signification of its posterior portion. The action of the
+anterior part being clearly comparable to the human great
+gluteal, there can be no doubt as regards the homology of
+this portion, so we will not insist on it further.</p>
+
+<p>Of the posterior portion it is wholly different, for it is the
+homologue of a fleshy bundle annexed to the great gluteal of
+man, but which is not developed except as an abnormality.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, we sometimes find, placed along the inferior
+border of the great gluteal, a fleshy fasciculus, separated from
+this muscle by a slight interspace. This fasciculus, long and
+narrow, takes origin from the summit of the sacrum, or
+the coccyx, and goes to partake of the femoral insertions
+of the muscle which it accompanies. We further note a
+muscle of the same kind, and presenting the same aspect,
+which comes from the tuberosity of the ischium. Notwithstanding
+the difference which exists, it is this abnormal
+fasciculus of man which in the quadrupeds here studied is
+considered as constituting the posterior portion of the great
+gluteal.</p>
+
+<p>Bourgelat, considering this posterior portion as belonging
+to the biceps cruris, to which, it is true, it adheres, forms
+of them a muscle which he designates under the name of
+the <i>long vastus</i>. The anterior fasciculus of this long vastus
+is none other than the posterior portion of the great gluteal
+which we have just been studying.</p>
+
+<h5><a name="ThighMuscles" id="ThighMuscles"></a>Muscles of the Thigh</h5>
+
+<p>These muscles are divided into three regions: posterior,
+anterior, and internal.</p>
+
+<p>In a corresponding manner to that which we described
+in connection with the arm, the thigh is applied to the side
+of the trunk, and is free, more or less, only at the level of
+the inferior part.</p>
+
+<p>Further, by reason of this shortening of the femur, the
+great gluteal muscle, which is elongated in the ox and the
+horse, for example, occupies in part the region corresponding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+to that which in man is occupied by the muscles of the
+thigh, which here are reduced in length. In other words,
+they are not superposed, as in the human species, but
+juxtaposed. This is what we will verify further on.</p>
+
+<p>The thigh, as a whole, is flattened from without inwards,
+its transverse diameter being less in extent than its antero-posterior.
+Its external surface is slightly rounded; that
+is, of course, in quadrupeds with sufficiently well-developed
+muscles. Its internal surface is known as the <i>flat of the
+thigh</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Posterior Region</h5>
+
+<p>It is not unprofitable to recall to mind what muscles
+form the superficial layer of this region in the human being.
+They are the biceps cruris, semi-tendinosus, and semi-membranosus.
+We now proceed to discover their analogues
+in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Biceps Cruris</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 30; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 27; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>,
+36).&mdash;It is this which, according to Bourgelat, forms the
+central and posterior portions of the long vastus muscle
+which we have mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>We know that the biceps of man is so named from
+the two portions which form its upper part. In domestic
+quadrupeds, and also in the majority of the mammals, this
+muscle is reduced to a single portion, that which comes from
+the pelvis. It is therefore the portion which arises from
+the femur which does not exist. This condition is sometimes
+found as an abnormality in the human species.</p>
+
+<p>The biceps arises from the tuberosity of the ischium;
+hence it is directed, widening as it goes, towards the leg,
+where it terminates by an aponeurosis which blends with
+the fascia lata and the aponeurosis of the leg, and then proceeds
+to be attached to the anterior border or crest of the
+tibia. By its inferior portion it limits externally the posterior
+region of the knee&mdash;the popliteal space.</p>
+
+<p>A fibrous intersection traverses the biceps in its whole
+length, with the result that the muscle looks as if formed of
+two portions, one of which is situated in front of the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>In the dog and the cat it also arises from the sacro-sciatic
+ligament. At this level its contour is distinguishable from
+that which corresponds to the gluteal muscles, so that we
+there find two prominences one above the other. The
+superior is formed by the gluteal muscles; the inferior corresponds
+to the tuberosity of the ischium. The two prominences
+are separated by a depression, from which the
+biceps emerges. We draw attention to this form, the
+character of which is so expressive of energy in the carnivora.</p>
+
+<p>In these animals the biceps is inserted, by its anterior
+fibres, into the articulation of the knee, while in the rest of
+its extent it covers in great measure by its aponeurosis the
+external aspect of the leg.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the biceps is but slightly marked off from
+the posterior part of the great gluteal. In the ox, the
+division between these two muscles is a little more distinct.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, the sciatic origin of the biceps is covered by
+the semi-tendinosus, so that it only becomes free lower
+down, to appear in the space limited behind by the semi-tendinosus,
+and in front by the posterior part of the gluteus
+maximus.</p>
+
+<p>When the biceps contracts, taking its fixed point from
+above, it flexes the leg and helps to extend the thigh. If,
+on the other hand, it takes its fixed point from below, it
+lowers the ischium, makes the pelvis undergo a see-saw
+movement, and acts thus in the movement of rearing. It
+is sometimes called, on account of one of its actions,
+and the position which it occupies, the &#8216;external flexor, or
+peroneal muscle of the leg.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p><b>Semi-tendinosus</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 31; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 37; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 1;
+<a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 1; <a href="#Fig089">Fig. 89</a>, 28).&mdash;This muscle forms the contour of
+the thigh posteriorly, so that when the latter is viewed from
+the side, it is the semi-tendinosus above all that forms the
+outline. But, as we shall soon see, it is in this case more
+distinct above than below, because of the deviation which it
+undergoes in order to occupy by its inferior part the
+internal side of the leg.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog, the cat, and the ox, the semi-tendinosus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+arises from the tuberosity of the ischium only, as in the
+human species. In the pig, it also takes origin higher up
+from the sacro-sciatic ligament and the coccygeal aponeurosis.
+In the horse, it extends still further, for it is also
+attached to the crest of the sacrum.</p>
+
+<p>The indication of these origins is of importance from the
+point of view of external form, and to convince ourselves of
+this it is sufficient to compare, in the ox and the horse, the
+region of the pelvis situated below the root of the tail. In
+the ox, whose semi-tendinosus arises from the tuberosity
+of the ischium only, this region is depressed, and the cavity
+which is formed at this level is limited behind by the tuberosity,
+which we know is very thick and prominent above.
+This causes the superior part of the crupper to be less
+oblique than in the horse. This characteristic is more
+especially marked in the cow, the bull having this region of
+a more rounded form.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, on account of the semi-tendinosus ascending
+to the coccyx, and even to the sacrum, the depression in
+question does not exist, and the presence of the tuberosity
+of the ischium is only slightly revealed.</p>
+
+<p>Descending from the origin indicated above, and inclining
+more and more inwards, the semi-tendinosus proceeds to
+blend with the aponeurosis of the leg, to be inserted into
+the anterior border of the tibia, after crossing over the
+internal surface of the latter. It forms the internal boundary
+of the popliteal space.</p>
+
+<p>When this muscle contracts, taking its fixed point at the
+pelvis, it flexes the leg. If, on the other hand, it takes its
+fixed point at the tibia, it makes the pelvis describe a see-saw
+movement, and acts accordingly in the movement of
+rearing.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes named the &#8216;internal or tibial flexor of the
+leg,&#8217; in opposition to the crural biceps, which, as stated above,
+is then the external flexor of the same region.</p>
+
+<p><b>Semi-membranosus</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 32; <a href="#Fig087">Fig.
+87</a>, 2; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 2).&mdash;This
+muscle, situated on the inner side of the semi-tendinosus,
+can be seen only when the thigh is regarded on
+its posterior aspect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>It is only by reason of the homology of situation with
+the corresponding muscle in man that we give the name
+under which we are studying it; indeed, its structure is
+different, for it does not present the long, broad, aponeurotic
+tendon which, in its superior part, characterizes this muscle
+in the human species.</p>
+
+<p>It arises above from the inferior surface of the ischium,
+and from the tuberosity of the same bone. In the pig,
+and especially in the horse, it passes further upwards, to
+arise from the aponeurosis of the coccygeal muscles. So
+that if we compare it with that of the ox, which does not
+extend beyond the ischium, we find that it is associated
+with the semi-tendinosus in determining the difference of
+aspect to which we have already called attention in connection
+with the region of the pelvis situated below the root of
+the tail.</p>
+
+<p>The semi-membranosus is then directed downwards and
+forwards, to take its place on the internal surface of the
+thigh, where it is partly covered by the gracilis muscle.
+It is inserted in the following manner:</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat it is divided into two parts,
+anterior and posterior. The first, the more developed, is
+attached to the internal surface of the inferior extremity
+of the femur; the second to the internal tuberosity of the
+tibia.</p>
+
+<p>The same arrangement occurs in the ox.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it is inserted into the internal surface of the
+internal condyle of the femur.</p>
+
+<p>The semi-membranosus is an extensor of the thigh when
+it takes its fixed point at the pelvis; it is also an adductor
+of the lower limb. If it takes its fixed point below it assists
+in the action of rearing.</p>
+
+<p>It is now necessary for us, especially as regards the horse,
+to add some indications relative to the exterior forms of
+the region constituted by the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus.
+These two muscles form, by their union, a
+surface contour, slightly projecting and of elongated form,
+which occupies the posterior border of the thigh, the
+contour corresponding to the region known as the <i>buttock</i>, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+spite of the fact that none of the gluteal muscles take any
+part in the structure of this region. But the appearances,
+to a certain extent, justify the preservation of this name.
+Indeed, because of the groove which separates the gluteal
+region of one side from that of the opposite side, and
+from the position of the anal orifice in the superior part of
+this groove, we may admit the name which, in hippology,
+has been given to this part of the thigh.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the reasons just given, and which are
+justified especially by the position occupied by the muscular
+mass formed by the union of the two muscles, there is
+another which, this time, has a relation to a certain
+detail of form. In the superior part of the convexity,
+which the gluteal region describes in the greater part of its
+extent, there is found a more salient point, greatly accentuated
+in lean animals, due to the presence of the tuberosity
+of the ischium; it is the <i>point</i> or <i>angle of the buttock</i>. At
+this level, and near the median line, the semi-membranosus,
+not aponeurotic, but fleshy, and even thicker there than
+anywhere else, sometimes produces a sharply localized
+prominence. And as this prominence is situated on the
+outer side of the anal orifice, the resemblance to a small
+&#8216;buttock&#8217; is still more marked.</p>
+
+<p>In lean horses a deep groove separates the mass formed
+by the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus from that
+of the other muscles of the thigh situated more in front;
+this groove is known by a name which in this case is
+remarkably expressive&mdash;that of the &#8216;line of poverty.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>If we examine the gluteal region as a whole by looking
+at the thigh from the side, we plainly see the graceful
+curve produced by the general convexity above indicated.
+We return to this point, in order to add that, in its lower
+part, this curve alters its character; that is to say, it
+is replaced by a slight concavity. This, which is designated
+under the name of <i>the fold of the buttock</i>, is situated close to
+the level of articulation of the leg with the thigh-bone.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Anterior Region</h5>
+
+<p>First we recall that in man the anterior muscles of the
+thigh are: the triceps cruris, the tensor of the fascia lata,
+and the sartorius.</p>
+
+<p><b>Triceps Cruris</b> (<a href="#Fig008">Fig. 8</a>, 36; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 31; <a href="#Fig070">Fig. 70</a>, 41;
+<a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 2; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 3; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 3).&mdash;This muscle, which
+occupies the greater part of the space between the pelvis
+and the anterior aspect of the femur, consists of three parts:
+an external, or vastus externus; an internal, or vastus internus;
+and a median or long portion, or rectus femoris.
+This division accordingly recalls that which characterizes
+the human triceps cruris. Furthermore, as in the case
+of the latter, the vastus externus and the vastus internus
+take their origin from the shaft of the femur, while
+the long portion arises from the pelvis. The <i>vastus
+externus</i> arises from the external lip of the linea aspera
+of the femur (or from the external border of the posterior
+surface of this bone in the ox and the horse, in
+which the linea aspera, considerably widened, especially
+in the latter, forms a surface), and from the external surface
+of the shaft of the femur. From this origin its fibres
+pass downwards and forwards, to be inserted into the tendon
+of the long portion of the muscle and into the patella.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat the vastus externus is the most
+voluminous of the three portions which constitute the
+triceps muscle. It is covered by the fascia lata; but notwithstanding
+this, its presence is revealed by a prominence
+which occupies the external surface of the thigh, and
+surmounts, in the region of the knee, the more slightly
+developed one which is produced by the knee-cap.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>vastus internus</i>, situated on the inner surface of the
+thigh, takes its origin from the corresponding surface of
+the femur, and proceeds towards the patella.</p>
+
+<p>The rectus femoris arises from the iliac bone, above the
+cotyloid cavity; its fleshy body, which is fusiform, and
+situated in front of and between the two vasti muscles, is
+directed towards the patella, into which it is inserted by
+a tendon, which receives the other two portions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>It is covered in front by the tensor of the fascia lata, and
+contributes with the vastus externus to form the upper
+prominence of the knee.</p>
+
+<p>The ligamentous fibres, which, as in man, unite the knee-cap
+to the tibia, transmit to this latter the action determined
+by the contraction of the triceps. This muscle is an extensor
+of the leg. Furthermore, the rectus femoris, or long
+portion, acts as a flexor of the thigh.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tensor Fascia Lata</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 34, 36; <a href="#Fig069">Fig. 69</a>, 30, 31;
+Fig. 70, 40).&mdash;This muscle, generally larger in quadrupeds
+than in man, is flat and triangular, and occupies the superior
+and anterior part of the thigh.</p>
+
+<p>It arises from the anterior iliac spine (inferior in carnivora,
+external in the ox and the horse); it is prolonged downwards
+by an aponeurosis (fascia lata) which occupies the
+external aspect of the thigh, proceeds to be inserted into
+the patella and blend with the aponeurosis of the biceps
+muscle.</p>
+
+<p>It covers the rectus and vastus externus portions of
+the triceps cruris; it is also in relation with the gluteal
+muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The tensor of the fascia lata flexes the thigh, and serves to
+raise the lower limb as a whole.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sartorius</b> (<a href="#Fig068">Fig. 68</a>, 35; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 4, 5; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 5).&mdash;This
+muscle, long and flattened, is called by veterinarians
+<i>the long adductor of the leg</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Before beginning the study of its position in quadrupeds,
+it is necessary to remember that in man, where
+the thigh has a form almost conical, the sartorius commences
+on the anterior face of this latter, and is directed
+downwards and inwards to reach the internal surface of
+the knee.</p>
+
+<p>But now let us suppose the thigh flattened from without
+inwards; there will evidently result from this a change in
+situation with regard to the muscle in question. In fact,
+when this supposition is admitted, it is easy to imagine
+that in a great part of the extent in which the sartorius
+is normally anterior it will become internal. This is why,
+these conditions being realized in quadrupeds, we shall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+find that, in some of them, the sartorius is situated on the
+aspect of the thigh which is turned to the side of the
+trunk.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat it arises from the anterior iliac
+spine, and from the half of the border of the bone situated
+immediately below it; but the fibres from this second
+origin being hidden by the tensor of the fascia lata, on the
+inner side of which they are situated, viewing the external
+surface of the thigh, the muscle seems to arise from the
+iliac spine only.</p>
+
+<p>The sartorius in these animals is divided into two parts,
+which, in general, are placed in contact. One of these
+fasciculi is anterior; the other is situated further back. The
+first is visible on the anterior border of the thigh, in front
+of the tensor of the fascia lata, but below it inclines inwards;
+in its superior part also, a small extent of the internal surface
+is occupied by it. The second, which, as we have said,
+is situated further back, belongs wholly to the inner surface
+of the thigh; it is this portion which arises from the inferior
+border of the ilium (this is the homologue of the anterior
+border of the human iliac bone).</p>
+
+<p>The two fasciculi then pass towards the knee, being in
+relation with the rectus and the vastus internus of the triceps.
+The anterior fasciculus is inserted into the patella.
+The posterior unites with the tendons of the gracilis (see
+below) and semi-tendinosus, and then proceeds to be inserted
+into the superior part of the internal surface of the
+tibia.</p>
+
+<p>On account of their different insertions these two parts
+receive the names of <i>the patellar sartorius</i> and <i>tibial sartorius</i>
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox and the horse the sartorius is still more definitely
+situated on the internal surface of the thigh. Consisting of
+a single fasciculus, representing the tibial sartorius of the
+cat and the dog, it arises in the abdominal cavity from the
+fascia covering the iliac muscle, then passes under the
+crural arch, and terminates, by an aponeurosis which blends
+with that of the gracilis, on the inner fibres of the patellar
+ligament. In short, the sartorius is of interest to us in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+carnivora only, and especially on account of its anterior or
+patellar fasciculus.</p>
+
+<p>It is an adductor of the leg and a flexor of the thigh.</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Internal Region</h5>
+
+<p>The ilio-psoas pectineus and the adductors which we study
+in man, in connection with the internal aspect of the thigh,
+offer little of interest from the point of view of external form
+in quadrupeds; it is for this reason that we will disregard
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The gracilis alone merits description.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gracilis</b> (<a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 9; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 6).&mdash;Designated in veterinary
+anatomy under the name of <i>the short adductor of the leg</i>,
+this muscle, expanded in width, occupies the greater part
+of the internal surface of the thigh, <i>or flat of the thigh</i>, as
+this region is also called. Let us imagine, in man, the
+internal surface of the thigh broader, and the internal
+rectus more expanded, and we shall have an idea of the
+same muscle as it exists in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>The gracilis arises from the ischio-pubic symphysis
+and from the neighbouring regions; thence it is directed
+towards the leg to be inserted into the superior part of the
+internal surface of the tibia, after being united to the tendons
+of the sartorius and semi-tendinosus. We find, accordingly,
+at this level, an arrangement which recalls the general appearance
+of what in man receives the name of <i>the goose&#8217;s
+foot</i> (<i>pes anserinus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It is between this muscle and the sartorius, at the superior
+part of the internal surface of the thigh, in the region which
+recalls the triangle of Scarpa, that we are able, especially in
+the cat and the dog, to see the adductor muscles of the
+thigh. We also partly see there, in these animals, the
+vastus internus and the rectus of the triceps (see <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>).
+The gracilis is an adductor of the thigh.</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Leg</h5>
+
+<p>We will divide the leg into three regions: anterior,
+external, and posterior. With regard to the internal region,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+there are no muscles which belong exclusively to it; for it
+is in great measure formed by the internal surface of the
+tibia, which, as in man, is subcutaneous.</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Anterior Region</h5>
+
+<p>We first note that in the human species the tibialis
+anticus, extensor proprius pollicis, extensor longus digitorum
+and the peroneous tertius or anticus, form the subcutaneous
+layer of this region. We now proceed to study these muscles
+in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig083" id="Fig083"></a>
+<img src="images/illo237.png" alt="Fig. 83" width="250" height="483" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 83.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: the Anterior Tibial Muscle
+(Flexor of the Metatarsus), Left Leg, Anterior View.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Femoral trochlea; 2, tibia; 3, tendinous portion of the tibialis
+anticus; 4, cuboid branch of same; 5, 5, its metatarsal branch; 6, fleshy
+portion; 7, cuneiform branch of its tendon; 8, metatarsal branch of
+the same tendon; 9, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of
+the phalanges turned outwards); 10, peroneus brevis (lateral extensor
+of the phalanges).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Tibialis Anticus</b> (<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>; <a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 6;
+<a href="#Fig085">Fig. 85</a>, 4; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 10;
+<a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 10, 11).&mdash;It is further named by veterinarians the
+<i>flexor of the metatarsus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>In the dog and the cat this muscle, which is rather large,
+arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia and from the
+crest of this bone. In its superior part it is flat, but lower
+down it is thick and produces a prominence in front of the
+tibia. Finally, it becomes tendinous, and passes towards
+the tarsus; thence it is directed towards the inner side of
+the metatarsus, and is inserted into the great-toe, this latter
+being sometimes well developed, but also often merely represented
+by a small bony nodule on which the muscle is then
+fixed.</p>
+
+<p>In the other animals with which we here occupy ourselves,
+the tibialis anticus presents a complexity which would be
+incomprehensible unless this muscle be first studied in
+the horse.</p>
+
+<p>In this latter the tibialis anticus consists of two distinct
+portions, placed one in front of the other: a fleshy portion,
+and a tendinous portion running parallel to it.</p>
+
+<p>The muscle is covered, except on its internal part and
+inferiorly, by a muscle with which we will occupy ourselves
+later on&mdash;that is, the common extensor of the toes.</p>
+
+<p>The tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus (<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>),
+especially covered by the extensor of the toes, arises from
+the inferior extremity of the femur, from the fossa situated
+between the trochlea and the external condyle; thence it
+descends towards a groove which is hollowed out on the
+external tuberosity of the tibia, and is directed towards the
+tarsus, where it divides into two branches, which are
+inserted into the cuboid bone and the superior extremity of
+the principal metatarsal. These two parts form a ring
+through which the terminal tendon of the fleshy portion of
+the same muscle passes.</p>
+
+<p>This fleshy portion, situated behind the preceding, arises
+from the superior extremity of the tibia, on the borders of
+the groove in which the tendinous portion lies; thence it
+passes downwards for a short distance on the inner side of
+the common extensor of the toes, which covers it in the rest
+of its extent. It ends in a tendon which, after passing
+through the tendinous ring above noticed, divides into
+two branches. One of these branches is inserted into
+the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the principal
+metatarsal, the other into the second cuneiform bone.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig084" id="Fig084"></a>
+<img src="images/illo239.png" alt="Fig. 84" width="300" height="520" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 84.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Left Hind-limb, External Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Biceps cruris and fascia lata, divided in order to expose the upper
+part of the muscles of the leg; 2, inferior portion of the triceps cruris;
+3, patella; 4, semi-tendinosus; 5, inferior extremity of the femur; 6,
+tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 7, extensor longus digitorum
+(anterior extensor of the phalanges); 8, tibia; 9, peroneus longus; 10,
+peroneus brevis; 11, fifth metatarsal; 12, fasciculus detached from the
+peroneus brevis and passing towards the fifth toe; 13, external head of
+gastrocnemius; 14, tendo-Achillis; 15, calcaneum; 16, flexor digitorum
+sublimis; 17, 17, tendon of the flexor digitorum sublimis; 18, flexor longus
+pollicis (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 19, dorsal muscle of the
+foot (short extensor of the toes).</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p><p>In the ox the same two portions of the tibialis anticus
+exist, but with this capital difference&mdash;that the anterior
+portion is fleshy, superficial, and blended for a great part of
+its length with the common extensor of the toes.</p>
+
+<p>The portion which corresponds to that which is fleshy in
+the horse arises from the tibia; below, it ends on the inner
+surface of the superior extremity of the metatarsus and the
+cuneiform bones. That which represents the tendinous
+part, which is also fleshy, as we have just pointed out,
+arises above with the common extensor of the toes, from
+the femur, in the fossa situated between the trochlea and
+the external condyle; whilst below, after having given
+passage to the tendon of the preceding portion, as in the
+horse, it is inserted into the metatarsus and the cuneiform
+bones.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the tibialis anticus presents an arrangement
+nearly similar to that which we have just described.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to us of interest to add that it has been sought
+to ascertain to what muscle of the human leg the tendinous
+part of the tibialis of the horse corresponds&mdash;a part which
+has become fleshy in the pig and the ox.</p>
+
+<p>According to some authors, it represents the peroneus
+tertius; but that muscle is situated on the outer side of
+the common extensor of the toes; and here the portion with
+which it has been compared is placed on the inside. It has
+also been likened to a portion of the common extensor
+of the toes, but it does not pass to the latter. Lastly, it has
+been considered as being the homologue of the proper
+extensor of the great-toe; but why, then, in the ox, which
+has no great-toe, is it so highly developed? Nevertheless,
+its position and its relations sufficiently warrant this method
+of comprehending it. The tibialis anticus is a flexor of the
+foot. It is also able, in animals in which the tarsal articulations
+allow of the movement, to rotate the foot inwards.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig085" id="Fig085"></a>
+<img src="images/illo241.png" alt="Fig. 85" width="350" height="523" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 85.&mdash;Myology of the Ox: Left Leg, External Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Gluteus maximus and biceps cruris; 2, semi-tendinosus; 3, patella;
+4, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 5, extensor longus digitorum
+(anterior extensor of the phalanges); 6, fasciculus of the extensor longus
+digitorum, which is considered as the representative of the tendinous
+portion of the tibialis anticus in the horse; 7, peroneus longus; 8,
+peroneus brevis (proper extensor of the external toe); 9, external head
+of gastrocnemius; 10, soleus; 11, tendo-Achillis; 12, calcaneum; 13,
+tendon of the extensor longus digitorum (superficial flexor of the phalanges);
+14, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the
+phalanges); 15, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes; 16, tendon of
+the deep flexor of the toes; 17, suspensory ligament of the fetlock.</p></div>
+
+<p>With regard to the tendinous part, called by veterinarians
+the <i>cord of the flexor of the metatarsus</i>, it serves, in
+the horse, to produce the flexion of the metatarsus when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+the knee is already flexed; it thus acts in a passive fashion,
+which is explained by its resistance and the position which
+it occupies in relation to these two articulations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extensor Proprius Pollicis.</b>&mdash;This muscle exists only in
+the dog and the cat, and there in a rudimentary condition.</p>
+
+<p>It is covered by the common extensor of the toes and the
+tibialis anticus, and passes, accompanied by the tendon of
+this latter muscle, to terminate on the second metatarsal,
+or the phalanx, which articulates with it. When the first
+toe exists in the dog, it is inserted into this by a very
+slender tendon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extensor Longus Digitorum</b> (<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>, 9; <a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 7;
+<a href="#Fig085">Fig. 85</a>, 5, 6; <a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 4; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>,
+12; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 7).&mdash;It is also
+called by veterinarians <i>the anterior extensor of the phalanges</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat this muscle is to be seen in the
+space limited behind by the peroneus longus and in front by
+the tibialis anticus. Above it is covered by this latter. In
+the lower half of the leg, it is also in relation, on the inner
+side, with the tibialis anticus; but behind it is separated
+from the peroneus longus by the external surface of the
+shaft and inferior extremity of the tibia. This arrangement,
+besides, recalls that which is found in man, the
+peroneus longus of the latter diverging in the same way, at
+this level, from the common extensor, and leaving exposed
+the corresponding portion of the skeleton of the leg.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle, fusiform in shape, arises at its upper part
+from the external surface of the inferior extremity of the
+femur, then its tendon passes into a groove hollowed on
+the external tuberosity of the tibia. The fleshy body which
+succeeds is directed towards the tarsus, but before reaching
+it is replaced by a tendon. This tendon, at the level of the
+metatarsal bones, divides into four slips, which pass towards
+the toes, and are inserted into the second and third
+phalanges of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it covers, to a great extent, the tibialis
+anticus, so that it is the latter which forms the large fusiform
+prominence especially noticeable in the middle region,
+to which the contour of the anterior surface of the leg
+is due.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig086" id="Fig086"></a>
+<img src="images/illo243.png" alt="Fig. 86" width="300" height="533" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 86.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Left Hind-limb, External Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, biceps cruris; 3, patella; 4, extensor longus
+digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 5, reinforcing band arising
+from the ligament of the fetlock; 6, peroneus brevis (lateral extensor of
+the phalanges); 7, external head of gastrocnemius; 8, soleus; 9, tendo-Achillis;
+10, calcaneum; 11, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes
+(superficial flexor of the phalanges); 12, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis
+posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 13, 13, tendon of the superficial
+flexor of the phalanges; 14, 14, tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges;
+15, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 16, principal metatarsal: 17,
+external rudimentary metatarsal.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>It arises above from the inferior extremity of the femur,
+from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external
+condyle; therefore, it has a common origin with the
+tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus, or flexor of the
+metatarsus.</p>
+
+<p>The tendon, which at the level of the inferior part of
+the leg succeeds to the fleshy body, passes in front of
+the tarsus, the principal metatarsal, and receives the tendon
+of the peroneus brevis which we will describe <a href="#SecPeroneusBrevis">later on</a>.
+It then reaches the anterior surface of the fetlock. There
+it presents an arrangement analogous to that which we
+have pointed out in connection with the anterior extensor
+of the phalanges&mdash;a muscle which, in the fore-limbs, corresponds
+to the common extensor of the digits; that is to say,
+it is inserted, in form of an expansion, into the pyramidal
+prominence of the third phalanx, after having formed
+attachments to the first and second, and having received
+on each side a strengthening band from the suspensory
+ligament of the fetlock.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox the long extensor of the toes is united above,
+and for a great part of its length, with the portion of the
+tibialis anticus, which represents, albeit in the fleshy state,
+the tendinous cord of the latter in the horse.</p>
+
+<p>In common with this portion, it arises from the inferior
+extremity of the femur. Thence it passes towards the tarsus
+and divides into two fasciculi, internal and external, which
+are continued by tendons. These pass towards the
+phalanges, and, in case of the common extensor of the digits
+belonging to the fore-limbs, the internal is destined for the
+internal toe, and the external is common to the two toes.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig087" id="Fig087"></a>
+<img src="images/illo245.png" alt="Fig. 87" width="275" height="544" />
+<p class="caption">Fig. 87.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Left Hind-limb, Internal Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, semi-membranosus; 3, triceps cruris (vastus
+internus); 4, sartorius (patellar); 5, sartorius (tibial); 6, patella; 7,
+first or middle adductor; 8, small and great adductor united; 9, gracilis;
+10, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 11, tibia; 12, tendon of
+extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges): 13, gastrocnemius,
+inner head; 14, tendo-Achillis; 15, calcaneum; 16, popliteus;
+17, superficial flexor of the toes; 18, flexor longus pollicis (portion of the
+deep flexor of the toes); 19, flexor longus digitorum (portion of the deep
+flexor of the toes); 20, tendon of the tibialis posticus.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig088" id="Fig088"></a>
+<img src="images/illo246.png" alt="Fig. 88" width="350" height="552" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 88.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Left
+Hind-leg, Internal Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Semi-tendinosus; 2,
+semi-membranosus; 3, triceps
+cruris (vastus internus); 4,
+patella; 5, sartorius; 6,
+gracilis; 7, extensor longus
+digitorum common extensor
+of the toes (anterior extensor
+of the phalanges);
+8, tendon of the preceding
+muscle; 9, reinforcing
+band given off by the suspensory
+ligament of the
+fetlock; 10, tibialis anticus
+(flexor of the metatarsus),
+its tendinous portion; 11, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus), its
+fleshy portion; 12, cuneiform branch of the tendon of this fleshy portion;
+13, internal head of gastrocnemius; 14, popliteus; 15, tendon of the flexor
+brevis digitorum (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 16, flexor longus
+pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 17, flexor
+longus digitorum (oblique flexor of the phalanges); 18, 18, tendon of the
+superficial flexor of the phalanges; 19, 19, tendon of the deep flexor of
+the phalanges; 20, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 21, principal
+metatarsal; 22, internal rudimentary metatarsal.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the pig the general arrangement of the muscle is
+similar, but the tendons end in a manner which is a little
+more complicated. Apart from the fasciculi which correspond
+to the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus
+(fleshy here, as in the ox), the long extensor of the toes
+at the level of the tarsus divides into three tendons: the
+internal goes to the great internal toe; the middle bifurcates
+in the upper part of the digital portion of the foot,
+and each of its branches goes towards one of the great-toes;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+the external divides to pass towards each of the two small
+toes, and towards the great ones; but this latter disposition
+is not constant.</p>
+
+<p>By its contraction the muscle which we have just studied
+extends the phalanges and flexes the foot.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peroneus Tertius.</b>&mdash;This muscle is not found in domestic
+quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>We should remember, nevertheless, that certain authors
+consider as representing it the tendinous portion of the
+anterior tibial of the horse, or the corresponding portion
+now fleshy, of the same muscle in the pig and the ox. It
+is by reason of this fact that it is called the third peroneal,
+notwithstanding that in the numerical order of the peroneals
+it is rather the first.</p>
+
+<p>But that which still further complicates this question of
+nomenclature is that some authors give this name of third
+to a peroneal which, in the carnivora, is situated more definitely
+in the group of external muscles (see <a href="#SecPeroneusBrevis">below</a>, <b>Short
+Lateral Peroneal</b>).</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the External Region</h5>
+
+<p>In man, two muscles constitute this region; they are
+the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peroneus Longus</b> (<a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 9; <a href="#Fig085">Fig. 85</a>, 7).&mdash;This muscle
+does not exist in the domestic animals; only in the flesh-eaters,
+the pig and the ox excepted.</p>
+
+<p>It is in relation superiorly with the tibialis anticus, and
+inferiorly with the common extensor of the toes; in the
+ox, it is in contact with this latter muscle throughout its
+whole length.</p>
+
+<p>The peroneus longus arises from the external tuberosity
+of the tibia; towards the middle of the leg it is replaced by
+a tendon. This proceeds towards the tarsus, but previously
+it passes between the tibia and fibula. In the ox it is
+situated in front of the coronoid tarsal bone; we recollect
+that this bone is regarded as representing the inferior
+extremity of the fibula (see <a href="#Page_97">p. 97</a>). Then it passes
+into a groove belonging to the cuboid bone or to the cuboido-scaphoid
+bone in the ox, traverses obliquely the posterior<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+aspect of the tarsus, and is inserted into the rudimentary
+bone which represents the first toe; or, if this does not exist,
+into the innermost of the metatarsal bones.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle is an extensor of the foot. It also rotates it
+outwards in the animals in which the articulation permits
+this latter movement.</p>
+
+<p><a name="SecPeroneusBrevis" id="SecPeroneusBrevis"></a><b>Peroneus Brevis</b>
+(<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>, 8; <a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>, 10; <a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 10;
+<a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 6).&mdash;In the dog and the cat, this muscle is covered
+in part by the peroneus longus, and arises from the inferior
+half of the tibia and the fibula; at the level of the tarsus it
+becomes tendinous, passes into a groove hollowed out on the
+external surface of the inferior extremity of the fibula, and
+terminates on the external aspect of the superior extremity
+of the fifth metatarsal. A little before this insertion it
+crosses the tendon of the long peroneal in passing to the
+outer side of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>To the short peroneal muscle is found annexed a very
+thin fasciculus which lies upon it. This fasciculus arises
+from beneath the head of the fibula, and is soon replaced
+by a thin tendon, which, accompanying that of the short
+peroneal, proceeds towards the foot, after having traversed
+the groove in the inferior extremity of the fibula; passes
+along by the fifth metatarsal (<a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 12); blends at the
+level of the first phalanx of the fifth toe with the corresponding
+tendon of the long extensor of the toes, and partakes
+of the insertions of this tendon.</p>
+
+<p>This fasciculus is designated by some authors under the
+name of the peroneal of the fifth toe, or the proper extensor
+of the same toe. But what makes still further complications
+is that other authors regard it as an anterior, or third,
+peroneal. Now, these names are those which other anatomists
+have applied to the fasciculus of the anterior tibial,
+which, in the pig and the ox, is fused in part with the
+long extensor of the toes. Hence there results a confusion
+which is truly regrettable.</p>
+
+<p>In brief, we can, without inconvenience, consider it as a
+fasciculus of the short peroneal muscle.</p>
+
+<p>We sometimes find in man, but abnormally, an arrangement
+which partly recalls that which we have just indicated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+It consists in a duplication of the tendon of the short peroneal,
+one of the branches of which goes to the fifth metatarsal,
+and the other to the fifth toe; it is sometimes a single
+fasciculus which goes to the phalanges of this latter. We
+have met with examples of these anomalies.<a name="FNanchor_31_31"
+id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In the pig,
+the short peroneal is situated on the same plane as the long.
+It consists of two clearly distinct fasciculi, which arise from
+the fibula. The tendon of the anterior fasciculus proceeds
+to the great external toe&mdash;that is to say, the fourth, of
+which it is the proper extensor. The posterior fasciculus
+terminates on the small external toe, the fifth, of which it
+is in like manner the extensor.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span
+class="label">[31]</span></a> &Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;Anomalies, Osseous and Muscular&#8217; (<i>Bulletins de la
+Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&#8217;Anthropologie</i>, Paris, 1891).</p></div>
+
+<p>In the ox, the fleshy fibres of the short peroneal arise from
+a fibrous band which replaces the fibula, and from the external
+tuberosity of the tibia. Situated behind the long
+peroneal and on the same plane, it terminates in a tendon
+which appears at the level of the inferior part of the leg; it
+passes in front of the canon, and is inserted into the external
+toe, of which it is the proper extensor.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, it is the sole representative of the peroneal
+muscles, and veterinary anatomists have given it the name
+of <i>the lateral extensor of the phalanges</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Its fleshy body arises above from the external lateral
+ligament of the knee-joint, and from the whole length of the
+fibula. In the middle third of the leg it is narrowed;
+lower down it is replaced by a tendon. This is lodged in
+a groove hollowed on the external surface of the inferior
+extremity of the tibia; then after passing along the external
+surface of the tarsus, it is directed forward, and proceeds to
+blend towards the middle of the canon-bone with the tendon
+of the long extensor of the toes, or anterior extensor
+of the phalanges, of which it shares the insertions. It
+extends the phalanges into which it is inserted. It also
+flexes the foot.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Posterior Region</h5>
+
+<p>It will not be unprofitable to recall to mind that, in man,
+the muscles of this region are arranged in two layers:
+a superficial layer consisting of the gastrocnemius and
+soleus, to which is added a muscle of little importance,
+the plantaris, and a deep layer formed by four muscles&mdash;the
+popliteus, flexor longus digitorum, tibialis posticus,
+and flexor longus pollicis.</p>
+
+<p>The gastrocnemius and soleus, independent in their upper
+portion, unite below in a common tendon; they thus
+form also a triceps muscle, which we designate under the
+name of the triceps of the leg, or triceps suralis, because
+it forms the elevation of the calf of the leg (from <i>sura</i>,
+calf).</p>
+
+<p><b>Gastrocnemius</b> (<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>, 9, 11; <a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 13, 14; <a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>,
+7, 9; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 13).&mdash;The external and internal heads of
+the gastrocnemius, distinct from one another only in their
+upper portion, arise from the shaft of the femur, above
+the condyles, on the borders of the popliteal surface, to a
+relatively considerable extent in the great quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>At this level they are situated in the popliteal region&mdash;that
+is to say, in the space limited externally by the biceps,
+and internally by the semi-tendinosus. But as they descend
+to a rather low level on the leg in quadrupeds, and especially
+in carnivora, they do not, properly speaking, determine a
+projection of the calf of the leg. However, they pass from
+this region but to be soon continued by a tendon&mdash;the tendo-Achillis,
+which is inserted into the calcaneum.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the region of the tarsus is called by veterinarians <i>the
+ham</i>, the posterior surface of which is angular, because of
+the oblique direction of the leg with regard to the vertical
+direction of the metatarsus and the presence of the
+calcaneum; the prominence which this surface presents has
+received the name of <i>the point of the ham</i>, and the tendon
+which ends there that of <i>the cord of the ham</i>.</p>
+
+<p>But the tendo-Achillis does not alone form this cord.
+Indeed, as we will soon see, the tendon of the superficial
+flexor of the toes takes part in its formation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>We may add, with regard to the tendo-Achillis, that it
+is more clearly perceived as an external feature, because the
+skin sinks in front of it, as it does in man, over the lateral
+parts of the region which it occupies.</p>
+
+<p>The gastrocnemius, when it contracts, extends the foot
+on the leg.</p>
+
+<p>It serves to maintain the tibio-tarsal angle in the standing
+position, and during walking, to determine the steadying
+of the hind-limbs, which then, after the fashion of a spring,
+project the body forward.</p>
+
+<p>By an analogous movement they take part in the posterior
+projection of the hind-limbs in the act of kicking;
+but they are not the only ones to act in this case, the
+muscles of the buttock and thigh also being brought into
+play.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soleus</b> (<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>, 10; <a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 8).&mdash;This muscle, much less
+developed in quadrupeds than in man, does not exist in the
+dog.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the soleus in the pig, Professor Lesbre says:
+&#8216;Meckel denied its existence; we, however, believe that it
+is united to the external head of the gastrocnemius, its
+origin being transferred to the femur.&#8217;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span
+class="label">[32]</span></a> F. X. Lesbre, &#8216;Essai de Myologie compar&eacute;e de l&#8217;homme et des mammif&egrave;res
+domestiques en vue d&#8217;&eacute;tablir une nomenclature unique et rationelle,&#8217;
+Lyon, 1897, p. 169.</p></div>
+
+<p>But in animals in which it exists, this muscle, of but little
+importance, occupies the outer side of the leg. It arises
+above from the external tuberosity of the tibia, and terminates
+below in a tendon which is united with that of the
+gastrocnemius.</p>
+
+<p>The soleus has the same action as these latter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plantaris.</b>&mdash;In quadrupeds this muscle is blended with
+the superficial flexor of the toes, which we will study
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Popliteus</b> (<a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 16; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 14).&mdash;In man, this
+muscle, which occupies the posterior surface of the tibia,
+above the oblique line, is completely covered by the gastrocnemius.</p>
+
+<p>In quadrupeds, where it is more voluminous, it projects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+internally beyond the gastrocnemius, so that it is seen
+in the internal and superior part of the region of the superficial
+layer of muscles, immediately behind the internal
+surface of the tibia, which, as we know, is subcutaneous.</p>
+
+<p>The popliteus arises from the external surface of the
+external condyle of the femur. Thence its fibres which
+diverge pass to be inserted into the superior part of the
+posterior surface and of the internal border of the tibia.
+It is in this latter region that it projects beyond the
+gastrocnemius, but we may add that there it is more or less
+covered by the semi-tendinosus.</p>
+
+<p>It flexes the leg, and rotates it forwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Superficial Flexor of the Toes</b> (<a href="#Fig083">Fig. 83</a>, 13, 15; <a href="#Fig084">Fig.
+84</a>, 17; <a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 11, 13, 13; <a href="#Fig087">Fig.
+87</a>, 17; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 15, 18, 18).&mdash;In
+man, the homologue of this muscle is found in the sole
+of the foot. It is called <i>the short flexor of the toes</i>. It arises
+from the calcaneum, and passes to the four outer toes. In
+quadrupeds, it rises as high as the back of the knee, and is
+found blended with the plantaris.</p>
+
+<p>Further designated by the name of <i>the superficial flexor
+of the phalanges</i>, covered in part by the gastrocnemius, with
+which it is in relation for a great part of the course which
+it traverses, this muscle arises from the posterior surface
+of the femur, on the external branch of the inferior bifurcation
+of the linea aspera. In the horse, this origin takes
+place in a depression situated above the external condyle,
+in the supracondyloid fossa. Then it accompanies the
+gastrocnemius, and becomes tendinous where the tendo-Achillis
+commences. It then winds round the latter in
+placing itself on its inner side, then on its posterior surface,
+and reaches the calcaneum. It accordingly contributes,
+as we have already pointed out, to form the cord of the
+ham. After having become expanded, and having covered
+as with a sort of fibrous cap the bone of the heel, it descends
+behind the metatarsus, and presents there an arrangement
+analogous to that which we pointed out in connection
+with the superficial flexor of the digits&mdash;that is, it contributes
+to form the <i>tendon</i>. This prominence, in the
+form of a cord, we see behind the canon-bone in solipeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+and ruminants. It finally terminates in the same way as
+the muscle with which we have compared it (see <a href="#Page_197">p. 197</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, its fleshy body is but slightly developed,
+so that its tendon alone is specially visible in the superficial
+muscular layer, but in the dog and the cat it is
+large. Hence it results that its fleshy body appears
+on each side of the inferior half of the gastrocnemius,
+and produces an elevation which recalls that which the
+soleus produces on each side of the same muscles in the
+human species.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles which follow form, with the popliteus, which
+we have already studied, the deep layer of the posterior
+region of the leg.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flexor Longus Digitorum</b> (<a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 19; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 17).&mdash;This
+muscle, in man, is the only common flexor of the toes
+belonging to the muscles of the leg.</p>
+
+<p>In comparison with the preceding muscle, it is a deep
+flexor. Veterinarians have given it the name of <i>the oblique
+flexor of the phalanges</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Visible on the internal aspect of the superficial layer of the
+muscles of the leg, this muscle arises above from the posterior
+surface of the external tuberosity of the tibia, becomes
+tendinous, passes towards the metatarsus, and blends with
+the tendons of the posterior tibial and the long proper
+flexor of the great-toe. In the dog and the cat it is blended
+with this latter only.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tibialis Posticus</b> (<a href="#Fig085">Fig. 85</a>, 14; <a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 12; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 20;
+<a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 16).&mdash;This muscle arises from the external tuberosity
+of the tibia, and from the head of the fibula. Thence
+it passes to the tarsus, and terminates in different fashion
+in carnivora and other quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat, it is inserted into the ligamentous
+apparatus of the tarsus, or into the base of the second
+metatarsal.</p>
+
+<p>In the other quadrupeds with which we are here occupied
+it is blended with the long proper flexor of the
+great-toe.</p>
+
+<p>It is accordingly in the carnivora that the mode of termination
+of the tibialis posticus most nearly resembles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+that of this same muscle in the human species. From this
+independence there results a special action.</p>
+
+<p>It is an adductor and internal rotator of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flexor Longus Pollicis</b> (<a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 18; <a href="#Fig085">Fig. 85</a>, 14;
+<a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 12; <a href="#Fig087">Fig. 87</a>, 18; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 16).&mdash;This muscle, as
+that in man, is the most external of the deep layer of the
+leg. It is on the external aspect of the latter we perceive
+it, between the peroneals and the gastrocnemius or tendo-Achillis.</p>
+
+<p>It arises from the fibula and tibia, and is thence directed
+towards the tarsus. It unites with the long common flexor
+of the toes to form with it <i>the deep flexor of the phalanges</i>,
+of which it is the principal fasciculus. We may add that in
+the dog and the cat the posterior tibial remains independent
+of this latter, but that in the pig, ox, and horse the posterior
+tibial is united to the preceding to form with them the deep
+flexor muscle.</p>
+
+<p>Thus constituted, the deep flexor goes towards the
+phalanges, where it terminates as the deep flexor of the
+digits of the fore-limbs (see <a href="#Page_197">p. 197</a>). In animals possessed
+of a canon it contributes to form the <i>tendon</i> (<a href="#Fig085">Fig. 85</a>, 16;
+<a href="#Fig086">Fig. 86</a>, 14, 14; <a href="#Fig088">Fig. 88</a>, 19, 19).</p>
+
+<h5>Muscles of the Foot</h5>
+
+<p>We must remember that on the dorsal surface of the foot
+in man we find but a single muscle&mdash;the dorsalis pedis.
+The remaining subcutaneous structures of this region
+consist of the tendons of the anterior muscles of the leg
+which occupy this dorsal aspect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dorsalis Pedis</b> (<a href="#Fig084">Fig. 84</a>, 19).&mdash;Also called the extensor
+brevis digitorum, the dorsalis pedis muscle is found in all
+domestic quadrupeds; but its development is so much the
+less as the number of digits is more reduced.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat it arises from the calcaneum, and
+is inserted into the three internal toes (the first toe excepted)
+by uniting with the corresponding tendons of the common
+extensor.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig its disposition is analogous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>As for the dorsalis pedis of the ox and the horse, it is
+extremely rudimentary, and occupies the superior part of
+the canon. It is a small, fleshy body, situated on the anterior
+surface of the metatarsus, which arises from the calcaneum,
+whence it passes to unite at its inferior extremity
+with the tendon of the extensor of the phalanges.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the muscles of the sole of the foot, we think it
+unnecessary to occupy ourselves at any length with them because
+of their slight importance with regard to external form.</p>
+
+<p>We will only recall that in the median portion of this
+plantar surface we find in man the short flexor of the toes,
+which in quadrupeds arises higher up, from the posterior
+surface of the femur; that it belongs to the muscles of the
+leg; and that it forms the superficial flexor of the toes,
+which we have already studied.</p>
+
+<p>We may further add that the suspensory ligament of the
+fetlock in ruminants and solipeds represents, as in the fore-limbs,
+the interosseous muscles.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HeadMuscles" id="HeadMuscles"></a>MUSCLES OF THE HEAD</h4>
+
+<p>We will divide these muscles into two categories:
+masticatory and cutaneous.</p>
+
+<h5>Masticatory Muscles</h5>
+
+<p>The muscles of this group which specially interest us are
+the masseter and the temporal. As regards the pterygoids,
+since they are situated within the borders of the inferior
+maxillary bone, and consequently do not reach the surface,
+we shall not require to occupy ourselves with them here.</p>
+
+<p><b>Masseter</b> (<a href="#Fig089">Fig. 89</a>, 2; <a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 1; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>,
+<a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;For those
+who have studied the masseter of man, it is not difficult to
+recognise that of quadrupeds. Nevertheless, the particular
+aspect which it presents in different species gives to its
+study a certain interest.</p>
+
+<p>Arising from the zygomatic arch, and passing downwards
+and backwards, it is inserted into the external surface of
+the ramus of the mandible and into its angle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>Its posterior border is in relation with the parotid gland
+(<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 14; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig092">92</a>), this gland being situated between
+the corresponding border of the lower jaw bone and
+the transverse process of the atlas. Such are the general
+characters; the following are the particular ones:</p>
+
+<p>In the carnivora it is thick and convex. In the horse it
+is flat, but more expanded; it forms the <i>flat of the cheek</i>.
+In the ox it is flat, as in the latter; but, while being less
+thick, it is more prolonged in the vertical direction.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the osseous parts which give it origin is,
+besides, in relation with these differences, and explains the
+peculiar characters which the masseter presents.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig089" id="Fig089"></a>
+<img src="images/illo256.png" alt="Fig. 89" width="350" height="284" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 89.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Masticatory Muscles (a Deeper
+Dissection than that shown in <a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Zygomatic arch; 2, masseter; 3, temporal exposed by the suppression
+of the auricular and occipital muscles and the pinna of the ear; 4,
+auditory canal; 5, inferior maxillary bone; 6, digastric.</p></div>
+
+<p>Indeed, in the dog and the cat the zygomatic arch,
+strongly convex, springs up in a marked manner from the
+plane of the lateral aspects of the skull.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse the same arch, less prominent externally, is
+prolonged by a rectilinear crest on the superior maxillary
+bone, where it is continued in forming the zygomatic or
+maxillary spine.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox the same crest ascends a good way towards the
+inferior margin of the orbit in a curved direction with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+concavity inferior, to redescend afterwards on the external
+surface of the superior maxilla.</p>
+
+<p>The masseter is an elevator of the lower jaw. It acts, above
+all, as in the human species, in the process of mastication.</p>
+
+<p><b>Temporal Muscle</b> (<a href="#Fig089">Fig. 89</a>, 3).&mdash;The development of the
+temporal is in proportion to the energy of the movements
+of elevation which the lower jaw has to execute.</p>
+
+<p>It arises from the temporal fossa, and is inserted into the
+coronoid process of the inferior maxilla.</p>
+
+<p>Its development, enormous in the carnivora, is such that
+the muscle projects beyond its fossa. It is less voluminous
+in the horse, and still less so in the ox. In the latter, indeed,
+the temporal fossa, although deep, is of small extent (see
+<a href="#Fig062">Fig. 62</a>, p. 119); the frontal bone being large, it is found to
+be thrown back on the lateral walls of the cranium, below
+the osseous processes which support the horns and overhang
+the fossa in question, as well as the muscle which it contains.</p>
+
+<p>It is covered by the auricular muscles, and by the base
+of the pinna of the ear.</p>
+
+<p>Like the masseter, the temporal is an elevator of the
+lower jaw.</p>
+
+<h5>Cutaneous Muscles of the Head</h5>
+
+<p><b>Occipito-Frontalis.</b>&mdash;The epicranial aponeurosis is extremely
+thin. In the dog the occipital muscle occupies the
+superior part of the head; it overlies the temporal muscle.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the frontal muscle, which is of great extent
+in the ox (<a href="#Fig091">Fig. 91</a>, F), it is represented in the horse and the
+carnivora by a small fleshy fasciculus only, the <i>fronto-palpebral
+muscle</i>, similar to the superciliary muscle. This,
+occupying the superior and internal part of the border of
+the orbit, ends by blending its fibres with those of the
+orbicular muscle of the eyelids at the region of the eyebrow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Orbicularis Palpebrarum</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 2; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;This
+annular muscle surrounds the palpebral orifice, and takes
+its origin on the internal part of the orbital region. In the
+horse it arises, by a small tendon, from a tubercle which
+occupies the external surface of the os unguis, or lachrymal
+bone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>This muscle determines the narrowing and closure of the
+palpebral orifice.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pyramidalis Nasi.</b>&mdash;The pyramidal muscle is not found
+in the domestic animals. It appears to be blended with
+the internal elevator of the upper lip and wing of the nose;
+this is easy of comprehension if we bear in mind the relative
+position of these two muscles in the human species.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig090" id="Fig090"></a>
+<img src="images/illo258.png" alt="Fig. 90" width="350" height="284" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 90.&mdash;Myology of the Dog: Muscles of the Head.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal
+(this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small
+zygomatic); 5, levator labii superioris proprius; 6, levator labii superioris
+al&aelig;que nasi; 7, caninus; 9, buccinator; 11, zygomatico-auricularis;
+12, external temporo-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis;
+16, inferior maxillary bone; 17, digastric.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Corrugator Supercilii.</b>&mdash;This muscle is represented by
+the fronto-palpebral muscle noticed above, which is by some
+regarded as a vestige of the frontal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zygomaticus Major</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 3; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig091">92</a>).&mdash;This is
+the <i>zygomatic-labial</i> of veterinarians. This muscle is of an
+elongated form, and has a ribbon-like aspect.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat it arises from the base of the pinna
+of the ear, from the portion of this base which bears the
+name of scutiform cartilage. (With regard to this cartilage,
+see <a href="#Page_242">p. 242</a>, <b>Zygomatico-auricularis</b>.) From
+this it is directed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+downwards and forwards, to terminate, after having crossed
+the masseter, on the deep surface of the skin of the corresponding
+labial commissure.</p>
+
+<p>This mode of termination is the same in the ox and the
+horse; but where the muscle differs is at the level of its
+upper extremity. There it ascends less than in the carnivora.
+In the ox it arises from the zygomatic arch in the neighbourhood
+of the temporo-maxillary articulation; in the pig and
+the horse its origin is still lower, on the surface of the
+masseter, close to the maxillary spine.</p>
+
+<p>When it contracts, it draws upwards the labial
+commissure.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in man, we remember, it is the great zygomatic
+that, by an action of the same kind, determines the essential
+characters of the expression of laughing.</p>
+
+<p>There is, accordingly, a connection to be established
+between those displacements which are similar and the
+analogy of facial expression which necessarily results from
+them.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> &Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;The Mimic,&#8217; Paris, 1802.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Zygomaticus Minor</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 4; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;The
+existence of this muscle has not been clearly demonstrated.
+Nevertheless, Straus-Durckheim noted its presence in the
+horse, and described it as &#8216;a muscle arising by two heads,
+of which one, the superior, arises from the malar bone below
+the orbit, and passes downwards and forwards over the fibro-adipose
+layer which supports the moustache. The second,
+the inferior, arises from the alveolar border in front of the
+second molar tooth, and passes forward to be inserted into
+the same fibro-adipose layer.&#8217;<a name="FNanchor_34_34"
+id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> H. Straus-Durckheim, &#8216;Anatomie descriptive et comparative du
+chat,&#8217; Paris, 1845, t. ii., p. 210.</p></div>
+
+<p>In connection with other quadrupeds, it is described by
+certain authors as a very thin muscle, arising below the
+cavity of the orbit, where it is blended with the fibres of the
+internal elevator of the upper lip and the ala of the nose;
+thence it proceeds to terminate below by uniting with the
+subcutaneous muscle. But this muscle is regarded by other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+authors as the lachrymal muscle, which does not exist in
+this state in man, but of which the development is particularly
+remarkable, as to extent, in the ox, in which it
+descends as far as the buccinator.</p>
+
+<p>According to other authors, some of the fibres of this
+muscle constitute the small zygomatic.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig091" id="Fig091"></a>
+<img src="images/illo260.png" alt="Fig. 91" width="350" height="330" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 91.&mdash;Myology of the Ox: Muscles of the Head.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; F, frontalis; 3, zygomaticus
+major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the
+name of small zygomatic); 5, levator labii superioris proprius; 6,
+levator labii superioris al&aelig;que nasi; 7, levator anguli oris or caninus; 8,
+orbicularis oris; 9, buccinator; 10, maxillo-labial; 11, zygomatico-auricularis;
+12, external temporo-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis;
+16, inferior maxillary bone.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Levator Labii Superioris Proprius</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 5; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>,
+<a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;Also named by veterinarians the <i>supramaxillo-labial</i>,
+or again, the <i>proper elevator of the upper lip</i>, this muscle
+arises from the external surface of the superior maxillary
+bone, passes under the superficial elevator, which we shall
+study in the succeeding paragraph, and goes to be inserted
+into the thickness of the lip, to which its name indicates
+that it belongs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>The peculiarities of this muscle in different animals are
+the following:</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat it arises behind the infra-orbital
+foramen.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig it arises from a depression below the orbital
+cavity, and its fleshy body is terminated in front by a strong
+tendon in the upper part of the snout, in which it divides
+into fasciculi.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox it arises from the maxillary spine.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it arises below the orbital cavity; then, after
+having crossed the superficial elevator, it ends in a tendinous
+expansion, situated in the median line between the nasal
+foss&aelig;. This expansion divides into fasciculi, which end in
+the thickness of the upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>By the contraction of this muscle, the lip is raised, on one
+side only, if a single muscle contracts, or in its whole extent,
+if the two muscles act simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p><b>Internal Elevator (or Superficial) of the Upper Lip
+and the Wing of the Nose</b> (<i>levator labii superioris al&aelig;que
+nasi</i>) (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 6; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>,
+<a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;This is the muscle veterinarians
+designate <i>the supranaso-labial</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Arising from the frontal and nasal bones, it thence passes
+towards the upper lip, where it is inserted as well as into
+the wing of the nose.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox it is united above with the frontal muscle, and
+below is divided into two fasciculi, between which pass the
+elevator described above and the canine muscle.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse it is also divided into two fasciculi; but
+the arrangement is the opposite as regards, their relations
+with neighbouring muscles, in this animal and in the
+preceding.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox the external fasciculus is covered by the external
+elevator and the canine, which pass under the internal
+fasciculus; in the horse the deep elevator passes under the
+two fasciculi, and the canine passes under the external
+bundle, and afterwards covers the internal.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the internal elevator is wanting.</p>
+
+<p>As its name indicates, it raises the upper lip and the wing
+of the nose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span><b>Transversus Nasi.</b>&mdash;In the horse this muscle, which is
+very thin, is situated on the dorsum of the nose, and proceeds
+to be inserted into the cartilaginous skeleton of the
+nostrils. In the pig, it occupies an analogous situation.
+It does not exist in the ox or in carnivora. The transversus
+nasi is a dilator of the nostrils.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig092" id="Fig092"></a>
+<img src="images/illo262.png" alt="Fig. 92" width="350" height="355" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 92.&mdash;Myology of the Horse: Muscles of the Head.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; 3, zygomaticus major;
+4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the
+small zygomatic); 5, external elevator (or deep) of the upper lip and ala
+of the nose; 6, internal elevator (or superficial) of the upper lip and of
+the ala of the nose; 7, levator anguli oris or caninus; 8, orbicularis oris;
+9, buccinator; 10, maxillo-labialis; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, temporo-auricularis
+externus; 13, cervico-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis;
+16, inferior maxillary bone.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Caninus</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>; <a href="#Fig007">Figs. 7</a>,
+<a href="#Fig091">91</a>, <a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;This is the muscle
+called by veterinarians <i>the great supramaxillo-nasal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the dog and the cat it is situated below the inferior
+border of the external elevator of the upper lip, of which it
+follows the direction. It arises, as does this latter, from the
+external surface of the maxilla, and goes also to terminate
+in the upper lip by blending with the internal elevator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+of this lip and of the al&aelig; of the nose. It raises the
+upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, it arises from the maxillary spine, and then
+divides into three parts; the superior passes under the
+internal portion of the internal elevator of the upper lip and
+the al&aelig; of the nose, and goes into the nostril; whilst the two
+others, situated lower down, terminate in the upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, it is formed of two superimposed fasciculi,
+which arise from the spine of the maxilla and the impressions
+in front of it. These two fasciculi terminate in the snout,
+which they move laterally.</p>
+
+<p>In the horse, it is situated at a certain distance from the
+external elevator; in the preceding animals it is in contact
+with the latter. Arising behind from the external surface
+of the maxilla, in front of the maxillary spine, it is directed
+towards the anterior part of the face, passes under the
+external portion of the internal elevator (it is the opposite
+of this in the ox), and proceeds, on expanding, to terminate
+in the skin of the nostril. By its contraction it
+dilates the latter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Orbicularis Oris</b> (<a href="#Fig091">Fig. 91</a>, 8; <a href="#Fig092">Fig. 92</a>).&mdash;This muscle, very
+fleshy in the solipeds and the ruminants, is arranged as a
+ring round the buccal orifice, in the thickness of the lips,
+where it is blended with the other muscles of this region.</p>
+
+<p>Having for its function the narrowing of the orifice it
+surrounds, it acts during suction and in the prehension of
+food.</p>
+
+<p><b>Triangularis Oris.</b>&mdash;This muscle does not exist in
+domestic quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quadratus Menti.</b>&mdash;In the pig and the carnivora, it
+arises from the anterior part of the body of the inferior
+maxillary bone, and passes at the other end to terminate
+in the corresponding portion of the lower lip, which it
+depresses by its contraction.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox and the horse this muscle does not exist; it
+is replaced for the depression of the lower lip, which it
+affects in other animals, by supplemental fibres of the
+buccinator.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Prominence of the Chin.</b>&mdash;Below the lower lip in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+the horse is situated the so-called <i>prominence of the chin</i>,
+limited posteriorly by the <i>beard</i>, a depressed region which
+gives point to the curb of the bridle.</p>
+
+<p>The prominence, which also exists in the ox, is a fibro-muscular
+pad which blends with the orbicular muscle of the
+lips, and receives on its superior aspect the insertion of the
+two muscles (<i>levator menti</i>) by which it is suspended. These
+arise, above, on each side of the symphysis of the inferior
+maxillary bone. They raise the lower lip with force, and
+they are the agents which, as we can sometimes observe in
+the horse, make it click against the upper lip, suddenly
+projecting it upwards. This action sometimes becomes a
+habit, and its continuance constitutes a vice.</p>
+
+<p>A corresponding structure is found in the pig and in the
+carnivora, but in them it does not produce an external
+prominence such as we have described.</p>
+
+<p><b>Buccinator</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 9; <a href="#Fig091">Figs. 91</a>, <a href="#Fig092">92</a>).&mdash;Further designated
+by the name of <i>alveolo-labial</i>, this muscle is situated on
+the lateral portions of the face, in the thickness of the
+cheeks. It consists of two layers, one superficial and the
+other deep.</p>
+
+<p>The deep portion arises from the portion of the alveolar
+border of the superior maxillary bone which corresponds
+to the molar teeth, and from the anterior border of the
+ramus of the mandible. Thence it is directed forwards,
+passes under the superficial layer, and blends with the
+fibres of the orbicular muscle of the lips. To this part of
+the buccinator some authors give the name of molar muscle.</p>
+
+<p>The superficial portion is formed by fibres which pass
+from the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone to
+the corresponding border of the opposite bone. It is very
+highly developed in the herbivora.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle acts especially during mastication; it serves
+to press back again under the molar teeth the portions
+of food which fall outside the dental arch.</p>
+
+<p>In the pig, the ox, and the horse, a muscle which is considered
+as supplemental to the buccinator is placed along
+the inferior border of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>This muscle, which we describe separately under the names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+of <i>maxillo-labialis</i> (<a href="#Fig091">Fig. 91</a>, 10; <a href="#Fig092">Fig. 92</a>) and <i>depressor of the
+lower lip</i>, is clearly distinct from the buccinator, especially
+in the horse. It arises, behind, with the deep layer of the
+muscle to which it is annexed, from the anterior border of
+the ramus of the lower jaw; in front it terminates in the
+thickness of the lower lip.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, it is more intimately united with the buccinator.</p>
+
+<p>It depresses the lip to which it is attached, and displaces
+it laterally when it acts on one side only.</p>
+
+<p>In the human species, the pinna of the ear being generally
+immobile, the muscles which belong to it are, very naturally,
+considerably atrophied. Accordingly, the auricular muscles,
+anterior, superior, and posterior, are reduced to pale and
+thin fleshy lamell&aelig;, whose action is revealed in certain
+individuals, only in a way which may be said to be abnormal.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the same in quadrupeds. The pinna of the ear
+is extremely mobile, and its displacements have a real value
+from the point of view of physiognomical expression.
+It is therefore necessary to review the muscles which move
+this pinna without giving them, at the same time, more
+importance than they merit, since in themselves they do not
+determine the formation of surface reliefs, which are sufficiently
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding that for certain of these muscles it is
+possible to trace their analogy with those of the auricular
+region of man, it is very difficult, because of their complexity,
+to trace this analogy for all. This is why we shall not be
+able here, as we have done for the other muscles of the
+subcutaneous layer, to give at the head of each paragraph
+the name of a human muscle, and then to group in the same
+paragraph the muscles which correspond to it in different
+quadrupeds. Therefore the nomenclature and the divisions
+adopted for these latter must serve us as a base or starting-point.</p>
+
+<p>Because the pinna of the horse&#8217;s ear is so very mobile, we
+will first begin with a study of its auricular muscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zygomatico-auricularis</b> (<a href="#Fig092">Fig. 92</a>, 11).&mdash;This muscle, which
+is formed of two small bands of fleshy fibres, arises from the
+zygomatic arch in blending with the orbicular muscle of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+eyelids; thence it is directed towards the base of the pinna
+of the ear, and is inserted into this base, and also into the
+cartilaginous plate situated in front of and internal to this,
+and resting on the surface of the temporal muscle; this is
+the scutiform cartilage.</p>
+
+<p>The zygomatico-auricularis, which we look on as the
+homologue of the anterior auricular of man, draws the
+pinna of the ear forwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Temporo-auricularis Externus</b> (<a href="#Fig092">Fig. 92</a>, 12).&mdash;This, which
+is thin and very broad, covers the temporal muscle.</p>
+
+<p>It arises from the whole extent of the parietal crest,
+blending in this plane, in its posterior half, with the muscle
+of the opposite side. Thence it is directed outwards towards
+the pinna of the ear, and is inserted into the
+internal border of the scutiform cartilage and on the inner
+side of the concha&mdash;that is to say, of the conchinian cartilage&mdash;which
+forms the principal part of the pinna. We are
+supposing, in the description of the muscles which move it,
+that this pinna has its opening directed outwards.</p>
+
+<p>The external temporo-auricular, which recalls, from
+its situation, the superior auricular of man, is an adductor
+of the ear; besides, it causes it to describe a movement of
+rotation from without inwards, so as to direct its opening
+forwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scuto-auricularis Externus.</b>&mdash;This muscle may be considered
+as supplementary to the external temporo-auricular;
+the concha fasciculus of this latter partly covers it.</p>
+
+<p>Extending from the scutiform cartilage to the inner side
+of the concha, it contributes to the movement of rotation
+by which the opening of the pinna of the ear is directed
+forwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cervico-auricular Muscles</b> (<a href="#Fig092">Fig. 92</a>, 13).&mdash;These
+muscles, three in number, are situated behind the pinna of
+the ear; they are called, from their mode of superposition,
+the superficial, middle, and deep.</p>
+
+<p>These arise, all three, from the superior cervical ligament,
+and pass from there towards the cartilage of the concha.
+They recall, as regards situation, the posterior auricular
+muscle of man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span><b>Superficial
+Cervico-auricular</b> (<i>Cervico-auricularis superioris</i>).&mdash;This
+muscle, inserted into the posterior surface of
+the concha, draws this cartilage backwards and downwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Middle Cervico-auricular</b> (<i>Cervico-auricularis medius</i>).&mdash;Situated
+between the two other muscles of the same group,
+it proceeds, after having covered the superior extremity of
+the parotid gland, to be inserted into the external part of
+the base of the concha. It determines the rotation of this
+concha in such a way as to direct the opening of the ear
+backwards.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deep Cervico-auricular</b> (<i>Cervico-auricularis inferioris</i>).&mdash;Covered
+by the preceding muscle and the superior portion
+of the parotid, it is inserted into the base of the pinna
+of the ear, and has the same action as the middle cervico-auricular.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parotido-auricularis</b> (<a href="#Fig092">Fig. 92</a>, 15).&mdash;This is a long and
+thin fleshy band which arises from the external surface of
+the parotid gland, and tapering as it passes upwards
+towards the pinna of the ear, is inserted into the external
+surface of the base of the concha, below the inferior part of
+the angle of reunion of the two borders which limit its
+opening.</p>
+
+<p>It inclines the pinna outwards; it is, accordingly, an
+abductor of the pinna.</p>
+
+<p><b>Temporo-auricularis Internus.</b>&mdash;This muscle is covered
+by the external temporo-auricular and the superior cervico-auricular.
+It arises from the parietal crest, and is inserted
+into the internal surface of the concha. It is an adductor
+of the pinna of the ear.</p>
+
+<p>There are, finally, an internal scuto-auricular muscle and
+a tympano-auricular; but they do not present any interest
+for us; we can simply confine ourselves to making mention
+of them.</p>
+
+<p>In the ox, because of the situation of the temporal fossa
+and the fact that the external temporo-auricular muscle is
+applied, as in the horse, over the muscle which this fossa
+contains, this temporo-auricular muscle does not reach the
+middle line (<a href="#Fig091">Fig. 91</a>, 12).</p>
+
+<p>But in the cat and the dog this muscle covers all the upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+part of the head (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 12). It is divided into two parts:
+the interscutellar and the fronto-scutellar.</p>
+
+<p>The interscutellar is a single muscle, thin and broad,
+covering the temporal muscle and a portion of the occipital,
+extending from the scutiform cartilage of the pinna of one
+side to the same cartilage of the pinna belonging to the side
+opposite. It approximates the two pinn&aelig; to one another
+by bringing them each into the position of adduction.</p>
+
+<p>The fronto-scutellar arises from the orbital process of the
+frontal bone, and from the orbital ligament, which at this
+level completes the interrupted osseous boundary of the
+orbital cavity. Thence it is directed, widening as it proceeds,
+towards the scutiform cartilage, and is there inserted by
+blending with the corresponding part of the great zygomatic.
+Its action is analogous to that of the preceding muscle; but,
+further, it directs the opening of the pinna forwards.</p>
+
+<p>These are the muscles which act, for example, when the dog,
+having his attention strongly attracted by any cause, pricks
+up his ears and turns the openings forward, in order the better
+to understand every sound which proceeds, or may possibly
+proceed, from that which he observes. From this, which
+may be extremely well seen in some individuals, results the
+appearance of vertical wrinkles of the skin in the interval
+between the pinn&aelig; of the ears, these being caused by the
+folding of the integument, whilst the pinn&aelig; approach one
+another. These movements, with which are associated
+fixation of look and a widening of the palpebral fissure,
+produce a peculiarly expressive look; this is why they
+merit our attention.</p>
+
+<p><b>Zygomatico-auricularis</b> (<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 11).&mdash;Arises from the
+internal surface of the great zygomatic, passes towards the
+pinna of the ear, and goes to be inserted into the external
+part of the base of the pinna, below its opening, to a prominence
+which corresponds to the antitragus of the human ear.
+It is to this antitragus, but proceeding from another
+direction, that the parotido-auricular muscle is inserted
+(<a href="#Fig090">Fig. 90</a>, 15).</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the cervico-auriculars, they are all three
+present. The superior, or superficial, situated behind the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+interscutellar portion of the external temporo-auricular, has
+its origin on the median line of the neck; thence it passes
+towards the pinna of the ear, blending its fibres with those
+of the interscutellar muscle, and is inserted into the scutiform
+cartilage and the internal surface of the pinna.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the principal muscles of the ear in the carnivora;
+it would seem to us superfluous to dwell on the others of this
+region, so that we will here conclude the study of the
+muscles in general, and that of the myology of the head in
+particular.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE TERMINAL
+EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS</h3>
+
+<p>We will first recall to mind that among the quadrupeds
+some are found of which the fingers and toes have their
+third phalanges terminated by claws&mdash;these are the unguiculates;
+and that in others the terminal extremity of
+each limb is completely encased in a horny envelope, the
+hoof&mdash;these are the ungulates.</p>
+
+<p>In the first group, the claws remind us to a certain extent
+of the arrangement of the nails in man; the inferior aspect
+of the paws is covered by an epidermic layer, thick and protective,
+which may be likened to the skin, correspondingly
+thick, which covers in the greater part of its extent the
+plantar surface of the foot in the human species.</p>
+
+<p>In the second group, the surface by which the third
+phalanx rests on the ground is correspondingly protected,
+but this time by a layer of horn which belongs to the hoof.</p>
+
+<p>After the preceding remarks, our study will be found to fall
+into a natural division, and it is in the order which we have
+just followed for the purpose of indicating its existence that
+we now proceed to study the nature and form of the different
+elements which complete or protect the digital extremities
+of the thoracic and abdominal limbs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Claws.</b>&mdash;These horny coverings of the third phalanges,
+which we have to consider only in the dog and cat, may be
+compared with the nails of man, with which, however, they
+present, as is well understood, characteristic differences.</p>
+
+<p>The claws are compressed laterally, curved on themselves,
+and are terminated in front by a sharp point in the felide,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+but more blunted in the dog. Their superior border is
+convex and thick. We may say, therefore, that a claw is
+a sort of hollow tube, in the form of a cone flattened in the
+transverse direction, in which the third phalanx is set, and
+which is itself set in a groove formed by a kind of osseous
+hood which occupies the base of this third phalanx (see
+<a href="#Fig037">Fig. 37</a>, p. 57).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig093" id="Fig093"></a>
+<img src="images/illo272a.png" alt="Fig. 92" width="200" height="334" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 93.&mdash;Claw of the Dog:
+Inferior Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Horny lamina of the claw;
+2, plantar nail; 3, tubercle of
+the corresponding digit.</p></div>
+
+<p>This definition is exact, as regards the general appearance;
+but, when more closely scrutinized, it is not
+sufficient. The tube in question is not formed of a single
+piece; each of the claws is formed by a lamina laterally
+folded, but of which the borders are not exactly
+joined together inferiorly; they leave between them a
+small interval, and this is filled by a layer of more friable
+horny substance, to which has been given the name of
+plantar nail. This arrangement, which is clearly defined
+in the dog (<a href="#Fig093">Fig. 93</a>), is comparable to that which we shall
+afterwards meet with in connection with the sole of the
+hoof of the horse (see <a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>, p. 257). In the dog and
+the cat, the weight of the limb resting on the inferior
+surface of the phalanges, it was necessary that the region
+of the plantar surface of the foot corresponding to these
+latter should be protected; this is the function of certain
+fibro-adipose pads, which are situated there, and which
+are designated by the name of <i>plantar tubercles</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig094" id="Fig094"></a>
+<img src="images/illo272b.png" alt="Fig. 94" width="250" height="418" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 94.&mdash;Left Hand of the Dog: Inferior
+Surface, Plantar Tubercles.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, 1, 1, 1, 1, Tubercles of the fingers;
+2, plantar tubercle; 3, tubercle of the
+carpus.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Plantar Tubercles</b> (<a href="#Fig094">Fig. 94</a>).&mdash;These tubercles, or dermic
+cushions, are divided, in each paw, into <i>tubercles of the digits</i>
+(or of the toes), a <i>plantar tubercle</i>, and, on the fore-limbs, a
+<i>tubercle of the carpus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The tubercles of the fingers (or of the toes) are of the same
+number as the latter. That which belongs to the thumb
+is but little developed, but the others are more so. They
+are in relation with the plantar surfaces of the second and
+third phalanges, so that when the paw is in contact with
+the ground the articulation which, in each of the fingers or
+toes, joins these phalanges, rests on the corresponding pad.</p>
+
+<p>The plantar tubercle is larger than the preceding. It is
+of a more or less rounded form; sometimes it is triangular,
+and then comparable in outline to the ace of hearts, the point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+of which is, in this case, turned towards the claws; its
+margin being sometimes strongly indented, it may also have
+a trilobate form. It is on it that rest the metacarpo-phalangeal
+or metatarso-phalangeal articulations, according
+to the limb studied. The tubercle of the carpus, situated
+at the level of the posterior surface of this latter, is less
+important than the preceding, the region which it occupies
+not reaching the ground during walking. But it is not to
+be neglected from the point of view of external form, because
+of the prominence which it produces.</p>
+
+<p>In the ungulates the terminal extremity of the limb is,
+as we have above pointed out, enclosed in a horny envelope
+which is no other than the hoof.</p>
+
+<p>We will first study the hoof of the horse&mdash;a hoof which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+is single for each of the limbs, inasmuch as in this animal
+each of these has but a single digit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hoofs of the Solipeds.</b>&mdash;We will first study the hoof as
+regarded in a general way&mdash;that is, without taking into
+account the limb to which it belongs. We will afterwards
+point out the differences presented when the hoofs of the
+fore and hind limbs are compared.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the external forms of the horse, the
+study which we are now commencing is of great importance.
+But, before entering upon it, it appears to us necessary to
+rapidly examine what the hoof contains (<a href="#Fig095">Fig. 95</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig095" id="Fig095"></a>
+<img src="images/illo273.png" alt="Fig. 95" width="350" height="270" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 95.&mdash;Vertical Antero-posterior Section of the Foot of a
+Horse.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Third phalanx; 2, fibro-cartilage; 3, podophyllous tissue; 4, inferior
+part of the wall; 5, section of the wall of the hoof; 6, cutigerous
+cavity; 7, tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges; 8, reinforcing
+band coming from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock;
+9, tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges; 10, tendon of the deep
+flexor of the phalanges.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the interior of this horny box we find the third phalanx,
+a small sesamoid bone placed opposite to the posterior border
+of the latter, a portion of the inferior extremity of the second
+phalanx, and the tendons, which terminate at this region.</p>
+
+<p>To the third phalanx are added two fibro-cartilaginous
+plates, flattened laterally, which prolong backwards the bone
+to which they are annexed. The inferior border of each of
+these fibro-cartilages is fixed by its anterior part to two
+osseous prominences situated at each of the angles which
+terminate the small phalanx behind; these prominences<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+are: <i>the basilar process</i> and <i>the retrorsal process</i> (<a href="#Fig096">Fig. 96</a>);
+by its posterior part, this border is continuous with a
+structure known as <i>the plantar cushion</i> (see <a href="#PlantarCushion">further on</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The posterior border is directed obliquely upwards and
+forwards. The superior border, which is convex or rectilinear,
+is thin, and is separated from the posterior border by
+an obtuse angle. Finally, the anterior border, which is
+directed obliquely downwards and backwards, is united to
+the ligamentous apparatus, which keeps the second and third
+phalanges in contact.</p>
+
+<p>These fibro-cartilages, at their upper extremities, project
+beyond the hoof, and therefore assist in the formation of
+the lateral regions of the foot,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> at the part which is
+called the <i>crown</i>. They project less above the hoof in the
+posterior limbs.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span
+class="label">[35]</span></a> Here, for the first time, apropos of the hoof, we use the word &#8216;foot.&#8217;
+As in osteology and in myology we have, for the sake of clearness of comparison,
+designated under this name the region limited above by the tarsus,
+it is necessary to point out here that we employ the same word for a more
+restricted region. This we did in conformity with the usage of veterinarians,
+who so designate the region of the hoof. It is necessary to explain this
+double employment of the word, and, further, to show the particular
+meaning ascribed to it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig096" id="Fig096"></a>
+<img src="images/illo274.png" alt="Fig. 96" width="300" height="180" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 96.&mdash;Third Phalanx of the Horse: Left Anterior Limb,
+External Surface.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Pyramidal eminence; 2, surface, for articulation with the inferior
+extremity of the second phalanx; 3, basilar process; 4, retrorsal
+process.</p></div>
+
+<p>The posterior and inferior borders of these cartilages
+meet at an acute angle. The angle so formed, or cartilaginous
+bulb, constitutes the base of the region, which is
+commonly called the <i>heel</i>&mdash;a part of the foot which, as
+its name implies, is situated posteriorly, but which we
+must not confound, as we might be led to do, with the
+region occupied by the calcaneum. We know from our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+previous studies of comparative osteology that this latter
+is situated much higher up.</p>
+
+<p><a name="PlantarCushion" id="PlantarCushion"></a>The <i>plantar cushion</i> is a sort of fibrous wedge which
+occupies the interval bounded by the fibro-cartilaginous
+plates which we have just been studying. Its inferior surface,
+the form of which we shall find to be reproduced by a
+portion of the corresponding surface of the hoof, is prolonged
+anteriorly into a point, while behind it is divided into
+two branches, which, diverging from one another, join the
+posterior angles of the fibro-cartilages. These two branches
+are separated by a median excavation.</p>
+
+<p>The different constituent elements which we have just
+been discussing give elasticity to the foot.</p>
+
+<p><a name="FleshFoot" id="FleshFoot"></a>To finish the examination of the parts contained in the
+hoof, we will add that among them is also found what is
+called the fleshy <i>envelope</i>, or <i>flesh</i> of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>We divide the latter into three regions: the podophyllous
+tissue, striated or laminated flesh which is spread out over
+the anterior surface of the third phalanx; the pad, or the
+hardened skin which corresponds to the upper border of the
+hoof, and forms a prominence above the podophyllous
+tissue; and the villous flesh, or velvety tissue which covers
+the plantar surface of the third phalanx and the plantar
+cushion. These three tissues form as a whole the keratogenic
+membrane&mdash;that is to say, that which produces horny
+tissue, and consequently regenerates the hoof.</p>
+
+<p>It is this latter that we now proceed to study.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig097" id="Fig097"></a>
+<img src="images/illo276.png" alt="Fig. 97" width="250" height="314" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 97.&mdash;Left Anterior Foot of the Horse: Anterior Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Outer side; 2, inner side.</p></div>
+
+<p>When we examine its anterior surface or the opposite one,
+the hoof of the horse has the shape of a truncated cone
+with the base below and the summit cut off obliquely
+downwards and backwards (<a href="#Fig097">Fig. 97</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig098" id="Fig098"></a>
+<img src="images/illo277.png" alt="Fig. 98" width="350" height="316" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 98.&mdash;Left Anterior Foot of the Horse: External Aspect.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Fetlock; 2, spur or beard; 3, pastern; 4, outline determined by the
+external fibro-cartilage; 5, acute angle; 6, nipple; 7, quarter; 8, heel.</p></div>
+
+<p>Viewed on one of its lateral aspects, it may be compared
+to a truncated cylinder placed on the surface of the section
+(<a href="#Fig098">Fig. 98</a>). We particularly call attention to this latter comparison,
+for it singularly aids us in making a representation
+of the foot of the horse when viewed laterally.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding that the hoof forms apparently a homogeneous
+whole, it consists of three parts, which may be
+separated from one another by maceration. The indication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+of such disunion, artificially produced, may seem useless.
+It is not so, however, for this division of the hoof will
+permit us to carry out the study of the latter in a clearer, and
+consequently a more satisfactory, way. The three parts in
+question are the <i>wall</i>, or <i>crust</i>, the <i>sole</i>, and the <i>frog</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>wall</i> is that portion of the hoof which we see when the
+foot rests on the ground. It is a plate of horn which,
+applied to the anterior and lateral surfaces of the foot,
+diminishes in height as it approaches the posterior part of the
+region. Posteriorly and at each side the wall is folded on
+itself, and is then directed forwards to terminate in a point,
+after having enclosed the <a href="#Frog">frog</a>, which we will soon study.</p>
+
+<p>Although the wall forms a continuous whole, it has been
+divided into regions to which special names are given. The
+anterior part, from the superior border to the inferior, is
+called the <i>pince</i> or <i>toe</i> for a width of 4 to 5 centimetres.
+External to the toe, and on each side of it, for a distance
+of 3 or 4 centimetres, is the <i>nipple</i>. Behind the <i>nipples</i> are
+the <i>quarters</i>. Still further back, where the wall folds on
+itself, forming the <i>buttress</i>, is found the region of the <i>heels</i>.<span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+Finally, the portions of the wall which form its continuation
+in passing forward are called the <i>bars</i>.<a name="FNanchor_36_36"
+id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> These are only
+visible on the inferior surface of the hoof (see <a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span
+class="label">[36]</span></a> It is to the angle of inflexion or heel that some authors give the name
+of buttress; it is the bars which other authors designate in this fashion.</p></div>
+
+<p>The wall, convex transversely, is, in its anterior part (viz.,
+the <i>toe</i>) inclined strongly downwards and forwards. This
+obliquity tends to become gradually effaced on the lateral
+parts to such a degree that at the quarters it becomes
+almost perpendicular to the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The internal quarter is less rounded than the external;
+in addition to this (<a href="#Fig097">Fig. 97</a>), it approaches more nearly to the
+vertical direction.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig099" id="Fig099"></a>
+<img src="images/illo278.png" alt="Fig. 99" width="250" height="215" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 99.&mdash;Vertical and Transverse Section of a Left Human Foot:
+Outline of the Divided Surface of the Posterior Segment
+of this Section (Diagrammatic Figure).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">AA&#8242;, Vertical axis passing through the middle of the leg and the second
+toe; 1, outer side; 2, inner side.</p></div>
+
+<p>In our opinion, this latter difference clearly recalls certain
+characters of the general form of the human foot. In fact,
+the latter has its dorsal surface inclined downwards and
+outwards, whereas its internal border may be said rather to
+be vertical. A transverse section of the foot (<a href="#Fig099">Fig. 99</a>) justifies
+this comparison, which to us appears interesting, not only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+as regards the resemblance which exists between these
+organs of support, but, further, because it constitutes a
+mnemonic which enables us, on condition that we remember
+the form of the human foot, to recall the above-described
+character of that of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>The greater convexity of the outer portion of the hoof is
+found equally on the human foot; the external border of
+this foot is more convex than the opposite one.</p>
+
+<p>The inferior border of the wall (<a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>) is, in the case of
+unshod horses, always in wear when in contact with the
+ground. It is intimately united to the circumference of the
+sole (see <a href="#CircSole">further on</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig100" id="Fig100"></a>
+<img src="images/illo279.png" alt="Fig. 100" width="300" height="303" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 100.&mdash;Inferior Surface of a Fore-hoof of the Horse: Left Side.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Internal border of the wall (toe); 2, wall; 3, quarter; 4, heel; 5,
+bar; 6, sole; 7, frog; 8, median cavity; 9, prominence of the frog;
+10, lateral cavity.</p></div>
+
+<p>The superior border is hollowed on its internal surface by
+a groove, the cutigerous cavity or basil, which lodges the
+cushion (see <a href="#Fig095">Fig. 95</a>). We have described this latter <a href="#FleshFoot">above</a>,
+in connection with the flesh of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The substance of the wall presents a fibrous appearance
+which is pretty strongly pronounced. The constituent
+fibres from which this appearance results are directed
+from the superior border towards the inferior in parallel and
+regular lines.</p>
+
+<p><a name="CircSole" id="CircSole"></a>The <i>sole</i> is a horny plate which occupies the inferior surface
+of the hoof (<a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>). It is situated between the inferior
+border of the wall and the bars; and, on account of the
+oblique direction of these latter, it presents a strongly-marked
+groove of a <span class="lettsymb">V</span>-form, with the opening directed backwards.
+In this depression is lodged the frog.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>The inferior surface is concave, and thus forms a sort of
+vault, more or less deep, according to the individual. The
+sole has a scaly, laminated aspect.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen (<a href="#Fig093">Fig. 93</a>, and <a href="#Page_249">p. 249</a>) that on the inferior surface
+of the claws of carnivora is found a small interval which
+is filled by a plate of a more friable horny substance, to which
+has been given the name of the plantar nail. It seems to us
+that there is an interesting relationship between the said
+plantar nail and the sole which we have just been studying.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, these two horny structures appear to be homologous.
+Is not the lamina of the claw comparable to the
+wall of the hoof? And does not the interval which occurs
+at the inferior part of this latter, and is filled by the sole,
+recall that which, in extremely reduced form, is filled by
+the plantar portion of the claws?</p>
+
+<p><a name="Frog" id="Frog"></a>The <i>frog</i> (<a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>) is a mass of horn, in form of a wedge,
+with its apex in front, which occupies the space limited
+laterally by the recurved portions of the wall (the bars) and
+the posterior border of the sole.</p>
+
+<p>It covers the plantar cushion previously described (<a href="#Page_252">p. 252</a>)
+and reproduces its form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>Its inferior surface is hollowed out in the middle by an
+excavation, which is known as the <i>median lacuna</i>. This
+cavity separates the branches of the frog, which terminate
+posteriorly by two swellings which are known as <i>the
+prominences of the frog</i>, forming two rounded elevations
+situated above the claws. These same branches unite in
+front of the median lacuna to form the body of the frog.
+This latter, in its anterior part, gradually narrows, and
+terminates in a point which occupies the bottom of the
+hollow limited laterally by the bars of the wall and the
+posterior border of the sole.</p>
+
+<p>Between the lateral surfaces of the frog and the bars
+are found two angular cavities&mdash;<i>the lateral lacun&aelig;</i>, or the
+<i>commissures of the frog</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig101" id="Fig101"></a>
+<img src="images/illo280a.png" alt="Fig. 101" width="300" height="213" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 101.&mdash;Third Phalanx of
+the Horse: Left Anterior
+Limb, Inferior View.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, External border; 2, internal
+border; 3, semilunar crest; 4, 4,
+re-entrant processes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig102" id="Fig102"></a>
+<img src="images/illo280b.png" alt="Fig. 102" width="300" height="224" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 102.&mdash;Third Phalanx of
+the Horse: Left Posterior
+Limb, Inferior View.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, External border; 2, internal
+border; 3, semilunar crest; 4, 4,
+re-entrant processes.</p></div>
+
+<p>As an indispensable complement to the study which we
+have just made, it is necessary to add that the hoofs of the
+fore-limbs and those of the hind ones present differences
+of form which cannot be ignored&mdash;differences which we are
+already able to conjecture by looking at the respective third
+phalanges which terminate those limbs, and especially at
+their inferior surfaces (<a href="#Fig101">Figs. 101</a>, <a href="#Fig102">102</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The hoofs of the fore-limbs (see <a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>), viewed on their
+plantar surface, are more rounded than those of the hind-limbs
+(<a href="#Fig103">Fig. 103</a>)&mdash;so that their external contour may be
+compared to a semicircle&mdash;whilst the hind-hoofs, which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+narrow and of more oval shape, rather recall by their form
+the aspect of an ogive.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig103" id="Fig103"></a>
+<img src="images/illo281.png" alt="Fig. 103"  width="300" height="306" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 103.&mdash;Inferior Surface of a Hind-hoof of a Horse: Left
+Side.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, External border; 2, internal border.</p></div>
+
+<p>This seems to result from the fact that the fore-limbs support
+the more considerable part of the weight of the animal.
+The best proof which can be given of this overweighting is
+the eagerness with which very often, when a horse is stopped
+near the edge of a footpath, for example, he places his fore-feet
+on the latter. In thus raising his fore-quarters, he
+throws part of his weight backwards, and in this way
+relieves his fore-limbs.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the difference of form which we have
+just pointed out, we have sometimes heard the following
+comparison made: the contour of the hoofs of the
+fore-limbs, viewed from below, recalls that of an apple;
+that of the hoofs of the hind-limbs recalls the outline of a
+pear.</p>
+
+<p>As a mnemonic this comparison is insufficient, for nothing
+connects either of the forms indicated with the region to
+which the hoofs belong.</p>
+
+<p>We much prefer one made for us this very year by one of
+the students of our course at the School of Fine Arts, after
+the lecture in which we had just pointed out the differences<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+in question. Giving the idea of a semicircle and an ogive,
+which we described above, he remarked to us that the idea
+would perhaps be more easily fixed in the memory if we
+associated with it the idea of the chronological order in
+which the Roman and ogival art succeeded. Indeed, as
+the Roman art preceded the ogival art, so the hoofs which
+have the semicircular form precede those which have the
+form of an ogive.</p>
+
+<p>This interpretation appeared to us ingenious; this is why
+we wished to give it here a place which seems to us to be
+merited.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig104" id="Fig104"></a>
+<img src="images/illo282.png" alt="Fig. 104" width="250" height="268" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 104.&mdash;Left Posterior Foot of a Horse: External Aspect.</p></div>
+
+<p>The wall of the hoof of a fore-limb, viewed on one of its
+lateral surfaces (see <a href="#Fig098">Fig. 98</a>), is more oblique than that of one
+of the hind-hoofs looked at in the same way (<a href="#Fig104">Fig. 104</a>).
+This difference, very marked especially at the region of the
+toe, is correlated with that of the direction of the pastern.
+In fact, in the anterior limbs this is a little more oblique
+than in the opposite ones.</p>
+
+<p>We have still to describe, in connection with the horse,
+some epidermic tissues, which are known as <i>chestnuts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The chestnut is a small, horny plate which is found on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+the internal surface of each of the limbs, at a level differing
+on the anterior from that of the posterior ones.</p>
+
+<p>On the anterior limbs the chestnut is situated on the
+internal surface of the forearm, towards the middle part,
+or the inferior third of this region. On the posterior limbs
+it is developed on the back of the superior extremity of the
+internal surface of the canon, towards the inferior part of
+the ham&mdash;that is, the tarsus.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as some authors consider the chestnuts as being
+vestiges of the thumb and the great-toe, we propose giving
+a mnemonic which will enable us to remember their situation,
+or, rather, their difference of level.</p>
+
+<p>If we consider that the thumb, in the human species, is
+longer than the first toe, we may easily remember that the
+chestnut is placed higher in the anterior limbs than in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+posterior ones. Indeed, if we suppose a digit taking its
+origin at these points, it will be longer in front (the thumb)
+than behind (the first toe).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig105" id="Fig105"></a>
+<img src="images/illo283.png" alt="Fig. 105" width="275" height="434" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 105.&mdash;Foot of the Ox: Left Side, Antero-external View.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, Internal hoof; 2, external hoof; 3, internal surface of this latter;
+4, internal spur.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Hoofs of the Ox and the Pig.</b>&mdash;The ox has four hoofs
+on each foot&mdash;two which contain the third phalanges, and
+two others, rudimentary, situated at the posterior aspect
+of the limb, at the level of the inferior part of the canon;
+these latter bear the name of <i>spurs</i>. We will occupy ourselves
+especially with the former (<a href="#Fig105">Fig. 105</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Each of the hoofs presents three faces which, if we consider
+them in relation to the median axis of the limb to which they
+belong, are: external, internal, and inferior. The external
+surface resembles the wall of the hoof of the horse. The
+internal surface is slightly concave from before backwards,
+so that the external and internal hoofs of the same foot are
+not in contact with each other, except by the extremities
+of this surface, and that an interval separates them between
+these two points. The inferior surface, slightly depressed,
+ends behind in a swelling produced by the plantar cushion,
+which covers a thin lamina of horn.</p>
+
+<p>At the anterior part of the hoof these three surfaces unite
+in forming a well-marked angle which, on account of the concavity
+of the internal surface, is slightly curved towards the
+axis of the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The pig has also four hoofs&mdash;two for the great digits and
+two for the lateral digits. They recall those of the ox.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>PROPORTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as we have taken for granted, in connection with
+the present volume, that before entering on the study of the
+anatomy of quadrupeds the reader was prepared for it by a
+sufficient knowledge of human anatomy, it is quite natural
+that we should extend the same supposition to the study of
+proportions.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason, the definition of proportions, considered
+from a general point of view, their signification, their
+function and their utility, are questions which it would
+be superfluous to enter upon here. We will content
+ourselves by calling to mind that the common measure
+chosen by preference is the length of the head, and that,
+ordinarily, it is with it that we compare the dimensions of
+other parts.</p>
+
+<p>Among the animals whose structure we have examined,
+there is one of which the proportions deserve to be marked
+in preference to every other: this is the horse.</p>
+
+<p>Wherefore this preference? In the first place, it is because
+of the overwhelming position which this animal occupies in
+the artistic representation of quadrupeds; that it is more
+frequently associated with man; that, notwithstanding
+its division into different races, its general proportions may
+be referred to a special type.</p>
+
+<p>It is also because the indications relative to these proportions
+will suffice to show the way which the artist must
+follow in order to find for himself, at the time when the necessity
+for it arises, the proportions which characterize the
+other animals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>Our intention is not, in connection with the subject which
+now occupies us, to enter into a deep discussion on the
+various opinions which have been set forth. We desire,
+above all, to give some indications which, from the practical
+point of view, can be utilized in the representation of the
+horse, and at the beginning to demonstrate the advantages
+of these indications. Now, there is a fact which we have had
+occasion to note; it is the following: almost invariably,
+when a person who is little accustomed to represent the
+horse, or not previously informed of certain proportions of
+lengths, begins to draw from nature, the error generally
+committed is that of making the head too small and the
+body too long. Is it a preconceived idea which is the cause
+that one regards them in this manner? Perhaps. At all
+events, certain artists who have made the representation
+of horses their special study have even had this habit.
+It is therefore necessary to be informed of the proportions;
+this is the object of the study which we are now
+undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>Bourgelat,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37"
+class="fnanchor">[37]</a> in the eighteenth century, fixed for the
+first time and in complete fashion the proportions of the
+horse; it is he, consequently, who created the &aelig;sthetics
+of the horse. It is but justice to recall the fact. His
+system has a point of analogy with that which is employed to
+determine the human proportions. Indeed, Bourgelat chose
+the length of the head as a standard of measurement, and the
+subdivisions of the head for measures of less extent. &#8216;Since
+beauty,&#8217; said he,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38"
+class="fnanchor">[38]</a> &#8216;resides in the congruity and proportion
+of the parts, it is absolutely necessary to observe the dimensions,
+individual and relative, and in order to acquire a
+knowledge of the proportions, to assume a kind of measure
+which can be indiscriminately common for all horses. The
+part which can serve as a standard of proportion for all the
+others is the head. Take a measurement between two
+parallel lines&mdash;one tangent to the nape of the neck or the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+summit of the forelock, the other tangent to the extremity
+of the anterior lip&mdash;a line perpendicular to these two
+tangents will give you its geometrical length. Divide this
+length into three portions, and give to these three parts a
+special name, which may be applied indefinitely to all
+heads&mdash;as, for example, that of <i>prime</i>. Any head whatsoever
+will, accordingly, in its geometrical length, always have
+three <i>primes</i>; but all the parts which you will have to consider,
+whether in their length, in their height, or in their
+width, cannot constantly have either one prime, or a prime
+and a half, or three primes; subdivide, then, each <i>prime</i>
+into three equal parts, which you will name <i>seconds</i>, and as
+this subdivision will not suffice to give you a just measure of
+all the parts, subdivide anew each <i>second</i> into twenty-four
+<i>points</i>, so that a head divided into three <i>primes</i> will have, by
+the second division, nine <i>seconds</i>, and two hundred and
+sixteen <i>points</i> by the last.&#8217;</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Claude Bourgelat, founder of the veterinary schools in France. He
+was born at Lyons in 1712, and died at Paris in 1779.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Bourgelat,
+&#8216;&Eacute;l&eacute;ments de l&#8217;art v&eacute;t&eacute;rinaire. Trait&eacute; de la conformation
+ext&eacute;rieure du cheval,&#8217; Paris, edition of 1785, p. 133.</p></div>
+
+<p>But where this system appears to us to have lost somewhat
+of its unity is when the author transforms it, in pointing out
+the following mode of procedure: &#8216;But the head itself may
+err by default of proportion. This part is not, indeed, considered
+as either too short or too long, too thin or too thick,
+but by comparison with the body of the animal. Now, the
+body, being required to have&mdash;whether in length, reckoning
+from the point of the arm to the prominence of the
+buttock, or in height, reckoning from the summit of the
+withers to the ground&mdash;two heads and a half; whenever
+the head, by its geometrical length, shall give, in length or
+in height, to the body measured more than two and a half
+times its own length, it will be too short; and if it gives
+less, it will be too long.</p>
+
+<p>&#8216;In the case in which one of these faults exists there would
+be no further question of establishing by its geometrical
+length the proportions of the other parts. Give up this
+common measure, and measure the height or the length of
+the body; divide the length or the height into five equal
+portions; take, then, two of these divisions, divide them
+into <i>primes</i>, <i>seconds</i>, and <i>points</i>, corresponding to the divisions
+and subdivisions which you would have made of the head,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+and you will have a common measure, such as the head
+would have given you if it had been proportionate.&#8217;<a name="FNanchor_39_39"
+id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Bourgelat, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<p>We understand, up to a certain point, that Bourgelat may
+have been able to give this advice which, generally speaking,
+is sufficiently practical, since, in certain cases, he was
+able to pronounce that such a head was too small or too
+large. But it is always mischievous, with regard to the
+effect produced on the reader, to propose to him, in the
+application of a rule, to suppress the foundation on which
+this rule is established. Besides, even if all the measurements
+compared with the two-fifths of the length of the body
+are proportionate with regard to one another, the animal,
+in spite of this, since the head must be taken into consideration,
+will, in a strict sense, be none the less disproportioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figlarge"><a name="Fig106" id="Fig106"></a>
+<img src="images/illo289.png" alt="Fig. 106" width="600" height="343" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 106.&mdash;The Proportions of the Horse (after Bourgelat).</p>
+
+<p class="fsize80 right"><i>To face p. 265.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>The proportions given by Bourgelat are as follows<a name="FNanchor_40_40"
+id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+(<a href="#Fig106">Fig. 106</a>):</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 136, and onward.</p></div>
+
+<p>1. <b>Three geometrical lengths of the head</b> give:</p>
+
+<p><i>The full height</i> of the horse, reckoned from the forelock
+to the ground on which he rests, provided that the head be
+well placed.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span
+class="label">[41]</span></a> By &#8216;the head being well placed,&#8217; Bourgelat means &#8216;vertically posed,&#8217;
+the outline of the forehead then coinciding with a vertical line, which at
+the other end touches the anterior portion of the nose.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="P265Par2" id="P265Par2"></a>2. <b>Two heads and a half</b>
+(B)<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42"
+class="fnanchor">[42]</a> equals:</p>
+
+<p><i>The height of the body</i> from the summit of the withers to
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>The length of the same body</i>, those of the forehand and of
+the hind-quarter taken as a whole from the point of the
+arm to the point of the buttock inclusive.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span
+class="label">[42]</span></a> The letters in parentheses relate to the corresponding measures
+marked by the same letters on the third diagram of <a href="#Fig106">Fig. 106</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="P265Par3" id="P265Par3"></a>3. <b>An entire head</b> (A) gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The length of the forepart</i> from the summit of the withers
+to the termination of the neck.</p>
+
+<p><i>The height of the shoulders</i> from the summit of the elbow
+to the top of the withers.</p>
+
+<p><i>The thickness of the body</i> from the middle of the belly to
+the middle of the back.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width</i> from one side to the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span><a name="P266Par4" id="P266Par4"></a>
+4. <b>A head measured from the top of the forelock to the
+commissure of the lips</b> (C). This measurement slightly
+curtailed, unless the mouth is very deeply cleft, equals:</p>
+
+<p><i>The length of the crupper</i>, taken from the superior point
+of the anterior angle of the ilium to the tuberosity of the
+ischium, forming the point of the buttock.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the crupper or of the haunches</i>, taken from
+the inferior points of the angles of the ilia.</p>
+
+<p><i>The height of the crupper</i>, viewed laterally, taken from the
+summit of the posterior angles of the ilia to the point of
+the patella, the leg being in a state of rest.</p>
+
+<p><i>The lateral measure of the posterior limb</i>, from the point
+of the patella, to the lateral and salient part of the ham,
+to the right of the articulation of the tibia with the
+trochlea.</p>
+
+<p><i>The perpendicular height of the articulation above named</i>
+above the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>The distance from the point of the arm</i> to the angle
+formed by the junction of the head and neck.</p>
+
+<p><i>The distance from the summit of the withers</i> to the junction
+of the neck with the thorax.</p>
+
+<p>5. <b>Twice this last measure</b> (C)<a name="FNanchor_43_43"
+id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> gives almost:</p>
+
+<p><i>The distance of the summit of the withers</i> to the tip of the
+patella.</p>
+
+<p><i>The distance of the point of the elbow</i> to the summit of the
+crupper or the posterior angles of the ilia.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span
+class="label">[43]</span></a> The proportions given in the two paragraphs 6 and 7 are, under
+another form, the same as those pointed out in paragraph 2, with this
+difference, that in this latter they are more clearly expressed.</p></div>
+
+<p>6. <b>Three times this measure, plus a half-width of the
+pastern, the equivalent of two heads and a half</b>, will
+give:</p>
+
+<p><i>The height of the body</i>, taken from the top of the withers
+to the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Its length</i>, taken from the point of the arm to the point
+of the buttock inclusive.</p>
+
+<p>7. <b>This same measure, plus the entire width of the
+pastern</b>, gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The total length of the body</i>, taken accurately.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>8. <b>Two-thirds the length of the head</b> (D) will equal:</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the chest</i>, from the tip of one arm to that of
+the other, from outside to outside.</p>
+
+<p><i>The horizontal measurement of the crupper</i> taken between
+two verticals, of which one forms a tangent to the buttock,
+and the other passes through the summit of the crupper
+and touches the tip of the patella.</p>
+
+<p><i>The third of the length of the hind-quarter and of the body</i>
+taken together, as far as the vertical from the withers,
+touching the elbow.</p>
+
+<p><i>The anterior length of the hind-limb</i>, taken from the tuberosity
+of the tibia to the fold of the ham.</p>
+
+<p><a name="P267Par9" id="P267Par9"></a>9. <b>One-half of the length of the head</b> (E) is the same as:</p>
+
+<p><i>The horizontal distance from the tip of the arm</i> to the
+vertical line from the summit of the withers and touching
+the elbow.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the neck</i>, viewed laterally, taken from its
+insertion in the trough of the jaw to the roots of the first
+hairs of the mane, on a line which forms with the superior
+contour two equal angles.</p>
+
+<p>10. <b>One-third of the entire length of the head</b> (F) gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The height of its superior part</i> from the summit of the
+forelock to a line which passes through the most salient
+points of the orbits.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the head</i> below the lower eyelids.</p>
+
+<p><i>The lateral width of the forearm</i>, taken from its anterior
+origin to the point of the elbow.</p>
+
+<p>11. <b>Two-thirds of this length</b><a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> (G) gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The distance of the point of the elbow</i> above the plane of
+the lower surface of the sternum.</p>
+
+<p><i>The depression of the back</i> in relation to the summit of
+the withers.</p>
+
+<p><i>The lateral width of the posterior limbs near the hams.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The space or distance of the forearms from one ars</i><a name="FNanchor_45_45"
+id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> to the
+opposite.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span
+class="label">[44]</span></a> That is to say, two-ninths of the whole length of the head.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span
+class="label">[45]</span></a> We call the region where the superior and internal part of the forearm
+is joined to the trunk the &#8216;ars.&#8217; The space between the ars of one side
+and the ars of the opposite side is called the &#8216;inter-ars.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>12. <b>One-half
+of the third of the entire length of the head</b><a name="FNanchor_46_46"
+id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
+(H) equals:</p>
+
+<p><i>The thickness of the forearm</i>, viewed from the front, and
+taken horizontally from the ars to its external surface.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the crown of the fore-feet</i> whether from one
+side to the other, or from before backwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the crown of the hind-feet</i>, from one side to
+the other only.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the posterior fetlocks</i>, taken from the front to
+the origin of the spur.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the knee</i> seen from the front. Note: this
+measure is a little too large.</p>
+
+<p><i>The thickness of the ham.</i> Note: this measure is a little
+under the mark.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> That is to say, one-sixth of the total length of the head.</p></div>
+
+<p>13. <b>One-fourth of the third of the length of the head</b><a name="FNanchor_47_47"
+id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+(I) gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The thickness of the canon of the fore-limb</i>: that of the
+hind-quarter is a little thicker.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> That is, one-twelfth of the length of the head.</p></div>
+
+<p>14. <b>One-third of this same measure</b><a name="FNanchor_48_48"
+id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> (K) equals:</p>
+
+<p><i>The thickness of the fore-limb close to the knee</i> in its
+narrowest part.</p>
+
+<p><i>The thickness of the posterior pasterns</i>, viewed laterally.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> That is, a ninth of the length of the head.</p></div>
+
+<p>15. <b>The height from the elbow to the fold of the knee</b>
+(L) is the same as:</p>
+
+<p><i>The height from this same fold to the earth.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The height from the patella to the fold of the ham.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The height from the fold of the ham to the crown.</i></p>
+
+<p>16. <b>The sixth part of this measure</b> (M) gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the canon of the fore-limb</i>, viewed laterally, in
+the middle of its length.</p>
+
+<p><i>The fetlock</i>, viewed from the front.</p>
+
+<p>17. <b>The third of this same measure</b> (N) is very nearly
+equal to:</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the ham</i>, from the fold to the point.</p>
+
+<p>18. <b>A fourth of this measure</b> (O) gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the knee</i>, measured laterally.</p>
+
+<p><i>The length of the knee.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>19. <b>The interval between the eyes from one great angle
+to the other</b> (P) equals:</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the hind-leg</i>, viewed laterally, from the
+cleft of the buttocks to the inferior part of the tuberosity
+of the tibia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="P269Par20" id="P269Par20"></a>20. <b>One-half of this interval between the eyes</b> (<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> P)
+gives:</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the posterior canon-bone</i>, viewed laterally.</p>
+
+<p><i>The width of the fetlock of the fore-limb</i>, from its anterior
+summit to the root of the spur.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the difference of the height of the crupper with
+respect to the summit of the withers.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that the multiplicity of these proportions,
+and above all the exaggeration of details into which
+Bourgelat fell in indicating certain of the measures which
+constitute the bases of some of them, may repel the
+reader.</p>
+
+<p>For this cause we desire to add to the preceding, and
+also because the question which we are treating would be
+incomplete without it, the results obtained and published
+by other more modern authors, and in particular by Colonel
+Duhousset.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> E. Duhousset, &#8216;Le Cheval,&#8217; Paris, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<p>This author, one of whose constant occupations is
+the measurement of the different regions of the horse,
+has the incontestable merit of having drawn attention
+to this question, and of having strained all his energies
+in the propagation of the knowledge which until then was
+little diffused. Among the proportions which he recommends,
+there are some which are the result of his own
+observations; whilst others, which he has verified and
+adopted, are the result of a judicious selection of those
+given by Bourgelat, which we have just reproduced in the
+preceding pages.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig107" id="Fig107"></a>
+<img src="images/illo295.png" alt="Fig. 107" width="500" height="377" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 107.&mdash;Proportions of the Horse (after Colonel
+Duhousset).</p></div>
+
+<p>We join thereto also certain indications furnished by
+MM. A. Goubeaux and G. Barrier,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> distinguishing these
+latter by the initials (G. and B.) of their authors (<a href="#Fig107">Fig. 107</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Armand Goubeaux and Gustave
+Barrier, &#8216;De l&#8217;ext&eacute;rieure du Cheval,&#8217;
+Paris, 1882.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span><b>The length of the head almost exactly equals</b>:</p>
+
+<p>1. Depth from the back to the belly, N, O,<a name="FNanchor_51_51"
+id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> the thickness
+of the body.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Look for the
+ points indicated by these letters on <a href="#Fig107">Fig. 107</a>, which is
+related to the proportions which are here discussed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> The proportion
+previously indicated by Bourgelat (see <a href="#P265Par3">p. 265, paragraph
+3</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>2. From the summit of the withers to the point of the
+arm, H, E.</p>
+
+<p>3. From the superior fold of the stifle to the point of the
+ham, J&#8242;, J.</p>
+
+<p>4. From the point of the ham to the ground, J, K.</p>
+
+<p>5. From the dorsal angle of the scapula to the point of
+the haunch, D, D.</p>
+
+<p>6. From the passage of the girth to the fetlock, M, I, or
+higher in large horses and racers; to the middle of the
+fetlock or lower for small ones and those of medium size.</p>
+
+<p>7. From the superior fold of the stifle to the summit of
+the crupper in those specimens whose coxo-femoral angle is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+very open. This distance is always much less in others
+(G. and B.).<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> A proportion relative to the same region, and which at the outset
+might appear similar, is pointed out by Bourgelat (see <a href="#P266Par4">p. 266, paragraph 4</a>).
+But there exists a difference, for Bourgelat compared the length of the
+head, measured from the forelock to the commissure of the lips, and not
+that of the entire head, to the distance which separates the summit of
+the rump and the tip of the patella.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Two and a half times the length of the head</b> gives:</p>
+
+<p>1. The height of the withers, H, above the ground.<a name="FNanchor_54_54"
+id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> This proportion is
+that given by Bourgelat (see <a href="#P265Par2">p. 265, paragraph 2</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>2. The height of the summit of the crupper above the
+ground.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Consequently the withers and the crupper, being the same height, are
+situated on the same horizontal plane. Bourgelat, on the contrary,
+points out a difference of level in connection with these regions. According
+to him the summit of the crupper is situated below the horizontal plane
+passing the withers, and this distance equals half of the space which
+separates the great angle of one eye from that of the other (see <a href="#P269Par20">p. 269,
+paragraph 20</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>3. Very often the length of the body, from the point of
+the arm to that of the buttock, although for a long time
+the type of Bourgelat had been set aside as a conventional
+model, short and massive.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See <a href="#P265Par2">p. 265, paragraph 2</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p>And M. Duhousset adds to this:</p>
+
+<p>&#8216;The drawing that we offer, which has two heads and
+a half in height and length, is that of a horse which
+we frequently meet with&#8217; (see <a href="#Fig107">Fig. 107</a>; see also <a href="#Page_279">p. 279</a>,
+where we again consider this question of the length of the
+body of the horse).</p>
+
+<p>&#8216;The crupper, from the point of the haunch to that of
+the buttock, D, F, is always less than that of the head.
+This difference varies from 5 to 10 centimetres. The
+width of the crupper, from one haunch to the other, often
+very slightly exceeds its length.&#8217; MM. Goubeaux and
+Barrier add that frequently it equals it.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span
+class="label">[57]</span></a> If we refer to the proportions indicated by Bourgelat, we shall find
+that the proportions relative to the crupper are also indicated there
+(see <a href="#P266Par4">p. 266, paragraph 4</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>&#8216;The crupper, such as we have just defined it, D, H, may
+also be found to a fair degree of exactness, as regards length,
+four times on the same horse.&#8217;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. From the point of the buttock to the inferior part of
+the stifle, F, P.</p>
+
+<p>2. The width of the neck, a little in front of the withers
+to a little above the point of the arm, S, X.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58"
+class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>
+MM. Goubeaux and Barrier replace this by the following: &#8216;The width of
+neck at its inferior attachment from its insertion into the chest to the origin
+of the withers, S, X.&#8217; Bourgelat discovered the same proportion (see <a href="#P266Par4">p. 266</a>,
+last line of paragraph 4).</p></div>
+
+<p>3. From this latter point to below the lower jaw, X, Q,
+when the head is naturally placed parallel to the shoulders,
+E, H.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>
+MM. Goubeaux and Barrier replace this by the following: &#8216;From
+the insertion of the neck into the chest to the lower border of the lower
+jaw, X, Q, when the head is parallel to the shoulder.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<p>4. From the nape to the nostrils, <i>n, n&#8242;</i>.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60"
+class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>
+MM. Goubeaux and Barrier add: &#8216;Or to the commissure of the lips.&#8217;
+It is thus, besides, that Bourgelat measured the head for comparison with
+the crupper (see <a href="#P266Par4">p. 266, paragraph 4</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>The measure of <b>half of the head</b> also acts as a good
+guide for the construction of the horse, when we know that
+it frequently applies to many of the parts&mdash;to wit:</p>
+
+<p>1. From the forehead above the eyes, perpendicular to the
+line which is tangent to the lower jaw, P, Q.</p>
+
+<p>2. Outline of the neck at the level of the base of the head,
+Q, L.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a>
+Proportion indicated by Bourgelat (see <a href="#P267Par9">p. 267, paragraph 9</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>3. From the crown of the fore-foot to below the knee,
+T, T&#8242;.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the legs, from the base of the fetlock to that of the
+ham, U, V.</p>
+
+<p>5. Finally, it is nearly of the length of the humerus from
+the point E to the radius.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>
+MM. Goubeaux and Barrier replace these by the following:<br />
+1. &#8216;From the most prominent part of the lower jaw to the profile
+of the forehead above the eye, P, Q (thickness of the head).<br />
+2. &#8216;From the throat to the superior border of the neck behind the nape,
+Q, L (attachment of the head).<br />
+3. &#8216;From the inferior part of the knee to the crown, T, T&#8242;.<br />
+4. &#8216;From the base of the ham to the fetlock, U, V.<br />
+5. &#8216;Finally, from the point of the arm to the articulation of the elbow
+(approximate length of the arm).&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></p>
+
+<h4>PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor"
+style="font-size: .7em; font-weight: normal;">[63]</a></h4>
+
+<p>Although it is very difficult, says M. Duhousset, when we
+speak of measurements taken on the living animal, to
+formulate other than approximations, we believe we have
+determined with sufficient accuracy the following results,
+which are the outcome of our numerous observations. The
+head which we present is that of a horse which we have
+frequently come across as a mean term between the highly
+bred and the draught horse. Under this heading, it will not
+be devoid of interest to accompany with dimensions the
+two drawings to which are consigned the measurements
+in question.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>
+Extract from the work of MM. Goubeaux and Barrier on the exterior
+of the horse. As before, the initials G. and B. of these authors are
+added.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig108" id="Fig108"></a>
+<img src="images/illo299.png" alt="Fig. 108" width="350" height="429" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 108.&mdash;Proportions of the Head of the Horse, viewed in
+Profile (after Colonel Duhousset).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Head viewed in Profile</b> (<a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>).&mdash;Length, A, B,
+from the nape to the margin of the lips, 0&middot;60 metre.</p>
+
+<p>Thickness, C, D, from the angle of the lower jaw to the
+anterior surface (a half-head), 0&middot;30 metre. This line passes
+through the middle of the eye, taken perpendicularly, to
+the profile of the anterior surface. Many common horses
+present it, especially the heavier draught horses; in finely-bred
+subjects it is a little shorter (G. and B.).</p>
+
+<p>Depth, I, H, of the neck in its narrowest part (a half-head),
+0&middot;30 metre. It is frequently greater; this is noticeable
+in all instances where the superior parts of the neck
+are deficient in fineness. It is this which we see in
+draught horses, and in those which become too fleshy
+(G. and B.).</p>
+
+<p>Distance, O, R, of the internal commissure of the eye from
+the superior border of the commissure of the nostril (G. and
+B.) (a half-head), 0&middot;30 metre. It is more considerable on
+the common head, and on that which is too long.</p>
+
+<p>Distance, A, O, from the nape to the internal angle of the
+eye, 0&middot;22 metre. This distance is equivalent to the thickness
+of the head, P, Q, taken perpendicularly from the profile
+of the anterior surface, and passing at the level of the
+maxillary fissure and spine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>It is, again, equal to Q, O, from the internal angle of the
+eye to the maxillary fissure; and to P, G, from the middle
+of the face to the commissure of the lips (G. and B.).</p>
+
+<p>The distance, P, E, from the middle of the face to the
+maxillary spine is about the sixth of the total length of the
+head&mdash;0&middot;10 metre.</p>
+
+<p>The line B, E, reckoned from the extremity of the lips to
+the maxillary spine, is equal:</p>
+
+<p>To E, F, from the maxillary spine to the external auditory
+meatus, to be seen only on the skull;</p>
+
+<p>To H, G, from the insertion of the neck in the trough to
+the commissure of the lips (G. and B.);</p>
+
+<p>To Q, R, from the maxillary fissure to the superior commissure
+of the nostril (G. and B.);</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>To Q, B, from the fissure of the maxilla to the border of the
+lips (G. and B.);</p>
+
+<p>To O, D, from the internal angle of the eye to the angle of
+the lower jaw, provided that the line C, D be in proportion
+(G. and B.).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig109" id="Fig109"></a>
+<img src="images/illo300.png" alt="Fig. 109" width="350" height="382" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 109.&mdash;The Same Design as that of <a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>, on which we have
+indicated, by Similar Lines, the Principal Corresponding
+Measurements.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">Half the length of the head, and the dimensions which equal it; distance
+which separate the nape from the internal angle of the eye, and the
+dimensions which equal it; distance which separates the internal angle
+of the eye from the border of the lips, and the dimensions which equal it.<a
+name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>
+It is thus that in our teaching, but by means of lines of different
+colours, we present the proportions reproduced in <a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>. Experience has
+demonstrated to us that this replacement of letters by conventional lines
+renders the proportions more easily appreciable, and that these lines,
+striking the eye more forcibly, then impress themselves better on the
+memory. <a href="#Fig111">Fig. 111</a> bears the same relation to <a href="#Fig110">Fig. 110</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Finally, very frequently to O, H, from the internal angle
+of the eye to the insertion of the throat into the maxillary
+trough (G. and B.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>An equality still more frequent is that which exists between
+the distances:</p>
+
+<p>O, B, from the internal angle of the eye to the margin of
+the lips;</p>
+
+<p>A, H, from the nape to the insertion of the throat into the
+maxillary trough;</p>
+
+<p>And H, B, from this latter point to the margins of the lips.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig110" id="Fig110"></a>
+<img src="images/illo301.png" alt="Fig. 110" width="200" height="460" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 110.&mdash;Proportions of the Head of the Horse, seen from the
+Front (after Colonel Duhousset).</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Head, Front View</b> (<a href="#Fig110">Fig. 110</a>).&mdash;If, to continue our
+examination, adds M. Duhousset, we regard the head from
+the front, we find its greatest width at A, B, the extreme
+points of the orbital arches.</p>
+
+<p>This width is 22 centimetres.</p>
+
+<p>It is again equal to:</p>
+
+<p>A, C, from one arch to the nape;</p>
+
+<p>A, D, from one arch to the middle of the face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>D, E, from the middle of the face to the margin of the lips.</p>
+
+<p>From the auditory canal, G, to the maxillary spine, F,
+is the same distance as from this point to the margins of the
+lips, E, or, better, to the end of the teeth.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig111" id="Fig111"></a>
+<img src="images/illo302.png" alt="Fig. 111" width="200" height="521" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 111.&mdash;The Same Figure as <a href="#Fig110">Fig. 110</a>, on which we have marked
+by Similar Lines the Principal Measurements which correspond
+thereto.</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">Distance which separates one of the orbital arches from that of the
+opposite side, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separates
+the auditory meatus from the maxillary spine, and the dimensions which
+equal it; distance which separates one maxillary spine from that of the
+opposite side, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separates
+the lip of one side from that of the opposite, and the dimensions which
+equal it.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span
+class="label">[65]</span></a> See the note relative to <a href="#Fig109">Fig. 109</a>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The line G, C, from the auditory meatus to the nape, is
+equal to the sixth of the head, 10 centimetres; the line A, G,
+from the orbital arch to the auditory meatus, is a little
+longer, and measures 12 centimetres.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>The distance F, I, comprised between the maxillary spines,
+is 18 centimetres.</p>
+
+<p>It is equal to:</p>
+
+<p>O, O, the distance between the internal angles of the eyes
+(G. and B.);</p>
+
+<p>F, R, the distance from the maxillary spine to the superior
+commissure of the corresponding nostril (G. and. B.);</p>
+
+<p>F, P, from the maxillary spine to the <i>salt-cellar</i>.<a name="FNanchor_66_66"
+id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span
+class="label">[66]</span></a> We designate under the name <i>salt-cellar</i> a depression situated external
+to the frontal region and above the eye.</p></div>
+
+<p>From the nape to the internal angle of the eye, C, O, is the
+same distance as from this latter point to the commissure
+of the lips, O, T; and from the maxillary spine to the upper
+lip F, S (G. and B.).</p>
+
+<p>The distance apart, T, T, of the two commissures of the
+lips gives, very nearly, the distance from the superior
+border of the orbital arch to the base of the ear or the
+auditory meatus. In the state of rest, the outer limit of the
+separation of the nostrils does not exceed the width of the
+knee;<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67"
+class="fnanchor">[67]</a> we frequently find the same distance intercepted
+above the nape by the tranquil ears. In the figure (<a href="#Fig110">Fig.
+110</a>) we have intentionally represented them directed in
+a different plane, in order to show that when the pinna is
+turned backward, it none the less preserves the contour
+of bracket form, more or less pronounced according to the
+breeding of the subject, and characterizing in repose the
+interior curves of the ear.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>
+We remind our readers that the name &#8216;knee&#8217; is given by veterinarians
+to the region occupied by the carpus.</p></div>
+
+<p>The extreme limit of the lips, M, N, but very slightly
+exceeds that of the nostrils; on many heads of harmonious
+proportions this distance is found to be the half of A, B.</p>
+
+<p>In order not to interrupt the course of the preceding exposition,
+we decided to withhold till afterwards some reflections
+which have been suggested to us by certain of the proportions
+which are there indicated. The proportions in question are
+important&mdash;we may even say that they are fundamental, for
+they have for object the relation which exists between the
+length of the head, the height of the body, and the length
+of the latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>We have already seen that, according to Bourgelat, the
+length of the head is contained two and a half times in the
+length of the body, from the point of the arm to the point
+of the buttock; and, also, two and a half times in the
+height measured from the apex of the withers to the
+ground (see <a href="#Page_265">p. 265</a>). We saw afterwards that M. Duhousset,
+having adopted these proportions, pointed out, further,
+that the same dimension was again found equally to exist
+from the summit of the crupper to the ground&mdash;a height
+which Bourgelat considered as being of less extent. There
+results, then, from the latter proportions, which we have just
+recalled, this interesting fact: that they simplify very much,
+from the point of view of design, the placing in position of
+the horse, on the condition always that this latter be always
+viewed directly on one of its lateral aspects.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig112" id="Fig112"></a>
+<img src="images/illo304.png" alt="Fig. 112" width="400" height="347" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 112.&mdash;Horse of which the Length contains more than Two
+and a Half Times that of the Head, and of which this
+Dimension (A, B) exceeds the Height.</p></div>
+
+<p>Indeed, in this case, if we except the neck and the head, the
+body, inasmuch as its height and its length are equal, may be
+inscribed in a square, of which one of the sides corresponds
+to the withers and to the summit of the crupper, two of the
+other sides to the point of the arm and to that of the buttock<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+the fourth being represented by the ground. This is simple,
+but this simplicity even has its inconveniences.</p>
+
+<p>It follows that this proportion, thus expressed, seems
+to exclude from every artistic representation certain categories
+of horses, which upon the whole might be regarded
+as beautiful, and the existence of which in any case it would
+be a pity not to indicate.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig113" id="Fig113"></a>
+<img src="images/illo305.png" alt="Fig. 113" width="400" height="320" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 113.&mdash;Horse of which the Length contains more than Two and
+a Half Times that of the Head, and of which this Dimension
+(A, B) exceeds the Height.</p></div>
+
+<p>Let us examine at the outset that which is relative to the
+length of the body, equal to two and a half times the length
+of the head. This proportion is sometimes met with, and
+therefore may be considered exact; but it is necessary to
+add that its existence is not discoverable in the majority
+of cases. That for some authors it constitutes a perfect
+model we will not gainsay, but it is our impression that,
+when it exists, the head appears a little large, or, more
+exactly, the body a little short.</p>
+
+<p>Without attaining exactly to three times the length of the
+head, as some authors (Saint-Bel, Vallon) have announced,
+the body of the horse, nevertheless, measured as is stated
+above, frequently contains it more than two and a half times.
+We give in support of this some outline reproductions, executed
+after photographs (<a href="#Fig112">Figs. 112</a>, <a href="#Fig113">113</a>, <a href="#Fig114">114</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>There still remains the question regarding the equality
+of the height and of the length of the body of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>This equality, after the proportions previously indicated,
+would seem bound to appear in all the cases observed. Now,
+if we measure the examples reproduced in <a href="#Fig112">Figs. 112</a>, <a href="#Fig113">113</a>,
+and <a href="#Fig114">114</a>, we shall see that sometimes the two dimensions
+are unequal, the height being greater than the length, or
+inversely.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig114" id="Fig114"></a>
+<img src="images/illo306.png" alt="Fig. 114" width="400" height="364" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 114.&mdash;Horse of which the Length contains more than Two
+and a Half Times that of the Head, and of which this
+Dimension (A, B) is Inferior to the Height.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is the same, if we examine a certain number of specimens;
+we are able to determine that the proportion chosen
+in preference by authors is not exactly that which is oftenest
+met with. It will, very probably, be objected that it is so
+for the most beautiful types, and that the indifferent ones
+are generally the more numerous. The essential thing would
+be to know, above all, if the type of two heads and a half of
+length and of height is really the only beautiful one. However
+that may be, of the fifty African horses measured by
+M. Duhousset, only fourteen possessed the equality indicated;
+twenty-six were less long than high, and ten more
+long than high.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a>
+E. Duhousset, &#8216;The Horse,&#8217; Paris, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PACES OF THE HORSE</h3>
+
+<p>As a completion of the studies we have just been making,
+some notions relative to the paces of the horse seem to us
+to be absolutely indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Let it be permitted to us to remind the reader in this
+connection that we have already been for twenty-one years
+occupied with this question, and that by means of an
+articulated figure, a sort of movable mannikin, we have
+endeavoured to demonstrate to artists the differences which
+characterize the various paces of the horse.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a
+href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> The arrangement
+then employed cannot, evidently, be used in the
+present volume, but we will inspire ourselves, in the preparation
+of the present chapter, with the elements of demonstration
+which we have employed, and which, in the course of
+our teaching, we have had the satisfaction of seeing favourably
+received.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a>
+&Eacute;douard Cuyer, &#8216;Les Allures du Cheval,&#8217; demonstrated with the aid
+of a coloured, separable, and articulated table, Paris, 1883.
+</p><p>
+This table was the subject of a note communicated to the Academy
+of Sciences by Professor Marey (&#8216;Comptes rendus de l&#8217;Acad&eacute;mie de
+Sciences&#8217;) at the meeting of June 26, 1882. On the other hand, it has
+been the subject of a presentation which we have had the honour of being
+permitted to make to the Academy of Fine Arts at the meeting of
+November 4, 1882.
+</p><p>
+The fasciculus in question has been since united with a more complete
+whole as regards the study of the horse. E. Cuyer and E. Alex, &#8216;Le
+Cheval: Ext&eacute;rieur, Structure et Fonctions, Races,&#8217; avec 26 planches
+colori&eacute;es, d&eacute;coup&eacute;es et superpos&eacute;es, Paris, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<p>The progressive movements by which an individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+transports himself from one place to another do not operate
+according to a unique method and with a constantly
+uniform velocity. These various modes of progression are
+designated under the name of <i>paces</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is extremely difficult to analyze, by simple observation,
+the movements which characterize these gaits. Let us, for
+example, examine the displacements made by the limbs of
+a horse during that of walking; if we have no notion of these
+displacements, it will be, so to speak, impossible to determine
+in what order they are executed. The sight of the
+imprints left on the ground by the hoofs is not a sufficient
+means of demonstration, especially for artists. The noise
+made by the blows of these limbs, or by the little bells of
+different timbre suspended from them, are absolutely in the
+same case.</p>
+
+<p>Processes enabling us to fix or to register the paces are
+in every way preferable. Such really exist; they are:
+instantaneous photography and those which constitute the
+graphic method of Professor Marey. The results given by
+the photograph are certainly appreciable; but, from the
+didactic point of view, we give the preference to the graphic
+method, the general characters and the mode of application
+of which we now proceed to analyze.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a>
+We cannot too strongly recommend the reading of the excellent works
+which Professor Marey has published, and which have for their object
+the study of movements, as well as the exhibition of the procedures which
+he has employed. E. J. Marey, &#8216;La Machine Animale,&#8217; Paris, 1873;
+&#8216;La M&eacute;thode graphique dans les Sciences exp&eacute;rimentales,&#8217; Paris, 1884;
+&#8216;Le Vol des Oiseaux,&#8217; Paris, 1890; &#8216;Le Mouvement,&#8217; Paris, 1894.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is necessary to understand first of all, in this connection,
+that which relates to a man&#8217;s walking pace.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig115" id="Fig115"></a>
+<img src="images/illo309.png" alt="Fig. 115" width="400" height="251" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 115.&mdash;Experimental Shoes, intended to Record the
+Pressure of the Foot on the Ground.</p></div>
+
+<p>The method of Professor Marey rests on the following
+principle: Suppose two rubber globes connected with one
+another by a tube. If we compress one of these globes, the
+air which it contains will be driven into the other, and will
+afterwards return when the pressure has ceased. Nothing
+more simple, evidently; but it is necessary to describe it in
+detail in order the better to comprehend that which follows:
+The walker who is the subject of experiment is furnished
+with special shoes (<a href="#Fig115">Fig. 115</a>), having thick indiarubber
+soles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+hollowed in the interior, so that the whole thus constituted
+forms a sort of hollow cushion which is compressed under
+the influence of the pressure of the foot on the ground. A
+tube which is attached to a registering apparatus, which the
+person who is walking carries in his hand, communicates
+with this cavity (<a href="#Fig116">Fig. 116</a>). This apparatus is formed of a
+metal drum, which is closed at its upper part by a flexible
+membrane. Each time that one of the man&#8217;s feet presses
+on the ground, the air contained in the cavity of the sole
+of the shoe is driven into the drum, which we have just
+mentioned, and the flexible membrane of this drum is
+elevated. To this membrane is attached a vertical rod
+which supports a horizontal style.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig116" id="Fig116"></a>
+<img src="images/illo310.png" alt="Fig. 116" width="325" height="480" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 116.&mdash;Runner furnished with the Exploratory and
+Registering Apparatus of the Various Paces.</p></div>
+
+<p>When the membrane, as we have just seen, is elevated,
+the style is lifted, and then descends when the pressure of
+the foot ceases. It traces these displacements on a leaf of
+paper, the surface of which is covered with a thin layer of
+lamp-black, which it removes by its contact; different parts
+of this surface are successively presented to it, the paper
+being rolled round a cylinder which is turned on its axis by
+means of a clockwork movement. It is necessary to add
+that the inscription is made, in the study of the walk of man,
+by means of two styles, each corresponding to one of the
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>The tracings thus obtained, which are read from left to
+right, are sufficiently simple; but to understand them
+properly, it is necessary to remember that the style undergoes
+a movement of ascensional displacement during each
+pressure of a foot, and that, on the other hand, it descends<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+when the latter is separated from the ground. We also see,
+on the tracing which it leaves, a line which ascends and then
+descends; the meaning of this is that first the foot presses
+on the ground, and is afterwards raised from it.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig117" id="Fig117"></a>
+<img src="images/illo311.png" alt="Fig. 117" width="500" height="148" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 117.&mdash;Tracing of the Running of a Man (after
+Professor Marey.)</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">D, Pressures and elevations of the right foot; G, pressures and elevations
+of the left foot.</p></div>
+
+<p>On the tracing (<a href="#Fig117">Fig. 117</a>), the line D relates to the right
+foot; the line G, which is dotted so that it may not be confused
+with the preceding, corresponds to the left foot. The
+line G first ascends; the meaning of which is that the left
+foot presses on the ground; afterwards it descends: this
+indicates that the pressure of the foot has ceased. It is the
+same for the right foot. As we see, the pressures succeed
+each other; when the left foot touches the ground, the right
+is separated from it; when the latter presses the ground,
+it is the left which no longer rests there.</p>
+
+<p>The line O is related to the movements of the body, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+indicated by the oscillations of the head. We will neglect
+these.</p>
+
+<p>But this tracing, which serves us for an example, is not,
+it must indeed be said, of very easy reading; it would be
+still less so if the paces of a horse were registered, for there
+would then be four lines, the entanglement of which would
+cause greater complication.</p>
+
+<p>These difficulties of reading need be no longer feared, if
+we transform the tracing into a notation by means of the
+following diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig118" id="Fig118"></a>
+<img src="images/illo312a.png" alt="Fig. 118" width="500" height="237" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 118.</p></div>
+
+<p>There are drawn (<a href="#Fig118">Fig. 118</a>) below the graphic tracing two
+horizontal lines (1, 2). From the point where the line D
+rises (commencement of the pressure of the right foot), and
+from the point where this same line descends (end of the
+same pressure), we let fall two vertical lines joining the two
+horizontal ones mentioned above. At this plane, and
+between the two vertical lines, we mark a broad white one
+(<i>a, b</i>). This expresses, by its length, the duration of the
+period of pressure of the right foot. In doing the same for
+the line G, we obtain for the indication of a pressure of the
+left foot an interval of the same kind, in which are marked
+cross-lines, or which is tinted gray, in order to avoid all
+confusion with the preceding tracing.</p>
+
+<p>This notation can, with sufficient exactitude, be compared
+to that which is employed in the musical scale. The horizontal
+lines 1 and 2 represent the <i>compass</i>. We there also see
+<i>notes</i>; these are the bars indicating the pressure, of which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+value&mdash;that is to say, the duration&mdash;is represented by the
+length of these bars. It is the same with regard to the intervals
+of <i>silence</i>: these are expressed by the intervals which
+separate the pressures, and correspond to the moments in
+which, during certain paces, such as running, the body is
+raised from the ground. Besides, we see intervals of this
+kind on the notation reproduced (<a href="#Fig118">Fig. 118</a>) relative to the
+running of man.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig119" id="Fig119"></a>
+<img src="images/illo312b.png" alt="Fig. 119" width="500" height="256" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 119.</p></div>
+
+<p>In order to make the signification of these tracings still
+better understood, we reproduce four varieties of them
+(<a href="#Fig119">Fig. 119</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The first notation is that of ordinary walking. The
+pressures succeed each other regularly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>The second shows what takes place during the ascent of
+a staircase. At a certain moment, the weight of the body is
+upon both feet at the same time, one of them not quitting
+the lower step, until the other is already in contact with
+the step above. Accordingly, there is thus produced an
+overriding of the pressures.</p>
+
+<p>The third is relative to running, and has already been
+represented in <a href="#Fig118">Fig. 118</a>. The pressures of the feet are
+separated by the times of suspension.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth also represents running, but in this case
+more rapid and characterized by the shorter pressures,
+the slightly longer periods of suspension intervals, and the
+quicker succession of movements.</p>
+
+<p>Before putting aside the indications relating to the
+walking movements of man&mdash;indications which it was necessary
+to give in order to render intelligible those which are
+connected with the paces of the horse&mdash;we have yet to fix the
+value of that which we call &#8216;a step.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>It is generally admitted that a step is constituted by the
+series of movements which are produced between the corresponding
+phases of the action of one foot and that of the
+other&mdash;for example, between the moment at which the
+right foot commences its pressure on the ground and that
+at which the left foot commences its own. It is necessary
+to adopt here another method of looking at it, and to
+regard the preceding as being but a <i>half-step</i>. The step
+should then be defined as being constituted by the series
+of movements which are executed between two similar
+positions of the same foot&mdash;as, for example, between the
+commencement of a pressure of the right foot and the
+similar phase of the following pressure of the same foot.
+We shall soon understand the importance of this definition.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering on the details of the paces of the horse,
+it is necessary to see how the limbs of the latter oscillate
+during the period of a complete step; or, which is the
+same thing, to determine what the displacements are which
+a limb executes between two similar positions of its foot.</p>
+
+<p>If we examine one of the limbs during a forward movement
+of the animal, we see that this limb passes through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+two principal phases: (1) It is raised from the ground;
+(2) it resumes contact with the ground. Each of these
+phases is divided into three periods of time, which we
+proceed to analyze in connection with the anterior limb.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig120" id="Fig120"></a>
+<img src="images/illo314.png" alt="Fig. 120" width="350"  height="360" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 120.&mdash;Swing of the Raised Anterior Limb (after G. Colin).<a name="FNanchor_71_71"
+id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">C, Lifting; B, suspension; A, placing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a>
+G. Colin, &#8216;Trait&eacute; de Physiologie Compar&eacute;e des Animaux,&#8217; third edition,
+Paris, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<p>The foot quits the ground (<a href="#Fig120">Fig. 120</a>, C); this may be
+called <i>lifting</i>; the limb is oblique in direction downwards
+and backwards. This same limb is flexed and carried forward
+(<a href="#Fig120">Fig. 120</a>, B), and, as it is supported by the action of
+its flexors, this is the period named <i>suspension</i>; the hoof
+is vertical. Then the limb is carried still further forward,
+becoming extended (<a href="#Fig120">Fig. 120</a>, A); the heel is lowered, and
+the foot, being oblique, is directed towards the ground;
+this is the <i>placing</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig121" id="Fig121"></a>
+<img src="images/illo315.png" alt="Fig. 121" width="350" height="345" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 121.&mdash;Swing of the Anterior Limb on the Point of
+Pressure (after G. Colin).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">A, Commencement of the pressure; B, centre of the pressure; C, termination
+of the pressure.</p></div>
+
+<p>Then takes place pressure (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>). The foot has just
+been placed on the ground; the limb is oblique in direction
+downwards and forwards; this we call <i>commencement of the
+pressure</i> (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>, A). Then the body, being carried forward,
+whilst the hoof, D, is fixed on the ground, the limb
+becomes vertical: this stage is <i>mid-pressure</i> (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>,
+B).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>
+Finally, the progression of the body continuing, the limb
+becomes oblique downwards and backwards; it is now at
+the <i>termination of pressure</i> (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>, C), and proceeds to lift
+itself anew if another step is to be made.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the inferior extremity of the limb describes,
+from its elevation to its being placed on the ground, an arc
+of a circle around its superior extremity (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>, D);
+whilst, during the pressure, it is its superior extremity
+which describes one around its inferior extremity, then fixed
+on the ground (<a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a>, D).</p>
+
+<p>If we simultaneously examine the two fore-limbs, we
+remark that when one of them begins its pressure the
+other ends it, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig122" id="Fig122"></a>
+<img src="images/illo316.png" alt="Fig. 122" width="350" height="306" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 122.&mdash;Posterior Limb, giving the Impulse (after G. Colin).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">A, Commencement of pressure; B, centre of pressure; C, termination
+of pressure.</p></div>
+
+<p>As to the hind-limbs, the oscillations are similar to those
+of the fore ones. In the second half of the pressure&mdash;that
+is, when they are passing from the vertical direction (<a href="#Fig122">Fig. 122</a>,
+A) to extreme obliquity backwards (<a href="#Fig122">Fig. 122</a>, C)&mdash;the effect
+of their action is to give propulsion to the body.</p>
+
+<p>The fore and hind limbs make the same number of steps,
+and the steps have the same length.</p>
+
+<p>The limbs of any quadruped&mdash;but we make special allusion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
+to those of the horse&mdash;are divided into groups in the
+following manner:</p>
+
+<p>The anterior pair constitutes the <i>anterior biped</i>. The
+<i>posterior biped</i> is that formed by the posterior limbs.</p>
+
+<p>The name of <i>lateral biped</i> serves to designate the whole
+formed by the two limbs of the same side. The right fore-limb
+and the right hind-limb form the <i>right lateral biped</i>.
+The two others form the <i>left lateral biped</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A fore-limb and hind-limb belonging to the opposite side
+form a <i>diagonal biped</i>, which also takes the name of the fore-limb
+which forms a part of it. Thus, <i>the right diagonal biped</i>
+is formed by the association of the right fore-limb and the
+left hind one. The <i>left diagonal biped</i> is, consequently, the
+inverse.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to remember well these preliminary indications;
+it is the only means of comprehending with facility
+that which is about to follow.</p>
+
+<p>Let us first return to the grouping of the limbs. The
+denominations <i>anterior</i> and <i>posterior bipeds</i> render
+clearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+perceptible the comparison which consists in regarding a
+horse when walking as capable of being represented by two
+men marching one behind the other, and making the same
+number of steps. According as they move the legs of the
+same side at the same time in &#8216;covering the step,&#8217; or march
+in contretemps step, we find reproduced all the rhythms
+which characterize the different paces of the horse.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig123" id="Fig123"></a>
+<img src="images/illo317.png" alt="Fig. 123" width="500" height="115" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 123.&mdash;Notation of the Ambling Gait in the Horse (after
+Professor Marey).</p></div>
+
+<p>Professor Marey has studied these paces by a similar
+method to that which he adopted for the walking of man,
+and which we have already described. He employed hollow
+balls fixed under the hoofs, and a registering apparatus
+with four styles, each corresponding to one of the limbs.
+The tracing obtained is rather complicated, since two sets
+of lines are found marked. But a notation similar to
+that of which we have spoken can be discovered, and its
+exact signification should now be determined. For this
+purpose, we have selected the most simple (see <a href="#Fig123">Fig. 123</a>).
+We there see, placed in two superimposed lines, the
+pressure markings of the right feet (white bands), and of
+the left feet (gray bands). On the upper line are found
+those related to the fore-legs; the lower lines contain those
+associated with the hind-legs. It is, in brief, the superposition
+of two notations of the human walking movements.
+And seeing that, as we have previously pointed out, we may
+make a comparison between a quadruped and two men
+placed one behind the other, it is easy to understand the
+significance of the superimposed notations, if we accustom
+ourselves to look on them as the notations of two bipeds.</p>
+
+<p>To read these notations&mdash;that is, to learn to know what
+occurs at each of the movements of the pace&mdash;it is necessary,
+indeed, to remember that they should be examined in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+vertical sections; it is to each of these sections&mdash;of these
+vertical divisions&mdash;that each of the movements which we
+more particularly wish to analyze corresponds.</p>
+
+<p>We proceed to study first the pace of ambling, because it
+is the most simple; we shall then consider the trot, and,
+finally, we shall examine that which is the most complicated,
+viz., the step.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Amble.</b>&mdash;To give an exact idea of the general
+character of the amble, let us fancy the two men whom
+we discussed above marching one behind the other and
+walking in step&mdash;that is, moving the legs of the same side
+simultaneously. They will thus represent the amble, which,
+indeed, results from the alternate displacements of the
+lateral bipeds; the limbs of the same side (right or left)
+execute the same movements in the same time.</p>
+
+<p>This is what the notation indicates (<a href="#Fig123">Fig. 123</a>). We there
+see that the pressures of the right fore-foot, marked by the
+white bands in the upper range, are exactly superposed on
+those of the right hind one, which are marked by a similar
+band on the lower line; this means that the pressures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+took place in the same time. We there see also a similar
+arrangement of the gray bands, which has a similar significance
+for the left fore and hind feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig124" id="Fig124"></a>
+<img src="images/illo318.png" alt="Fig. 124" width="350" height="296" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 124.&mdash;The Amble: Right Lateral Pressure.<a name="FNanchor_72_72"
+id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a>
+The figures which, in the present study, reproduce the different paces,
+have been made from our articulated horse (see the note on <a href="#Page_282">p. 282</a>).</p></div>
+
+<p>And if we recollect the three phases of pressure (see
+<a href="#Page_289">p. 289</a>, and <a href="#Fig121">Figs. 121</a>, <a href="#Fig122">122</a>), we shall comprehend, in
+looking at the diagrams, that, at the initial stage (A),
+the limbs are commencing their pressure, and are oblique
+downwards and forwards; that afterwards (B) the two
+limbs are vertical, since they are at the middle of the
+pressure stage; and that finally (C) they are oblique
+downwards and backwards, for it is then the termination
+of their pressure (<a href="#Fig124">Fig. 124</a>).</p>
+
+<p>During the time that the right limbs are pressing
+(notation, white bands) the left limbs are raised; afterwards
+these latter take up the pressure (gray bands), and
+then the right limbs are raised in their turn.</p>
+
+<p>During the pace of ambling the weight of the body, which
+is wholly sustained by the limbs of one side only, is not
+in equilibrium, so that the limbs which are raised return
+by a brisk movement to the position of support in order to
+re-establish it.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Trot.</b>&mdash;We have just seen that, in order to represent
+the amble, the two marchers moved their right limbs
+simultaneously, and then their left ones.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose now that the hinder man anticipated
+by half a pace the movement of the front one, then
+will be found realized the association and the nature
+of the displacements of the limbs during the pace of the
+trot.</p>
+
+<p>By this anticipation of a half-step (we have defined,
+<a href="#Page_288">p. 288</a>, what is to be understood by the word
+<i>step</i>), it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+follows that when the marcher who is in front advances
+his right leg it is the left leg of the marcher who follows
+him that is carried in the same direction. We should
+thus conclude from this that the trot is characterized
+by a succession of displacements of the diagonal bipeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig125" id="Fig125"></a>
+<img src="images/illo319.png" alt="Fig. 125" width="500" height="115" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 125.&mdash;Notation of the Gait of the Trot in the Horse
+(after Professor Marey).</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig126" id="Fig126"></a>
+<img src="images/illo320a.png" alt="Fig. 126" width="350" height="285" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 126.&mdash;The Trot; Right Diagonal Pressure.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>Indeed,
+if we examine the notation of this gait (<a href="#Fig125">Fig. 125</a>),
+we see that with the pressure of the right fore-foot is found
+associated the pressure of the left hind-foot. It is, accordingly,
+a typical diagonal biped (<a href="#Fig126">Fig. 126</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig127" id="Fig127"></a>
+<img src="images/illo320b.png" alt="Fig. 127" width="350" height="276" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 127.&mdash;The Trot; Time of Suspension.</p></div>
+
+<p>But it is necessary to add that these groups of pressures
+do not succeed one another without interruption, except
+in the slow trot. In the ordinary trot, or in that in which
+the animal&#8217;s strides are very long, the body between each
+of the double pressures which we have just been considering
+is projected forward with such force that it remains for
+an instant separated from the ground. This is what we
+designate by the name of <i>time of suspension</i> (<a href="#Fig127">Fig. 127</a>). The
+notation in this case would be slightly different from that
+which we reproduce above, in this sense: that between the
+diagonal pressures there then would be found an interval,
+since during the time the body is suspended none of the
+feet can produce a pressure-mark (see, with regard to
+these intervals, the notations of the running of a man,
+<a href="#Fig118">Fig. 118</a>, and <a href="#Fig119">Fig. 119</a>, 3, 4).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Walk.</b>&mdash;Although slow, a feature which would seem
+to make it possible to permit its analysis in a horse when
+walking, this pace is difficult to comprehend without
+sufficient preliminary study.</p>
+
+<p>We saw above that in order to represent the amble the
+marchers had to move the legs of the same side simultaneously.
+We have also just seen that in order to represent
+the trot the marcher at the back had to anticipate
+by a half-step. Suppose, now, that this same marcher
+anticipates the man in front by a quarter-step only, or by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+a half-pressure period, and thus will be found realized the
+order of succession of the limbs in the gait or pace called
+the <i>walk</i>. The feet meet the ground one after the other,
+since they are each in advance by half the duration of a
+pressure. The strokes are four in number during the period
+of a step of this pace; in the amble and in the trot they do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+not exceed two, for then the limbs strike the ground in
+lateral diagonal pairs.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig128" id="Fig128"></a>
+<img src="images/illo321.png" alt="Fig. 128" width="500" height="140" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 128.&mdash;Notation of the Pace of Stepping in the Horse
+(after Professor Marey).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">L, Right lateral pressure; D, right diagonal pressure; L&#8242;, left lateral
+pressure; D&#8242;, left diagonal pressure.</p></div>
+
+<p>If we examine the notation of the pace of walking
+(<a href="#Fig128">Fig. 128</a>), we see that the right fore-foot commences
+its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+pressure when the right hind-foot is in the middle of its
+own, and that the hinder left begins in the middle of that
+of the right fore-foot, and that it is itself at the midst of its
+pressure when the left fore-foot touches the ground, etc.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+In a word, the foot-fallings occur in the following order
+and at regular intervals&mdash;the fore right foot is here considered
+as acting first: right fore, left hind, left fore, right
+hind, and so on in succession.</p>
+
+<p>As to the nature of the bipeds which succeed one another,
+it is easy to understand them by means of the notation.
+In reading this from left to right, we see that the associations
+of pressure are first made by the two right feet, then by a
+right foot and a left one, then by two left feet, and, finally,
+by a left and right. It is, accordingly, a succession this time
+of lateral and diagonal pressures.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig129" id="Fig129"></a>
+<img src="images/illo322a.png" alt="Fig. 129" width="350" height="285" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 129.&mdash;The Step: Right Lateral Pressure.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig130" id="Fig130"></a>
+<img src="images/illo322b.png" alt="Fig. 130" width="350" height="283" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 130.&mdash;The Step: Right Diagonal Pressure.</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus, we find at the start a right lateral pressure
+(<a href="#Fig129">Fig. 129</a>), next a right diagonal (<a href="#Fig130">Fig. 130</a>), then a left lateral;
+finally, a left diagonal pressure. It is thus that the initial
+letters L, D, L&#8242;, D&#8242; further indicate the notations represented
+in <a href="#Fig128">Fig. 128</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig131" id="Fig131"></a>
+<img src="images/illo323a.png" alt="Fig. 131" width="350" height="308" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 131.&mdash;The Gallop: First Period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig132" id="Fig132"></a>
+<img src="images/illo323b.png" alt="Fig. 132" width="350" height="281" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 132.&mdash;The Gallop: Second Period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig133" id="Fig133"></a>
+<img src="images/illo324a.png" alt="Fig. 133" width="350" height="251" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 133.&mdash;The Gallop: Third Period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig134" id="Fig134"></a>
+<img src="images/illo324b.png" alt="Fig. 134" width="350" height="224" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 134.&mdash;The Gallop: Time of Suspension.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Gallop.</b>&mdash;The ordinary gallop is a pace of three
+phases. The first is characterized by the fact that one
+hind-limb alone rests on the ground (<a href="#Fig131">Fig. 131</a>); in
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+second the animal is on a diagonal support (<a href="#Fig132">Fig. 132</a>); in
+the third it comes down on a fore-limb (<a href="#Fig133">Fig. 133</a>). The
+body is then raised (<a href="#Fig134">Fig. 134</a>), and to this period of suspension
+succeed anew the three modes of pressure indicated
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The gallop is said to be from either right or left. In the
+gallop from the right, the right fore-leg is the more frequently
+in advance of its neighbour; it is the last to be
+placed on the ground. The left foot of the posterior biped
+is the one which commences the action.</p>
+
+<p>An entirely opposite arrangement characterizes the
+gallop from the left.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig135" id="Fig135"></a>
+<img src="images/illo325a.png" alt="Fig. 135" width="500" height="135" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 135.&mdash;Notation of the Gallop divided into Three Periods
+of Time (after Professor Marey).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, First period; 2, second period; 3, third period.</p></div>
+
+<p>The notation reproduced in <a href="#Fig135">Fig. 135</a> corresponds to the
+gallop from the right. It is there seen, as we pointed out
+above, that in the first phase the exclusive support of the
+left hind-foot takes place (1); that afterwards, in the
+second, commence simultaneously, the pressures of the left
+fore and the right hind foot (2); this is the left diagonal
+support; and that finally, in the third, the body comes
+down on a fore-limb, which is then the right (3); and
+that for a moment it is on this limb alone that the animal
+rests.</p>
+
+<p>To these three phases on the notation succeeds an
+interval; this is the period of suspension.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig136" id="Fig136"></a>
+<img src="images/illo325b.png" alt="Fig. 136" width="500" height="135" />
+<p class="caption just">Fig. 136.&mdash;Notation of the Gallop of Four Periods in the
+Horse (after Professor Marey).</p>
+
+<p class="subcaption just">1, First period; 2, second period; 3, third period; 4, fourth period.</p></div>
+
+<p>The gallop of four phases only differs from the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302"
+id="Page_302"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a></span><span
+class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+in that the foot-fallings of each diagonal biped occur at
+slight intervals, and give distinct sounds. The notation is
+reproduced in <a href="#Fig136">Fig. 136</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Leap.</b>&mdash;The leap is an act by which the body is
+wholly raised from the ground and projected upwards and
+forwards to a greater or less distance.</p>
+
+<p>It is prepared for by the flexing of the hind-limbs, which,
+by being suddenly extended, project the body, and thus
+enable it to pass over an obstacle.</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig137" id="Fig137"></a>
+<img src="images/illo326.png" alt="Fig. 137" width="500" height="229" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 137.&mdash;Leap of the Hare (after G. Colin).</p></div>
+
+<p>This preparatory arrangement is very remarkable in the
+leap of the lion, the cat, and the panther, which execute
+springs of great length; in the horse, in which the leap
+is not an habitual mode of progression, this flexion of the
+hinder limbs is less marked. With this animal the leap is
+generally associated with the gallop; nevertheless, it is
+sometimes made from a stationary position. In observing
+the hare or the rabbit, in which the leap is habitual, we
+notice (<a href="#Fig137">Fig. 137</a>) that the hind-limbs, being extremely
+flexed, rest on the ground as far as the calcaneum, are
+then straightened by the action of their extensors, become
+vertical and then oblique backwards at the moment the
+body is thrown forward into space by the sudden extension
+of these limbs.</p>
+
+<p>The action of the extensors is energetic and instantaneous,
+and their energy is greater than in ordinary progression,
+for it is required to lift the body and to project
+it forcibly a more or less considerable distance. It is
+the extreme rapidity of this action which enables the
+animal to clear an obstacle, for without this condition
+the body would be raised, but not separated from the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>First of all, in reaching the obstacle to be cleared, the
+horse prepares to leap by taking the attitude of rearing;
+the hind-limbs are flexed and carried under the body, the
+fore-quarters are raised, and the different segments of the
+fore-limbs are flexed (<a href="#Fig138">Fig. 138</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig138" id="Fig138"></a>
+<img src="images/illo327a.png" alt="Fig. 138" width="350" height="362" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 138.&mdash;The Leap.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig139" id="Fig139"></a>
+<img src="images/illo327b.png" alt="Fig. 139" width="350" height="402" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 139.&mdash;The Leap.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig140" id="Fig140"></a>
+<img src="images/illo328a.png" alt="Fig. 140" width="350" height="324" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 140.&mdash;The Leap.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig141" id="Fig141"></a>
+<img src="images/illo328b.png" alt="Fig. 141" width="350" height="269" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 141.&mdash;The Leap.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig142" id="Fig142"></a>
+<img src="images/illo330a.png" alt="Fig. 142" width="350" height="257" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 142.&mdash;The Leap.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figmed"><a name="Fig143" id="Fig143"></a>
+<img src="images/illo330b.png" alt="Fig. 143"  width="350" height="279" />
+<p class="caption center">Fig. 143.&mdash;The Leap.</p></div>
+
+<p>One sudden trigger action produced by the violent contraction
+of the extensors of the hind-legs then takes place,
+and the animal is projected forwards, while he flexes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+fore-legs more and more (<a href="#Fig139">Fig. 139</a>). He has then risen above
+the obstacle (<a href="#Fig140">Fig. 140</a>). Then while he makes the downward
+and forward balancing movement, and points his
+fore-limbs in the same direction, he flexes the hind ones<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+(<a href="#Fig141">Fig. 141</a>). Whilst the latter are further flexed, in order to pass
+the obstacle in their turn, the fore-limbs which are extended
+come into contact with the ground (<a href="#Fig142">Fig. 142</a>). Finally, in
+the last phase of the leap, the animal, raising himself in
+front, after the impact of his hind-feet has taken place
+(<a href="#Fig143">Fig. 143</a>), prepares to continue the pace at which he
+progressed before meeting the obstacle which he had to
+clear.</p>
+
+<p class="fsize125 center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;">THE END</p>
+
+<p class="fsize80 center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;"><span class="bt"><i>London:
+Bailli&egrave;re, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C.</i></span></p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></p>
+<p class="center fsize150">THE<br />
+<span class="fsize125">ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS</span></p>
+
+<div class="figlarge">
+<img src="images/illo332.png" alt="Shot lionesse" width="600" height="373" /></div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a></p>
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></p>
+<h2><a name="SectionToC" id="SectionToC"></a>SECTIONAL INDEX</h2>
+
+<table summary="Sectional Index">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left"><b>Generalities of Comparative Anatomy</b></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="center" style="padding: 1em 0;">OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>The Trunk:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 1em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Vertebral Column</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 1em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Sacrum</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Coccygeal vertebr&aelig;</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Direction and form of the vertebral column</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Thorax</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Sternum</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Ribs and costal cartilages</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>The Anterior Limbs:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Shoulder</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Scapula</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Clavicle</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Arm</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Humerus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">General view of the form of the forearm and hand</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Forearm</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Hand</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>The Anterior Limbs in Certain Animals:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Plantigrades</i>: Bear</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Digitigrades</i>: Cat, dog</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Unguligrades</i>: Pig</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Sheep, Ox</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Horse</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Proportions of the arm, the forearm, and metacarpus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Articulations of the anterior limbs</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Scapulo-humeral articulation</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Humero-ulnar articulation, or elbow</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Radio-ulnar articulation</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Articulation of the wrist</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Metacarpo-phalangeal articulations</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Interphalangeal articulations</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span><b>The Posterior Limbs:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Pelvis</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Iliac bone</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>The Thigh</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Femur</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Knee-cap</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>The Leg</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Tibia</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Fibula</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>The Foot</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>The Posterior Limbs in Some Animals:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Plantigrades</i>: Bear</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Digitigrades</i>: Cat, dog</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Unguligrades</i>: Pig</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Sheep, ox</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Horse</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Articulations of the posterior limbs</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Coxo-femoral articulation</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Femoro-tibial articulation, or knee</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Tibio-tarsal articulation, and of the bones of the tarsus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>The Head in General, and in Some Animals in Particular:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Direction of the head</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">The skull</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">The face</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">The skull of birds</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="center" style="padding: 1em 0;">MYOLOGY</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Muscles of the Trunk:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Pectoralis major</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Pectoralis minor</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Serratus magnus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Muscles of the Abdomen:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">External oblique</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Internal oblique</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Transversalis abdominis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Rectus abdominis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Pyramidalis abdominis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Muscles of the Back:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Trapezius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Latissimus dorsi</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Rhomboid</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left"><b>The Cutaneous Muscle of the Trunk</b></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>The Coccygeal Region:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Ischio-coccygeal muscle</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Superior sacro-coccygeal muscle</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>Lateral sacro-coccygeal muscle</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Inferior sacro-coccygeal muscle</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Muscles of the Neck:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Mastoido-humeralis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Sterno-mastoid</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Omo-trachelian</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Levator anguli scapul&aelig;</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Splenius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Infrahyoid Muscles:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Sterno-thyroid and sterno-hyoid</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Omo-hyoid</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Suprahyoid Muscles:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Mylo-hyoid</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Digastric</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left"><b>Panniculus of the Neck</b></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Muscles of the Anterior Limbs:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Shoulder</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Deltoid</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Subscapularis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Supraspinatus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Infraspinatus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Teres minor</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Teres major</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Panniculus muscle of the shoulder</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Arm</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Anterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="width: 1em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Biceps</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Brachialis anticus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Coraco-brachialis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Posterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Triceps</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top"><i>Supplemental or Accessory Muscle of the Latissimus Dorsi</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Forearm</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Anterior and external region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Supinator longus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">First and second external radial</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Supinator brevis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Extensor communis digitorum</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Extensor minimi digiti</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Posterior ulnar</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Anconeus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Long abductor of the thumb</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Short extensor of the thumb</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Long extensor of the thumb</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Proper extensor of the index</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>Internal and posterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Pronator teres</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Flexor carpi radialis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Palmaris longus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Anterior ulnar</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Superficial flexor of the digits</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Long proper flexor of the thumb</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Pronator quadratus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Hand</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left"><b>Muscles of the Posterior Limbs:</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Pelvis</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Gluteus medius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Gluteus maximus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Thigh</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Muscles of the posterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Biceps</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Semi-tendinosus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Semi-membranosus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Muscles of the anterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Triceps</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Tensor fascia lata</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Sartorius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Muscles of the internal region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Gracilis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Leg</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Muscles of the anterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Tibialis anticus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Extensor proprius pollicis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Extensor longus digitorum</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Peroneus tertius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Muscles of the external region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Peroneus longus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Peroneus brevis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Muscles of the posterior region</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Gastrocnemius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Soleus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Plantaris</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Popliteus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Superficial flexor of the toes</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Flexor longus digitorum</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Tibialis posticus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Flexor longus pollicis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><i>Muscles of the Foot</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Dorsalis pedis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span><i>Muscles of the Head</i></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Masticatory muscles</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Masseter</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Temporal muscle</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top">Cutaneous muscles of the head</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Occipito-frontalis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Orbicularis palpebrarum</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Pyramidalis nasi</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Corrugator supercilii</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Zygomaticus major</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Zygomaticus minor</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Levator labii superioris proprius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Levator labii superioris al&aelig;que nasi</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Transversus nasi</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Caninus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Orbicularis oris</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Triangularis oris</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Quadratus menti</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Prominence of the chin</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Buccinator</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl2">Maxillo-labialis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Zygomatico-auricularis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Temporo-auricularis externus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Scuto-auricularis externus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Cervico-auricular muscles</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Cervico-auricularis superioris</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Cervico-auricularis medius</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Cervico-auricularis inferioris</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Parotido-auricularis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Temporo-auricularis internus</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top">Zygomatico-auricularis</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr style="margin-top: 2em;">
+<td colspan="5" class="center" style="padding: 1em 0;">EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE TERMINAL
+EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Claws</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Plantar tubercles</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Hoofs of the solipeds</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Hoofs of ox and pig</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="center"><hr class="c05" style="margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em;"/></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Proportions</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Proportions of head of horse</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">(front view)</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4" class="left top">Paces of the horse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Amble</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Trot</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Walk</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Gallop</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="left top">Leap</td>
+<td class="right bot"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<h2>ERRATA</h2>
+
+<p>P. 105, <i>Articulations</i> of the Posterior Limbs.</p>
+
+<p>P. 107, Tibio-tarsal <i>Articulation</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="fsize125 center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;">THE END</p>
+
+<p class="fsize80 center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;"><span class="bt"><i>London:
+Bailli&egrave;re, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C.</i></span></p>
+
+<div class="bbox" style="padding: 1em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>
+<h2>Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:</h2>
+<ul style="text-align: justify;">
+  <li>Footnotes have been moved to underneath the paragraph, table or illustration they refer to.</li>
+  <li>Illustrations have been moved so as to not disrupt the flow of the text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations and in
+      references are therefore not always correct. The hyperlinks point directly to the illustrations, and page numbers in references to
+      illustrations have not been hyperlinked.</li>
+  <li>The Table of Contents and the Sectional Index are not complete and contain slightly different wording than the names of sections in
+      the text. This has been left as in the original work.</li>
+  <li>The Errata have already been changed in the text.</li>
+  <li>Terms such as natural size are not valid for this e-text.</li>
+  <li>Depending on the browser used an its setting, not all characters may be display correctly.</li>
+  <li>The author uses the terms chromophotograph and chronophotograph (and derivations of these words); these words have not been changed.
+      The correct term in these cases is chronophotograph.</li>
+  <li>Page 143, Fig. 69: atlas is mentioned twice (nrs. 12 and 13); only nr. 13 indicates the atlas.</li>
+  <li>The text used is that of the original work, including inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation and lay-out, and differences between
+      main text, footnotes and captions, except when mentioned below.</li>
+  <li>Changes made to the text:
+  <ul style="text-align: justify;">
+      <li>Some minor obvious typographical errors have been corrected silently.</li>
+      <li>Periods have been removed from some section headings for consistency.</li>
+      <li>Page 2, footnote [2]: Mathias-Duval changed to Mathias Duval (full name: Mathias-Marie Duval).</li>
+      <li>Page 23: <i>see</i> replaced with see for consistency.</li>
+      <li>Page 44 (footnote): Edward Cuyer changed to &Eacute;douard Cuyer as elsewhere.</li>
+      <li>Page 53, sub-captions (2x): AA<sup>1</sup> changed to AA&#8242; as in drawing and text</li>
+      <li>Page 120, Fig. 63: 14&#8242; is malar bone, 14 is anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal foss&aelig; (see previous
+          figures).</li>
+      <li>Page 140, Fig. 61: 0 changed to 20.</li>
+      <li>Page 216: tendo-Achilles changed to tendo-Achillis as elsewhere.</li>
+      <li>Page 234: Fig. 0, 92 changed to Fig. 90, 2.</li>
+      <li>Page 250, Fig. 95: nr. 2 added to drawing.</li>
+      <li>Page 269, last paragraph: one anchor to same footnote deleted.</li>
+      <li>Page 277, Fig. 98: epternal changed to external.</li>
+      <li>Page 325: L, D, L&#8217;, D&#8217; changed to L, D, L&#8242;, D&#8242;</li>
+      <li>Footnotes 13, 17: La Natura changed to La Nature</li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+</body>
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo306.png b/38315-h/images/illo306.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo309.png b/38315-h/images/illo309.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo311.png b/38315-h/images/illo311.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo312a.png b/38315-h/images/illo312a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo312b.png b/38315-h/images/illo312b.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo314.png b/38315-h/images/illo314.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo315.png b/38315-h/images/illo315.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo316.png b/38315-h/images/illo316.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo317.png b/38315-h/images/illo317.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo318.png b/38315-h/images/illo318.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo319.png b/38315-h/images/illo319.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo320a.png b/38315-h/images/illo320a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo320b.png b/38315-h/images/illo320b.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo321.png b/38315-h/images/illo321.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo322a.png b/38315-h/images/illo322a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo322b.png b/38315-h/images/illo322b.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo323a.png b/38315-h/images/illo323a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo323b.png b/38315-h/images/illo323b.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo324a.png b/38315-h/images/illo324a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo324b.png b/38315-h/images/illo324b.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo325a.png b/38315-h/images/illo325a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo326.png b/38315-h/images/illo326.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/illo327a.png b/38315-h/images/illo327a.png
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diff --git a/38315-h/images/title.png b/38315-h/images/title.png
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