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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6 + "Groups, Theory of" to "Gwyniad" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 14, 2011 [EBook #38304] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Groups, Theory of to Gwyniad</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GROUPS, THEORY OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GROUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GUIDO OF AREZZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GROVE, SIR GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GUIDO OF SIENA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GUIDO RENI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GROVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GUIENNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GROZNYI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GRUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GUILBERT, YVETTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GUILDFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GUILDHALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GRUMENTUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GRÜN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GUILFORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GRÜNBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GUILLAUME DE LORRIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GRUNDY, SYDNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GUILLAUME DE PALERME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GRUNDY, MRS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GUILLAUME D’ORANGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GUILLEMOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GUILLOCHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GRUTER, JAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GRUYÈRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GUILLOTINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GRYNAEUS, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GUILT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GRYNAEUS, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GUIMARÃES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GUACHARO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GUACO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GUINEA</a> (Africa)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GUADALAJARA</a> (city of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GUINEA</a> (gold coin)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GUADALAJARA</a> (province of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GUINEA FOWL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GUADALAJARA</a> (city of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GUINEA-WORM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GUADALQUIVIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GÜINES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GUADELOUPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GUINGAMP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GUINNESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GUADIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GUINOBATAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GUADIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GUIPÚZCOA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GUADUAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GUIRAUD, ERNEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GUAIACUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GUISBOROUGH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GUALDO TADINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GUISE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GUALEGUAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GUISE, HOUSE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GUALEGUAYCHÚ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GUITAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GUALO, CARDINAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GUITAR FIDDLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GUAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GUANABACOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GUJARAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GUANACO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GUANAJAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GUJRANWALA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GUANAJUATO</a> (state of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GUJRAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GUANAJUATO</a> (city of Mexico)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GULA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GUANCHES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GULBARGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GUANIDINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GULF STREAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GUANO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GULFWEED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GUANTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GUANTÁNAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GULL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GUARANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GULLY, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GUARANIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GULPÁÏGÁN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GUARANTEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GUARATINGUETÁ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GUARDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GUMBINNEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GUARDI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GUMBO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GUARDIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GUMTI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GUMULJINA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GUARD-SHIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GUMUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GUÁRICO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">GÜMÜSH-KHANEH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GUARIENTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GUN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GUNA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GUNCOTTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GUARINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">GUNDULICH, IVAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GUNG’L, JOSEF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GUARNIERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GUNNER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GUASTALLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GUNNING, PETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GUATEMALA</a> (republic)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GUNNY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GUATEMALA</a> (city of Guatemala)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GUNPOWDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GUATOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GUNPOWDER PLOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GUATUSOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GUN-ROOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GUAVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GUNTER, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GUAYAMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GUAYAQUIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GUAYAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">GUNTRAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GUAYCURUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GUNTUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GUAYMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GUPTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GUBBIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GURA, EUGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GUBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GURDASPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GURGAON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GUDBRANDSDAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GURKHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GUDE, MARQUARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GURNALL, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GUDEMAN, ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GURNARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GUDGEON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GURNEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GUDRUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GURNEY, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GURWOOD, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GUELDER ROSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GUSLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GUELPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GUENEVERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GUSTAVUS III.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GUENON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GUSTAVUS IV.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GUÉRET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GUSTAVUS V.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GUEREZA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GÜSTROW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GUERICKE, OTTO VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GUTENBERG, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GUÉRIDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GÜTERSLOH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GUTHRIE, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GUERNIERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GUTHRIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GUERNSEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GUTHRUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GUTSCHMID, ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GUERRERO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GUERRILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">GUTTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GUERRINI, OLINDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">GUTTA PERCHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GUESDE, JULES BASILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">GUTTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GUEST, EDWIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GUEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">GUY OF WARWICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GUEUX, LES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">GUY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GUGLIELMI, PIETRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GUIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">GUYOT, YVES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GUIART, GUILLAUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GUIBERT</a> (of Ravenna)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">GUZMICS, IZIDÓR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GUIBERT</a> (of Nogent)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">GWADAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">GWALIOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">GWEEDORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">GWILT, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">GWYN, NELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GUIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">GWYNIAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GROUPS,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <b>THEORY OF.</b> The conception of an operation +to be carried out on some object or set of objects underlies all +mathematical science. Thus in elementary arithmetic there are +the fundamental operations of the addition and the multiplication +of integers; in algebra a linear transformation is an operation +which may be carried out on any set of variables; while in +geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective transformation +are operations which may be carried out on any figure.</p> + +<p>In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to +which it may be applied is postulated; and the operation may, +and generally will, have no meaning except in regard to such a +set of objects. If two operations, which can be performed on +the same set of objects, are such that, when carried out in +succession on any possible object, the result, whichever operation +is performed first, is to produce no change in the object, then +each of the operations is spoken of as a <i>definite</i> operation, and +each of them is called the <i>inverse</i> of the other. Thus the operations +which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n respectively, +in any rational function of x, are definite inverse operations, +if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary, the +operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational +function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a +unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique +inverse operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that +the question whether an operation is a definite operation or no +may depend on the range of the objects on which it operates. +For example, the operations of squaring and extracting the +square root are definite inverse operations if the objects are +restricted to be real positive numbers, but not otherwise.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>If O, O′, O″, ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite +operation S and its inverse S′ may be carried out, and if the result of +carrying out S on O is represented by O·S, then O·S·S′, O·S′·S, and +O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This +will be represented by the equations SS′ = S′S = 1. Now O·S·S′ has +a meaning only if O·S is an object on which S′ may be performed. +Hence whatever object of the set O may be, both O·S and O·S′ +belong to the set. Similarly O·S·S, O·S·S·S, ... are objects of the +set. These will be represented by O·S<span class="sp">2</span>, O·S<span class="sp">3</span>, ... Suppose now +that T is another definite operation with the same set of objects as +S, and that T′ is its inverse operation. Then O·S·T is a definite +operation of the set, and therefore the result of carrying out S and +then T on the set of objects is some operation U with a unique result. +Represent by U′ the result of carrying out T′ and then S′. Then +O·UU′ = O·S·T·T′·S′ = O·SS′ = O, and O·U′U = O·T′·S′·S·T += O·T′T = O, whatever object O may be. Hence UU′ = U′U = 1; +and U, U′ are definite inverse operations.</p> + +<p>If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S′ is the inverse of S, then</p> + +<p class="center">SU = SV</p> +<p class="noind">implies</p> +<p class="center">S′SU = S′SV,</p> +<p class="noind">or</p> +<p class="center">U = V.</p> +<p class="noind">Similarly</p> +<p class="center">US = VS</p> +<p class="noind">implies</p> +<p class="center">U = V.</p> + +<p>Let S, T, U, ... be a set of definite operations, capable of being +<span class="sidenote">Definition of a group.</span> +carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let +the set contain—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations +of the set;</p> + +<p>(ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set; +the set of operations is then called a group.</p> +</div> + +<p>The number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite. +When it is finite, the number is called the <i>order</i> of the group, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +and the group is spoken of as a <i>group of finite order</i>. If the number +of operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the +group is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the specification +of an individual operation a number of measurements will +be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be +specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these +parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a +<i>discontinuous group</i>. If all the parameters are capable of continuous +variation, the group is called a <i>continuous group</i>. If some of the +parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the +group is called a <i>mixed group</i>.</p> + +<p>If S′ is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must +contain SS′, which produces no change on any possible object. +This is called the <i>identical operation</i>, and will always be represented +by I. Since S<span class="sp">p</span>S<span class="sp">q</span> = S<span class="sp">p+q</span> when p and q are positive integers, and +S<span class="sp">p</span>S′ = S<span class="sp">p−1</span> while no meaning at present has been attached to S<span class="sp">q</span> +when q is negative, S′ may be consistently represented by S<span class="sp">−1</span>. The +set of operations ..., S<span class="sp">−2</span>, S<span class="sp">−1</span>, 1, S, S<span class="sp">2</span>, ... obviously constitute a +group. Such a group is called a <i>cyclical</i> group.</p> + +<p>It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the +general group idea, to add a number of further definitions and explanations +which apply to all groups alike. If from among +the set of operations S, T, U, ... which constitute a group +<span class="sidenote">Subgroups, conjugate operations, isomorphism, &c.</span> +G, a smaller set S′, T′, U′, ... can be chosen which themselves +constitute a group H, the group H is called a <i>subgroup</i> +of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of G, +the cyclical group constituted by ..., S<span class="sp">−2</span>, S<span class="sp">−1</span>, 1, S, S<span class="sp">2</span>, ... is +a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides with +G itself.</p> + +<p>If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and +T<span class="sp">-1</span>ST are called <i>conjugate</i> operations, and T<span class="sp">−1</span>ST is spoken of as the +result of <i>transforming</i> S by T. It is to be noted that since ST = +T<span class="sp">−1</span>, TS, T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any group +containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is, if +S = T<span class="sp">−1</span>ST or TS = ST, S and T are called <i>permutable</i> operations. A +group whose operations are all permutable with each other is called +an <i>Abelian</i> group. If S is transformed into itself by every operation +of G, or, in other words, if it is permutable with every operation of G, +it is called a <i>self-conjugate</i> operation of G.</p> + +<p>The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is +extended to subgroups. If S′, T′, U′, ... are the operations of a +subgroup H, and if R is any operation of G, then the operations +R<span class="sp">−1</span>S′R, R<span class="sp">−1</span>T′R, R<span class="sp">−1</span>U′R, ... belong to G, and constitute a subgroup +of G. For if S′T′ = U′, then R<span class="sp">−1</span>S′R·R<span class="sp">−1</span>T′R = R<span class="sp">−1</span>S′T′R = +R<span class="sp">−1</span>U′R. This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular, +it is necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical +with H, it is said to be <i>conjugate</i> to H; and it is in any case represented +by the symbol R<span class="sp">−1</span>HR. If H = R<span class="sp">−1</span>HR, the operation R is +said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed that +this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of H.)</p> + +<p>If H = R<span class="sp">−1</span>HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations +of G, then H is called a <i>self-conjugate</i> subgroup of G.</p> + +<p>A group is spoken of as <i>simple</i> when it has no self-conjugate +subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation +alone. A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called +<i>composite</i>.</p> + +<p>Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, ..., and g +a second group constituted of s, t, u, ..., and suppose that to each +operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a +way that if ST = U, then <i>st</i> = u, where s, t, u are the operations +corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to +be <i>isomorphic</i>, and the correspondence between their operations is +spoken of as an <i>isomorphism</i> between the groups. It is clear that +there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single +operation of g there may correspond either a single operation of G +or more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as +<i>simple</i>, in the second as <i>multiple</i>.</p> + +<p>Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly—that is to +say, in regard only to the way in which their operations combine +among themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of +the operations—are clearly indistinguishable.</p> + +<p>If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, ... be the operations +of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to +the operations A<span class="sp">−1</span> and AB of G there corresponds the identical +operation of g; so that A, B, C, ... constitute a subgroup H of G. +Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical operation of g +corresponds to every operation of R<span class="sp">-1</span>HR, and therefore H is a self-conjugate +subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every operation +of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every operation of +the set SA, SB, SC, ..., which is represented by SH, corresponds to s. +Also these are the only operations that correspond to s. The operations +of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two of which contain +a common operation, such that the correspondence between the +operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH, UH, ... with +the single operations 1, s, t, u, ... written below them. The sets +into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among +themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if +<i>st</i> = u, then SH·TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set +SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the +set UH.</p> + +<p>The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined +by the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the self-conjugate +subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as the +<i>factor-group</i> of G in respect of H, and is represented by the symbol +G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a +factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate subgroups.</p> + +<p>It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be +possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation +of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set +and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations +belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is called a +set of <i>independent generating</i> operations. Such a set of generating +operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If A, B, ..., E +are the generating operations of a group, the group generated by +them is represented by the symbol {A, B, ..., E}. An obvious +extension of this symbol is used such that {A, H} represents the group +generated by combining an operation A with every operation of a +group H; {H<span class="su">1</span>, H<span class="su">2</span>} represents the group obtained by combining in all +possible ways the operations of the groups H<span class="su">1</span> and H<span class="su">2</span>; and so on. +The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to +certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is +impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one +operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation +conditioning the group {A, B}; it does not, however, enable A to be +expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating +operations.</p> + +<p>Let O, O′, O″, ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among +themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any operation +of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O·S +is an object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an +<span class="sidenote">Transitivity and primitivity.</span> +operation S of the group such that O·S is any assigned one +of the set of objects, the group is called <i>transitive</i> in respect +of this set of objects. When this is not possible the group +is called <i>intransitive</i> in respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so +that any arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, O<span class="su">1</span>, O<span class="su">2</span>, ..., O<span class="su">n</span> are +changed by S into O′<span class="su">1</span>, O′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., O′<span class="su">n</span> respectively, the latter being also +arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive.</p> + +<p>If O, O′, O″, ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G is +transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of +subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every +operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset +among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other +subset. When this is the case the group is called <i>imprimitive</i> in +respect of the set; otherwise the group is called <i>primitive</i>. A group +which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously +cannot be imprimitive.</p> + +<p>The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be +illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin +with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar +nature, the group of rational arithmetic may be considered. +<span class="sidenote">Illustrations of the group idea.</span> +The fundamental operations of elementary arithmetic +consist in the addition and subtraction of integers, and +multiplication and division by integers, division by zero +alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a definite operation, +and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with those operations of +elementary arithmetic which form a group. The operation that +results from carrying out additions, subtractions, multiplications and +divisions, of and by integers a finite number of times, is represented +by the relation x′ = ax + b, where a and b are rational numbers of which +a is not zero, x is the object of the operation, and x′ is the result. +The totality of operations of this form obviously constitutes a group.</p> + +<p>If S and T represent respectively the operations x′ = ax + b and +x′ = cx + d, then T<span class="sp">−1</span>ST represents x′ = ax + d − ad + bc. When a and b +are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite +number of ways as rational numbers, so that d − ad + bc shall be any +assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x′ = ax + b, +where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number, +are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the a’s are +different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the identical +operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity and b +different from zero, the operation x′ = x + b is an addition. The +totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of operations. +Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical operation, +<i>i.e.</i> the totality of operations of the form x′ = x + b, where b may +be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a group. The +operations of this group are interchanged among themselves when +transformed by any operation of the original group. It is therefore +a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group.</p> + +<p>The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, <i>i.e.</i> all +operations of the form x′ = ax, where a is any rational number other +than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however, is not +a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if the +operations x′ = ax are all transformed by x′ = cx + d, they give rise +to the set x′ = ax + d(1 − a). When d is a given rational number, the +set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of multiplications. +It is to be noticed that the operations of this latter subgroup +may be written in the form x′ − d = a(x − d).</p> + +<p>The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of +objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations +of the group.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span></p> + +<p>If x<span class="su">1</span> and x<span class="su">2</span> are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y<span class="su">1</span> and y<span class="su">2</span> +any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes +x<span class="su">1</span> and x<span class="su">2</span> into y<span class="su">1</span> and y<span class="su">2</span> respectively. For the equations y<span class="su">1</span> = ax<span class="su">1</span> + b, +y<span class="su">1</span> = ax<span class="su">2</span> + b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore +doubly transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is +the subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x<span class="su">1</span>, +and S an operation changing x<span class="su">1</span> into x<span class="su">2</span>, then every operation of +S<span class="sp">−1</span>HS leaves x<span class="su">2</span> unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a +single rational number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate +set. The group of multiplications leaves zero unchanged; and, as +has been seen, this is conjugate with the subgroup formed of all +operations x′ − d = a(x − d), where d is a given rational number. +This subgroup leaves d unchanged.</p> + +<p>The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations +x′ = px, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn. +Every addition is obtained on transforming x′ = x + 1 by the different +operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x′ = x + 1, and +x′ = px, (p = −1, 3, 5, 7, ...), form a set of independent generating +operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group.</p> + +<p>As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional +space will be considered. The totality of motions, <i>i.e.</i> of space +displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points +unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satisfies +the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is +known that every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no +point unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into +itself; or (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered +and changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves +no point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded +as a translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis. +Let S be any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation +a round a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line +CD into which T changes AB; and therefore T<span class="sp">−1</span>ST leaves CD unchanged. +Moreover, T<span class="sp">-1</span>ST clearly effects the same translation along +and rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, therefore, +are conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation +and rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all +translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all rotations +of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with each +other, and give when combined another translation. The totality +of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general group +of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup, since a +translation is always conjugate to a translation.</p> + +<p>All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are interchanged +among themselves by all operations of the group of motions. +So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In respect of each +of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact, there is an +infinite number of motions which change a point A to A′, but no +motion can change A and B to A′ and B′ respectively unless the +distance AB is equal to the distance A′B′.</p> + +<p>The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a +subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about all +possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations about +a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about some +axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group of +motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic +with the group of rotations about a point.</p> + +<p>The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence +with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions. +This will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical +operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more +extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups +are those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered. +For a solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one +of finite order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there +corresponds such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its +order, for the cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or +dodecahedron) 60.</p> + +<p>The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions +involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis +of the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis, +and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six +quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of +motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a subgroup +of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered +is a mixed group.</p> +</div> + +<p>We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous +groups whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order. +For proofs of the statements, and the general theorems, the +reader is referred to the bibliography.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Continuous Groups.</i></p> + +<p>The determination of a particular operation of a given continuous +group depends on assigning special values to each one +of a set of parameters which are capable of continuous variation. +The first distinction regards the number of these parameters. +If this number is finite, the group is called a <i>finite</i> continuous +group; if infinite, it is called an <i>infinite</i> continuous group. +In the latter case arbitrary functions must appear in the equations +defining the operations of the group when these are reduced to +an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous groups +is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous +groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here.</p> + +<p>Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the +development of the theory of continuous groups are due, undoubtedly +approached the subject from a geometrical standpoint. +His conception of an operation is to regard it as a geometrical +transformation, by means of which each point of (<i>n</i>-dimensional) +space is changed into some other definite point.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The representation of such a transformation in analytical form +involves a system of equations,</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p> + +<p class="noind">expressing x′<span class="su">1</span>, x′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x′<span class="su">n</span>, the co-ordinates of the transformed point +in terms of x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>, the co-ordinates of the original point. +In these equations the functions ƒ<span class="su">s</span> are analytical functions of their +arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be one-valued, +and the equations must admit a unique solution with respect +to x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>, since the operation would not otherwise be a +definite one.</p> + +<p>From this point of view the operations of a continuous group, +which depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically +by a system of equations of the form</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span>(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p> +<div class="author">(i.)</div> + +<p class="noind">where a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> represent the parameters. If this operation be +represented by A, and that in which b<span class="su">1</span>, b<span class="su">2</span>, ..., b<span class="su">r</span> are the parameters +by B, then the operation AB is represented by the elimination +(assumed to be possible) of x′<span class="su">1</span>, x′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x′<span class="su">n</span> between the equations (i.) +and the equations</p> + +<p class="center">x″<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span> (x′<span class="su">1</span>, x′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x′<span class="su">n</span>; b<span class="su">1</span>, b<span class="su">2</span>, ..., b<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n).</p> + +<p class="noind">Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be</p> + +<p class="center">x″<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, ..., c<span class="su">r</span>),</p> + +<p class="noind">where c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, ..., c<span class="su">r</span> represent another definite set of values of the +parameters. Moreover, since A<span class="sp">−1</span> belongs to the group, the result +of solving equations (i.) with respect to x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span> must be</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span> (x′<span class="su">1</span>, x′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x′<span class="su">n</span>; d<span class="su">1</span>, d<span class="su">2</span>, ..., d<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n).</p> + +<p class="noind">Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are +satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group.</p> + +<p>It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations +(i.) are independent, <i>i.e.</i> that it is impossible to choose +r′ (< r) quantities in terms of which a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> can +<span class="sidenote">Infinitesimal operation of a continuous group.</span> +be expressed. Where this is the case the group will +be spoken of as a “group of order r.” Lie uses the +term “<i>r-gliedrige Gruppe</i>.” It is to be noticed that the +word order is used in quite a different sense from that +given to it in connexion with groups of finite order.</p> + +<p>In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of +the group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the +identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of +values of the parameters reduce to x′<span class="su">1</span> = x<span class="su">1</span>, x′<span class="su">2</span> = x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x′<span class="su">n</span> = x<span class="su">n</span>. +This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to be +simultaneous zero values. For if i<span class="su">1</span>, i<span class="su">2</span>, ..., i<span class="su">r</span> be the values of the +parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write</p> + +<p class="center">a<span class="su">s</span> = i<span class="su">s</span> + a, (s = 1, 2, ..., r),</p> + +<p class="noind">then zero values of the new parameters a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> give the identical +operation.</p> + +<p>To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will correspond +operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of the +variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most +general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the +system</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x′<span class="su">s</span> − x<span class="su">s</span> = δx<span class="su">s</span> =</td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">δa<span class="su">1</span> +</td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">δa<span class="su">2</span> + ... +</td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">δa<span class="su">r</span>, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">r</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where, in ∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span>/∂a<span class="su">i</span>, zero values of the parameters are to be taken. Since +a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> are independent, the ratios of δa<span class="su">1</span>, δa<span class="su">2</span>, ..., δa<span class="su">r</span> are +arbitrary. Hence the most general infinitesimal operation of the +group may be written in the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">δx<span class="su">s</span> = <span class="f150">(</span> e<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">+ e<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... + e<span class="su">r</span></td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> δt, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">r</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">2</span>, ..., e<span class="su">r</span> are arbitrary constants, and δt is an infinitesimal.</p> + +<p>If F(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>) is any function of the variables, and if an +infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables in +F, the resulting increment of F will be</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>∂F </td> +<td rowspan="2">δx<span class="su">1</span> +</td> <td>∂F </td> +<td rowspan="2">δx<span class="su">2</span> + ... +</td> <td>∂F </td> +<td rowspan="2">δx<span class="su">n</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>If the differential operator</p> + + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>∂ƒ<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... +</td> <td>∂ƒ<span class="su">n</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>∂</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">i</span></td> <td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">i</span></td> <td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">i</span></td> <td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span></p> + +<p class="noind">be represented by X<span class="su">i</span>, (i = 1, 2, ..., r), then the increment of F is +given by</p> + +<p class="center">(e<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span> + e<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span> + ... + e<span class="su">r</span>X<span class="su">r</span>) Fδt.</p> + +<p class="noind">When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group +are given, the coefficients ∂ƒ<span class="su">s</span>/∂a<span class="su">i</span>, which enter in these differential +operators are functions of the variables which can be directly calculated.</p> + +<p>The differential operator e<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span> + e<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span> + ... + e<span class="su">r</span>X<span class="su">r</span> may then be +regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the +group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then +(1 + δtX)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation on +F; and by putting x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span> in turn for F, the actual infinitesimal +operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though perhaps +hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is itself +spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group. The +sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made +clear by the foregoing explanations.</p> + +<p>We suppose now that the constants e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">2</span>, ..., e<span class="su">r</span> have assigned +values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal +operation e<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span> + e<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span> + ... + e<span class="su">r</span>X<span class="su">r</span> or X an infinite number of times +is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite operation +on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if δt is the infinitesimal +already introduced, then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dF</td> +<td rowspan="2">= X·F,</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>F</td> +<td rowspan="2">= X·X·F, ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Hence</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F′ = F + t</td> <td>dF</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>F</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">1·2</td> <td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= F + tX·F +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">X·X·F + ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical representation +of the effect of the finite operation on F it is implied that t is +taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence of the (in general) +infinite series.</p> + +<p>When x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ... are written in turn for F, the system of equations</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x′<span class="su">s</span> = (1 + tX +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">X·X + ...)x<span class="su">s</span>, (s = 1, 2, ..., n)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(ii.)</div> + +<p class="noind">represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a +parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a +group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal +operation. That this is really the case results immediately from +noticing that the result of eliminating F′ between</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F′ = F + tX·F +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">X·X·F + ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F″ = F′ + t′X·F′ +</td> <td>t′<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">X·X·F′ + ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F″ = F + (t + t′) X·F +</td> <td>(t + t′)<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">X·X·F + ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal +operation is called a <i>cyclical</i> group; so that a continuous group +contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its infinitesimal +operations.</p> + +<p class="noind">The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group +whatever the constants e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">2</span>, ..., e<span class="su">r</span> may be. Hence if e<span class="su">1</span>t, e<span class="su">2</span>t, ..., e<span class="su">r</span>t +be replaced by a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span> the equations (ii.) represent a set of +operations, depending on r parameters and belonging to the group. +They must therefore be a form of the general equations for any +operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations (i.). +The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group, when +the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will always +depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary differential +equations. As a very simple example we may consider the case in +which the infinitesimal operation is given by X = x<span class="sp">2</span>∂/∂x, so that there +is only a single variable. The relation between x′ and t is given by +dx′/dt = x′<span class="sp">2</span>, with the condition that x′ = x when t = 0. This gives at +once x′ = x/(1 − tx), which might also be obtained by the direct use of +(ii.).</p> + +<p>When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are +known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which +defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the +group can be directly constructed, and that it contains r +<span class="sidenote">Relations between the infinitesimal operations of a finite continuous group.</span> +arbitrary constants. This is equivalent to saying that +the group contains r linearly independent infinitesimal +operations; and that the most general infinitesimal +operation is obtained by combining these linearly with +constant coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent +infinitesimal operations of the group are known, it has +been seen how the general finite operation of the group +may be calculated. This obviously suggests that it must be possible +to define the group by means of its infinitesimal operations alone; +and it is clear that such a definition would lend itself more readily to +some applications (for instance, to the theory of differential equations) +than the definition by means of the finite equations.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators +will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order r; +and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of operators +must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the independent +infinitesimal operations of such a group.</p> + +<p>If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY − YX is also a +linear differential operator. It is called the “combinant” of X and +Y (Lie uses the expression <i>Klammerausdruck</i>) and is denoted by +(XY). If X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the +identity (known as Jacobi’s)</p> + +<p class="center">(X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX)) + (Z(XY)) = 0</p> + +<p class="noind">holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous +group of which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY) +among its infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent +operations X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> give rise to a finite continuous group of +order r, the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in +terms of the r operations themselves: that is, there must be a system +of relations</p> + +<p class="center">(X<span class="su">i</span>X<span class="su">j</span>) = <span class="f150">Σ</span><span class="sp1">k=r</span><span class="su1">k=1</span> c<span class="su">ijk</span> X<span class="su">k</span>,</p> + +<p class="noind">where the c’s are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi’s identity and the +identity (XY) + (YX) = 0 it follows that the c’s are subject to the +relations</p> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<p class="center">c<span class="su">ijt</span> + c<span class="su">jit</span> = 0,<br /> + +Σ<span class="su2">s</span> (c<span class="su">jks</span> c<span class="su">ist</span> + c<span class="su">kis</span> c<span class="su">jst</span> + c<span class="su">ijs</span> c<span class="su">kst</span>) = 0</p> +<div class="author">(iii.)</div> + +<p class="noind">for all values of i, j, k and t.</p> + +<p>The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups +is now that these conditions, which are necessary in order +<span class="sidenote">Determination of the distinct types of continuous groups of a given order.</span> +that X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> may generate, as infinitesimal +operations, a continuous group of order r, are also +sufficient.</p> + +<p>For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie’s +works (cf. Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; iii. chap. 25).</p> + +<p>If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for +each, a set of linearly independent infinitesimal operations +X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> and Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., Y<span class="su">r</span> can be chosen, so +that in the relations</p> + +<p class="center">(X<span class="su">i</span>X<span class="su">j</span>) = Σc<span class="su">ijs</span> X<span class="su">s</span>, (Y<span class="su">i</span>Y<span class="su">j</span>) = Σ d<span class="su">ijs</span> Y<span class="su">s</span>,</p> + +<p class="noind">the constants c<span class="su">ijs</span> and d<span class="su">ijs</span> are the same for all values of i, j and s, the +two groups are simply isomorphic, X<span class="su">s</span> and Y<span class="su">s</span> being corresponding +infinitesimal operations.</p> + +<p>Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations +obey the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different +<i>form</i>; for instance, the number of variables for the one may be +different from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of +the same <i>type</i>, in the sense that the laws according to which their +operations combine are the same for both.</p> + +<p>The problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r +is then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the +systems of r<span class="sp">3</span> quantities c<span class="su">ijs</span> which satisfy the relations</p> + +<p class="center">c<span class="su">ijt</span> + c<span class="su">ijt</span> = 0,<br /> + +Σ<span class="su2">s</span> c<span class="su">ijs</span> c<span class="su">skt</span> + c<span class="su">jks</span> c<span class="su">sit</span> + c<span class="su">kis</span> c<span class="su">sjt</span> = 0.</p> + +<p class="noind">for all values of i, j, k and t. To two distinct solutions of the algebraical +problem, however, two distinct types of group will not +necessarily correspond. In fact, X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> may be replaced by +any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c’s will +then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r<span class="sp">2</span> independent +parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group +considered.</p> + +<p>For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group, +which has been called cyclical.</p> + +<p>For a group of order two there is a single relation</p> + +<p class="center">(X<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) = αX<span class="su">1</span> + βX<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p>If α and β are not both zero, let α be finite. The relation may then +be written (αX<span class="su">1</span> + βX<span class="su">2</span>, α<span class="sp">−1</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) = αX<span class="su">1</span> + βX<span class="su">2</span>. Hence if αX<span class="su">1</span> + βX<span class="su">2</span> = X′<span class="su">1</span>, +and α<span class="sp">−1</span>X<span class="su">2</span> = X′<span class="su">2</span>, then (X′<span class="su">1</span>X′<span class="su">2</span>) = X′<span class="su">1</span>. There are, therefore, just two +types of group of order two, the one given by the relation last written, +and the other by (X<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) = 0.</p> + +<p>Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of +orders three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term +which will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf. +Lie-Engel, +iii. 713-744).</p> + +<p>A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given +<span class="sidenote">Self-conjugate subgroups. Integrable groups.</span> +continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate +subgroups which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal +operation of a group, and Y any other, the general form +of the infinitesimal operations which are conjugate to X is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">X + t(XY) +</td> <td>t<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">((XY)Y) + ....</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1·2</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must +therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y), ..., +where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in turn. +Hence if X′<span class="su">1</span>, X′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X′<span class="su">s</span> are s linearly independent operations of +the group which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of order s, then +for <i>every</i> infinitesimal operation Y of the group relations of the form</p> + +<p class="center">(X′<span class="su">i</span>Y) = Σ<span class="sp1">e=s</span><span class="su1">e=1</span> a<span class="su">ie</span> X′<span class="su">e</span>, (i = 1, 2, ..., s)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span></p> + +<p>must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is satisfied, +X′<span class="su">1</span>, X′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X′<span class="su">s</span> generate a subgroup of order s, which contains +every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal generating +operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup.</p> + +<p>A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated +by the combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations. That +these generate a self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations +(iii.). In fact,</p> + +<p class="center">((X<span class="su">i</span>X<span class="su">j</span>) X<span class="su">k</span>) = Σ<span class="su2">s</span> c<span class="su">ijs</span> (X<span class="su">s</span>X<span class="su">k</span>).</p> + +<p class="noind">Of the ½r(r − 1) combinants not more than r can be linearly independent. +When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the self-conjugate +group generated by them coincides with the original group. +If the number that are linearly independent is less than r, the self-conjugate +subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; <i>i.e.</i> +its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is +known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group <i>perfect</i> when +it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains +no self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a perfect +group.</p> + +<p>If G is a given continuous group, G<span class="su">1</span> the derived group of G, G<span class="su">2</span> +that of G<span class="su">1</span>, and so on, the series of groups G, G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">2</span>, ... will terminate +either with the identical operation or with a perfect group; for the +order of G<span class="su">s+1</span> is less than that of G<span class="su">s</span> unless G<span class="su">s</span> is a perfect group. +When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is said +to be an <i>integrable</i> group; in the contrary case G is called <i>non-integrable</i>.</p> + +<p>If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal operations +X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r</span> which generate the group may be chosen so +that X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r1</span>, (r<span class="su">1</span> < r) generate the first derived group, +X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ..., X<span class="su">r2</span>, (r<span class="su">2</span> < r<span class="su">1</span>) the second derived group, and so on. +When they are so chosen the constants c<span class="su">ijs</span> are clearly such that if +r<span class="su">p</span> < i ≤ r<span class="su">p+1</span>, r<span class="su">q</span> < j ≤ r<span class="su">q+1</span>, p ≥ q, then c<span class="su">ijs</span> vanishes unless s ≤ r<span class="su">p+1</span>.</p> + +<p>In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that c<span class="su">ijs</span> +vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two +numbers i, j; and conversely, if the c’s satisfy these relations, the +group is integrable.</p> + +<p>A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-conjugate +subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination +<span class="sidenote">Simple groups.</span> +of all distinct types of simple continuous groups has been +made, for in the case of discontinuous groups and groups +of finite order this is far from being the case. Lie has +demonstrated the existence of four great classes of simple groups:—</p> + +<p>(i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective +group in space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically +as the totality of the transformations of the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x′<span class="su">s</span> =</td> <td>a<span class="su">s</span>, <span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">s</span>, <span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">s</span>, <span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">n</span> + a<span class="su">s, n + 1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">a<span class="su">n+1</span>, <span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">n+1</span>, <span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">n+1</span>, <span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">n</span> + 1</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where the a’s are parameters. The order of this group is clearly +n(n + 2).</p> + +<p>(ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective +transformations which transform a non-special linear complex +in space of 2n − 1 dimensions with itself. The order of this group is +n(2n + 1).</p> + +<p>(iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of +the projective transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing +discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct +classes of types according as n is even or odd. In either case the +order is ½n(n + 1). The case n = 3 forms an exception in which the +corresponding group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a +cyclical group is a simple group, since it has no continuous self-conjugate +subgroup distinct from itself.</p> + +<p>W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that +outside these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of +simple groups, whose orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus +completing the enumeration of all possible types.</p> + +<p>To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very +general results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no +limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been +defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex +values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary +symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually +define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when +both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a +group is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups +have been considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392), +who calls them <i>real</i> continuous groups. To these real continuous +groups the above statement as to the totality of simple groups does +not apply; and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of +<i>real</i> simple continuous groups admits of no such complete enumeration. +The effect of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated +by considering the groups of projective transformations which +change</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span> − 1 = 0 and x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> − z<span class="sp">2</span> − 1 = 0</p> + +<p class="noind">respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed +into the other by the imaginary transformation</p> + +<p class="center">x′ = x, y′ = y, z′ = z√ (−1),</p> + +<p class="noind">the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics +respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not, +however, the case for the <i>real</i> continuous groups. In fact, the second +quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real group +which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate subgroups, +either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of generators. The +first quadric having imaginary generators, no such self-conjugate +subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms it into +itself; and this real group is in fact simple.</p> + +<p>Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there +<span class="sidenote">The adjunct group.</span> +is one of special importance which is known as the <i>adjunct</i> +group. This is a homogeneous linear group in a number of +variables equal to the order of the group, whose infinitesimal +operations are defined by the relations</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">X<span class="su">i</span> = Σ<span class="su2">i, s</span> c<span class="su">ijs</span> x<span class="su">i</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">, (j = 1, 2, ..., r),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂x<span class="su">s</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where c<span class="su">ijs</span> are the often-used constants, which give the combinants of +the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal operations +themselves.</p> + +<p>That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a +group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their +combinants. It is thus found that (X<span class="su">p</span>X<span class="su">q</span>) = Σ<span class="su2">s</span> c<span class="su">pqs</span>X<span class="su">s</span>. The X’s, +however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the +sufficient condition that Σ<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>X<span class="su">j</span> should be identically zero is that +Σ<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>c<span class="su">ijs</span> should vanish for all values of i and s. Hence if the equations +Σ<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>c<span class="su">ijs</span> = 0 for all values of i and s have r′ linearly independent +solutions, only r − r′ of the X’s are linearly independent, and the +isomorphism of the two groups is multiple. If Y<span class="su">1</span>, Y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., Y<span class="su">r</span> are +the infinitesimal operations of the given group, the equations</p> + +<p class="center">Σ<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>c<span class="su">ijs</span> = 0, (s, i = 1, 2, ..., r)</p> + +<p class="noind">express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group +generated by Σ<span class="su2">j</span> a<span class="su">j</span>Y<span class="su">i</span> should be permutable with every operation of +the group; in other words, that they should be self-conjugate +operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given group +contains a subgroup of order r′ each of whose operations is self-conjugate. +The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be +simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains self-conjugate +operations; and when this is the case the order of the +adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the +subgroup formed of the self-conjugate operations.</p> + +<p>We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of +continuous groups, in which no distinction is made between +<span class="sidenote">Continuous groups of the line of the plane, and of three-dimensional space.</span> +two simply isomorphic groups. We proceed to +discuss the classification and theory of groups when +their form is regarded as essential; and this is a return +to a more geometrical point of view.</p> + +<p>It is natural to begin with the projective groups, +which are the simplest in form and at the same time are +of supreme importance in geometry. The general projective +group of the straight line is the group of order three +given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x′ =</td> <td>ax + b</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">cx + d′</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since</p> + + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>x′<span class="su">3</span> − x′<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>x′ − x′<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>x<span class="su">3</span> − x<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>x − x<span class="su">1</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">x′<span class="su">3</span> − x′<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">x′ − x′<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">x<span class="su">3</span> − x<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">x − x<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive. +Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all +such subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two +distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup +which either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is +an example of a “mixed” group.</p> + +<p>The analysis of the general projective group must obviously +increase very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space +to which it applies increase. This analysis has been completely +carried out for the projective group of the plane, with the result of +showing that there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding +the general group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a +line, or a conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie +has also carried out a similar investigation, but the results are extremely +complicated. One general result of great importance at +which Lie arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in +space of three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves +either a point, a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered.</p> + +<p>Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that +any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of +order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such +group may be changed into a projective group.</p> + +<p>The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous +group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a single +variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group in +one variable are d/dx, x(d/dx), x<span class="sp">2</span>(d/dx). If these combined with x<span class="sp">3</span>(d/dx) be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span> +taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate a continuous +group among the infinitesimal operations of the group, there must +occur the combinant of x<span class="sp">2</span>(d/dx) and x<span class="sp">3</span>(d/dx). This is x<span class="sp">4</span>(d/dx). The combinant +of this and x<span class="sp">2</span>(d/dx) is 2x<span class="sp">5</span>(d/dx) and so on. Hence x<span class="sp">r</span>(d/dx), where r is any +positive integer, is an infinitesimal operation of the group. The +general infinitesimal operation of the group is therefore ƒ(x)(d/dx), where +ƒ(x) is an arbitrary integral function of x.</p> + +<p>In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective +of two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and +imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the +plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a singly-infinite +family of curves ƒ(x, y) = C, where C is an arbitrary constant +such that every operation of the group interchanges the curves of the +family among themselves? In accordance with the previously given +definition of imprimitivity, the group is called imprimitive or +primitive according as such a set exists or not. In space of three +dimensions there are two possibilities; namely, there may either be +a singly infinite system of surfaces F(x, y, z) = C, which are interchanged +among themselves by the operations of the group; or +there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z) = a, +H(x, y, z) = b, which are so interchanged.</p> + +<p>In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive +group of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be +transformed into one of three definite types of projective groups; +and that any primitive group of space of three dimensions can be +transformed into one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot +all be represented as projective groups in three dimensions.</p> + +<p>The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in +two and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement.</p> + +<p>We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations +and groups of contact-transformations. This conception, +<span class="sidenote">Contact transformations.</span> +like that of continuous groups, owes its origin to +Lie.</p> + +<p>From a purely analytical point of view a contact-transformation +may be defined as a point-transformation in 2n + 1 +variables, z, x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>, p<span class="su">1</span>, p<span class="su">2</span>, ..., p<span class="su">n</span> which leaves unaltered +the equation dz − p<span class="su">1</span>dx<span class="su">1</span> − p<span class="su">2</span>dx<span class="su">2</span> − ... − p<span class="su">n</span>dx<span class="su">n</span> = 0. Such a definition +as this, however, gives no direct clue to the geometrical properties +of the transformation, nor does it explain the name given.</p> + +<p>In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves +to space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to +begin with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal +surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified, +apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are the +co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q, −1 give +the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q are five +quantities which completely specify the element. There are, +therefore, ∞<span class="sp">5</span> surface elements in three-dimensional space. The +surface-elements of a surface form a system of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> elements, for there +are ∞<span class="sp">2</span> points on the surface, and at each a definite surface-element. +The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> elements, +for there are ∞<span class="sp">1</span> points on the curve, and at each ∞<span class="sp">1</span> surface-elements +containing the tangent to the curve at the point. Similarly the +surface-elements which contain a given point clearly form a system +of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> elements. Now each of these systems of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> surface-elements has +the property that if (x, y, z, p, q) and (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz, p + dp, +q + dq) are consecutive elements from any one of them, then +dz − pdx − qdy = 0. In fact, for a system of the first kind dx, dy, dz +are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent line at a point of +the surface, and p, q, −1 are proportional to the direction-cosines of +the normal. For a system of the second kind dx, dy, dz are proportional +to the direction-cosines of a tangent to the curve, and +p, q, −1 give the direction-cosines of the normal to a plane touching +the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy, dz are zero. +Now the most general way in which a system of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> surface-elements +can be given is by three independent equations between x, y, z, p +and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they determine one +or more (a finite number in any case) points in space, and the system +of surface-elements consists of the elements containing these points; +<i>i.e.</i> it consists of one or more systems of the third kind.</p> + +<p>If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent +of p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of +surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation +dz − pdx − qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only +when the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point.</p> + +<p>If the equations are such that only one equation independent of +p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of surface-elements +lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the equation +dz − pdx − qdy = 0 will hold for each two consecutive elements only +when each element touches the surface at its own point. Hence, +when all possible systems of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> surface-elements in space are +considered, the equation dz − pdx − qdy = 0 is characteristic of the +three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense explained +above, to a point or a curve or a surface.</p> + +<p>Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation +x′ = ƒ<span class="su">1</span>(x, y, z, p, q), ..., q′ = ƒ<span class="su">5</span>(x, y, z, p, q), of the five variables. It +will interchange the surface-elements of space among themselves, +and will change any system of ∞<span class="sp">2</span> elements into another system of +∞<span class="sp">2</span> elements. A special system, <i>i.e.</i> a system which belongs to a +point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be changed into +another special system. The necessary and sufficient condition that +a special system should always be changed into a special system is +that the equation dz′ − p′dx′ − q′dy′ = 0 should be a consequence of +the equation dz − pdx − qdy = 0; or, in other words, that this latter +equation should be invariant for the transformation.</p> + +<p>When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to +change the surface-elements of a surface in general into surface-elements +of a surface, though in particular cases they may become +the surface-elements of a curve or point; and similar statements +may be made with respect to a curve or point. The transformation +is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in space of three +dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of surface-elements +which have an element in common are transformed into two new +special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or +surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves +or surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads +to the transformations in question being called contact-transformations. +It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is +always a contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation +(in space of n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation +(in space of n dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a +point-transformation in space of 2n + 1 dimensions. In the analogous +theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y, p), +where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the place of +the surface-element; and a transformation of x, y and p which leaves +the equation dy − pdx = 0 unchanged transforms the ∞<span class="sp">1</span> line-elements, +which belong to a curve, into ∞<span class="sp">1</span> line-elements which again belong +to a curve; while two curves which touch are transformed into two +other curves which touch.</p> + +<p>One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can +be given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this transformation +a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed into +a plane p′ and a point P′ upon it; <i>i.e.</i> the surface-element defined by +P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by P′, p′. +The totality of surface-elements which belong to a (non-developable) +surface is known from geometrical considerations to be changed into +the totality which belongs to another (non-developable) surface. +On the other hand, the totality of the surface-elements which belong +to a curve is changed into another set which belong to a developable. +The analytical formulae for this transformation, when the reciprocation +is effected with respect to the paraboloid x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> − 2z = 0, are +x′ = p, y′ = q, z′ = px + qy − z, p′ = x, q′ = y. That this is, in fact, a +contact-transformation is verified directly by noticing that</p> + +<p class="center">dz′ − p′dx′ − q′dy′ = −d (z − px − qy) − xdp − ydq = −(dz − pdx − qdy).</p> + +<p class="noind">A second simple example is that in which every surface-element is +displaced, without change of orientation, normal to itself through a +constant distance t. The analytical equations in this case are easily +found in the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">x′ = x +</td> <td>pt</td> +<td rowspan="2">,   y′ = y +</td> <td>qt</td> +<td rowspan="2">,   z′ = z −</td> <td>t</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√<span class="ov">(1 + p<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">2</span>)</span></td> <td class="denom">√<span class="ov">(1 + p<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">2</span>)</span></td> +<td class="denom">√<span class="ov">(1 + p<span class="sp">2</span> + q<span class="sp">2</span>)</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">p′ = q, q′ = q.</p> + +<p class="noind">That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by noticing +that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every point is +changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when t is regarded as a +parameter the equations define a cyclical group of +contact-transformations.</p> + +<p>The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations +is, of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous +groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the +theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with +very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel.</p> + +<p>To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups +in various branches of pure and applied mathematics +<span class="sidenote">Applications of the theory of continuous groups.</span> +it is impossible here to refer in any detail. It must +suffice to indicate a few of them very briefly. In some +of the older theories a new point of view is obtained which +presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the +natural generalization. As an example, the theory of +the invariants of a binary form may be considered.</p> + +<p>If in the form ƒ = a<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="sp">n</span> + na<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n−1</span>y + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>y<span class="sp">n</span>, the variables be +subjected to a homogeneous substitution</p> + +<p class="center">x′ = αx + βy, y′ = γx + δy,</p> +<div class="author">(i.)</div> + +<p class="noind">and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting the +old coefficients, then</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>a′<span class="su">0</span> = a<span class="su">0</span>α<span class="sp">n</span> + a<span class="su">1</span>nα<span class="sp">n−1</span>γ + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>γ<span class="sp">n</span>,</p> + +<p>a′<span class="su">1</span> = a<span class="su">0</span>α<span class="sp">n−1</span>β + a<span class="su">1</span> {(n−1) α<span class="sp">n−2</span>βγ + α<span class="sp">n−1</span>δ} + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>γ<span class="sp">n−1</span>δ,</p> +<p>  ·     ·     ·     ·     ·</p> +<p>a′<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">0</span>β<span class="sp">n</span> + a<span class="su">1</span>nβ<span class="sp">n−1</span>δ + ... + a<span class="su">n</span>δ<span class="sp">n</span>;</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(ii.)</div> + +<p class="noind">and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the +coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which αδ − βγ = 1, +constitutes a continuous group of order 3, which is generated +by the two infinitesimal transformations y(∂/∂x) and x(∂/∂y). Hence with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +the same limitations on α, β, γ, δ the totality of the substitutions +(ii.) forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is +generated by the two infinitesimal transformations</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 2a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 3a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... + na<span class="su">n − 1</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">na<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ (n − 1)a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ (n − 2)a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... + a<span class="su">u</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">u−1</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The invariants of the binary form, <i>i.e.</i> those functions of the coefficients +which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on +x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions +of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group +generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other +words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential +equations</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 2a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 3a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">na<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ (n − 1)a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ (n − 2)a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>∂ƒ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... = 0.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">0</span></td> <td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">∂a<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well +known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transformation +group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group +of the coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of +the group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one.</p> + +<p>The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a +similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group +of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology +is here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, <i>i.e.</i> +with curves such that at every point of them dx<span class="sp">2</span> + dy<span class="sp">2</span> + dz<span class="sp">2</span> = 0. +For such curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning, +but they nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the +group of motions.</p> + +<p>The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all +transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of +what are known as <i>differential invariants</i>. If ξ(∂/∂x) + η(∂/∂y) is the +general infinitesimal transformation of a group of point-transformations +in the plane, and if y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ... represent the successive differential +coefficients of y, the infinitesimal transformation may be written in +the extended form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ξ</td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ η</td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ η<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ η<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>∂</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂x</td> <td class="denom">∂y</td> +<td class="denom">∂y<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">∂y<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where η<span class="su">1</span>δt, η<span class="su">2</span>δt, ... are the increments of y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, .... By including +a sufficient number of these variables the group must be intransitive +in them, and must therefore have one or more invariants. Such +invariants are known as differential invariants of the original group, +being necessarily functions of the differential coefficients of the +original variables. For groups of the plane it may be shown that not +more than two of these differential invariants are independent, all +others being formed from these by algebraical processes and differentiation. +For groups of point-transformations in more than two +variables there will be more than one set of differential invariants. +For instance, with three variables, one may be regarded as independent +and the other two as functions of it, or two as independent +and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding to +these two points of view, the differential invariants for a curve or +for a surface will arise.</p> + +<p>If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be +equated to zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered +when the variables undergo any transformation of the group. Conversely, +if an ordinary, differential equation ƒ(x, y, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ...) = 0 +admits the transformations of a continuous group, <i>i.e.</i> if the equation +is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the group, +then ƒ(x, y, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ...) or some multiple of it must be a differential +invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find two independent +differential invariants α, β of the group, such that when +these are taken as variables the differential equation takes the form +F(α, β, dβ/dα, d<span class="sp">2</span>β/dα<span class="sp">2</span>, ...) = 0. This equation in α, β will be of lower order +than the original equation, and in general simpler to deal with. +Supposing it solved in the form β = φ(α), where for α, β their values +in terms of x, y, y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ... are written, this new equation, containing +arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the +original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus +divided into two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary +differential equation, the fact that the equation admits a continuous +group of transformations may be taken advantage of for its integration.</p> + +<p>The most important of the applications of continuous groups are +to the theory of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and +partial; in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing +and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he +was led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It +is quite impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his +followers have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of +regarding the problem of the integration of a differential equation +has been opened up, and in the classification that arises from it all +those apparently isolated types of equations which in the older sense +are said to be integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance, +be mentioned that the question as to whether Monge’s method will +apply to the integration of a partial differential equation of the +second order is shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation +can be found which will reduce the equation to either +∂<span class="sp">2</span>z/∂x<span class="sp">2</span> = 0 or ∂<span class="sp">2</span>z/∂x∂y = 0. It is in this direction that further advance in the +theory of partial differential equations must be looked for. Lastly, +it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions of the +axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon the +theory of continuous groups.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Discontinuous Groups.</i></p> + +<p>We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups. +Although groups of finite order are necessarily contained under +this general head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with +them separately, and it will therefore be assumed in the present +section that the number of operations in the group is not finite. +Many large classes of discontinuous groups have formed the +subject of detailed investigation, but a general formal theory +of discontinuous groups can hardly be said to exist as yet. It +will thus be obvious that in considering discontinuous groups +it is necessary to proceed on different lines from those followed +with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the subject +almost entirely by way of example.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set +of independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point +of view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are +indistinguishable. The number of generating operations +<span class="sidenote">Generating operations.</span> +may be either finite or infinite, but the former case alone +will be here considered. Suppose then that S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, ..., S<span class="su">n</span> +is a set of independent operations from which a group G is generated. +The general operation of the group will be represented by the symbol +S<span class="sp1">α</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">β</span><span class="su1">b</span> ... S<span class="sp1">δ</span><span class="su1">d</span>, or Σ, where a, b, ..., d are chosen from 1, 2, ..., n, +and α, β, ..., δ are any positive or negative integers. It may be +assumed that no two successive suffixes in Σ are the same, for if b = a, +then S<span class="sp1">α</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">β</span><span class="su1">b</span> may be replaced by S<span class="sp1">α+β</span><span class="su1">a</span>. If there are no relations connecting +the generating operations and the identical operation, every +distinct symbol Σ represents a distinct operation of the group. For if +Σ = Σ<span class="su">1</span>, or S<span class="sp1">α</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">β</span><span class="su1">b</span> ... S<span class="sp1">δ</span><span class="su1">d</span> = S<span class="sp1">α1</span><span class="su1">a1</span>S<span class="sp1">β1</span><span class="su1">b1</span> ... S<span class="sp1">δ1</span><span class="su1">d1</span>, then S<span class="sp1">−δ1</span><span class="su1">d1</span> ... S<span class="sp1">−β1</span><span class="su1">b1</span>S<span class="sp1">−α1</span><span class="su1">a1</span>S<span class="sp1">α</span><span class="su1">a</span>S<span class="sp1">β</span><span class="su1">b</span> ... S<span class="sp1">δ</span><span class="su1">d</span> += 1; and unless a = a<span class="su">1</span>, b = b<span class="su">1</span>, ..., α = α<span class="su">1</span>, β = β<span class="su">1</span>, ..., this is a relation +connecting the generating operations.</p> + +<p>Suppose now that T<span class="su">1</span>, T<span class="su">2</span>, ... are operations of G, and that H is +that self-conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by T<span class="su">1</span>, T<span class="su">2</span>, ... +and the operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that +can be formed from S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, ..., S<span class="su">n</span>, the set ΣH, and no others, reduce +to the same operation Σ when the conditions T<span class="su">1</span> = 1, T<span class="su">2</span> = 1, ... are +satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is +generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions +just written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H. +Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such +that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence +any discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard +to the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual +form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations +connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and +system of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract +form a single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that +the group so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to +the identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement +these will be particular and exceptional cases.</p> + +<p>An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified +<span class="sidenote">Properly and improperly discontinuous groups.</span> +analytically by a system of equations of the form</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p> + +<p class="noind">and the different operations of the group will be given by +different sets of values of the parameters a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>. +No one of these parameters is susceptible of continuous +variations, but at least one must be capable of taking a +number of values which is not finite, if the group is not one +of finite order. Among the sets of values of the parameters +there must be one which gives the identical transformation. +No other transformation makes each of the differences x′<span class="su">1</span> − x<span class="su">1</span>, +x′<span class="su">2</span> − x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x′<span class="su">n</span> − x<span class="su">n</span> vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive +quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such +that the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the +variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation, +however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be <i>improperly</i> +discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called <i>properly</i> +discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to +vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is +properly or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span> +defined by the equation x′ = ax + b, where a and b are any rational +numbers, is improperly discontinuous; and the group defined by +x′ = x + a, where a is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever +the range of the variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later +considered, defined by the equation x′ = (ax + b) / (cx + d), where a, b, c, d are +integers satisfying the relation ad − bc = 1, is properly discontinuous +when x may take any complex value, and improperly discontinuous +when the range of x is limited to real values.</p> + +<p>Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large +number may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the +range of variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">s</span> = ƒ<span class="su">s</span> (x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ..., x<span class="su">n</span>; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., a<span class="su">r</span>), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p> + +<p class="noind">are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with parameters +c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, ..., c<span class="su">r</span> is the operation which results from carrying out +A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then the c’s +are determined uniquely by the a’s and the b’s. If the c’s are rational +functions of the a’s and b’s, and if the a’s and b’s are arbitrary +rational numbers of a given corpus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Number</a></span>), the c’s will be +rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c’s are rational integral +functions of the a’s and b’s, and the latter are arbitrarily chosen +integers of a corpus, then the c’s are integers of the same corpus. +Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a’s are limited +to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a discontinuous +group; and in the second case they will define such a group when +<span class="sidenote">Linear discontinuous groups.</span> +the a’s are further limited to be integers of the corpus. +A most important class of discontinuous groups are those +that arise in this way from the general linear continuous +group in a given set of variables. For n variables the +finite equations of this continuous group are</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">s</span> = a<span class="su">s1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">s2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">sn</span>x<span class="su">n</span>, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),</p> + +<p class="noind">where the determinant of the a’s must not be zero. In this case the +c’s are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a’s and b’s. +Moreover, the determinant of the c’s is the product of the determinant +of the a’s and the determinant of the b’s. Hence equations (ii.), +where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus, +define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the coefficients +is limited to the value unity, they define a discontinuous +group which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the previous one.</p> + +<p>The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there +are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This is +the group defined by the equations</p> + +<p class="center">x′ = ax + by,<br /> +y′ = cx + dy,</p> + +<p class="noind">where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad − bc = 1. To every operation +of this group there corresponds an operation of the set defined by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">z′ =</td> <td>az + b</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">cz + d</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group +there corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of +the set. The operations of the set (iv.), where ad − bc = 1, therefore +constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group. +The isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second +set there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, b, c, d +and −a, −b, −c, −d are parameters. These two groups, which are +of fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in +the theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many +investigations.</p> + +<p>Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-reaching +applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first +instance from purely geometrical considerations. By the +combination and repetition of a finite number of geometrical +<span class="sidenote">Discontinuous groups arising from geometrical operations.</span> +operations such as displacements, projective +transformations, inversions, &c., a discontinuous group of +such operations will arise. Such a group, as regards the +points of the plane (or of space), will in general be improperly +discontinuous; but when the generating operations +are suitably chosen, the group may be properly +discontinuous. In the latter case the group may be +represented in a graphical form by the division of the plane (or space) +into regions such that no point of one region can be transformed into +another point of the same region by any operation of the group, +while any given region can be transformed into any other by a +suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a triangle bounded by +three circular arcs BC, CA, AB; and consider the figure produced +from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which BC, CA, AB are +part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular triangle +A′BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A′BC into equiangular +triangles ABC′ and A″BC′. Successive inversions at AB and BC +then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B +for a common vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the +space round B if the angle ABC is a submultiple of two right angles. +If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or +zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never +overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of +inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into +which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so +formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from +the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided +into two sets, those, namely, like A″BC′, which are derived from ABC +by an even number of inversions, and those like A′BC or ABC′ produced +by an odd number. Each set are interchanged among themselves +by any even number of inversions. Hence the operations +consisting of an even number of inversions form a group by themselves. +For this group the quadrilateral formed by ABC and A′BC constitutes +a region, which is changed by every operation of the group into +a distinct region (formed of two adjacent triangles), and these regions +clearly do not overlap. Their distribution presents in a graphical +form the group that arises by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB; and +this group is generated by the operation which consists of successive +inversions at AB, BC and that which consists of successive inversions +at BC, CA. The group defined thus geometrically may be presented +in many analytical forms. If x, y and x′, y′ are the rectangular co-ordinates +of two points which are inverse to each other with respect +to a given circle, x′ and y′ are rational functions of x and y, and conversely. +Thus the group may be presented in a form in which each +operation gives a birational transformation of two variables. If +x + iy = z, x′ + iy′ = z′, and if x′, y′ is the point to which x, y is transformed +by any even number of inversions, then z′ and z are connected +by a linear relation z′ = (αz + β) / (γz + δ), where α, β, γ, δ are constants (in +general complex) depending on the circles at which the inversions are +taken. Hence the group may be presented in the form of a group +of linear transformations of a single variable generated by the two +linear transformations z′ = (α<span class="su">1</span>z + β<span class="su">1</span>) / (γ<span class="su">1</span>z + δ<span class="su">1</span>), z′ = (α<span class="su">2</span>z + β<span class="su">2</span>) / (γ<span class="su">2</span>z + δ<span class="su">2</span>), which correspond +to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC, CA respectively. In +particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken to be x = 0, x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> − +1 = 0, x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2x = 0, the generating operations are found to be +z′ = z + 1, z′ = −z<span class="sp">−1</span>; and the group is that consisting of all transformations +of the form z′ = (az + b) / (cz + d), where ad − bc = 1, a, b, c, d being +integers. This is the group already mentioned which underlies the +theory of the elliptic modular functions; a modular function being +a function of z which is invariant for some subgroup of finite index of +the group in question.</p> + +<p>The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction +started may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If +each angle is a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construction +is still effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which +represent graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions +in the sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of +linear transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on +which the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar +construction in space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being +replaced by polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by +F. Klein and Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups +which are improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of +the plane.</p> + +<p>The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with +<span class="sidenote">Group of a linear differential equation.</span> +in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical +considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly +to a class of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. +Let</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d<span class="sp">n</span>y</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ P<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>d<span class="sp">n−1</span>y</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ... + P<span class="su">n−1</span></td> <td>dy</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ P<span class="su">n</span>y = 0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n</span></td> <td class="denom">dx<span class="sp">n−1</span></td> +<td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are +rational functions of x, and let y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span> be a linearly independent +set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of a +finite value x<span class="su">0</span> of x, which is not a singularity of any of the coefficients +in the equation, these integrals are ordinary power-series in x − x<span class="su">0</span>. +If the analytical continuations of y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span> be formed for any +closed path starting from and returning to x<span class="su">0</span>, the final values arrived +at when x<span class="su">0</span> is again reached will be another set of linearly independent +integrals. When the closed path contains no singular point of the +coefficients of the differential equation, the new set of integrals is +identical with the original set. If, however, the closed path encloses +one or more singular points, this will not in general be the case. +Let y′<span class="su">1</span>, y′<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y′<span class="su">n</span> be the new integrals arrived at. Since in the +neighbourhood of x<span class="su">0</span> every integral can be represented linearly in +terms of y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span>, ..., y<span class="su">n</span>, there must be a system of equations</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>y′<span class="su">1</span> = a<span class="su">11</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">12</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">1n</span>y<span class="su">n</span>,</p> + +<p>y′<span class="su">2</span> = a<span class="su">21</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">22</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">2n</span>y<span class="su">n</span>,</p> + +<p>  ·    ·    ·    ·   </p> + +<p>y′<span class="su">n</span> = a<span class="su">n1</span>y<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">n2</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">nn</span>y<span class="su">n</span>,</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where the a’s are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of +the original ones. To each closed path described by x<span class="su">0</span> there therefore +corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y’s. +Further, if S<span class="su">1</span> and S<span class="su">2</span> are the substitutions that correspond to two +closed paths L<span class="su">1</span> and L<span class="su">2</span>, then to any closed path which can be continuously +deformed, without crossing a singular point, into L<span class="su">1</span> +followed by L<span class="su">2</span>, there corresponds the substitution S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">2</span>. Let L<span class="su">1</span>, +L<span class="su">2</span>, ..., L<span class="su">r</span> be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and returning +to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span> +(r) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path in the +plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken either +in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed path which +does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points within it, is +equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and no finite +singular point. If S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, S<span class="su">3</span>, ..., S<span class="su">r</span> are the linear substitutions that +correspond to these r paths, then the substitution corresponding to +every possible path can be obtained by combination and repetition +of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a discontinuous +group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite closed path. +The group thus arrived at is called the group of the equation. For +a given equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only effect of +starting from another set of independent integrals is to transform +every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution, while +choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new set of +generating operations. The great importance of the group of the +equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here +be dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of +the equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of +finite order, since the set of quantities y<span class="su">1</span>, y<span class="su">2</span> ..., y<span class="su">n</span> can then only +take a finite number of distinct values.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Groups of Finite Order.</i></p> + +<p>We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear +that here we must have to do with many properties which have +no direct analogues in the theory of continuous groups or in +that of discontinuous groups in general; those properties, +namely, which depend on the fact that the number of distinct +operations in the group is finite.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Let S<span class="su">1</span>, S<span class="su">2</span>, S<span class="su">3</span>, ..., S<span class="su">N</span> denote the operations of a group G of finite +order N, S<span class="su">1</span> being the identical operation. The tableau</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">2</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>S<span class="su">2</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td> <td class="tcc">·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">S<span class="su">1</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">...,</td> <td class="tcl">S<span class="su">N</span>S<span class="su">N</span>,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">when in it each compound symbol S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> is replaced by the single +symbol S<span class="su">r</span> that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication table +of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying together +in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the group. +In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every operation of +the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau are regarded +as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol in the first +line by the symbol which stands under it in the pth line is a permutation +performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N lines of the +tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations performed on the +N symbols, which includes the identical permutation that leaves each +unchanged. Moreover, if S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> = S<span class="su">r</span>, then the result of carrying out in +succession the permutations which correspond to the pth and qth +lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth line. +Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is simply +isomorphic with the given group.</p> + +<p>Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in +concrete form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols.</p> + +<p>The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite. +If T<span class="su">1</span>(= S<span class="su">1</span>), T<span class="su">2</span>, ..., T<span class="su">n</span> are the operations of a subgroup H of G, +and if Σ is any operation of G which is not contained in H, +<span class="sidenote">Properties of a group which depend on the order.</span> +the set of operations ΣT<span class="su">1</span>, ΣT<span class="su">2</span>, ..., ΣT<span class="su">n</span>, or ΣH, are all +distinct from each other and from the operations of H. +If the sets H and ΣH do not exhaust the operations of G, +and if Σ′ is an operation not belonging to them, then the +operations of the set Σ′H are distinct from each other and +from those of H and ΣH. This process may be continued till the +operations of G are exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a +factor of the order N of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the +subgroup H. By taking for H the cyclical subgroup generated by +any operation S of G, it follows that the order of S must be a factor of +the order of G.</p> + +<p>Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence +there must be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such +that every operation of H is permutable with S. Every operation of +H transforms S into itself, and every operation of the set HΣ transforms +S into the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by +every operation of G, just N/n distinct operations arise if n is the +order of H. These operations, and no others, are conjugate to S +within G; they are said to form a set of conjugate operations. +The number of operations in every conjugate set is therefore a factor +of the order of G. In the same way it may be shown that the number +of subgroups which are conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of +the order of G. An operation which is permutable with every operation +of the group is called a <i>self-conjugate</i> operation. The totality +of the self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate +Abelian subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every +operation of the group.</p> + +<p>An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given +factors of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H +of an Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are +<span class="sidenote">Sylow’s theorem.</span> +Abelian, this result follows immediately by an induction from the +case in which the order contains n prime factors to that in which it +contains n + 1. For a group which is not Abelian no general +law can be stated as to the existence or non-existence of a +subgroup whose order is an arbitrarily assigned factor +of the order of the group. In this connexion the most important +general result, which is independent of any supposition as to the +order of the group, is known as Sylow’s theorem, which states that if +p<span class="sp">a</span> is the highest power of a prime p which divides the order of a +group G, then G contains a single conjugate set of subgroups of +order p<span class="sp">a</span>, the number in the set being of the form 1 + kp. Sylow’s +theorem may be extended to show that if p<span class="sp">a′</span> is a factor of the order +of a group, the number of subgroups of order p<span class="sp">a′</span> is of the form 1 + kp. +If, however, p<span class="sp">a′</span> is not the highest power of p which divides the order, +these groups do not in general form a single conjugate set.</p> + +<p>The importance of Sylow’s theorem in discussing the structure of +a group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very +simple instance, a group whose order is the product p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span> of two +primes (p<span class="su">1</span> < p<span class="su">2</span>) must have a self-conjugate subgroup of order p<span class="su">2</span>, since +the order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the +form 1 + kp<span class="su">2</span>. The same again is true for a group of order p<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>p<span class="su">2</span>, +unless p<span class="su">1</span> = 2, and p<span class="su">2</span> = 3.</p> + +<p>There is one other numerical property of a group connected with +its order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a +factor of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to +or are factors of n, is a multiple of n.</p> + +<p>As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains +one or more self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than +unity. If H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-group +<span class="sidenote">Composition-series of a group.</span> +G/H may be either simple or composite. In the +former case G can contain no self-conjugate subgroup K, +which itself contains H; for if it did K/H would be a self-conjugate +subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is said to be a +maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G +being a given composite group, G, G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">2</span>, ..., G<span class="su">n</span>, 1 is a series of +subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup +of the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the +identical operation only. Such a series is called a <i>composition-series</i> +of G. In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or +more maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of +a group, however it may be chosen, has the property that the number +of terms of which it consists is always the same, while the factor-groups +G/G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">1</span>/G<span class="su">2</span>, ..., G<span class="su">n</span> differ only in the sequence in which +they occur. It should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely +the set of factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set +of factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of +group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group +is said to be <i>soluble</i>.</p> + +<p>If the series of subgroups G, H, K, ..., L, 1 is chosen so that each +is the greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous +one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such +series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same +number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups, +except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will +not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief composition-series +a composition-series may be formed by interpolating +between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not +a simple group, a number of terms h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, ..., h<span class="su">r</span>; and it may be +shown that the factor-groups H/h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">1</span>/h<span class="su">2</span>, ..., h<span class="su">r</span>/K are all simply +isomorphic with each other.</p> + +<p>A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming +all its operations by any one of them. In fact, if S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> = S<span class="su">r</span>, +then S<span class="sp">−1</span>S<span class="su">p</span>S·S<span class="sp">−1</span>S<span class="su">q</span>S = S<span class="sp">−1</span>S<span class="su">r</span>S. An isomorphism of the +<span class="sidenote">Isomorphism of a group with itself.</span> +group with itself, established in this way, is called an +inner isomorphism. It may be regarded as an operation +carried out on the symbols of the operations, being indeed +a permutation performed on these symbols. The totality +of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic with the +given group, and this group is called the group of inner isomorphisms. +A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group of inner +isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain self-conjugate +operations other than identity. It may be possible to establish a +correspondence between the operations of a group other than those +given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S′ is the operation +corresponding to S, then S′<span class="su">p</span>S′<span class="su">q</span> = S′<span class="su">r</span> is a consequence of S<span class="su">p</span>S<span class="su">q</span> = S<span class="su">r</span>. +The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a group resulting +from such a correspondence is called an outer isomorphism. The +totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds constitutes the group of +isomorphisms of the given group, and within this the group of inner +isomorphisms is a self-conjugate subgroup. Every set of conjugate +operations of a group is necessarily transformed into itself by an +inner isomorphism, but two or more sets may be interchanged by an +outer isomorphism.</p> + +<p>A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every +isomorphism of G, is called a <i>characteristic</i> subgroup. A series of +groups G, G<span class="su">1</span>, G<span class="su">2</span>, ..., 1, such that each is a maximum characteristic +subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the +same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series. +A group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span> +group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic +simple groups.</p> + +<p>It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented +as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose +number is equal to the order of the group. In general such +<span class="sidenote">Permutation-groups.</span> +a representation is possible with a smaller number of +symbols. Let H be a subgroup of G, and let the operations +of G be divided, in respect of H, into the sets H, S<span class="su">2</span>H, +S<span class="su">3</span>H, ..., S<span class="su">m</span>H. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH, SS<span class="su">2</span>H, +SS<span class="su">3</span>H, ..., SS<span class="su">m</span>H differ from the previous sets only in the sequence +in which they occur. In fact, if SS<span class="su">p</span> belong to the set S<span class="su">q</span>H, then since +H is a group, the set SS<span class="su">p</span>H is identical with the set S<span class="su">q</span>H. Hence, to +each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation performed +on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two +operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permutations. +The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic +with the given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless +for one or more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain +unaltered. This can only be the case for S, when every operation +conjugate to S belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self-conjugate +subgroup, and the isomorphism is multiple.</p> + +<p>The fact that every group of finite order can be represented, +generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special +importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such +a representation is called the <i>degree</i> of the group. In accordance with +the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called +transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain +permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is +called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or +cannot be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group +changes the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into +the symbols of another set. When a group is imprimitive the +number of symbols in each set must clearly be the same.</p> + +<p>The total number of permutations that can be performed on n +symbols is n!, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known +as the <i>symmetric</i> group of degree n, the only rational functions of the +symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the +symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the +product of the n(n − 1)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must either +remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those permutations +which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of order n!/2, +which is called the <i>alternating</i> group of degree n; it is a self-conjugate +subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when n = 4 the alternating +group is a simple group. A group of degree n, which is not contained +in the alternating group, must necessarily have a self-conjugate +subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its permutations which +belong to the alternating group.</p> + +<p>Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order +can be presented the most important is that of a group of linear +<span class="sidenote">Groups of linear substitutions.</span> +substitutions. Such groups have already been referred +to in connexion with discontinuous groups. Here the +number of distinct substitutions is necessarily finite; and +to each operation S of a group G of finite order there will +correspond a linear substitution s, viz.</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="su">i</span> = <span class="f150">Σ</span><span class="sp1">j=m</span><span class="su1">j=1</span> s<span class="su">ij</span> x<span class="su">j</span> (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),</p> + +<p class="noind">on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear +substitutions s, t, u, ... then constitute a group g with which G is +isomorphic; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is +said to give a “representation” of G as a group of linear substitutions. +If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the same +substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of linear +substitutions so constituted is said to be “equivalent” with g as a +representation of G; and two representations are called “non-equivalent,” +or “distinct,” when one is not capable of being transformed +into the other.</p> + +<p>A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be “reducible” +when it is possible to choose m′ (< m) linear functions of +the variables which are transformed among themselves by every +substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is +called “irreducible.” It can be shown that a group of linear substitutions, +of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such that the +variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets, each set +being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being so, it +is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group of finite +order are known, all representations may be built up.</p> + +<p>It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group +of finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (<i>i.e.</i> +linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is +obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain unaltered +by every substitution of the group. The fundamental +theorem in connexion with the representations, as an irreducible +group of linear substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the +following.</p> + +<p>If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the +group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely +reduced,</p> + +<p>(i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur:</p> + +<p>(ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number +of symbols on which it operates:</p> + +<p>(iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct +irreducible representations of the group.</p> + +<p>Among these representations what is called the “identical” +representation necessarily occurs, <i>i.e.</i> that in which each operation +of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If +these representations are denoted by Γ<span class="su">1</span>, Γ<span class="su">2</span>, ..., Γ<span class="su">r</span>, then any representation +of the group as a group of linear substitutions, or in +particular as a group of permutations, may be uniquely represented +by a symbol Σα<span class="su">i</span>Γ<span class="su">i</span>, in the sense that the representation when completely +reduced will contain the representation Γ<span class="su">i</span> just α<span class="su">i</span> times for +each suffix i.</p> + +<p>A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group +<span class="sidenote">Group characteristics.</span> +of linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite +number of equivalent forms. If</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">i</span> = Σs<span class="su">ij</span> x<span class="su">j</span> (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),</p> + +<p class="noind">is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible representation +of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the operation +S, the determinant</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">s<span class="su">11</span> − λ</td> <td class="tcl">s<span class="su">12</span></td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcl rb">s<span class="su">1m</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">s<span class="su">21</span></td> <td class="tcl">s<span class="su">22</span> − λ</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcl rb">s<span class="su">2m</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">s<span class="su">m1</span></td> <td class="tcl">s<span class="su">2m</span></td> <td class="tcl">...</td> <td class="tcl rb">s<span class="su">mm</span> − λ</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a +polynomial in λ. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S′, if +these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants +that thus arise the most important is s<span class="su">11</span> + s<span class="su">22</span> + ... + s<span class="su">mm</span>, which is +called the “characteristic” of S. If S is an operation of order p, its +characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity; and in particular, if +S is the identical operation its characteristic is m. If r is the number +of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for each representation +of G as an irreducible group, a set of r characteristics: X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, ... X<span class="su">r</span>, +one corresponding to each conjugate set; so that for the r irreducible +representations just r such sets of characteristics arise. These are +distinct, in the sense that if Ψ<span class="su">1</span>, Ψ<span class="su">2</span>, ..., Ψ<span class="su">r</span> are the characteristics for +a distinct representation from the above, then X<span class="su">i</span> and Ψ<span class="su">i</span> are not +equal for all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r +characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so +the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case +there is always another representation, called the “inverse” representation, +for which each characteristic is the conjugate imaginary +of the corresponding one in the original representation. The +characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h<span class="su">p</span> +denotes the number of operations in the <i>p</i>th conjugate set, while +X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">p</span>, and X<span class="sp1">j</span><span class="su">p</span> are the characteristics of the <i>p</i>th conjugate set in Γ<span class="su">i</span> and +Γ<span class="su">j</span>, then</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="f150">Σ</span><span class="sp1">p=r</span><span class="su1">p=1</span> h<span class="su">p</span> X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">p</span> X<span class="sp1">j</span><span class="su">p</span> = 0 or n,</p> + +<p class="noind">according to Γ<span class="su">i</span> and Γ<span class="su">j</span> are not or are inverse representations, n being +the order of G.</p> + +<p class="noind">Again</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="f150">Σ</span><span class="sp1">i=r</span><span class="su1">i=1</span> X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">p</span> X<span class="sp1">i</span><span class="su">q</span> = 0 or n/h<span class="su">p</span></p> + +<p class="noind">according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse; +the qth set being called the inverse of the <i>p</i>th if it consists of the +inverses of the operations constituting the <i>p</i>th.</p> + +<p>Another form in which every group of finite order can be represented +<span class="sidenote">Linear homogeneous groups.</span> +is that known as a linear homogeneous group. If +in the equations</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">r</span> = a<span class="su">r1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">r2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">rm</span>x<span class="su">m</span>, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),</p> + +<p class="noind">which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the coefficients +are integers, and if the equations are replaced +by congruences to a finite modulus n, the system of congruences +will give a definite operation, provided that the determinant of +the coefficients is relatively prime to n. The product of two such +operations is another operation of the same kind; and the total +number of distinct operations is finite, since there is only a +limited number of choices for the coefficients. The totality of these +operations, therefore, constitutes a group of finite order; and such a +group is known as a <i>linear homogeneous</i> group. If n is a prime the +order of the group is</p> + +<p class="center">(n<span class="sp">m</span> − 1) (n<span class="sp">m</span> − n) ... (n<span class="sp">m</span> − n<span class="sp">m−1</span>).</p> + +<p>The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for +which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms +a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations +which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. n). All +such subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups.</p> + +<p>When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a +<i>linear fractional</i> group, with which the corresponding linear homogeneous +group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of the +congruences</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">z′ ≡</td> <td>az + b</td> +<td rowspan="2">, ad − bc ≠ 0, (mod. p)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">cz + d</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span></p> + +<p class="noind">constitutes a group of order p(p<span class="sp">2</span> − 1). This class of groups for various +values of p is almost the only one which has been as yet exhaustively +analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a simple +self-conjugate +subgroup of index 2.</p> + +<p>A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has +been made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of +the form</p> + +<p class="center">x′<span class="su">r</span> ≡ a<span class="su">r1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">r2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">rm</span>x<span class="su">m</span>, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),</p> + +<p class="noind">in which the coefficients a<span class="su">rs</span>, are integral functions with real integral +coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a prime modulus. +Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in numbers and +defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group defined by +the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients.</p> + +<p>The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to +the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the +second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the +<span class="sidenote">Applications.</span> +expectation that a root of an equation of any finite degree +could be expressed in terms of the coefficients by a finite +number of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, +division, and the extraction of roots; in other words, that the +equation could be solved by radicals. This, however, as proved by +Abel and Galois, is not the case: an equation of a higher degree than +the fourth in general defines an algebraic irrationality which cannot +be expressed by means of radicals, and the cases in which such an +equation can be solved by radicals must be regarded as exceptional. +The theory of groups gives the means of determining whether an +equation comes under this exceptional case, and of solving the +equation when it does. When it does not, the theory provides the +means of reducing the problem presented by the equation to a +normal form. From this point of view the theory of equations of the +fifth degree has been exhaustively treated, and the problems presented +by certain equations of the sixth and seventh degrees have +actually been reduced to normal form.</p> + +<p>Galois (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equation</a></span>) showed that, corresponding to every irreducible +equation of the <i>n</i>th degree, there exists a transitive substitution-group +of degree n, such that every function of the roots, +the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of +the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients, +while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible +rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the substitutions +of the group. This group is called the group of the equation. In +general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group will be the +symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient condition that the +equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should be a +soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational +integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite +number of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical +operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the +equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the +symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the +resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational +roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational +root contains the group of the equation; and the least of the groups +so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the +fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group +of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating +group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (iii.) a group of order 10, +self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5, +self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x<span class="su">0</span>, x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, x<span class="su">3</span>, x<span class="su">4</span> are the roots +of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be +those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant; +(ii.) the function (x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>) (x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + +x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">0</span>); (iii.) the function x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>; and +(iv.) the function x<span class="su">0</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span><span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">0</span>. Since the groups +for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are contained in that for +which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are the only soluble groups +of the set, the equation will be soluble by radicals only when the +function (ii.) can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients. +If</p> + +<p class="center">(x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>) (x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">0</span>)</p> + +<p class="noind">is known, then clearly x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span> can be determined +by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the +sum and product (x<span class="su">0</span> + εx<span class="su">1</span> + ε<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + +ε<span class="sp">3</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + ε<span class="sp">4</span>x<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="sp">5</span> and (x<span class="su">0</span> + +ε<span class="sp">4</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + ε<span class="sp">3</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + +ε<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + εx<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="sp">5</span> can be expressed rationally in terms of x<span class="su">0</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + +x<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">4</span> + x<span class="su">4</span>x<span class="su">0</span>, ε, and the symmetric functions; ε being a fifth root of +unity. Hence (x<span class="su">0</span> + εx<span class="su">1</span> + ε<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + +ε<span class="sp">3</span>x<span class="su">3</span> + ε<span class="sp">4</span>X<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="sp">5</span> can be determined by the +solution of a quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation +are then finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The +problem of reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not +soluble by radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein’s +<i>Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder</i>. Another application of groups of +finite order is to the theory of linear differential equations whose +integrals are algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the +discussion of discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such +equations must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite +order which can be represented as an irreducible group of linear +substitutions on n variables will correspond a class of irreducible +linear differential equations of the <i>n</i>th order whose integrals are +algebraic. The complete determination of the class of linear differential +equations of the second order with all their integrals algebraic, +whose group has the greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been +carried out by Klein.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<b>Continuous groups:</b> Lie and Engel, <i>Theorie der +Transformationsgruppen</i> (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol. +iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, <i>Vorlesungen über gewöhnliche Differentialgleichungen +mit bekannten infinitesimalen Transformationen</i> +(Leipzig, 1891); <i>Idem, Vorlesungen über continuierliche Gruppen</i> +(Leipzig, 1893); <i>Idem, Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen</i> +(Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, <i>Höhere Geometrie</i>, vol. ii. +(lithographed) (Göttingen, 1893, for both continuous and discontinuous +groups). Campbell, <i>Introductory Treatise on Lie’s Theory of +Finite Continuous Transformation Groups</i> (Oxford, 1903). Discontinuous +groups: Klein and Fricke, <i>Vorlesungen über die Theorie +der elliptischen Modulfunktionen</i> (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) (for a full +discussion of the modular group); <i>Idem, Vorlesungen über die +Theorie der automorphen Funktionen</i> (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. ii. +pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups); +Schoenflies, <i>Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur</i> (Leipzig, 1891) (for +discontinuous groups of motions); <b>Groups of finite order:</b> Galois, +<i>Œuvres mathématiques</i> (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, <i>Traité des +substitutions et des équations algébriques</i> (Paris, 1870); Netto, +<i>Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra</i> (Leipzig, +1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein, +<i>Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder</i> (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans. by +Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, <i>Leçons sur la résolution algébrique +des équations</i> (Paris, 1895); Weber, <i>Lehrbuch der Algebra</i> (Braunschweig, +vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition appeared in +1898); Burnside, <i>Theory of Groups of Finite Order</i> (Cambridge, 1897); +Bianchi, <i>Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle equazioni algebriche</i> +(Pisa, 1899); Dickson, <i>Linear Groups with an Exposition of the Galois +Field Theory</i> (Leipzig, 1901); De Séguier, <i>Éléments de la théorie des +groupes abstraits</i> (Paris, 1904), A summary with many references +will be found in the <i>Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften</i> +(Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Bu.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word “group,” which appears first in English in the sense +of an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is +adapted from the Fr. <i>groupe</i>, which is to be referred to the Teutonic +word meaning “knot,” “mass,” “bunch,” represented in English +by “crop” (<i>q.v.</i>). The technical mathematical sense is not older +than 1870.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUSE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a word of uncertain origin,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> now used generally by +ornithologists to include all the “rough-footed” Gallinaceous +birds, but in common speech applied almost exclusively, when +used alone, to the <i>Tetrao scoticus</i> of Linnaeus, the <i>Lagopus +scoticus</i> of modern systematists—more particularly called in +English the red grouse, but till the end of the 18th century +almost invariably spoken of as the Moor-fowl or Moor-game. +The effect which this species is supposed to have had on the +British legislature, and therefore on history, is well known, for +it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the +season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th); while according +to the <i>Orkneyinga Saga</i> (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson, +p. 168) events of some importance in the annals of North Britain +followed from its pursuit in Caithness in the year 1157.</p> + +<p>The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and +Derbyshire northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the +Hebrides. It inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and +Ireland, but it does not naturally occur beyond the limits of +the British Islands,<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and is the only species among birds peculiar +to them. The word “species” may in this case be used advisedly +(since the red grouse invariably “breeds true,” it admits of an +easy diagnosis, and it has a definite geographical range); but +scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the +willow-grouse, <i>Lagopus albus</i> (<i>L. subalpinus</i> or <i>L. saliceti</i> of some +authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway across the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span> +continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from +the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed +is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly +it subsists; while the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old +World seems to prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing +plants (<i>Vaccinium</i> and others) that, often thickly interspersed +with willows and birches, clothes the higher levels or the lower +mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World where +heather scarcely exists, and a “heath” in its strict sense is +unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes +white in winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer +there is a considerable resemblance between the two species, +the cock willow-grouse having his head, neck and breast of nearly +the same rich chestnut-brown as his British representative, and, +though his back be lighter in colour, as is also the whole plumage +of his mate, than is found in the red grouse, in other respects the +two species are precisely alike. No distinction can be discovered +in their voice, their eggs, their build, nor in their anatomical +details, so far as these have been investigated and compared.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range, varies in +colour not inconsiderably according to locality.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:396px" src="images/img637a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Red Grouse.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other +members of the genus <i>Lagopus</i>, become white in winter, Scotland +possesses a species of the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan, +<i>L. mutus</i> or <i>L. alpinus</i>, which differs far more in structure, +station and habits from the red grouse than that does from the +willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far less abundant, haunting +only the highest and most barren mountains. It is said to have +formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is no +evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of +Europe it is found most numerously in Norway, but at an +elevation far above the growth of trees, and it occurs on the +Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also inhabits northern Russia. +In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is represented by a +very nearly allied form—so much so indeed that it is only at +certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be +detected. This form is the <i>L. rupestris</i> of authors, and it would +appear to be found also in Siberia (<i>Ibis</i>, 1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen +is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition +as <i>L. hemileucurus</i>, and the northern end of the chain of +the Rocky Mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species, the +smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus, <i>L. leucurus</i>, +which has all the feathers of the tail white.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:446px; height:474px" src="images/img637b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Ptarmigan.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:430px" src="images/img637c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Blackcock.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness +belongs is probably the <i>Tetrao tetrix</i> of Linnaeus—the blackcock +and greyhen, as the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed +over most of the heath-country of England, except in +East Anglia, where attempts to introduce it have been only +partially successful. It also occurs in North Wales and very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span> +generally throughout Scotland, though not in Orkney, Shetland +or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent of +Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia. +In Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a +Polish naturalist (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1875, p. 267) has conferred +the name of <i>T. mlokosiewiczi</i>. Both these birds have much in +common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern +representative.</p> + +<p>The species of the genus <i>Bonasa</i>, of which the European +<i>B. sylvestris</i> is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. +It is perhaps the most delicate game-bird that comes to table. +It is the <i>gelinotte</i> of the French, the <i>Haselhuhn</i> of Germans, +and <i>Hjerpe</i> of Scandinavians. Like its transatlantic congener +<i>B. umbellus</i>, the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge (of which there +are two other local forms, <i>B. umbelloides</i> and <i>B. sabinii</i>), it is +purely a forest-bird. The same may be said of the species of +<i>Canace</i>, of which two forms are found in America, <i>C. canadensis</i>, +the spruce-partridge, and <i>C. franklini</i>, and also of the Siberian +<i>C. falcipennis</i>. Nearly allied to these birds is the group known +as <i>Dendragapus</i>, containing three large and fine forms <i>D. obscurus</i>, +<i>D. fuliginosus</i>, and <i>D. richardsoni</i>—all peculiar to North America. +Then there are <i>Centrocercus urophasianus</i>, the sage-cock of the +plains of Columbia and California, and <i>Pedioecetes</i>, the sharp-tailed +grouse, with its two forms, <i>P. phasianellus</i> and <i>P. columbianus</i>, +while finally <i>Cupidonia</i>, the prairie-hen, also with two +local forms, <i>C. cupido</i> and <i>C. pallidicincta</i>, is a bird that in the +United States of America possesses considerable economic value, +enormous numbers being consumed there, and also exported +to Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot’s <i>Monograph +of the Tetraoninae</i>, and an excellent account of the American +species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway’s <i>North American +Birds</i> (iii. 414-465). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shooting</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, <i>Archaeologia</i>, +iii. 157) as “grows” in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal +household dated “apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.,” <i>i.e.</i> +1531, and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is +found in an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, § 2, <i>i.e.</i> 1603, and, +as reprinted in the <i>Statutes at Large</i>, stands as now commonly spelt, +but by many writers or printers the final <i>e</i> was omitted in the 17th +and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had “Poule griesche. A +Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 “Griece”] or +Mooregame” (<i>Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, +s.v. Poule</i>). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old +French word <i>griesche</i>, <i>greoche</i> or <i>griais</i> (meaning speckled, and +cognate with <i>griseus</i>, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind +of partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (<i>Trés.</i> p. 211) to a +quail, “porce que ele fu premiers trovée en Grece.” The Oxford +Dictionary repudiates the possibility of “grouse” being a spurious +singular of an alleged plural “grice,” and, with regard to the possibility +of “grows” being a plural of “grow,” refers to Giraldus +Cambrensis (<i>c.</i> 1210), <i>Topogr. Hib. opera</i> (Rolls) v. 47: “gallinae +campestres, quas vulgariter <i>grutas</i> vocant.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by +Mr Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden +(<i>Svenska Jägarförbundets Nya Tidskrift</i>, 1868, p. 64 <i>et alibi</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether +<i>Lagopus scoticus</i> or <i>L. albus</i> has varied most from the common stock +of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only species of +the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, an +evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case; +but then it must be borne in mind that the species of <i>Lagopus</i> +which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the +family <i>Tetraonidae</i>. Furthermore every species of <i>Lagopus</i> (even +<i>L. leucurus</i>, the whitest of all) has its first set of <i>remiges</i> coloured +brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown, and +in all the species but <i>L. scoticus</i> white <i>remiges</i> are then produced. +If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the +course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through which +the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the +species of <i>Lagopus</i> wore a brown livery even when adult, and the +white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers +by causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the +birds of this group protects them from danger during the snows of +a protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating +directly the more ancient properties of an original <i>Lagopus</i> that +underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its +ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch +comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked +Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the +assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation +of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some modifications) +to a comparative immutability essentially the same as that +of the primal <i>Lagopus</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROVE, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1820-1900), English writer on music, +was born at Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was +articled to a civil engineer, and worked for two years in a factory +near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he was employed in the West +Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and Bermuda. In 1849 +he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852 to the +Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and +enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw +all the weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best +music of all schools in connexion with the weekly and daily +concerts at Sydenham, which had a long and honourable career +under the direction of Mr (afterwards Sir) August Manns. +Without Sir George Grove that eminent conductor would hardly +have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young composers +and to educate the British public in music. Grove’s +analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works +presented at the concerts, set the pattern of what such things +should be; and it was as a result of these, and of the fact that +he was editor of <i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i> from 1868 to 1883, that +the scheme of his famous <i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, +published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, edited by J. A. Fuller +Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed. His own +articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert +are monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest +of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great +length is hardly to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed +to the <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, and had promoted the +foundation of the Palestine Exploration Fund. On a journey to +Vienna, undertaken in the company of his lifelong friend, Sir +Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a large number of +compositions by Schubert was made, including the music to +<i>Rosamunde</i>. When the Royal College of Music was founded in +1882 he was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of +knighthood. He brought the new institution into line with the +most useful European conservatoriums. On the completion of +the new buildings in 1894 he resigned the directorship, but +retained an active interest in the institution to the end of his +life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of May 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. F. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1811-1896), English judge +and man of science, was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, +South Wales. After being educated by private tutors, he went +to Brasenose College, Oxford, where he took an ordinary degree +in 1832. Three years later he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s +Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to devote himself +strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with scientific +studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic +cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these +exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, +Finsbury Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers +appointed him to the professorship of experimental philosophy, +an office which he held for seven years. His researches dealt very +largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic cell, of which +he invented several varieties. One of these, the Grove gas-battery, +which is of special interest both intrinsically and as +the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in use for the +“storage” of electricity, was based on his observation that a +current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing +in acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the +other in oxygen. At one of his lectures at the Institution he +anticipated the electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the +theatre with incandescent electric lamps, the filaments being of +platinum and the current supplied by a battery of his nitric acid +cells. In 1846 he published his famous book on <i>The Correlation +of Physical Forces</i>, the leading ideas of which he had already +put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception was +that each of the forces of nature—light, heat, electricity, &c.—is +definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that +where experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because +the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into +other unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal +medal from the Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on +“Certain phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition +of water into its constituent gases.” In 1866 he presided over +the British Association at its Nottingham meeting and delivered +an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But while he +was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not +neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he +became a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared +as an advocate was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, +whom he defended. In 1871 he was made a judge of the Common +Pleas in succession to Sir Robert Collier, and remained on the +bench till 1887. He died in London on the 1st of August 1896.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of +<i>The Correlation of Physical Forces</i>, published in 1874.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROVE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (O.E. <i>graf</i>, cf. O.E. <i>græfa</i>, brushwood, later “greave”; +the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and +the <i>New English Dictionary</i> finds no Indo-European root to +which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with +“grave,” to cut, and finds the original meaning to be a glade +cut through a wood), a small group or cluster of trees, growing +naturally and forming something smaller than a wood, or planted +in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a park, &c. +Groves have been connected with religious worship from the +earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its +sacred group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred +groves see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tree-Worship</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The word “grove” was used by the authors of the Authorized +Version of the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) <i>’ēshel</i>, as +in Gen. xxi. 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the +Revised Version as “tamarisk”; (2) <i>asherah</i> in many places +throughout the Old Testament. Here the translators followed the +Septuagint <span class="grk" title="alsos">ἄλσος</span> and the Vulgate <i>lucus</i>. The <i>’ăshéráh</i> was a +wooden post erected at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also +by the altars of Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROZNYI,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, +in the province of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. +of Vladikavkaz, on the railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha +wells close by. The fortifications were constructed in 1819. +Pop. (1897) 15,599.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUB,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The +word is formed from the verb “to grub,” to dig, break up the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span> +surface of the ground, and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. +According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, “grub” may be +referred to an ablaut variant of the Old Teutonic <i>grab</i>-, to dig, +cf. “grave.” Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i> 1898) refers it rather to the root +seen in “grope,” “grab,” &c., the original meaning “to search +for.” The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the +sense of food in the <i>New English Dictionary</i> is dated 1659 from +<i>Ancient Poems, Ballads</i>, &c., Percy Society Publications. “Grub-street,” +as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from +the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields, +London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says “much +inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary +poems.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1774-1851), German critic +and literary historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on +the 29th of November 1774. He received his education at the +town school of Naumburg and the university of Leipzig, after +which he resided successively at Göttingen, Leipzig, Jena and +Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in +various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the friendship +of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed +professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division +of Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the +union of the university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After +the union was effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy +at Halle. He was associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the +editorship of the great work <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften +und Künste</i>; and after the death of Ersch he continued +the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded +Ersch in the editorship of the <i>Allgemeine Literaturzeitung</i>. He +died on the 7th of August 1851.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal +of which are <i>Charakteristik Herders</i> (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction +with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of +theology at Jena; <i>Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts</i> (2 vols., +Leipzig, 1806); <i>Wörterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie</i> (3 vols., +Weimar, 1810-1815); <i>Wielands Leben</i> (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), +and <i>Klopstocks Leben</i> (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland’s +<i>Sämtliche Werke</i> (Leipzig, 1818-1828).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1503-1567), German +adventurer, chiefly known through his connexion with the +so-called “Grumbach feuds” (<i>Grumbachsche Händel</i>), the last +attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of the +territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family, +he was born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some +time at the court of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought +against the peasants during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About +1540 Grumbach became associated with Albert Alcibiades, the +turbulent prince of Bayreuth, whom he served both in peace +and war. After the conclusion of the peace of Passau in 1552, +Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in Franconia +and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy, Melchior +von Zobel, bishop of Würzburg. As a landholder Grumbach +was a vassal of the bishops of Würzburg, and had held office +at the court of Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540 +to 1544. When, however, Zobel was chosen to succeed Conrad +the harmonious relations between lord and vassal were quickly +disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates from the +suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he +decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with +Albert was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert’s career, +however, was checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July +1553 and his subsequent flight into France, and the bishop took +advantage of this state of affairs to seize Grumbach’s lands. +The knight obtained an order of restitution from the imperial +court of justice (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>), but he was unable to +carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of his partisans +seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was +innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he +fled to France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in +person before the diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. +Meanwhile he had found a new patron in John Frederick, +duke of Saxony, whose father, John Frederick, had been obliged +to surrender the electoral dignity to the Albertine branch of his +family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke listened +readily to Grumbach’s plans for recovering the lost dignity, +including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition +of Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were +employed against the duke’s enemies, and communications +from angels were invented which helped to stir up the zeal of +the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked Würzburg, seized and +plundered the city and compelled the chapter and the bishop to +restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the +imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the +emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. +Meanwhile Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the +Saxon elector, Augustus; proclamations were issued calling +for assistance; and alliances both without and within Germany +were concluded. In November 1566 John Frederick was placed +under the ban, which had been renewed against Grumbach +earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against Gotha. +Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the capitulation +of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and, +after being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April +1567.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Ortloff, <i>Geschichte der Grumbachschen Händel</i> (Jena, +1868-1870), and J. Voigt, <i>Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Händel</i> +(Leipzig, 1846-1847).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUMENTUM,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, +33 m. S. of Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. +by the Via Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward +to Heraclea. It seems to have been a native Lucanian town, +not a Greek settlement. In 215 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Carthaginian general +Hanno was defeated under its walls, and in 207 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Hannibal +made it his headquarters. In the Social War it appears as a +strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides at +different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of +Sulla, at latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some +importance. Its site, identified by Holste from the description +of the martyrdom of St Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank +of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960 ft. above sea-level, ½ m. below +the modern Saponara, which lies much higher (2533 ft.). Its +ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of a large amphitheatre +(arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania, except +that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre. Inscriptions +record the repair of its town walls and the construction +of <i>thermae</i> (of which remains were found) in 57-51 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the +construction in 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, of a portico, remains of which may be +seen along an ancient road, at right angles to the main road, +which traversed Grumentum from S. to N.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. P. Caputi in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1877), 129, and G. Patroni, +<i>ibid.</i> (1897) 180.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÜN.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> <span class="sc">Hans Baldung</span> (<i>c.</i> 1470-1545), commonly called +Grün, a German painter of the age of Dürer, was born at Gmünd +in Swabia, and spent the greater part of his life at Strassburg and +Freiburg in Breisgau. The earliest pictures assigned to him are +altarpieces with the monogram H. B. interlaced, and the date +of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden. +Another early work is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian, +drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at +Carlsruhe. The “Martyrdom of St Sebastian” and the “Epiphany” +(Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for +the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased +the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, +when he moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a +series of large compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed +on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew +the freedom of Strassburg in 1517, resided in that city as his +domicile, and died a member of its great town council 1545.</p> + +<p>Though nothing is known of Grün’s youth and education, +it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to +the school of which Dürer was the chief. Gmünd is but +50 m. distant on either side from Augsburg and Nuremberg. +Grün prints were often mistaken for those of Dürer; and +Dürer himself was well acquainted with Grün’s woodcuts and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands +(1520). But Grün’s prints, though Düreresque, are far below +Dürer, and his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute +correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is +often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in +ornament equally profuse and “baroque.” Nothing is more +remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces, +unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is +apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade. +Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the +north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and +heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale +yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a +mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines. +His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic +strength which some of them display. We may pass lightly over +the “Epiphany” of 1507, the “Crucifixion” of 1512, or the +“Stoning of Stephen” of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is +some force in the “Dance of Death” of 1517, in the museum of +Basel, or the “Madonna” of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery +at Vienna. Grün’s best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, +where the “Coronation of the Virgin,” and the “Twelve +Apostles,” the “Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight +into Egypt,” and the “Crucifixion,” with portraits of donors, +are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin +Schön bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter +he is well known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well +as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the +Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning +family of Baden as early as 1514. At a later period he had +sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, +and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is +still in the grand-ducal gallery at Carlsruhe. Like Dürer and +Cranach, Grün became a hearty supporter of the Reformation. +He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his +woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy +Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÜNBERG,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully +situated between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, +and on the railway from Breslau to Stettin via Küstrin, 36 m. +N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905) 20,987. It has a Roman Catholic +and two Evangelical churches, a modern school and a technical +(textiles) school. There are manufactures of cloth, paper, +machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity +of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood, +from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity +of grapes, about 700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured +annually.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1783-1872), +Danish poet, statesman and divine, was born at the parsonage +of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of September 1783. In 1791 he +was sent to live at the house of a priest in Jutland, and studied +at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to the university +of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university life he +made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the position +of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three +years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. +His cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to +Copenhagen in 1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his +lectures and the early poetry of Öhlenschläger opened the eyes +of Grundtvig to the new era in literature. His first work, <i>On the +Songs in the Edda</i>, attracted no attention. Returning to Copenhagen +in 1808 he achieved greater success with his <i>Northern +Mythology</i>, and again in 1809-1811 with a long epic poem, the +<i>Decline of the Heroic Life in the North</i>. The boldness of the +theological views expressed in his first sermon in 1810 offended +the ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish +as his father’s assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published +five or six works, of which the <i>Rhyme of Roskilde</i> is the +most remarkable. From 1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical +journal entitled <i>Dannevirke</i>, and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his +Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo Grammaticus and Snorri. +During these years he was preaching against rationalism to an +enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he accepted in +1821 the country living of Praestö, only to return to the metropolis +the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, <i>The Church’s +Reply</i>, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in +the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted +and fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, +years which he spent in publishing a collection of his theological +works, in paying two visits to England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon. +In 1832 he obtained permission to preach again, and in +1839 he became priest of the workhouse church of Vartov +hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to hold until his death. +In 1837-1841 he published <i>Songs for the Danish Church</i>, a rich +collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a selection +of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon +poem of the <i>Phoenix</i>, with a Danish translation. He +visited England a third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the +first German war Grundtvig took a very prominent part in +politics. In 1861 he received the titular rank of bishop, but +without a see. He went on writing occasional poems till 1866, +and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before +his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he +soon had a following. His hymn-book effected a great change +in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national +poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The +chief characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the +authority of the “living word” for the apostolic commentaries, +and he desired to see each congregation a practically independent +community. His patriotism was almost a part of his religion, +and he established popular schools where the national poetry +and history should form an essential part of the instruction. +His followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three +times, the last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the +2nd of September 1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in +the literature of his country; he has been styled the Danish +Carlyle. He was above all things a man of action, not an artist; +and the formless vehemence of his writings, which have had a +great influence over his own countrymen, is hardly agreeable +or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his poetical works were +published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his eldest son, +Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on +Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of +old Danish poetry (<i>Danmarks gamle Folkeviser</i>, 1853-1883, +5 vols.; completed in 1891 by A. Olrik).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig +(1882); his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schröder +(1888); see also F. Winkel Horn, <i>Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning</i> (1883); +and an article by F. Nielsen in Bricka’s <i>Dansk Biografisk Lexikon</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUNDY, SYDNEY<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1848-  ), English dramatist, was born +at Manchester on the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman +Charles Sydney Grundy. He was educated at Owens College, +Manchester, and was called to the bar in 1869, practising in +Manchester until 1876. His farce, <i>A Little Change</i>, was produced +at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known +as an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction +being <i>The Snowball</i> (Strand Theatre, 1879) from <i>Oscar, ou le +mari qui trompe sa femme</i> by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and +<i>In Honour Bound</i> (1880) from Scribe’s <i>Une Chaîne</i>. In 1887 +he made a popular success with <i>The Bells of Haslemere</i>, written +with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi. In 1889-1890 +he produced two ingenious original comedies, <i>A White Lie</i> +(Court Theatre) and <i>A Fool’s Paradise</i> (Gaiety Theatre), which +had been played two years earlier at Greenwich as <i>The Mouse-Trap</i>. +These were followed by <i>Sowing the Wind</i> (Comedy, 1893), +<i>An Old Jew</i> (Garrick, 1894), and by an adaptation of Octave +Feuillet’s <i>Montjoye as A Bunch of Violets</i> (Haymarket, 1894). In +1894 he produced <i>The New Woman</i> and <i>The Slaves of the Ring</i>; +in 1895, <i>The Greatest of These</i>, played by Mr and Mrs Kendal +at the Garrick Theatre; <i>The Degenerates</i> (Haymarket, 1899), +and <i>A Debt of Honour</i> (St James’s 1900). Among Mr Grundy’s +most successful adaptations were the charming <i>Pair of Spectacles</i> +(Garrick, 1890) from <i>Les Petits Oiseaux</i> of MM. Labiche and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span> +Delacour. Others were <i>A Village Priest</i> (Haymarket, 1890) +from <i>Le Secret de la terreuse</i>, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and +Cauvin; <i>A Marriage of Convenience</i> (Haymarket, 1897) from +<i>Un Mariage de Louis XV</i>, by Alex. Dumas, père, <i>The Silver +Key</i> (Her Majesty’s, 1897) from his <i>Mlle de Belle-isle</i>, and <i>The +Musqueteers</i> (1899) from the same author’s novel; <i>Frocks and +Frills</i> (Haymarket, 1902) from the <i>Doigts de fées</i> of MM. Scribe +and Legouvé; <i>The Garden of Lies</i> (St James’s Theatre, 1904) +from Mr Justus Miles Forman’s novel; <i>Business is Business</i> +(His Majesty’s Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from +Octave Mirbeau’s <i>Les Affaires sont les affaires</i>; and <i>The Diplomatists</i> +(Royalty Theatre, 1905) from <i>La Poudre aux yeux</i>, +by Labiche.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUNDY, MRS,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> the name of an imaginary English character, +who typifies the disciplinary control of the conventional “proprieties” +of society over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of +the opinion of neighbours on the acts of others. The name +appears in a play of Thomas Morton, <i>Speed the Plough</i> (1798), +in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield, continually refers +to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the criterion +of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play, +but is a kind of “Mrs Harris” to Dame Ashfield.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1717-1778), the author of +the first connected attempt to describe in detail the snowy +mountains of Switzerland. His father, Johann Rudolf Gruner +(1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in the Bernese +Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great +collector of information relating to historical and scientific +matters; his great <i>Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius +ditionis Bernensis</i> (4 vols. folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., +but in 1732 he published a small work entitled <i>Deliciae urbis +Bernae</i>, while he possessed an extensive cabinet of natural +history objects. Naturally such tastes had a great influence +on the mind of his son, who was born at Trachselwald, and +educated by his father and at the Latin school at Burgdorf, not +going to Berne much before 1736, when he published a dissertation +on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as a +notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in +1743 accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to +Silesia and the university of Halle. He returned to his native +land before 1749, when he obtained a post at Thorberg, being +transferred in 1764 to Landshut and Fraubrunnen. It was in +1760 that he published in 3 vols. at Berne his chief work, <i>Die +Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes</i> (bad French translation by M. +de Kéralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by +a detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not +so much on personal experience as on older works, and a very +large number of communications received by Gruner from +numerous friends; the third volume deals with glaciers in +general, and their various properties. Though in many respects +imperfect, Gruner’s book sums up all that was known on the +subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later writers. +The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he +republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of +the information contained in his larger work, but thrown into +the form of letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various +spots, under the title of <i>Reisen durch die merkwürdigsten Gegenden +Helvetiens</i> (2 vols.).</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS.<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> The accounts which are given of +this German painter, a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously +contradictory. Between 1518 and 1530, according to statements +adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was commissioned by +Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, to +produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice +and Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted +himself of this duty with such cleverness that the prelate in +after years caused the picture to be rescued from the Reformers +and brought back to Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches +of that city it was taken to the Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. +It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen between four +saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic, and so +like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call +Grünewald Cranach’s master. He also traced the same hand +and technical execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg +and Heilbronn, and in various panels exhibited in the museums +of Mainz, Darmstadt, Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A +later race of critics, declining to accept the statements of Waagen +and Passavant, affirm that there is no documentary evidence to +connect Grünewald with the pictures of Halle and Annaberg, +and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg +to show that Grünewald is the painter of pictures of a different +class. They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece +of Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and +starting from these premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer +and Dürer to the exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the +Palatinate should have been asked to execute pictures for a +church in Saxony can scarcely be accounted strange, since we +observe that Hans Baldung (Grün) was entrusted with a commission +of this kind. But that a painter of Aschaffenburg should +display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed incredible, +unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case documents +are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond +the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the +altarpiece of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching +was altogether different from that of the painter of the pictures +of Halle and Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine +and powerful work, completed as local records show before +1516 by a Swabian, whose distinguishing mark is that he followed +the traditions of Martin Schongauer, and came under the influence +of Altdorfer and Dürer. As a work of art the altarpiece +is important, being a poliptych of eleven panels, a carved central +shrine covered with a double set of wings, and two side pieces +containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits Anthony +and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the Resurrection, +the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St Anthony, +and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author +of these compositions is also the painter of a series of monochromes +described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and +now in part in the Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in +the museum of Basel, registered in Amerbach’s inventory as +the work of Grünewald.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUTER<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gruytère</span>), <b>JAN</b> (1560-1627), a critic and +scholar of Dutch parentage by his father’s side and English by +his mother’s, was born at Antwerp on the 3rd of December +1560. To avoid religious persecution his parents while he was +still young came to England; and for some years he prosecuted +his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden, where +he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history +at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the <i>formula concordiae</i> +he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 +he taught at Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where +in 1602 he was appointed librarian to the university. He died +at Heidelberg on the 20th of September 1627.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gruter’s chief works were his <i>Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis +Romani</i> (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and <i>Lampas, sive fax artium +liberalium</i> (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRUYÈRE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Greyerz</i>), a district in the south-eastern +portion of the Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle +and its cheese, and the original home of the “Ranz des Vaches,” +the melody by which the herdsmen call their cows home at +milking time. It is composed of the middle reach (from Montbovon +to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its +tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the +Trême (left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it +contained 17,364 cattle). It forms an administrative district +of the canton of Fribourg, its population in 1900 being 23,111, +mainly French-speaking and Romanists. From Montbovon +(11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain railways leading +S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the +Sarine valley past Château d’Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), +and by a tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez +on the Lake of Thun. The modern capital of the district is the +small town of Bulle [Ger. <i>Boll</i>], with a 13th-century castle and in +1900 3330 inhabitants, French-speaking and Romanists. But +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> +the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of +<i>Gruyères</i> (which keeps its final “s” in order to distinguish it from +the district), perched on a steep hill (S.E. of Bulle) above the +left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of 2713 ft. above the +sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage road, and +boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the solitary +street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyère, who are +first mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the +word <i>gruyer</i>, meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the +counts bore the canting arms of a crane (<i>grue</i>), which are seen +all over the castle and the town. That valiant family ended +(in the legitimate line) with Count Michel (d. 1575) whose extravagance +and consequent indebtedness compelled him in 1555 to +sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern took the upper +Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in 1798 lost +the Pays d’En-Haut to the canton du Léman, which in 1803 +became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the +county, which it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from +the bishop of Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun +or Jogne valley (bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to +form the present administrative district of Gruyère, which is +not co-extensive with the historical county of that name.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in successive +vols. of the <i>Mémoires et documents de la suisse romande ... +introa. à l’hist.</i> (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and Monuments +de l’histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten, +<i>Briefe über ein schweiz. Hirtenland</i> (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J. +Reichlen, <i>La Gruyère illustrée</i> (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, <i>La Gruyère</i> +(1867); and <i>Les Alpes fribourgeoises</i>, by many authors (Lausanne, +1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRYNAEUS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gryner</span>), <b>JOHANN JAKOB</b> (1540-1617), +Swiss Protestant divine, was born on the 1st of October 1540 at +Bern. His father, Thomas (1512-1564), was for a time professor +of ancient languages at Basel and Bern, but afterwards became +pastor of Röteln in Baden. He was nephew of the more eminent +Simon Grynaeus (<i>q.v.</i>). Johann was educated at Basel, and in +1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he +proceeded to Tübingen for the purpose of completing his theological +studies, and in 1565 he returned to Röteln as successor +to his father. Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran +doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, and to renounce the <i>formula +concordiae</i>. Called in 1575 to the chair of Old Testament +exegesis at Basel, he became involved in unpleasant controversy +with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran orthodoxy; +and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the +restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel +in 1586, after Simon Sulzer’s death, as <i>antistes</i> or superintendent +of the church there and as professor of the New Testament, he +exerted for upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence +upon both the church and the state affairs of that community, +and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of the +school of Ulrich Zwingli. Amongst other labours he helped to +reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. Five years before his death +he became totally blind, but continued to preach and lecture +till his death on the 13th of August 1617.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His many works include commentaries on various books of the +Old and New Testament, <i>Theologica theoremata el problemata</i> (1588), +and a collection of patristic literature entitled <i>Monumenta S. patrum +orthodoxographa</i> (2 vols., fol., 1569).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRYNAEUS, SIMON<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian +of the Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian +peasant, was born in 1493 at Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. +He adopted the name Grynaeus from the epithet +of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with Melanchthon +at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna, +distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His +appointment as rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; +his views excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he +was thrown into prison. Gaining his freedom at the instance +of Hungarian magnates, he visited Melanchthon at Wittenberg, +and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the university of +Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526. +His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with +his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with +Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus +had just left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus +pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research +in libraries. A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him +the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel +charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental +reformers on the subject of Henry VIII.’s divorce, and was +present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1531). He now, +while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary +professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New +Testament. In 1534 Duke Ulrich called him to Württemberg in +aid of the reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of +the university of Tübingen, which he carried out in concert with +Ambrosius Blarer of Constanz. Two years later he had an active +hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession (the work of +Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the conferences +which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord +(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics +and Protestants he was the sole representative of the Swiss +churches, being deputed by the authorities of Basel. He was +carried off suddenly in his prime by the plague at Basel on the +1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar, a mediating theologian, +and personally of lovable temperament, his influence was great +and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among his +correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch, +Aristotle and Chrysostom.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Samuel</span> (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence +at Basel. His nephew <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (1512?-1564) was professor at +Basel and minister in Baden, and left four distinguished sons +of whom <span class="sc">Johann Jakob</span> (1540-1617) was a leader in the religious +affairs of Basel. The last of the direct descendants of Simon +Grynaeus was his namesake <span class="sc">Simon</span> (1725-1799), translator into +German of French and English anti-deistical works, and author +of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bayle’s <i>Dictionnaire</i>; W. T. Streuber in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(1899); and for bibliography, Streuber’s <i>S. Grynaei epistolae</i> +(1847).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1616-1664), German lyric poet and +dramatist, was born on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau +in Silesia, where his father was a clergyman. The family name +was Greif, latinized, according to the prevailing fashion, as +Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from his native +town by the troubles of the Thirty Years’ War, he received his +schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he +enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became +tutor to the sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schönborn +(1579-1637), a man of wide culture and considerable wealth, +who, after filling various administrative posts and writing many +erudite volumes on law, had been rewarded by the emperor +Ferdinand II. with the title and office of imperial count-palatine +(<i>Pfalzgraf</i>). Schönborn, who recognized Gryphius’s genius, +crowned him <i>poëta laureatus</i>, gave him the diploma of master +of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility, though +Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of +December 1637, Schönborn died; and next year Gryphius went +to continue his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years, +both hearing and delivering lectures. Here he fell under the +influence of the great Dutch dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft +(1581-1647) and Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679), who largely +determined the character of his later dramatic works. After +travelling in France, Italy and South Germany, Gryphius settled +in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work, and in +1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his +death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had +been admitted under the title of “The Immortal” into the +<i>Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft</i>, a literary society, founded in 1617 +by Ludwig, prince of Anhalt-Köthen on the model of the Italian +academies.</p> + +<p>Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy +temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, +is largely reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span> +<i>Kirchhofsgedanken</i> (1656). His best works are his comedies, +one of which, <i>Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz</i> (1663), +is evidently based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe +in <i>The Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>. <i>Die geliebte Dornrose</i> (1660), +which is written in a Silesian dialect, contains many touches of +natural simplicity and grace, and ranks high among the comparatively +small number of German dramas of the 17th century. +<i>Horribilicribrifax</i> (1663), founded on the <i>Miles gloriosus</i> of +Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides +these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of +them his tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he +had the merit of at least attempting to work out artistically +conceived plans, and there are occasional flashes both of passion +and of imagination. His models seem to have been Seneca and +Vondel. He had the courage, in <i>Carolus Stuardus</i> (1649) to deal +with events of his own day; his other tragedies are <i>Leo Armenius</i> +(1646); <i>Katharina von Georgien</i> (1657), <i>Cardenio und Celinde</i> +(1657) and <i>Papinianus</i> (1663). No German dramatic writer +before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy +successors until about the middle of the 18th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of Gryphius’s dramas and lyric poetry has +been published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische +Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will +be found in W. Muller’s <i>Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten +Jahrhunderts</i> (1822) and in J. Tittmann’s <i>Deutsche Dichter des 17ten +Jahrhunderts</i> (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in +Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>.</p> + +<p>See O. Klopp, <i>Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker</i> (1851); J. Hermann, +<i>Über Andreas Gryphius</i> (1851); T. Wissowa, <i>Beiträge zur +Kenntnis von Andreas Gryphius’ Leben und Schriften</i> (1876); J. +Wysocki, <i>Andreas Gryphius et la tragédie allemande au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i>; and V. Mannheimer, <i>Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUACHARO<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying +one that cries, moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American +name of what English writers call the oil-bird, the <i>Steatornis +caripensis</i> of ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described +by Alexander von Humboldt (<i>Voy. aux rég. équinoxiales</i> +i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119; <i>Obs. Zoologie</i> ii. 141, pl. xliv.) +from his own observation and from examples obtained by +Aimé J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two travellers, in +September 1799, to a cave near Caripé (at that time a monastery +of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumaná +on the northern coast of South America. A few years later it +was discovered, says Latham (<i>Gen. Hist. Birds</i>, 1823, vii. 365), +to inhabit Trinidad, where it appears to bear the name of <i>Diablotin</i>;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +but by the receipt of specimens procured at Sarayacu +in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes, and Antioquia +in Colombia (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1878, pp. 139, 140; 1879, +p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had +been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious +habits, and its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted +no little attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus +<i>Caprimulgus</i>, its original describer soon saw that it was no true +goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a subfamily, +and has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct +family, <i>Steatornithidae</i>—a view which, though not put forth till +1870 (<i>Zool. Record</i>, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed +correct. Its systematic position, however, can scarcely be +considered settled, for though on the whole its predominating +alliance may be with the <i>Caprimulgidae</i>, nearly as much affinity +may be traced to the <i>Strigidae</i>, while it possesses some characters +in which it differs from both (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1873, pp. +526-535). About as big as a crow, its plumage exhibits the +blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey, barred and pencilled +with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places with white, +that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is hard, +strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the +gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs +and toes are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In +habits the guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day +in deep and dark caverns which it frequents in vast numbers. +Towards evening it arouses itself, and, with croaking and +clattering which has been likened to that of castanets, it +approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it issues +in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists entirely +of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera <i>Achras</i>, +<i>Aiphanas</i>, <i>Laurus</i> and <i>Psichotria</i>, some of them sought, it would +seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (<i>Bull. Acad. Sc. Bruxelles</i> +xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he +obtained at Caripé he found the seed of a tree which he believed +did not grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible +seed swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the +floor and the ledges of the caverns it frequents, where many of +them for a time vegetate, the plants thus growing being etiolated +from want of light, and, according to travellers, forming a +singular feature of the gloomy scene which these places present. +The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, in which +it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but lustreless +surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after +they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in +the nest are sought by the Indians, who at Caripé, and perhaps +elsewhere, make a special business of taking them and extracting +the oil they contain. This is done about midsummer, when +by the aid of torches and long poles many thousands of the +young birds are slaughtered, while their parents in alarm and +rage hover over the destroyers’ heads, uttering harsh and +deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the +cavern’s mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use +in cooking as well as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be +pure and limpid, free from any disagreeable taste or smell, and +capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid. In +Trinidad the young are esteemed s great delicacy for the table +by many, though some persons object to their peculiar scent, +which resembles that of a cockroach (<i>Blatta</i>), and consequently +refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C. +Taylor (<i>Ibis</i>, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But +one species of the genus <i>Steatornis</i> is known.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about +this curious bird may be found under the following references: +L’Herminier, <i>Ann. Sc. Nat.</i> (1836), p. 60, and <i>Nouv. Ann. Mus.</i> +(1838), p. 321; Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Müller, +<i>Monatsb. Berl. Acad.</i> (1841), p. 172, and <i>Archiv für Anat.</i> (1862), +pp. 1-11; des Murs, <i>Rev. zool.</i> (1843), p. 32, and <i>Ool. Orn.</i> pp. 260-263; +Blanchard, <i>Ann. Mus.</i> (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; König-Warthausen, +<i>Journ. für Orn.</i> (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, <i>Vargasia</i> +(1869), pp. 124-128; Murie, <i>Ibis</i> (1873), pp. 81-86.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French +Antilles, which is a petrel (<i>Oestrelata</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUACO,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> <span class="sc">Huaco</span> or <span class="sc">Guao</span>, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms +applied to various Central and South American and West Indian +plants, in repute for curative virtues. The Indians and negroes +of Colombia believe the plants known to them as guaco to +have been so named after a species of kite, thus designated in +imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it the snakes +that serve it principally for food; they further hold the tradition +that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the +observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads +the juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its +prey. The disputes that have arisen as to what is “the true +guaco” are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names +of the American Indians for all natural objects are generic, and +their genera not always in coincidence with those of naturalists. +Thus any twining plant with a heart-shaped leaf, white and green +above and purple beneath, is called by them guaco (R. Spruce, +in Howard’s <i>Neueva Quinologia</i>, “Cinchona succirubra,” p. 22, +note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia as +guaco, or <i>Vejuco del guaco</i>, would appear to be <i>Mikania Guaco</i> +(Humboldt and Bonpland, <i>Pl. équinox</i>, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809), +a climbing Composite plant of the tribe <i>Eupatoriaceae</i>, affecting +moist and shady situations, and having a much-branched and +deep-growing root, variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white +flowers, in axillary clusters. The whole plant emits a +disagreeable odour. It is stated that the Indians of Central +America, after having “guaconized” themselves, <i>i.e.</i> taken +guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which +writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann, +<i>Hooker’s Journ. of Bot.</i> v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span> +has been said to cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity; +and Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod +steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous <i>Coluber +corallinus</i>, was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the +perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. +The drug is not used in modern therapeutics.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADALAJARA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> an inland city of Mexico and capital of the +state of Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, +in lat. 20° 41′ 10″ N., long. 103° 21′ 15″ W. Pop. (1895) +83,934; (1900) 101,208. Guadalajara is served by a short +branch of the Mexican Central railway from Irapuato. +The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande de +Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and +healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well +built, with straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas, +public gardens and shady promenades. Its public services +include tramways and electric lighting, the Juanacatlán falls +of the Rio Grande near the city furnishing the electric power. +Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its cathedral, built between +1571 and 1618, is one of the largest and most elaborately +decorated churches in Mexico. The government palace, which +like the cathedral faces upon the <i>plaza mayor</i>, is generally +considered one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture +in Mexico. Other important edifices and institutions are the +university, with its schools of law and medicine, the mint, built +in 1811, the modern national college and high schools, a public +library of over 28,000 volumes, an episcopal seminary, an +academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and the large modern +granite building of the penitentiary. There are many interesting +churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city. +Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, +among which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for +the aged, infirm, blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans, +a primary school for both sexes, and a girls’ training school, +and the Hospital de San Miguel de Belen, which is a hospital, +an insane asylum, and a school for little children. One of the +most popular public resorts of the city is the <i>Paseo</i>, a beautiful +drive and promenade extending along both banks of the Rio San +Juan de Dios for 1¼ m. and terminating in the <i>alameda</i>, or public +garden. The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs +and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara +is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an important +commercial town, but the city is chiefly distinguished as the +centre of the iron, steel and glass industries of Mexico. It is also +widely known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the +Indians of the city and of its suburb, San Pedro. Among other +prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton and woollen +goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara +was founded in 1531 by Nuño de Guzman, and became the seat +of a bishop in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the +scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in +January 1811. The severe earthquake of the 31st of May 1818 +partially destroyed the two cathedral steeples; and that of the +11th of March 1875 damaged many of the larger buildings. The +population includes large Indian and mestizo elements.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADALAJARA,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 +of districts taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by +Segovia, Soria and Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, +S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, +4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of Guadalajara rise the +lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the peaks of La +Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the +province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs +to the elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly +undulating surface, which forms the upper basin of the river +Tagus, and is watered by its tributaries the Tajuña, Henares, +Jarama and Gallo. The climate of this region, as of Castile +generally, is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold +and summer heat; the soil varies very much in quality, but +is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands of the +Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests +which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction; +and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep +and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry. +Grain, olive oil, wine, saffron, silk and flax are produced, but +agriculture makes little progress, owing to defective communications +and unscientific farming. In 1903, the only +minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the total +output of the mines was valued at £25,000. Deposits of iron, +lead and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but +their exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the +19th century. Trade is stagnant and the local industries are +those common to almost all Spanish towns and villages, such as +the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery. The Madrid-Saragossa +railway traverses the province for 70 m.; the roads +are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the capital, +and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina +de Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras +de Molina (2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo, +a tributary of the Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural +centre. Siguënza, on the railway, is an episcopal city, with a +fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the 11th century. It +is probably the ancient <i>Segontia</i>, founded in 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by refugees +from Saguntum. The population of the province, which numbers +only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and 1900, +and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castile</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADALAJARA,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> the capital of the Spanish province of +Guadalajara, on the left bank of the river Henares, and on +the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35 m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. +(1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque town, occupying +a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A Roman +aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in +1758 across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under +Roman and Visigothic rule it was known as <i>Arriaca</i> or <i>Caraca</i>; +its present name, which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles +as <i>Godelfare</i>, represents the <i>Wad-al-hajarah</i>, or “Valley of +Stones,” of the Moors, who occupied the town from 714 until +1081, when it was captured by Alvar Yañez de Minaya, a comrade +of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa Maria contains +the image of the “Virgin of Battles,” which accompanied +Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-1109) on his campaigns against +the Moors; and there are several other ancient and interesting +churches in Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the +15th century, and built with that blend of Christian and Moorish +architecture which Spaniards call the <i>Mudéjar</i> style. The more +important of these is the palace of the ducal house del Infantado, +formerly owned by the Mendoza family, whose <i>panteon</i>, or +mausoleum, added between 1696 and 1720 to the 13th-century +church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich sculpture +of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585, +and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., +early in the 18th century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of +soap, leather, woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the +original cloth-weaving industry for which Guadalajara was long +celebrated; there is also a considerable trade in agricultural +produce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADALQUIVIR<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (ancient <i>Baetis</i>, Moorish <i>Wadi al Kebir</i>, “the +Great River”), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as +the main stream rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the +Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra del Pozo, in the province of Jaen. +It does not become a large river until it is joined by the Guadiana +Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, and the Guadalimar on the +right. Lower down it receives many tributaries, the chief being +the Genil or Jenil, from the left. The general direction of the +river is west by south, but a few miles above Seville it changes +to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series of broad +fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the +Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the +western 31 <span class="correction" title="amended from M.">m.</span>, the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main +stream on the borders of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlúcar +the river enters the Atlantic after a total course of 360 m. +It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m. Though the shortest of the great +rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one which flows at all seasons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span> +with a full stream, being fed in winter by the rains, in summer by +the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the time of the Moors +it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the accumulation +of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to Seville +by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADELOUPE,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a French colony in the West Indies, lying +between the British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica +on the S., between 15° 59′ and 16° 20′ N. and 61° 31′ and 61° 50′ +W. It consists of two entirely distinct islands, separated by a +narrow arm of the sea, Rivière Salée (Salt river), varying from +100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and navigable for small vessels. The +western island, a rugged mass of ridges, peaks and lofty uplands, +is called Basse-Terre, while the eastern and smaller island, the +real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. A sinuous ridge runs +through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west rises the +peak of Grosse Montagne (2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs radiate +in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the twin +heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south +the highest elevation is attained in La Soufrière (4900 ft.). In +1797 this volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid +several towns in ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras +emitting vapour are now its only signs of activity. The range +terminates in the extreme south in the jagged peak of Caraibe +(2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely beautiful, its cloud-capped +mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant vegetation. +On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 ft., and this +island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It consists of +a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand +and broken shells known as <i>maconne de bon dieu</i>, much used for +building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe +on the north is called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the +south being Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin. Basse-Terre (364 sq. m.) +is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.) +is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular shape, with a long +peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the south-eastern +extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number +of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden +floods (locally called <i>galions</i>), but Grande-Terre is practically +destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost +entirely from ponds and cisterns.</p> + +<p>The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old +eruptive rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the +great volcanic cones, together with mechanical deposits derived +from the denudation of the older rocks. Grande-Terre on the +other hand, consists chiefly of nearly horizontal limestones +lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes, the whole +belonging to the early part of the Tertiary system (probably +Eocene and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and limestone +of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds; +and near the coast there are raised coral reefs of modern date.</p> + +<p>The mean annual temperature is 78° F., and the minimum +61° F., and the maximum 101° F. From July to November +heavy rains fall, the annual average on the coast being 86 in., +while in the interior it is much greater. Guadeloupe is subject +to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane destroyed the town of +Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante suffered a +like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar having long +been its staple product. The other crops include cereals, cocoa, +cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and +bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the +total area is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is +under sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-à-Pitre +and Le Moule, where there are well-equipped <i>usines</i>, and +there is also a large <i>usine</i> at Basse-Terre. The forests, confined +to the island of Basse-Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable +woods, but, being difficult of access, are not worked. Salt and +sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in addition to the +sugar <i>usines</i>, there are factories for the making of rum, liqueurs, +chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. France +takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United +States, Great Britain and India are the countries most interested +in the import trade.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials +and planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French +possessions in India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These +mulattoes are famous for their grace and beauty of both form +and feature. The women greatly outnumber the men, and there +is a very large percentage of illegitimate births. Pop. (1900) +182,112.</p> + +<p>The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the +interior, a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is +also an elected legislative council of 30 members. The colony +forms a department of France and is represented in the French +parliament by a senator and two deputies. Political elections +are very eagerly contested, the mulatto element always striving +to gain the preponderance of power.</p> + +<p>The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and +of the court of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated +on the south-west coast of the island of that name. It is +a picturesque, healthy town standing on an open roadstead. +Pointe-à-Pitre (17,242), the largest town, lies in Grande-Terre +near the mouth of the Rivière Salée. Its excellent harbour has +made it the chief port and commercial capital of the colony. +Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a +considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour. +Of the other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne à l’Eau (8442), Petit +Canal (6748), St François (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois +Rivières (5016), are the most important.</p> + +<p>Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, +La Desirade, 6 m. E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; +Marie Galante 16 m. S.E. Les Saintes, a group of seven small +islands, 7 m. S., one of the strategic points of the Antilles, +with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval harbour; St +Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew, 130 m. N.N.W.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, +and received its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria +de Guadalupe at Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l’Olive and +Duplessis took possession of it in the name of the French Company +of the Islands of America, and l’Olive exterminated the Caribs +with great cruelty. Four chartered companies were ruined in +their attempts to colonize the island, and in 1674 it passed +into the possession of the French crown and long remained a +dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, +1691 and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and +held it for four years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from +Martinique in 1775, but it remained under the governor of the +French Windward Islands. In 1782 Rodney defeated the French +fleet near the island, and the British again obtained possession +in April 1794, but in the following summer they were driven out +by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had +liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul, +sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery, +but, after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide +to submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British +once more occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to +Sweden by the treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, +they did not withdraw till 1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the +code of laws peculiar to the island was introduced. Municipal +institutions were established in 1837; and slavery was finally +abolished in 1848.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1758-1794), French Revolutionist, +was born at St Émilion near Bordeaux on the 20th +of July 1758. When the Revolution broke out he had already +gained a reputation as a brilliant advocate at Bordeaux. In +1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791 +president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected +to the Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of +deputies known subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As +a supporter of the constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin +club, and here and in the Assembly became an eloquent advocate +of all the measures directed against real or supposed traitors to +the constitution. He bitterly attacked the ministers of Louis +XVI., and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept +the Girondist ministry of the 15th of March 1792. He was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI. into +harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal +of the king’s non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all +non-juring priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal +guard (May 30), and the formation in Paris of a camp of <i>fédérés</i> +(June 4). He remained a royalist, however, and with Gensonné +and Vergniaud even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a +private interview. Whatever negotiations may have resulted, +however, were cut short by the insurrection of the 10th of +August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part +of this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the +insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion +that on the 30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution—a +decision reversed on the following day. In September Guadet +was returned by a large majority as deputy to the Convention. +At the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for an appeal to the people +and for the death sentence, but with a respite pending appeal. +In March 1793 he had several conferences with Danton, who was +anxious to bring about a <i>rapprochement</i> between the Girondists +and the Mountain during the war in La Vendée, but he unconditionally +refused to join hands with the man whom he held +responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall +of the Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of +June 1793, he fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father’s +house at St Émilion. He was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, +where, after his identity had been established, he was guillotined +on the 17th of June 1794.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Guadet, <i>Les Girondins</i> (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, +<i>Les Orateurs de la législative et de la convention</i> (Paris, 2nd ed., 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADIANA<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (anc. <i>Anas</i>, Moorish <i>Wadi Ana</i>), a river of Spain +and Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the +lowland known as the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small +lakes, the Lagunas de Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly +in Albacete), are linked together by the Guadiana Alto or Upper +Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward from the last +lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river Zancara +or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, +the Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of +several large springs, which form numerous lakes near the +Zancara and are known as the “eyes of the Guadiana” (<i>los +ojos de Guadiana</i>). The stream which connects them with the +Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower Guadiana. It is +now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but +flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true +“Upper Guadiana.” The Zancara rises near the source of the +Júcar, in the east of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it +flows westward, assuming the name of Guadiana near Ciudad +Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier 6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. +In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of foaming rapids, +and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from its mouth. +From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary +between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, +where it receives the small river Priega Muñoz on the left, and +passes into Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction. +At Pomarão it again becomes a frontier stream and forms a +broad estuary 25 m. long. It enters the Gulf of Cadiz between +the Portuguese town of Villa Real de Santo Antonio and the +Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m. Its mouth +is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana +drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal tributaries are +the Zujar, Jabalón, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the +Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, Degebe and Cobres from the right.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Guadiana Menor</span> (or <i>Guadianamenor</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “Lesser +Guadiana”) rises in the Sierra Nevada, receives two large +tributaries, the Fardes from the right and Barbata from the left, +and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda, after a course of 95 m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADIX,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; +on the left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the +Guadiana Menor, and on the Madrid-Valdepeñas-Almería railway. +Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix occupies part of an elevated plateau +among the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded +by ancient walls, and was formerly dominated by a +Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of great +antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the site +of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was +once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures +(chiefly earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable. +It has some trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The +warm mineral springs of Graena, much frequented during the +summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the +Roman <i>Acci</i>, and, according to tradition, the seat of the first +Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it rose to some +importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and was +renamed <i>Wad Ash</i>, “Water of Life.” It was surrendered without +a siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUADUAS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a town of the department of Cundinamarca, +Colombia, 53 m. N.W. of Bogotá on the old road between that +city and the Magdalena river port of Honda. Pop. (1900, +estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood. It stands +in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the +Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, +which is that of the South American bamboo (<i>guaduas</i>), found +in great abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are +cultivated in the vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced +in great abundance. The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above +the sea, and it has a remarkably uniform temperature throughout +the whole year. Guaduas has a pretty church facing upon its +<i>plaza</i>, and an old monastery now used for secular purposes. +The importance of the town sprang from its position on the old +<i>camino real</i> between Bogotá and Honda, an importance that has +passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot +to the Bogotá plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAIACUM,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a genus of trees of the natural order <i>Zygophyllaceae</i>. +The guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. <i>Guajakbaum</i>, +<i>Franzosenbaum</i>, <i>Pockenholzbaum</i>; Fr. <i>Gayac</i>, <i>Gaïac</i>), +<i>G. officinale</i>, is a native of the West Indies and the north coast +of South America, where it attains a height of 20 to 30 ft. Its +branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; the leaves +opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules, +and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, +more rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), +and have 5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals +three times the length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled +superior ovary. The fruit is about ¾ in. long, with a leathery +pericarp, and contains in each of its two cells a single seed +(see fig.). <i>G. sanctum</i> grows in the Bahamas and Cuba, and at +Key West in Florida. It is distinguished from <i>G. officinale</i> by +its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4 to 5 pairs, by its +shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and 5-winged fruit. +<i>G. arboreum</i>, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found in the valley +of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) above +sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a +yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent +fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit +is dry and 4-winged.</p> + +<p>The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high +repute as a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known +as <i>lignum sanctum</i> and <i>lignum Indicum</i>, <i>lignum guaycanum</i>, or +simply <i>guayacan</i>, is procured from <i>G. officinale</i>, and in smaller +amount from <i>G. sanctum</i>. It is exported in large logs or blocks, +generally divested of bark, and presents in transverse section +very slightly marked concentric rings of growth, and scarcely +any traces of pith; with the aid of a magnifying glass the +medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very numerous. +The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow +hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen, +which is by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown, +contains in its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of +1.333, and therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum +floats. Owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the +successive layers of its fibres, the wood cannot be split; and on +account of its hardness, density and durability it is much valued +for the manufacture of ships’ pulleys, rulers, skittle-balls, +mallets and other articles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:388px" src="images/img647.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Bentley & Trimen’s <i>Medicinal Plants</i>, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, <i>Guaiacum officinale</i> shoot-bearing leaves +and flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the +solitary pendulous seed in each chamber. All about ½ natural size.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Chips or turnings of the heartwood of <i>G. officinale</i> (<i>guaiaci +lignum</i>) are employed in the preparation of the <i>liquor sarsae +compositus concentratus</i> of British pharmacy. They may be +recognized by being either yellow of greenish-brown in colour, +and by turning bluish-green when treated with nitric acid, or +when heated with corrosive sublimate, and green with solution +of chloride of lime. They are occasionally adulterated with +boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from +St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much +calcium oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum +resin, the <i>guaiaci resina</i> of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the +wood as an exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by +heating billets about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow +of the resin; or by boiling chips and raspings in water to which +salt has been added to raise the temperature of ebullition. It +occurs in rounded or oval tears, commonly coated with a greyish-green +dust, and supposed to be the produce of <i>G. sanctum</i>, or in large +brownish or greenish-brown masses, translucent at the edges; +fuses at 85° C.; is brittle, and has a vitreous fracture, and a slightly +balsamic odour, increased by pulverization and by heat; and is at +first tasteless when chewed, but produces subsequently a sense of +heat in the throat. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, +creosote, oil of cloves and solutions of caustic alkalies; and its +solution gives a blue colour with gluten, raw potato parings and the +roots of horse-radish, carrot and various other plants. The alcoholic +tincture becomes green with sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric +acid turns in succession green, blue and brown. With glycerin it +gives a clear solution, and with nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous +mass. It is blued by various oxidizing agents, <i>e.g.</i> ozone, and, as +Schönbein discovered, by the juice of certain fungi. The chief +constituents are three distinct resins, <i>guaiaconic acid</i>, C<span class="su">19</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">5</span> +(70%), <i>guaiac acid</i>, which is closely allied to benzoic acid, and +<i>guaiaretic acid</i>. Like all resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble +in alkalies, but precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.</p> + +<p>Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards +in 1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, <i>De morbo +gallico</i>, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons +in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of +the resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in +Thomas Paynel’s translation (<i>Of the Wood called Guaiacum</i>, &c., +p. 9, ed. of 1540) of Ulrich von Hutten’s treatise <i>De morbi gallici +curatione per administrationem ligni guaiaci</i> (1519) we read of the +wood: “There followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which +we yet knowe not, for what pourpose it serueth.” Flückiger and +Hanbury (<i>Pharmacographia</i>, p. 95) state that the first edition of +the <i>London Pharmacopoeia</i> in which they find the resin mentioned +is that of 1677. The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, +the stone, palsy, leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, +but principally in the “morbus gallicus,” or syphilis, for which it +was reckoned a certain specific, insomuch that at first “the physitions +wolde not allowe it, perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde +decay therby” (Paynel, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 8). Minute instructions are +given in old works as to the mode of administering guaiacum. +The patient was confined in a closed and heated chamber, was +placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after liberal purgation, was +made twice a day to drink a milk-warm decoction of the wood. The +use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction of 1 ℔ of +guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days of the +treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum +came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson +(<i>Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. in +the Cure of Lues Venerea</i>, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:—“I never +saw one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradicated +the venereal virus.” He found its beneficial effects to be most +marked in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given +medicinally in doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in +the British Pharmacopoeia are the <i>mistura guiaci</i> (dose ½-1 oz.), +the ammoniated tincture of guaiacum (dose ½-1 drachm), in which +the resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or +lozenge, containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly +of value when given early in cases of sore throat, especially +of rheumatic origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used.</p> + +<p>Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in +being less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts +remote stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It +affects the bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.</p> + +<p>The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the +mixture, according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective +than the tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly +than other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment +of chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of +this drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and +in other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination +with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate. +Guaiacum is not now used in the treatment of syphilis.</p> + +<p>The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the +presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter +of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first suggested +by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A <i>single drop</i> of the +tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. +The resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If “ozonic +ether”—an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide—be now poured +gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along +the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due +to the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen—such +oxidation occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an +oxygen-carrier.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUALDO TADINO<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (anc. <i>Tadinum</i>, 1 m. to the W.), a town +and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in +the province of Perugia, 22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), +town, 4440; commune, 10,756. The suffix Tadino distinguishes +it from Gualdo in the province of Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, +S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good rose-window and +possesses, like several of the other churches, 15th-century +paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolò Alunno. +The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum +lay 1 m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the +Eugubine tablets (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iguvium</a></span>) as a hostile city against which +imprecations are directed. In its neighbourhood Narses defeated +and slew Totila in 552. No ruins are now visible, though they +seem to have been extant in the 17th century. The new town +seems to have been founded in 1237. It was at first independent, +but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became dependent +on the duchy of Spoleto.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUALEGUAY,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a flourishing town and river port of the province +of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river, +32 m. above its confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Paraná, +and about 120 m. N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810. +The Gualeguay is the largest of the Entre Rios rivers, traversing +almost the whole length of the province from N. to S., but it is +of but slight service in the transportation of produce except the +few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as Puerto Ruiz, +is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the +town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios +railways at the station of Tala. The principal industry in this +region is that of stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of +cattle, jerked beef, hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins. +Wood and charcoal are also exported to Buenos Aires. The +town was founded in 1783.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUALEGUAYCHÚ,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a prosperous commercial and industrial +town and port of the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, +on the left bank of the Gualeguaychú river, 11 m. above its +confluence with the Uruguay, and 120 m. N. of Buenos Aires. +Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of a department +of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the +mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span> +compels the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town +is surrounded by a rich grazing country, and exports cattle, +jerked beef, mutton, hides, pelts, tallow, wool and various +by-products. A branch line running N. connects with the Entre +Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was founded in +1783.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUALO, CARDINAL<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope +Innocent III. in 1216. He supported John with all the weight +of papal authority. After John’s death he crowned the infant +Henry III. and played an active part in organizing resistance +to the rebels led by Louis of France, afterwards king Louis VIII. +As representing the pope, the suzerain of Henry, he claimed the +regency and actually divided the chief power with William +Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against +Louis and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced +Louis to make a public and humiliating profession of penitence +(1217). He punished the rebellious clergy severely, and ruled +the church with an absolute hand till his departure from England +in 1218. Gualo’s character has been severely criticized by English +writers; but his chief offence seems to have been that of representing +unpopular papal claims.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAM<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Span. <i>Guajan</i>; <i>Guahan</i>, in the native Chamorro), +the largest and most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, +in the North Pacific, in 13° 26′ N. lat. and 144° 39′ E. long., +about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong Kong, and about 1450 m. E. +of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 11,360, of whom 363 were foreigners, +140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam extends about +30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about +6½ m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau +from 300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and +highest along the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly +in bluffs and headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N. +extremity, has an elevation of 840 ft. A range of hills from +700 to nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses the S. portion from +N. to S. a little W. of the middle—Mt Jumullong Mangloc, the +highest peak, has an elevation of 1274 ft. Between the foot of the +steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling +lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of +five rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope +toward the sea, and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra +(formerly San Luis d’Apra) on the middle W. coast is the only good +harbour; it is about 3½ m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms, +and is divided into an inner and an outer harbour by a peninsula +and an island. It serves as a naval station and as a port of transit +between America and the Philippines, at which army transports +call monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe and pigeon +are abundant game, and several varieties of fish are caught. +Some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegetation, +and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with +sword grass, but in the valleys and on the lower portions of the +plateaus there is valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich +soil; in lower parts of the highlands raised coralliferous limestone +with a light covering of soil appears, and in the higher parts the +soil is entirely of clay and silt. The climate is agreeable and +healthy. From December to June the N.E. trade winds prevail +and the rainfall is relatively light; during the other six months +the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season. Destructive +typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island +is thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the +possible exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under +cultivation, and most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief +products being cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A +United States Agricultural Experiment Station in Guam (at +Agaña) was provided for in 1908.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock, +strongly intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards; +their speech is a dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and +Spanish. There are very few full-blood Chamorros. The +aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany or chocolate +colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in Agaña. +The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor, but +their condition has been improved under American rule. Public +schools have been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700. +On the island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only +after American occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be +peculiar to Guam and the neighbouring islands; it is due to +a specific bacillus and usually destroys the nasal septum. The +victims of this disease also are segregated. There is a good general +hospital.</p> + +<p>Agaña (or San Ignacio de Agaña) is the capital and principal +town; under the Spanish régime it was the capital of the +Ladrones. It is about 5 m. N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of +Apra harbour and port of entry, with which it is connected by +an excellent road. Agaña has paved streets and sewer and water +systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti, Sumay, +Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a “naval +governor,” an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of +the naval station. The island is divided into four administrative +districts, each with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo +(commissioner), and there are a court of appeals, a court of first +instance and courts of justices of the peace. Peonage was +abolished in the island by the United States in February 1900. +Telegraphic communication with the Caroline Islands was +established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending at +the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour.</p> + +<p>Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied +by Spain in 1688, was captured by the United States cruiser +“Charleston” in June 1899, and was ceded to the United States +by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of December 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A List of Books</i> (<i>with References to Periodicals</i>) <i>on Samoa and +Guam</i> (1901; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, “The +Island of Guam,” in <i>Bulletin of the American Geographical Society</i>, +vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, <i>Report on the +Island of Guam</i>, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123); +F. W. Christian, <i>The Caroline Islands</i> (London, 1899); an account +of the flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the +National Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports +of the naval governor.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAN,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist’s +vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> who said that a +bird he figured (<i>Nat. Hist. Uncommon Birds</i>, pl. xiii.) was +“so called in the West Indies,” and the name has hence been +generally applied to all the members of the subfamily <i>Penelopinae</i>, +which are distinguished from the kindred subfamily <i>Cracinae</i> +or curassows by the broad postacetabular area of the pelvis +as pointed out by Huxley (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1868, p. 297) +as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high, with its +culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils bare—the +last two characters separating the <i>Penelopinae</i> from the +<i>Oreophasinae</i>, which form the third subfamily of the <i>Cracidae</i>,<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a +family belonging to that taxonomer’s division <i>Peristeropodes</i> +of the order <i>Gallinae</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Penelopinae</i> have been separated into seven genera, of +which <i>Penelope</i> and <i>Ortalis</i>, containing respectively about +sixteen and nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering +from one to three only. Into their minute differences it would be +useless to enter: nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and +from that of many of them hangs a wattle; but one form, +<i>Chamaepetes</i>, has neither of these features, and <i>Stegnolaema</i>, +though wattled, has the throat clothed. With few exceptions +the guans are confined to the South-American continent; one +species of <i>Penelope</i> is however found in Mexico (<i>e.g.</i> at Mazatlan), +<i>Pipile cumanensis</i> inhabits Trinidad as well as the mainland, +while three species of <i>Ortalis</i> occur in Mexico or Texas, and one, +which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows, +guans are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span> +become tame, but all attempts to domesticate them in the full +sense of the word have wholly failed, and the cases in which they +have even been induced to breed and the young have been +reared in confinement are very few. Yet it would seem that +guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry (<i>Ibis</i>, 1866, +p. 24; <i>Bull. Soc. Imp. d’Acclimatation</i>, 1868, p. 559; 1869, +p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the +hybrids between the chiacalacca (<i>Ortalis vetula</i>) and the domestic +fowl are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for +fighting purposes.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Edwards also gives “quan” as an alternative spelling, and this +may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676 writing +(Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if not the same +bird as the “quam.” The species represented by Edwards does +not seem to have been identified.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the excellent <i>Synopsis</i> by Sclater and Salvin in the <i>Proceedings +of the Zoological Society</i> for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while further +information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the <i>Transactions</i> +of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pls. xl.-liii.). Some additions +have since been made to the knowledge of the family, but none of +very great importance.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANABACOA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (an Indian name meaning “site of the +waters”), a town of Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E. +of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368. Guanabacoa is served by railway +to Havana, with which it is connected by the Regla ferry across +the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods, on high hills +which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in the +town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills. +The town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has +some rather pretty streets and squares and some old and interesting +churches (including Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion, 1714-1721). +Just outside the city is the church of Potosi with a +famous “wonder-working” shrine and image. An Indian +pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a church +was established in 1576. Already at the end of the 17th century +Guanabacoa was the fashionable summer residence of Havana. +It enjoyed its greatest popularity in this respect from the end +of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. It was created +a <i>villa</i> with an <i>ayuntamiento</i> (city council) in 1743. In 1762 its +fort, the Little Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing +beach, where the Key West cable now lands), was taken by the +English.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:328px; height:335px" src="images/img649.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Head of Guanaco.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">GUANACO,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two +wild representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the +other being the vicugña. The guanaco (<i>Lama huanacus</i>), which +stands nearly 4 ft. at the shoulder, is an elegant creature, with +gracefully curved neck and long slender legs, the hind-pair of the +latter bearing two naked patches or callosities. The head and +body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn colour above and +almost pure white +beneath. Guanaco +are found throughout +the southern half of +South America, from +Peru in the north to +Cape Horn in the +south, but occur in +greatest abundance +in Patagonia. They +live in herds usually +of from six to thirty, +although these occasionally +contain +several hundreds, +while solitary individuals +are sometimes +met. They are exceedingly +timid, and +therefore wary and +difficult of approach; like many other ruminants, however, +their curiosity sometimes overcomes their timidity, so as +to bring them within range of the hunter’s rifle. Their cry +is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer +and the neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the +guanaco are the Patagonian Indians and the puma, as it forms +the principal food of both. Its flesh is palatable although +wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief clothing material +of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, and in +this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him +from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never +defend themselves, and if approached from different points, +according to the Indian fashion of hunting, get completely +bewildered and fall an easy prey. They take readily to the +water, and have been observed swimming from one island to +another, while they have been seen drinking salt-water. They +have a habit of depositing their droppings during successive +days on the same spot—a habit appreciated by the Peruvian +Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have +favourite localities in which to die, as appears from the great +heaps of their bones found in particular spots.</p> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANAJAY,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, +about 36 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. +Guanajay is served by the W. branch of the United railways +of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus. The town lies among +hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial times was (like +Holguín) an acclimatization station for troops fresh from Spain; +it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The surrounding +country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay +has always been important as a distributing point in the commerce +of the western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, +of considerable size and importance as early as the end of the +18th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANAJUATO,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guanaxuato</span>, an inland state of Mexico, +bounded N. by Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Querétaro, +S. by Michoacan and W. by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It +is one of the most densely populated states of the republic; +pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The state lies +wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of Mexico, +and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface +of its northern half is broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra +de Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains +largely devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande +de Lerma and its tributaries, which in places flow through deeply +eroded valleys. The climate is semi-tropical and healthy, +and the rainfall is sufficient to insure good results in agriculture +and stock-raising. In the warm valleys sugar-cane is grown, +and at higher elevations Indian corn, beans, barley and wheat. +The southern plains are largely devoted to stock-raising. Guanajuato +has suffered much from the destruction of its forests, +but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of +the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the +mineral wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being +enormous. Among its mineral products are silver, gold, tin, +lead, mercury, copper and opals. Silver has been extracted +since the early days of the Spanish conquest, over $800,000,000 +having been taken from the mines during the subsequent three +and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these +mines, or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode), +the San Bernabé lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and +the La Valenciana mine, the output of which is said to have +been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826. The manufacturing +establishments include flour mills, tanneries and manufactories +of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries, foundries and +potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National +railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former +operates a short branch from Silao to the state capital and +another westward from Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital +is Guanajuato, and other important cities and towns are León, +or León de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565 in 1900), an +important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Querétaro, +and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap +and sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 in 1900), a railway junction +and commercial centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao +(15,355), a railway junction and manufacturing town (woollens +and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato; Salamanca (13,583). +on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25 m. S. by E. of +Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain; +Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato, +with mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660). 50 m. W. by S. +of Querétaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato; +Cortazar (8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district; +Pénjamo (8262); Santa Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rincón +(10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining district; +and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76 m. +S.S.E. of <span class="correction" title="amended from Guanaiuato">Guanajuato</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GUANAJUATO,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santa Fé de Guanajuato</span>, a city of Mexico +and capital of the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the +Federal capital, on a small tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma +or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404; (1900) 41,486. The city is +built in the Cañada de Marfil at the junction of three ravines +about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous streets +rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining +villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides. +Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining +villages; but in addition there is the central city with its crowded +winding streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty +ore-crushing mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial +life. Enclosing the city are the steep, barren mountain sides +honeycombed with mines. The climate is semi-tropical and is +considered healthy. The noteworthy public buildings and +institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church with arches +of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the +government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college, +the fine Teatro Juárez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery, +with catacombs below. The Alhóndiga de Granaditas, originally +a public granary, was used as a fort during the War of Independence, +and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle (1810) in +that long struggle. Among the manufactures are cottons, prints, +soaps, chemicals, pottery and silverware, but mining is the +principal interest and occupation of the population. The silver +mines of the vicinity were long considered the richest in Mexico, +the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being described +as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest +reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city +consists of a short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins +the trunk line at Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It +attained the dignity of a city in 1741. It was celebrated for its +vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the Spanish +conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during that war.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANCHES,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Guanchis</span> or <span class="sc">Guanchos</span> (native Guanchinet; +<i>Guan</i> = person, <i>Chinet</i> = Teneriffe,—“man of Teneriffe,” corrupted, +according to Nuñez de la Peña, by Spaniards into +Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands. +Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants of Teneriffe, +where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the time of +the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the +indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now +extinct as a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls +and bones discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race +of the Quaternary age, and no real doubt is now entertained that +they were an offshoot of the great race of Berbers which from +the dawn of history has occupied northern Africa from Egypt +to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving his knowledge from +the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that when +visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was +found by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of +great buildings. This would suggest that the Guanches were not +the first inhabitants, and from the absence of any trace of +Mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago +by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme westerly +migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny +wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many +of the Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold +as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and +married Spaniards.</p> + +<p>Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions +and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain +families, connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the +islands signs are engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle, +a military governor of Las Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to +investigate these; and it is due to the perseverance of D. Aquilino +Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that anything about the inscription +on the island Hierro has been brought to light. In 1878 +Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some +genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock +inscriptions have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands +(Teneriffe and Gomera) the Guanche type has been retained with +more purity than in the others. No inscriptions have been found +in these two islands, and therefore it would seem that the true +Guanches did not know how to write. In the other islands +numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are the +rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians, +travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing +with the dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands, +and that it is they who have written the inscriptions at Hierro +and Grand Canary.</p> + +<p>The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. +In some islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the +government was elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to +the chiefs who leased it to their subjects. In Grand Canary +suicide was regarded as honourable, and on a chief inheriting, +one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throwing +himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry was +practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But everywhere +the women appear to have been respected, an insult +offered any woman by an armed man being a capital offence. +Almost all the Guanches used to wear garments of goat-skins, +and others of vegetable fibres, which have been found in the +tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments, +necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs. +Beads of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth +or polished surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly +in use. They painted their bodies; the <i>pintaderas</i>, baked clay +objects like seals in shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau +as having been used solely for painting the body in various colours. +They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations, +or ornamented by means of the finger-nail. The Guanches’ +weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe. The +polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone +and obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They +had, besides, the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles, +and the javelin, and they seem to have known the shield. They +lived in natural or artificial caves in their mountains. In +districts where cave-dwellings were impossible, they built small +round houses and, according to the Spaniards, they even practised +rude fortification. In Palma the old people were at their own +wish left to die alone. After bidding their family farewell they +were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a bowl of milk +being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many +mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, +each weighing not more than 6 or 7 ℔. Two almost inaccessible +caves in a vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz +(Teneriffe) are said still to contain bones. The process of embalming +seems to have varied. In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the +corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while +in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the +body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access, or buried +under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a +special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Embalming +seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often +simply hidden in caves or buried.</p> + +<p>Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear +to have been a distinctly religious race. There was a general +belief in a supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary, +Achihuran in Teneriffe, Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in +Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess called +Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female gods lived +in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the +people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon, +earth and stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The +demon of Teneriffe was called Guayota and lived in the peak of +Teyde, which was the hell called Echeyde. In times of drought +the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where +the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that +their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the Great +Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal +quarrels were stayed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—S. Berthelot, <i>Antiquités canariennes</i> (Paris, +1839); Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, <i>Histoire naturelle des îles</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span> +<i>Canaries</i> (Paris, 1839); Paul Broca, <i>Revue d’anthropologie</i>, iv. (1874); +General L. L. C. Faidherbe, <i>Quelque mots sur l’ethnologie de l’archipel +canarien</i> (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, <i>Estudios historicos, climatologicos +y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias</i> (Las Palmas, 1876-1889); +“De la pluralité des races humaines de l’archipel canarien,” <i>Bull. +Soc. Anthrop. Paris</i>, 1878; “Habitations et sépultures des anciens +habitants des îles Canaries,” <i>Revue d’anthrop.</i>, 1879; R. Verneau, +“Sur les Sémites aux îles Canaries,” and “Sur les anciens habitants +de la Isleta, Grande Canarie,” <i>Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris</i>, 1881; +<i>Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans l’archipel canarien</i> (Paris, +1887); <i>Cinq années de séjour aux îles Canaries</i> (Paris, 1891); H. +Meyer, <i>Die Insel Tenerife</i> (Leipzig, 1896), “Über die Urbewohner +der canarischen Inseln,” in <i>Adolf Bastian Festschrift</i> (Berlin, 1896); +F. von Luschan, <i>Anhang über eine Schädelsammlung von den canarischen +Inseln</i>; R. Virchow, “Schädel mit Carionecrosis der Sagittalgegend,” +<i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft</i> (1896); +G. Sergi, <i>The Mediterranean Race</i> (London, 1901); <i>The Guanches +of Tenerife ...</i>, by Alonso de Espinosa, translated by Sir Clements +Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt Society, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANIDINE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> CN<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span> or HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, the amidine of amidocarbonic +acid. It occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared +in 1861 by A. Strecker, who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric +acid and potassium chlorate. It may be obtained synthetically +by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide, CN·NH<span class="su">2</span> + NH<span class="su">4</span>I = CN<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·HI·; +by heating ortho-carbonic esters with +ammonia to 150° C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate +to 180°-190° C., when the thiourea first formed is converted into +guanidine thiocyanate, 2CS(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·HCNS + H<span class="su">2</span>S. +It is a colourless crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and +alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air. It has strong basic +properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and forms well-defined +crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to urea. +By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine, +NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·NH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H, whilst with methyl glycocoll +(sarcosine) it forms creatine, NH<span class="su">2</span>·(NH):C·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CO<span class="su">2</span>H.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (<i>Ann.</i>, +1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645). +By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric +acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)·NH·NO<span class="su">2</span> (a substance +possessing acid properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction +with zinc dust, amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH<span class="su">2</span>)·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, is formed. +This amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation +of semicarbazide, NH<span class="su">2</span>·CO·NH·NH<span class="su">2</span>, which, in its turn, breaks +down into carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine +is a body of hydrazine type, for it reduces gold and silver salts +and yields a benzylidine derivative. On oxidation with potassium +permanganate, it gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, +NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·N:N·C:(NH)·NH<span class="su">2</span>·2HNO<span class="su">3</span>, which, when reduced by sulphuretted +hydrogen, is converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine, +NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·NH·NH·C:(NH)·NH<span class="su">2</span>. By the action of +nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine +nitrate, NH<span class="su">2</span>·(HN):C·NH·N<span class="su">2</span>·NO<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained. This diazo +compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation +of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid, +CH<span class="su">4</span>N<span class="su">5</span>·NO<span class="su">3</span> = N<span class="su">3</span>H + CN·NH<span class="su">2</span> + HNO<span class="su">3</span>, +whilst acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetrazotic +acid, +<img style="width:111px; height:40px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img651.jpg" alt="" /> +Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition +compounds with amines, and by the further action of nitrous acid +yields a very explosive derivative, diazotetrazol, CN<span class="su">6</span>. By fusing +guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidine H<span class="su">2</span>N·(HN):C·NH·CO·NH<span class="su">2</span>, is +formed.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANO<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (a Spanish word from the Peruvian <i>huanu</i>, dung), +the excrement of birds, found as large deposits on certain islands +off the coast of Peru, and on others situated in the Southern +ocean and off the west coast of Africa. The large proportions +of phosphorus in the form of phosphates and of nitrogen as +ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable fertilizer. +Bat’s guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in +certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in +composition to Peruvian guano. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manures and Manuring</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANTA,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermúdez, +Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is +connected by rail. It dates from the completion of the railway +to the coal mines of Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond +Barcelona, and was created for the shipment of coal. The +harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its entrance, 1998 ft. wide, +protected by an island less than 1 m. off the shore. The entrance +is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure anchorage for +large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf. +These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of +the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland +district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its +trade is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar, +coffee, cacáo, tobacco and fruit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUANTÁNAMO,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the easternmost important town of the S. +coast of Cuba, in the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of +Santiago. Pop. (1907) 14,559. It is situated by the Guazo +(or Guaso) river, on a little open plain between the mountains. +The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m. long from N. to S. +and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner basin. The +latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2.5 fathoms depth +of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of +Guantánamo, 13 m. N., there is a railway, and the city has +railway connexion with Santiago. Guantánamo is one of the +two ports leased by Cuba to the United States for a naval +station. It is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding +coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an English +force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas +Wentworth landed here to attack Santiago. They named the +harbour Cumberland bay. After their retreat fortifications +were begun. The history of the region practically dates, however, +from the end of the 18th century, when it gained prosperity +from the settlement of French refugees from Santo Domingo; +the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old +families are of French descent, and French was the language +locally most used as late as the last third of the 19th century. +In recent years, especially since the Spanish-American War of +1898, the region has greatly changed socially and economically. +Guantánamo was once a fashionable summer residence resort +for wealthy Cubans.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARANA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American +tribe), the plant <i>Paullinia Cupana</i> (or <i>P. sorbilis</i>) of the natural +order <i>Sapindaceae</i>, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It +has a smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, composed +of 5 oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked +flowers; and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape, +and containing usually one seed only, which is shaped like a +minute horse-chestnut. What is commonly known as guarana, +guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is prepared from the seeds +as follows. In October and November, at which time they +become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and +sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the +white aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish +of hard sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a +small quantity of water, or by exposure to the dews, is then +made into a paste with a certain proportion of whole or broken +seeds, and worked up sometimes into balls, but usually into rolls +not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz. +in weight. After drying by artificial or solar heat, the guarana +is packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets. Thus prepared, +it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, a bitter +astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of roasted +coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is manufactured +by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated +into sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed +in S. America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the +Mauhés Indians, has spread into various parts of Brazil.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative +are due to the presence of what was originally described as a new +principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical +with caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to +exist in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the +glucoside saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and +an acrid green fixed oil (Fournier, <i>Journ. de Pharm.</i> vol. xxxix., +1861, p. 291).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARANIS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, a tribe and stock of South American Indians, +having their home in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian +coast. The Guaranis had developed some civilization before +the arrival of the Spaniards, and being a peaceable people +quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief element in the +populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its patronage +by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form +is still the common language in Paraguay.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARANTEE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (sometimes spelt “guarantie” or “guaranty”; +an O. Fr. form of “warrant,” from the Teutonic word which +appears in German as <i>wahren</i>, to defend or make safe and binding), +a term more comprehensive and of higher import than either +“warrant” or “security,” and designating either some international +treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions are secured, +or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of which +one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for another, +engages to be answerable for him.</p> + +<p>In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the +payment of some debt, or the performance of some duty, by +a third person who is <i>primarily</i> liable to such payment or performance. +It is a <i>collateral</i> contract, which does not extinguish +the original liability or obligation to which it is accessory, but +on the contrary is itself rendered null and void should the latter +fail, as without a principal there can be no accessory. The +liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those of the +principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so +likewise (<i>per</i> Collins, L.J., in <i>Stacey</i> v. <i>Hill</i>, 1901, 1 K.B., at +p. 666; see <i>per</i> Willes, J., in <i>Bateson</i> v. <i>Gosling</i>, 1871, L.R. 7 C.P., +at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the +principal debtor is by operation of law (see <i>In re Fitzgeorge—ex +parte Robson</i>, 1905, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons +wrongly suppose that a third person is liable to one of them, +and a guarantee is given on that erroneous supposition, it is +invalid <i>ab initio</i>, by virtue of the <i>lex contractûs</i>, because its +foundation (which was that another was taken to be liable) +has failed (<i>per</i> Willes, J., in <i>Mountstephen</i> v. <i>Lakeman</i>, L.R. +7 Q.B. p. 202). According to various existing codes civil, +a suretyship, in respect of an obligation “non-valable,” +is null and void save where the invalidity is the result +of personal incapacity of the principal debtor (Codes Civil, +France and Belgium, 2012; Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822; Italy, +1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In some countries, +however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age to +borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him +(Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s. 2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes +sanction guarantees expressly entered into “in view of debtor’s +want of legal capacity” to contract a valid principal obligation +(<span class="correction" title="amended from Egyptain">Egyptian</span> Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496). +The Portuguese code (art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety’s liability, +in respect of an invalid principal obligation, until the latter has +been legally rescinded.</p> + +<p>The giver of a guarantee is called “the surety,” or “the +guarantor”; the person to whom it is given “the creditor,” +or “the guarantee”; while the person whose payment or +performance is secured thereby is termed “the principal debtor,” +or simply “the principal.” In America, but not apparently +elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between “a surety” +and “a guarantor”; the former being usually bound with the +principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while +the contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in +which the principal does not join, and in respect of which he is +not to be held liable, until due diligence has been exerted to +compel the principal debtor to make good his default. There +is no privity of contract between the surety and the principal +debtor, for the surety contracts with the creditor, and they do +not constitute in law one person, and are not jointly liable to +the creditor (<i>per</i> Baron Parke in <i>Bain</i> v. <i>Cooper</i>, 1 Dowl. R. +(N.S.) 11, 14).</p> + +<p>No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a +guarantee; and what really distinguishes such a contract from +one of insurance is not any essential difference between the two +forms of words <i>insurance</i> and <i>guarantee</i>, but the substance of +the contract entered into by the parties in each particular case +(<i>per</i> Romer, L.J., in <i>Seaton</i> v. <i>Heath</i>—<i>Seaton</i> v. <i>Burnand</i>, 1899, +1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; <i>per</i> Vaughan Williams, L.J., in <i>In re +Denton’s Estate Licenses Insurance Corporation and Guarantee +Fund Ltd.</i> v. <i>Denton</i>, 1904, 2 Ch., at p. 188; and see <i>Dane</i> v. +<i>Mortgage Insurance Corporation</i>, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54 C.A.) In this +connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of +suretyships have been classified as follows: (1) Those in which +there is an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose, +the relation of principal and surety, to which agreement the +creditor thereby secured is a party; (2) those in which there +is a similar agreement between the principal and surety only, to +which the creditor is a stranger; and (3) those in which, without +any such contract of suretyship, there is a primary and a +secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt, +the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons +only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be +compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from +the person by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been +paid (<i>per</i> Earl of Selborne, L.C., <i>in Duncan Fox and Co.</i> v. <i>North and +South Wales Bank</i>, 6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According to several +codes civil sureties are made divisible into conventional, legal +and judicial (Fr. and Bel., 2015, 2040 et seq.; Spain, 1823; +Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish code further divides +them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration (art. 1, 823).</p> + +<p>In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no +way differ from those essential to the formation of any other +contract. That is to say, they comprise the mutual assent +of two or more parties, competency to contract, and, unless +the guarantee be under seal, valuable consideration. An offer +to guarantee is not binding until it has been accepted, being +revocable till then by the party making it. Unless, however, +as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express acceptance, +one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury +whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted. Where +the surety’s assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud +of the person to whom it is given, there is no binding contract. +Such fraud may consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation. +There is some conflict of authorities as to what +facts must be spontaneously disclosed to the surety by the +creditor, but it may be taken that the rule on the subject is +less stringent than that governing insurances upon marine, +life and other risks (<i>The North British Insurance Co.</i> v. <i>Lloyd</i>, +10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (<i>Owen</i> v. <i>Homan</i>, +3 Mac. & G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract +relied upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency +of a surety for another’s debt, and is therefore governed by the +doctrine of <i>uberrima</i> fides, only such facts as are really material +to the risk undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (<i>Seaton</i> v. +<i>Burnand</i>—<i>Burnand</i> v. <i>Seaton</i>, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards +the competency of the parties to enter into a contract of +guarantee, this may be affected by insanity or intoxication of +the surety, if known to the creditor, or by disability of any kind. +The ordinary disabilities are those of infants and married women—now +in England greatly mitigated as regards the latter by the +Married Women’s Property Acts, 1870 to 1893, which enable a +married woman to contract, as a <i>feme sole</i>, to the extent of her +separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must +according to English law have a consideration to support it, +though the least spark of one suffices (<i>per</i> Wilmot, J., in <i>Pillan</i> v. +<i>van Mierop and Hopkins</i>, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; <i>Haigh</i> v. <i>Brooks</i>, +10 A. & E. 309; <i>Barrell</i> v. <i>Trussell</i>, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as +in other cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit +or benefit accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, +loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the +other. In some guarantees the consideration is entire—as where, +in consideration of a lease being granted, the surety becomes +answerable for the performance of the covenants; in other +cases it is fragmentary, <i>i.e.</i> supplied from time to time—as +where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a running +account at a banker’s, or a balance of a running account for +goods supplied (<i>per</i> Lush, L.J., in <i>Lloyd’s</i> v. <i>Harper</i>, 16 Ch. Div., +at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted +there is nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee +as that of necessity runs on throughout the duration of the +lease and is irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless +the guarantee stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any +time terminate his liability under the guarantee as to <i>future</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +advances, &c. The consideration for a guarantee must not be +<i>past</i> or <i>executed</i>, but on the other hand it need not comprise a +direct benefit or advantage to either the surety or the creditor, +but may solely consist of anything done, or any promise made, +for the benefit of the principal debtor. It is more frequently +<i>executory</i> than <i>concurrent</i>, taking the form either of forbearance +to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of money or +supply of goods to him.</p> + +<p>By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that +the consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done +or any promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by +the creditor. Total failure of the consideration stipulated for +by the party giving a guarantee will prevent its being enforced, +as will also the existence of an illegal consideration. Though in +all countries the mutual assent of two or more parties is essential +to the formation of any contract (see <i>e.g.</i> Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. +1108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain, 1258, 1261; Italy, 1104; +Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration is not everywhere +regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier’s <i>Law of +Obligations</i>, Evans’s edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland +a contract may be binding without a consideration to support it +(Stair i. 10. 7).</p> + +<p>The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England, +prescribed by (1) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference +to guarantees, provides that “no action shall be brought whereby +to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer +for the debt, default or miscarriages of another person, unless the +agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some +memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and signed by +the party to be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto +by him lawfully authorized,” and (2) Lord Tenterden’s Act +(9 Geo. IV. c. 14), which by § 6 enacts that “no action shall be +brought whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any +representation or assurance made or given concerning or relating +to the character, conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of +any other person, to the intent or purpose that such other person +may obtain credit, money or goods upon” (<i>i.e.</i> “upon credit,” +see <i>per</i> Parke, B., in <i>Lyde</i> v. <i>Barnard</i>, 1 M. & W., at p. 104), +“unless such representation or assurance be made in writing +signed by the party to be charged therewith.” This latter +enactment, which applies to incorporated companies as well as +to individual persons (<i>Hirst</i> v. <i>West Riding Union Banking Co.</i>, +1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an evasion +of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by +treating the special promise to answer for another’s debt, default +or miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section, +as a false and fraudulent representation concerning another’s +credit, solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for +a tort, were held to be recoverable (<i>Pasley</i> v. <i>Freeman</i>, 3 T.R. 51). +In Scotland, where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called +a “cautionary obligation,” similar enactments to those just +specified are contained in § 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment +Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the Irish Statute of Frauds (7 Will. +III. c. 12) there is a provision (§ 2) identical with that found in +the English Statute of Frauds. In India a guarantee may be +either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, § 126), while in the +Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in writing. +The German code civil requires the surety’s promise to be verified +by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation +(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable +by all the modes established by law for the proof of the principal +contract (art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force +a guarantee like any other contract can usually be made verbally +in the presence of witnesses and in certain cases (where for instance +considerable sums of money are involved) <i>sous signature +privée</i> or else by judicial or notarial instrument (see Codes Civil, +Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244; Port. 2506, 2513; Italy, +1341 et seq.; Pothier’s <i>Law of Obligations</i>, Evans’s ed. i. 257; +Burge on <i>Suretyship</i>, p. 19; van der Linden’s <i>Institutes of +Holland</i>, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes, moreover, +provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always +be expressed (art. 2015).</p> + +<p>The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee, +but renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be +available in support of a defence to an action, and money paid +under it cannot be recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee +within the statute, unless it contemplates the primary liability +of a third person. It need not, therefore, be in writing when it is +a mere promise to become liable for a debt, whenever the person +to whom the promise is made should become liable (<i>Wildes</i> v. +<i>Dudlow</i>, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; <i>per</i> Vaughan Williams, L.J. in <i>Harburg +India-Rubber Co.</i> v. <i>Martin</i>, 1902, 1 K.B. p. 786; <i>Guild</i> v. +<i>Conrad</i>, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute apply +to the promise of a <i>del credere</i> agent, which binds him, in consideration +of the higher commission he receives, to make no +sales on behalf of his principal except to persons who are +absolutely solvent, and renders him liable for any loss that may +result from the non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to +<i>give</i> a guarantee is, however, within the statute, though not one +to <i>procure</i> a guarantee.</p> + +<p>The general principles which determine what are guarantees +within the Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of +decided cases, are briefly as follows: (1) the primary liability +of a third person must exist or be contemplated as the foundation +of the contract (<i>Birkmyr</i> v. <i>Darnell</i>, 1 Sm. L.C. 11th ed. p. 299; +<i>Mountstephen</i> v. <i>Lakeman</i>, L.R. 7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17); +(2) the promise must be made to the creditor; (3) there must be +an absence of all liability on the part of the surety independently +of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the main object of the +transaction between the parties to the guarantee must be the +fulfilment of a third party’s obligation (see <i>Harburg India-rubber +Comb Co.</i> v. <i>Martin</i>, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786); and (5) +the contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the +creditor to the promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt +itself (see de Colyar’s <i>Law of Guarantees and of Principal and +Surety</i>, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161, where these principles are discussed +in detail by the light of decided cases there cited).</p> + +<p>As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee +that will satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by § 3 +of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that “no special +promise to be made, by any person after the passing of this act, +to answer for the debt, default or miscarriage of another person, +being in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith, +or some other person by him thereunto lawfully authorized, +shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit or other proceeding, +to charge the person by whom such promise shall have +been made, by reason only that the consideration for such +promise does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from +a written document.” Prior to this enactment, which is not +retrospective in its operation, it was held in many cases that as +the Statute of Frauds requires “the agreement” to be in writing, +all parts thereof were required so to be, including the consideration +moving to, as well as the promise by, the party to be charged +(<i>Wain</i> v. <i>Walters</i>, 5 East, 10; <i>Sounders</i> v. <i>Wakefield</i>, 4 B. & +Ald. 595). These decisions, however, proved to be burdensome +to the mercantile community, especially in Scotland and the +north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration of the law, +so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the enactment +already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the agreement +between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged, +is sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to +the mind of the person signing (<i>per</i> Lindley, L.J., in <i>In re</i> +Hoyle—<i>Hoyle</i> v. <i>Hoyle</i>, 1893, 1 Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary +that the names of the contracting parties should appear somewhere +in writing; that the party to be charged, or his agent, +should sign the memorandum or note of agreement, or else +should sign another paper referring thereto; and that, when the +note or memorandum is made, a complete agreement shall exist. +Moreover, the memorandum must have been made before action +brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the +agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum +or note of agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in +evidence unless properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). A guarantee +for the payment of goods, however, requires no stamp, being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +within the exception contained in the first schedule of the act. +Nor is it necessary to stamp a written representation or assurance +as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, <i>supra</i>. If under seal, a +guarantee requires sometimes an <i>ad valorem</i> stamp and sometimes +a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny stamp +generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps +can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, § 15, +amended by § 15 of the Finance Act 1895).</p> + +<p>The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends +upon its terms, and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of +the principal debtor. It is, however, obvious that as +<span class="sidenote">Extent of surety’s liability.</span> +the surety’s obligation is merely accessory to that of +the principal it cannot as such exceed it (de Colyar, +<i>Law of Guarantees</i>, 3rd ed. p. 233; Burge, <i>Suretyship</i>, +p. 5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the +surety’s obligation was rendered <i>wholly</i> void and not merely +void <i>pro tanto</i>. By many existing codes civil, however, a +guarantee which imposes on the surety a greater liability than +that of the principal is not thereby invalidated, but the liability +is merely reducible to that of the principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013; +Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900; Holland, 1859; Lower +Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract Act 1872 +the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by +contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the +liability of the surety is <i>less</i> extensive in amount than that of the +principal debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and +America as to whether the surety is liable only for <i>part</i> of the +debt equal to the limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for +the <i>whole</i> debt (<i>Ellis</i> v. <i>Emmanuel</i>, 1 Ex. Div. 157; <i>Hobson</i> v. +<i>Bass</i>, 6 Ch. App. 792; Brandt, <i>Suretyship</i>, sec. 219). The +surety cannot be made liable except for a loss sustained by reason +of the default guaranteed against. Moreover, in the case of a +joint and several guarantee by several sureties, unless all sign +it none are liable thereunder (<i>National Pro. Bk. of England</i> v. +<i>Brackenbury</i>, 1906, 22 <i>Times</i> L.R. 797). It was formerly +considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a +guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the +party giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was +binding himself (<i>Nicholson</i> v. <i>Paget</i>, 1 C. & M. 48, 52). This +view, however, can no longer be sustained, it being now recognized +that a guarantee, like any other contract, must, in cases +of ambiguity, be construed against the party bound thereby +and in favour of the party receiving it (<i>Mayer</i> v. <i>Isaac</i>, 6 M. & +W. 605, 612; <i>Wood</i> v. <i>Priestner</i>, L.R. 2 Exch. 66, 71). The +surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his +contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what +may fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties, +from what they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases +of doubtful import, recourse to parol evidence is permissible, +to explain, but not to contradict, the written evidence of the +guarantee. As a general rule, the surety is not liable if the +principal debt cannot be enforced, because, as already explained, +the obligation of the surety is merely accessory to that of the +principal debtor. It has never been actually decided in England +whether this rule holds good in cases where the principal debtor +is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the creditor. +Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by +estoppel (see <i>Kimball</i> v. <i>Newell</i>, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When +directors guarantee the performance by their company of a +contract which is ultra vires, and therefore not binding on the +latter, the directors’ suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforceable +against them (<i>Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co.</i> v. <i>Maclure</i>, +21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.).</p> + +<p>It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability +under a guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited +to a single transaction, and is obviously intended to be security +against one specific default only. On the other hand, it as often +happens that it is not exhausted by one transaction on the faith +of it, but extends to a series of transactions, and remains a +standing security until it is revoked, either by the act of the +parties or else by the death of the surety. It is then termed a +continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of interpretation determine +whether a guarantee is a continuing one or not, but each case +must be judged on its individual merits; and frequently, in order +to achieve a correct construction, it becomes necessary to +examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal what +was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when +the guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and +object of the transaction between them. Most continuing +guarantees are either ordinary mercantile securities, in respect +of advances made or goods supplied to the principal debtor or +else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in public or private +offices or employments. With regard to the latter class of +continuing guarantees, the surety’s liability is, generally speaking, +revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons +to or for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is +now provided by section 18 of the Partnership Act 1890, which +applies to Scotland as well as England, that “a continuing +guarantee or cautionary obligation given either to a firm or to +a third person in respect of the transactions of a firm, is, in the +absence of agreement to the contrary, revoked as to future +transactions by any change in the constitution of the firm to +which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of which the +guaranty or obligation was given.” This section, like the +enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law +Amendment Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English +common law, as embodied in decided cases, which indicate that +the changes in the persons to or for whom a guarantee is given +may consist either of an increase in their number, of a diminution +thereof caused by death or retirement from business, or of the +incorporation or consolidation of the persons to whom the +guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the +Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended +by the Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions +with regard to the acceptance by the heads of public departments +of guarantees given by companies for the due performance of +the duties of an office or employment in the public service, and +enables the Commissioners of His Majesty’s Treasury to vary the +character of any security, for good behaviour by public servants, +given after the passing of the act.</p> + +<p>Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee, +the principal debtor must have made default. When, however, +this has occurred, the creditor, in the absence of express agreement +to the contrary, may sue the surety, without even informing +him of such default having taken place, or requiring him to pay, +and before proceeding against the principal debtor or resorting +to securities for the debt received from the latter. In those +countries where the municipal law is based on the Roman civil +law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however, +be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman +law, of compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &c. (if any) +of the principal debtor being first “discussed,” <i>i.e.</i> appraised +and sold, and appropriated to the liquidation of the debt +guaranteed (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain, +1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771, 772, 773; Holland, +1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt [mixed +suits] 612; <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals] 502), before having recourse +to the sureties. This right, according to a great American +jurist (Chancellor Kent in <i>Hayes</i> v. <i>Ward</i>, 4 Johns. New York, +Ch. Cas. p. 132), “accords with a common sense of justice and +the natural equity of mankind.” In England this right has +never been fully recognized. Neither does it prevail in America +nor, since the passing of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act +(Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer available in Scotland where, +prior to the last-named enactment, the benefit of discussion, as +it is termed, existed. In England, however, before any demand +for payment has been made by the creditor on the surety, the +latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made default, +compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs +and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent +and able to pay (<i>per</i> A. L. Smith, L.J., in <i>Rouse</i> v. <i>Bradford +Banking Company</i>, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; <i>per</i> Lord Eldon in <i>Wright</i> v. +<i>Simpson</i>, 6 Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open +to the surety in America (see Brandt on <i>Suretyship</i>, par. 205, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span> +p. 290) though in neither of these countries nor in Scotland can +one of several sureties, when sued for the whole guaranteed +debt by the creditor, compel the latter to divide his claim +amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce it to the share and +proportion of each surety. However, this <i>beneficium divisionis</i>, +as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many existing +codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-836; +Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912; +Lower Canada, 1946; Egypt [mixed suits], 615, 616).</p> + +<p>The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a +guarantee is by action in the High Court or in the county +court. It is also permissible for the creditor to obtain redress +by means of a set-off or counter-claim, in an action brought +against him by the surety. On the other hand, the surety +may now, in any court in which the action on the guarantee is +pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist between +the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of +several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his +guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party +notice, claim contribution from his co-surety towards the +common liability. Independent proof of the surety’s liability +under his guarantee must always be given at the trial; as the +creditor cannot rely either on admissions made by the principal +debtor, or on a judgment or award obtained against him (<i>Ex +parte Young In re Kitchin</i>, 17 Ch. Div. 668). Should the surety +become bankrupt either before or after default has been made +by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove against +his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by +the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most +comprehensive in its terms.</p> + +<p>A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee +possesses various rights against him, against the person to +whom the guarantee is given, and also against those +<span class="sidenote">Rights of sureties.</span> +who may have become co-sureties in respect of the +same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the +surety’s rights against the principal debtor, the latter may, +where the guarantee was made with his consent but not otherwise +(see <i>Hodgson</i> v. <i>Shaw</i>, 3 Myl. & K. at p. 190), after he has +made default, be compelled by the surety to exonerate him from +liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (<i>per</i> Sir W. Grant, +M.R., in <i>Antrobus</i> v. <i>Davidson</i>, 3 Meriv. 569, 579; <i>per</i> Lindley, +L.J., in <i>Johnston</i> v. <i>Salvage Association</i>, 19 Q.B.D. 460, 461; and +see <i>Wolmershausen</i> v. <i>Gullick</i>, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The moment, +moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the +guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the +amount so paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the +event of the principal debtor’s bankruptcy, the surety can +in England, if the creditor has not already proved in respect +of the guaranteed debt, prove against the bankrupt’s estate, +not only in respect of payments made before the bankruptcy +of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of the +contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see <i>Ex parte +Delmar re Herepath</i>, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor +has already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed +debt has a right to all dividends received by the creditor from +the bankrupt in respect thereof, and to stand in the creditor’s +place as to future dividends. This right is, however, often +waived by the guarantee stipulating that, until the creditor +has received full payment of all sums over and above the +guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the +surety shall not participate in any dividends distributed from +the bankrupt’s estate amongst his creditors. As regards the +rights of the surety against the creditor, they are in England +exercisable even by one who in the first instance was a principal +debtor, but has since become a surety, by arrangement with +his creditor, duly notified to the creditor, though not even +sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of Lords in +the case of <i>Rouse</i> v. <i>The Bradford Banking Co.</i>, 1894, A.C. 586, +removing a doubt created by the previous case of <i>Swire</i> v. +<i>Redman</i>, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled. +The surety’s principal right against the creditor entitles him, +after payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all +securities, whether known to him (the surety) or not, which +the creditor held against the principal debtor; and where, by +default or <i>laches</i> of the creditor, such securities have been lost, +or rendered otherwise unavailable, the surety is discharged +<i>pro tanto</i>. This right, which is <i>not</i> in abeyance till the surety +is called on to pay (<i>Dixon</i> v. <i>Steel</i>, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to +all securities, whether satisfied or not, given before or after the +contract of suretyship was entered into. On this subject the +Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, § 5, provides that “every +person who being surety for the debt or duty of another, or being +liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay such debt or +perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to him, +or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other +security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such +debt or duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security +shall or shall not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the +payment of the debt or performance of the duty, and such person +shall be entitled to stand in the place of the creditor, and to use +all the remedies, and, if need be, and upon a proper indemnity, +to use the name of the creditor, in any action or other proceeding +at law or in equity, in order to obtain from the principal debtor, +or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as the case may be, +indemnification for the advances made and loss sustained by +the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed such +duty; and such payment or performance so made by such +surety shall not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other +proceeding by him, provided always that no co-surety, co-contractor, +or co-debtor shall be entitled to recover from any +other co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, by the means +aforesaid, more than the just proportion to which, as between +those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person shall be +justly liable.” This enactment is so far retrospective that it +applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach +thereof, and the payment by the surety, have taken place +subsequently. The right of the surety to be subrogated, on +payment by him of the guaranteed debt, to all the rights of the +creditor against the principal debtor is recognized in America +(<i>Tobin</i> v. <i>Kirk</i>, 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and many other +countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port. +839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877; Italy, 1916; Lower +Canada, 2959; Egypt [mixed suits], 617; <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals], +505).</p> + +<p>As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is +entitled to contribution from him in respect of their common +liability. This particular right is not the result of any contract, +but is derived from a general equity, on the ground of equality +of burden and benefit, and exists whether the sureties be bound +jointly, or jointly and severally, and by the same, or different, +instruments. There is, however, no right of contribution where +each surety is severally bound for a given portion only of the +guaranteed debt; nor in the case of a surety for a surety; +(see <i>In re Denton’s Estate</i>, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a +person becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter’s +request. Contribution may be enforced, either before payment, +or as soon as the surety has paid more than his share of the +common debt (<i>Wolmershausen</i> v. <i>Gullick</i>, 1803, 2 Ch. 514); +and the amount recoverable is now always regulated by the +number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule only +prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety, +proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any +excess over the latter’s contributive share. The right of contribution +is not the only right possessed by co-sureties against +each other, but they are also entitled to the benefit of all securities +which have been taken by any one of them as an indemnity +against the liability incurred for the principal debtor. The +Roman law did not recognize the right of contribution amongst +sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many existing codes +(Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426, 474; Italy, 1920; Holland, +1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt +[mixed suits], 618, <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals], 506), and also by the +Indian Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147.</p> + +<p>The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +may be accomplished In various ways, he being regarded, +especially in England and America, as a “favoured debtor” +(<i>per</i> Turner, L.J., in <i>Wheatley</i> v. <i>Bastow</i>, 7 De G. M. & G. 279, +280; <i>per</i> Earl of Selborne, L.C., in <i>In re Sherry—London and +County Banking Co.</i> v. <i>Terry</i>, 25 Ch. D., at p. 703; and see +Brandt on <i>Suretyship</i>, secs. 79, 80). Thus, fraud subsequent +to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the +creditor connives at the principal debtor’s default) will certainly +discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the +creditor in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may +also have this effect. The most prolific ground of discharge, +however, is usually traceable to causes originating in the creditor’s +laches or conduct, the governing principle being that if the +creditor violates any rights which the surety possessed when he +entered into the suretyship, even though the damage be nominal +only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this subject it +suffices to state that the surety’s discharge may be accomplished +(1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the +creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between +the creditor and the surety (see <i>Rickaby</i> v. <i>Lewis</i>, 22 T.L.R. 130); +(2) by the creditor taking a new security from the principal +debtor in lieu of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging +the principal debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding +himself to give time to the principal debtor for payment of +the guaranteed debt; or (5) by loss of securities received by +the creditor in respect of the guaranteed debt.</p> + +<p>In this connexion It may be stated in general terms that +whatever extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines +that of the surety (which is accessory thereto), not +only in England but elsewhere also (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. +2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848; Lower Canada, 1956; +1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, <i>ibid.</i> [native tribunals], 509; +Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most of the +codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by <i>laches</i> or +conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety’s rights +(see Fr. and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany, +776; Italy, 1928; Egypt [mixed suits], 623), though it may be +mentioned that the rule prevailing in England, Scotland, +America and India which releases the surety from liability +where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal, +extends without the surety’s consent the time for fulfilling the +principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes +civil (Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of +them (Fr. and Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower +Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed suits], 613; <i>ib.</i> [native tribunals], +503); (and see Morice, <i>English and Dutch Law</i>, p. 96; van der +Linden, <i>Institutes of Holland</i>, pp. 120-121). A revocation of +the contract of suretyship by act of the parties, or in certain +cases by the death of the surety, may also operate to discharge +the surety. The death of a surety does not <i>per se</i> determine the +guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee is +irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express +notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor +becoming affected with constructive notice thereof; except +where, under the testator’s will, the executor has the option of +continuing the guarantee, in which case the executor should, +it seems, specifically withdraw the guarantee in order to determine +it. Where one of a number of joint and several sureties dies, +the future liability of the survivors under the guarantee continues, +at all events until it has been determined by express notice. +Moreover, when three persons joined in a guarantee to a bank, +and their liability thereunder was not expressed to be several, +it was held that the death of one surety did not determine the +liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of +the deceased surety would be relieved from liability.</p> + +<p>The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees +under seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after +six years, from the date when the creditor might have sued the +surety.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—De Colyar, <i>Law of Guarantees and of Principal +and Surety</i> (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan +(1875); Throop, <i>Validity of Verbal Agreements</i>; Fell, <i>Guarantees</i> +(2nd ed.); Theobald, <i>Law of Principal and Surety</i>; Brandt, <i>Law of +Suretyships and Guarantee</i>; article by de Colyar in <i>Journal of +Comparative Legislation</i> (1905), on “Suretyship from the Standpoint +of Comparative Jurisprudence.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. A. de C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARATINGUETÁ,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a city of Brazil In the eastern part of +the state of São Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of São Paulo. +Pop. (1890) of the municipality, which includes a large rural +district and the villages of Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690. +The city, which was founded in 1651, stands on a fertile plain +3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the commercial centre of +one of the oldest agricultural districts of the state. The district +produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar, Indian corn +and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings are +for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered +with mud, called <i>taipa</i> by the natives, and roofed with curved +tiles. The São Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway +passes through the city, by which it is connected with Rio de +Janeiro on one side and São Paulo and Santos on the other.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARDA,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative +district bearing the same name, and formerly in the province +of Beira, Portugal; on the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon-Villar +Formoso railways. Pop. (1900) 6124. Guarda is situated +3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern extremity of the +Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of the river Côa. +It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined +castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for +consumptives. Its industries comprise the manufacture of +coarse cloth and the sale of grain, wine and live stock. In 1199 +Guarda was founded, on the site of the Roman Lencia Oppidana, +by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as its name implies, +to be a “guard” against Moorish invasion. The administrative +district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira; pop. +(1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARDI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was +a pupil of Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his +pictures are very frequently attributed to his more celebrated +master. Nevertheless, the diversity, when once perceived, is +sufficiently marked—Canaletto being more firm, solid, distinct, +well-grounded, and on the whole the higher master, while +Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour and +picturesquely sketched figures—in these respects being fully +equal to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto’s +designs. He had extraordinary facility, three or four days being +enough for producing an entire work. The number of his +performances is large in proportion to this facility and to the +love of gain which characterized him. Many of his works are to +be found in England and seven in the Louvre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARDIAN,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> one who guards or defends another, a protector. +The O. Fr. <i>guarden</i>, <i>garden</i>, mod. <i>gardien</i>, from <i>guarder</i>, <i>garder</i>, +is of Teutonic origin, from the base <i>war-</i>, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger. +<i>warten</i>, and Eng. “ward”; thus “guardian” and “warden” +are etymologically identical, as are “guard” and “ward”; +cf. the use of the correlatives “guardian” and “ward,” <i>i.e.</i> a +minor, or person incapable of managing his affairs, under the +protection or in the custody of a guardian. For the position +of guardians of the poor see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor Law</a></span>, and for the legal relations +between a guardian and his ward see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Infant</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARDS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> <span class="sc">and</span> <b>HOUSEHOLD TROOPS.</b> The word <i>guard</i> is +an adaptation of the Fr. <i>guarde</i>, mod. <i>garde</i>, O. Ger. <i>ward</i>; see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guardian</a></span>. The practice of maintaining bodyguards is of +great antiquity, and may indeed be considered the beginning of +organized armies. Thus there is often no clear distinction +between the inner ring of personal defenders and the select corps +of trained combatants who are at the chief’s entire disposal. +Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these +headings are the “Immortals” of Xerxes, the Mamelukes, +Janissaries, the <i>Huscarles</i> of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the +Russian Strelitz (<i>Stryeltsi</i>). In modern times the distinction +of function is better marked, and the fighting men who are +more intimately connected with the sovereign than the bulk of +the army can be classified as to duties into “Household Troops,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +who are in a sense personal retainers, and “Guards,” who are +a <i>corps d’élite</i> of combatants. But the dividing line is not so +clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British Household +Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the sovereign’s +escort.</p> + +<p>The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United +Kingdom is the King’s Bodyguard of the <i>Yeomen of the Guard</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>), formed at his accession by Henry VII. The “nearest +guard,” the personal escort of the sovereign, is the “King’s +Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of <i>Gentlemen-at-Arms</i>,” +created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509. Formed +possibly on the pattern of the “Pensionnaires” of the French +kings—retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of +the <i>Maison du Roi</i> (see below)—the new corps was originally +called “the Pensioners.” The importance of such guards +regiments in the general development of organized armies is +illustrated by a declaration of the House of Commons, made in +1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the Yeomen of the +Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But +with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding +disuse of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms +(a title which came into use in James II.’s time, though it did not +become that of the corps until William IV.’s) retaining their +noble character, became less and less military. Burke attempted +without success in 1782 to restrict membership to officers of the +army and navy, but the necessity of giving the corps an effective +military character became obvious when, on the occasion of +a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as an +armed body at St James’s Palace. The corps was reconstituted +on a purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only +military officers of the regular services who have received a war +decoration are eligible for appointment. The office of captain, +however, is political, the holder (who is always a peer) vacating +it on the resignation of the government of which he is a member. +The corps consists at present of captain, lieutenant, standard +bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant), sub-officer and 39 +gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet swallow-tailed +coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass dragoon +helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these +last contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially +infantry weapon, that they carry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Royal Company of Archers.</i>—The king’s bodyguard for Scotland +was constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of +the privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed +for the company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard +of the kings of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the +minutes of the Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to +“the noble and usefull recreation of archery being for many years +much neglected, several noblemen and gentlemen did associate +themselves in a company for encouragement thereof ... and did +apply to the privy council for their approbation ... which was +granted.” For about twenty years at the end of the 17th century, +perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to the Stuart cause, +its existence seems to have been suspended. But in 1703 a new +captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat, afterwards +earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured for the +company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and privileges +renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the crown +for the <i>reddendo</i> of a pair of barbed arrows. This <i>reddendo</i> was paid +to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842 and +to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company +since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were +frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks. +Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the +company was not at that time suspended in any way.</p> + +<p>In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought +appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty’s +bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of +a former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties +usually assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria +visited the Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did +duty; the last time they were called out in her reign in their capacity +of royal bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer +review in the Queen’s Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same +capacity when King Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers +there on the 18th of September 1905.</p> + +<p>King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition +to their former name, that of “The King’s Body Guard for Scotland,” +and presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus +constituting the company part of the royal household. In virtue +of this stick the captain-general of the Royal Company takes his +place at a coronation or similar pageant immediately behind the +gold stick of England. The lieutenants-general of the company +have silver sticks; and the council, which is the executive body of +the company, possess seven ebony ones. George IV. further appointed +a full dress uniform to be worn by members of the company +at court, when not on duty as guards, in which latter case the +ordinary field dress is used. The court dress is green with green +velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson silk sash, and +cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold sash in +place of a crimson one, and an <i>aiguillette</i> on the left shoulder. All +ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists of a dark-green +tunic, shoulder-wings and gauntleted cuffs and trousers +trimmed with black and crimson; a bow-case worn as a sash, of the +same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral +bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle’s feather. The officers of +the company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants, +4 ensigns, 12 brigadiers and adjutant.</p> +</div> + +<p>Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of +course count as combatant troops—if for no other reason at +least because they are armed with the weapons of bygone times. +Colonel Clifford Walton states in his <i>History of the British +Standing Army</i> that neither the Yeomen of the Guard nor the +Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British guards +and household troops that are armed, trained and organized +as part of the army are the <i>Household Cavalry</i> and the <i>Foot +Guards</i>.</p> + +<p>The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three +regiments, and has its origin, as have certain of the Foot guard +regiments, in the ashes of the “New Model” army disbanded +at the restoration of Charles II. in 1660. In that year the +“1st or His Majesty’s Own Troop of Guards” formed during +the king’s exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on the strength +of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish service +as the “Duke of York’s Guards,” and was also a cavalier unit. +In 1670, on Monk’s death, the original 3rd troop (Monk’s Life +Guards, renamed in 1660 the “Lord General’s Troop of Guards”) +became the 2nd (the queen’s) troop, and the duke of York’s +troop the 3rd. In 1685 the 1st and 2nd troops were styled Life +Guards of Horse, and two years later the blue-uniformed “Royal +Regiment of Horse,” a New Model regiment that had been +disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household +cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford +it was popularly called “The Oxford Blues.” There were also +from time to time other troops (<i>e.g.</i> Scots troops 1700-1746) +that have now disappeared. In 1746 the 2nd troop was disbanded, +but it was revived in 1788, when the two senior corps +were given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life Guards. From +1750 to 1819 the Blues bore the name of “Royal Horse Guards +Blue,” which in 1819 was changed to “Royal Horse Guards +(The Blues).” The general distinction between the uniforms +of the red Life Guard and the blue Horse Guard still exists. +The 1st and the 2nd regiments of Life Guards wear scarlet tunics +with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal Horse Guards blue +tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear steel +cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress +is a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life +Guards, red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin +pantaloons and long knee boots are worn. Amongst the +peculiarities of these <i>corps d’élite</i> is the survival of the old custom +of calling non-commissioned officers “corporal of horse” +instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of sergeant-major, +the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of a black +velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to the +wearer’s knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction +between the two Life Guards regiments’ uniforms, the most +obvious point being that the cord running through the white +leather pouch belt is red for the 1st and blue for the 2nd.</p> + +<p>The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream +Guards, the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each +(except the last) of three battalions. The Grenadiers, originally +the First Foot Guards, represent a royalist infantry regiment +which served with the exiled princes in the Spanish army and +returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream Guards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span> +are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord +General’s (Monk’s) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular +title, which became their official designation in 1670, is derived +from the fact that the army with which Monk restored the +monarchy crossed the Tweed into England at the village of +Coldstream, and that his troops (which were afterwards, except +the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself was +colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two +battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately +raised and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched +to London in 1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English +Establishment in 1707. In George III.’s reign they were known +as the Third Guards, and from 1831 to 1877 (when the present +title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier Guards.</p> + +<p>The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after +the South African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria’s appreciation +of the services rendered by the various Irish regiments of +the line.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The dress of the Foot Guards is generally similar +in all four regiments, scarlet tunic with blue collars, cuffs and +shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high, rounded bearskin cap. +The regimental distinctions most easily noticed are these. The +Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the Coldstreams +a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green +one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the +Grenadiers, by twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots +and by fours for the Irish. The band of the modern cap is red +for the Grenadiers, white for the Coldstreams, “diced” red and +white (chequers) for the Scots and green for the Irish. Former +privileges of foot guard regiments, such as higher brevet rank +in the army for their regimental officers, are now abolished, but +Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of their +own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of the +Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the +cavalry nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as +a rule, but in 1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at +that time proposed to disband, was sent to Egypt. “Guards’ +Brigades” served in the Napoleonic Wars, in the Crimea, in +Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in South Africa +1899-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry +as a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments +made up from officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were +employed in Egypt and in S. Africa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Merovingian +times, and their household forces appear from time to time +in the history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first +to regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to +such good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen +organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior +unit of the <i>Gardes du Corps</i> was the famous company of Scottish +archers (<i>Compagnie écossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi</i>), which +was originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that +assisted the French in the Hundred Years’ War. Scott’s <i>Quentin +Durward</i> gives a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI. +In the following century, however, its regimental history becomes +somewhat confused. Two French companies were added by Louis +XI. and Francis I. and the <i>Gardes du Corps</i> came to consist exclusively +of cavalry. About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving +went into the “regiment d’Hébron” and thence later into the +British regular army (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hepburn, Sir John</a></span>). Thereafter, though +the titles, distinctions and privileges of the original Archer Guard +were continued, it was recruited from native Frenchmen, preference +being (at any rate at first) given to those of Scottish descent. At +its disbandment in 1791 along with the rest of the <i>Gardes du Corps</i>, +it contained few, if any, native Scots. There was also, for a short +time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment of <i>Gardes écossaises</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1671 the title of <i>Maison Militaire du Roi</i> was applied to that +portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came +to consist of 4 companies of the <i>Gardes du Corps</i>, 2 companies +of <i>Mousquetaires</i> (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), 1 company of +<i>Chevaux légers</i> (1570), 1 of <i>Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge</i>, and 1 of +<i>Grenadiers à Cheval</i> (1676), with 1 company of <i>Gardes de la Porte</i> and +one called the <i>Cent-Suisses</i>, the last two being semi-military. This +large establishment, which did not include all the guard regiments, +was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain’s reforms in +1775, all except the <i>Gardes du Corps</i> and the <i>Cent-Suisses</i> being +disbanded. The whole of the <i>Maison du Roi</i>, with the exception +of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry.</p> + +<p>The <i>Gardes françaises</i>, formed in 1563, did not form part of the +<i>Maison</i>. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous +<i>Gardes suisses</i>, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars +of Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques, +incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in +1589 and in the guards in 1615. At the Revolution, contrary to +expectation, the French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional +movement and were disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however, +being foreigners, and therefore unaffected by civil troubles, retained +their exact discipline and devotion to the court to the day on which +they were sacrificed by their master to the bullets of the Marseillais +and the pikes of the mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is +commemorated by the well-known monument called the “Lion of +Lucerne,” the work of Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 1821. +The “Constitutional,” “Revolutionary” and other guards that +were created after the abolition of the <i>Maison</i> and the slaughter of +the Swiss are unimportant, but through the “Directory Guards” +they form a nominal link between the household troops of the +monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the most famous “Guard” +in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its beginnings in +an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which accompanied +him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On +becoming First Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the +guard of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the +Consular Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than +a personal bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The +Imperial Guard, into which it was converted on the establishment +of the Empire, was at first of about the strength of a division. +As such it took part in the Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after +the conquest of Prussia Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into +the “Old Guard” and the “Young Guard.” Subsequently the +“Middle Guard” was created, and by successive augmentations +the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000 strong in 1811-1812 +and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general character as a <i>corps +d’élite</i> of veterans to the last, but from about 1813 the “Young +Guard” was recruited directly from the best of the annual conscript +contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the army than their +regimental rank in the Guards. At the first Restoration an attempt +was made to revive the <i>Maison du Roi</i>, but in the constitutional +régime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval form of bodyguard +was given up and replaced by the <i>Garde Royale</i>, a selected +fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain and a +portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the July +Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real guard troops, but the +memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III., +who formed a large guard corps in 1853-1854. This, however, +was open to an even greater degree than Napoleon I.’s guard to the +objection that it took away the best soldiers from the line. Since +the fall of the Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in +France. The duty of watching over the safety of the president is +taken in the ordinary roster of duty by the troops stationed in the +capital. The “Republican Guard” is the Paris gendarmerie, +recruited from old soldiers and armed and trained as a military body.</p> + +<p>In <i>Austria-Hungary</i> there are only small bodies of household +troops (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown +Guards, &c.) analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen +of the Guard. Similar forces, the “Noble Guard” and the “Swiss +Guard,” are maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain +are called “halberdiers” and armed with the halbert.</p> + +<p>In <i>Russia</i> the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses +special privileges, particularly as regards officers’ advancement.</p> + +<p>In <i>Germany</i> the distinction between armed retainers and “Guards” +is well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under +imperial control, while household troops (“castle-guards” as they +are usually called) belong individually to the various sovereigns +within the empire. The “Guards,” as a combatant force in the +army are those of the king of <i>Prussia</i> and constitute a strong army +corps. This has grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers, +and, as in Great Britain, the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments +of the Guard preserve to some extent the name and character of a +body guard (<i>Gardes du Corps</i>). The senior foot guard regiment is +also personally connected with the royal family. The conversion +of a palace-guard to a combatant force is due chiefly to Frederick +William I., to whom drill was a ruling passion, and who substituted +effective regiments for the ornamental “Trabant Guards” of his +father. A further move was made by Frederick the Great in substituting +for Frederick William’s expensive “giant” regiment of +guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom he subjected +to the same rigorous training and made a <i>corps d’élite</i>. Frederick +the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above. Nevertheless +in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry regiments +and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of Napoleon’s +imperial guard which converted this force into a corps of all arms. +In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in 1860 by +slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an +army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span> +regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the +line of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit, +like other army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected +young men of each annual contingent, and is thus free from the +reproach of the French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained +soldiers from the regiments of the line.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The “Irish Guards” of the Stuarts took the side of James II., +fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental +identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers +transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARD-SHIP,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a warship stationed at some port or harbour +to act as a guard, and in former times in the British navy to +receive the men impressed for service. She usually was the +flagship of the admiral commanding on the coast. A guard-boat +is a boat which goes the round of a fleet at anchor to see that +due watch is kept at night.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÁRICO,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a large inland state of Venezuela created by the +territorial redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda +on the N., Bermúdez on the E., Bolívar on the S., and Zamora on +the W. Pop. (1905 estimate), 78,117. It extends across the +northern <i>llanos</i> to the Orinoco and Apure rivers and is devoted +almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting cattle, horses and +mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other products. The +capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are Camaguán +(pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), +on a small tributary of the Guárico river, and Zaraza (pop. +14,546) on the Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Carácas.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARIENTO,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> sometimes incorrectly named <span class="sc">Guerriero</span>, the +first Paduan painter who distinguished himself. The only date +distinctly known in his career is 1365, when, having already +acquired high renown in his native city, he was invited by the +Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise, and some incidents +of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of Venice. These +works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago +disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have +suffered much. In the church of the Eremitani are allegories +of the Planets, and, in its choir, some small sacred histories in +dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo; also, on the upper walls, +the life of St Augustine, with some other subjects. A few +fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still extant in +Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully +executed, and somewhat superior to a merely traditional method +of handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be +classed in that school of art which preceded Cimabue than as +having advanced in his vestiges; likewise two other works in +Bassano, ascribed to the same hand. The painter is buried in +the church of S. Bernardino, Padua.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1624-1683), Italian monk, +writer and architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at +once a learned mathematician, professor of literature and +philosophy at Messina, and, from the age of seventeen, was +architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He designed a very large +number of public and private buildings at Turin, including the +palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan, and +many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, +Lisbon and Paris. He died at Milan in 1683.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1537-1612), Italian poet, +author of the <i>Pastor fido</i>, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of +December 1537, just seven years before the birth of Tasso. He +was descended from Guarino da Verona. The young Battista +studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was called, when not +yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools of his +native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early +in life to marry Taddea de’ Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In +1567 he entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, +thus beginning the court career which was destined to prove a +constant source of disappointment and annoyance to him. +Though he cultivated poetry for pastime, Guarini aimed at +state employment as the serious business of his life, and managed +to be sent on various embassies and missions by his ducal master. +There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no opportunity +for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish +himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too +had passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such +glowing terms by Castiglione, could confer either profit or +honour. It is true that the court of Alphonso presented a +brilliant spectacle to Europe, with Tasso for titular poet, and +an attractive circle of accomplished ladies. But the last duke +of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding his servants with +promises, and ever ready to treat them with the brutality that +condemned the author of the <i>Gerusalemme liberata</i> to a madhouse. +Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose, +suffered from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries,—Pigna +and Montecatini,—quarrelled with his old friend Tasso, +and at the end of fourteen years of service found himself half-ruined, +with a large family and no prospects. When Tasso was +condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted Guarini to the vacant +post of court poet. There is an interesting letter extant from +the latter to his friend Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing the efforts +he made to fill this place appropriately. “I strove to transform +myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the +character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in +manhood, I forced myself to look young; I turned my natural +melancholy into artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, +exchanged wisdom for folly, and, in a word, passed from a +philosopher into a poet.” How ill-adapted he felt himself to +this masquerade life may be gathered from the following sentence: +“I am already in my forty-fourth year, the father of eight +children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors, while +my daughters are of an age to marry.” Abandoning so uncongenial +a strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to +his ancestral farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies +between the Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares +of his family, the nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the +composition of the <i>Pastor fido</i>. He was not happy in his +domestic lot; for he had lost his wife young, and quarrelled +with his elder sons about the division of his estate. Litigation +seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini; nor was +he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography, +the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally +a man of robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness, +confident in his own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs, +whose energies found no proper scope for their exercise. Literary +work offered but a poor sphere for such a character, while the +enforced inactivity of court life soured a naturally capricious +and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke with a certain tone of +condescension, professing to practise it only in his leisure +moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to secure +for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a +little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement—a disappointed +courtier past the prime of early manhood—should have been a +dramatic masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of +Italian literature. Deferring a further account of the <i>Pastor +fido</i> for the present, the remaining incidents of Guarini’s restless +life may be briefly told. In 1585 he was at Turin superintending +the first public performance of his drama, whence Alphonso +recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office of secretary of +state. This reconciliation between the poet and his patron did +not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and +back again to Florence, where he established himself as the +courtier of Ferdinand de’ Medici. A dishonourable marriage, +pressed upon his son Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the +natural resentment of Guarini, always scrupulous upon the point +of honour. He abandoned the Medicean court, and took refuge +with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of the Montefeltro-della-Rovere +house. Yet he found no satisfaction at Urbino. +“The old court is a dead institution,” he writes to a friend; +“one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of +to-day. Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes +a-masquerading all the year.” This was true enough. Those +dwindling deadly-lively little residence towns of Italian ducal +families, whose day of glory was over, and who were waiting +to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of Austria, +were no fit places for a man of energy and independence. Guarini +finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the death +of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at +the Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits, +and polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until +1612, when he died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span></p> + +<p>The <i>Pastor fido</i> (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama +composed not without reminiscences of Tasso’s <i>Aminta</i>. The +scene is laid in Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been +the custom to sacrifice a maiden yearly to Diana. But an +oracle has declared that when two scions of divine lineage are +united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd has atoned for the +ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite shall cease. +The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this prophecy, +contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for bringing +it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent improbabilities +of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and, regarded as a +piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired. Each +motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply +developed. Yet, considered as a play, the <i>Pastor fido</i> disappoints +a reader trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. +The action itself seems to take place off the stage, and only the +results of action, stationary tableaux representing the movement +of the drama, are put before us in the scenes. The art is lyrical, +not merely in form but in spirit, and in adaptation to the requirements +of music which demands stationary expressions of +emotion for development. The characters have been well +considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness; +the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender +and romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca’s meretricious arts enhancing +the pure affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents another type +of love so impulsive that it prevails over a maiden’s sense of +shame, while the courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns +into comparison with the innocence of the country. In Carino +the poet painted his own experience, and here his satire upon the +court of Ferrara is none the less biting because it is gravely +measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman vitiated by the +same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he drawn. +Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the <i>Pastor +fido</i> in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole +play is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society. +There is no true rusticity whatever in the drama. This correspondence +with the spirit of the age secured its success during +Guarini’s lifetime; this made it so dangerously seductive that +Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet he had done more harm to +Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by his heresy. +Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the +<i>Pastor fido</i> is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty +of its pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more +provocative than nudity. Moreover, the love described is +effeminate and wanton, felt less as passion than as lust enveloped +in a veil of sentiment. We divine the coming age of +<i>cicisbei</i> and <i>castrati</i>. Of Guarini’s style it would be difficult to +speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and experience +of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and have +found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to +perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes +itself felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does +Guarini abstain from sententious maxims which reveal the +moralist rather than the poet. Yet these are but minor blemishes +in a masterpiece of diction, glittering and faultless like a polished +bas-relief of hard Corinthian bronze. That a single pastoral +should occupy so prominent a place in the history of literature +seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy, upon the close of +the 16th century, expressed itself in the <i>Pastor fido</i>, and that +the influence of this drama was felt through all the art of Europe +till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The +sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found +in it the most exact embodiment, and made it the code of +gallantry for the next two centuries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of the <i>Pastor fido</i> is the 20th, published at Venice +(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbéra (Florence, +1866). For Guarini’s miscellaneous <i>Rime</i>, the Ferrara edition, in +4 vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, <i>Verato +primo</i> and <i>secondo</i>, and his prose comedy called <i>Idropica</i>, were +published at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARINO,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> also known as <span class="sc">Varinus</span>, and surnamed from +his birthplace <span class="sc">Favorinus</span>, <span class="sc">Phavorinus</span> or <span class="sc">Camers</span> (<i>c.</i> 1450-1537), +Italian lexicographer and scholar, was born at Favera +near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin at Florence under +Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil of Lascaris. +Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself +with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published +his <i>Thesaurus cornucopiae et horti Adonidis</i>, a collection of +thirty-four grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time +acted as tutor to Giovanni dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and +also held the appointment of keeper of the Medicean library at +Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of Nocera. In +1517 he published a translation of the <i>Apophthegmata</i> of Joannes +Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his <i>Etymologicum magnum, sive +thesaurus universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus +collectus</i>, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted, +and which has laid subsequent scholars under great though not +always acknowledged obligations.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1370-1460), one +of the Italian restorers of classical learning, was born in 1370 +at Verona, and studied Greek at Constantinople, where for five +years he was the pupil of Manuel Chrysoloras. When he set +out on his return to Italy he was the happy possessor of two +cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at great pains +to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck +caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single +night. He supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at +Verona and afterwards in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he +became, through the patronage of Lionel, marquis of Este, +professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and following years +he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils of Ferrara +and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December 1460.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the +<i>Lives</i> of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chrysoloras, +and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial +and on some of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, +<i>Vita e disciplina di Guarino</i> (1805-1806); Sabbadini, <i>Guarino +Veronese</i> (1885); Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> ii. (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUARNIERI,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guarnerius</span>, a celebrated family of violin-makers +of Cremona. The first was Andreas (<i>c.</i> 1626-1698), +who worked with Antonio Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo +Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of a model original to him +are dated from the sign of “St Theresa” in Cremona. His son +Joseph (1666-<i>c.</i> 1739) made instruments at first like his father’s, +but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his son, +Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son +of Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known as +“Peter of Cremona” (b. 1655), moved from Cremona and +settled at Mantua, where he too worked “sub signo Sanctae +Teresae.” Peter’s violins again showed considerable variations +from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the +violin, says, “There is increased breadth between the sound-holes; +the sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular; +the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is more +raised.”</p> + +<p>The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of +Andreas, Joseph del Gesù (1687-1745), whose title originates +in the I.H.S. inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar +di Salo. His conception follows that of the early Brescian +makers in the boldness of outline and the massive construction +which aim at the production of tone rather than visual perfection +of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, &c., +represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering +this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board +on both sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments. +Since the middle of the 18th century a great many spurious +instruments ascribed to this master have poured over Europe. +It was not until Paganini played on a “Joseph” that the taste +of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the Amati and the +Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the Joseph +Guarnerius. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Violin</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUASTALLA,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, +in the province of Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, +on the S. bank of the Po, 79 ft. above sea-level. It is also +connected by rail with Parma and Mantua (via Suzzara). Pop. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +(1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has 16th-century +fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th century, +has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the +Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope +Paschal II. held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by +Giberto da Correggio of Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido +Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it +was sold by the last female descendant of the Torelli to Ferrante +Gonzaga. In 1621 it was made the seat of a duchy, but in 1748 +it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose history it +subsequently followed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUATEMALA<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (sometimes incorrectly written <span class="sc">Guatimala</span>), +a name now restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its +chief city, but formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish +America, which included the fifteen provinces of Chiapas, +Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, San Salvador, Vera Paz +and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, +Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Sololá, Chimaltenango and +Sacatepeques,—or, in other words, the whole of Central America +(except Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably +of Aztec origin, and is said by some authorities to mean in its +native form Quauhtematlan, “Land of the Eagle,” or “Land +of Forest”; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, connect it with +the volcano of Agua (<i>i.e.</i> “water”), and interpret it as “mountain +vomiting water.”</p> + +<p>The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13° 42′ and +17° 49′ N., and 88° 10′ and 92° 30′ W. (For map, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central +America</a></span>.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. +Guatemala is bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by +British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the republic +of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean. +The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions +of the 27th of September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the +1st of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the +Pacific, it ascends the river Suchiate, then follows an irregular line +towards the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of 17° 49′ N., +along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This +frontier, by the convention of the 9th of July 1893, coincides with +the meridian of 89° 20′ W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or +Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Description.</i>—Guatemala is naturally divided into five +regions—the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains +of the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of +these, the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. +(1) The coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, +with a mean breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar +territory in Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. +Owing to their tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and +marshy soil, they are thinly peopled, and contain few important +towns except the seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the +Sierra Madre, which closes in the coastal plains on the north, is +similarly prolonged into Salvador and Mexico. It is known near +Guatemala city as the Sierra de las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the +Sierra de Istatan. It forms the main watershed between the +Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its summit is not a well-defined +crest, but is often rounded or flattened into a table-land. The +direction of the great volcanic cones, which rise in an irregular line +above it, is not identical with the main axis of the Sierra itself, +except near the Mexican frontier, but has a more southerly trend, +especially towards Salvador; here the base of many of the igneous +peaks rests among the southern foothills of the range. It is, however, +impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a northern and a +volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by stretches of comparatively +low country; at least thirteen considerable streams +flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea. +Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly +from the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they +tower; but in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south. +East of Tacana, which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously +estimated at 13,976 ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate +be correct is the loftiest peak in Central America, the principal +volcanoes are—Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria +(12,467 ft.), which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of +quiescence, in which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests; +Atitlán (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango +(13,615). which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain +of Central America; Fuego (<i>i.e.</i> “fire,” variously estimated at +12,795 ft. and 12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity +at the time of the Spanish conquest; Agua (<i>i.e.</i> “water,” 12,139 ft.), +so named in 1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala +with a deluge of water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya +(8390), a group of igneous peaks which were in eruption in 1870. +(3) The so-called plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre +are in fact high valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by mountains. +A better idea of this region is conveyed by the native name +Altos, or highlands, although that term includes the northern +declivity of the Sierra Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in +the west (Altos of Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of +Guatemala). A few of the streams of the Pacific slope actually +rise in the Altos, and force a way through the Sierra Madre at the +bottom of deep ravines. One large river, the Chixoy, escapes northwards +towards the Atlantic. (4) The relief of the mountainous +country which lies north of the Altos and drains into the Atlantic +is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges and underfalls; but its +general configuration is admirably compared by E. Reclus with the +appearance of “a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows” (<i>Universal +Geography</i>, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii., p. 212). The +parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight southerly curve +towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de Chama, which, +however, changes its name frequently from place to place, strikes +eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by low hills +with the Cockscomb Mountains; another similar range, the Sierra +de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Cocoli between the Polochic +and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra de las Minas or, in its +eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic +and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier +is formed by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten, +which comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala, +belongs geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and consists of +level or undulating country, covered with grass or forest. Its +population numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts +have a wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater +part of this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by +the Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras +the versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are +consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number +of the rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, +whose principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course +of about 250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, +which is situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It +forms a delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar +importance is the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and +navigable about 20 m. above the river-port of Telemán. Before +reaching the Golfo Amatique it passes through the Golfo Dulce, +or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete Dulce. A vast number of streams, +among which are the Chixoy, the Guadalupe, and the Rio de la +Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta, whose noble current passes +along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on through Chiapas and +Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The Chiapas follows a +similar course.</p> + +<p>There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of +Peten or Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of +Peten, is an irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme +breadth of 13 m. In an island in the western portion stands Flores, +a town well known to American antiquaries for the number of ancient +idols which have been recovered from its soil. On the shore of the +lake is the stalactite cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; +and in its depths, according to the popular legend, may still be discerned +the stone image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The +Golfo Dulce is, as its name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so +near the Atlantic. It is about 36 m. long, and would be of considerable +value as a harbour if the bar at the mouth of the Rio +Dulce did not prevent the upward passage of seafaring vessels. +As a contrast the Lake of Atitlán (<i>q.v.</i>) is a land-locked basin encompassed +with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S. of the capital lies +the Lake of Amatitlán (<i>q.v.</i>) with the town of the same name. On +the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake of Guija, +about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above the +sea. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza +which lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.</p> + +<p>The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>. The bird-life of the country is remarkably +rich; one bird of magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal +(<i>Trogon resplendens</i>), has been chosen as the national emblem.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where +malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts +from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till +December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is +May. The average temperatures for these months at places of different +altitudes, as given by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following page.</p> + +<p>The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope, +where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf +of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the +Atlantic slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only +27 in. Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, +and there is a local saying near the Golfo Dulce that “it rains +thirteen months in the year.” Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +as in other parts of Central America (<i>q.v.</i>), each of the three climatic +zones, cold, temperate and hot (<i>tierra fria</i>, <i>tierra templada</i>, <i>tierra +caliente</i>) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to generalize +about the climate of the country as a whole.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Locality.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Altitude<br />(Feet).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Fahrenheit Degrees.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">January.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Puerto Barrios</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">74</td> <td class="tcc rb">81</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salamá</td> <td class="tcr rb">3020</td> <td class="tcc rb">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">77</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Campur</td> <td class="tcr rb">3050</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chimax</td> <td class="tcr rb">4280</td> <td class="tcc rb">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">68</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Guatemala</td> <td class="tcr rb">4870</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">67</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Quezaltenango</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7710</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Natural Products.</i>—The minerals discovered in Guatemala include +gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and +sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities +sufficient to repay exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas +near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula, +salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th +century gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the +Motagua valley, and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the +name of “Gold Coast” was not infrequently given to the Atlantic +littoral near the mouth of the Motagua.</p> + +<p>The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the +west, and amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it +yields many valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, +mahogany and logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are +obtained in great abundance, especially where the soil is largely of +volcanic origin, as in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the +Peten district are equally fertile, maize in this region yielding two +hundredfold from unmanured soil. The vegetable products of +Guatemala include coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, bananas, oranges, +vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha, castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona, +tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant (<i>Myrica cerifera</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to +increase rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, +and low rate of emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or +more than one-third of the entire population of Central America. +Fully 60% are pure Indians, and the remainder, classed as +<i>Ladinos</i> or “Latins” (<i>i.e.</i> Spaniards in speech and mode of life), +comprise a large majority of half-castes (<i>mestizos</i>) and civilized +Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. It includes a +foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North +Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the +United States. There are important German agricultural +settlements, and many colonists from north Italy who are locally +called <i>Tiroleses</i>, and despised by the Indians for their industry +and thrift. About half the births among the Indians and one-third +among the whites are illegitimate.</p> + +<p>No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of +tribes, and in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken +languages as eighteen, although east of the meridian of Lake +Amatitlán the native speech has almost entirely disappeared +and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians belong chiefly +to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, or +to the allied Quiché race which is well represented in the Altos +and central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, +Pokonchi and the Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement +of Mixco near the capital, all belong to the Maya family; but +parts of central and eastern Guatemala are peopled by tribes +distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. In the 16th +century the Mayas and Quichés had attained a high level of +civilization (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>, <i>Archaeology</i>), and at least +two of the Guatemalan languages, Quiché and Cakchiquel, +possess the rudiments or the relics of a literature. The Quiché +<i>Popol Vuh</i>, or “Book of History,” which was translated into +Spanish by the Dominican friar Ximenes, and edited with a +French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is an important +document for students of the local myths. In appearance the +various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the +characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low +forehead, prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In +character the Indians are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious +of their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the +revolutions which so often disturb the course of local politics; +they are often intensely religious, but with a few exceptions +are thriftless, indolent and inveterate gamblers. Their <i>confradias</i>, +or brotherhoods, each with its patron saint and male +and female chiefs, exist largely to organize public festivals, and +to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations for the +dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas, +which deal with religious and historical subjects, are of Indian +origin, and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval +Europe, a resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to +Spanish missionaries, of Christian saints and heroes such as +Charlemagne. The Indians are devoted to bull-fighting and +cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular amusement, and is +accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native wind-instruments. +The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish edible earth +containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images moulded +of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a +prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied +occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple +diet; drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when +large quantities of a fiery brandy called <i>chicha</i> are consumed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>—The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala +la Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango +(31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Sololá +(17,000), Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlán +(10,000) and Atitlán (9000) are described under separate headings. +All the chief towns except the seaports are situated within the +mountainous region where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, +among the southern foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the +centres of coffee production, and is connected by rail with the +Pacific port of Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet +season. Both Retalhuleu and Champerico were, like Quezaltenango, +Sololá, and other towns, temporarily ruined by the earthquake of +the 18th of April 1902. Santa Cruz Quiché, 25 m. N.E. of Totonicapam, +was formerly the capital of the Quiché kings, but has now +a Ladino population. Livingston, a seaport at the mouth of the +Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was founded in 1806, and +subsequently named after the author of a code of Guatemalan laws; +few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of Sevilla la Nueva, +founded in 1844, and of the English colony of Abbotsville, founded +in 1825,—both near Livingston. La Libertad, also called by its +Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping and Communications.</i>—The republic is in regular steam +communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York +and Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo +Tomas) and Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San +José, Champerico and Ocós are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, +by the vessels of a Hamburg company and by those of the South +American (Chilean) and the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. +Iztapa, formerly the principal harbour on the south coast, has been +almost entirely abandoned since 1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, +and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small river-ports. The principal +towns are connected by wagon roads, towards the construction and +maintenance of which each male inhabitant is required to pay two +pesos or give four days’ work a year. There are coach routes between +the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great portion of +the country transport is still on mule-back. All the railway lines +have been built since 1875. The main lines are the Southern, +belonging to an American company and running from San José +to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital +to Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and +the Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a +Guatemalan company, but largely under German management. +For local traffic there are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San +José, to Naranjo, and another from Ocós to the western coffee +plantations. On the Atlantic slope transport is effected mainly by +river tow-boats from Livingston along the Golfo Dulce and other +lakes, and the Polochic river as far as Panzos. The narrow-gauge +railway that serves the German plantations in the Vera Paz region +is largely owned by Germans.</p> + +<p>Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and +telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial difficulties. +The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva, Quezaltenango and +other cities are owned by private companies.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce and Industry.</i>—The natural resources of Guatemala +are rich but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their +development is not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution +and economic crises recur at frequent intervals, where the +premium on gold has varied by no less than 500% in a single +year, and where many of the wealthiest cities and agricultural +districts have been destroyed by earthquake in one day (18th of +April 1902). At the beginning of the 19th century, Guatemala had +practically no export trade; but between 1825 and 1850 cochineal +was largely exported, the centre of production being the Amatitlán +district. This industry was ruined by the competition of chemical +dyes, and a substitute was found in the cultivation of coffee. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span> +Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the East Indies in the +quantity of coffee it exports. The chief plantations are owned and +managed by Germans; more than half of the crop is sent to Germany, +while three-fifths of the remainder go to the United States and +one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly product is about +70,000,000 ℔, worth approximately £1,300,000, and subject to an +export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101 ℔). Sugar, +bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much of the +sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are consumed +in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of +western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its +fine flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations +yield little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in +most cases been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas +tends to increase, though more slowly than in other Central American +countries. Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home +consumption. Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands +and the plains of Peten; but the whole number of sheep +(77,000 in 1900) and pigs (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the +number kept in many single English counties. Much of the wool +is sold, like the native cotton, to Indian and Ladino women, who +manufacture coarse cloth and linen in their homes.</p> + +<p>By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts +and frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding +tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or +5625 acres; the price varies from £40 to £80 per caballeria of 112½ +acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to +immigrants (including foreign companies), to persons who undertake +to build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns, +villages and schools. The condition of the Indians on the plantations +is often akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some +planters of making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend +their earnings, and thus contract debts which can only be repaid +by long service.</p> + +<p>In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar +mills and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts +to the plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as +the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and +manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries +are far less important than agriculture.</p> + +<p>During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of +Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and +machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted +to £776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and +nearly one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during +the same period had an average value of £1,528,000, and ranked as +follows in order of value: coffee (£1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, +sugar, bananas, cocoa.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to +which the government is deeply indebted. There is practically +neither gold nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes +is so fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the +25th of June 1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee +was restricted; and thenceforward all banks were compelled to +retain gold or silver to the value of 10% of the notes issued in +1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906. This reform has not, to +any appreciable extent, rendered more stable the value of the +notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100 centavas is the +monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a nominal +value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by the +paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.), +half-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and +measures has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain +in general use.</p> + +<p>Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; +9% from property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% +from the gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various +taxes, stamps, government lands, and postal and telegraph services. +The estimated revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos +(about £328,500); the estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos +(£390,200), of which £242,800 were allotted to the public debt, +£42,000 to internal development and justice, £29,000 to the army +and the remainder largely to education. The gold value of the +currency peso (75 = £1 in 1903, 70 = £1 in 1904, 58 = £1 in 1905) +fluctuates between limits so wide that conversion into sterling +(especially for a series of years), with any pretension to accuracy, +is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of exchange moved between +710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official +statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in +Germany and England, amounted to £1,987,905 on the 1st of +January 1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.) +amounted to £704,730; total £2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of +about £300,000.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—According to the constitution of December +1879 (modified in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative +power is vested in a national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every +20,000 inhabitants) chosen for 4 years by direct popular vote, +under universal manhood suffrage. The president of the republic +is elected in a similar manner, but for 6 years, and he is theoretically +not eligible for the following term. He is assisted by 6 +ministers, heads of government departments, and by a council +of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly +by the national assembly.</p> + +<p><i>Local Government.</i>—Each of the twenty-two departments is +administered by an official called a <i>jefe politico</i>, or political +chief, appointed by the president, and each is subdivided into +municipal districts. These districts are administered by one +or more <i>alcaldes</i> or mayors, assisted by municipal councils, both +alcaldes and councils being chosen by the people.</p> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, +consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices elected +by the people; six appeal courts, each with three judges, also +elected by the people; and twenty-six courts of first instance, +each consisting of one judge appointed by the president and two +by the chief justice of the supreme court.</p> + +<p><i>Religion and Instruction.</i>—The prevailing form of religion +is the Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction +of creed. The establishment of conventual or monastic institutions +is prohibited. Of the population in 1893, 90% could +neither read nor write, 2% could only read, and 8% could read +and write. Primary instruction is nominally compulsory, and, +in government schools, is provided at the cost of the state. +In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There +are besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools of +similar character, owners of plantations on which there are more +than ten children being obliged to provide school accommodation. +Higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the +capital, one for men with 500 pupils and one for women with +300. At Quezaltenango there are two similar institutes, and +at Chiquimula there are other two. To each of the six there +is a school for teachers attached, and within the republic there +are four other schools for teachers. For professional instruction +(law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by +private funds, but aided occasionally by the government. +Other educational establishments are a school of art, a national +conservatory of music, a commercial college, four trades’ schools +with more than 600 pupils and a national library. There is a +German school, endowed by the German government.</p> + +<p><i>Defence.</i>—For the white and mixed population military +service is compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth +year of age in the active army, and from the thirtieth to the +fiftieth in the reserve. The effective force of the active army +is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. About 7000 officers and men +are kept in regular service. Military training is given in all +public and most private schools.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under +Pedro de Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years +1837-1839 its history differs only in minor details from that of +the neighbouring states of Central America (<i>q.v.</i>). The colonial +period was marked by the destruction of the ancient Indian +civilization, the extermination of many entire tribes, and the +enslavement of the survivors, who were exploited to the utmost +for the benefit of Spanish officials and adventurers. But although +the administration was weak, corrupt and cruel, it succeeded +in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in introducing +the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus +obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for +more liberal institutions. The Central American provinces +revolted in 1821, were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide +from 1822 to 1823, and united to form a federal republic from +1823 to 1839. In Guatemala the Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal +party was supreme; after a protracted struggle it overthrew +the Liberals or Federalists, and declared the country an +independent republic, with Rafael Carrera (1814-1865) as president. +In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union failed; +in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and +Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as +the pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was +promulgated, and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a +dignity which was in 1854 bestowed upon him for life. His +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. 1865), president of Salvador, +resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque the Guatemalans +suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce. +Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa +Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour +of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made +himself dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During +the rest of his rule, which lasted till his death in April 1865, he +continued to act in concert with the Clerical party, and endeavoured +to maintain friendly relations with the European +governments. Carrera’s successor was General Cerna, who had +been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party +began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna +was deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were +driven into exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals. +Pres. Rufino Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873, governed the +country after the manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits, +confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed +the church. But though he encouraged education, promoted +railway and other enterprises, and succeeded in settling difficulties +as to the Mexican boundary, the general result of his policy was +baneful. Conspiracies against him were rife, and in 1884 he +narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to be the +restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and +when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed +he had recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of +Honduras and Salvador, he proclaimed himself, in February +1885, the supreme military chief of Central America, and claimed +the command of all the forces within the five states. President +Zaldívar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but after the issue of +the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with +Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded Salvador, +and on the 2nd of April a battle was fought, in which the Guatemalan +president was killed. He was succeeded by General +Manuel Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the +union, and on the 16th of April the war was formally ended. +Peace, however, only provided opportunity for domestic conspiracy, +with assassination and revolution in view. In 1892 +General José Maria Reina Barrios was elected president, and in +1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was +assassinated. Señor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him; +but in the same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was +elected president for the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted +education, commerce and the improvement of communications, +but his re-election for the term 1905-1911 caused widespread +discontent. He was charged with aiming at a dictatorship, with +permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment, torture and +execution without trial of political opponents, with maladministration +of the finances and with aggression against the neighbouring +states. A well-armed force, which included a body of +adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by +General Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in +March 1906 from Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. +Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed his intention of establishing +a silver currency, and gained, to a great extent, the sympathy of +the German and British residents; he had been the sole Guatemalan +president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure +of office. Ocós was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo, +and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, +Costa Rica and Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, +while Nicaragua was hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, +and even gained several indecisive victories. The intervention +of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz of Mexico brought +about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the so-called “Marblehead +Pact” was signed on the following day on board the +United States cruiser “Marblehead.” Its terms were embodied +in a treaty signed (28th of September) by representatives of the +four belligerent states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. +The treaty included regulations for the improvement of +commerce and navigation in the area affected by the war, and +provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the +arbitration of the United States and Mexico.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Besides the works cited under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central +America</a></span> see the interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English +missionary, in Juarros, <i>Compendio de la historia de Guatemala</i> +(1808-1818, 2 vols.; new ed., 1857), which in Bailly’s English +translation (London, 1823) long formed the chief authority. See +also C. Juan Anino, <i>La Republica de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala, 1894); +T. Brigham, <i>Guatemala, The Land of the Quetzal</i> (London, 1887); +J. M. Caceres, <i>Geografia de Centro-America</i> (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, +<i>Guia geografica de los centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala</i> +(Guatemala, 1882); F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, <i>Historia de +Guatemala o Recordacion Florida</i> (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. +Maudslay, <i>A Glimpse at Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient +Monuments of Central America</i> (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, +<i>The Republic of Guatemala</i> (Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, +<i>Historia del disenvolvimiento intelectual de Guatemala</i>, vol. i. (Guatemala, +1897); Otto Stoll, <i>Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren +1878-1883</i> (Leipzig, 1886); J. Mendez, <i>Guia del immigrante en la +republica de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, “Grundzüge +der physikalischen Geographie von Guatemala,” Ergänzungsheft +No. 115, <i>Petermann’s Mitteilungen</i> (Gotha, 1894); <i>Anuario +de estadistica de la republica de Guatemala</i> (Guatemala); <i>Memoria +de la Secretaria de Instruccion Publica</i> (Guatemala, 1899); <i>Handbook +of Guatemala</i>, revised (Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, +1897); <i>United States Consular Reports</i> (Washington); <i>British +Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports</i> (London).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUATEMALA,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guatemala la Nueva</span> (<i>i.e.</i> “New Guatemala,” +sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly +Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala), the capital of the +republic of Guatemala, and until 1821 of the Spanish captaincy-general +of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in Mexico and +all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000. +Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide +table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so +called from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in +the 16th century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, +and beyond it lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest +peaks being on the south, where the volcanic summits of the +Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. Guatemala has a station on the +transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic +(190 m. N.E.) to San José on the Pacific (75 m. S. by W.). It +is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and has a +corresponding commercial superiority. Its archbishop is the +primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most +Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and +regular streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has +extensive suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one +storey, are solidly and comfortably constructed; many of them +are surrounded by large gardens and courts. Among the open +spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which contains the +cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the government +buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more +modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the +favourite resorts of the inhabitants. There are many large +schools for both sexes, besides hospitals and an orphanage. +Many of the principal buildings, such as the military academy, +were originally convents. The theatre, founded in 1858, is one +of the best in Central America. A museum, founded in 1831, +is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various +ways has done great service to the city and the country. There +are two fortresses, the Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael +Carrera (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guatemala</a></span> [republic] under <i>History</i>), and the +Castello de San José. Water is brought from a distance of about +8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and Pinula; +fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians +of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the +appearance, of Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris +of Central America. It is lighted by electricity and has a good +telephone service. Its trade is chiefly in coffee, but it also +possesses cigar factories, wool and cotton factories, breweries, +tanneries and other industrial establishments. The foreign +trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.</p> + +<p>The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja +or “Old City,” was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the +conqueror of the country, on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, +and at the foot of the volcano of Agua (<i>i.e.</i> “Water”). In +1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the flooded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago de los +Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly, +and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most +populous place in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and +more than 100 churches and convents. But in 1773 it was +ruined by an earthquake. It was rebuilt, and ultimately became +capital of the department of Sacatepeques, and a health-resort +locally celebrated for its thermal springs. But the Guatemalans +determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the +hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and last city of +Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in +1779. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the +construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area +covered, and the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to +an ordinance which, in order to minimize the danger from earthquakes, +forbade the erection of any building more than 20 ft. +high. Many of the belfries of convents or churches, added after +the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were overthrown by the +earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part of Antigua.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUATOS,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians of the upper +Paraguay. They are of a European fairness and wear beards. +They live almost entirely in canoes, building rough shelters +in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians in the war with +Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUATUSOS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They +are an active, hardy people, who have always maintained +hostility towards the Spaniards and retain their independence. +From their language they appear to be a distinct stock. They +were described by old writers as being very fair, with flaxen +hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, that they +were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAVA<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (from the Mexican <i>guayaba</i>), the name applied to +the fruits of species of <i>Psidium</i>, a genus belonging to the natural +order <i>Myrtaceae</i>. The species which produces the bulk of the +guava fruits of commerce is <i>Psidium Guajava</i>, a small tree from +15 to 20 ft. high, a native of the tropical parts of America and +the West Indies. It bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves, +with strongly marked veins, and covered with a soft tomentum +or down. The flowers are borne on axillary stalks, and the fruits +vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous forms and +varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the +fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the +white guava (<i>P. Guajava</i>, var. <i>pyriferum</i>). The fruits are pear-shaped, +about the size of a hen’s egg, covered with a thin bright +yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish +tinge, and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic +flavour. <i>P. Guajava</i>, var. <i>pomiferum</i>, produces a more globular +or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes called the red guava. The +pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker colour than the former +and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first named is most +esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are used +in the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava +jelly and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies +and imported thence to England; the fruits are of much too +perishable a nature to allow of their importation in their natural +state. Both varieties have been introduced into various parts +of India, as well as in other countries of the East, where they +have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course much too +tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there +in hothouses or stoves.</p> + +<p><i>Psidium variabile</i> (also known as <i>P. Cattleyanum</i>), a tree of +from 10 to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araçá or Araçá de +Praya), is known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very +abundantly produced in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical, +of a fine deep claret colour; the rind is pitted, and the pulp +is soft, fleshy, purplish, reddish next the skin, but becoming +paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white. +It has a very agreeable acid-sweet flavour, which has been +likened to that of a strawberry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAYAMA,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a small city and the capital of a municipal +district and department of the same name, on the southern +coast of Porto Rico, 53 m. S. of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the +city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of the district, 12,749. The +district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and Salinas. The city stands +about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, healthy climate. It is +connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with the port of +Arroyo by an excellent road, part of the military road extending to +Cayey, and it exports sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle, fruit +and other products of the department, which is very fertile. +The city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed +by fire in 1832. It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses +several buildings of note. Drinking-water is brought in through +an aqueduct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAYAQUIL,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santiago de Guayaquil</span>, a city and port +of Ecuador, capital of the province of Guayas, on the right +bank of the Guayas river, 33 m. above its entrance into the Gulf +of Guayaquil, in 2° 12′ S., 79° 51′ W. Pop. (1890) 44,772; +(1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The city is built +on a comparatively level <i>pajonal</i> or savanna, extending southward +from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la +Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the +Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower +parts of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season. +The old town is the upper or northern part, and is inhabited +by the poorer classes, its streets being badly paved, crooked, +undrained, dirty and pestilential. The great fire of 1896 +destroyed a large part of the old town, and some of its insanitary +conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town, or +southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the +better classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the +streets are provided with surface drainage only. Among the +public buildings are the governor’s and bishop’s palaces, town-hall, +cathedral and 9 churches, national college, episcopal +seminary and schools of law and medicine, theatre, two hospitals, +custom-house, and several asylums and charitable institutions. +Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with +faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is +that the upper floors in the business streets project over the +walks, forming covered arcades. The year is divided into a wet +and dry season, the former from January to June, when the hot +days are followed by nights of drenching rain. The mean annual +temperature is about 82° to 83° F.; malarial and bilious fevers +are common, the latter being known as “Guayaquil fever,” +and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry or summer +season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply +is now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras +53 m. distant. The mains pass under the Guayas river and +discharge into a large distributing reservoir on one of the hills +N. of the city. The city is provided with tramway and telephone +services, the streets are lighted with gas and electricity, and +telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained +by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the small port +of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil. +Railway connexion with Quito (290 m.) was established in June +1908. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing +districts of the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries, +on which boats run regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in +the dry season, and for a distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For +smaller boats there are about 200 m. of navigation on this +system of rivers. The exports of the province are almost wholly +transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at Guayaquil, +or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6½ m. outside the Guayas bar, +on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable +up to Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger +vessels anchor at Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and +passengers are transferred to lighters and tenders. There is a +quay on the river front, but the depth alongside does not exceed +18 ft. The principal exports are cacao, rubber, coffee, tobacco, +hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and ivory nuts, the +value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 <i>sucres</i>, in +a total of 18,565,668 <i>sucres</i> for the whole republic. In 1908 the +exports were: cacao, about 64,000,000 ℔, valued at $6,400,000; +hides, valued at $135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000; coffee, +valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard, +saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills, +brewery, and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-water +and liqueurs.</p> + +<p>Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James’s day, the +25th of July 1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice +abandoned before its permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco +de Orellana. It was captured and sacked several times in the +17th and 18th centuries by pirates and freebooters—by Jacob +Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by English freebooters +under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in 1707 +and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in +1730, and in 1763, when the town was made a governor’s residence, +a castle and other fortifications were constructed. Owing to +the flimsy construction of its buildings Guayaquil has been +repeatedly burned, the greater fires occurring in 1707, 1764, +1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see of a bishopric +in 1837.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAYAS,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">El Guayas</span>, a coast province of Ecuador, +bounded N. by Manabí and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Cañar +and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. +by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the province of Manabí. +Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It is very +irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts surrounding +the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras +and the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galápagos Islands, +lying 600 m. off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily +forested and traversed by numerous rivers, for the most part +tributaries of the Guayas river, which enters the gulf from the +N. This river system has a drainage area of about 14,000 sq. m. +and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels in the rainy +season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and Babahoyo +or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces +and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy, +bilious and malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is +abundant and the soil is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the +collection of forest products are the chief industries. The staple +products are cacao, coffee, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. +The cultivation of cacao is the principal industry, the exports +forming about one-third the world’s supply. Stock-raising is +also carried on to a limited extent. Among forest products are +rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory nuts. The +manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the +toquilla palm (commonly called <i>jipijapa</i>, after a town in Manabí +famous for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry +among the natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity +of the climate greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate +straws, which would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas +is the chief industrial and commercial province of the republic, +about nineteen-twentieths of the commerce of Ecuador passing +through the port of its capital, Guayaquil. There are no land +transport routes in the province except the Quito & Guayaquil +railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river +channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford +excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number +of small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are +no large towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Durán, on the +Guayas river opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the +Quito railway and contains the shops and offices of that line. +The port of Santa Elena on a bay of the same name, about 65 m. +W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point of the West Coast cable, +and a port of call for some of the regular steamship lines. Its +exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAYCURUS,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians on the +Paraguay. The name has been used generally of all the mounted +Indians of Gran Chaco. The Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, +who paint their bodies and go naked. They are fearless horsemen +and are occupied chiefly in cattle rearing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUAYMAS,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> or <span class="sc">San José de Guaymas</span>, a seaport of Mexico, +in the state of Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of +California a few miles W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in +lat. 27° 58′ N., long. 110° 58′ W. Pop. (1900) 8648. The harbour +is one of the best on the W. coast of Mexico, and the port is a +principal outlet for the products of the large state of Sonora. +The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in by mountains, +and has a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the +railways of the United States by a branch of the Southern +Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the +frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico. The +exports include gold, silver, hides and pearls.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUBBIO<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (anc. <i>Iguvium</i>, <i>q.v.</i>; med. <i>Eugubium</i>), a town and +episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from +which it is 23 m. N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of +Fossato di Vico (on the line between Foligno and Ancona) +and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783 (town); 26,718 +(commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the steep +slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, +at the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably +on the site of the ancient Umbrian town. It presents a markedly +medieval appearance. The most prominent building is the +Palazzo dei Consoli, on the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria; +it is a huge Gothic edifice with a tower, erected in 1332-1346, +according to tradition, by Matteo di Giovanello of Gubbio, +the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch of the main +door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this +arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on +the slope of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched +substructures. On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo +Pretorio, or della Podestà, begun in 1349 and now the municipal +palace. It contains the famous <i>Tabulae Iguvinae</i>, and a collection +of paintings of the Umbrian school, of furniture and of +majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, +which until 1882 contained fine collections, now +dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest +point of the town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes +of Urbino in 1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability, +Lucio da Laurana, to whom is due the palace at Urbino, which +this palace resembles, especially in its fine colonnaded court. +The Palazzo Beni, lower down, belongs to a somewhat earlier +period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V. lodged here for a +few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the other +hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. +Here Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the +Palazzo Ducale is the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e +Jacopo, a structure of the 12th century, with a façade, adorned +with contemporary sculptures, partly restored in 1514-1550. +The interior contains some good pictures by Umbrian artists, +a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine Flemish cope +given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The exterior +of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part +of the town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the interior +has been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the +Gothic churches of S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, +on the other hand, has its Gothic interior better preserved. The +whole town is full of specimens of medieval architecture, the +pointed arch of the 13th century being especially prevalent. +A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on the 15th of +May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three colossal +wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues +of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the +town, and then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo +on the mountain-side (2690 ft.). See H. M. Bower, <i>The Elevation +and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio</i> (Folk-lore Society, London, +1897).</p> + +<p>After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iguvium</a></span>) +the town remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, +after the destruction of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed +part of the donation of Charlemagne to the pope. In the 11th +century the beginnings of its independence may be traced. In +the struggles of that time it was generally on the Ghibelline side. +In 1151 it repelled an attack of several neighbouring cities, and +formed from this time a republic governed by consuls. In 1155 +it was besieged by the emperor Frederick I., but saved by the +intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was granted privileges +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span> +by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podestà, and from this +period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after various +political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of +Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of +Urbino until, in 1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.</p> + +<p>Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature +painter (1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his +native town (<i>Purg.</i> xi. 80 “<i>l’onor d’Agobbio</i>”), but no authentic +works by him exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch +of the Umbrian school of painting flourished here, the most +famous masters of which were Guido Palmerucci (1280-1345?) +and several members of the Nelli family, particularly Ottaviano +(d. 1444), whose best work is the “Madonna del Belvedere” +in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved, +with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him +is the group of frescoes including a large “Last Judgment,” +and scenes from the life of St Augustine, in the church of +S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under a coating of whitewash. +These painters seem to have been influenced by the contemporary +masters of the Sienese school.</p> + +<p>Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history +of majolica. In a decree of 1438 a <i>vasarius vasorum pictorum</i> is +mentioned, who probably was not the first of his trade. The art +was brought to perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had +emigrated hither from Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen +of Gubbio. The works by his hand are remarkable for their +ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre; but only one small +tazza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried on by his sons, +Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only recovered +in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and Luigi Carocci.</p> + +<p>Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione, +a large water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th +century; the water is collected in the bed of a stream by a +massive dam.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Colasanti, <i>Gubbio</i> (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, <i>Gubbio</i> +(London, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUBEN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at +the confluence of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of +Frankfort-on-Oder, at the junction of railways to Breslau, +Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704; (1905) 36,666. It possesses +three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, +a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a +theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving +of wool, dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, +hats, cloth, paper and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the +neighbourhood to some extent, and there is also some trade in +fruit and vegetables. Guben is of Wendish origin. It is mentioned +in 1207 and received civic rights in 1235. It was surrounded +by walls in 1311, about which time it came into the +possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it +passed to Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the +Hussites, and in 1631 and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes. +By the peace of Prague in 1635 it came into the possession of +the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it was, with the rest of Lower +Lusatia, united to Prussia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1840-  ), Italian man +of letters, was born at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, +where he studied philology. In 1862 he was appointed professor +of Sanskrit at Florence, but having married a cousin of the +Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his views he resigned +his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was +reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred +to the university of Rome. He became prominent both as an +orientalist, a publicist and a poet. He founded the <i>Italia +letteraria</i> (1862), the <i>Rivista orientale</i> (1867), the <i>Civitta italiana</i> +and <i>Rivista europea</i> (1869), the <i>Bollettino italiano degli studii +orientali</i> (1876) and the <i>Revue internationale</i> (1883), and in +1887 became director of the <i>Giornale della società asiatica</i>. In +1878 he started the <i>Dizionario biografico degli scrittori contemporanei</i>. +His Oriental and mythological works include the +<i>Piccola enciclopedia indiana</i> (1867), the <i>Fonti vediche</i> (1868), +a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and another on +plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic +<i>Storia universale della letteratura</i> (1882-1885). His work in +verse includes the dramas <i>Cato</i>, <i>Romolo</i>, <i>Il re Nala</i>, <i>Don Rodrigo</i>, +<i>Savitri</i>, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUDBRANDSDAL,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a district in the midlands of southern +Norway, comprising the upper course of the river Lougen or +Laagen from Lillehammer at the head of Lake Mjösen to its +source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary valleys. Lillehammer, +the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m. N. of Christiania +by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded and +cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward +into the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving +routes run across the watershed and descend the western slope, +where the scenery is incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal +itself—(<i>a</i>) past Sörum, with the 13th-century churches of +Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the Stavekirke or timber-built +church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful falls of the +Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on the +Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (<i>b</i>) past +Domaas (with branch road north to Stören near Trondhjem, +skirting the Dovrefjeld), over the watershed formed by Lesjekogen +Lake, which drains in both directions, and down through +the magnificent Romsdal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUDE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gudius</span>), <b>MARQUARD</b> (1635-1689), German archaeologist +and classical scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein +on the 1st of February 1635. He was originally intended for +the law, but from an early age showed a decided preference for +classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in the hope of +finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following year, +through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of +tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, +Samuel Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity +of copying inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his +pupil, who had become greatly attached to him, Gude refused +more than one professional appointment, and it was not until +1671 that he accepted the post of librarian to Duke Christian +Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had accompanied +Gude, died in 1675, and left him the greater part of his property. +In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into +private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V. +of Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery, +and remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th +of November 1689. Gude’s great life-work, the collection of +Greek and Latin inscriptions, was not published till 1731. +Mention may also be made of his <i>editio princeps</i> (1661) of the +treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on Antichrist, and of his notes +on Phaedrus (with four new fables discovered by him) published +in P. Burmann’s edition (1698).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important +authority for the events of Gude’s life, besides containing valuable +information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, <i>Cimbria +literata</i>, iii., and C. Bursian in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, x.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUDEMAN, ALFRED<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1862-  ), American classical scholar, +was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. +He graduated at Columbia University in 1883 and studied under +Hermann Diels at the University of Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 +he was reader in classical philology at Johns Hopkins University, +from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of Pennsylvania, +and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In 1904 +he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the +Wölfflin <i>Thesaurus linguae Latinae</i>—a unique distinction for an +American Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, +with German commentary, of Tacitus’ <i>Agricola</i> in 1902 by the +Weidmannsche Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote <i>Latin +Literature of the Empire</i> (2 vols., <i>Prose and Poetry</i>, 1898-1899), +a <i>History of Classical Philology</i> (1902) and <i>Sources of Plutarch’s +Life of Cicero</i> (1902); and edited Tacitus’ <i>Dialogus de oratoribus</i> +(text with commentary, 1894 and 1898) and <i>Agricola</i> (1899; +with <i>Germania</i>, 1900), and Sallust’s <i>Catiline</i> (1903).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUDGEON<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (<i>Gobio fluviatilis</i>), a small fish of the Cyprinid +family. It is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel +or fleshy appendage at each corner of the mouth. It is the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +<i>gobione</i> of Italy, <i>goujon</i> of France (whence adapted in M. English +as <i>gojon</i>), and <i>Grässling</i> or <i>Gründling</i> of Germany. Gudgeons +thrive in streams and lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom +exceeding 8 in. in length. In China and Japan there are varieties +differing only slightly from the common European type.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUDRUN<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kudrun</span>), a Middle High German epic, written +probably in the early years of the 13th century, not long after +the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, the influence of which may be traced upon +it. It is preserved in a single MS. which was prepared at the +command of Maximilian I., and was discovered as late as 1820 +in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author was an unnamed +Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle of sagas, +which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic falls +into three easily distinguishable parts—the adventures of King +Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, +who woos and wins Hagen’s daughter Hilde, and lastly, the +more or less parallel story of how Herwig, king of Seeland, wins, +in opposition to her father’s wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of +Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is carried off by a king of Normandy, +and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit, are defeated in a great +battle on the island of Wülpensand off the Dutch coast. The +finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a prisoner in +the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor, +and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household. +Here, thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find +her washing clothes by the sea; on the following day they +attack the Norman castle with their army and carry out the +long-delayed retribution.</p> + +<p>The epic of <i>Gudrun</i> is not unworthy to stand beside the +greater <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, and it has been aptly compared with +it as the <i>Odyssey</i> to the <i>Iliad</i>. Like the <i>Odyssey</i>, Gudrun is an +epic of the sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely +round the conflict of human passions; nor is it built up round +one all-absorbing, all-dominating idea like the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>. +Scenery and incident are more varied, and the poet has an +opportunity for a more lyric interpretation of motive and +character. <i>Gudrun</i> is composed in stanzas similar to those +of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, but with the essential difference that the +last line of each stanza is identical with the others, and does +not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic of the +<i>Nibelungen</i> metre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gudrun</i> was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his +<i>Heldenbuch</i> (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J. +Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those +by K. Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem +for Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (vol. 6, 1885), by B. +Symons (1883) and by E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmüller +first applied Lachmann’s ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. +Müllenhoff (<i>Kudrun, die echten Teile des Gedichts</i>, 1845) rejected +more than three-quarters of the whole as “not genuine.” There are +many translations of the epic into modern German, the best known +being that of K. Simrock (15th ed., 1884). A translation into +English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston, U.S.A., in 1889.</p> + +<p>See K. Bartsch, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun</i> +(1865); H. Keck, <i>Die Gudrunsage</i> (1867); W. Wilmanns, <i>Die +Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung</i> (1873); A. Fécamp, <i>Le Poème +de Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire</i> (1892); F. Panzer, +<i>Hilde-Gudrun</i> (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the +saga see O. Benedict, <i>Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur</i> (1902.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1602-1643), +marshal of France, was born at Plessis-Budes, near St +Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He served first in Holland, and +in the Thirty Years’ War he commanded from 1638 to 1639 the +French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, +distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of +Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received +the command of his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. +Baner (1596-1641), the Swedish general, a bold attack upon +Regensburg (1640). His victories of Wolfenbüttel on the +29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him the +marshal’s bâton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria +in concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally +wounded there on the 17th of November 1643.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A biography was published by Le Laboureur, <i>Histoire du mareschal +de Guébriant</i>, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in <i>Württembergische +Vierteljahrschrift für Landesgeschichte</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUELDER ROSE,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> so called from Guelderland, its supposed +source, termed also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. +<i>Wasserholder</i>, <i>Schneeball</i>; Fr. <i>viorne-obier</i>, <i>l’obier d’Europe</i>), +known botanically as <i>Viburnum Opulus</i>, a shrub or small tree +of the natural order Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and +widely distributed in the temperate and colder parts of Europe, +Asia and North America. It is common in Ireland, but rare +in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12 ft., and it thrives best +in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2 to 3 in. broad, with +3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular stipules adnate to +the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal bright +green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in +June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in. +in diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an +enlarged corolla, ¾ in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens +or pistils; in the common cultivated variety all the flowers are +sterile and the inflorescence is globular, hence the term “snowball +tree” applied to the plant, the appearance of which at the +time of flowering has been prettily described by Cowper in his +<i>Winter Walk at Noon</i>. The guelder rose bears juicy, red, elliptical +berries, <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> in. long, which ripen in September, and contain each a +single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are eaten, +and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled +for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic +properties; and Taylor (<i>Med. Jurisp.</i> i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) +has recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by +the berries. Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid. +The woody shoots of the guelder rose are manufactured into +various small articles in Sweden and Russia. Another member +of the genus, <i>Viburnum</i>, <i>Lantana</i>, wayfaring tree, is found in dry +copses and hedges in England, except in the north.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUELPH,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, +on the river Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific +railways. Pop. (1901) 11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural +district, and exports grain, fruit and live-stock in large +quantities. It contains, in addition to the county and municipal +buildings, the Ontario Agricultural College, which draws students +from all parts of North and South America. The river affords +abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills, woollen-mills +and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements, +sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES.<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> These names are doubtless +Italianized forms of the German words Welf and Waiblingen, +although one tradition says that they are derived from Guelph +and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia. Another theory derives +Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the Sicilian Arabs to +translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story tells +how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between +the German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a +member of the powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke +of Saxony and Bavaria, belonged, the soldiers of the latter +raised the cry “Hie Welf!” to which the king’s troops replied +with “Hie Waiblingen!” this being the name of one of Conrad’s +castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen, of +which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, +and had been for some years a prominent fact in the history of +Swabia and Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy—in a +slightly modified form, however—only dates from the time of +the Italian expeditions of the emperor Frederick I. It is about +this time that the German chronicler, Otto of Freising, says, +“Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae Germaniaeve fines famosae +familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de Gueibelinga, alia +Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera magnos duces +producere solita.” Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick +was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related +also to the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some +extent the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, +it opened it upon a larger and fiercer scale in Italy.</p> + +<p>During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick’s +Italian campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were +the cities of the Lombard League, became known as Welfs, +or Guelphs, while his partisans seized upon the rival term of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the contest between these two +parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown even to the +inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of +northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns, +the savage hatred between family and family, were some of the +causes which fed this feud, and it reached its height during the +momentous struggle between Frederick II. and the Papacy in +the 13th century. The story of the contest between Guelph +and Ghibelline, however, is little less than the history of Italy +in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th century it was +intensified by the fight for the German and imperial thrones +between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the +Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., +a fight waged in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir +of Philip of Swabia and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick +II. was forced to throw himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, +while his enemies, the popes, ranged themselves definitely among +the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and Ghibelline became synonymous +with supporter of pope and emperor.</p> + +<p>After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines +looked for leadership to his son and successor, the German king, +Conrad IV., and then to his natural son, Manfred, while the +Guelphs called the French prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid. +But the combatants were nearing exhaustion, and after the +execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, in 1268, +this great struggle began to lose force and interest. Guelph +and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and family +rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were +taken with little or no regard for their original significance, +and in the 15th century they began to die out of current politics. +However, when Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the +beginning of the 16th century the old names were revived; +the French king’s supporters were called Guelphs and the +friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were referred to as +Ghibellines.</p> + +<p>The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the +walls of almost every city of northern Italy, and the contest +between the parties, which practically makes the history of +Florence during the 13th century, is specially noteworthy. +First one side and then the other was driven into exile; the +Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was followed +by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in 1266, +and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other +cities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Florence</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very +nebulous, of Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the +foreigner rather than any strong affection for the Papacy was +the feeling which bound the Guelph to the pope, and so enabled +the latter to defy the arms of Frederick II. The Ghibelline +cause, on the other hand, was aided by the dislike of the temporal +power of the pope and the desire for a strong central authority. +This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this party, +kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, +were extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes +the constituents of the two parties: “The Guelph party +meant the burghers of the consular Communes, the men of +industry and commerce, the upholders of civil liberty, the +friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline party included +the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the +advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitutional +progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church +floated over the one camp, while the standard of the empire +rallied to itself the hostile party, was a matter of comparatively +superficial moment.” In another passage the same writer thus +describes the sharp and universal division between Guelph and +Ghibelline: “Ghibellines wore the feathers in their caps upon +one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at table +crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out +of smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore +white and Guelphs red roses.” It is interesting to note that +while Dante was a Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. A. Symonds, <i>The Renaissance in Italy</i>, vol. i. (1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUENEVERE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Guanhumara</i>; Welsh, <i>Gwenhwyfar</i>; +O. Eng. <i>Gaynore</i>), in Arthurian romance the wife of King +Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who calls her Guanhumara, +makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition is that she +was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance. +Wace, who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and +used, popular tradition, combines these two, asserting that she +was of Roman parentage on the mother’s side, but cousin to +Cador of Cornwall by whom she was brought up. The tradition +relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused and demands +further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three +Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of +the royal tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as +that of Arthur’s second wife; the prose <i>Merlin</i> gives Guenevere +a bastard half-sister of the same name, who strongly resembles +her; and the <i>Lancelot</i> relates how this lady, trading on the +likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was the true daughter of +Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper. This episode +of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.</p> + +<p>To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known +in connexion with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in +the hands of Malory and Tennyson, has assumed a form widely +different from the original conception, and at once more picturesque +and more convincing. In the French romances Lancelot +is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his birth is not recorded +till long after the marriage of Arthur and Guenevere, and he is +at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The relations +between them are of the most conventional and courtly character, +and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion +which marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The <i>Lancelot-Guenevere</i> +romance took form and shape in the artificial atmosphere +encouraged by such patronesses of literature as Eleanor +of Aquitaine and her daughter Marie, Comtesse de Champagne +(for whom Chrétien de Troyes wrote his <i>Chevalier de la Charrette</i>), +and reflects the low social morality of a time when love between +husband and wife was declared impossible. But though Guenevere +has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity is of +much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian +legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the <i>Vita +Gildae</i> relates how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva +Regis, to Glastonbury, whither Arthur, at the head of an army, +pursued the ravisher. A fragment of a Welsh poem seems to +confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at the root of her +later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the <i>Lanzelet</i> of Ulrich von +Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerîn. The story in these forms +represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of +Welsh dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his <i>Studies on +the Arthurian Legend</i>, appears to represent Kay as the abductor. +In the pseudo-Chronicles and the romances based upon them +the abductor is Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt +that the lady was no unwilling victim. On the final defeat of +Mordred she retires to a nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more +heard of. Wace says emphatically—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p><i>Ne fu oie ne véue,</i></p> +<p><i>Ne fu trovée, ne séue</i></p> +<p><i>Por la vergogne del mesfait</i></p> +<p><i>Et del pecié qu ele avoit fait</i> (11. 13627-30).</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original +much as Wace treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition +that she had drowned herself, and that her memory and that +of Mordred were hateful in every land, so that none would offer +prayer for their souls. On the other hand certain romances, +<i>e.g.</i> the <i>Perceval</i>, give her an excellent character. The truth is +probably that the tradition of his wife’s adultery and treachery +was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected for +a time, was brought again into prominence by the social conditions +of the courts for which the later romances were composed; +and it is in this later and conventionalized form that +the tale has become familiar to us (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lancelot</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Studies on the Arthurian Legend</i> by Professor Rhys; <i>The +Legend of Sir Lancelot</i>, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston; +<i>Der Karrenritter</i>, ed. Professor Foerster.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. L. W.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUENON<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an +ape), the name applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the +African genus <i>Cercopithecus</i>, the Ethiopian representative of +the Asiatic macaques, from which they differ by the absence of +a posterior heel to the last molar in the lower jaw.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÉRET,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the department +of Creuse, situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges +on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune +(including troops, &c.), 8058. Apart from the Hôtel des Monneyroux +(used as prefecture), a picturesque mansion of the 15th +and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned windows, +Guéret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a +prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, +a chamber of commerce and lycées and training colleges, for +both sexes. The industries include brewing, saw-milling, +leather-making and the manufacture of basket-work and +wooden shoes, and there is trade in agricultural produce and +cattle. Guéret grew up round an abbey founded in the 7th +century, and in later times became the capital of the district of +Marche.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUEREZA,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> the native name of a long-tailed, black and white +Abyssinian monkey, <i>Colobus guereza</i> (or <i>C. abyssinicus</i>), characterized +by the white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. +Other east African monkeys with a similar type of colouring, +which, together with the wholly black west African <i>C. satanas</i>, +collectively constitute the subgenus <i>Guereza</i>, may be included +under the same title; and the name may be further extended +to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the genus +<i>Colobus</i>. These monkeys are the African representatives of +the Indo-Malay langurs (<i>Semnopithecus</i>), with which they agree +in their slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs, +although differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members +of the subgenus <i>Guereza</i> present a transition from a wholly +black animal (<i>C. satanas</i>) to one (<i>C. caudatus</i>) in which the sides +of the face are white, and the whole flanks, as well as the tail, +clothed with a long fringe of pure white hairs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1803-1878), +German theologian, was born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th +of February 1803 and studied theology at Halle, where he was +appointed professor in 1829. He greatly disliked the union +between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which had +been accomplished by the Prussian government in 1817, and in +1833 he definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In +1835 he lost his professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among +his works were a Life of <i>August Hermann Francke</i> (1827, Eng. +trans. 1837), <i>Church History</i> (1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd, +New York, 1857-1863), <i>Allgemeine christliche Symbolik</i> (1839). +In 1840 he helped to found the <i>Zeitschrift für die gesammte +lutherische Theologie und Kirche</i>, and he died at Halle on the +4th of February 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERICKE, OTTO VON<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1602-1686), German experimental +philosopher, was born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on +the 20th of November 1602. Having studied law at Leipzig, +Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics, especially geometry +and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and England, and +in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was +elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city +and a magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to +scientific pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the +discoveries of Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the +creation of a vacuum. He began by experimenting with a pump +on water placed in a barrel, but found that when the water +was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He then took a +globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and discovered +that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became +the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery +before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which +assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the +“Magdeburg hemispheres.” Taking two hollow hemispheres +of copper, the edges of which fitted nicely together, he exhausted +the air from between them by means of his pump, and it is +recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were unable +to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides +investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he +constructed an electrical machine which depended on the excitation +of a rotating ball of sulphur; and he made successful +researches in astronomy, predicting the periodicity of the return +of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and retired to Hamburg, +where he died on the 11th of May 1686.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal observations are given in his work, <i>Experimenta +nova, ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio</i> (Amsterdam, 1672). +He is also the author of a <i>Geschichte der Belagerung und Eroberung +von Magdeburg</i>. See F. W. Hoffmann, <i>Otto von Guericke</i> (Magdeburg, +1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIDON,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported +by a tall column or a human or mythological figure. This piece +of furniture, often very graceful and elegant, originated in France +towards the middle of the 17th century. In the beginning the +table was supported by a negro or other exotic figure, and there +is some reason to believe that it took its name from the generic +appellation of the young African groom or “tiger,” who was +generally called “Guéridon,” or as we should say in English +“Sambo.” The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the +“Moor” when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours +produced a very striking effect, and when a small table was +supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of passive +service was suggested with completeness. The guéridon is still +occasionally seen in something approaching its original form; +but it had no sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct +of the French designer and artificer converted it into a far +worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were several +hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two +they had taken an infinity of forms—columns, tripods, termini +and mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic +forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and +gilded. Silver, enamel, and indeed almost any material from +which furniture can be made, have been used for their construction. +A variety of small “occasional” tables are now +called in French <i>guéridons</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1783-1855), French +painter, was born at Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor +parents. He learnt, as a lad, his father’s trade of a locksmith, +whilst at the same time he followed the classes of the free school +of art. Having sold some copies to a local amateur, Guérin +started for Paris, where he came under the notice of Vincent, +whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guérin made +his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had +a certain success. In 1812 he exhibited “Cain after the murder +of Abel” (formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the +Bourbons, was much employed in works of restoration and decoration +at Versailles. His “Dead Christ” (Cathedral, Baltimore) +obtained a medal in 1817, and this success was followed up by +a long series of works, of which the following are the more noteworthy: +“Christ on the knees of the Virgin” (1819); “Anchises +and Venus” (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); “Ulysses and +Minerva” (1824) (Musée de Rennes); “the Holy Family” (1829) +(Cathedral, Toulon); and “Saint Catherine” (1838) (St Roch). +In his treatment of subject, Guérin attempted to realize rococo +graces of conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the +strenuous effort to be correct. His chief successes were attained +by portraits, and those of Charles Nodier and the Abbé Lamennais +became widely popular. He died on the 19th of January +1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1774-1833), French +painter, was born at Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming +a pupil of Jean Baptiste Regnault, he carried off one of the three +“grands prix” offered in 1796, in consequence of the competition +not having taken place since 1793. The <i>pension</i> was not indeed +re-established, but Guérin fulfilled at Paris the conditions imposed +upon a <i>pensionnaire</i>, and produced various works, one of which +brought him prominently before the public. This work, “Marcus +Sextus” (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited wild +enthusiasm, partly due to the subject,—a victim of Sulla’s +proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his +house in mourning—in which an allusion was found to the actual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +situation of the <i>émigrés</i>. Guérin on this occasion was publicly +crowned by the president of the Institute, and before his +departure for Rome (on the re-establishment of the École under +Suvée) a banquet was given to him by the most distinguished +artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in Rome on account +of his health, he went to Naples, where he painted the “Grave of +Amyntas.” In 1802 Guérin produced “Phaedra and Hippolytus” +(Louvre); in 1810, after his return to Paris, he again achieved +a great success with “Andromache and Pyrrhus” (Louvre); and +in the same year also exhibited “Cephalus and Aurora” (Collection +Sommariva) and “Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo” (Versailles). +The Restoration brought to Guérin fresh honours; he had received +from the first consul in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour, +and in 1815 Louis XVIII. named him Academician. The success +of Guérin’s “Hippolytus” of “Andromache,” of “Phaedra” +and of “Clytaemnestra” (Louvre) had been ensured by the skilful +selection of highly melodramatic situations, treated with the +strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the first empire; +in “Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy” (Louvre), +which appeared side by side with “Clytaemnestra” at the Salon +of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced. +In this work Guérin sought to captivate the public by an appeal +to those sensuous charms which he had previously rejected, +and by the introduction of picturesque elements of interest. +But with this work Guérin’s public successes came to a close. +He was, indeed, commissioned to paint for the Madeleine a +scene from the history of St Louis, but his health prevented him +from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822 he accepted +the post of director of the École de Rome, which in 1816 he had +refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guérin, who had previously +been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was +ennobled. He now attempted to complete “Pyrrhus and Priam,” +a work which he had begun at Rome, but in vain; his health had +finally broken down, and in the hope of improvement he returned +to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after his arrival at Rome +Baron Guérin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was buried +in the church of La Trinità de’ Monti by the side of Claude +Lorraine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be +found in Meyer’s <i>Geschichte der französischen Malerei</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1810-1839), +French poet, descended from a noble but poor family, was born +at the chateau of Le Cayla in Languedoc, on the 4th of August +1810. He was educated for the church at a religious seminary +at Toulouse, and then at the Collège Stanislas, Paris, after +which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany, founded +by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without +being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the influence +of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the +autumn of 1832; and when, in September of the next year, +Lamennais, who had come under the displeasure of Rome, +severed connexion with the society, Maurice de Guérin soon +followed his example. Early in the following year he went to +Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College +Stanislas. In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some +fortune; but a few months afterwards he was attacked by +consumption and died on the 19th of July 1839. In the <i>Revue +des deux mondes</i> for May 15th, 1840, there appeared a notice +of Maurice de Guérin by George Sand, to which she added two +fragments of his writings—one a composition in prose entitled +the <i>Centaur</i>, and the other a short poem. His <i>Reliquiae</i> (2 vols., +1861), including the <i>Centaur</i>, his journal, a number of his letters +and several poems, was edited by G. S. Trébutien, and accompanied +with a biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve; +a new edition, with the title <i>Journal, lettres et poèmes</i>, followed +in 1862; and an English translation of it was published at New +York in 1867. Though he was essentially a poet, his prose is +more striking and original than his poetry. Its peculiar and +unique charm arises from his strong and absorbing passion for +nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost to adoration +and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than +the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, “no French +poet or painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature—the +feeling not so much for details as for the ensemble and the divine +universality, the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign +principle of life.”</p> + +<p>The name of <span class="sc">Eugénie de Guérin</span> (1805-1848), the sister +of Maurice, cannot be omitted from any notice of him. +Her <i>Journals</i> (1861, Eng. trans., 1865) and her <i>Lettres</i> +(1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the possession of gifts +of as rare an order as those of her brother, though of a +somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a +form more strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her +brother’s loss of his early Catholic faith. Five years older than +he, she cherished a love for him which was blended with a +somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death she began the +collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his +writings. She died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before +her task was completed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to +above; Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i> (vol. xii.) and <i>Nouveaux +Lundis</i> (vol. iii.); G. Merlet, <i>Causeries sur les femmes et les livres</i> +(Paris, 1865); Selden, <i>L’Esprit des femmes de notre temps</i> (Paris, +1864); Marelle, <i>Eugénie et Maurice de Guérin</i> (Berlin, 1869); +Harriet Parr, <i>M. and E. de Guérin, a monograph</i> (London, 1870); +and Matthew Arnold’s essays on Maurice and Eugénie de Guérin, +in his <i>Essays in Criticism</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERNIERI,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Werner</span>, a celebrated mercenary captain who +lived about the middle of the 14th century. He was a member +of the family of the dukes of Urslingen, and probably a descendant +of the dukes of Spoleto. From 1340 to 1343 he was +in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but afterwards he collected +a troop of adventurers which he called the Great Company, +and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then +entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and +Poland, whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but +when dismissed from this service his ravages became more +terrible than ever, culminating in the dreadful sack of Anagni +in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri disappeared from history. +He is said to have worn a breastplate with the inscription, +“The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERNSEY<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Guernesey</i>), one of the Channel Islands, +belonging to Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the +important members of the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port, +on the east coast, is in 2° 33′ W., 49° 27′ N., 74 m. S. of Portland +Bill on the English coast, and 30 m. from the nearest French +coast to the east. The island, roughly triangular in form, is +9¼ m. long from N.E. to S.W. and has an extreme breadth of +5¼ m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24.5 sq. m. Pop. (1901), +40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m.</p> + +<p>The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south, +and reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above +Point Icart on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms +one of the principal attractions to the numerous summer visitors +to the island, is finest on the south. This coast, between Jerbourg +and Pleinmont Points, respectively at the south-eastern and +south-western corners of the island, is bold, rocky and indented +with many exquisite little bays. Of these the most notable are +Moulin Huet, Saint’s, and Petit Bot, all in the eastern half of +the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in the neighbourhood +of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several +points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a +succession of larger bays—Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo. +Off the first lies Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and +all three bays are sown with rocks. The coast, however, +diminishes in height, until at the north-eastern extremity of the +island the land is so low across the Vale or Braye du Val, from +shore to shore, that the projection of L’Ancresse is within a +few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which, besides the +town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson, presents +no physical feature of note. The interior of the island +is generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegetation. +Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern +bays (the two converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the +high-banked paths, arched with foliage, which follow the small +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +rills down to Moulin Huet Bay, are much admired under the +name of water-lanes.</p> + +<p>The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular +gravel which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil +requires much manure, and a large proportion of the total area +(about three-fifths) is under careful cultivation, producing a +considerable amount of grain, but more famous for market-gardening. +Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with much +fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and +exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important +industry.</p> + +<p>For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney, +Sark, Herm and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of +Guernsey, separate from Jersey. The peculiar constitution, +machinery of administration and justice, finance, &c., are considered +under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Channel Islands</a></span>. Guernsey is +divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson, Vale, +Câtel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du +Bois and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901 +was 18,264; of the other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614 +and that of Vale 5082. The population of the bailiwick of +Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and 1901, and that of +the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in 1901. +The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this +respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monument +stands on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and +the neighbouring part of France, Guernsey retains considerable +traces of early habitation in cromlechs and menhirs, of which +the most notable is the cromlech in the north at L’Ancresse. +As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the parish churches +retain some archaeological interest. There is good Norman +work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St +Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early +14th century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at +Vale and on Lihou Island.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1804-1873), Italian +publicist, born at Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa, +and began to practise in his native place. But he soon took to +politics and literature, under the influence of Byron, and his +novel, the <i>Battagli di Benevento</i> (1827), brought him into notice. +Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo Bini they started +a paper, the <i>Indicatore</i>, at Leghorn in 1829, which was quickly +suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of +imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and +it was in Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous +novel <i>Assidio di Firenze</i>. He was the most powerful Liberal +leader at Leghorn, and in 1848 became a minister, with some +idea of exercising a moderating influence in the difficulties +with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849, when the latter +fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini and +Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was +arrested and imprisoned for three years. His <i>Apologia</i> was +published in 1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to +Corsica, but subsequently was restored and was for some time a +deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying of apoplexy at Leghorn +on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number of other +works besides the novels already mentioned, notably <i>Isabella +Orsini</i> (1845) and <i>Beatrice Cenci</i> (1854), and his <i>Opere</i> were +collected at Milan (1868).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life and Works</i> by Bosio (1877), and Carducci’s edition of +his letters (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERRERO,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W. +by Michoacan, N. by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E. +by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S. and W. by the Pacific. Area, +24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of Indians and mestizos +(1895), 417,886; (1900) 479,205. The state is roughly broken +by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire surface +with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about +20 m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow, +fertile and heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state +is divided into two distinct zones—the <i>tierras calientes</i> of the +coast and lower river courses where tropical conditions prevail, +and the <i>tierras templadas</i> of the mountain region where the +conditions are subtropical. The latter is celebrated for its +agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety and character +of its products. The principal river of the state is the Rio de las +Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala, flows +entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to +the Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m. +long and receives many affluents from the mountainous region +through which it passes, but its course is very precipitous and +its mouth obstructed by sand bars. The agricultural products +include cotton, coffee, tobacco and cereals, and the forests produce +rubber, vanilla and various textile fibres. Mining is undeveloped, +although the mineral resources of the state include silver, gold, +mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and precious stones. The +capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los Bravos (pop. 7497 +in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about 110 m. from +the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a healthy +well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by electricity +and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoceanic +railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of +Mexico as the meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of +1813, which issued a declaration of independence. Chilpancingo +was badly damaged by an earthquake in January 1902, and +again on the 16th of April 1907. Other important towns of the +state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly the capital +(pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa (8256 in +1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed +by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907; +Iguala (6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized +as a state in 1849, its territory being taken from the states of +Mexico, Michoacan and Puebla.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERRILLA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (erroneously written “guerilla,” being the +diminutive of the Span. <i>guerra</i>, war), a term currently used to +denote war carried on by bands in any irregular and unorganized +manner. At the Hague Conference of 1899 the position of +irregular combatants was one of the subjects dealt with, and the +rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the Conference of 1907. +They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy recognition +as belligerent forces shall (<i>a</i>) have at their head a person +responsible for his subordinates, (<i>b</i>) wear some fixed distinctive +badge recognizable at a distance, (<i>c</i>) carry arms openly, and (<i>d</i>) +conform in their operations to the laws and customs of war. +The rules, however, also provide that in case of invasion the +inhabitants of a territory who on the approach of the invading +enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist it, shall be regarded +as belligerent troops if they carry arms openly and respect the laws +and customs of war, although they may not have had time to +become organized in accordance with the above provisions. +These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the project +drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874, +which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the +army regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion +with the war of 1877-78.</p> +<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUERRINI, OLINDO<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1845-  ), Italian poet, was born +at Sant’ Alberto, Ravenna, and after studying law took to a +life of letters, becoming eventually librarian at Bologna University. +In 1877 he published <i>Postuma</i>, a volume of <i>canzoniere</i>, +under the name of Lorenzo Stechetti, following this with <i>Polemica</i> +(1878), <i>Canti popolari romagnoli</i> (1880) and other poetical +works, and becoming known as the leader of the “verist” +school among Italian lyrical writers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUESDE, JULES BASILE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1845-  ), French socialist, +was born in Paris on the 11th of November 1845. He had +begun his career as a clerk in the French Home Office, but at +the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was editing <i>Les +Droits de l’homme</i> at Montpellier, and had to take refuge at +Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of +articles which had appeared in his paper in defence of the +Commune. In 1876 he returned to France to become one of +the chief French apostles of Marxian collectivism, and was +imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part in the first +Parisian International Congress. He edited at different times +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +<i>Les Droits de l’homme</i>, <i>Le Cri du peuple</i>, <i>Le Socialiste</i>, but his +best-known organ was the weekly <i>Égalité</i>. He had been in close +association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, +whose daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx +and Lafargue that he drew up the programme accepted by the +national congress of the Labour party at Havre in 1880, which +laid stress on the formation of an international labour party +working by revolutionary methods. Next year at the Reims +congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was +opposed by the “possibilists,” who rejected the intransigeant +attitude of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benoît Malon. +At the congress of St-Étienne the difference developed into +separation, those who refused all compromise with a capitalist +government following Guesde, while the opportunists formed +several groups. Guesde took his full share in the consequent +discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the possibilists, +&c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for +Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the Christian +Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various +proposals in social legislation forming the programme of the +Labour party, without reference to the divisions among the +Socialists, and on the 20th of November 1894 succeeded in +raising a two days’ discussion of the collectivist principle in the +Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected, but resumed his seat +in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation at the Reims +congress of the sections of the party, which then took the name +of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued +to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaurès, whom he denounced +for supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence +of the principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously +enough, to support the religious Congregations against Émile +Combes. Besides his numerous political and socialist pamphlets +he published in 1901 two volumes of his speeches in the Chamber +of Deputies entitled <i>Quatre ans de lutte de classe 1893-1898</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUEST, EDWIN<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in +1800. He was educated at King Edward’s school, Birmingham, +and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh +wrangler, subsequently becoming a fellow of his college. Called +to the bar in 1828, he devoted himself, after some years of legal +practice, to antiquarian and literary research. In 1838 he +published his exhaustive <i>History of English Rhythms</i>. He also +wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British history, +which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of +early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship +of Dr Stubbs under the title <i>Origines Celticae</i> (1883). In 1852 +Guest was elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in +the following year, and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of +Cambridge University. Guest was a fellow of the Royal Society, +and an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries. He +died on the 23rd of November 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUEST<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. +<i>Gast</i>, and Swed. <i>gäst</i>; cognate with Lat. <i>hostis</i>, originally a +stranger, hence enemy; cf. “host”), one who receives hospitality +in the house of another, his “host”; hence applied to +a parasite.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1715-1786), French naturalist +and mineralogist, was born at Étampes, on the 22nd of September +1715. In boyhood he gained a knowledge of plants from his +grandfather, who was an apothecary, and later he qualified as a +doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany in various +parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice of +the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and +subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to +minerals and rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy +of Sciences in Paris a memoir on the distribution of minerals and +rocks, and this was accompanied by a map on which he had +recorded his observations. He thus, as remarked by W. D. +Conybeare, “first carried into execution the idea, proposed by +[Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps.” In the course +of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured +many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence +of strata. He made observations also on the degradation of +mountains by rain, rivers and sea; and he was the first to +ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of +Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of January 1786.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His publications include: <i>Observations sur les plantes</i> (2 vols., +1747); <i>Histoire de la découverte faite en France de matières semblables +à celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composée</i> (1765); +<i>Mémoires sur différentes parties des sciences et arts</i> (5 vols., 1768-1783); +<i>Mémoire sur la minéralogie du Dauphiné</i> (2 vols., 1779). +See <i>The Founders of Geology</i>, by Sir A. Geikie (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUEUX, LES,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> or “<span class="sc">The Beggars</span>,” a name assumed by the +confederacy of nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566 +opposed Spanish tyranny in the Netherlands. The leaders of +the nobles, who signed a solemn league known as “the Compromise,” +by which they bound themselves to assist in defending +the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil and +religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau, +and Henry, count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566 +permission was obtained for the confederates to present a petition +of grievances, called “the Request,” to the regent, Margaret, +duchess of Parma. About 250 nobles marched to the palace +accompanied by Louis of Nassau and Brederode. The regent +was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body, but +one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to +exclaim, “What, madam, is your highness afraid of these +beggars (<i>ces gueux</i>)?” The appellation was not forgotten. At +a great feast held by some 300 confederates at the Hôtel Culemburg +three days later, Brederode in a speech declared that if need +be they were all ready to become “beggars” in their country’s +cause. The words caught on, and the hall resounded with loud +cries of “<i>Vivent les gueux!</i>” The name became henceforward a +party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems of +beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on +their hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one +side the head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with +the motto “<i>Fidèle au roy, jusques à porter la besace</i>.” The +original league of “Beggars” was short-lived, crushed by the +iron hand of Alva, but its principles survived and were to be +ultimately triumphant.</p> + +<p>In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly +placed himself at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters +of marque to a number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes +drawn from all nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the +command of a succession of daring and reckless leaders—the +best-known of whom is William de la Marek, lord of Lumey—were +called “<i>Gueux de mer</i>,” or “Sea Beggars.” At first they +were content with plundering both by sea and land and carrying +their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit +and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen +Elizabeth suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours. +Having no longer any refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation +made an attack upon Brill, which they seized by surprise in the +absence of the Spanish garrison on the 1st of April 1572. Encouraged +by their unhoped-for success, they now sailed to +Flushing, which was also taken by a <i>coup de main.</i> The capture +of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the +northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real beginning oí +the War of Dutch Independence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler +and moralist, was a native of the province of Alava, and passed +some of his earlier years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile. +In 1528 he entered the Franciscan order, and afterwards accompanied +the emperor Charles V. during his journeys to Italy and +other parts of Europe. After having held successively the offices +of court preacher, court historiographer, bishop of Guadix and +bishop of Mondoñedo, he died in 1544. His earliest work, +entitled <i>Reloj de principes</i>, published at Valladolid in 1529, and, +according to its author, the fruit of eleven years’ labour, is a +didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon’s <i>Cyropaedia</i>, +to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit +of modern sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince, +Marcus Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was +often reprinted in Spanish; and before the close of the century +had also been translated into Latin, Italian, French and English, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +an English translation being by J. Bourchier (London, 1546) +and another being by T. North. It is difficult now to account for +its extraordinary popularity, its thought being neither just nor +profound, while its style is stiff and affected. It gave rise to a +literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and violence, +the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an +historical character, appealing to an imaginary “manuscript +in Florence.” Other works of Guevara are the <i>Decada de +los Césares</i> (Valladolid, 1539), or “Lives of the Ten Roman +Emperors,” in imitation of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius; +and the <i>Epistolas familiares</i> (Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes +called “The Golden Letters,” often printed in Spain, and +translated into all the principal languages of Europe. They are +in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays which have long +ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose influence upon +the Spanish prose of the 16th century was considerable, also +wrote <i>Libro de los inventores del arte de marear</i> (Valladolid, 1539, +and Madrid, 1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist +and novelist, was born at Écija on the 1st of August 1579. +After graduating as a sizar at the university of Osuna in 1596, +he joined the household of Rodrigo de Castro, cardinal-archbishop +of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of Philip II. in +a poem signed “Velez de Santander,” a name which he continued +to use till some years later. He appears to have served +as a soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when +he entered the service of the count de Saldaña, and dedicated +himself to writing for the stage. He died at Madrid on the +10th of November 1644. He was the author of over four hundred +plays, of which the best are <i>Reinar despues de morir</i>, <i>Más pesa el +rey que la sangre</i>, <i>La Luna de la Sierra</i> and <i>El Diablo está en +Cantillana</i>; but he is most widely known as the author of <i>El +Diablo cojuelo</i> (1641), a fantastic novel which suggested to Le +Sage the idea of his <i>Diable boiteux</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUGLIELMI, PIETRO<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1727-1804), Italian composer, was +born at Massa Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the +19th of November 1804. He received his first musical education +from his father, and afterwards studied under Durante at the +Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at Naples. His first +operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established his +reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his +own country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to conduct +the opera there. He remained for some years in Germany, +where his works met with much success, but the greatest triumphs +were reserved for him in England. He went to London, according +to Burney, in 1768, but according to Florimo in 1772, +returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to produce +operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete successfully +with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he +became <i>maestro di cappella</i> at St Peter’s, Rome. He was a very +prolific composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most +of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed +by Cimarosa himself. In serious opera he was less successful. +But here also he shows at least the qualities of a competent +musician. Considering the enormous number of his works, his +unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of mechanical +and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The +following are among the most celebrated of his operas: <i>I Due +Gemelli</i>, <i>La Serva inamorata</i>, <i>La Pastorella nobile</i>, <i>La Bella Peccatrice</i>, +<i>Rinaldo</i>, <i>Artaserse</i>, <i>Didone</i> and <i>Enea e Lavinia</i>. He also +wrote oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and +chamber music. Of his eight sons two at least acquired fame as +musicians—Pietro Carlo (1763-1827), a successful imitator of +his father’s operatic style, and Giacomo, an excellent singer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIANA<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (<i>Guyana</i>, <i>Guayana</i><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the general name given in its +widest acceptation to the part of South America lying to the +north-east from 8° 40′ N. to 3° 30′ S. and from 50° W. to 68° 30′ +W. Its greatest length, from Cabo do Norte to the confluence +of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is about 1250 m., its greatest +breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of the Orinoco to +the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its area +is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are +Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides of +the Orinoco and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and +Brazilian settlements; British Guiana, extending from Venezuela +to the left bank of the Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span> +(or Surinam), from the Corentyn to the Maroni river; French +Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the Oyapock river;<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from the +southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of +Venezuelan Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these +divisions the first and last are now included in Venezuela and +Brazil respectively; British, Dutch and French Guiana are +described in order below, and are alone considered here.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:656px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img675.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain +common characteristics. In each the principal features are the +rivers and their branch streams. In each colony the northern +portion consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland and +gradually rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This +alluvial plain varies in width from 50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed +by ridges of sand and shells, roughly parallel to what is now +the coast, indicating the trend of former shore lines. By the +draining and diking of these lands the plantations have been +formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are +attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the +coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by +ranges of hills rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The +greater part of this belt of country, in which the auriferous +districts principally occur, is covered with a dense growth of +jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing only a long +wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in the +S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands +consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and +mountains, some grass-covered, some in dense forest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i><a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a>.—Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and crystalline +schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, &c. +The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from +quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages +of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of +gold to the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red +and white sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and +forms the remarkable table-topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam, +&c. The beds are horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins, +three layers of greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contemporaneous, +are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The +age of these beds is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with +the similar series which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and +partly Cretaceous. In Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches +supposed to belong to the Cretaceous period. Along the coast, +and in the lower parts of the river valleys, are deposits which are +mainly Quaternary but may also include beds of Tertiary age.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in +1498 when he discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula +of Paria, and in the following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and +Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500 Vincente Yañez Pinzon ventured +south of the equator, and sailing north-west along the coast +discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have also entered +some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now called +Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little, +however, was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled +golden city Manoa or El Dorado tempted adventurers to explore +its rivers and forests. From letters of these explorers found in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh was induced to ascend the +Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to send Lawrence +Keymis on the same quest in the following year, and in 1617 +to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition +fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as +1580 the Dutch had established a systematic trade with the +Spanish main, but so far as is known their first voyage to Guiana +was in 1598. By 1613 they had three or four settlements on +the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about 1616 some +Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them <i>Kyk ober al</i> +(“see over all”), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni +rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing +in Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were +endeavouring to form settlements on the Oyapock river, in +Cayenne and in Surinam, and by 1652 the English had large +interests in the latter and the French in Cayenne. In 1663 +Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of Parham +and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, granting +them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers, +a province described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m. +This colony was, however, formally ceded to the Netherlands +in 1667 by the peace of Breda, Great Britain taking possession +of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch West India Company, +formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo, over which +colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a Dutch +settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew +Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony. +In 1657 the Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the +Pomeroon, Moruca and Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch +were colonizing all the territory now known as British and +Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian Company, founded +in that year to replace the older company which had failed, +received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682. +In the following year the company sold one-third of their territory +to the city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornelis van +Aerssens, lord of Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the +company incorporated themselves as the Chartered Society of +Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of +the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade in slaves +was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society +could import them on its own account by paying a fine to the +company. Sommelsdijk’s rule was wise and energetic. He +repressed and pacified the Indian tribes, erected forts and +disciplined the soldiery, constructed the canal which bears his +name, established a high court of justice and introduced the +valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the 17th of June +1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The “third” +which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William +III. of England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of +Amsterdam for 700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo progressed +somewhat slowly, and it was not until immigration was +attracted in 1740 by offers to newcomers of free land and immunity +for a decade from taxation that anything like a colony +could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice placed itself under +the protection of the states-general of Holland and was granted +a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency of +Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the +three colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured +by British privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the +governor of Barbados, but in 1782 they were taken by France, +then an ally of the Netherlands, and retained until the peace +of 1783, when they were restored to Holland. In 1784 Essequibo +and Demerara were placed under one governor, and Georgetown—then +called Stabroek—was fixed on as the seat of government. +The next decade saw a series of struggles between the colonies +and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company +being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly +by the states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession, +and retained the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in +1802, when they were once again restored to Holland, only to +be recaptured by Great Britain in 1803, in which year the +history proper of British Guiana began.</p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">British Guiana</span>, the only British possession in S. America, +was formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in +1831 consolidated into one colony divided into three +<span class="sidenote">British Guiana.</span> +counties, Berbice extending from the Corentyn river +to the Abary creek, Demerara from the Abary to the +Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the Venezuelan +frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana +and Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The +Dutch, while British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the +whole watershed of the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans +asserted that the Spanish province of Guayana had extended +up to the left bank of the Essequibo. In 1840 Sir Robert +Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards known +as the “Schomburgk line”; and subsequently, though no +agreement was arrived at, certain modifications were made in +this British claim. In 1886 the government of Great Britain +declared that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to +and within a boundary known as “the modified Schomburgk +line.” Outposts were located at points on this line, and for some +years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another +across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan +up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject +of a message to congress from the president of the United States, +and in consequence of this intervention the matter was submitted +to an international commission, whose award was issued +at Paris in 1899 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Venezuela</a></span>). By this decision neither +party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down differing +but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation +was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by +Venezuela and British Guiana and was completed in 1904. +It was not found practicable, owing to the impassable nature +of the country, to lay down on earth that part of the boundary +fixed by the Paris award between the head of the Wenamu creek +and the summit of Mt. Roraima, and the boundary commissioners +suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the Caroni, +Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two +governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between +British Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the +king of Italy, and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the substantial +area in dispute was conceded to British Guiana. The +work of demarcation has since been carried out.</p> + +<p><i>Towns, &c.</i>—The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at +the mouth of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a +population of about 50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right +bank of the Berbice river, has a population of about 7500. +Each possesses a mayor and town council, with statutory powers +to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated villages, and +ten other locally governed areas known as country districts, the +affairs of which are controlled by local authorities, known as +village councils and country authorities respectively.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The census of 1891 gave the population of +British Guiana as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901. +By official estimates the population at the end of 1904 was +301,923. Of these some 120,000 were negroes and 124,000 +East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than Portuguese, +estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race. +The aborigines—Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c.—who +numbered about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at +about 6500. In 1904 the birth-rate for the whole colony was +30.3 per 1000 and the death-rate 28.8.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>—The surface features of British Guiana +may be divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial seaboard, +flat and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest +belt, swampy along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and +hills between them; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the +forest belt, elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically +treeless; and fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion +of the colony, from the source of its two largest rivers, the Corentyn +and Essequibo, is a rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft. +above sea-level at the source of the Takutu in the west, but only +some 400 at that of the Corentyn in the west, and sloping down +gradually to the low alluvial flats about 3 ft. below high-water +line. The eastern part is generally forested; the western is an +almost level savannah, with woodlands along the rivers. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +northern portion of British Guiana, the alluvial flats alluded to +already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland from +25 m. to 30 m., gradually rising to about 12 ft. above high-water +mark and ending against beds of sandy clay, the residua of igneous +rocks decomposed <i>in situ</i>, which form an extensive undulating +region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back to the +forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing coast-line are +narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes indicating the +trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther back are the +higher “sand hills,” hills of granite or diabase with a thick stratum +of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line seawards +the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive flats +of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally “caddy”) are +left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin +drift mud.</p> + +<p>Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W. +to E., the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merumé Mts., +and the lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the +Acarai Mts., a densely-wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the +southern boundary of British Guiana and the watershed between +the Essequibo and the Amazon. These mountains rise generally +in a succession of terraces and broad plateaus, with steep or even +sheer sandstone escarpments. They are mostly flat-topped, and +their average height is about 3500 ft. The Pacaraima Mts., however, +reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter remarkable mountain +rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft. in height springing +out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit, and was considered +inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn and Perkins +found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The summit is +a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of similar +structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous summits +(about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and Waiakapiapu. +The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises +rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the sandstone +assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and +the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently +descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at +Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced +from the northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn +in the S.E. It is traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or +dolerite, while bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it. +The surface of a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and +of gneissose granite, which is seen in large water-worn bosses in the +river beds. Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence; +where found, it gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to +cataracts in the rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of +quartz-porphyry, porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less +schistose rocks derived from them. These rocks are closely connected +with the gneissose granites and gneiss, and there are reasons +for believing that the latter are the deep-seated portions of them +and are only visible where they have been exposed by denudation. +Long ranges of hills, varying in elevation from a few hundreds to +from 2000 ft. to 3000 ft., traverse the plains of the gneissose districts. +These are caused either by old intrusions of diabase and gabbro +which have undergone modifications, or by later ones of dolerite. +These ranges are of high importance, as the rocks comprising them +are the main source of gold in British Guiana.</p> + +<p><i>Rivers.</i>—The principal physical features of British Guiana are +its rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of +waterways all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the +only, highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the +Waini, the Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni, +the Demerara, the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo +rises in the Acarai Mts., in 0° 41′ N. and about 850 ft. above the +sea, and flows northwards for about 600 m. until it discharges itself +into the ocean by an estuary nearly 15 m. in width. In this +estuary are several large and fertile islands, on four of which sugar +used to be grown. Now but one, Wakenaam, can boast of a factory. +The Essequibo can be entered only by craft drawing less than +20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for not more than 50 m., +its subsequent course upwards being frequently broken by cataracts +and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of rapids it is joined +by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some 4 m. farther up. +It has a remarkable course from its source in the Merume Mountains, +about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south, then west, north-west, +north, and finally south-east to within 20 m. of its own source, +forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter is still very tortuous. +In 4° N. and 58° W., the Essequibo is joined by the Rupununi, +which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the Karawaimento Mts., +has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m. In 3° 37′ N. +the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this tributary the Pirara, +a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached,—an example of the +interesting series of <i>itabos</i> connecting nearly all S. American rivers +with one another. Another large tributary of the Essequibo is the +Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in 5° 8′ N. and +59° 19′ W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall, discovered in 1870 by Mr +C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a geological survey. This +fall is produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone +and conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft. below. For the first +741 ft. the water falls as a perpendicular column, thence as a sloping +cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds. above the fall +is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall itself +varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons. +The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach from +the coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown. +Among other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the +Siparuni, Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The +Demerara river, the head-waters of which are known only to Indians, +rises probably near 5° N., and after a winding northerly course of +some 200 m. enters the ocean in 6° 50′ N. and 58° 20′ W. A bar +of mud and sand prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more +than 19 ft. The river is from its mouth, which is nearly 2 m. wide, +navigable for 70 m. to all vessels which can enter. The Berbice +river rises in about 3° 40′ N., and in 3° 53′ N. is within 9 m. of the +Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2½ m. wide, and is navigable +for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for about 105 m. and for +vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175 m. Thence upwards +it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek joins the Berbice +river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in 1° 48′ 30″ N., +about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing northwards enters +the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The divide between its +head-waters and those of streams belonging to the Amazon system +is only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for about 150 m., +some of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The upper +reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts, some of which, +until the discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the grandest in +British Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon, Moruca +and Barima, while several large streams or creeks fall directly into +the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica, +between Berbice and Demerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara +and Essequibo. The colour of the water of the rivers and creeks +is in general a dark brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable +matter, but where the streams run for a long distance through +savannahs they are of a milky colour.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy. +Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is prevalent, +not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from +pulmonary complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common +people of the elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which +the state is endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of +hygiene in the syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is +uniform on the coast for the ten months from October to July, the +regular N.E. trade winds keeping it down to an average of 80° F. +In August and September the trades die away and the heat becomes +oppressive. In the interior the nights are cold and damp. Hurricanes, +indeed even strong gales, are unknown; a tidal wave is an +impossibility; and the nature of the soil of the coast lands renders +earthquakes practically harmless. Occasionally there are severe +droughts, and the rains are sometimes unduly prolonged, but +usually the year is clearly divided into two wet and two dry seasons. +The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts until mid-August. +The long dry season is from September to the last week in November. +December and January constitute the short rainy season, and +February and March the short dry season. The rainfall varies +greatly in different parts of the colony; on the coast it averages +about 80 in. annually.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual. +Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety, +while many exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions. +Along the coast is a belt of courida and mangrove—the +bark of the latter being used for tanning—forming a natural barrier +to the inroads of the sea, but one which—very unwisely—has been +in parts almost ruined to allow of direct drainage. The vast forests +afford an almost inexhaustible supply of valuable timbers; greenheart +and mora, largely used in shipbuilding and for wharves and +dock and lock gates; silverbally, yielding magnificent planks for all +kinds of boats; and cabinet woods, such as cedar and crabwood. +There may be seen great trees, struggling for life one with the +other, covered with orchids—some of great beauty and value—and +draped with falling <i>lianas</i> and vines. Giant palms fringe the river-banks +and break the monotony of the mass of smaller foliage. +Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges, the bullet tree +being bled extensively for <i>balata</i>, a gum used largely in the manufacture +of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber have also been +found in several districts, and since early in 1905 have attracted the +attention of experts from abroad. On the coast plantains, bananas +and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for food, while +several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of limes. +Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among the +fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet potatoes +and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable varieties +of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all classes. +The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In the +lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the +largest being the famous <i>Victoria regia</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and +reptiles. Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are +the mipourrie or tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both excellent +eating), sloth, ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer, +baboons, monkeys and the puma and jaguar. The last is seen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +frequently down on the coast, attracted from the forest by the +cattle grazing on the front and back pasture lands of the estates. +Among the birds may be mentioned the carrion crow (an invaluable +scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks, snipe, teal, plover, pigeon, +the ubiquitous kiskadee or <i>qu’est que dit</i>, a species of shrike—his +name derived from his shrill call—the canary and the twa-twa, +both charming whistlers. These are all found on the coast. In the +forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild turkey), the beautiful +bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the quadrille bird with its +tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of macaws and parrots, and +other birds of plumage of almost indescribable richness and variety. +On the coast the trenches and canals are full of alligators, but the +great cayman is found only in the rivers of the interior. Among the +many varieties of snakes are huge constricting camoudies, deadly +bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other reptiles +are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of the +barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles +tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with +fishes, crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being +enormous, running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their +curries and the blacks in their foo-foo.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government and Administration.</i>—Executive power is vested +in a governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by +an executive council, consisting of five official and three unofficial +members nominated by the crown. Legislative authority +is vested in the Court of Policy, consisting of the governor, who +presides and without whose permission no legislation can be +initiated, seven other official members and eight elected members. +This body has, however, no financial authority, all taxation and +expenditure being dealt with by the Combined Court, consisting +of the Court of Policy combined with six financial representatives. +The elected members of the Court of Policy and the financial +representatives are elected by their several constituencies for +five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the ownership, +or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years, +of eighty acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under +cultivation, or of house property to the value of $7500. A +financial representative must be similarly qualified or be in +receipt of a clear income of not less than £300 per annum. +Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter who (in addition +to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six months prior +to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a house of +the annual rental or value of £20; or is a secured tenant for +not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or +for one year of a house of £40 rental; or has an income of not +less than £100 per annum; or has during the previous twelve +months paid £4, 3s. 4d. in direct taxation. Residence in the +electoral district for six months prior to registration is coupled +with the last two alternative qualifications. Plural voting is +legal but no plumping is allowed. The combined court is by +this constitution, which was granted in 1891, allowed the use +of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil list voted +for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official and +common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-in-council +and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts, +but the criminal law is founded on that of England. Magistrates +have in civil cases jurisdiction up to £20, while an appeal +lies from their decisions in any criminal or civil case. The +supreme court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges, +and has various jurisdictions. The full court, consisting of the +three judges or any two of them, has jurisdiction over all civil +matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty in privy council in +cases involving £500 and upwards. A single judge sits in insolvency, +in actions involving not over £520, and in appeals from +magistrates’ decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of +three judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge +in the limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal +courts are held four times a year in each county, a single judge +presiding in each court. A court of crown cases reserved is +formed by the three judges, of whom two form a quorum provided +the chief-justice is one of the two. There are no imperial +troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there is a semi-military +police force, a small militia and two companies of +volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland +are both established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the +Roman Catholic and Wesleyan churches and to several other +denominations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an +average of a little over £500,000. About one-half of the revenue is +produced by import duties, and about £90,000 by excise. The +public debt on the 31st of March 1905 stood at £989,620.</p> + +<p>The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly +supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools +received grants-in-aid amounting to £23,500, the average cost per +scholar being a little over £1. These grants are calculated on the +results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from +4s. 4½d. to 1s. 0½d. being made for each pass in reading, writing, +arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill, +English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary +education is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments, +and for boys at Queen’s College, an undenominational government +institution where the course of instruction is the same as at a public +school in England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge +local examinations, on the result of which annually depend the +Guiana scholarship—open to boys and girls, and carrying a university +or professional training in England—and two scholarships at +Queen’s College.</p> + +<p><i>Industries and Trade.</i>—At the end of the third decade of the +19th century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton +and coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 ℔ of coffee were sent abroad, but +after the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export, +and the little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed +in the colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but +for a short revival during the American civil war, has never prospered +since. Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the +experiments of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea +Island cotton is not adaptable to local conditions, and that no +other known variety can as yet be recommended. To-day the +principal exports are sugar, rum, molasses, molascuit—a cattle food +made from molasses—gold, timber, balata, shingles and cattle. +The annual value of the total exports is just under £2,000,000, of +which about two-thirds go to Great Britain and British possessions. +The cultivation of rice has made great strides in recent years, and, +where difficulties of drainage and irrigation can be economically +overcome, promises to increase rapidly. In 1873, 32,000,000 ℔ of +rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905, the quantity imported +having fallen to 20,500,000 ℔, there were over 18,000 acres under +rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to the British West +Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, and its +manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still remains, in spite +of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The provision of a +trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great importance, +and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to import it +under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867, liberated +Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra Leone +and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India +commenced and has since been carried on annually—save in 1849-1850. +In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried +on by the government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to +a convention arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants +should on the expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent +back at the expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to +incur. To reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses, +and consequently of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the +policy of centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six +estates now produce as much sugar as three times that number did +in 1875. During recent years Canada has come forward as a large +buyer of Guiana’s sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went +there as to the United States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas +in 1901-1902 the United States took 85,000 tons and Canada under +8000 tons. Practically all the rum and molascuit go to England, +and the molasses to Holland and Portuguese possessions. The lands +on the coast and on the river banks up to the sand hills are of marked +fertility, and can produce almost any tropical vegetable or fruit. +Cultivation, however, save on the sugar, coffee and cocoa estates, +and by a few exceptional small farmers, is carried on in a haphazard +and half-hearted manner, and the problem of agricultural development +is one of great difficulty for the government. Much of the +privately-owned land is not beneficially occupied, and in many cases +it is not possible even to learn to whom it belongs, and though there +are vast tracts of uncultivated crown land where a large farm or a +small homestead can be easily and cheaply acquired, the difficulties +involved in clearing, draining, and in some cases of protecting it by +dams, are prohibitive to all but the exceptionally determined.</p> + +<p>Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 1884 to 1893-1894 +the output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz. +to nearly 140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious +check by the failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was +almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as +a pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign +enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate +worked a large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining +with considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American capitalists, +working the Peters’ mine, have established their workings to a +considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 60 m. in length, +from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the Guyuni and Mazaruni, +to the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started +dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The +principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries—the +chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook—and +on the Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west +district. There have been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful, +in the Demerara and Berbice rivers.</p> + +<p>Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small +quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the +output, nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in +1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the +cost of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was +heavy, and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with +gold and precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regulations +in 1899, were codified in 1902 and amended in 1905.</p> + +<p>Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands +by licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-cutting, +save on concessions held by a local company owning an +up-country line of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo +rivers, is limited to those parts of the forest which are close to the +lower stretches of the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of +the heavy logs being both difficult and costly, while transport +through the upper reaches of the rivers is impossible on account of +the many cataracts and rapids. The average annual value of imports +is £1,500,000, of which about two-thirds are from Great Britain +and British possessions. Of the vessels trading with the colony, +most are under the British flag, the remainder being principally +American and Norwegian.</p> + +<p>The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception +of the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling. +The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to +12 ft. 4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods.</p> + +<p><i>Inland Communication, &c.</i>—The public roads extend along the +coast from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo +mouth on the Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of +the principal rivers and creeks entering the sea between these +points. A line of railway 60½ m. in length runs from Georgetown +to Rosignol on the left bank of the Berbice river opposite New +Amsterdam; and another line 15 m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop, +on the left bank of the Demerara river opposite Georgetown, and +runs to Greenwich Park on the right bank of the Essequibo river +some 3 m. from its mouth. A light railway, metre gauge, 18½ m. +in length, connects Wismar (on the left bank of the Demerara +river some 70 m. from its mouth) with Rockstone (on the right bank +of the Essequibo, and above the first series of cataracts in that river). +Steamers run daily to and from Georgetown and Wismar, and +launches to and from Rockstone and Tumatumari Fall on the +Potaro, and all expeditions for the goldfields of the Essequibo and +its tributaries above Rockstone travel by this route. Another +steamer goes twice a week to Bartica at the confluence of the +Essequibo and Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on +the Barima, from which termini expeditions start to the other +gold and diamond fields. Steamers also run from Georgetown to +New Amsterdam and up the Berbice river for about 100 m. Above +the termini of these steamer routes all travelling is done in keelless +<i>bateaux</i>, propelled by paddlers and steered when coming through +the rapids at both bow and stern by certificated bowmen and +steersmen. Owing to the extreme dangers of this inland travelling, +stringent regulations have been framed as to the loading of boats, +supply of ropes and qualifications of men in charge, and the shooting +of certain falls is prohibited. Voyages up-country are of necessity +slow, but the return journey is made with comparatively great +rapidity, distances laboriously covered on the up-trip in three days +being done easily in seven hours when coming back.</p> + +<p>From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the +steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen +days by those of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There +are also regular services from Canada, the United States, France +and Holland.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—When taken over in 1803 the prospects of three +British colonies were by no means promising, and during the +next decade the situation became very critical. Owing to the +increased output of sugar by conquered Dutch and French +colonies the English market was glutted and the markets of +the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte having +closed the ports. The years 1811 and 1812 were peculiarly +disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of +sugar, and at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the +latter year it was stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily +worth £1,860,000 had on account of deteriorated value decreased +by fully one-third. At this meeting it was resolved to petition +the imperial parliament to allow the interchange of produce +with the United States; a resolution which was unfortunately +rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England and +the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead +actually harried by American privateers. In his address to +the Combined Court on the 20th of October 1812 the governor +(General Carmichael) stated that a vessel with government +stores had been captured by an American privateer, and in +February 1813 the imperial government sent H.M.S. “Peacock” +to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in cruising +along the east coast of Demerara the “Peacock” met the +American privateer “Hornet,” and though, after a gallant +struggle, in which Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English +ship was sunk with nearly all her crew, the colony did not suffer +from any further depredations. In the following years news +of the agitation in England in favour of emancipation gradually +became known to the slaves and caused considerable unrest +among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious outbreak on the +estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes, demanding +their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and +although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but +little loss on either side, the situation was so serious as to necessitate +the calling out of the military. The ringleaders were +arrested and promptly and vigorously dealt with, while a special +court-martial was appointed to try the Rev. John Smith, of +the London Missionary Society, who it was alleged had fostered +the rising by his teachings to the slave congregation at his +chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized as unfair +by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears +to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed +court. It is difficult now to form any very definite conclusion. +Mr Smith certainly had great influence over the slaves, and +while his teaching prior to the outbreak was at least ill-advised, +he made no efforts while the disturbances were going on to use +his influence on the side of law and order; indeed all he could +say in his own defence was that he was ignorant of what was +going on, a statement it is impossible to believe to have been +strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be +hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out +this sentence, and on the 29th of November the governor announced +that he felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings +of the court for His Majesty’s consideration. The question of +Smith’s guilt or innocence created a great deal of feeling in +England, the anti-slavery and missionary societies making it +a basis for increased agitation in favour of the slaves; but +the imperial government evidently agreed with the colonial +executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave +responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence +of death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the +colony and to enter into a recognizance in £2000 not to return +to British Guiana or to reside in any other West Indian colony. +This order reached Georgetown in April 1824, but Mr Smith +had died in the city jail on the 6th of February of a pulmonary +complaint from which he had been suffering for some +time.</p> + +<p>Sir Benjamin d’Urban was governor from April 1824 to May +1833, the principal event of his administration being the consolidation +in 1831 of the three colonies into one colony divided +into three counties, Berbice, Demerara and Essequibo.</p> + +<p>Governor d’Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James +Carmichael Smyth, who began his administration by a proclamation +to the slaves stating that while the king intended to +improve their condition, the details of his plans were not as yet +completed, and warning them against impatience or insubordination. +When the resolutions foreshadowing emancipation, +passed by the House of Commons on the 12th of June 1833, +reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor’s proclamation +had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and +even the government was surprised. Naturally the slaves were +wildly jubilant. Emancipation brought troublous times through +which the governor steered the colony with great tact and firmness, +serious troubles being nipped in the bud solely by his great +personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the apprentices +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at +Camp House on the 4th of March 1838.</p> + +<p>In the years following emancipation the colony was in a +serious condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved +that it was virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of +immigrants to provide a reliable labour supply were the sugar +estates saved from total extinction. By 1853 the colony had +begun to make headway, and Sir Henry Barkly, the then governor, +was able to state in his speech to the Combined Court in +January that its progress was in every way satisfactory. During +Governor Barkly’s administration the long series of struggles +between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when +he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good-will of +all classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not +effected without troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice +attacked the persons and property of the Portuguese immigrants, +the riots spreading to Demerara and Essequibo, and not until +the military were called out were the disturbances quelled. +Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the prompt and +firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis +Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes +and East Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things +quieted down, and until 1883 the estates as a whole did well. +In 1884 the price of sugar fell so seriously as to make the prospects +of the colony very gloomy, and for nearly two decades +proprietors had to be content with a price kept artificially low +by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being ruined, while +those that survived only did so by the application of every +economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new +discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture.</p> + +<p>The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a +section of the negro population in Georgetown directed against +the Portuguese residents there. A Portuguese had murdered +his black paramour and had been convicted and sentenced to +death. The governor commuted the sentence to penal servitude +for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder in the +market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of +pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the +former, after being taken to a police station was, through some +misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost +immediately excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing +about loudly proclaiming that the boy was dead, that the +Portuguese were allowed to kill black people and to go free, and +calling on one another to take their own revenge. Mobs gathered +quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and wrecked their +shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up for +two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the +police and special constables successful in quelling the disturbances. +The damage done amounted to several thousands of +dollars, the Portuguese owners being eventually compensated +from general revenue.</p> + +<p>In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela +became acute. It was reported to the colonial government that +the government of Venezuela had granted to an American +syndicate a concession which covered much of the territory +claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt investigation +by an agent despatched by the governor did not then disclose +any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit in +January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of +the Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr +McTurk on his former visit, discovered that the British notices +had been covered over by Venezuelan ones and resulted in the +government of Great Britain declaring that it would thenceforward +exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary +known as “the modified Schomburgk line.” Outposts were +located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police +and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura +creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river. +Guianese officers were, however, presumably instructed not +actively to oppose acts of aggression by the Venezuelan government, +for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers arrested Messrs +D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in charge at +Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas, +eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For +this act compensation was demanded and was eventually paid +by Venezuela. The diplomatic question as to the boundary—the +results of which are stated above—was passed out of the +hands of the colony; see the account of the arbitration under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Venezuela</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The last two months of 1905 were marked by serious disturbances +in Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east +and west banks of the Demerara river. On the 29th of November +the dock labourers employed on the wharves in Georgetown +struck for higher wages, and large crowds invaded the principal +stores in the city, compelling men willing to work to desist and +in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the +evening of the 30th of November they had got so far out of +hand as to necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a proclamation +by the governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all +assemblies. On the morning of the 1st of December serious +disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a sugar estate directly +south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had suddenly +struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on +the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that +day mobs in all parts of the city assaulted any white man they +met, houses were invaded and windows smashed, and on two +further occasions the police had to fire. At night torrential rains +forced the rioters to shelter, and enabled the police to get rest, +their places being taken by pickets of militiamen and special +constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the police had +got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S. +“Sappho” and on Sunday of H.M.S. “Diamond” gave the +government complete control of the situation. Threatened +troubles on the sugar estates on the west bank were suppressed +by the prompt action of the governor, and the arrest of large +numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by special +courts restored thorough order.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—See Raleigh’s <i>Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana +1595-1596</i>, (“Hakluyt” series); Laurence Keymis’ <i>Relation of +the second Voyage to Guiana</i> (<i>1596</i>), (“Hakluyt” series); Sir R. H. +Schomburgk, <i>Description of British Guiana</i> (London, 1840); C. +Waterton, <i>Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825</i> (London, 1828); +J. Rodway, <i>History of British Guiana</i> (Georgetown, 1891-1894); +H. G. Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855); J. W. +Boddam Whetham, <i>Roraima and British Guiana</i> (London, 1879); +C. P. Lucas, <i>Historical Geography of British Colonies</i>; E. F. im Thurn, +<i>Among the Indians of Guiana</i> (London, 1883); <i>British Guiana +Directory</i> (Georgetown, 1906); G. D. Bayley, <i>Handbook of British +Guiana</i> (Georgetown, 1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. G. B.*)</div> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Dutch Guiana</span>, or <i>Surinam</i>, has an area of about 57,900 +sq. m. British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on +the east (the long unsettled question of the French +boundary is dealt with in section III., <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French +Guiana</a></span>). The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are +<span class="sidenote">Dutch Guiana.</span> +distributed according to the soil and the products. The Indians +(Caribs, Arawaks, Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the +upper Nickerie, Coppename and Maroni, far from the plantations, +cultivating their fields of manioc or cassava, and for the +rest living by fishing and hunting. They number about 2000. +The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3° and 4° N., near +the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are +employed in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields, +the navigation of the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the +transport of wood to Paramaribo and the plantations. They +are the descendants of runaway slaves, and before missionaries +had worked among them their paganism retained curious traces +of their former connexion with Christianity. Their chief god +was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria, and his son Jesi +Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped, Ampuka the +bush-god, Toni the water-god, &c. Their language was based +on a bastard English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese +and native elements. Their chiefs are called <i>gramman</i> or grand +man; but the authority of these men, and the peculiarities of +language and religion, have in great measure died out owing +to modern intercourse with the Dutch and others. The inhabitants +of Paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +of races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies from India +and the West Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of non-Christian +immigrants there are about 6000 Mahommedans and +12,000 Hindus; and Jews number about 1200. The total +population was given in 1907 as 84,103, exclusive of Indians, +&c., in the forests. Nearly one-half of this total are in Paramaribo +and one-half in the districts. The population has shown +a tendency to move from the districts to the town; thus in +1852 there were 6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the +districts.</p> + +<p>The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley +of the Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on +the W. and the Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief +of a number of large rivers which rise in the Tumuc Humac +range or the low hills between it and the sea, which they enter +on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and the Maroni +(Dutch <i>Corantijn</i> and <i>Marowijne</i>), which form the boundaries +with British and French territories respectively. Between the +rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels +available during the floods at least. As the Maroni communicates +with the Cottica, which is in turn a tributary of the Commewyne, +a boat can pass from the Maroni to Paramaribo; +thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the Saramacca; +and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and +by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The +rivers are not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as +their courses are interrupted by rapids. The interior of the +country consists for the most part of low hills, though an extreme +height of 3800 ft. is known in the Wilhelmina Kette, in the +west of the colony, about 3° 50′ to 4° N. The hinterland south +of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc Humac range along +which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however, practically unexplored. +Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch colony +is divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and +almost impenetrable forest.</p> + +<p>Meteorological observations have been carried on at five +stations (Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie +and Groningen). The mean range of temperature for the day, +month and year shows little variation, being respectively +77.54°-88.38° F., 76.1°-78.62° F. and 70.52°-90.14° F. +The north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year, but +the rainfall varies considerably; for December and January +the mean is respectively 8.58 and 9.57 in., for May and June +11.26 and 10.31 in., but for February and March 7.2 and 6.81 in., +and for September 2.48 and 2.0 in. The seasons comprise a +long and a short dry season, and a period of heavy and of slight +rainfall.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Products and Trade.</i>—It has been found exceedingly difficult to +exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and +those supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all +cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas +on the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are +situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie +and Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts. +Goldfields lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper +Surinam, Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway +designed to connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in +1906. The annual production of gold amounts in value to about +£100,000, but has shown considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is +the chief means of subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under +cultivation. Of 30,000, persons whose occupation is given in official +statistics, close upon 21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the +plantations, 2400 in gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The +exports increased in value from £200,800 in 1875 to £459,800 in +1899, and imports from £260,450 in 1875 to £510,180 in 1899; but +the average value of exports over five years subsequently was only +£414,000, while that of imports was £531,000.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—The colony is under a governor, who is president +of an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and +three members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is +the states, the members of which are elected for six years by electors, +of whom there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The +colony is divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of +justice there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the +supreme court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent +members are nominated by the crown. The average local revenue +(1901-1906) was about £276,000 and the expenditure about £317,000; +both fluctuated considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary +from the home government (£16,000 in 1902, £60,400 in 1906; the +annual average is about £37,000). There are a civic guard of about +1800 men and a militia of 500, with a small garrison.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the +compression of their influence within its present limits, belongs +to the general history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the +Dutch islands of the West Indies were placed under a common +government in 1828, the governor residing at Paramaribo, but +in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was abolished in 1863. +Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a convention +was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of +the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam +was appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily +solved, but the interest of the mother-country in the colony +greatly increased during the last twenty years of the 19th +century, as shown by the establishment of the Surinam Association, +of the Steam Navigation Company’s service to Paramaribo, +and by the formation of a botanical garden for experimental +culture at that town, as also by geological and other scientific +expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Among the older works on Surinam the first +rank is held by Jan Jacob Hartsinck’s masterly <i>Beschryving van +Guiana, of de Wilde Kust, in Zuid Amerika</i> (2 vols., Amsterdam, +1770). Extracts from this work, selected for their bearing upon +British boundary questions, were translated and annotated by +J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A valuable <i>Geschiedenis der +Kolonie van Suriname</i>, by a number of “learned Jews,” was +published at Amsterdam in 1791 and it was supplemented and so +far superseded by Wolbers, <i>Geschiedenis van Suriname</i> (Amsterdam, +1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, <i>Dutch Guiana</i> (London, +1876); A. Kappler, <i>Surinam, sein Land, &c.</i> (Stuttgart, 1887); +Prince Roland Bonaparte, <i>Les Habitants de Surinam</i> (Paris, 1884); +K. Martin, “Bericht über eine Reise ins Gebiet des Oberen-Surinam,” +<i>Bijdragen v. h. Inst. voor Taal Land en Volkenkunde</i>, +i. 1. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, <i>La Guyane néerlandaise</i> +(Leiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, “Een en ander over +Suriname,” <i>Gids</i> (1888); G. Verschuur, “Voyages aux trois +Guyanes,” <i>Tour du monde</i> (1893). pp. 1, 49, 65; W. L. Loth, +<i>Beknopte Aardrijkskundige beschrijving van Suriname</i> (Amsterdam, +1898), and <i>Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</i> (1878), +79, 93; Asch van Wyck, “La Colonie de Surinam,” <i>Les Pays-Bas</i> +(1898); L. Thompson, <i>Overzicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname</i> +(The Hague, 1901); <i>Catalogus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te +Haarlem</i> (1899); <i>Guide à travers la section des Indes néerlandaises</i>, +p. 323 (Amsterdam, 1899); <i>Surinaamsche Almanak</i> (Paramaribo, +annually). For the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel, +<i>Kurzgefasste neger-englische Grammatik</i> (Bautzen, 1854), and <i>Deutsch +neger-englisches Wörterbuch</i> (Lobau, 1865).</p> +</div> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">French Guiana</span> (<i>Guyane</i>).—This colony is situated +between Dutch Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the +territory belonging to France and the Netherlands +was arrived at in 1891, by decision of the emperor of +Russia. This question originated in the arrangement +<span class="sidenote">French Guiana.</span> +of 1836, that the river Maroni should form the frontier. It +turned on the claim of the Awa or the Tapanahoni to be recognized +as the main head-stream of the Maroni, and the final +decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the Dutch. In 1905 +certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the Itany, +the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired +by France by agreement between the French and Dutch governments. +The question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni +was settled by attributing alternate reaches of the river to France +and Holland; while France obtained the principal islands in +the lower Maroni. The additional territory thus attached to +the French colony amounted to 965 sq. m. In December 1900 +the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the boundary between +French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the watershed +on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France +about 3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This +dispute was of earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dissensions +between the French and the Portuguese relative to +territory north of the Amazon occurred in the 17th century. +In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area (known +as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of +Utrecht in 1713 indicated as the French boundary a river +which the French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but +the Portuguese asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +Brazil had become independent the question dragged on until +in 1890-1895 there were collisions in the contested territory +between French and Brazilian adventurers. This compelled +serious action, and a treaty of arbitration, preliminary to the +settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1897. French Guiana, +according to official estimate, has an area of about 51,000 sq. m. +The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement is +not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were +in the communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were +native Indians (Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near +Maroni were negroes. Apart from Cayenne, which was rebuilt +after the great fire of 1888, the centres of population are unimportant: +Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with 1750, +Roura with 1200 and Approuague with 1150. In 1892 French +Guiana was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the +Maroni district. Belonging to the colony are also the three +Safety Islands (Royale, Joseph and Du Diable—the last notable +as the island where Captain Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant +Perdu Island and the five Remire Islands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by +marshes, with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts, +with the pinot or wassay palm (<i>Euterpe oleracea</i>). Settlements are +confined almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The +forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft. +in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms +the southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft. +But the dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the +ocean winds that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number +of rivers which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes +of water. Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the +Oyapock. South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance +is the Mana, which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth, +and for smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and +the Kourou, the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which +is Cayenne, the capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage. +All these rivers take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about +the middle of the colony; those streams which rise farther south, +in the Tumuc Humac hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers, +the Maroni on the one hand or the Oyapock on the other.</p> + +<p><i>Climate and Products.</i>—The rainy season begins in November or +December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are +usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the +rest of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but +the air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall +amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior. +During the hotter part of the year—August, September, October—the +temperature usually rises to about 86° F., but it hardly ever +exceeds 88°; in the colder season the mean is 79° and it seldom +sinks so low as 70°. Between day and night there is very little +thermometric difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E. and +the S.E.; and the most violent are those of the N.E. During the +rainy season the winds keep between N. and E., and during the +dry season between S. and E. Hurricanes are unknown. In flora +and fauna French Guiana resembles the rest of the Guianese region. +Vegetation is excessively rich. Among leguminous trees, which are +abundantly represented, the wacapou is the finest of many hardwood +trees. Caoutchouc and various palms are also common. +The manioc is a principal source of food; rice is an important object +of cultivation; and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the +bread-fruit are also to be mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common +wild plants of the country. The clove tree has been acclimatized, +and in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of +wealth; the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in +1772, but like that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation +is neglected. A very small portion of the territory indeed is devoted +to agriculture, although France has paid some attention to +the development of this branch of activity. In 1880 a colonial +garden was created near Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental +garden has been laid out at Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated, +of which 5400 acres are under cereals and rice, the remaining being +under coffee (introduced in 1716), cacao, cane and other cultures. +The low lands between Cayenne and Oyapock are capable of bearing +colonial produce, and the savannahs might support large herds; +cereals, root-crops and vegetables might easily be grown on the +high grounds, and timber working in the interior should be profitable.</p> + +<p>Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony. +Placers of great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the +Dutch frontier and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the +subject of the Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and +transport is costly, and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did +not average more than 130,550 oz. annually in 1900-1905. Silver +and iron have been found in various districts; kaolin is extracted +in the plains of Montsinéry; and phosphates have been discovered +at several places. Besides gold-workings, the industrial establishments +comprise saw-mills, distilleries, brick-works and sugar-works.</p> + +<p><i>Trade and Communications.</i>—The commerce in 1885 amounted +to £336,000 for imports and to £144,000 for exports; in 1897 the +values were respectively £373,350 and £286,400, but in 1903, while +imports had increased in value only to £418,720, exports had risen +to £493,213. The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &c.; +the chief are gold, phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence. +Cayenne is the only considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the +development of the colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is +most difficult to obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have +not proved very successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigration +have not done so completely. The land routes are not numerous. +The most important are that from Cayenne to Mana by way of +Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo, and that from Cayenne along +the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the Approuague. Towards the +interior there are only foot-paths, badly made. By water, Cayenne +is in regular communication with the Safety Islands (35 m.), and the +mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de France in the island of +Martinique, where travellers meet the mail packet for France, and +with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable between Cayenne +and Brest.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—The colony is administered by a commissioner-general +assisted by a privy council, including the secretary general +and chief of the judicial service, the military, penitentiary and +administrative departments. In 1879 an elective general council +of sixteen members was constituted. There are a tribunal of first +instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides four justices of +peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in other places. Of +the £256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial budget for +1906, £235,000 represented the estimated expenditure on the penal +settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about £21,000. +The local budget for 1901 balanced at £99,000 and in 1905 at £116,450. +Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six primary +schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect. The +armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a +battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and comprises +about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a +decree of 1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been +sent to Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became +the chief penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885-1887 +French Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for +confirmed criminals and for convicts sentenced to more than eight +years’ hard labour. A large proportion of these men have been +found unfit for employment upon public works.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The Sieur La Revardière, sent out in 1604 by +Henry IV. to reconnoitre the country, brought back a favourable +report; but the death of the king put a stop to the projects +of formal colonization. In 1626 a small body of traders from +Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a similar band +founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by +the people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Brétigny, +the Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, established in 1645, +and the second Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale, or Compagnie +des Douze Seigneurs, established in 1652, were failures, +the result of incompetence, mismanagement and misfortune. +From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a few years. The +French Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, chartered in 1664 +with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved +hardly more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the +colony passed under the direct control of the crown, and the +able administration of Colbert began to tell favourably on its +progress, although in 1686 an unsuccessful expedition against +the Dutch in Surinam set back the advance of the French +colony until the close of the century.</p> + +<p>The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul, +the prime minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin +Praslin a concession of the country between the Kourou and +the Maroni, sent out about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly +from Alsace and Lorraine. They were landed at the mouth of +the Kourou, where no preparation had been made for their +reception, and where even water was not to be obtained. Mismanagement +was complete; there was (for example) a shop for +skates, whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting. +By 1765 no more than 918 colonists remained alive, and these +were a famished fever-stricken band. A long investigation in +Paris resulted in the imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of +the expedition. Several minor attempts at colonization in +Guiana were made in the latter part of the century; but they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of failure. +During the revolution band after band of political prisoners +were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly +600 in number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797), +was especially sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter +or food, two-thirds of them perished miserably. In 1800 Victor +Hugues was appointed governor, and he managed to put the +colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was brought to +a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British.</p> + +<p>Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French +in 1814, it was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till +1817. Numerous efforts were now made to establish the colony +firmly, although its past misfortunes had prejudiced the public +mind in France against it. In 1822 the first steam sugar mills +were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural colony (Nouvelle +Angoulême) was attempted in the Mana district, which, after +failure at first, became comparatively successful. The emancipation +of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost +ruined the development of agricultural resources about the +middle of the century, but in 1853 a large body of African +immigrants was introduced. The discovery of gold on the +Approuague in 1855 caused feverish excitement, and seriously +disturbed the economic condition of the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be +found in Ternaux-Compans, <i>Notice historique de la Guyane française</i> +(Paris, 1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassières, <i>Notice +sur la Guyane</i>, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900); +<i>Publications de la société d’études pour la colonisation de la Guyane +française</i> (Paris, 1843-1844); H. A. Coudreau, <i>La France équinoxiale</i> +(1887), <i>Dialectes indiens de Guyane</i> (1891), <i>Dix ans de Guyane</i> (1892), +and <i>Chez nos Indiens</i> (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau, <i>Les +Richesses de la Guyane française</i> (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala, <i>Les +Trois Guyanes</i> (Montpellier, 1893).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been +variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the +following note, which has the weight of his great authority: “I +cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayaná ‘received +its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco’, +supposed to be the Waini or Guainia. In South America, east of +the Andes, it was the common custom of any tribe occupying a +length of river to call it simply ‘the river’; but the other tribes +designated any section of it by the name of the people living on its +banks. Many streams, therefore, had more than a dozen names. +It is probable that no important river had one name alone throughout +its course, prior to the time of the Conquest. The radical <i>wini</i>, +<i>waini</i>, <i>wayni</i>, is found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termination, +to the names of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayaná +but all over the Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary +Indians called the portion of the Purús river which they occupied the +<i>Waini</i>. It simply means water, or a fountain of water, or a river. +The alternative suggestion that Guayaná is an Indian word signifying +’wild coast,’ I also think untenable. This term, applied to the +north-east frontage of South America between the Orinoco and the +Amazon, is found on the old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it +’Guiana Caribania of de Wilde Kust,’ a name which must have +well described it when, in 1580, some Zealanders, of the Netherlands, +sent a ship to cruise along it, from the mouth of the Amazon to +that of the Orinoco, and formed the first settlement near the river +Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz Dourado, 1564, calls the +northern part of South America, including the present British +Guiana, ‘East Peru.’ An anonymous Spanish map, about 1566, +gives Guayaná as lying on the east side of the Orinoco just above +its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer of the +<i>Casa de Contractacion de Seville</i>, shows Guayaná covering the +British, French and Dutch Guayanás. According to the map of +Nicolas de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the +south side of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambará, +east of the mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent +Venezuelan scholar, says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas, +inhabited a site called Guayaná long before the discovery of South +America by the Spaniards. Coudreau in his <i>Chez nos Indiens</i> +mentions that the <i>Roucouyennes</i> of Guayaná take their name from +a large tree in their forests, ‘which appears to be the origin of the +name Guayane.’ According to Michelana y Rojas, in their report +to the Venezuelan government on their voyages in the basin of the +Orinoco, ‘Guyana derives its name from the Indians who live +between the Caroni river and the Sierra de Imataca, called Guayanos.’ +My own studies of aboriginal South America lead me to support the +statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the following enlargement +of it: The Portuguese, in the early part of the 16th century, found +that the coast and mountain district of Rio de Janeiro, between +Cape São Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the formidable +<i>Tamoyos</i>. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m. of the +ocean slope of the coast range, were the <i>Guayaná</i> tribes, called by +the early writers <i>Guianás</i>, <i>Goyaná</i>, <i>Guayaná</i>, <i>Goaná</i> and, plural, +<i>Goaynázés</i>, <i>Goayanázes</i> and <i>Guayanázes</i>. They were constantly at +feud with the <i>Tamoyos</i> and with their neighbours on the south, the +<i>Carijos</i>, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of the Sertão of the +interior. Long before the discovery, they had been forced to +abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their strength, +returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile, however, +many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in +the <i>Sertão</i> back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle +Amazon and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had +crossed the lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country +to the north of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac +range of highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well +as a large district on the northern slope of the above-named range. +In their new home they became known as <i>Roucouyennes</i>, because, +like the Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they rubbed and +painted themselves with <i>roucou</i> or <i>urucu</i> (Bixa Orellana); but +other surrounding tribes called them Ouayanás, that is Guayanás—the +Gua, so common to the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become +corrupted into <i>Oua</i>. Porto Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, ‘at +other times they gave themselves the name of <i>Guayá</i> or <i>Guayaná</i>, +which probably means “brothers,” from which comes <i>Guayazes</i> and +<i>Guayanazes</i>.... The latter occupied the country just south of +Rio de Janeiro.... The masters of the Capitania of St Vincente +called themselves <i>Guianas</i>.’ Guinila, referring to north-eastern +South America (1745), speaks of five missions being formed to +civilize the ‘<i>Nacion Guayana</i>.’ In view of the above, it may be +thought reasonable to assume that the vast territory now known +as <i>Guayaná</i> (British, Dutch, French, Brazilian and Venezuelan) +derives its name from its aborigines who were found there at the +time of the discovery, and whose original home was the region I +have indicated.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This is the boundary generally accepted; but it is in dispute.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, <i>Reports on the Physical, +Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana</i> (London, 1875); +C. Velain, “Esquisse géologique de la Guyane française et des +bassins du Parou et du Yari (affluents de l’Amazone) d’après les +explorations du Dr Crevaux,” <i>Bull. Soc. Géogr.</i> ser. 7, vol. vi. +(Paris, 1885), pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, <i>Geologische +Studien über Niederländisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eigener +Untersuchungsreisen</i> (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, “Zur Geologie +des Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch-Guyana),” +<i>Samml. d. Geol. Reichsmus.</i> (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii. +Heft 2, pp. 93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the +official reports on the geology of various districts, by J. B. Harrison, +C. W. Anderson, H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIART<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Guiard</span>), <b>GUILLAUME</b> (d. <i>c.</i> 1316), French +chronicler and poet, was probably born at Orleans, and served +in the French army in Flanders in 1304. Having been disabled +by a wound he began to write, lived at Arras and then in Paris, +thus being able to consult the large store of manuscripts in the +abbey of St Denis, including the <i>Grandes chroniques de France</i>. +Afterwards he appears as a <i>ménestrel de bouche</i>. Guiart’s poem +<i>Branche des royaulx lignages</i>, was written and then rewritten +between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV., +and in answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising +over 21,000 verses it deals with the history of the French kings +from the time of Louis VIII.; but it is only really important +for the period after 1296 and for the war in Flanders from 1301 +to 1304, of which it gives a graphic account, and for which it is +a high authority. It was first published by J. A. Buchon +(Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the <i>Recueil des historiens +des Gaules et de la France</i> (Paris, 1865).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l’histoire de France</i>, tome iii. (Paris, +1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIBERT,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Wibert</span> (<i>c.</i> 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope +under the title of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until +September 1100, was born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of +the noble imperialist family, Corregio. He entered the priesthood +and was appointed by the empress Agnes, chancellor and, +after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057), imperial vicar in Italy. +He strove to uphold the imperial authority during Henry IV.’s +minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061) which +annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person +of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II. +Guibert lost the chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the +influence of Empress Agnes and the support of Cardinal Hildebrand, +he obtained the archbishopric of Ravenna and swore +fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems to have +been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon +quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola, +and henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction +in the investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius, +Cardinal Candidus and other opponents of Gregory at Rome, +and, on his refusal to furnish troops or to attend the Lenten +synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically suspended by the pope. +He was probably excommunicated at the synod of Worms +(1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV., +and at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The +emperor, having been excommunicated for the second time in +March 1080, convened nineteen bishops of his party at Mainz +on the 31st of May, who pronounced the deposition of Gregory; +and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be elected pope +by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst retaining +possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial +master on most of the latter’s military expeditions. Having +gained Rome, he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated +as Clement III. on the 24th of March 1084. One week later, +on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry IV. and Bertha in St +Peter’s. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but also +Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and +in great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions. +Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals. +He was driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and +sought refuge in various fortresses on his own estates. St +Angelo, the last Guibertist stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II. +on the 24th of August 1098. Clement, on the accession of +Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his struggle but was +driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita +Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by +his followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the +water by Paschal II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. +bis Innocenz III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. +Roman</i>. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, +vol. v. (2nd ed.); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. iv., +trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O. +Köhncke, <i>Wibert von Ravenna</i> (Leipzig, 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIBERT<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian, +was born of noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and +dedicated from infancy to the church. He received his early +education at the Benedictine abbey of Flavigny (Flaviacum) +or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal, devoting himself +at first to the secular poets, an experience which left its imprint +on his works; later changing to theology, through the influence +of Anselm of Bec, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was +chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and +henceforth took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His +autobiography (<i>De vita sua, sive monodiarum</i>), written towards +the close of his life, gives many picturesque glimpses of his time +and the customs of his country. The description of the commune +of Laon is an historical document of the first order. The +same local colour lends charm to his history of the first crusade +(<i>Gesta Dei per Francos</i>) written about 1110. But the history +is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the <i>Gesta Francorum</i> +of an anonymous Norman author (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>); and when +he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to +degenerate into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes. +At the same time his high birth and his position in the church +give his work an occasional value.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Guibert’s works, edited by d’Achery, were first +published in 1651, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (<i>Venerabilis Guiberti +abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia</i>), and republished +in Migne’s <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include, +besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics (“Liber quo ordine +sermo fieri debeat”); ten books of <i>Moralia</i> on Genesis, begun in +1084, but not completed until 1116, composed on the model of Gregory +the Great’s <i>Moralia in Jobum</i>; five books of <i>Tropologiae</i> on Hosea, +Amos and the Lamentations; a treatise on the <i>Incarnation</i>, against +the Jews; four books <i>De pignoribus sanctorum</i>, a remarkably free +criticism on the abuses of saint and relic worship; three books of +autobiography, <i>De vita sua, sive monodiarum</i>; and eight books of +the <i>Historia quae dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historia Hierosolymitana</i> +(the ninth book is by another author). Separate editions +exist of the last named, in J. Bongars, <i>Gesta Dei per Francos</i>, i., +and <i>Recueil des historiens des croisades, hist. Occid.</i>, iv. 115-263. +It has been translated into French in Guizot’s <i>Collection</i>, ix. 1-338. +See H. von Sybel, <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges</i> (Leipzig, 1881); +B. Monod, <i>Le Moine Guibert et son temps</i> (Paris, 1905); and <i>Guibert +de Nogent; histoire de sa vie</i>, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> +(1743-1790), French general and military writer, was born at +Montauban, and at the age of thirteen accompanied his father, +Charles Bénoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786), chief of staff to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany, and won +the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition +to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his <i>Essai général de +tactique</i> in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numerous +subsequent editions and in English, German and even +Persian translations (extracts also in Liskenne and Sauvan, +<i>Bibl. historique et militaire</i>, Paris, 1845). Of this work (for a +detailed critique of which see Max Jähns, <i>Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften</i>, +vol. iii. pp. 2058-2070 and references therein) it may be +said that it was the best essay on war produced by a soldier +during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the salon +and military literature was more abundant than at any time up +to 1871. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert’s +enlightened conservatism stands in marked contrast to the +doctrinaire progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others, +the book is chiefly valued for its broad outlook on the state of +Europe, especially of military Europe in the period 1763-1792. +One quotation may be given as being a most remarkable prophecy +of the impending revolution in the art of war, a revolution which +the “advanced” tacticians themselves scarcely foresaw. “The +standing armies, while a burden on the people, are inadequate +for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and +meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, degenerates.... +The hegemony over Europe will fall to that +nation which ... becomes possessed of manly virtues and +<i>creates a national army</i>”—a prediction fulfilled almost to the +letter within twenty years of Guibert’s death. In 1773 he +visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental +drills and army manœuvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing +Guibert’s ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and +freely discussed military questions with him. Guibert’s <i>Journal +d’un voyage en Allemagne</i> was published, with a memoir, by +Toulongeon (Paris, 1803). His <i>Défense du système de guerre +moderne</i>, a reply to his many critics (Neuchâtel, 1779) is a +reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian method of +tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he began +to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of much-needed +and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777, +however, St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that +of Guibert who was promoted to the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i> +and relegated to a provincial staff appointment. In his semi-retirement +he vigorously defended his old chief St Germain +against his detractors. On the eve of the Revolution he was +recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he became the object +of attack and he died, practically of disappointment, on the +6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those mentioned, +are: <i>Observations sur la constitution politique et militaire +des armées de S. M. Prussienne</i> (Amsterdam, 1778), <i>Éloges</i> of +Marshal Catinat (1775), of Michel de l’Hôpital (1778), and of +Frederick the Great (1787). Guibert was a member of the +Academy from 1786, and he also wrote a tragedy, <i>Le Connétable +de Bourbon</i> (1775) and a journal of travels in France and Switzerland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Toulongeon, <i>Éloge véridique de Guibert</i> (Paris, 1790); Madame +de Stäel, <i>Éloge de Guibert</i>; Bardin, <i>Notice historique du général +Guibert</i> (Paris, 1836); Flavian d’Aldeguier, <i>Discours sur la vie et +les écrits du comte de Guibert</i> (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie, +<i>Biographie du comte de Guibert</i> (Montauban, 1855); Count zur +Lippe, “Friedr. der Grosse und Oberst Guibert” (<i>Militär-Wochenblatt</i>, +1873, 9 and 10).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1483-1540), the celebrated +Italian historian and statesman, was born at Florence in the +year 1483, when Marsilio Ficino held him at the font of baptism. +His family was illustrious and noble; and his ancestors for +many generations had held the highest posts of honour in the +state, as may be seen in his own genealogical <i>Ricordi autobiografici +e di famiglia</i> (<i>Op. ined.</i> vol. x.). After the usual education +of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his +father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua, +where he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle, +who had occupied the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced +the young Guicciardini to hanker after an ecclesiastical career. +He already saw the scarlet of a cardinal awaiting him, and to +this eminence he would assuredly have risen. His father, however, +checked this ambition, declaring that, though he had five +sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the church in its +then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini, whose +motives were confessedly ambitious (see <i>Ricordi, Op. ined.</i> +x. 68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three +was appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the <i>Institutes</i> +in public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage +to Maria, daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he +frankly tells us, by the political support which an alliance with +that great family would bring him (<i>ib.</i> x. 71). He was then +practising at the bar, where he won so much distinction that the +Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to the court +of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work +of his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that +legation was afterwards severely criticized; for his political +antagonists accused him of betraying the true interests of the +commonwealth, and using his influence for the restoration of +the exiled house of Medici to power. His Spanish correspondence +with the Signoria (<i>Op. ined.</i> vol. vi.) reveals the extraordinary +power of observation and analysis which was a chief +quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and profoundly +dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific +study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid +statecraft in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of +the problem offered by his character, and scarcely fair to the +Italian proficients in perfidy. It is clear from Guicciardini’s +autobiographical memoirs that he was ambitious, calculating, +avaricious and power-loving from his earliest years; and in +Spain he had no more than an opportunity of studying on a +large scale those political vices which already ruled the minor +potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with instructions +for so apt a pupil. Guicciardini issued from this first +trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability, +as that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave +counterplots; to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force +with sleights of hand; to credit human nature with the basest +motives, while the blackest crimes were contemplated with cold +enthusiasm for their cleverness, was reckoned then the height +of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play the game to perfection. +In 1515 Leo X. took him into service, and made him +governor of Reggio and Modena. In 1521 Parma was added to +his rule, and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna +by Clement VII. These high offices rendered Guicciardini the +virtual master of the papal states beyond the Apennines, during +a period of great bewilderment and difficulty. The copious +correspondence relating to his administration has recently been +published (<i>Op. ined.</i> vols. vii., viii.). In 1526 Clement gave him +still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal army. While +holding this commission, he had the humiliation of witnessing +from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of +Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of +Urbino into activity. The blame of Clement’s downfall did not +rest with him; for it was merely his duty to attend the camp, +and keep his master informed of the proceedings of the generals +(see the Correspondence, <i>Op. ined.</i> vols. iv., v.). Yet Guicciardini’s +conscience accused him, for he had previously counselled +the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious letter to himself +written in 1527 (<i>Op. ined.</i>, x. 104). Clement did not, however, +withdraw his confidence, and in 1531 Guicciardini was advanced +to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the +papallord-lieutenancies (Correspondence, <i>Op. ined.</i> vol. ix.). This +post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring +to follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be +noticed that though Guicciardini served three popes through a +period of twenty years, or perhaps because of this, he hated the +papacy with a deep and frozen bitterness, attributing the woes +of Italy to the ambition of the church, and declaring he had +seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him a Lutheran +(see <i>Op. ined.</i> i. 27, 104, 96, and <i>Ist. d’ It.</i>, ed. Ros., ii. 218). +The same discord between his private opinions and his public +actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +political theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of +government was a commonwealth administered upon the type +of the Venetian constitution (<i>Op. ined.</i> i. 6; ii. 130 sq.); and +we have ample evidence to prove that he had judged the tyranny +of the Medici at its true worth (<i>Op. ined.</i> i. 171, on the tyrant; +the whole <i>Storia Fiorentina</i> and <i>Reggimento di Firenze</i>, <i>ib.</i> i. +and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did not hesitate to place his +powers at the disposal of the most vicious members of that +house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been +declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known +Medicean prejudices; and in 1530, deputed by Clement to +punish the citizens after their revolt, he revenged himself with a +cruelty and an avarice that were long and bitterly remembered. +When, therefore, he returned to inhabit Florence in 1534, he +did so as the creature of the dissolute Alessandro de’ Medici. +Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to defend this infamous +despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles V., +from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine +exiles (<i>Op. ined.</i> vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes +of all posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries, +who describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power, +eager to support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices +and emoluments secured for himself by a bargain with the +oppressors of his country. Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and +Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this point; but it is only +the recent publication of Guicciardini’s private MSS. that has +made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead +loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean +partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions +expressed in the <i>Ricordi politici</i> and the <i>Storia Fiorentina</i>. +Like Machiavelli, but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing +to “roll stones,” or to do any dirty work for masters whom, +in the depth of his soul, he detested and despised. After the +murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537, Guicciardini espoused the +cause of Cosimo de’ Medici, a boy addicted to field sports, and +unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old diplomatist +hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this inexperienced +princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for +Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly +dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in +disgrace to his villa, where he spent his last years in the composition +of the <i>Storia d’ Italia</i>. He died in 1540 without male +heirs.</p> + +<p>Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age, +and his life illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and +worldly temperament, devoid of passion, blameless in his +conduct as the father of a family, faithful as the servant of his +papal patrons, severe in the administration of the provinces +committed to his charge, and indisputably able in his conduct +of affairs, he was at the same time, and in spite of these qualities, +a man whose moral nature inspires a sentiment of liveliest repugnance. +It is not merely that he was ambitious, cruel, +revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have existed in men +far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above those +faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in +him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone. +His phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and +honour to self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions +of the world, if only he could use them for his own advantage, +combined with the glaring discord between his opinions and his +practice, form a character which would be contemptible in our +eyes were it not so sinister. The social and political decrepitude +of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and only selfishness +survived of all the motives that rouse men to action, found its +representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn +from the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race +that could develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical +despair of any good in human nature forces itself vividly upon +our notice. Guicciardini seems to glory in his disillusionment, +and uses his vast intellectual ability for the analysis of the +corruption he had helped to make incurable. If one single +treatise of that century should be chosen to represent the spirit +of the Italian people in the last phase of the Renaissance, the +historian might hesitate between the <i>Principe</i> of Machiavelli +and the <i>Ricordi politici</i> of Guicciardini. The latter is perhaps +preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness. +It is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation, +for the <i>Principe</i> has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering +in the cinders of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm surviving +in its moral aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic +of this decade has justly described the <i>Ricordi</i> as “Italian +corruption codified and elevated to a rule of life.” Guicciardini +is, however, better known as the author of the <i>Storia d’ Italia</i>, +that vast and detailed picture of his country’s sufferings between +the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this masterpiece of +scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a writer +than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and +prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution, +and setting forth the smallest particulars with the same distinctness +as the main features of the narrative. The whole +tangled skein of Italian politics, in that involved and stormy +period, is unravelled with a patience and an insight that are +above praise. It is the crowning merit of the author that he +never ceases to be an impartial spectator—a cold and curious +critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and +scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the +symptoms of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis +of one who has no moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while +it renders Guicciardini a model for the scientific student, has +impaired the interest of his history. Though he lived through +that agony of the Italian people, he does not seem to be aware +that he is writing a great historical tragedy. He takes as much +pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war with Pisa +as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he +capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their +totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead +on the dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical +pathologist. Consequently, he fails to understand the essential +magnitude of the task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the +forces contending in Europe for mastery. This is very noticeable +in what he writes about the Reformation. Notwithstanding +these defects, inevitable in a writer of Guicciardini’s temperament, +the <i>Storia d’ Italia</i> was undoubtedly the greatest historical +work that had appeared since the beginning of the modern era. +It remains the most solid monument of the Italian reason in +the 16th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school +of philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni, +Pitti, Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti. +Up to the year 1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the +estimation of him as a man, depended almost entirely upon the +<i>History of Italy</i>, and on a few ill-edited extracts from his aphorisms. +At that date his representatives, the counts Piero and +Luigi Guicciardini, opened their family archives, and committed +to Signor Giuseppe Canestrini the publication of his +hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The vast +mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to +the world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether +we consider him as author or as citizen. It has raised his reputation +as a political philosopher into the first rank, where he +now disputes the place of intellectual supremacy with his friend +Machiavelli; but it has coloured our moral judgment of his +character and conduct with darker dyes. From the stores of +valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will be +enough here to cite (1) the <i>Ricordi politici</i>, already noticed, +consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics; +(2) the observations on Machiavelli’s <i>Discorsi</i>, which bring into +remarkable relief the views of Italy’s two great theorists on +statecraft in the 16th century, and show that Guicciardini +regarded Machiavelli somewhat as an amiable visionary or +political enthusiast; (3) the <i>Storia Fiorentina</i>, an early work +of the author, distinguished by its animation of style, brilliancy +of portraiture, and liberality of judgment; and (4) the <i>Dialogo +del reggimento di Firenze</i>, also in all probability an early work, +in which the various forms of government suited to an Italian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +commonwealth are discussed with infinite subtlety, contrasted, +and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the year +1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled +<i>Discorsi politici</i>, composed during Guicciardini’s Spanish legation. +It is only after a careful perusal of these minor works +that the student of history may claim to have comprehended +Guicciardini, and may feel that he brings with him to the consideration +of the <i>Storia d’ Italia</i> the requisite knowledge of the +author’s private thoughts and jealously guarded opinions. +Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who desire +to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the +men who made and wrote history in the 16th century will find +it here far more than in the work designed for publication by the +writer. Taken in combination with Machiavelli’s treatises, the +<i>Opere inedite</i> furnish a comprehensive body of Italian political +philosophy anterior to the date of Fra Paolo Sarpi.</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. S.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rosini’s edition oí the <i>Storia d’ Italia</i> (10 vols., Pisa, 1819), +and the <i>Opere inedite</i>, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857. +A complete and initial edition of Guicciardini’s works is now in +preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence +archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention +Agostino Rossi’s <i>Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino</i> +(2 vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de +Sanctis’s essay “L’Uomo del Guicciardini,” in his <i>Nuovi Saggi +critici</i> (Naples, 1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari’s +<i>Machiavelli</i> (Eng. trans., 1892); E. Benoist’s <i>Guichardin, historien +et homme d’état italien an XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1862), and C. Gioda’s +<i>Francesco Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite</i> (Bologna, 1880) are not +without value, but the authors had not had access to many important +documents since published. See also Geoffrey’s article +“Une Autobiographie de Guichardin d’après ses œuvres inédites,” +in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (1st of February 1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1724-1775), soldier and +military writer, known as <span class="sc">Quintus Icilius</span>, was born at Magdeburg +in 1724, of a family of French refugees. He was educated +for the Church, and at Leiden actually preached a sermon as a +candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned theology for +more secular studies, especially that of ancient history, in which +his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who +promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival, +however, he found that another scholar had been elected by the +local authorities, and he thereupon sought and obtained a +commission in the Dutch army. He made the campaigns of +1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which followed, +his combined military and classical training turned his thoughts +in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this +subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England +in order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his <i>Mémoires +militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains</i> appeared at the Hague, and +when Carlyle wrote his <i>Frederick the Great</i> it had reached its +fifth edition. Coming back, with English introductions, to the +Continent, he sought service with Ferdinand of Brunswick, who +sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he joined in January +1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably impressed with +Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18 months +in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius +was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai, +<i>Anekdoten</i>, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, <i>Frederick the Great</i>, viii. +113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke +of a centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured +to correct him, whereupon the king said, “<i>You</i> shall be Quintus +Icilius,” and as Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted +to the command of a free battalion. This corps he commanded +throughout the later stages of the Seven Years’ War, his battalion, +as time went on, becoming a regiment of three battalions, and +Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of the same +kind of troops. His command was almost always with the +king’s own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it +fought in the western theatre under Prince Henry. When not +on the march he was always at the royal headquarters, and it +was he who brought about the famous interview between the +king and Gellert (see Carlyle, <i>Frederick the Great</i>, ix. 109; +Gellert, <i>Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius</i>, ed. Ebert, Leipzig, +1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German literature. +On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle +of Hubertusburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point-blank +refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and +carried out his task, it is said, to his own very considerable +profit. The place cannot have been seriously injured, as it was +soon afterwards the meeting-place of the diplomatists whose +work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but the king never +ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations. The +very day of Frederick’s triumphant return from the war saw the +disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of +Quintus, but the major to the end of his life remained with the +king. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773, +in recognition of his work <i>Mémoires critiques et historiques sur +plusieurs points d’antiquités militaires</i>, dealing mainly with +Caesar’s campaigns in Spain (Berlin, 1773), was promoted colonel. +He died at Potsdam, 1775.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1712-1790), +French admiral, entered the navy in 1730 as “garde de la +Marine,” the first rank in the corps of royal officers. His promotion +was not rapid. It was not till 1748 that he became +“lieutenant de vaisseau,” which was, however, a somewhat +higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it +carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was “capitaine +de vaisseau,” or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation +must have been good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis +in 1748. In 1775 he was appointed to the frigate “Terpsichore,” +attached to the training squadron, in which the duc de Chartres, +afterwards notorious as the duc d’Orléans and as Philippe +Égalité, was entered as volunteer. In the next year he was +promoted chef d’escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had +become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he +hoisted his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle +of Ushant on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following +year he was sent to the West Indies with a strong squadron +and was there opposed to Sir George Rodney. In the first meeting +between them on the 17th of April to leeward of Martinique, +Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy manner in +which Sir George’s orders were executed by his captains. Seeing +that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted +with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded +the British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action. +When the hurricane months approached (July to September) +he left the West Indies, and his squadron, being in a bad state +from want of repairs, returned home, reaching Brest in September. +Throughout all this campaign Guichen had shown himself very +skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not gained any marked +success, he had prevented the British admiral from doing any +harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781 +the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which +was entrusted with the duty of carrying stores and reinforcements +to the West Indies. On the 12th Admiral Kempenfelt, +who had been sent out by the British Government with an +unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the French admiral +in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a fog, +at a moment when Guichen’s warships were to leeward of the +convoy, and attacked the transports at once. The French +admiral could not prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of +the transports, and driving the others into a panic-stricken +flight. They returned to port, and the mission entrusted to +Guichen was entirely defeated. He therefore returned to port +also. He had no opportunity to gain any counterbalancing +success during the short remainder of the war, but he was present +at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death occurred +on the 13th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by +the testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished +and high-minded gentleman. It is probable that he had more +scientific knowledge than any of his English contemporaries +and opponents. But as a commander in war he was notable +chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements of a +fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations, +which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial +result. He had none of the combative instincts of his countryman +Suffren, or of the average British admiral.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See vicomte de Noailles, <i>Marins et soldats français en Amérique</i> +(1903); and E. Chevalier, <i>Histoire de la marine française pendant +la guerre de l’indépendence américaine</i> (1877).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIDE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (in Mid. Eng. <i>gyde</i>, from the Fr. <i>guide</i>; the earlier +French form was <i>guie</i>, English “guy,” the <i>d</i> was due to the +Italian form <i>guida</i>; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, +the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. +<i>witan</i>, to know), an agency for directing or showing the way, +specifically a person who leads or directs a stranger over unknown +or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and tourists +through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European +wars up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of +large scale detailed maps made local guides almost essential to +the direction of military operations, and in the 18th century the +general tendency to the stricter organization of military resources +led in various countries to the special training of guide +officers (called <i>Feldjäger</i>, and considered as general staff officers +in the Prussian army), whose chief duty it was to find, and if +necessary establish, routes across country for those parts of +the army that had to move parallel to the main road and as +nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in +those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the +use of two or more made roads. But the necessity for such +precautions died away when adequate surveys (in which guide +officers were, at any rate in Prussia, freely employed) were +carried out, and, as a definite term of military organization to-day, +“guide” possesses no more essential peculiarity than fusilier, +grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the modern “Guide” +regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps of Guides +formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have +been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who +knew the country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide +regiments correspond almost to the Guard cavalry of other +nations; in the Swiss army the squadrons of “Guides” act as +divisional cavalry, and in this role doubtless are called upon +on occasion to lead columns. The “Queen’s own Corps of +Guides” of the Indian army consists of infantry companies +and cavalry squadrons. In drill, a “guide” is an officer or +non-commissioned officer told off to regulate the direction and +pace of movements, the remainder of the unit maintaining +their alignment and distances by him.</p> + +<p>A particular class of guides are those employed in mountaineering; +these are not merely to show the way but stand in the +position of professional climbers with an expert knowledge of +rock and snowcraft, which they impart to the amateur, at the +same time assuring the safety of the climbing party in dangerous +expeditions. This professional class of guides arose in the +middle of the 19th century when Alpine climbing became recognized +as a sport (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mountaineering</a></span>). It is thus natural +to find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for +mountaineering expeditions all over the world. In climbing +in Switzerland, the central committee of the Swiss Alpine Club +issues a guides’ tariff which fixes the charges for guides and +porters; there are three sections, for the Valais and Vaudois +Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and eastern +Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have +become historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to +Jacques Balmat, who was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786. +Of the more famous guides since the beginning of Alpine climbing +may be mentioned Auguste Balmat, Michel Cros, Maquignay, +J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the Andes, the +brothers Lauener, Christian Almer and Jakob and Melchior +Anderegg.</p> + +<p>“Guide” is also applied to a book, in the sense of an elementary +primer on some subject, or of one giving full information +for travellers of a country, district or town. In mechanical +usage, the term “guide” is of wide application, being used of +anything which steadies or directs the motion of an object, as +of the “leading” screw of a screw-cutting lathe, of a loose +pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods in a +steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight +line. The doublet “guy” is thus used of a rope which steadies +a sail when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or +stay supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1650-1712), Italian lyric +poet, was born at Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well-known +Roman academy called “L’Arcadia,” he had a considerable +share in the reform of Italian poetry, corrupted at +that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the poets Marini +and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the critic +and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence +and example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest +degree; his songs are written with singular force, and charm +the reader, in spite of touches of bombast. His most celebrated +song is that entitled <i>Alla Fortuna</i> (To Fortune), which certainly +is one of the most beautiful pieces of poetry of the 17th century. +Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked, and of a delicate constitution, +but possessed undoubted literary ability. His poems were +printed at Parma in 1671, and at Rome in 1704. In 1681 he +published at Parma his lyric tragedy <i>Amalasunta in Italy</i>, and +two pastoral dramas <i>Daphne</i> and <i>Endymion</i>. The last had the +honour of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in +his treatise on poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi’s poetical +version of the six homilies of Pope Clement XI., first as having +been severely criticized by the satirist Settano, and next as +having proved to be the indirect cause of the author’s death. +A splendid edition of this version had been printed in 1712, +and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to +present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious +typographical error, which he took so much to heart that he +was seized with an apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the +spot. Guidi was honoured with the special protection of +Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen Christina of Sweden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born +at Lucca in 1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a +high position, being bishop of Fossombrone and president of +Romagna. The latter office nearly cost him his life; a murderer +attempted to kill him, and had already touched his breast with +his dagger when, conquered by the resolute calmness of the +prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet, asking +forgiveness. The <i>Rime</i> and <i>Letters</i> of Guidiccioni are models of +elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those +of Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIDO OF AREZZO<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (possibly to be identified with Guido +de St Maur des Fosses), a musician who lived in the 11th century. +He has by many been called the father of modern music, and a +portrait of him in the refectory of the monastery of Avellana +bears the inscription <i>Beatus Guido, inventor musicae</i>. Of his +life little is known, and that little is chiefly derived from the +dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his treatises and addressed +respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald, as Burney writes +the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and +Guido’s pupil and friend. Occasional references to the celebrated +musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however, +by no means rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all +but absolute certainty that Guido was born in the last decade +of the 10th century. The place of his birth is uncertain in +spite of some evidence pointing to Arezzo; on the title-page of +all his works he is styled <i>Guido Aretinus</i>, or simply <i>Aretinus</i>. +At his first appearance in history Guido was a monk in the +Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was there that he +taught singing and invented his educational method, by means +of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn +within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten +years to acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only +reward, and by these he was compelled to leave his monastery—“inde +est, quod me vides prolixis finibus exulatum,” as he says +himself in the second of the letters above referred to. According +to one account, he travelled as far as Bremen, called there by +Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the musical service. +But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that not +long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was living at Arezzo, +and it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to +Rome from Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +pope himself became his first and apparently one of his most +proficient pupils. But in spite of his success Guido could not be +induced to remain in Rome, the insalubrious air of which seems +to have affected his health. In Rome he met again his former +superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have repented +of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa; +and here all authentic records of Guido’s life cease. We only +know that he died, on the 17th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana, +a monastery of the Camaldulians; such at least is the statement +of the chroniclers of that order. It ought, however, to be added +that the Camaldulians claim the celebrated musician as wholly +their own, and altogether deny his connexion with the Benedictines.</p> + +<p>The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the +Belgian Benedictine, about 1888, point to the conclusion that +Guido was a Frenchman and lived from his youth upwards in +the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des Fosses where he +invented his novel system of notation and taught the brothers +to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the composer +of the “Micrologus” and other works by Guido of Arezzo +is always described as Guido de Sancto Mauro.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that Guido’s method shows considerable +progress in the evolution of modern notation. It was he who +for the first time systematically used the lines of the staff, and +the intervals or <i>spatia</i> between them. There is also little doubt +that the names of the first six notes of the scale, <i>ut</i>, <i>re</i>, <i>mi</i>, <i>fa</i>, +<i>sol</i>, <i>la</i>, still in use among Romance nations, were introduced by +Guido, although he seems to have used them in a relative rather +than in an absolute sense. It is well known that these words +are the first syllables of six lines of a hymn addressed to St John +the Baptist, which may be given here:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Ut</i> queant laxis</td> <td class="tcl"><i>re</i>sonare fibris</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Mi</i>ra gestorum</td> <td class="tcl"><i>fa</i>muli tuorum,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Sol</i>ve polluti</td> <td class="tcl"><i>la</i>bii reatum,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">Sancte Joannes.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the introduction +of the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps, +is the thoroughly practical tone which Guido assumes in his +theoretical writings, and which differs greatly from the clumsy +scholasticism of his contemporaries and predecessors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most important of Guido’s treatises, and those which are +generally acknowledged to be authentic, are <i>Micrologus Guidonis de +disciplina artis musicae</i>, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo, +and comprising a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; <i>Musicae +Guidonis regulae rhythmicae in antiphonarii sui prologum prolatae</i>, +written in trochaic decasyllabics of anything but classical structure; +<i>Aliae Guidonis regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui +prologum prolatae</i>; and the <i>Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de +ignoto cantu</i>, already referred to. These are published in the second +volume of Gerbert’s <i>Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra</i>. A very +important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the <i>Codex bibliothecae +Uticensis</i>, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises, an +antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido.</p> + +<p>See also L. Angeloni, <i>G. d’Arezzo</i> (1811); Kiesewetter, <i>Guido von +Arezzo</i> (1840); Kornmüller, “Leben und Werken Guidos von +Arezzo,” in Habert’s <i>Jahrb.</i> (1876); Antonio Brandi, <i>G. Aretino</i> +(1882); G. B. Ristori, <i>Biografia di Guido monaco d’Arezzo</i> (1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIDO OF SIENA.<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> The name of this Italian painter is of +considerable interest in the history of art, on the ground that, +if certain assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true, +he would be entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed +to supersede him in, the honour of having given the first onward +impulse to the art of painting. The case stands thus. In the +church of S. Domenico in Siena is a large painting of the “Virgin +and Child Enthroned,” with six angels above, and in the Benedictine +convent of the same city is a triangular pinnacle, once +a portion of the same composition, representing the Saviour in +benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally +a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this +picture has a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter’s +name as Gu ... o de Senis, with the date 1221: the genuineness +of the inscription is not, however, free from doubt, and +especially it is maintained that the date really reads as 1281. +In the general treatment of the picture there is nothing to +distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early +period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably +very superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to +anything to be found anterior to Cimabue. The question therefore +arises, Are these heads really the work of a man who painted +in 1221? Crowe and Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative, +concluding that the heads are repainted, and are, as they now +stand, due to some artist of the 14th century, perhaps Ugolino +da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would remain undisturbed +and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is known of +Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture +assigned to him, a half-figure of the “Virgin and Child,” with +two angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in +the church of S. Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated +1262. Milanesi thinks that the work in S. Domenico is due to +Guido Graziani, of whom no other record remains earlier than +1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of a banner. Guido +da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in fresco +on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of +Pietrolino, and the master of “Diotisalvi,” Mino da Turrita and +Berlinghieri da Lucca.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIDO RENI<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese +school of painting, and one of the most admired artists of the +period of incipient decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano +near Bologna on the 4th of November 1575. His father was a +musician of repute, a player on the flageolet; he wished to bring +the lad up to perform on the harpsichord. At a very childish +age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent towards the +art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here, there +and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis +Calvart took notice of him, received him into his academy of +design by the father’s permission, and rapidly brought him +forward, so that by the age of thirteen Guido had already attained +marked proficiency. Albani and Domenichino became +soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With Albani +Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood, +but they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as +heads of ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani’s part; +Domenichino was also pitted against Reni by the policy of +Annibale Caracci. Guido was still in the academy of Calvart +when he began frequenting the opposition school kept by +Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of the +Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart. +Him Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted, +transferring himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he +soon became prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious. +He had not been a year with the Caracci when a work of his +excited the wonder of Agostino and the jealousy of Annibale. +Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted him as an angel, +for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a while, +however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized +the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion +Guido had made a copy of Annibale’s “Descent from the +Cross”; Annibale was asked to retouch it, and, finding nothing +to do, exclaimed pettishly, “He knows more than enough” +(“Costui ne sa troppo”). On another occasion Lodovico, consulted +as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for an early +picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil +no more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account +as a competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned +work, the story of “Callisto and Diana,” had been completed +before he left.</p> + +<p>Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese +school of painting. He had appropriated something from +Calvart, much more from Lodovico Caracci; he studied with +much zest after Albert Dürer; he adopted the massive, sombre +and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio. One day Annibale +Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed reversing +that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows +and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in +Guido’s mind, and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming +constantly at suavity. Towards 1602 he went to Rome with +Albani, and Rome remained his headquarters for twenty years. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +Here, in the pontificate of Paul V. (Borghese), he was greatly +noted and distinguished. In the garden-house of the Rospigliosi +Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly regarded as his +masterpiece—“Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora.” +This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far +indeed from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now +chiefly upon the antique, more especially the Niobe group and +the “Venus de’ Medici,” modified by suggestions from Raphael, +Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul Veronese. Of this last painter, +although on the whole he did not get much from him, Guido +was a particular admirer; he used to say that he would rather +have been Paul Veronese than any other master—Paul was +more nature than art. The “Aurora” is beyond doubt a work +of pre-eminent beauty and attainment; it is stamped with +pleasurable dignity, and, without being effeminate, has a more +uniform aim after graceful selectness than can readily be traced +in previous painters, greatly superior though some of them had +been in impulse and personal fervour of genius. The pontifical +chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to paint; but, +being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist made +off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with ceremonious +éclat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied +to him. At another time he migrated from Rome to Naples, +having received a commission to paint the chapel of S. Gennaro. +The notorious cabal of three painters resident in Naples—Corenzio, +Caracciolo and Ribera—offered, however, as stiff an +opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who preceded +and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the +hands of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to +his master to depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no +second warning, and departed. He now returned to Rome; +but he finally left that city abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban +VIII., in consequence of an offensive reprimand administered to +him by Cardinal Spinola. He had received an advance of 400 +scudi on account of an altarpiece for St Peter’s, but after some +lapse of years had made no beginning with the work. A broad +reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he returned +the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily +resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna. +He had taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils +behind him; but on the whole he did not stamp any great +mark upon the Roman school of painting, apart from his own +numerous works in the papal city.</p> + +<p>In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a +celebrated school, numbering more than two hundred scholars. +He himself drew in it, even down to his latest years. On first +returning to this city, he charged about £21 for a full-length +figure (mere portraits are not here in question), half this sum +for a half-length, and £5 for a head. These prices must be +regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino +about the same time received only £10, 10s. for his very large and +celebrated picture, the “Last Communion of St Jerome.” +But Guido’s reputation was still on the increase, and in process +of time he quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly +at all; in one instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and, +along with three pupils, he painted the chapel in the cathedral +with his admired picture of the “Israelites gathering Manna.” +His shining prosperity was not to last till the end. Guido was +dissipated, generously but indiscriminately profuse, and an +inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his +from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably +damage his fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of +evenings he lost the enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice +told still more ruinously on his art than on his character. In +his decline he sold his time at so much per hour to certain picture +dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his craft, would stand by, +watch in hand, and see him work. Half-heartedness, half-performance, +blighted his product: self-repetition and mere +mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and vapidity for +beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works, +heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even +less. It is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for +nearly two years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was +followed not long afterwards by his death, caused by malignant +fever. This event took place in Bologna on the 18th of August +1642; he died in debt, but was buried with great pomp in the +church of S. Domenico.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his +position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation; +he was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and +his dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the +charm of solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of +suspiciousness; and the jealousy which his abilities and his successes +excited, now from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from +the monopolizing league of Neapolitan painters, may naturally +have kept this feeling in active exercise. Of his numerous scholars, +Simone Cantarini, named II Pesarese, counts as the most distinguished; +he painted an admirable head of Reni, now in the Bolognese +Gallery. The portrait in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence is from Reni’s +own hand. Two other good scholars were Giacomo Semenza and +Francesco Gessi.</p> + +<p>The character of Guido’s art is so well known as hardly to call +for detailed analysis, beyond what we have already intimated. His +most characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather +than character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, somewhat +cold, colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfection +of form, especially marked in the hands and feet. But he was +far from always going to choice nature for his model; he transmuted +<i>ad libitum</i>, and painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of demonstrative +charms from a vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His +best works have beauty, great amenity, artistic feeling and high +accomplishment of manner, all alloyed by a certain core of commonplace; +in the worst pictures the commonplace swamps everything, +and Guido has flooded European galleries with trashy and empty +pretentiousness, all the more noxious in that its apparent grace of +sentiment and form misleads the unwary into approval, and the +dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in Rome and wherever +else he worked he introduced increased softness of style, which +was then designated as the modern method. His pictures are +mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and +three hundred of them are to be found in various European collections—more +than a hundred of these containing life-sized figures. +The portraits which he executed are few—those of Sixtus V., +Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the +most noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very +dubious; it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice, +who had been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there. +Many etchings are attributed to him—some from his own works, +and some after other masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent.</p> + +<p>Of other works not already noticed, the following should be +named:—in Rome (the Vatican), the “Crucifixion of St Peter,” an +example of the painter’s earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina, +“Christ Crucified”; in Forlì, the “Conception”; in Bologna, +the “Alms of St Roch” (early), the “Massacre of the Innocents,” +and the “Pietà, or Lament over the Body of Christ” (in the church +of the Mendicanti), which is by many regarded as Guido’s prime +executive work; in the Dresden Gallery, an “Ecce Homo”; in +Milan (Brera Gallery), “Saints Peter and Paul”; in Genoa (church +of S. Ambrogio), the “Assumption of the Virgin”; in Berlin, +“St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness.” The +celebrated picture of “Fortune” (in the Capitol) is one of Reni’s +finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the +“Samson Drinking from the Jawbone of an Ass” might be named +beside it. One of his latest works of mark is the “Ariadne,” which +used to be in the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains +twenty of his pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and +others were once there, now removed to other public collections. +The most interesting of the seven is the small “Coronation of the +Virgin,” painted on copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty +than beautiful. It was probably painted before the master quitted +Bologna for Rome.</p> + +<p>For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, <i>Vita di +Guido Reni</i> (1839); Passeri, <i>Vite de’ pittori</i>; and Malvasia, <i>Felsina +Pittrice</i>; also Lanzi, <i>Storia pitiorica</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIENNE,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> an old French province which corresponded +roughly to the <i>Aquitania Secunda</i> of the Romans and the archbishopric +of Bordeaux. In the 12th century it formed with +Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which passed under the +dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of Eleanor +of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the conquests +of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was +confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris +(1259). It is at this point that Guienne becomes distinct from +Aquitaine. It then comprised the Bordelais (the old countship +of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, part of Périgord, Limousin, Quercy +and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by Philip III. (the Bold) to +Edward I. (1279), and (still united with Gascony) formed a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees. This +duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings, +an onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was confiscated +by the kings of France on the ground that there had +been a failure in the feudal duties. At the treaty of Brétigny +(1360) Edward III. acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy +of Guienne, together with Aunis, Saintonge, Angoumois and +Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston Phœbus, +count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its 13th-century +limits. In 1451 it was conquered and finally united to the +French crown by Charles VII. In 1469 Louis XI. gave it in +exchange for Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke +of Berry, after whose death in 1472 it was again united to the +royal dominion. Guienne then formed a government which +from the 17th century onwards was united with Gascony. The +government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at Bordeaux, +lasted till the end of the <i>ancien régime</i>. Under the +Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were +those of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and +the chief part of Tarn-et-Garonne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1721-1800), French orientalist, was +born at Pontoise on the 19th of October 1721. He succeeded +Fourmont at the Royal Library as secretary interpreter of the +Eastern languages. A <i>Mémoire historique sur l’origine des +Huns et des Turcs</i>, published by de Guignes in 1748, obtained his +admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he +became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in +1754. Two years later he began to publish his learned and +laborious <i>Histoire générale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs +et des autres Tartares occidentaux</i> (1756-1758); and in 1757 he +was appointed to the chair of Syriac at the Collège de France. +He maintained that the Chinese nation had originated in +Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite of every +argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800. +The <i>Histoire</i> had been translated into German by Dähnert +(1768-1771). De Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph +(1759-1845), who, after learning Chinese from his father, went +as consul to Canton, where he spent seventeen years. On his +return to France he was charged by the government with the +work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary (1813). +He was also the author of a work of travels (<i>Voyages à Pékin, +Manille, et l’île de France</i>, 1808).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Quérard, <i>La France littéraire</i>, where a list of the memoirs +contributed by de Guignes to the <i>Journal des savants</i> is given.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILBERT, YVETTE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1869-  ), French <i>diseuse</i>, was born in +Paris. She served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du +Printemps, when, on the advice of the journalist, Edmond +Stoullig, she trained for the stage under Landrol. She made +her début at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at the Variétés, +and in 1890 she received a regular engagement at the Eldorado +to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance. +She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense +vogue by her rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class +life, or from the humours of the Latin Quarter, “<i>Quatre z’étudiants</i>” +and the “<i>Hôtel du numéro trois</i>” being among her early +triumphs. Her adoption of an habitual yellow dress and long +black gloves, her studied simplicity of diction, and her ingenuous +delivery of songs charged with <i>risqué</i> meaning, made her famous. +She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a long time composed +songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to Aristide Bruant, +who wrote many of her <i>argot</i> songs. She made successful tours +in England, Germany and America, and was in great request as +an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M. +Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier +manner, and sang songs of the “pompadour” and the “crinoline” +period in costume. She published the novels <i>La Vedette</i> +and <i>Les Demi-vieilles</i>, both in 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILDFORD,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, and +the county town of Surrey, England, in the Guildford parliamentary +division, 29 m. S.W. of London by the London and +South Western railway; served also by the London, Brighton, +and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham railways. +Pop. (1901) 15,938. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity +of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older +streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with +quaint lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman +castle stand finely above the town and are well preserved; +while the ground about them is laid out as a public garden. +Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the vicinity are extensive +vaults, apparently of Early English date, and traditionally +connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman +and Early English, with later additions and considerably restored; +its aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains +many interesting details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern +building on an ancient site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick +structure of 1763, with later additions, also on the site of an +earlier church, from which some of the monuments are preserved, +including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The town hall +dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures. +Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and +institute with museum and library. Abbot’s Hospital, founded +by Archbishop Abbot in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building. +The county hospital (1866) was erected as a memorial to Albert, +Prince Consort. The Royal Free Grammar School, founded in +1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an important school +for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large middle-class county +school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and breweries, +and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live stock. +There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village +of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese +of Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen +and 12 councillors. Area, 2601 acres.</p> + +<p>Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the possessions +of King Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the +middle ages. It probably owed its rise to its position at the +junction of trade routes. It is first mentioned as a borough in +1131. Henry III. granted a charter to the men of Guildford in +1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll throughout +the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court +held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to +Guildford in 1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry +VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in 1580 confirmed earlier charters, and +other charters were granted in 1603, 1626 and 1686. The +borough was incorporated in 1486 under the title of the mayor +and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the government +of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two +members for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the +borough continued to return two representatives until 1867 +when the number was reduced to one. By the Redistribution +Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the county for electoral +purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right of having +two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and +at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast +of St Martin (11th of November) and St George (23rd of April). +Fairs in May for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale +of cattle are still held. The market rights date at least from +1276, and three weekly markets are still held for the sale +of corn, cattle and vegetables respectively. The cloth trade +which formed the staple industry at Guildford in the middle +ages is now extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILDHALL,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the hall of the corporation of the city of London, +England. It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street. +The date of its original foundation is not known. An ancient +crypt remains, but the hall has otherwise undergone much +alteration. It was rebuilt in 1411, beautified by the munificence +of successive officials, damaged in the Great Fire of 1666, +and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall was +again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber, +152 ft. in length, is the scene of the state banquets and entertainments +of the corporation, and of the municipal meetings +“in common hall.” The building also contains a council +chamber and various court rooms, with a splendid library, open +to the public, a museum and art gallery adjoining. The hall +contains several monuments and two giant figures of wood, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the +appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF.<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Francis North</span>, +1st Baron Guilford (1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th +Baron North (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North, Barons</a></span>), and was created Baron +Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord keeper in succession to +Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer, solicitor-general +(1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of the +common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the +council of thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was +a man of wide culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married +Lady Frances Pope, daughter and co-heiress of the earl of +Downe, who inherited the Wroxton estate; and he was succeeded +as 2nd baron by his son Francis (1673-1729), whose eldest +son Francis (1704-1790), after inheriting first his father’s title +as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of North from his +kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl of +Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax, +and his son and successor Frederick was the English prime +minister, commonly known as Lord North, his courtesy title +while the 1st earl was alive.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Frederick North</span>, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known +by his courtesy title of Lord North (1732-1792), prime minister +of England during the important years of the American War, +was born on the 13th of April 1732, and after being educated at +Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to make the grand +tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only +twenty-two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of +which town his father was high steward; and he sat for the +same town in parliament for nearly forty years. In 1759 he +was chosen by the duke of Newcastle to be a lord of the treasury, +and continued in the same office under Lord Bute and George +Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a ready debater +that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766 he was +sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the +duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that +in December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Townshend, +he was made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity +with both the House of Commons and the people continued to +increase, for his temper was never ruffled, and his quiet humour +perpetually displayed; and, when the retirement of the duke +of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he inspired and the +attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found for the +premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North +succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for +twelve of the most eventful years in English history. George +III. had at last overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig +families, under which he had so long groaned, and determined to +govern as well as rule. He knew that he could only govern by +obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out his wishes, and +this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of money +in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage. +But in addition to a majority he must have a minister who would +consent to act as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found +in Lord North. How a man of undoubted ability such as Lord +North was could allow himself to be thus used as a mere instrument +cannot be explained; but the confidential tone of the +king’s letters seems to show that there was an unusual intimacy +between them, which may account for North’s compliance. +The path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had +to defend measures which he had not designed, and of which +he had not approved, and this too in a House of Commons in +which all the oratorical ability of Burke and Fox was against +him, and when he had only the purchased help of Thurlow and +Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of his +ministry were those of the American War of Independence. +He cannot be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was +the retention of the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced +the Boston Port Bill in 1774. When the war had broken out he +earnestly counselled peace, and it was only the earnest solicitations +of the king not to leave his sovereign again at the mercy +of the Whigs that induced him to defend a war which from 1779 +he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last, in March +1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis’s +surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely. +He had been well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his +children had good sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North +(1741-1820), was bishop of Winchester; he himself was chancellor +of the university of Oxford, lord-lieutenant of the county +of Somerset, and had finally been made a knight of the Garter, +an honour which has only been conferred on three other members +of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh +and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of +office, but in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old +subordinate, C. J. Fox (<i>q.v.</i>), and became secretary of state +with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of Portland. +He was probably urged to this coalition with his old opponent +by a desire to show that he could act independently of the king, +and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The coalition ministry +went out of office on Fox’s India Bill in December 1783, and +Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up +political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat +important part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and +in the next year succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He +did not long survive his elevation, and died peacefully on the +5th of August 1792. It is impossible to consider Lord North a +great statesman, but he was a most good-tempered and humorous +member of the House of Commons. In a time of unexampled +party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his most +bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his +<i>Letter to a Noble Lord</i>: “He was a man of admirable parts, of +general knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every +sort of business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful +temper, and with a mind most disinterested. But it would be +only to degrade myself,” he continues, “by a weak adulation, +and not to honour the memory of a great man, to deny that he +wanted something of the vigilance and spirit of command which +the times required.”</p> + +<p>By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White +Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of +whom, George Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his +father’s death. This earl was a member of parliament from +1778 to 1792 and was a member of his father’s ministry and +also of the royal household; he left no sons when he died on +the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by his +brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest +brother, Frederick (1766-1827), who now became 5th earl of +Guilford, was remarkable for his great knowledge and love of +Greece and of the Greek language. He had a good deal to do +with the foundation of the Ionian university at Corfu, of which +he was the first chancellor and to which he was very liberal. +Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to 1805, died +unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis +(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester +from 1781 to 1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter’s descendant, +Frederick George (b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886.</p> + +<p>On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of +North fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the +survivor of whom, Susan (1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle, +who took the name of North, was declared by the House of +Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North, and the title passed to her +son, William Henry John North, the 11th baron (b. 1836) +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North, Barons</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the <i>Lives</i> by the Hon. R. North, +edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i>, +vol. vii. (1848-1864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see +<i>Correspondence of George III.</i> with Lord North, edited by W. B. +Donne (1867); Horace Walpole, <i>Journal of the Reign of George III.</i> +(1859), and <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i>, edited by G. F. R. +Barker (1894); Lord Brougham, <i>Historical Sketches of Statesmen</i>, +vol. i. (1839); Earl Stanhope, <i>History of England</i> (1858); Sir T. E. +May, <i>Constitutional History of England</i> (1863-1865); and W. E. H. +Lecky, <i>History of England in the 18th century</i> (1878-1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILFORD,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a township, including a borough of the same +name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long +Island Sound and at the mouth of the Menunkatuck or West +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop. of the township, +including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were foreign-born; +(1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The +borough is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford +railroad. On a plain is the borough green of nearly 12 acres, +which is shaded by some fine old elms and other trees, and in +which there is a soldiers’ monument. About the green are +several churches and some of the better residences. On an +eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone +house, erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and +fortification; it was made a state museum in 1898, when +extensive alterations were made to restore the interior to its +original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in the harbour, is +an attractive resort during the summer season. There are +about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The +principal industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the +manufacture of iron castings, brass castings, wagon wheels +and school furniture, and the canning of vegetables. Near the +coast are quarries of fine granite; the stone for the pedestal of +the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe’s Island, in New York Harbour, +was taken from them.</p> + +<p>Guilford was founded In 1639 as an independent colony by a +company of twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey +and Sussex, England, under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whitfield +(1597-1657). While still on shipboard twenty-five members +of the company signed a plantation covenant whereby they +agreed not to desert the plantation which they were about to +establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they +soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of +land, and on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which +the Indians conveyed to them the territory between East +River and Stony Creek for “12 coates, 12 Fathoms of Wampam, +12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12 Hatchetts, 12 paire of +Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12 Hatts, 12 Porringers, +12 spoones, and 2 English coates.” Other purchases of +land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the +year the company removed from New Haven and established the +new colony; it was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck +for about four years and the name Guilford (from Guildford, +England) was then substituted. As a provisional arrangement, +civil power for the administration of justice and the preservation +of the peace was vested in four persons until such time as a +church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643 +when considerations of safety demanded that the colony should +become a member of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then +only to meet the requirements for admission to this union were +the church and church state modelled after those of New Haven. +Even then, though suffrage was restricted to church members, +Guilford planters who were not church members were required +to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections +to any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption +of the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut, +in 1664, William Leete (1611-1683), one of the founders of +Guilford, was governor of the Jurisdiction, and under his leadership +Guilford took a prominent part in furthering the submission +to Connecticut, which did away with the church state +and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the +birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), the poet; of +Samuel Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King’s +College (now Columbia University); of Abraham Baldwin +(1754-1807), prominent as a statesman and the founder of the +University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden, the first +governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 1815.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. C. Steiner, <i>A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck +and of the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut</i> (Baltimore, 1897), +and <i>Proceedings at the Celebration of the 250th Anniversary of the +Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut</i> (New Haven, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGÈNE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1822-1905), +French sculptor, was born at Montbard on the 4th of +July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, Millet, and Barrias, at +the École des Beaux-Arts, which he entered in 1841, and where +he gained the <i>prix de Rome</i> in 1845 with “Theseus finding on a +rock his Father’s Sword.” He became director of the École des +Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from +1878 to 1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his +works have been bought for public galleries, and his monuments +are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of France. +At Rheims there is his bronze statue of “Colbert,” at Dijon his +“Rameau” monument. The Luxembourg Museum has his +“Anacreon” (1852), “Les Gracques” (1853), “Faucheur” +(1855), and the marble bust of “Mgr Darboy”; the Versailles +Museum the portrait of “Thiers”; the Sorbonne Library the +marble bust of “Victor le Clerc, doyen de la faculté des lettres.” +Other works of his are at Trinity Church, St Germain l’Auxerrois, +and the church of St Clotilde, Paris. Guillaume was a prolific +writer, principally on sculpture and architecture of the Classic +period and of the Italian Renaissance. He was elected member +of the Académie Française in 1862, and in 1891 was sent to +Rome as director of the Académie de France in that city. He +was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy, +London, 1869, on the institution of that class.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME DE LORRIS<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (fl. 1230), the author of the earlier +section of the <i>Roman de la rose</i>, derives his surname from a small +town about equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present +department of Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may +be said to be the only things positively known about him. The +rubric of the poem, where his own part finishes, attributes Jean de +Meun’s continuation to a period forty years later than William’s +death and the consequent interruption of the romance. Arguing +backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but Jean +de Meun’s own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the +composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period +before 1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed +the dream which furnished the substance of the poem in his +twentieth year, and as having set to work to “rhyme it” five +years later. The later and longer part of the <i>Roman</i> shows +signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider knowledge than the +earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to all appearance +more original. The great features of his four or five thousand +lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and +beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness +and individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest +masters, and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation, +which, hackneyed and wearisome as it afterwards became, +was evidently in his time new and striking. There are of course +traces of it before, as in some romances, such as those of Raoul +de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other writers; but it +was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry, +<i>Guillaume de Lorris et le testament d’Alphonse de Poitiers</i> (1881). +Also Paulin Paris in the <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxiii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME DE PALERME<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (<span class="sc">William of Palerne</span>), hero of +romance. The French verse romance was written at the desire +of a Countess Yolande, generally identified with Yolande, +daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The English poem +in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet called +William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford, +(d. 1361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree, +is brought up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves +his daughter Melior who is destined for a Greek prince. The +lovers flee into the woods disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso, +who is Guillaume’s cousin and a Spanish prince, has been +changed into a wolf by his step-mother’s enchantments. He +provides food and protection for the fugitives, and Guillaume +eventually triumphs over Alfonso’s father, and wins back from +him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted, +and marries Guillaume’s sister.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Guillaume de Palerne</i>, ed. H. Michelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr., +1876); <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, xxii. 829; <i>William of Palerme</i>, ed. +Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E. +Text Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in <i>Eng. Studien</i> +(Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance, +printed by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLAUME D’ORANGE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (d. 812), also known as Guillaume +Fierabrace, St Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +nez, was the central figure of the southern cycle of French +romance, called by the <i>trouvères</i> the <i>geste</i> of Garin de Monglane. +The cycle of Guillaume has more unity than the other great +cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de Mayence, the various +poems which compose it forming branches of the main story +rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous +cyclic MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a continuous +<i>histoire poétique</i> of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal +20 D xi. in the British Museum contains eighteen <i>chansons</i> +of the cycle. Guillaume, son of Thierry or Theodoric and of Alde, +daughter of Charles Martel, was born in the north of France +about the middle of the 8th century. He became one of the best +soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and In 790 was +made count of Toulouse, when Charles’s son Louis the Pious +was put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and +defended Narbonne against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the +successor of Abd-al-Rahman II., proclaimed a holy war against +the Christians, and collected an army of 100,000 men, half of +which was directed against the kingdom of the Asturias, while +the second invaded France, penetrating as far as Narbonne. +Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at Villedaigne, +where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate resistance +which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled to +retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803, +and in the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint +Guilhem-le Désert), of which he became a member in 806. He +died there in the odour of sanctity on the 28th of May 812.</p> + +<p>No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name +of William (Guillaume) have been thought by various critics +to have their share in the formation of the legend. William, +count of Provence, son of Boso II., again delivered southern +France from a Saracen invasion by his victory at Fraxinet in +973, and ended his life in a cloister. William Tow-head (<i>Tête +d’étoupe</i>), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a fidelity to Louis +IV. paralleled by Guillaume d’Orange’s service to Louis the +Pious. The cycle of twenty or more <i>chansons</i> which form the +<i>geste</i> of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions +of the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under +Charles Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia +from the Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic +Guillaume appears in his proper historical environment, as a +chief under Charlemagne; but he plays a leading part in the +<i>Couronnement Looys</i>, describing the formal associations of +Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the year after Guillaume’s +death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is from the +emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism +arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion +of Louis IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil +chief of Louis the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine +under his father from the time when he was three years old. +The inconsistencies between the real and the epic Guillaume +are often left standing in the poems. The personages associated +with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to Provence, and +have names common in the south. The most famous of these +are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d’Anséun, +Aïmer le chétif, so called from his long captivity with the Saracens. +The separate existence of Aïmer, who refused to sleep under a +roof, and spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is +proved. He was Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809 +and 810 was one of the leaders sent by Louis against Tortosa. +No doubt the others had historical prototypes. In the hands +of the <i>trouvères</i> they became all brothers of Guillaume, and +sons of Aymeri de Narbonne,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the grandson of Garin de Monglane, +and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks +help from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon, +in accordance with his historic Frankish origin.</p> + +<p>The central fact of the <i>geste</i> of Guillaume is the battle of the +Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume’s heroic +nephew, Vezian or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh +hour he summoned Guillaume to his help against the overwhelming +forces of the Saracens. Guillaume arrived too late to help +Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned alone to his wife +Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners. This event +is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French +<i>chanson de geste</i>, the <i>Chançun de Willame</i>—which only was +brought to light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry +Hope Edwardes—in the <i>Covenant Vivien</i>, a recension of an older +French chanson and in <i>Aliscans</i>. <i>Aliscans</i> continues the story, +telling how Guillaume obtained reinforcements from Laon, and +how, with the help of the comic hero, the scullion Rainouart +or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of Aliscans and his nephew’s +death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother of Guillaume’s +wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen princess +and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to +his later exploits, <i>La Bataille Loquifer</i>, the work of a French +Sicilian poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1170), and <i>Le Moniage Rainouart</i>. +The staring-point of Herbert le duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170) +in <i>Foucon de Candie</i> (Candie = Gandia in Spain?) is the return +of Guillaume from the battle; and the Italian compilation +<i>I Nerbonesi</i>, based on these and other <i>chansons</i>, seems in some +cases to represent an earlier tradition than the later of the French +<i>chansons</i>, although its author Andrea di Barberino wrote towards +the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger Wolfram von +Eschenbach based his <i>Willehalm</i> on a French original which +must have differed from the versions we have. The variations +in the story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the +numerous inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered +separately have occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans, +Alyscamps, Elysii Campi) was, however, generally taken to +represent the battle of Villedaigne, and to take its name from +the famous cemetery outside Arles. Wolfram von Eschenbach +even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle. +Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not +lacking before the discovery of the <i>Chançun de Willame</i>, which, +although preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest +recension we have of the story, dating at least from the beginning +of the 12th century. It seems probable that the Archant +was situated in Spain near Vivien’s headquarters at Tortosa, and +that Guillaume started from Barcelona, not from Orange, to +his nephew’s help. The account of the disaster was modified by +successive <i>trouvères</i>, and the uncertainty of their methods may +be judged by the fact that in the <i>Chançun de Willame</i> two consecutive +accounts (11. 450-1326 and 11. 1326-2420) of the fight +appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes. +<i>Le Couronnement Looys</i>, already mentioned, <i>Le Charroi de Nîmes</i> +(12th century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in +the distribution of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified +Louis, and <i>Aliscans</i> (12th century), with the earlier <i>Chançun</i>, are +among the finest of the French epic poems. The figure of +Vivien is among the most heroic elaborated by the <i>trouvères</i>, +and the giant Rainouart has more than a touch of Rabelaisian +humour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>chansons de geste</i> of the cycle of Guillaume are: <i>Enfances +Garin de Monglane</i> (15th century) and <i>Garin de Monglane</i> (13th +century), on which is founded the prose romance of <i>Guérin de +Monglane</i>, printed in the 15th century by Jehan Trepperel and +often later; <i>Girars de Viane</i> (13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube), +ed. P. Tarbé (Reims, 1850); <i>Hernaut de Beaulande</i> +(fragment 14th century); <i>Renier de Gennes</i>, which only survives +in its prose form; <i>Aymeri de Narbonne</i> (<i>c.</i> 1210) by Bertrand de +Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. des anc. textes fr., Paris, 2 vols., +1887); <i>Les Enfances Guillaume</i> (13th century); <i>Les Narbonnais</i>, +ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr., 2 vols., 1898), with a Latin +fragment dating from the 11th century, preserved at the Hague; +<i>Le Couronnement Looys</i> (ed. E. Langlois, 1888), <i>Le Charroi de Nîmes</i>, +<i>La Prise d’Orange</i>, <i>Le Covenant Vivien</i>, <i>Aliscans</i>, which were edited +by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol. i. of his <i>Guillaume d’Orange</i> (The +Hague, 1854); a critical text of <i>Aliscans</i> (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is +edited by E. Wienbeck, W. Hartnacke and P. Rasch; <i>Loquifer</i> and +<i>Le Moniage Rainouart</i> (12th century); <i>Bovon de Commarchis</i> (13th +century), recension of the earlier Siège de Barbastre, by Adenès li +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +Rois, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874); <i>Guibert d’Andrenas</i> (13th +century); <i>La Prise de Cordres</i> (13th century); <i>La Mort Aimeri de +Narbonne</i>, ed. J. Couraye de Parc (Soc. des Anciens Textes français, +Paris, 1884); <i>Foulque de Candie</i> (ed. P. Tarbé, Reims, 1860); <i>Le +Moniage Guillaume</i> (12th century); <i>Les Enfances Vivien</i> (ed. C. +Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen, Upsala and Paris, 1895); <i>Chançun +de Willame</i> (Chiswick Press, 1903), described by P. Meyer in <i>Romania</i> +(xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch of the <i>Karlamagnus Saga</i> (ed. +C. R. Unger, Christiania, 1860) deals with the <i>geste</i> of Guillaume. +<i>I Nerbonesi</i> is edited by J. G. Isola (Bologna, 1877, &c.).</p> + +<p>See C. Révillout, <i>Étude hist. et litt. sur la vita sancti Willelmi</i> +(Montpellier, 1876); W. J. A. Jonckbloet, <i>Guillaume d’Orange</i> +(2 vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), <i>Herzog +Wilhelm von Aquitanien</i> (Münster, 1865); P. Paris, <i>in Hist. litt. de +la France</i> (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, <i>Épopées françaises</i> (vol. iv., +2nd ed., 1882); R. Weeks, <i>The newly discovered Chançun de Willame</i> +(Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, <i>Études romanes</i> (Paris, 1891), on +Vivien; L. Saltet, “S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes” in <i>Bull. de +litt. ecclés.</i> (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, <i>Die altfrz. Wilhelmsage u. +ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen</i> (Halle, 1896), and <i>Der +südfranzösische Sagenkreis und seine Probleme</i> (Halle, 1898); A. +Jeanroy, “Études sur le cycle de Guillaume au court nez” (in +<i>Romania</i>, vols. 25 and 26, 1896-1897); H. Suchier, “Recherches +sur ... Guillaume d’Orange” (in <i>Romania</i>, vol. 32, 1903). The +conclusions arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph +Bédier in the first volume, “Le Cycle de Guillaume d’Orange” +(1908), of his <i>Légendes épiques</i>, in which he constructs a theory that +the cycle of Guillaume d’Orange grew up round the various shrines +on the pilgrim route to Saint Gilles of Provence and Saint James of +Compostella—that the <i>chansons de geste</i> were, in fact, the product +of 11th and 12th century trouvères, exploiting local ecclesiastical +traditions, and were not developed from earlier poems dating back +perhaps to the lifetime of Guillaume of Toulouse, the saint of +Gellone.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The poem of <i>Aymeri de Narbonne</i> contains the account of the +young Aymeri’s brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then +receives as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart, +sister of Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The +fifth daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the +Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the +matter of the <i>Aymerillot</i> of Victor Hugo’s <i>Légende des siècles</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLEMOT<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (Fr. <i>guillemot</i><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), the name accepted by nearly +all modern authors for a sea-bird, the <i>Colymbus troile</i> of +Linnaeus and the <i>Uria troile</i> of Latham, which nowadays it +seems seldom if ever to bear among those who, from their vocation, +are most conversant with it, though, according to Willughby +and Ray his translator, it was in their time so called “by those +of Northumberland and Durham.” Around the coasts of Britain +it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy +(cf. Ice. <i>Langvia</i>), lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. <span class="sc">Coot</span>), +scuttock, strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former +days the guillemot yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts +of the British coasts in countless multitudes, and this is still +the case in the northern parts of the United Kingdom; but +more to the southward nearly all its smaller settlements have +been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel destruction +of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the +inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so +thinned that, but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preservation +Act (32 & 33 Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty +for the safety of this and certain other species at the time of +year when they were most exposed to danger, they would unquestionably +by this time have been exterminated so far as +England is concerned.</p> + +<p>Part of the guillemot’s history is still little understood. We +know that it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its +accustomed day in spring, that it remains there till, towards the +end of the summer, its young are hatched and able, as they soon +are, to encounter the perils of a seafaring life, when away go all, +parents and progeny. After that time it commonly happens +that a few examples are occasionally met with in bays and shallow +waters. Tempestuous weather will drive ashore a large number +in a state of utter destitution—many of them indeed are not +unfrequently washed up dead—but what becomes of the bulk +of the birds, not merely the comparatively few thousands that +are natives of Britain, but the tens and hundreds of thousands, +not to say millions, that are in summer denizens of more northern +latitudes, no one can say. This mystery is not peculiar to the +guillemot, but is shared by all the <i>Alcidae</i> that inhabit the +Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the Bay of +Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter +the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther +south, may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but +these bear no proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom +they are literally the “scouts,” and whose position and movements +they no more reveal than do the vedettes of a well-appointed +army. The common guillemot of both sides of the +Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a stouter +bill, the <i>U. arra</i> or <i>U. bruennichi</i> of ornithologists, and on the +west coast of North America by the <i>U. californica</i>. The habits +of all these are essentially the same, and the structural resemblance +between all of them and the Auks is so great that several +systematists have relegated them to the genus <i>Alca</i>, confining +the genus <i>Uria</i> to the guillemots of another group, of which +the type is the <i>U. grylla</i>, the black guillemot of British authors, +the dovekey or Greenland dove of sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders. +This bird assumes in summer an entirely black plumage with +the exception of a white patch on each wing, while in winter +it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied to it +as species or geographical races are the <i>U. mandti</i>, <i>U. columba</i> +and <i>U. carbo</i>. All these differ from the larger guillemots by +laying two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some +secure niche, while the members of the other group lay but a +single egg, which is invariably exposed on a bare ledge.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from +the Welsh and Manx <i>Guillem</i>, or <i>Gwilym</i> as Pennant spells it. The +association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help comparing +the resemblance between the French <i>guillemot</i> and <i>Guillaume</i> +with that between the English willock (another name for the bird) +and William.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLOCHE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a French word for an ornament, either painted +or carved, which was one of the principal decorative bands +employed by the Greeks in their temples or on their vases. +Guilloches are single, double or triple; they consist of a series +of circles equidistant one from the other and enclosed in a band +which winds round them and interlaces. This guilloche is +of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the decoration of the +Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from Chaldaean +work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from the +time of Gudea (2294 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The ornament as painted by the +Greeks has almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in +the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs +by which the timber roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is +painted in colours which are almost as brilliant as when first +produced, those of the Treasury of Gela at Olympia being of great +beauty. These examples are double guilloches, with two rows of +circles, each with an independent interlacing band and united +by a small arc with palmette inside; in both the single and double +guilloches of Greek work there is a flower in the centre of the +circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of circles comes +half-way between the others, and the enclosing band crosses +diagonally both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example +of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus moulding +of the base and on the small convex moulding above the +echinus of the capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at +Athens. It was largely employed in Roman work, and the single +guilloche is found almost universally as a border in mosaic +pavements, not only in Italy but throughout Europe. In the +Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite enrichment for +borders and occasionally in France and England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1760-1847), +French ecclesiastic, was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760. +He was librarian and almoner in the household of the princess de +Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was executed, he fled to the +provinces, where under the name of Pastel he practised medicine. +A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in turn under +Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon of +St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his many literary works are a <i>Collection des brefs du pape +Pie VI</i> (1798), <i>Bibliothèque choisie des pères grecs et latins</i> (1822, +26 vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2 +vols.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILLOTINE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> the instrument for inflicting capital punishment +by decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the +Revolution. It consists of two upright posts surmounted by a +cross beam, and grooved so as to guide an oblique-edged knife, +the back of which is heavily weighted to make it fall swiftly and +with force when the cord by which it is held aloft is let go. Some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +ascribe the invention of the machine to the Persians; and +previous to the period when it obtained notoriety under its +present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and various +parts of the continent. There is still preserved In the antiquarian +museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the “maiden” +by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last +persons decapitated by the Scottish “maiden” were the marquis +of Argyll in 1661 and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685. +It would appear that no similar machine was ever in general +use in England; but until 1650 there existed in the forest +of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of +Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution +called the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within +the liberty was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called +the Halifax gibbet. A print of it is contained in a small book +called <i>Halifax and its Gibbet Law</i> (1708), and in Gibson’s edition +of Camden’s <i>Britannia</i> (1722). In Germany the machine was in +general use during the middle ages, under the name of the <i>Diele</i>, +the <i>Hobel</i> or the <i>Dolabra</i>. Two old German engravings, the one +by George Penez, who died in 1550, and the other by Heinrich +Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the death of a son of +Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its employment for +the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the engraving of the +eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled <i>Symbolicae quaestiones +de universo genere</i>, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the 13th +century it was used in Italy under the name of <i>Mannaia</i> for the +execution of criminals of noble birth. The <i>Chronique de Jean +d’Anton</i>, first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execution +in which it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is +elaborately described by Père Jean Baptiste Labat in his <i>Voyage +en Espagne et en Italie en 1730</i>. It is mentioned by Jacques, +viscomte de Puységur, in his <i>Mémoires</i> as in use in the south of +France, and he describes the execution by it of Marshal Montmorency +at Toulouse in 1632. For about a century it had, however, +fallen into general disuse on the continent; and Dr +Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said +to have obtained his information regarding it from the description +of an execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in +an anonymous work entitled <i>Voyage historique et politique de +Suisse, d’Italie, et d’Allemagne</i>.</p> + +<p>Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected +to the Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the +1st December of that year two propositions regarding capital +punishment, the second of which was that, “in all cases of +capital punishment it shall be of the same kind—that is, decapitation—and +it shall be executed by means of a machine.” The +reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in cases +of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation +should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was +desirable to render the process of execution as swift and painless +as possible. The debate was brought to a sudden termination +in peals of laughter caused by an indiscreet reference of Dr +Guillotine to his machine, but his ideas seem gradually to have +leavened the minds of the Assembly, and after various debates +decapitation was adopted as the method of execution in the +penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At first +it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but +on account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner, +pointing out the expense and certain other inconveniences +attending that method, the Assembly referred the question to a +committee, at whose request Dr Antoine Louis, secretary to the +Academy of Surgeons, prepared a memorandum on the subject. +Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it recommended the +adoption of an instrument similar to that which was formerly +suggested by him. The Assembly decided in favour of the report, +and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided +the instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered +exorbitant, an agreement was ultimately come to with a German +of the name of Schmidt, who, under the direction of M. Louis, +furnished a machine for each of the French departments. After +satisfactory experiments had been made with the machine on +several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicêtre, it was erected on +the Place de Grève for the execution of the highwayman Pelletier +on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the +machine were being carried on, it received the name <i>Louisette</i> +or <i>La Petite Louison</i>, but the mind of the nation seems soon to +have reverted to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in +the <i>Journal des révolutions de Paris</i> for 28th April 1792 it is +mentioned as <i>la guillotine</i>, a name which it thenceforth bore +both popularly and officially. In 1795 the question was much +debated as to whether or not death by the guillotine was instantaneous, +and in support of the negative side the case of +Charlotte Corday was adduced whose countenance, it is said, +blushed as if with indignation when the executioner, holding up +the head to the public gaze, struck it with his fist. The connexion +of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution has hindered +its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was adopted +under the name of <i>Fallschwert</i> or <i>Fallbeil</i> by the kingdom of +Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death +in France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often +been stated that Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which +bears his name, but it is beyond question that he survived the +Revolution and died a natural death in 1814.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sédillot, <i>Réflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le supplice +de la guillotine</i> (1795); Sue, <i>Opinion sur le supplice de la guillotine</i>, +(1796); Réveillé-Parise, <i>Étude biographique sur Guillotine</i> (Paris, +1851); <i>Notice historique et physiologique sur le supplice de la guillotine</i> +(Paris, 1830); Louis Dubois, <i>Recherches historiques et physiologiques +sur la guillotine et détails sur Sanson</i> (Paris, 1843); and a +paper by J. W. Croker in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> for December 1843, +reprinted separately in 1850 under the title <i>The Guillotine, a historical +Essay</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUILT,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of +wilful wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime, +hence conduct deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form +of the word is <i>gylt</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> rejects for +phonetic reasons the usually accepted connexion with the +Teutonic root <i>gald</i>-, to pay, seen in Ger. <i>gelten</i>, to be of value, +<i>Geld</i>, money, payment, English “yield.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIMARÃES<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (sometimes written <i>Guimaraens</i>), a town of +northern Portugal, in the district of Braga, formerly included in +the province of Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto +by the Trofa-Guimarães branch of the Oporto-Corunna railway. +Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimarães is a very ancient town with +Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which are locally +described as “new” date partly from the 15th century. It +occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary +of the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the 11th century by +Count Henry of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his +son Alphonso, the first king of Portugal. The font in which +Alphonso was baptized is preserved, among other interesting +relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria da Oliveira, “St +Mary of the Olive,” a Romanesque building of the 14th century, +which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church +owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba +(672-680) here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood +spear-shaft blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The +convent of São Domingos, now a museum of antiquities, has a +fine 12th-13th century cloister; the town hall is built in the blend +of Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoelline. +Guimarães has a flourishing trade in wine and farm produce; +it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved fruits. +Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian +city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since +the 4th century, when Guimarães itself was founded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1743-1816), French dancer, +was born in Paris on the 10th of October 1743. For twenty-five +years she was the star of the Paris Opéra. She made herself +even more famous by her love affairs, especially by her long +liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a magnificent +house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with it, +where Collé’s <i>Partie de chasse de Henri IV</i> which was prohibited +in public, and most of the <i>Proverbes</i> of Carmontelle (Louis +Carrogis, 1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were +given to the delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +archbishop of Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre +seating five hundred spectators in the Chaussée d’Antin. In this +Temple of Terpsichore, as she named it, the wildest orgies took +place. In 1786 she was compelled to get rid of the property, +and it was disposed of by lottery for her benefit for the sum of +300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789 she married +Jean Etienne Despréaux (1748-1820), dancer, song-writer and +playwright.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1795-1871), French industrial +chemist, was born at Voiron on the 20th of July 1795. He studied +at the École Polytechnique in Paris, and in 1817 entered the +Administration des Poudres et Salpêtres. In 1828 he was +awarded the prize offered by the Société d’Encouragement pour +l’Industrie Nationale for a process of making artificial ultramarine +with all the properties of the substance prepared from lapis +lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official position in +order to devote himself to the commercial production of that +material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur +Saône. He died on the 8th of April 1871.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Émile Étienne Guimet</span>, born at Lyons on the 26th +of June 1836, succeeded him in the direction of the factory, +and founded the Musée Guimet, which was first located at Lyons +in 1879 and was handed over to the state and transferred to +Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in 1876 commissioned +by the minister of public instruction to study the religions of +the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of +this expedition, including a fine collection of Japanese and +Chinese porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the +religions of the East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece +and Rome. He wrote <i>Lettres sur l’Algérie</i> (1877) and <i>Promenades +japonaises</i> (1880), and also some musical compositions, including +a grand opera, <i>Taï-Tsoung</i> (1894).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINEA,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> the general name applied by Europeans to part of +the western coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the +gulf formed by the great bend of the coast line eastward and then +southward. Like many other geographical designations the +use of which is controlled neither by natural nor political +boundaries, the name has been very differently employed by +different writers and at different periods. In the widest acceptation +of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from +13° N. to 16° S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape +Negro. Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of +Gabun and Loango (known also as French Congo) and the Portuguese +possessions on the south-west coast, and Northern or +Upper Guinea stretches from the river Casamance to and inclusive +of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a middle position. In +a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only from Cape +Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand, +Guinea was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite +the Canary Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian +of the 15th century, is said to be the first authority who brings +the boundary south to the Senegal. The derivation of the name +is uncertain, but is probably taken from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni +or Jenné, a town and kingdom in the basin of the Niger, famed +for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the 8th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle +of the 14th century, but it did not come into general use in +Europe till towards the close of the 15th century.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that +part of the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth +of the Congo, particular indentations have their peculiar designations. +The bay formed by the configuration of the land between +Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth of the Niger is known as the +Bight of Benin, the name being that of the once powerful native +state whose territory formerly extended over the whole district. +The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of Mafra in +southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the +most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands +Fernando Po, Prince’s and St Thomas’s. The name Biafra—as +indicating the country—fell into disuse in the later part of +the 19th century.</p> + +<p>The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only +within a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their +only sailing marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an +exception, being high and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains +for background. At Sierra Leone also there is high land. The +coast in many places maintains a dead level for 30 to 50 m. +inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. The +palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia +to the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly all the more remarkable +of African animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro +stock.</p> + +<p>By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given +names founded on the productions characteristic of the different +parts. The Grain coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending +for 500 m. from Sierra Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received +its name from the export of the seeds of several plants of a +peppery character, called variously grains of paradise, Guinea +pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first applied +to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or +Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious +tornadoes throughout the year. Towards the end of the 18th +century, Guinea pepper was supplanted in Europe by peppers +from the East Indies. The name now is seldom used, the Grain +coast being divided between the British colony of Sierra Leone +and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends from Cape +Palmas to 3° W., and obtained its name from the quantity of +ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. Eastwards +of the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The +Niger delta was for long known as the Oil rivers. To two +regions only of the coast is the name Guinea officially applied, +the French and Portuguese colonies north of Sierra Leone being +so styled.</p> + +<p>Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea +were known, Loango was applied to the country south of the +Gabun and north of the Congo river. It is now chiefly included +in French Congo. Congo was used to designate the country +immediately south of the river of the same name, usually spoken +of until the last half of the 19th century as the Zaire. Congo is +now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angola</a></span>). It must not be confounded with the Belgian +Congo.</p> + +<p>Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly +discussed than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the +navigators of modern Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese, +in 1270 reached at least as far as the Canaries. The first direct +attempt to find a sea route to India was, it is said, also made by +Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo, Tedisio Doria and others +who equipped two galleys and sailed south along the African +coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun +there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1346 a Catalan +expedition started for “the river of gold” on the Guinea coast; +its fate is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and +1410 the people of Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea; +and Jean de Béthencourt, who settled in the Canaries about +1402, made explorations towards the south. At length the +consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by Prince Henry +of Portugal—Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro +Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez—made +known the coast as far as the Gambia, and by the end +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +of the 15th century the whole region was familiar to +Europeans.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ivory Coast</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Guinea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portuguese Guinea</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liberia</a></span>, &c. For the +history of European discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, <i>Chronica +de descobrimento e conquista de Guiné</i>, published, with an introduction, +by Barros de Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation, +<i>The Discovery and Conquest of Guinea</i>, by C. R. Beazley and E. +Prestage (Hakluyt Society publications, 2 vols., London, 1896-1899, +vol. ii. has an introduction on the early history of African exploration, +&c. with full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, <i>Recherches +sur les voyages et découvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique</i> +(Paris, 1832); Villault de Bellefond, <i>Relation des costes d’Afrique +appellées Guinée</i> (Paris, 1669); Père Labat, <i>Nouvelle Relation de +l’Afrique occidentale</i> (Paris, 1728); Desmarquets, <i>Mém. chron. pour +servir à l’hist. de Dieppe</i> (1875); Santarem, <i>Priorité de la découverte +des pays situés sur la côte occidentale d’Afrique</i> (Paris, 1842); R. H. +Major, <i>Life of Prince Henry the Navigator</i> (London, 1868); and the +elaborate review of Major’s work by M. Codine in the <i>Bulletin de la +Soc. de Géog.</i> (1873); A. E. Nordenskiöld, <i>Periplus</i> (Stockholm, +1897); <i>The Story of Africa</i>, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr +Robert Brown.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the +name of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates, +according to some authorities, from the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> From +the 7th to the 12th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions +extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At +one time Jenné was included within its borders. Ghana was finally +conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the 13th century. Its +capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally +placed some 200 m. west of Jenné. In this district L. Desplagnes +discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city, +which he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of +the Niger, on both banks of a marigot, and are about 40 m. N. by E. +of Kulikoro (see <i>La Géographie</i>, xvi. 329). By some writers +Ghana city is, however, identified with Walata, which town is mentioned +by Arab historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identification +of Ghana city with Jenné is not justified, though Idrisi seems +to be describing Jenné when writing of “Ghana the Great.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINEA,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a gold coin at one time current in the United +Kingdom. It was first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II., +from gold imported from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a +company of merchants trading under charter from the British +crown—hence the name. Many of the first guineas bore an +elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the company; +in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the +guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces. +The current value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty +shillings. It was subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter +was in such an unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of +time became over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that +in 1694 it had risen in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilitation +of the silver coinage in William III.’s reign brought down +the value of the guinea to 21s. 6d. in 1698, at which it stood until +1717, when its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings. This +value the guinea retained until its disappearance from the +coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was superseded in 1817 +by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In 1718 the +quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first +struck in George III.’s reign (1787). To George III.’s reign also +belongs the “spade-guinea,” a guinea having the shield on the +reverse pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary +to pay subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds, +in terms of “guineas,” a guinea being twenty-one shillings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINEA FOWL,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird, +so called from the country whence in modern times it was +brought to Europe, the <i>Meleagris</i> and <i>Avis</i> or <i>Gallina Numidica</i> +of ancient authors.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Little is positively known of the wild stock +to which we owe our tame birds, nor can the period of its reintroduction +(for there is apparently no evidence of its domestication +being continuous from the time of the Romans) be assigned +more than roughly to that of the African discoveries of the +Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known +till the middle of the 16th century, when John Caius sent a +description and figure, with the name <i>Gallus Mauritanus</i>, to +Gesner, who published both in his <i>Paralipomena</i> in 1555, and +in the same year Belon also gave a notice and woodcut under +the name of <i>Poulle de la Guinée</i>; but while the former authors +properly referred their bird to the ancient <i>Meleagris</i>, the latter +confounded the <i>Meleagris</i> and the turkey.</p> + +<p>The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry +and Poultry-Farming</a></span>) is the <i>Numida meleagris</i> of ornithologists. +The chief or only changes which domestication seems +to have induced in its appearance are a tendency to albinism +generally shown in the plumage of its lower parts, and frequently, +though not always, the conversion of the colour of its legs and +feet from dark greyish-brown to bright orange. That the home +of this species is West Africa from the Gambia<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> to the Gaboon +is certain, but its range in the interior is quite unknown. It +appears to have been imported early into the Cape Verd Islands, +where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in Ascension, +it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we +have the <i>N. coronata</i>, which is very numerous from the Cape +Colony to Ovampoland, and the <i>N. cornuta</i> of Drs Finsch and +Hartlaub, which replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi. +Madagascar also has its peculiar species, distinguishable by its +red crown, the <i>N. mitrata</i> of Pallas, a name which has often been +misapplied to the last. This bird has been introduced to +Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia is inhabited +by another species, the <i>N. ptilorhyncha</i>,<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> which differs from all +the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the head. +Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is +the <i>N. vulturina</i> of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in +its plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck, +and its long tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate +genus, <i>Acryllium</i>. All these guinea fowls except the last are +characterized by having the crown bare of feathers and elevated +into a bony “helmet,” but there is another group (to which +the name <i>Guttera</i> has been given) in which a thick tuft of feathers +ornaments the top of the head. This contains four or five +species, all inhabiting some part or other of Africa, the best known +being the <i>N. cristata</i> from Sierra Leone and other places on the +western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by Marcgrave +more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is remarkable +for the structure—unique, if not possessed by its representative +forms—of its <i>furcula</i>, where the head, instead of being +the thin plate found in all other <i>Gallinae</i>, is a hollow cup opening +upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its +way to the lungs. Allied to the genus <i>Numida</i>, but readily +distinguished <span class="correction" title="amended from thereform">form</span> among other characters by the possession +of spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms, +<i>Agelastes</i> and <i>Phasidus</i>, both from western Africa. Of their +habits nothing is known. All these birds are beautifully figured +in Elliot’s <i>Monograph of the Phasianidae</i>, from drawings by +Wolf.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Columella (<i>De re rustica</i>, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the <i>Meleagris</i> +from the <i>Gallina Africana</i> or <i>Numidica</i>, the latter having, he +says, a red wattle (<i>palea</i>, a reading obviously preferable to <i>galea</i>), +while it was blue in the former. This would look as if the <i>Meleagris</i> +had sprung from what is now called <i>Numida ptilorhyncha</i>, while the +<i>Gallina Africana</i> originated in the <i>N. meleagris</i>, species which +have a different range, and if so the fact would point to two distinct +introductions—one by Greeks, the other by Latins.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been +described as distinct under the name of <i>N. rendalli</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Darwin (<i>Anim. and Pl. under Domestication</i>, i. 294), gives this +as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by +an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been +the true <span class="grk" title="meleagris">μελεαγρίς</span> of the Greeks.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINEA-WORM<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (<i>Dracontiasis</i>), a disease due to the <i>Filaria +medinensis</i>, or <i>Dracunculus</i>, or Guinea-worm, a filarious nematode +like a horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous +and intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on +the Guinea coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical +regions and has been familiarly known since ancient times. +The condition of dracontiasis due to it is a very common one, +and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The black races are +most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and of +either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water, +and, like the <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, appears to have an +intermediate host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether +the worm penetrates the skin of the legs directly; it is not +impossible that the intermediate host (a cyclops) which contains +the larvae may be swallowed with the water, and that the larvae +of the <i>Dracunculus</i> may be set free in the course of digestion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜINES,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba, +about 30 m. S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated +on a plain, in the midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly +devoted to the cultivation of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba +was built from Havana to Güines between 1835 and 1838. One +of the very few good highways of the island also connects Güines +with the capital. The pueblo of Güines, which was built on a +great private estate of the same name, dates back to about 1735. +The church dates from 1850. Güines became a “villa” in 1814, +and was destroyed by fire in 1817.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINGAMP,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +right bank of the Trieux, 20 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the +railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937, commune 9212. +Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from the +14th to the 16th centuries; two towers rise on each side of the +richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the +crossing. A famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of +the most important “pardons” or religious pilgrimages in +Brittany, stands in one of the two northern porches. The +central square is decorated by a graceful fountain in the Renaissance +style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and of +the château of the dukes of Penthièvre, which belong to the +15th century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub-prefect +and of a tribunal of first instance. It is an important +market for dairy-cattle, and its industries include flour-milling, +tanning and leather-dressing. Guingamp was the chief town of +the countship (subsequently the duchy) of Penthièvre. The +Gothic chapel of Grâces, near Guingamp, contains fine +sculptures.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINNESS,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> the name of a family of Irish brewers. The +firm was founded by <span class="sc">Arthur Guinness</span>, who about the middle +of the 18th century owned a modest brewing-plant at Leixlip, +a village on the upper reaches of the river Liffey. In or about +1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade, purchased +a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St James’s +Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product, +coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built +up a considerable business. But his third son, <span class="sc">Benjamin Lee +Guinness</span> (1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of +the firm, into which he was taken at an early age, and of which +about 1825 he was given sole control. Prior to that date the +trade in Guinness’s porter and stout had been confined to Ireland, +but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established agencies in the +United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British colonies and +in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions; +the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his +father died, Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected +first lord mayor of Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the +business and the richest man in Ireland. Between 1860 and +1865 he devoted a portion of this wealth to the restoration +of St Patrick’s cathedral, Dublin. The work, the progress +of which he regularly superintended himself, cost £160,000. +Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parliament +as a Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867 +was created a baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in +the control of the business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b. +1840), his eldest, and Edward Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third, +son. <span class="sc">Sir Arthur Edward Guinness</span>, who for some time represented +Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised to the peerage +as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of his +share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness. +In 1886 <span class="sc">Edward Cecil Guinness</span> disposed of the brewery, +the products of which were then being sent all over the world, +to a limited company, in which he remained the largest shareholder. +Edward Cecil Guinness was created a baronet in 1885, +and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh.</p> + +<p>The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philanthropy +and public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation +ground to Dublin, and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney +to the nation. Lord Iveagh set aside £250,000 for the creation +of the Guinness trust (1889) for the erection and maintenance +of buildings for the labouring poor in London and Dublin, and +was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin university.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUINOBATAN,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a town of the province of Albay, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town +of Albay. Pop. (1903), 20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp, +which is grown in large quantities in the neighbouring country.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIPÚZCOA,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a maritime province of northern Spain, included +among the Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the +Bay of Biscay; W. by the province of Biscay (<i>Vizcaya</i>); S. and +S.E. by. Álava and Navarre: and N.E. by the river Bidassoa,<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +which separates it from France. Pop. (1900), 195,850; area, +728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the great Cantabrian +chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province has +a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its +scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented, +and has numerous harbours, but none of very great importance; +the chief are those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva +and Fuenterrabia. The rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea, +Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and unnavigable. The mountains +are for the most part covered with forests of oak, chestnut or +pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and heath +in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally +of hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care, +but the grain raised falls considerably short of what is required +for home consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild, +pleasant and healthy; fruit is produced in considerable +quantities, especially apples for manufacture into <i>zaragua</i> or +cider. The chief mineral products are iron, lignite, lead, copper, +zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous springs are very +common, and are much frequented every summer by visitors +from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries, +which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny, +sardines and oysters; and the average yearly value of the coasting +trade exceeds £400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier +roads £4,000,000 of imports and £3,000,000 of exports pass to +and from France, partly in transit for the rest of Europe. Apart +from the four Catalan provinces, no province has witnessed such +a development of local industries as Guipúzcoa. The principal +industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and +Azpéitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for <span class="correction" title="amended from osies">osiers</span>; +Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold +incrustations; Irun for soap and carriages; San Sebastian, +Irun and Onate for paper, glass, chemicals and saw-mills; +Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture; and the banks +of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of every +kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption +in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several +thousand French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was +established at Azpéitia during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874; +but the manufacture of ordnance and gunpowder was subsequently +discontinued. The main line of the northern railway +from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving access, +by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The custom-house +through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most +important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic +is hardly possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of +admirably engineered roads, maintained solely by the local +tax-payers. After San Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1900, 37,812), +the chief towns are Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other +towns with more than 6000 inhabitants are Azpéitia (6066), +Eibar (6583), Tolosa (8111) and Vergara (6196). Guipúzcoa +is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled provinces of +Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are counterbalanced +by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from other districts +who are attracted by its industrial prosperity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and +history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basques</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basque Provinces</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes, or +l’Isle de la Conférence, is celebrated as the place where the marriage +of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and Henry +IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was +exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 “the Peace of +the Pyrenees” was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal +Mazarin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIRAUD, ERNEST<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1837-1892), French composer, was +born at New Orleans on the 26th of June 1837. He studied at +the Paris Conservatoire, where he won the <i>grand prix de Rome</i>. +His father had gained the same distinction many years previously, +this being the only instance of both father and son obtaining +this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas: +<i>Sylvie</i> (1864); <i>Le Kobold</i> (1870), <i>Madame Turlupin</i> (1872), +<i>Piccolino</i> (1876), <i>Galante Aventure</i> (1882), and also the ballet +<i>Gretna Green</i>, given at the Opéra in 1873. His opera <i>Frédégonde</i> +was left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille +Saint-Saëns. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span> +friend of Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composition +at the Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent +treatise on instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of +May 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUISBOROUGH,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guisbrough</span>, a market town in the +Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, +England, 10 m. E.S.E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of +the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5645. +It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley at the N. foot of +the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is Perpendicular, +greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and the +modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1561. Ruins +of an Augustinian priory, founded in 1129, are beautifully +situated near the eastern extremity of the town. The church +contains some fine Decorated work, and the chapter house and +parts of the conventual buildings may be traced. Considerable +fragments of Norman and transitional work remain. Among +the historic personages who were buried within its walls was +Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne +of Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King +Robert the Bruce. About 1 m. S.E. of the town there is a +sulphurous spring discovered in 1822. The district neighbouring +to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone. Its working forms the +chief industry of the town, and there are also tanneries and +breweries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUISE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of +Aisne, on the Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562. +The town was formerly the capital of the district of Thiérache +and afterwards of a countship (see below). There is a château +dating in part from the middle of the 16th century. Camille +Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has erected a +statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron +stoves and heating apparatus, carried on on the co-operative +system in works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his +workpeople the huge buildings known as the <i>familistère</i>, in front +of which stands his statue. A board of trade-arbitration is +among the public institutions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUISE, HOUSE OF,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine +(<i>q.v.</i>). René II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two +branches of the house of Lorraine. From his paternal grandmother, +Marie d’Harcourt, René inherited the countships of +Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne and other +French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch, +which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of +Blois on her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine. +René’s eldest surviving son by his marriage with Philippa, +daughter of Adolphus of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was +Anthony, who succeeded his father as duke of Lorraine (d. 1544), +while the second, Claude, count and afterwards duke of Guise, +received the French fiefs. The Guises, though naturalized in +France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes of +Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate +them as foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony +and Claude was ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving +the lapsed honours of the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon, +the duchy of Anjou and the countships of Provence and Maine +to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other sons of René II., John +(1498-1550) became the first cardinal of Lorraine, while Ferri, +Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French armies at Marignano +(1515), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Claude of Lorraine</span>, count and afterwards 1st duke of +Guise (1496-1550), was born on the 20th of October 1496. He +was educated at the French court, and at seventeen allied +himself to the royal house of France by a marriage with +Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of François, Count +of Vendôme. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (1515), +and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he +received in the battle; in 1521 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when +Louise of Savoy ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts; in +1522 he defended northern France, and forced the English to +raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523 he obtained the government +of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at Neufchâteau the +imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525 he +destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning +Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return +of Francis I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy +in the peerage of France, though up to this time only princes of +the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of France. +The Guises, as cadets of the sovereign house of Lorraine and +descendants of the house of Anjou, claimed precedence of the +Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and ambitions inspired +distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise’s services by +substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished +himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years +before his death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes +of his sons. He died on the 12th of April 1550.</p> + +<p>He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues +by his brother <span class="sc">John</span>, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who +had been made coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The +cardinal was archbishop of Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop +of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Thérouanne, Luçon, Albi, Valence, +Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered most of +the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices. +Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of +his nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1530, +and in 1536 was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V. +Although a complaisant helper in Francis I.’s pleasures, he was +disgraced in 1542, and retired to Rome. He died at Nogent-sur-Yonne +on the 18th of May 1550. He was extremely dissolute, +but as an open-handed patron of art and learning, as +the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he +did something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of +his calculating and avaricious brother.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd +duke of Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who +became archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude, +marquis of Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of +Burgundy, who married Louise de Brézé, daughter of Diane de +Poitiers, thus securing a powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527-1578), +bishop of Troyes, archbishop of Sens and cardinal of Guise; +René, marquis of Elbeuf (1536-1566), from whom descended the +families of Harcourt, Armagnac, Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of +Lorraine (<i>q.v.</i>), generally known as Mary of Guise, who after the +death of her second husband, James V. of Scotland, acted as regent +of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of Scots; and Francis +(1534-1563), grand prior of the order of the Knights of Malta. The +solidarity of this family, all the members of which through three +generations cheerfully submitted to the authority of the head of the +house, made it a formidable factor in French politics.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Francis of Lorraine,</span> 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), “le +grand Guise,” was born at Bar on the 17th of February 1519. +As count of Aumale he served in the French army, and was +nearly killed at the siege of Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which +brought him the name of “Balafré.” Aumale was made (1547) +a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the accession of Henry II. +the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to Diane de +Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the +constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions +for their families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in +subordinating the interests of France to their own. Montmorency’s +brutal manners, however, made enemies where Guise’s +grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was a suitor for +the hand of Jeanne d’Albret, princess of Navarre, who refused, +however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de +Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent +enemies of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of +Este, daughter of Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her +mother Renée, a granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In +the same year he had put down a peasant rising in Saintonge +with a humanity that compared very favourably with the +cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of Bordeaux. He +made preparations in Lorraine for the king’s German campaign +of 1551-52. He was already governor of Dauphiné, and now +became grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary +seneschal of Champagne, with large additions to his already +considerable revenues. He was charged with the defence of +Metz, which Henry II. had entered in 1551. He reached the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his great powers +as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the place, badly +fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state of +defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October +with an army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his +forces in November. An army of brigands commanded by Albert +of Brandenburg had also to be reckoned with. Charles was +obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of January 1553, having +lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls. Guise used his +victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing medical +care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers’ camp. +The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king’s suspicion +and carelessness, and the constable’s inactivity, and a year later +Guise was removed from the command. He followed the constable’s +army as a volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V. +at the siege of Renty on the 12th of August 1554. Montmorency’s +inaction rendered the victory fruitless, and a bitter +controversy followed between Guise and the constable’s nephew +Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach already +existing.</p> + +<p>The conclusion of a six years’ truce at Vaucelles (1556) disappointed +Guise’s ambitions, and he was the main mover in the +breach of the treaty in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a +French army to Italy to the assistance of Pope Paul IV. against +Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in view the restoration to his +family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and Sicily, crossed the +Alps early in 1557 and after a month’s delay in Rome, where he +failed to receive the promised support, marched on the kingdom +of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva. +He seized and sacked Campli (April 17th), but was compelled +to raise the siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered +round to a Spanish alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour +was to be gained in the campaign, wisely spared his troops, so +that his army was almost intact when, in August, he was hastily +summoned home to repel the Spanish army which had invaded +France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On reaching +Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the +kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The +town was taken, after six days’ fighting, on the 6th of January +1558, and this success was followed up by the capture of Guînes, +Thionville and Arlon, when the war was ended by the treaty +of Câteau Cambrésis (1559). Although his brother, the cardinal +of Lorraine, was one of the negotiators, this peace was concluded +against the wishes of Guise, and was regarded as a triumph of the +constable’s party. The Guises were provided with a weapon +against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras (afterwards Cardinal +Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at an interview +at Péronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the Huguenot +leanings of the constable’s nephews.</p> + +<p>On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by +marriage with Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically +delegated to Guise and the cardinal, who found themselves +beyond rivalry for the time being. They had, however, to cope +with a new and dangerous force in Catherine de’ Medici, who +was now for the first time free to use her political ability. The +incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who controlled +the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility +against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their +government was formed at Nantes, with a needy Périgord +nobleman named La Renaudie as its nominal head, though the +agitation had in the first instance been fostered by the agents +of Louis I., prince of Condé. The Guises were warned of the +conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater security +removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted, +merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled +in small parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, however, +been again betrayed and many of them were surrounded +and taken before the <i>coup</i> could be delivered; one party, which +had seized the château of Noizay, surrendered on a promise +of amnesty given “on his faith as a prince” by James of Savoy, +duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke’s protest, +was disregarded. On the 19th of March 1560, La Renaudie and +the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the château of +Amboise. They were repelled; their leader was killed; and +a large number were taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance +of the Guises was the measure of their previous fears. For a +whole week the torturings, quarterings and hangings went on, +the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young king and queen +witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony of the +château.</p> + +<p>The cruel repression of this “conspiracy of Amboise” inspired +bitter hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising +rather against their own than the royal authority. They now +entrenched themselves with the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon +princes, Anthony, king of Navarre, and his brother Condé, were +summoned to court. The Guises convened a special commission +to try Condé, who was condemned to death; but the affair was +postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in +December saved Condé. Guise then made common cause with +his old rival Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint André +against Catherine, the Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance, +constituted on the 6th of April 1561, and known as the triumvirate, +aimed at the annulment of the concessions made by +Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine fomented +the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two +religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but +in spite of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was +at the time in communication with the Lutheran princes of +Germany, and in February 1562 met the duke of Württemberg +at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a religious compromise.</p> + +<p>The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise’s +escort on a Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1st of March 1562). +Although Guise did not initiate the massacre, and although, +when he learned what was going on, he even tried to restrain +his soldiers, he did not disavow their action. When Catherine de’ +Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he accepted the challenge, +and on the 16th of March he entered the city, where he was a +popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The provost of +the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million livres +at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in +besieging Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign +city, in spite of Guise’s efforts to save it from the worst horrors. +At the battle of Dreux (19th of December 1562) he commanded +a reserve army, with which he saved Montmorency’s forces from +destruction and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Huguenots. +The prince of Condé was his prisoner, while the capture of +Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the +Marshal de Saint-André after the battle left Guise the undisputed +head of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general +of the kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared +with his army before Orleans. On the 19th, however, he was +shot by the Huguenot Jean Poltrot de Méré as he was returning +to his quarters, and died on the 24th of the effects of the wound. +Guise’s splendid presence, his generosity and humanity and his +almost unvarying success on the battlefield made him the idol +of his soldiers. He attended personally to the minutest details, +and Monluc complains that he even wrote out his own orders. +The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were partly +due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal, +whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contemporaries. +The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from +the interview with Granvella at Péronne, in 1558, and after the +death of his brother the cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in +communication with the Spanish court, offering, in the event +of the failure of direct heirs to the Valois kings, to deliver up the +frontier fortresses and to acknowledge Philip II. as king of France. +His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the extreme Catholic +party.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the children of Francis “le Balafré” five survived him: Henry, +3rd duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-1611) (<i>q.v.</i>), who +consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis +of Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of +the Parisian leaguers; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of +Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry; +and Francis (1558-1573).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Henry of Lorraine</span>, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born +on the 31st of December 1550, was thirteen years old at the +time of his father’s death, and grew up under the domination +of a passionate desire for revenge. Catherine de’ Medici refused +to take steps against Coligny, who was formally accused by the +duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of having incited the +murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal reconciliation at +Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which, however, none +of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his +brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous +assent to this agreement. Guise’s widow married James of +Savoy, duke of Nemours, and the young duke at sixteen went +to fight against the Turks in Hungary. On the fresh outbreak +of civil war in 1567 he returned to France and served under his +uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1568 he received a considerable +command, and speedily came into rivalry with Henry of Valois, +duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father’s generalship, +and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once brought +disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting +brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of +Poitiers in 1569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed +more solid abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in +1570 he returned to court, where he made no secret of his attachment +to Margaret of Valois. His pretensions were violently +resented by her brothers, who threatened his life, and he saved +himself by a precipitate marriage with Catherine of Cleves +(daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and Margaret +of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de +Crog, prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an +apparent reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance +with Catherine de’ Medici. He was an accomplice in the first +attack on Coligny’s life, and when permission for the massacre +of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted from Charles IX. he +roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied his personal +vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was +now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the +power of his family was further increased by the marriage (1575) +of Henry III. with Louise of Vaudémont, who belonged to the +elder branch of the house of Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans +(10th of October 1575), the only Catholic victory in a disastrous +campaign, Guise received a face wound which won for him his +father’s name of Balafré and helped to secure the passionate +attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the +treaty of Beaulieu (5th of May 1576), and with the support of +the Jesuits proceeded to form a “holy league” for the defence +of the Roman Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined +offensive action against all who refused to join. This association +had been preceded by various provincial leagues among the +Catholics, notably one at Péronne. Condé had been imposed +on this town as governor by the terms of the peace, and the +local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like the Holy +League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims, and +was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In +the direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip +of Spain, who subsidized the movement, while he also had to +submit to the dictation of the Parisian democracy. Ulterior +ambitions were freely ascribed to him. It was asserted that +papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David, revealed a +definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who represented +themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois; +but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III. +eventually placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed +the war against the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace +(September 1577) he seized the opportunity of disbanding the +Catholic associations. The king’s jealousy of Guise increased +with the duke’s popularity, but he did not venture on an open +attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by Guise’s partisans +of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Mégrin, who had been +set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess +of Guise.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with +Don John of Austria. He was also in constant correspondence +with Mary of Lorraine, and meditated a descent on Scotland +in support of the Catholic cause. But the great riches of the +Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in 1578 the duke +became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1584 the death of the +duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the +throne, the prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics +to forget their differences, and led to the formation of a new +league of the Catholic nobles. At the end of the same year Guise +and his brother, the duke of Mayenne, with the assent of other +Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at Joinville with Philip II., +fixing the succession to the crown on Charles, cardinal of Bourbon, +to the exclusion of the Protestant princes of his house. In March +1585 the chiefs of the League issued the Declaration of Péronne, +exposing their grievances against the government and announcing +their intention to restore the dignity of religion by force of arms. +On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help against +his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France +declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces +in Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at +Châlons, while Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the +dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale and Mercœur,<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> roused Normandy +and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or feigned to accept, the +terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of July 1585). +The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately revoked. +Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by +defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory +(October 1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations +of loyalty to Henry III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes +of the League were modified. Obedience to the king was now +stated to depend on his giving proof of Catholic zeal and showing +no favour to heresy. In April 1588 Guise arrived in Paris, +where he put himself at the head of the Parisian mob, and on +the 12th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he actually +had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with +Catherine de’ Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any +cost, but restrained the populace from revolution and permitted +Henry to escape from Paris. Henry came to terms with the +League in May, and made Guise lieutenant-general of the royal +armies. The estates-general, which were assembled at Blois, +were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the king by +giving voice to the political as well as the religious aspirations +of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after +receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason. +On the 25th of December he was summoned to the king’s chamber +during a sitting of the royal council, and was murdered by +assassins carefully posted by Henry III. himself. The cardinal +of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the next day. The +history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of +Mayenne (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen +children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640); +Claude, duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan, +duchess of Chevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis (1585-1621), +3rd cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for +his liaison with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Charles</span>, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned +for three years after his father’s death. He married Henriette +Catherine de Joyeuse, widow of the duke of Montpensier. His +eldest son predeceased him, and he was succeeded by his second +son <span class="sc">Henry</span> (1614-1664), who had been archbishop of Reims, +but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became 5th duke. +He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a +prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to +Naples in 1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew, +<span class="sc">Louis Joseph</span> (1650-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, <span class="sc">Francis +Joseph</span> (1670-1675), the line failed; and the title and estates +passed to his great-aunt, Marie of Lorraine, duchess of Guise +(1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and with her the title +became extinct. The title is now vested in the family of the +Bourbon-Orleans princes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF GUISE</p> + +<div class="center"><img style="width:900px; height:535px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img702.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A number of contemporary documents relating to +the Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their <i>Archives +curieuses de l’histoire de France</i> (Paris, 1834, &c.). Vol. iii. contains a +soldier’s diary of the siege of Metz, first published in Italian (Lyons, +1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558). of Thionville +(Paris, 1558); vol. iv. an account of the tumult of Amboise from the +<i>Mémoires</i> of Condé, and four accounts of the affair of Vassy; vol. v. +four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated by Guise, and +accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of the Parisian +revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and pieces +dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An +account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken +by Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador, +G. Mocenigo, to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the <i>Eng. +Hist. Rev.</i> (April 1895). For the foreign policy of the Guises, and +especially their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material +in the English <i>Calendar of State Papers</i> of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign +Series) and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The +memoirs of Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to 1563, +were published by Michel and Poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their +<i>Coll. de mémoires</i>. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those +of the prince of Condé, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de Saulx-Tavannes. +See also <i>La Vie de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise</i> (Paris, +1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble, <i>L’Assassinat +de F. de Lorraine, duc de Guise</i> (1897), where there is a list of +the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de Bouillé, +<i>Hist. des ducs de Guise</i> (4 vols., 1849); H. Forneron, <i>Les Guise et leur +époque</i> (2 vols., 1887).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas <i>père</i> with the subject +of his <i>Henri III et sa cour</i> (1829).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Mercœur, a cadet of +Lorraine and brother of Louise de Vaudémont, Henry III.’s queen. +His wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany, +and he was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to +separate sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUITAR<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (Fr. <i>guitarre</i>, Ger. <i>Guitarre</i>, Ital. <i>chitarra</i>, Span. +<i>guitarra</i>), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged +by the fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful +incurvations in complete contrast to the members of the family +of lute (<i>i.e.</i>), whose back is vaulted. The construction of the +instrument is of paramount importance in assigning to the +guitar its true position in the history of musical instruments, +midway between the cithara (<i>i.e.</i>) and the violin. The medieval +stringed instruments with neck fall into two classes, characterized +mainly by the construction of the body: (1) Those which, +like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat +or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2) +Those which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted +back over which was glued a flat soundboard without the intermediary +of ribs; this method of construction predominates +among Oriental Instruments and is greatly inferior to the first. +A striking proof of this inferiority is afforded by the fact that +instruments with vaulted backs, such as the rebab or rebec, +although extensively represented during the middle ages in all +parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no +development during the course of some twelve centuries, and +have dropped out one by one from the realm of practical music +without leaving a single survivor. The guitar must be referred +to the first of these classes.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:181px; height:138px" src="images/img703a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-wood, +frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl, +tortoise-shell, &c., while the soundboard is of pine and has one +large ornamental rose sound hole. The bridge, to which the +strings are fastened, is of ebony with an ivory nut which determines +the one end of the vibrating strings, while the nut at the +end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and +fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear. +The head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains +two parallel barrels or long holes through +which the pegs or metal screws pass, three +on each side of the head. The correct +positions for stopping the intervals are +marked on the fingerboard by little metal +ridges called frets. The modern guitar +has six strings, three of gut and three of +silk covered with silver wire, tuned as +shown. To the thumb are assigned the three deepest strings, +while the first, second and third fingers are used to twang the +highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth or lowest +string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who +was the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars +after their introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalie +of Weimar. Otto<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of +Dresden who requested him to make him a guitar with six +strings by adding the low E, a spun wire string. The original +guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had five +strings,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto +also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the +tone. In Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known +in the 16th century; they are described by Juan Bermudo<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and +others.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The lowest string was tuned to G. +Other Spanish guitars of the same period +had four, five or seven strings or courses of +strings in pairs of unisons. They were always +twanged by the fingers.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:96px; height:392px" src="images/img703b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Juan Bermudo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Spanish Guitar with seven +Strings. 1555. <i>Vihuela da Mano</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The guitar is derived from the cithara<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> both +structurally and etymologically. It is usually +asserted that the guitar was introduced into +Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open +to the gravest doubts. There is no trace among +the instruments of the Arabs known to us of any +similar to the guitar in construction or shape, +although a guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurvations +was known to the ancient Egyptians.<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +There is also extant a fine example of the guitar, +with ribs and incurvations and a long neck +provided with numerous frets, on a Hittite +bas-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (<i>c</i>. 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +in Cappadocia.<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Unless other monuments of +much later date should come to light showing +guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in +assuming that the instrument, which required +skill in construction, died out in Egypt and in +Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had +to be evolved anew from the cithara by the +Greeks of Asia Minor. That the evolution +should take place within the Byzantine Empire +or in Syria would be quite consistent with the +traditions of the Greeks and their veneration +for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt +the neck and other improvements to it, rather +than adopt the rebab, the tanbur or the +barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what seems +to have taken place. It is true that in the 14th century in +an enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de +Hita, a <i>guitarra morisca</i> is mentioned and unfavourably compared +with the <i>guitarra latina</i>; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still +use an instrument called <i>kuitra</i> (which in N. Africa would be guithara), +but it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long +neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab +instrument therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit +the instrument as the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tantamount +to deriving the guitar from the lute.<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:143px; height:218px" src="images/img704a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Denon’s <i>Voyage in Egypt</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Ancient Egyptian Guitar. 1700 to 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers, +we obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments, +which, in the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious consideration. +From Bermudo’s work, quoted above, we learn that +the guitar and the <i>vihuela da mano</i> were practically identical, differing +only in accordance and occasionally in the number of strings.<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +Three kinds of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages, +distinguished by the qualifying phrases <i>da arco</i> (with bow), <i>da mano</i> (by +hand), <i>da penola</i> (with quill). Spanish scholars<a name="fa10m" id="fa10m" href="#ft10m"><span class="sp">10</span></a> who have inquired +into this question of identity state that the <i>guitarra latina</i> was afterwards +known as the <i>vihuela da mano</i>, a statement fully supported by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +other evidence. As the Arab <i>kuitra</i> was known to be played by means +of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with the <i>vihuela da +penola</i>. The word <i>vihuela</i> or <i>vigola</i> is connected with the Latin +<i>fidicula</i> or <i>fides</i>, a stringed instrument mentioned by Cicero<a name="fa11m" id="fa11m" href="#ft11m"><span class="sp">11</span></a> as being +made from the wood of the plane-tree and having many strings. +The remaining link in the chain of identification is afforded by St +Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century, +who states that fidicula was another name for +cithara, “Veteres aut citharas fidicula vel +fidice nominaverunt.”<a name="fa12m" id="fa12m" href="#ft12m"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The fidicula therefore +was the cithara, either in its original +classical form or in one of the transitions which +transformed it into the guitar. The existence +of a superior <i>guitarra latina</i> side by side with +the <i>guitarra morisca</i> is thus explained. It was +derived directly from the classical cithara introduced +by the Romans into Spain, the archetype +of the structural beauty which formed the +basis of the perfect proportions and delicate +structure of the violin. In an inventory<a name="fa13m" id="fa13m" href="#ft13m"><span class="sp">13</span></a> made +by Philip van Wilder of the musical instruments +which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the +following item bearing on the question: “foure +gitterons with iiii. cases <i>they are called Spanishe +Vialles</i>.” <i>Vial</i> or <i>viol</i> was the English equivalent +of <i>vihuela</i>. The transitions whereby the cithara +acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig. 3) +of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to so +many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese +of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an Anglo-Saxon +artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and illustrate +the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the Anglo-Saxon +artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid imagination, +drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated Psalter +from the Christian East,<a name="fa14m" id="fa14m" href="#ft14m"><span class="sp">14</span></a> where the evolution of the guitar took +place.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:206px" src="images/img704b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th century: +(<i>a</i>) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C); (<i>b, c, d</i>), Transitions +showing the addition of neck to the body of the cithara.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:251px" src="images/img704c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Dr H. Janitschek’s <i>Geschichte der deutschen Malerei</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—Representation of a European Guitar. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1180.</td></tr></table> + +<p>One of the earliest representations (fig. 4) of a guitar in Western +Europe occurs in a Passionale from Zwifalten <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1180, now in the +Royal Library at Stuttgart.<a name="fa15m" id="fa15m" href="#ft15m"><span class="sp">15</span></a> St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a +rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading +her ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the +characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing +in having no neck. Mersenne<a name="fa16m" id="fa16m" href="#ft16m"><span class="sp">16</span></a> writing early in the 17th century +describes and figures two +Spanish guitars, one with +four, the other with five +strings; the former had +a cittern head, the latter +the straight head bent +back at an obtuse angle +from the neck, as in the +modern instrument; he +gives the Italian, French +and Spanish tablatures +which would seem to +show that the guitar +already enjoyed a certain +vogue in France and +Italy as well as in Spain. +Mersenne states that the +proportions of the guitar +demand that the length +of the neck from shoulder +to nut shall be equal to +the length of the body from the centre of the rose to the tail +end. From this time until the middle of the 19th century the +guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent, and became +the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular War, +mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also +wrote compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was +due less to its merits as a solo instrument than to the ease +with which it could be mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice. +The advent of the Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the +popularity of the cittern, also known at that time in contradistinction +as the English or wire-strung guitar, although the two instruments +differed in many particulars. As further evidence of the great +popularity of the guitar all over Europe may be instanced the extraordinary +number of books extant on the instrument, giving instructions +how to play the guitar and read the tablature.<a name="fa17m" id="fa17m" href="#ft17m"><span class="sp">17</span></a></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Über den Bau der Bogeninstrumente</i> (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Pietro Millioni, <i>Vero e facil modo d’ imparare a sonare et +accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola</i>, with illustration +(Rome, 1637).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Declaracion de instrumentos musicales</i> (Ossuna, 1555), fol. xciii. <i>b</i> +and fol. xci. <i>a</i>. See also illustration of <i>vihuela da mano</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See also G. G. Kapsperger, <i>Libro primo di Villanelle con l’ infavolutura +del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola</i> (three +books, Rome, 1610-1623).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii. +“Precursors of the Violin Family,” pp. 230-248.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> See Denon’s <i>Voyage in Egypt</i> (London, 1807, pl. 55).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, “Judée +Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce.” Vol. iv. of <i>Hist. de l’art dans +l’antiquité</i>, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph +by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>op. cit.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Biernath, <i>Die Guitarre</i> (1908).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See also Luys Milan, <i>Libro de musica de vihuela da mano, +Intitulado Il Maestro</i>, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from +bass to treble.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10m" id="ft10m" href="#fa10m"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Mariano Soriano, <i>Fuertes Historia de la musica española</i> +(Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11m" id="ft11m" href="#fa11m"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>De natura deorum</i>, ii. 8, 22.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12m" id="ft12m" href="#fa12m"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See <i>Etymologiarium</i>, lib. iii., cap. 21.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13m" id="ft13m" href="#fa13m"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, fol. 200.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14m" id="ft14m" href="#fa14m"><span class="fn">14</span></a> The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of +books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are +here given: Professor J. O. Westwood, <i>Facsimiles of the Miniatures +and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS.</i> (London, 1868); Sir +Thos. Duffus-Hardy, <i>Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection +with the Utrecht Psalter</i> (London, 1872); <i>Report on the Utrecht +Psalter</i>, addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London, +1874); Sir Thomas Duffus-Hardy, <i>Further Report on the Utrecht +Psalter</i> (London, 1874); Walter de Gray Birch, <i>The History, Art and +Palaeography of the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter</i> (London, 1876); +Anton Springer, “Die Psalterillustrationen im frühen Mittelalter mit +besonderer Rücksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter,” <i>Abhandlungen der +kgl. sächs. Ges. d. Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse</i>, Bd. viii. pp. 187-296, +with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adolf +Goldschmidt, “Der Utrecht Psalter,” in <i>Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft</i>, +Bd. xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. 156-166; Franz Friedrich +Leitschuh, <i>Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und +seine Quellen</i> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 321-330; Adolf Goldschmidt, <i>Der +Albani Psalter in Hildesheim</i>, &c. (Berlin, 1895); Paul Durrieu, +<i>L’Origine du MS. célèbre dit le Psaultier d’Utrecht</i> (Paris, 1895); Hans +Graeven, “Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters,” paper read before the +XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also <i>Repertorium +für Kunstwissenschaft</i> (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp. 28-35; +J. J. Tikkanen, <i>Abendländische Psalter-Illustration im Mittelalter</i>, +part iii. “Der Utrecht Psalter” (Helsingfors, 1900), 320 pp. and +77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or Syrian origin +of the Utrecht Psalter); Georg Swarzenski, “Die karolingische +Malerei und Plastik in Reims.” in <i>Jahrbuch d. kgl. preussischen +Kunstsammlungen</i>, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin, 1902), pp. 81-100; Ormonde +M. Dalton, “The Crystal of Lothair,” in <i>Archäologie</i>, vol. lix. (1904); +Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii. “The +Precursors of the Violin Family,” chap. viii. “The Question of the +Origin of the Utrecht Psalter,” pp. 352-382 (with illustrations), where +all the foregoing are summarized.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15m" id="ft15m" href="#fa15m"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek’s <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Malerei</i>, Bd. iii. of <i>Gesch. der deutschen Kunst</i> (Berlin, 1890), p. 118.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16m" id="ft16m" href="#fa16m"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17m" id="ft17m" href="#fa17m"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See C. F. Becker, <i>Darstellung der musik. Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1836); +and Wilhelm Tappert, “Zur Geschichte der Guitarre,” in <i>Monatshefte +für Musikgeschichte</i> (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 440px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:375px; height:237px" src="images/img704d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Ruhlmann’s <i>Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 15th century (Pinakothek, Munich).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">GUITAR FIDDLE<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (<i>Troubadour Fiddle</i>), a modern name +bestowed retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin +possessing characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name +“guitar fiddle” is intended to emphasize the fact that the +instrument in the shape of the guitar, which during the middle +ages represented the most perfect principle of construction for +stringed instruments with necks, adopted at a certain period the +use of the bow from instruments of a less perfect type, the rebab +and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the guitar entailed +certain constructive changes in the instrument: the large central +rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various shapes; +the flat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were +plucked, gave +place to the +arched bridge +required in order +to enable the bow +to vibrate each +string separately; +the arched +bridge, by raising +the strings higher +above the soundboard, +made the +stopping of +strings on the +neck extremely +difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by the +addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig. 1). +At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +not so much through the viols which were the outcome of the +Minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the intermediary +of the Italian <i>lyra</i>, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument +with from 7 to 12 strings.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:127px; height:215px" src="images/img705.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">From a Byzantine MS. in the British Museum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Earliest example of the Guitar Fiddle. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1066.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the +evolution of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took +place under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various +stages of this transition have been definitely established by the remarkable +miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Two kinds of citharas +are shown: the antique rectangular,<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and the later design with +rounded body having at the point where the arms are added indications +of the waist or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the +Spanish guitar.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The first stage in the transition is shown by a +cithara or rotta<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a +kind of frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing +the second lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transition +are concerned with the addition of a neck<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and of frets.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> All +these instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that +the use of the bow was either unknown at this time (<i>c.</i> 6th century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>), or that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type. +The earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with +bow<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in +Caesarea by the archpriest Theodorus in 1066 (British Museum, Add. +MS. 19352). Instances of perfect guitar fiddles +abound in the 13th century MSS. and monuments, +as for instance in a picture by Cimabue +(1240-1302). in the Pitti Gallery in Florence.<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>An evolution on parallel lines appears also +to have taken place from the antique rectangular +cithara<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> of the <i>citharoedes</i>, which was a favourite +in Romano-Christian art.<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> In this case examples +illustrative of the transitions are found represented +in great variety in Europe. The old +German rotta<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> of the 6th century preserved in +the Völker Museum, Berlin, and the instruments +played by King David in two early +Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter +(Cotton MS. Vesp. A. i. British Museum) +finished in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, the other “A Commentary +on the Psalms by Cassiodorus <i>manu Bedae</i>” of +the 8th century preserved in the Cathedral +Library at Durham<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> form examples of the first +stage of transition. From such types as these +the rectangular <i>crwth</i> or crowd was evolved by +the addition of a finger-board and the reduction +in the number of strings, which follows +as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be +obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we +obtain the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded +corners and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies +or sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with +various modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar +fiddle as due entirely to western or southern European initiative; +its origin like that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently +Byzantine. It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and +barrel vaults in the palace of Kosseir ‘Amra,<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> believed to be that of +Caliph Walid II. (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince +Ahmad, the Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four +strings, is being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the +Stuttgart Carolingian Psalter<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> (10th century); in MS. 1260 (Bibl. +Imp. Paris) <i>Tristan and Yseult</i>; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis +preserved in Westminster Abbey (14th century); in the Sforza +Book<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed for Bona of Savoy, +wife of Galeazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th +century in the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by +Italian artists of the 15th and 16th centuries.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See “The Precursors of the Violin Family,” by Kathleen +Schlesinger, part ii. of <i>An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments of +the Orchestra</i> (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>op. cit.</i> part ii., the “Utrecht Psalter,” +pp. 127-135, and the “Question of the Origin of the Utrecht +Psalter,” pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and illustrated.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see pl. vi. (2) to the right centre.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see pl. iii. centre and figs. 118 and 119.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pl. iii. vi. +(1) and (2).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 126, p. 350, and pl. iii. right centre.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 173, p. 448.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, see fig. 205, p. 480.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Museo Pio Clementino</i>, by Visconti (Milan, 1818).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See for example <i>Georgics</i>, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil +(Cod. 3225), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8, +tab. f. vol. ii.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th +centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved +in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in +“Grabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846,” <i>Jahresberichte +d. Württemb. Altertums-Vereins</i>, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viii. also +Kathleen Schlesinger, <i>op. cit.</i> part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the +facsimile).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor +J. O. Westwood’s <i>Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of +Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS.</i> (London, 1868).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian +Academy of Sciences, <i>Kusejr ‘Amra</i> (Vienna, 1907, pl. xxxiv.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von +Hefner-Alteneck, <i>Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters</i> (Darmstadt. +1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in <i>Trachten, Kunstwerke und Gerätschaften +vom frühen Mittelalter</i> (Frankfort-on-Main, 1879-1890),</p> + +<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Add. MS. 34294, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii. +fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1860-  ), French actor, was +born in Paris. He became prominent on the French stage at the +Porte Saint-Martin theatre in 1900, and the Variétés in 1901, +and then became a member of the Comédie Française, but he +resigned very soon in order to become director of the Renaissance, +where he was principally associated with the actress Marthe +Brandès, who had also left the Comédie. Here he established +his reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary +French actor in the drama of modern reality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1787-1874), +historian, orator and statesman, was born at Nîmes on the 4th of +October 1787, of an honourable Protestant family belonging to the +<i>bourgeoisie</i> of that city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities +which still weighed upon the Protestants of France before the +Revolution, that his parents, at the time of their union, could +not be publicly or legally married by their own pastors, and that +the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal opinions of his +family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary intolerance +of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father +perished at Nîmes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education +of the future minister devolved entirely upon his mother, a +woman of slight appearance and of homely manners, but endowed +with great strength of character and clearness of judgment. +Madame Guizot was a living type of the Huguenots of the 16th +century, stern in her principles and her faith, immovable in her +convictions and her sense of duty. She formed the character of +her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his life. In the +days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep mourning +for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid +circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848 +she followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age +closed her life and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from +Nîmes by the Revolution, Madame Guizot and her son repaired +to Geneva, where he received his education. In spite of her +decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of Rousseau, then +much in fashion, were not without their influence on Madame +Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the +notion inculcated in the <i>Émile</i> that every man ought to learn a +manual trade or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a carpenter, +and he so far succeeded in his work that he made a table +with his own hands, which is still preserved. Of the progress of +his graver studies little is known, for in the work which he +entitled <i>Memoirs of my own Times</i> Guizot omitted all personal +details of his earlier life. But his literary attainments must +have been precocious and considerable, for when he arrived in +Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws, he +entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer, +formerly Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write +in a journal edited by M. Suard, the <i>Publiciste</i>. This connexion +introduced him to the literary society of Paris. In October 1809, +being then twenty-two, he wrote a review of M. de Chateaubriand’s +<i>Martyrs</i>, which procured for him the approbation and +cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he continued to +contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard’s he had +made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady +of good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who +had been forced by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her +living by literature, and who also was engaged to contribute a +series of articles to Suard’s journal. These contributions were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +interrupted by her illness, but immediately resumed and continued +by an unknown hand. It was discovered that François +Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf. The +acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and +in 1812 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful +ally. She died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed +works on female education. An only son, born in 1819, died +in 1837 of consumption. In 1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon, +niece of his first wife, and also an author. She died in 1833, +leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892), who attained +some reputation as a scholar and writer.</p> + +<p>During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary +pursuits, published a collection of French synonyms (1809), +an essay on the fine arts (1811), and a translation of Gibbon +with additional notes in 1812. These works recommended him +to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then grand-master of the +university of France, who selected Guizot for the chair of modern +history at the Sorbonne in 1812. His first lecture (which is +reprinted in his <i>Memoirs</i>) was delivered on the 11th of December +of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful +emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him +by his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning +of the great revival of historical research in France in the 19th +century. He had now acquired a considerable position in the +society of Paris, and the friendship of Royer-Collard and the +leading members of the liberal party, including the young duc +de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the moment of the fall of +Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the recommendation +of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII. +in the capacity of secretary-general of the ministry of the +interior, under the abbé de Montesquiou. Upon the return +of Napoleon from Elba he immediately resigned, on the 25th of +March 1815 (the statement that he retained office under General +Carnot is incorrect), and returned to his literary pursuits. After +the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where he saw Louis +XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to his +majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone +secure the duration of the restored monarchy—advice which +was ill-received by M. de Blacas and the king’s confidential +advisers. This visit to Ghent, at the time when France was a +prey to a second invasion, was made a subject of bitter reproach +to Guizot in after life by his political opponents, as an unpatriotic +action. “The Man of Ghent” was one of the terms of insult +frequently hurled against him in the days of his power. But the +reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests +of France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in +establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in +combating the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It +is at any rate a remarkable circumstance that a young professor +of twenty-seven, with none of the advantages of birth or political +experience, should have been selected to convey so important +a message to the ears of the king of France, and a proof, if any +were wanting, that the Revolution had, as Guizot said, “done +its work.”</p> + +<p>On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary-general +of the ministry of justice under M. de Barbé-Marbois, +but resigned with his chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was +appointed general director of communes and departments in +the ministry of the interior, but lost his office with the fall of +Decazes in February 1820. During these years Guizot was one +of the leaders of the <i>Doctrinaires</i>, a small party strongly attached +to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy +which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the +name of Guizot, that of the <i>juste milieu</i>, a <i>via media</i> between +absolutism and popular government. Their opinions had more of +the rigour of a sect than the elasticity of a political party. Adhering +to the great principles of liberty and toleration, they were +sternly opposed to the anarchical traditions of the Revolution. +They knew that the elements of anarchy were still fermenting +in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by reactionary +measures, but by the firm application of the power of a limited +constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and +defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their +motives were honourable. Their views were philosophical. +But they were opposed alike to the democratical spirit of the +age, to the military traditions of the empire, and to the bigotry +and absolutism of the court. The fate of such a party might +be foreseen. They lived by a policy of resistance; they perished +by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for +their constant opposition to popular demands than by the +services they undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate +freedom.</p> + +<p>In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder +of the duc de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the duc +Decazes, Guizot was deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even +his course of lectures were interdicted. During the succeeding +years he played an important part among the leaders of the +liberal opposition to the government of Charles X., although +he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the time +of his greatest literary activity. In 1822 he had published his +lectures on representative government (<i>Histoire des origines du +gouvernement représentatif</i>, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans. +1852); also a work on capital punishment for political offences +and several important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830 +he published two important collections of historical sources, the +memoirs of the history of England in 26 volumes, and the +memoirs of the history of France in 31 volumes, and a revised +translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of essays on the +history of France. The most remarkable work from his own +pen was the first part of his <i>Histoire de la révolution d’Angleterre +depuis Charles I<span class="sp">er</span> à Charles II.</i> (2 vols., 1826-1827; Eng. +trans., 2 vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and impartiality, +which he resumed and completed during his exile +in England after 1848. The Martignac administration restored +Guizot in 1828 to his professor’s chair and to the council of +state. Then it was that he delivered the celebrated courses +of lectures which raised his reputation as an historian to the +highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best writers of +France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of +his general <i>Histoire de la civilisation en Europe</i> (1828; Eng. +trans, by W. Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his <i>Histoire de la +civilisation en France</i> (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be +regarded as classics of modern historical research.</p> + +<p>Hitherto Guizot’s fame rested on his merits as a writer on +public affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had +attained the age of forty-three before he entered upon the full +display of his oratorical strength. In January 1830 he was +elected for the first time by the town of Lisieux to the chamber +of deputies, and he retained that seat during the whole of his +political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important +position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he +delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221, +in answer to the menacing speech from the throne, which was +followed by the dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor +of another revolution. On his returning to Paris from Nîmes +on the 27th of July, the fall of Charles X. was already imminent. +Guizot was called upon by his friends Casimir-Périer, Laffitte, +Villemain and Dupin to draw up the protest of the liberal +deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he applied +himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the +late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it +was a great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government +in France that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X. +and Prince Polignac rendered a change in the hereditary line of +succession inevitable. But, though convinced that it was +inevitable, he became one of the most ardent supporters of Louis-Philippe. +In August 1830 Guizot was made minister of the +interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed into +the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years +was the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding +champion of “a monarchy limited by a limited number of +bourgeois.”</p> + +<p>In 1831 Casimir-Périer formed a more vigorous and compact +administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +the summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican +rising in Paris, and it was not till the 11th of October 1832 that +a stable government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was +first minister, the duc de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers +the home department, and Guizot the department of public +instruction. This ministry, which lasted for nearly four years, +was by far the ablest that ever served Louis Philippe. +Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of unpopularity +by the more advanced liberal party. He remained +unpopular all his life, “not,” said he, “that I court unpopularity, +but that I think nothing about it.” Yet never were his great +abilities more useful to his country than whilst he filled this +office of secondary rank but of primary importance in the +department of public instruction. The duties it imposed on him +were entirely congenial to his literary tastes, and he was master +of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in the first +instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then for +the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing +and organizing primary education in France, this law marked +a distinct epoch in French history. In fifteen years, under its +influence, the number of primary schools rose from ten to +twenty-three thousand; normal schools for teachers, and a +general system of inspection, were introduced; and boards of +education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were created. +The secondary class of schools and the university of France were +equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care, +and a prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and +historical research. The branch of the Institute of France +known as the “Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques,” +which had been suppressed by Napoleon, was revived by Guizot. +Some of the old members of this learned body—Talleyrand, +Siéyès, Roederer and Lakanal—again took their seats there, +and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for +the free discussion of the great problems of political and social +science. The “Société de l’Histoire de France” was founded +for the publication of historical works; and a vast publication +of medieval chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken +at the expense of the state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">History</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>, <i>History</i>, +section <i>Sources</i>).</p> + +<p>The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize +a conservative party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the +republican faction which threatened the existence of the monarchy. +It was their pride and their boast that their measures never +exceeded the limits of the law, and by the exercise of legal power +alone they put down an insurrection amounting to civil war in +Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The real strength of +the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the fact that in +this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in cordial +co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary +eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of +them could submit to the supremacy of the other, and circumstances +threw Thiers almost continuously on a course of +opposition, whilst Guizot bore the graver responsibilities of +power.</p> + +<p>Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in +opposition to M. Molé, who had formed an intermediate government, +and this coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the +left centre and the left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his +ambition and jealousy of Molé, is justly regarded as one of the +chief inconsistencies of his life. Victory was secured at the +expense of principle, and Guizot’s attack upon the government +gave rise to a crisis and a republican insurrection. None of +the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial office, however, +and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of ambassador in +London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary +contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded +shortly afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs.</p> + +<p>Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen +and by the society of London. His literary works were highly +esteemed, his character was respected, and France was never +more worthily represented abroad than by one of her greatest +orators. He was known to be well versed in the history and the +literature of England, and sincerely attached to the alliance of +the two nations and the cause of peace. But, as he himself +remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in diplomacy; +and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question, +on which the French government had separated itself from the +joint policy of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire confidence +between the ambassador and the minister of foreign +affairs, placed him in an embarrassing and even false position. +The warnings he transmitted to Thiers were not believed. The +warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to his own convictions. +The treaty of the 15th of July was signed without his knowledge +and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some weeks +Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an +end to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations +of Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a +ministry and to aid his Majesty in what he termed “ma lutte +tenace contre l’anarchie.” Thus began, under dark and adverse +circumstances, on the 29th of October 1840, the important +administration in which Guizot remained the master-spirit for +nearly eight years. He himself took the office of minister for +foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the +retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime +minister. His first care was the maintenance of peace and the +restoration of amicable relations with the other powers of Europe. +If he succeeded, as he did succeed, in calming the troubled +elements and healing the wounded pride of France, the result +was due mainly to the indomitable courage and splendid +eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity +and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they +had a great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and +prudence of the nation rather than to their vanity and their +ambition. In his pacific task he was fortunately seconded by +the formation of Sir Robert Peel’s administration in England, +in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord Palmerston and Guizot +there existed an incompatibility of character exceedingly +dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some +respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot +felt that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British +agent throughout the world; the combative element was strong +in his own disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual +conflict and counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it +appears from his own letters) that war between England and +France was, sooner or later, inevitable. Guizot held that such +a war would be the greatest of all calamities, and certainly never +contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the foreign secretary of +Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally perfectly +congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been +slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence. +They were both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch +Presbyterianism which had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen +was reflected in the Huguenot minister of France; both were +men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined to the refinement of +scholarship and culture; both had an intense aversion to war +and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those adventurous +operations which inflamed the imagination of their respective +opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their +policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured +peace to the world, and united the two great and free nations of +the West in what was termed the <i>entente cordiale</i>. Neither of +them would have stooped to snatch an advantage at the expense +of the other; they held the common interest of peace and +friendship to be paramount; and when differences arose, as they +did arise, in remote parts of the world,—in Tahiti, in Morocco, +on the Gold Coast,—they were reduced by this principle to their +proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced +Guizot’s foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He +replied in terms of unmeasured contempt,—“You may raise +the pile of calumny as high as you will; vous n’arriverez jamais +à la hauteur de mon dédain!” The opposition in England +attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches, but in vain. +King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England +(in 1843) stayed at the Château d’Eu. In 1845 British and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +French troops fought side by side for the first time in an expedition +to the River Plate.</p> + +<p>The fall of Sir Robert Peel’s government in 1846 changed +these intimate relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to +the foreign office led Guizot to believe that he was again exposed +to the passionate rivalry of the British cabinet. A friendly +understanding had been established at Eu between the two +courts with reference to the future marriage of the young queen +of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct +of Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Dalling) at Madrid led +Guizot to believe that this understanding was broken, and that +it was intended to place a Coburg on the throne of Spain. +Determined to resist any such intrigue, Guizot and the king +plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue, wholly inconsistent +with their previous engagements to England, and fatal to the +happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was +urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of +Bourbon, and her sister was at the same time married to the +youngest son of the French king, in direct violation of Louis +Philippe’s promises. This transaction, although it was hailed +at the time as a triumph of the policy of France, was in truth +as fatal to the monarch as it was discreditable to the minister. +It was accomplished by a mixture of secrecy and violence. It +was defended by subterfuges. By the dispassionate judgment +of history it has been universally condemned. Its immediate +effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw +Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of +Metternich and the Northern courts.</p> + +<p>The history of Guizot’s administration, the longest and the +last which existed under the constitutional monarchy of France, +bears the stamp of the great qualities and the great defects of his +political character, for he was throughout the master-spirit of +that government. His first object was to unite and discipline +the conservative party, which had been broken up by previous +dissensions and ministerial changes. In this he entirely succeeded +by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary leader, and by +the use of all those means of influence which France too liberally +supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doubted the +purity and disinterestedness of Guizot’s own conduct. He +despised money; he lived and died poor; and though he +encouraged the fever of money-getting in the French nation, his +own habits retained their primitive simplicity. But he did not +disdain to use in others the baser passions from which he was +himself free. Some of his instruments were mean; he employed +them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross abuses and +breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the government, +and under an incorruptible minister the administration +was denounced as corrupt. <i>Licet uti alieno vitio</i> is a proposition +as false in politics as it is in divinity.</p> + +<p>Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too +highly. It was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding,—not +persuasive, not humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed +with the force of a supreme authority in the fewest words. He +was essentially a ministerial speaker, far more powerful in +defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the type of +authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges, +the wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his +great rival. Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics +and of those sudden changes and movements in debate which, +as in a battle, sometimes change the fortune of the day. His +confidence in himself, and in the majority of the chamber which +he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long success +and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country +like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by +a small constituency, to which the minister and the king himself +were held responsible.</p> + +<p>A government based on the principle of resistance and repression +and marked by dread and distrust of popular power, +a system of diplomacy which sought to revive the traditions of +the old French monarchy, a sovereign who largely exceeded the +bounds of constitutional power and whose obstinacy augmented +with years, a minister who, though far removed from the servility +of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal influence of +the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises of the +Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the administration. +Guizot’s view of politics was essentially historical +and philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him +little insight into the practical business of administrative government. +Of finance he knew nothing; trade and commerce were +strange to him; military and naval affairs were unfamiliar to +him; all these subjects he dealt with by second hand through +his friends, P. S. Dumon (1797-1870), Charles Marie Tanneguy, +Comte Duchâtel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The consequence +was that few measures of practical improvement were +carried by his administration. Still less did the government +lend an ear to the cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject +the king’s prejudices were insurmountable, and his ministers +had the weakness to give way to them. It was impossible to +defend a system which confined the suffrage to 200,000 citizens, +and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen. Nothing +would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative +party by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in +France, but blank resistance was the sole answer of the government +to the just and moderate demands of the opposition. +Warning after warning was addressed to them in vain by friends +and by foes alike; and they remained profoundly unconscious +of their danger till the moment when it overwhelmed them. +Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at the time +or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of +himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal +government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive +that a more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and +a less intense confidence in his own specific theory might have +preserved the constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series +of calamities, which were in the end fatal to every principle +he most cherished. But with the stubborn conviction of +absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own doctrines to +the end.</p> + +<p>The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic +of his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon oí +the 23rd of February 1848 the king summoned his minister +from the chamber, which was then sitting, and informed him +that the aspect of Paris and the country during the banquet +agitation for reform, and the alarm and division of opinion in +the royal family, led him to doubt whether he could retain his +ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of the question, +and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to announce +that the administration was at an end and that Molé had been +sent for by the king. Molé failed in the attempt to form a government, +and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot, +who had according to his custom retired early to rest, was again +sent for to the Tuileries. The king asked his advice. “We are +no longer the ministers of your Majesty,” replied Guizot; “it +rests with others to decide on the course to be pursued. But +one thing appears to be evident: this street riot must be put +down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose +my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full +power, and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and +as your Majesty has at this moment no minister, I am ready to +draw up and countersign such an order.” The marshal, who +was present, undertook the task, saying, “I have never been +beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow. The barricades +shall be carried before dawn.” After this display of energy the +king hesitated, and soon added: “I ought to tell you that M. +Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a government!” +Upon this Guizot rejoined, “Then it rests with them +to do what they think fit,” and left the palace. Thiers and +Barrot decided to withdraw the troops. The king and Guizot +next met at Claremont. This was the most perilous conjuncture +of Guizot’s life, but fortunately he found a safe refuge in Paris +for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature painter +whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his +escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where +he arrived on the 3rd of March. His mother and daughters +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +had preceded him, and he was speedily installed in a modest +habitation in Pelham Crescent, Brompton.</p> + +<p>The society of England, though many persons disapproved +of much of his recent policy, received the fallen statesman with +as much distinction and respect as they had shown eight years +before to the king’s ambassador. Sums of money were placed +at his disposal, which he declined. A professorship at Oxford +was spoken of, which he was unable to accept. He stayed in +England about a year, devoting himself again to history. He +published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in +1854 his <i>Histoire de la république d’Angleterre et de Cromwell</i> +(2 vols., 1854), then his <i>Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et +du rétablissement des Stuarts</i> (2 vols., 1856). He also published +an essay on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the +ten years 1858-1868, appeared the extensive <i>Mémoires pour +servir à l’histoire de mon temps</i>, in nine volumes. His speeches +were included in 1863 in his <i>Histoire parlementaire de la France</i> +(5 vols. of parliamentary speeches, 1863).</p> + +<p>Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government +he had served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the +condition of one of the most powerful and active statesmen in +Europe to the condition of a philosophical and patriotic spectator +of human affairs. He was aware that the link between himself +and public life was broken for ever; and he never made the +slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a member +of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no +language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the +fever of oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from +him and left him a greater man than he had been before, in the +pursuit of letters, in the conversation of his friends, and as head +of the patriarchal circle of those he loved. The greater part of +the year he spent at his residence at Val Richer, an Augustine +monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which had been sold at +the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters, who married +two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt, +so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France, +kept his house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And +here Guizot devoted his later years with undiminished energy +to literary labour, which was in fact his chief means of subsistence. +Proud, independent, simple and contented he remained to the +last; and these years of retirement were perhaps the happiest +and most serene portion of his life.</p> + +<p>Two institutions may be said even under the second empire +to have retained their freedom—the Institute of France and the +Protestant Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the +last to take an active part. He was a member of three of the five +academies into which the Institute of France is divided. The +Academy of Moral and Political Science owed its restoration +to him, and he became in 1832 one of its first associates. The +Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected him in 1833 +as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a +member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction +of the country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for +nearly forty years to take a lively interest and to exercise a +powerful influence. He was the jealous champion of their +independence. His voice had the greatest weight in the choice +of new candidates; the younger generation of French writers +never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant +aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession +of letters.</p> + +<p>In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot +exercised a similar influence. His early education and his +experience of life conspired to strengthen the convictions of a +religious temperament. He remained through life a firm believer +in the truths of revelation, and a volume of <i>Meditations on the +Christian Religion</i> was one of his latest works. But though +he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and combated +the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten +it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or +asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of +Rome the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the +writings of the great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue, +were as familiar and as dear to him as those of his own persuasion, +and were commonly used by him in the daily exercises of family +worship.</p> + +<p>In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer +years passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grandchildren +grew up around him, he began to direct their attention +to the history of their country. From these lessons sprang his +last and not his least work, the <i>Histoire de France racontée à mes +petits enfants</i>, for although this publication assumed a popular +form, it is not less complete and profound than it is simple and +attractive. The history came down to 1789, and was continued +to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her +father’s notes.</p> + +<p>Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot’s mental vigour and +activity were unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things, +was blessed with a singular immunity from infirmity and disease; +but the vital power ebbed away, and he passed gently away on +the 12th of September 1874, reciting now and then a verse of +Corneille or a text of Scripture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—See his own <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de +mon temps</i> (8 vols., 1858-1861); <i>Lettres de M. Guizot à sa famille et à +ses amis</i> (1884); C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i> (vol. i., 1857) +and <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i> (vols. i. and ix., 1863-1872); E. Scherer, +<i>Études critiques sur la littérature contemporaine</i> (vol. iv., 1873); +Mme de Witt, <i>Guizot dans sa famille</i> (1880); Jules Simon, <i>Thiers, +Guizot et Rémusat</i> (1885); E. Faguet, <i>Politiques et moralistes au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (1891); G. Bardoux, <i>Guizot</i> (1894) in the series of “Les +Grands Écrivains français”; Maurice Guizot, <i>Les Années de retraite +de M. Guizot</i> (1901); and for a long list of books and articles on +Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, <i>Guide bibliographique de la +littérature française de 1800 à 1906</i> (<i>s.v.</i> Guizot, Paris, 1907). For a +notice of his first wife see C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Portraits de femmes</i> +(1884), and Ch. de Rémusat, <i>Critiques et études littéraires</i> (vol. ii., +1847).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. R.; J. T. S.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUJARAT<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guzerat</span>, a region of India, in the Bombay +Presidency. In the widest sense of the name it includes the +whole of the country where the Gujarati language is spoken, +<i>i.e.</i> the northern districts and states of the Presidency from +Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it is +more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda +and east of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense +it has an area of 29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of +4,798,504. It includes the states distributed among the agencies +of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa Kantha and Cambay, with +most of Baroda and the British districts of Ahmedabad, Kaira, +Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is British +territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe +who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom +in Rajputana, and spread south in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400-600. The ancient +Hindu capital was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty, +which ruled from 1396 to 1572, founded Ahmedabad, which is +still the largest city; but Gujarat owed much of its historical +importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and Surat. +Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers, +has caused it to be styled the “garden of India.” It suffered, +however, severely from the famine of 1899-1901. For an +account of the history, geography, &c., of Gujarat see the +articles on the various states and districts. Gujarat gives its +name to the vernacular of northern Bombay, viz. Gujarati, +one of the three great languages of that Presidency, spoken by +more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a peculiar +character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the +Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of +Bombay city, which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Campbell, <i>History of Gujarat</i> (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C. +Bayley, <i>The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat</i> (1886); A. K. +Forbes, <i>Ras Mala</i> (1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUJARATI<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> and <b>RAJASTHANI</b>, the names of two members +of the western sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo-Aryan +languages (<i>q.v.</i>). The remaining member of this sub-group +is Panjabi or Punjabi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). In 1901 the speakers +of those now dealt with numbered: Gujarati, 9,439,925, and +Rajasthani, 10,917,712. The two languages are closely connected +and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same form of +speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the +river Jumna to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly <i>Gujarātī</i>) is +spoken in Gujarat, the northern maritime province of the Bombay +Presidency, and also in Baroda and the native states adjoining. +Rajasthani (properly <i>Rājasthānī</i>, from “<i>Rājasthān</i>,” the native +name for Rajputana) is spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining +parts of Central India.</p> + +<p>In the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span> the +history of the earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is +given at some length. It is there shown that, from the most +ancient times, there were two main groups of these forms of +speech—one, the language of the Midland, spoken in the country +near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the so-called “Outer +Band,” containing the Midland on three sides, west, north and +south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland, +in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included +the modern Punjab, Rajputana and Gujarat. In process of +time the population of the Midland expanded and carried its +language to its new homes. It occupied the eastern and central +Punjab, and the mixed (or “intermediate”) language which +there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it +spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the +Indian desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language +took rise and became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the +language-wave of the Midland exercised less and less influence +as it travelled farther from its home, so that, while in eastern +Rajputana the local dialect is now almost a pure midland speech, +in the west there are many evident traces of the old outer +language still surviving. To the south-west of Rajputana there +was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion, which +therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached +the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are +stronger still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known +as “Saurāṣṭrī,” while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was +called “Śaurasēnī,” and we may therefore describe Gujarati +as being an intermediate language derived (as explained in the +articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>) from a mixture of the Apabhramśa forms of +Saurāṣṭrī and Śaurasēnī, in which the latter predominated.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that, at the present day, Gujarati breaks +the continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages. +To its north it has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer +languages with which it has only a slight connexion. On the +other hand, on the east and north-east it has Rajasthani, into +which it merges so gradually and imperceptibly that at the +conventional border-line, in the state of Palanpur, the inhabitants +of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a form of Gujarati, +while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is Rajasthani.</p> + +<p>Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is considerable +variation in the speeches of different classes of the community. +Parsees and Mussulmans (when the latter +use the language—as a rule the Gujarat Mussulmans +speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of pronunciation, +<span class="sidenote">Language.</span> +the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the latter +of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The +uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same +way as their betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern +Gujarat, where the lower classes substitute <i>ē</i> for <i>ī</i>, <i>c</i> for <i>k</i>, <i>ch</i> for +<i>kh</i>, <i>s</i> for <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i>, <i>h</i> for <i>s</i>, and drop <i>h</i> as readily as any cockney. +There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to +confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute <i>r</i> for <i>ḍ</i> and +<i>l</i>, to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter +<i>ā</i> as <i>å</i>, something like the <i>a</i> in “all.” The Bhils of the hills +east of Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic +peculiarities of their own, probably due to the fact that the +tribes are of Dravidian origin. These Bhil peculiarities are +further mixed with corruptions of Marathi idioms in Nimar +and Khandesh, where we have almost a new language.</p> + +<p>Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one +or more of its own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been +catalogued no less than ten dialects among about 1,688,000 +people. All Rajasthani dialects can, however, be easily classed +in four well-defined groups, a north-eastern, a southern, a +western and an east-central. The north-eastern (Mēwātī) is +that form of Rajasthani which is merging into the Western +Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need +not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (Mālvī) is much +mixed with the neighbouring Bundēlī form of Western Hindi. +The western (Mārwāṛī) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood, +and the east-central (Jaipurī) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbourhood, +may be taken as the typical Rajasthani dialects. In the +following paragraphs we shall therefore confine ourselves to +Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri.</p> + +<p>We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we +do about that of any other Indo-Aryan language. The one +native grammar of Apabhraṁśa Prakrit which we possess in a +printed edition, was written by Hēmacandra (12th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), +who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who naturally +described most fully the particular vernacular with which he was +personally familiar. It was known as the Nāgara Apabhraṁśa, +closely connected (as above explained) with Śaurasēnī, and was +so named after the Nāgara Brahmans of the locality. These +men carried on the tradition of learning inherited from Hēmacandra, +and we see Gujarati almost in the act of taking birth +in a work called the <i>Mugdhāvabōdhamauktika</i>, written by one +of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal +Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh +Mētā in the 15th century. Rajasthani literature has received +but small attention from European or native scholars, and we +are as yet unable to say how far back the language goes.</p> + +<p>Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current +scripts related to the well-known Nāgarī alphabet (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>). +The form employed in Rajputana is known all over northern +India as the “Mahājanī” alphabet, being used by bankers or +<i>Mahājans</i>, most of whom are Marwaris. It is noteworthy as +possessing two distinct characters for <i>ḍ</i> and <i>ṛ</i>. The Gujarati +character closely resembles the Kaithī character of northern +India (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>). The Nāgarī character is also freely used in +Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed +by the Nāgara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given +the alphabet its name.</p> + +<p>In the following description of the main features of our two +languages, the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading +facts stated in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>. The article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span> may also be perused with +advantage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap. = Apabhraṁśa. +G. = Gujarātī. R. = Rājasthānī. H. = Hindōstāanī.)</p> + +<p><i>Vocabulary.</i>—The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is +very free from <i>tatsama</i> words. The great mass of both vocabularies +is <i>tadbhava</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>). Rajputana was from +an early period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at +Agra and Delhi, and even in the 13th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> official documents +of the Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic +words. Gujarati, under the influence of the learned Nāgara Brahmans, +has perhaps more <i>tatsama</i> words than Rajasthani, but their +employment is not excessive. On the other hand, Parsees and +Mussulmans employ Persian and Arabic words with great freedom; +while, owing to its maritime connexions, the language has also +borrowed occasional words from other parts of Asia and from Europe. +This is specially marked in the strange dialect of the Kathiawar +boatmen who travel all over the world as lascars on the great steamships. +Their language is a mixture of Hindostani and Gujarati +with a heterogeneous vocabulary.</p> + +<p><i>Phonetics.</i>—With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the +sound-system of the two languages is the same as that of Sanskrit, +and is represented in the same manner in the Roman character +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>). The simplest method for considering the subject +in regard to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of +Hindostani (<i>q.v.</i>). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati +and need not be referred to except in special cases. G. invariably +simplifies a medial Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding +vowel in compensation. Thus Skr. <i>mrakṣaṇam</i>, Ap. <i>makkhaṇu</i>, +H. <i>makkhan</i>, but G. <i>mākhaṇ</i>, butter. In H. this rule is generally +observed, but in G. it is universal, while, on the other hand, in +Panjabi the double consonant is never simplified, but is retained as +in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in R.) when <i>a</i> is followed by <i>h</i> it is +changed to <i>e</i>, as in H. <i>shahr</i>, G. <i>śeher</i>, a city. As in other outer +languages H. <i>ai</i> and <i>au</i> are usually represented by a short <i>e</i> and by +<i>å</i> (sounded like the <i>a</i> in “all”) respectively. Thus H. <i>baiṭhā</i>. G. +<i>beṭhō</i>, seated; H. <i>cauthā</i>, G. <i>cåthō</i> (written <i>cōthō</i>), fourth. In R. +this <i>e</i> is often further weakened to the sound of <i>a</i> in “man,” a change +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +which is also common in Bengali. Many words which have <i>i</i> in H. +have <i>a</i> in G. and R., thus, H. <i>likhē</i>, G. <i>lakhē</i>, he writes; H. din, +G. and R. <i>dan</i>, a day. Similarly we have <i>a</i> for <i>u</i>, as in H. <i>tum</i>, G., R. +<i>tamē</i>, you. In colloquial G. <i>ā</i> often becomes <i>ả</i>, and <i>ī</i> becomes <i>ē</i>; thus, +<i>pảṇī</i> for <i>pāṇī</i>, water; <i>mārēs</i> for <i>mārīs</i>, I shall strike. As in most +Indo-Aryan vernaculars an <i>a</i> after an accented syllable is very lightly +pronounced, and is here represented by a small <span class="sp">a</span> above the line.</p> + +<p>The Vedic cerebral <i>l</i> and the cerebral <i>ṇ</i> are very common as medial +letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.). +The rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate +and outer languages, that when <i>n</i> and <i>l</i> represent +a double <i>ṇṇ</i> (or <i>nn</i>) or a double <i>ll</i> in Pr. they are dental, +but when they represent single medial letters they are +cerebralized. Thus Ap. <i>soṇṇaũ</i>, G. <i>sōnũ</i>, gold; Ap. +<i>ghaṇaũ</i>, G. <i>ghaṇũ</i>, dense; Ap. <i>callai</i>, G. <i>cālē</i>, he goes; +Ap. <i>calai</i>, G. <i>caḷē</i>, he moves. In northern G. and in +some caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are +absolutely interchangeable, as in <i>ḍāh<span class="sp">a</span>dō</i> or +<i>dahāḍō</i>, a +day; <i>tũ</i> or <i>ṭũ</i>, thou; <i>dīdhō</i> or <i>dīḍhō</i>, given. In G. and R. +medial <i>ḍ</i> is pronounced as a rough cerebral <i>ṛ</i>, and is +then so transcribed. We have seen that in the Marwari +alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these two +sounds. In colloquial G. <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> are pronounced <i>s</i>, +especially in the north, as in <i>pẵs</i> for <i>pẵc</i>, five; <i>pusyō</i> +for <i>puchyō</i>, he asked. Similarly, in the north, <i>j</i> and <i>jh</i> +become <i>z</i>, as in <i>zāḍ</i> for <i>jhāḍ</i>, a tree. In some localities +(as in Marathi) we have <i>ts</i> and <i>dz</i> for these sounds, as +in <i>Tsarōtar</i> (name of a tract of country) for <i>Carōtar</i>. On +the other hand, <i>k</i>, <i>kh</i> and <i>g</i>, especially when preceded or +followed by <i>i</i>, <i>e</i> or <i>y</i>, become in the north <i>c</i>, <i>ch</i> and <i>j</i> +respectively; thus, <i>dic<span class="sp">a</span>rō</i> for <i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>rō</i>, a son; <i>chētar</i> for +<i>khētar</i>, a field; <i>lājyō</i> for <i>lāgyō</i>, begun. A similar change +is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one of +the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance +languages. The sibilants <i>s</i> and <i>ś</i> are colloquially pronounced +<i>h</i> (as in several outer languages), especially in the +north. Thus <i>dēh</i> for <i>dēś</i>, a country; <i>hũ</i> for <i>śũ</i>, what; <i>ham<span class="sp">a</span>jāvyō</i> +for <i>sam<span class="sp">a</span>jāvyō</i>, he explained. An original aspirate +is, however, often dropped, as in <i>’ũ</i> for <i>hũ</i>, I; <i>’ātē</i> for +<i>hāthē</i>, on the hand. Standard G. is at the same time +fond of pronouncing an <i>h</i> where it is not written, as in +<i>amē</i>, we, pronounced <i>ahmē</i>. In other respects both G. +and R. closely agree in their phonetical systems with +the Apabhraṁśa form of Śaurasēnī Prakrit from which +the Midland language is derived.</p> + +<p><i>Declension</i>.—Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer +language) as against Hindostani in retaining the +neuter gender of Sanskrit and Prakrit. Moreover, +the neuter gender is often employed to indicate living +beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of +<i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>rũ</i>, a child, compared with <i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>rō</i>, a son, and +<i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>rī</i>, a daughter. +In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which grow +more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G. +and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine +nouns in Western Hindi generally ends in <i>au</i>, the <i>ā</i> of words like +the Hindostani <i>ghōṛā</i>, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that +the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination +from Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine +strong forms end in <i>ō</i>. Feminine strong forms end in <i>ī</i> as elsewhere. +Neuter strong forms in G. end in <i>ũ</i>, derived as follows: Skr, <i>svarṇakam</i>, +Ap. <i>soṇṇaũ</i>, G. <i>sōnũ</i>, gold. As an example of the three +genders of the same word we may take G. <i>chōk<span class="sp">a</span>rō</i> (masc.), a boy; +<i>chōk<span class="sp">a</span>rī</i> (fem.), a girl; <i>chōk<span class="sp">a</span>rũ</i> (neut.), a child. Long forms corresponding +to the Eastern Hindi <i>ghoṛ<span class="sp">a</span>wā</i>, a horse, are not much used, +but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing +the pleonastic termination <i>ḍō</i> or <i>ṛō</i> (fem. <i>ḍī</i> or +<i>ṛī</i>; G. neut. <i>ḍũ</i> or <i>ṛũ</i>) +which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic termination +<i>ḍaü</i>, <i>ḍaī</i>, <i>ḍaũ</i>. We come across this most often in R., where it is used +contemptuously, as in <i>Turuk-ṛō</i>, a Turk.</p> + +<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span> it is shown that all the oblique cases of +each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the +modern languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Midland, +is derived in the singular from the Ap. termination <i>-hi</i> or <i>-hĩ</i>, and +that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine +nouns; thus, <i>ghōṛā</i>, obl. <i>ghōṛē</i>. In G. and R. this same termination +has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and +locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the nominative, +except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns in <i>ō</i> +and <i>ũ</i> respectively, where it ends in <i>ā</i>, not <i>ē</i>. This <i>ā</i>-termination is +characteristic of the outer band of languages, and is one of the survivals +already referred to. It is derived from the Apabhraṁśa +genitive form in <i>-aha</i>, corresponding to the Māgadhī Pr. (an outer +Prakrit) termination <i>-āha</i>. Thus, G. <i>chōk<span class="sp">a</span>rō</i>, a son; <i>chōk<span class="sp">a</span>rũ</i>, a +child; obl. sing. <i>chōk<span class="sp">a</span>rā</i>.</p> + +<p>In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed +by adding <i>ō</i> to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong +forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same +in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a +nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in +other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added <i>ō</i> is a further +plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the +Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit <i>puttā-ō</i>, sons) which is often dropped. The +nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in +which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -<i>aāĩ</i> In R. +the nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the +oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in <i>ẫ</i>. The feminine +has <i>ẫ</i> both in the nominative and in the oblique plural. These are +all explained in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. We thus get the following +paradigms of the declension of nouns.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhraṁśa.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Masc.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">”<i>A horse.</i>”   Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍaaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍaahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍē</i>, <i>ghōḍāē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍai</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍaā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍā-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍaāhā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍā-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍaahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍā-ō-ē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Neut.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">”<i>Gold.</i>”   Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>soṇṇaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sōnũ</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>soṇṇaaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sōnā</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>soṇṇaahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sōnē</i>, <i>sōnāē</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>soṇṇaāĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sōnē</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>soṇṇaāhā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sōnẫ-ō</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>soṇṇaahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>sōnẫ-ō-ē</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strong Noun Fem.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">”<i>A mare.</i>”   Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍiā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍiahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍiae</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍīē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍiā-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍyẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍiahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍyẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍiahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍī-ō-ē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōḍyẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Masc. or Neut.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">”<i>A house.</i>”   Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharu</i> (neut.)</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharai</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharāĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharāhā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghar-ō-ē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>gharẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Weak Noun Fem.—</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">”<i>A word.</i>”   Sing. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>wāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>wāt</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattae</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>wātē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bāt</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Plur. Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattā-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>wāt-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bātẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>vattahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>wāt-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>bātẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">Ag.-Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>vattahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>wāt-ō-ē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>bātẫ</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the +nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to +add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Genitive.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ablative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Locative.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gujarati</td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>nō</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>nē</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>thī</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>mẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Rajasthani</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>rō</i>, <i>kō</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>nai</i>, <i>rai</i>, <i>kai</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>s<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>maī</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The suffix <i>nō</i> of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of +<i>taṇō</i>, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the +form <i>tanas</i> in Sanskrit and <i>taṇaü</i> in Apabhraṁśa, mean “belonging +to.” It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with +the thing possessed. Thus, <i>rājā-nō dik<span class="sp">a</span>rō</i>, the king’s son; <i>rājā-nī +dik<span class="sp">a</span>rī</i>, the king’s daughter; <i>rājā-nũ ghar</i>, the king’s house; <i>rājā-nā +dik<span class="sp">a</span>rā-nē</i>, to the king’s son (<i>nā</i> is in the oblique case masculine to +agree with <i>dik<span class="sp">a</span>rā</i>); <i>rājā-nē gharē</i>, in the king’s house. The <i>rō</i> and +<i>kō</i> of R. are similarly treated, but, of course, have no neuter. The +dative postpositions are simply locatives of the genitive ones, as in +all modern Indo-Aryan languages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>). <i>Thī</i>, the postposition +of the G. ablative, is connected with <i>thawũ</i>, to be, one of the +verbs substantive in that language. The ablative suffix is made in +this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (<i>e.g.</i> Bengali, <i>q.v.</i>). +It means literally “having been” and is to be ultimately referred +to the Sanskrit root, <i>sthā</i>, stand. The derivation of the other +postpositions is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender, +number and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak +adjectives are immutable.</p> + +<p>Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani. In the +table on following page we give the first two personal pronouns, +and the demonstrative pronoun “this.”</p> + +<p>Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. <i>ā</i>, R. <i>ũ</i>, he, +that; G. <i>tē</i>, R. <i>sō</i> (obl. sing. <i>t<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i>), that; G. <i>jē</i>, R. <i>jō</i>, who; G. <i>kảṇ</i> +(obl. <i>kảṇ</i>, <i>kō</i>, or <i>kē</i>), R. <i>kuṇ</i> (obl. <i>kuṇ</i>), who?; G. <i>śũ</i>, R. <i>kẵ<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i>, what?; +G., R. <i>kōī</i>, anyone, someone, <i>kā<span class="ov">ĩ</span></i> anything, something. G. has two +other demonstratives, <i>pēlō</i> and <i>ōlyō</i>, both meaning “that.” The +derivation of these and of <i>śũ</i> has been discussed without any decisive +result. The rest are explained in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +reflexive pronoun is G. <i>āp<span class="sp">a</span>ṇē</i>, R. <i>āpẫ</i>. It is generally employed as a +plural of the first personal pronoun including the person addressed; +thus G. <i>āp<span class="sp">a</span>ṇē</i>, we (including you), but <i>amē</i>, we (excluding you). +In G. <i>pōtē</i>, obl. <i>pōtā</i>, is used to mean “self.”</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhraṁśa.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">i</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>haũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>hũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>h<span class="ov">ũ</span>, mh<span class="ov">ũ</span>, maī</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>maĩ, mahu, majjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma, maj</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ma, mha, m<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">my</span></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mahāraü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mārō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mārō, mhārō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">we</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amhē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mhē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amhahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>am-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mhẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">our</span></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amhāraü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>amārō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>mhẫ-rō, mhẫ-kō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">thou</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tuhũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>t<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>taĩ, tuha, tujjhu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta, tuj</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ta, tha, t<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">thy</span></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tuhāraü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tārō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>thārō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">you</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumhē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tamē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>thē, tamē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumhahã</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tam-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>thẫ, tamẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">your</span></td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tumhāraü</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>tamārō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>thẫ-rō, thẫ-kō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">this, he</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ēho</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>yō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb">(?) <i>ēhaha, imaha</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i><span class="ov">ĩ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"><span class="sc">these, they</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ēi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ē-ō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ē, yē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">Obl.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ēammi, ēhāṇa</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>em</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>iṇẫ, yẫ</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Conjugation</i>.—The old present has survived as in Hindostani and +other Indian languages. Taking the base <i>call</i> or <i>caḷ</i>, go, as our model, +we have:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhraṁśa.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Sing.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callaũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cālũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷ<span class="ov">ũ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahi</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cālē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷai</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callai</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cālē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷai</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Plur.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cālīē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷẫ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callahu</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cālō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>callahĩ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>cālē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>caḷai</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The derivation of the G. 1 plural is unknown. That of the other +G. and R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this, +but as usual has no termination in the second person singular.</p> + +<p>In R. the future may be formed by adding <i>gō</i> (cf. Hindostani <i>gā</i>), +<i>lō</i>, or <i>lā</i> to the old present. Thus, <i>caḷ<span class="ov">ũ</span>-gō</i>, +<i>caḷ<span class="ov">ũ</span>-lo</i> or <i>cal<span class="ov">ũ</span>-lā</i> I shall +go. The <i>gō</i> and <i>lō</i> agree in gender and number with the subject, +but <i>lā</i> is immutable. The termination with <i>l</i> is also found in Bhojpuri +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>), in Marathi and in Nepali. For <i>gō</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>. +Another form of the future has <i>s</i> or <i>h</i> for its characteristic letter, +and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap. <i>callisaũ</i> or +<i>callihaũ</i>, +G. <i>cālīś</i>, R. (Jaipuri) <i>caḷ<span class="sp">a</span>sy<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>, (Marwari) +<i>caḷ<span class="sp">a</span>hũ</i>. The other personal +terminations differ considerably from those of the old present, and +closely follow Ap. Thus, Ap. 3 sing. <i>callisai</i> or <i>callihi</i>, G. +<i>cāl<span class="sp">a</span>śē</i>, +Marwari <i>caḷ<span class="sp">a</span>hī</i>.</p> + +<p>The participles and infinitive are as follows:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Apabhraṁśa.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Gujarati.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Rajasthani.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pres. Part. Active</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>callantau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cāl<span class="sp">a</span>tō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷ<span class="sp">a</span>tō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Past. Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cālyō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷyō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Future Part. Passive</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>calliavvau</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>cāl<span class="sp">a</span>vō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>caḷ<span class="sp">a</span>bō</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Infinitive</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>cāl<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>caḷ<span class="sp">a</span>bō</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive +participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses; +thus G. <i>hũ cāl<span class="sp">a</span>tō</i>, I used to go; <i>hũ cālyō</i>, I went. If the verb is +transitive (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hindostani</a></span>) the passive meaning of the past participle +comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and +the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no object, +is employed impersonally in the neuter (in G.) or in the masculine +(in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the dative, the +participle is also employed impersonally, in the masculine; thus +<i>rājā-nē shērnī-kō mārā</i> (masc.), not <i>mārī</i>, (fem.), by-the-king, with +reference-to-the-tigress, it-(impersonal)-was-killed, <i>i.e.</i> the king killed +the tigress. But in G. and R., even if the object is in the dative, +the past participle agrees with it; thus, G. <i>rājāē wāghaṇ-nē mārī</i>, +by-the-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other +examples from G. of this passive construction are <i>m<span class="ov">ẽ</span> kahyũ</i>, by +me it was said, I said; <i>tēṇē ciṭṭhī lakhī</i>, by him a letter was written, +he wrote a letter; <i>ē bāīē vag<span class="sp">a</span>ḍā-mẫ, +dahāḍā kāḍyā</i>, by this lady, in the +wilderness, days were passed, <i>i.e.</i> she passed her days in the wilderness; +<i>rājāē vicāryũ</i>, the king considered. The idiom of R. is exactly +the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be used +where G. has the neuter; thus, <i>rājāai vicāryo</i>. The future passive +participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in Latin) the +subject may be put into the dative. Thus, <i>mārē ā cåp<span class="sp">a</span>ḍī vẫc<span class="sp">a</span>vī, mihi +ille liber (est) legendus</i>, I must read that book, but also <i>tēṇē</i> (agent +case) <i>ē kām kar<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, by him this business is to be done.</p> + +<p>G. also forms a past participle in <i>ēlō</i> (<i>cālēlō</i>), which is one of the +many survivals of the outer language. This -<i>l</i>- participle is typical +of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi, Oriya, +Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of the +Prakrit pleonastic suffix <i>-illa-</i>, which was not used by the Prakrit +of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for instance, +the Ardhamāgadhī past participle passive <i>āṇ-illia-</i>, brought.</p> + +<p>The usual verbs substantive are as follows: G. <i>chũ</i>, R. <i>h<span class="ov">ũ</span></i> or <i>ch<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>, +I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G. <i>hatō</i>, +R. <i>hō</i> or <i>chō</i>, was, which is a past participle, like the Hindostani +(<i>q.v.</i>) <i>thā</i>. <i>H<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>, <i>hatō</i> and <i>hō</i> are explained in the article on that +language. <i>Chũ</i> is for Skr. <i>ṙcchāmi</i>, Ap. <i>acchaũ</i>. The use of this base +is one of the outer band survivals. Even in Prakrit, it is not found +(so far as the present writer is aware) in the Śaurasēnī of the Midland. +Using these as auxiliaries the finite verb makes a whole series of +periphrastic tenses. A present definite is formed by conjugating the +old present tense (not the present participle) with the present tense +of the verb substantive. Thus, G. <i>cālũ chũ</i>, I am going. A similar +idiom is found in some Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani employs +the present participle; thus, <i>caltā h<span class="ov">ũ</span></i>. In G. and R., however, +the imperfect is formed with the present participle as in H. Thus, +G. <i>hũ cāl<span class="sp">a</span>tō hatō</i>, I was going. So, as in H., we have a perfect +<i>hũ cālyō</i> (or <i>cālēlō</i>) <i>chũ</i>, I have gone, and a pluperfect <i>hũ cālyō</i> (or +<i>cālēlō</i>) <i>hatō</i>, I had gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the +same principles. With the genitive of the G. future passive participle, +<i>cāl<span class="sp">a</span>vā-nō</i>, we have a kind of gerundive, as in <i>hũ cāl<span class="sp">a</span>vānō chũ</i>, I am +to be gone, <i>i.e.</i> I am about to go; <i>hũ cāl<span class="sp">a</span>vānō hatō</i>, I was about to go.</p> + +<p>The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H. +Thus, we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by +adding <i>ā</i> to the base, as in G. <i>lakh<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to write, <i>lakhāvũ</i>, to be written; +and a causal by adding <i>āv</i> or <i>āḍ</i>, as in <i>lakhāv<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to cause to write; +<i>bes<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to sit, <i>besāḍ<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to seat. A new passive may be formed in +G. from the causal, as in <i>tap<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to be hot; <i>tapāv<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to cause to be +hot; to heat; <i>tapāvāvũ</i>, to be heated.</p> + +<p>Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be +learnt from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs, +such as (G.) <i>cālī śak<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to be able to go; <i>cālī cuk<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to have completed +going; <i>cālyā kar<span class="sp">a</span>vũ</i>, to be in the habit of going, and so on.</p> +</div> + +<p>Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except +that it is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles +of which only one has been partially edited, but the +contents of which have been described by Tod in his +admired <i>Rajasthan</i>. It also includes a considerable religious +<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span> +literature, but the whole mass of this is still in MS. From those +specimens which the present writer has examined, it would +appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the +Hindu literary dialect of Hindostani (<i>q.v.</i>) In Marwar it is an +acknowledged fact that the literature falls into two branches, +one called <i>Pingal</i> and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other +called <i>Ḍingal</i> and couched in Rajasthani. The most admired +work in Ḍingal is the <i>Raghunāth Rũpak</i> written by Mansā Rām +in the beginning of the 19th century. It is nominally a treatise +on prosody, but, like many other works of the same kind, it +contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres +are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the +deeds of the hero Rāma.</p> + +<p>The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most +admired poet, was Narsingh Mētā, who lived in the 15th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Before him there were writers on Sanskrit grammar, +rhetoric and the like, who employed an old form of Gujarati +for their explanations. Narsingh does not appear to have +written any considerable work, his reputation depending on his +short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of diction. +He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors. Perhaps +the most noteworthy of these was Rēwā Śankar, the translator +of the <i>Mahābhārata</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sanskrit</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>). A more +important side of Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles, +the contents of which have been utilized by Forbes in his <i>Rās +Mālā</i>. Modern Gujarati literature mostly consists of translations +or imitations of English works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Volume ix. of the <i>Linguistic Survey of India</i> +contains a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani, +including their various dialectic forms.</p> + +<p>For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, <i>Grammar of the Hindi Language</i> +(2nd ed., London, 1893). In this are described several dialects of +Rajasthani. See also Rām Karṇ Śarmā, <i>Mārwāṛi Vyākaraṇa</i> +(Jodhpur, 1901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language), +and G. Macalister, <i>Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of +Jaipur</i> (contains specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad, +1898).</p> + +<p>For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we +may note W. St C. Tisdall, <i>Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati +Language</i> (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor, +<i>The Student’s Gujarati Grammar</i> (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for +dictionaries, the most authoritative is the <i>Narma-kōś</i> of Narmadā +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +Śankar (Bhaunagar and Surat, 1873), in Gujarati throughout. For +English readers we may mention Shahpurji Edalji’s (2nd ed., +Bombay, 1868), the introduction to which contains an account of +Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow, Belsare’s (Ahmedabad, 1895), and +Karbhari’s (Ahmedabad, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. A. Gr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUJRANWALA,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Lahore division of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N. +of Lahore by rail. It is of modern growth, and owes its importance +to the father and grandfather of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, +whose capital it formed during the early period of the Sikh +power. Pop. (1901) 29,224. There are manufactures of brass-ware, +jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the +decade. The district is divided between a low alluvial tract +along the rivers Chenab and Degh and the upland between them, +which forms the central portion of the Rechna Doab, intermediate +between the fertile submontane plains of Sialkot and +the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has been +brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country +is very bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in +the central plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that +the district once contained the capital of the Punjab, at an epoch +when Lahore had not begun to exist. We learn from the Chinese +Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, that about the year 630 he +visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki), the metropolis of the +whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the modern +village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient +capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of +Gujranwala, except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore +had become the chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district +flourished for a time; but a mysterious depopulation fell upon +the tract, and the whole region seems to have been almost +entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power, the waste plains +of Gujranwala were seized by various military adventurers. +Charat Singh took-possession of the village of Gujranwala, and +here his grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born. +The Sikh rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to +have been an unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh +settled large colonies in the various villages, and encouraged +cultivation throughout the depopulated plain. In 1847 the +district came under British influence in connexion with the +regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in the territory +annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade is +carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is +served by the main line and branches of the North-Western +railway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUJRAT,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Rawalpindi +division of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border +of Kashmir. The town stands about 5 m. from the right bank +of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901) +19,410. It is built upon an ancient site, formerly occupied, +according to tradition, by two successive cities, the second of +which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of +a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah +or Akbar founded the existing town. Though standing in the +midst of a Jat neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by +Gujars, and took the name of Gujrat. Akbar’s fort, largely +improved by Gujar Singh, stands in the centre of the town. +The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula serves +as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has manufactures +of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware, +boots, cotton goods and shawls.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Gujrat</span> comprises a narrow wedge of sub-Himalayan +plain country, possessing few natural advantages. +From the basin of the Chenab on the south the general level +rises rapidly towards the interior, which, owing to the great +distance of the water beneath the surface, assumes a dreary +and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the Pabbi, +traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed +of a friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of +vegetation, and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock, +deeply scored with precipitous ravines. Immediately below the +Pabbi stretches a high plateau, terminating abruptly in a precipitous +bluff some 200 ft. in height. At the foot of this plateau +is a plain, which forms the actual valley of the Chenab and +participates in the irrigation from the river bed.</p> + +<p>Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district. +Mounds of ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are +found whose size and type prove them to belong to the prehistoric +period. A mound now occupied by the village of Moga +or Mong has been identified as the site of Nicaea, the city built +by Alexander the Great on the field of his victory over Porus. +The Delhi empire established its authority in this district under +Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited by +Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During +the decay of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi +overran this portion of the Punjab and established themselves in +Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile the Sikh power had been asserting +itself in the eastern Punjab, and in 1765 the Ghakkar chief +was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the Bhangi confederacy. +On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a +few months’ warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal +to the Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under +the supervision of British officials. Two years later the district +became the theatre for the important engagements which decided +the event of the second Sikh war. After several bloody battles +in which the British were unsuccessful, the Sikh power was +irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place at +Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed +by annexation under British rule.</p> + +<p>The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 750,548, showing a decrease of 1%, compared +with an increase of 10% in the previous decade. The district +has a large export trade in wheat and other grains, oil, wool, +cotton and hides. The main line and the Sind-Sagar branch +of the North-Western railway traverse it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULA,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is +identical with another goddess, known as Bau, though it would +seem that the two were originally independent. The name Bau +is more common in the oldest period and gives way in the post-Khammurabic +age to Gula. Since it is probable that Ninib (<i>q.v.</i>) +has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two names may +represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the +qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous +designations of Ninib’s female consort. Other names borne by +this goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug, +the latter signifying “the lady who restores to life.” The +designation well emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is +that of healer. She is often spoken of as “the great physician,” +and accordingly plays a specially prominent rôle in incantations +and incantation rituals intended to relieve those suffering from +disease. She is, however, also invoked to curse those who +trample upon the rights of rulers or those who do wrong with +poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult of Bau-Gula +is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in +close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself, +and thus retains a larger measure of independence than most +of the goddesses of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a +prominent position on the designs accompanying the Kudurrus +boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia, being represented +by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely pictured +by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In neo-Babylonian +days her cult continues to occupy a prominent +position, and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than +three chapels or shrines within the sacred precincts of E-Zida +in the city of Borsippa, besides a temple in her honour at +Babylon.</p> +<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULBARGA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam’s +dominions, 70 m. S.E. of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Originally +a Hindu city, it was made the capital of the Bahmani kings +when that dynasty established their independence in the Deccan +in 1347, and it remained such until 1422. The palaces, mosques +and tombs of these kings still stand half-ruined. The most +notable building is a mosque modelled after that of Cordova +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is almost +unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening +of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga +has become a centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving +mills. It is also the headquarters of a district and division of the +same name. The district, as recently reconstituted, has an area +of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,041,067.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULF STREAM,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span><a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the name properly applied to the stream +current which issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north-eastward, +following the eastern coast of North America, and +separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water (the <i>Cold Wall</i>), +to a point east of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland. The +Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its velocity is estimated +at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often indistinguishable +from, a large body of water which comes from +outside the West Indies and follows the same course. The term +was formerly applied to the drift current which carries the mixed +waters of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current eastwards +across the Atlantic. This is now usually known as the “Gulf +Stream drift,” although the name is not altogether appropriate. +See Atlantic.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word “gulf,” a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the +coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger +than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr. <i>golfe</i>, +from Late Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolphos">κόλφος</span>, class. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolpos">κόλπος</span>, bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat. +sinus. In University slang, the term is used of the position of those +who fail to obtain a place in the honours list at a public examination, +but are allowed a “pass.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULFWEED,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> in botany, a popular name for the seaweed +<i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae), +large quantities of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico, +whence it is carried northwards by the Gulf Stream, small +portions sometimes being borne as far as the coasts of the British +Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and is remarkable among +seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches bearing leaves and +berries; the latter, to which the species-name <i>bacciferum</i> refers, +are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the bladders +in another brown seaweed, <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>, which is common +round the British Isles between high and low water.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> 1st Bart. (1816-1890), +English physician, was the youngest son of John Gull, a barge-owner +and wharfinger of Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born +on the 31st of December 1816 at Colchester. He began life +as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin Harrison, the treasurer +of Guy’s Hospital, who had noticed his ability, brought him up +to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher, and +gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained +permission to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a +lecturer in the medical school of the hospital, in 1851 he was +chosen an assistant physician, and in 1856 he became full +physician. In 1847 he was elected Fullerian professor of +physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for the +usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian +Lectures at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office +of honour but that of president. He died in London on the 29th +of January 1890 after a series of paralytic strokes, the first of +which had occurred nearly three years previously. He was +created a baronet in 1872, in recognition of the skill and care he +had shown in attending the prince of Wales during his attack +of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull’s fame rested mainly on +his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he was +“a clinical physician or nothing.” This success must be largely +ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the +great opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease. +He was sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs. +That was not the case, for he prescribed drugs like other +physicians when he considered them likely to be beneficial. +He felt, however, that their administration was only a part of +the physician’s duties, and his mental honesty and outspokenness +prevented him from deluding either himself or his patients with +unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he +regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical +suffering, he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his +profession, and he made some real contributions to medical +science. His papers were printed chiefly in <i>Guy’s Hospital +Reports</i> and in the proceedings of learned societies: among the +subjects he wrote about were cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia, +paraplegia and abscess of the brain, while he distinguished for +the first time (1873) the disease now known as myxoedema, +describing it as a “cretinoid state in adults.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULL<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (Welsh <i>gwylan</i>, Breton, <i>goelann</i>, whence Fr. <i>goêland</i>), +the name commonly adopted, to the almost entire exclusion +of the O. Eng. <span class="sc">Mew</span> (Icel. <i>máfur</i>, Dan. <i>maage</i>, Swedish +<i>måse</i>, Ger. <i>Meve</i>, Dutch <i>meeuw</i>, Fr. <i>mouette</i>), for a group +of sea-birds widely and commonly known, all belonging to the +genus <i>Larus</i> of Linnaeus, which subsequent systematists have +broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd fashion. The +family <i>Laridae</i> is composed of two chief groups, <i>Larinae</i> and +<i>Sterninae</i>—the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies +are frequently counted, the skuas (<i>Stercorariinae</i>), and that +formed by the single genus <i>Rhynchops</i>, the skimmers; but +there seems no strong reason why the former should not be +referred to the <i>Larinae</i> and the latter to the <i>Sterninae</i>.</p> + +<p>Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders, +who has subjected the group to a rigorous revision (<i>Proc. Zool. +Society</i>, 1878, pp. 155-211), admits forty-nine species of them, +which he places in five genera instead of the many which some +prior investigators had sought to establish. Of the genera +recognized by him, <i>Pagophila</i> and <i>Rhodostethia</i> have but one +species each, <i>Rissa</i> and <i>Xema</i> two, while the rest belong to <i>Larus</i>. +The <i>Pagophila</i> is the so-called ivory-gull, <i>P. eburnea</i>, names +which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of its plumage, +to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The young, +however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most +northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the +year, find their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its +breeding-place has seldom been discovered, and the first of its +eggs ever seen by ornithologists was brought home by Sir L. +M’Clintock in 1853 from Cape Krabbe (<i>Journ. R. Dubl. Society</i>, +i. 60, pl. 1); others were subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren +in Spitsbergen. Of the species of <i>Rissa</i>, one is the abundant +and well-known kittiwake, <i>R. tridactyla</i>, of circumpolar range, +breeding, however, also in comparatively low latitudes, as on +the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting southern waters. +The other is <i>R. brevirostris</i>, limited to the North Pacific, between +Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be noticed +that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient, +but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this +functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have +then the genus <i>Larus</i>, which ornithologists have attempted most +unsuccessfully to subdivide. It contains the largest as well as +the smallest of gulls. In some species the adults assume a dark-coloured +head every breeding-season, in others any trace of dark +colour is the mark of immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely +on other kinds of birds, while the smaller content themselves +with a diet of small animals, often insects and worms. But +however diverse be the appearance, structure or habits of the +extremities of the series of species, they are so closely connected +by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between them +that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species of +this genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to +Europe and fourteen to North America, of which (excluding +stragglers) some five only are common to both countries. Our +knowledge of the geographical distribution of several of them +is still incomplete. Some have a very wide range, others very +much the reverse, as witness <i>L. fuliginosus</i>, believed to be +confined to the Galapagos, and <i>L. scopulinus</i> and <i>L. bulleri</i> to +New Zealand,—the last indeed perhaps only to the South Island. +The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and greater +black-backed gull, <i>L. glaucus</i> and <i>L. marinus</i>, of which the former +is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so—not being hitherto found +between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the +European <i>L. minutus</i>, though the North American <i>L. Philadelphia</i> +does not much exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate +in vast numbers to breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +or on healthy islands in inland waters. Some of the settlements +of the black-headed or “peewit” gull, <i>L. ridibundus</i>, are a +source of no small profit to their proprietors,—the eggs, which +are rightly accounted a great delicacy, being taken on an orderly +system up to a certain day, and the birds carefully protected. +Ross’s or the roseate gull, <i>Rhodostethia rosea</i>, forms a well-marked +genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of its plumage +(for that is found in other species) but by its small dove-like bill +and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird, and +beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained +about it. More rare still is one of the species of <i>Xema</i>, <i>X. +furcatum</i>, of which only two specimens, both believed to have +come from the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener +Sabine’s gull, <i>X. sabinii</i>, is more common, and has been found +breeding both in Arctic America and in Siberia, and several +examples, chiefly immature birds, have been obtained in the +British islands. Both species of <i>Xema</i> are readily distinguished +from all other gulls by their forked tails.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULLY, JOHN<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician, +was born at Wick, near Bath, on the 21st of August 1783, the son +of an innkeeper. He came into prominence as a boxer, and in +1805 he was matched against Henry Pearce, the “Game Chicken,” +before the duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.) and +numerous other spectators, and after fighting sixty-four rounds, +which occupied an hour and seventeen minutes, was beaten. +In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire giant, for +two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the +landlord of the “Plough” tavern in Carey Street, London, be +retired from the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In +1827 he lost £40,000 by backing his horse “Mameluke” (for +which he had paid four thousand guineas) for the St Leger. +In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832, he made £85,000 +by winning the Derby and St Leger with “St Giles” and +“Margrave.” In partnership with John Day he won the Two +Thousand Guineas with “Ugly Buck” in 1844, and two years +later he took the Derby and the Oaks with “Pyrrhus the First” +and “Mendicant,” in 1854 the Two Thousand Guineas with +“Hermit,” and in the same year, in partnership with Henry +Padwick, the Derby with “Andover.” Having bought Ackworth +Park near Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832 +to July 1837. In 1862 he purchased the Wingate Grange estate +and collieries. Gully was twice married and had twelve children +by each wife. He died at Durham on the 9th of March 1863. +He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent Speaker, +Lord Selby.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GULPÁÏGÁN<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (<i>Jerbádegán</i> of the Arab geographers), a district +and city in Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahán and S.E. +of Irák. Together with Khunsár it forms a small province, +paying a yearly revenue of about £6000. The city of Gulpáïgán +is situated 87 m. N.W. of Isfahán, at an elevation of 5875 ft. +in 33° 24′ N. and 50° 20′ E., and has a population of about 5000. +The district is fertile and produces much grain and some opium. +Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the Isfahán +province, at others it forms part of the province of Irák, and at +times, as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUM<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (Fr. <i>gomme</i>, Lat. <i>gommi</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kommi">κόμμι</span>, possibly a Coptic +word; distinguish “gum,” the fleshy covering of the base of +a tooth, in O. Eng. <i>góma</i>, palate, cf. Ger. <i>Gaumen</i>, roof of the +mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root <i>gha</i>, to open +wide, seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="chainein">χαίνειν</span>, to gape, cf. “yawn”), the generic +name given to a group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the +general formula (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">n</span>, which exist in the juices of almost +all plants, and also occur as exudations from stems, branches +and fruits of plants. They are entirely soluble or soften in water, +and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or mucilage. They +yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric acid. +In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organized +like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless +and tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions—the real +gums—while others swell up and will not percolate filter paper—the +vegetable mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield +their gums most abundantly when sickly and in an abnormal +state, caused by a fulness of sap in the young tissues, whereby +the new cells are softened and finally disorganized; the cavities +thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes, dries and constitutes +the gum.</p> + +<p><i>Gum arabic</i> may be taken as the type of the gums entirely +soluble in water. Another variety, obtained from the <i>Prosopis +dulcis</i>, a leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite; +it comes from western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in +colour, very brittle and quite soluble in water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying size, and some kinds +are full of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum +(the purest variety) is 1.487, or, when dried at 100° C., 1.525. It is +soluble in water to an indefinite extent; boiled with dilute sulphuric +acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong +nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic acids. +Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the alcoholic +fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with chalk and +cheese, obtained from it 12% of its weight of alcohol, along with +calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic +may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gummic or arabic +acid. T. Graham (<i>Chemical and Physical Researches</i>) recommended +dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that +the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times +less than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum +with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered, +and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidulated +with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic +acid. By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as +a white amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100°. Its formula +is (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>O, and it forms compounds with nearly all bases which +are easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its reaction +being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum +arabic and gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two +are precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly, +melting at 25° C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can +be washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in +water; when well dried at 100° C., it becomes transformed into +metagummic acid, which is insoluble, but swells up in water like +gum tragacanth.</p> + +<p>Gum arabic, when heated to 150° C. with two parts of acetic +anhydride, swells up to a mass which, when washed with boiling +water, and then with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble +powder called acetyl arabin C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">8</span>(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>. It is saponified by +alkalies, with reproduction of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not +precipitated from solution by alum, stannous chloride, sulphate or +nitrate of copper, or neutral lead acetate; with basic lead acetate +it forms a white jelly, with ferric chloride it yields a stiff clear +gelatinoid mass, and its solutions are also precipitated by borax.</p> +</div> + +<p>The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent +in medicine, and in the manufacture of confectionery; the +commoner qualities are used as an adhesive paste, for giving +lustre to crape, silk, &c., in cloth finishing to stiffen the fibres, +and in calico-printing. For labels, &c., it is usual to mix sugar +or glycerin with it to prevent it from cracking.</p> + +<p>Gum senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by <i>Acacia +Verek</i>, occurs in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon’s +egg, and of a reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436. +It gives with water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum +arabic, from which it is distinguished by its clear interior, fewer +cracks and greater toughness. It is imported from the river +Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst.</p> + +<p>Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles +gum senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is +not thickened by borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead +acetate; and dilute sulphuric acid converts it into <i>d</i>-glucose.</p> + +<p><i>Gum tragacanth</i>, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from +the stem, the lower part especially, of the various species of +<i>Astragalus</i>, especially <i>A. gummifer</i>, and is collected in Asia +Minor, the chief port of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only +what exuded spontaneously was gathered; this was often of +a brownish colour; but now the flow of the gum is aided by +incisions cut near the root, and the product is the fine, white, +flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of +gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is +the most favourable for its production.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny, +flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with peculiar +wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under +100° C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered. +Its specific gravity is 1.384. With water it swells by absorption, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick mucilage. +Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles gummic acid in +being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but differs +from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and none +with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of +bassorin (C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">10</span>), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a +gelatinoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered +soluble.</p> +</div> + +<p>Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of +colours and mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle +for insoluble powders, and as an excipient in pills; and for +setting and mending beetles and other insect specimens. It is +medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it does not undergo +acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial preparation +is the <i>Mucilago Tragacanthae</i>. The compound powder is a +useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to +ferment.</p> + +<p>Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for +which the attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it. +It is said to be the product of <i>Sterculia urens</i>, a plant of the +natural order Sterculiaceae.</p> + +<p><i>Cherry tree gum</i> is an exudation from trees of the genera +<i>Prunus</i> and <i>Cerasus</i>. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resembling +the commoner kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which +it is only partially soluble, it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric +acid converts it into l-arabinose; and nitric acid oxidizes it to +oxalic acid (without the intermediate formation of mucic acid +as in the case of gum arabic).</p> + +<p><i>Gum of Bassora</i>, from Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is sometimes +imported into the London market under the name of the +hog tragacanth. It is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs +in variable-sized pieces, is tough, of a yellowish-white colour, +and opaque, and has properties similar to gum tragacanth. +Its specific gravity is 1.36. It contains only 1% of soluble +gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is mixed +with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation.</p> + +<p><i>Mucilage</i>.—Very many seeds, roots, &c., when infused in +boiling water, yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist +of bassorin. Linseed, quince seed and marshmallow root yield +it in large quantity. In their reactions the different kinds of +mucilage present differences; <i>e.g.</i> quince seed yields only +oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and with a solution of +iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a beautiful red +tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by treatment +with boiling nitric acid it yields mucic and oxalic acids.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gum Resins.</i>—This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices +of certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and +essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a small +amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid, and +often brittle. When finely powdered and rubbed down with water +they form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the +gum solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are +ammoniacum, asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh, +sagapanum and scammony.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1823-1898), +German geologist, was born at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate +of the Rhine, on the 11th of February 1823, and is known chiefly +by his researches on the geology of Bavaria. He received a +practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and +Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862; +and he was engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and +as a surveyor in that district. In 1851, when the Geological +Survey of Bavaria was instituted, Gümbel was appointed chief +geologist; in 1863 he was made honorary professor of geognosy +and surveying at the university of Munich, and in 1879, Oberberg +director of the Bavarian mining department with which the +Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of +Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive +of the detailed work, entitled <i>Geognostische Beschreibung des +Königreichs Bayern</i> was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and +1879). He subsequently published his <i>Geologie von Bayern</i> in +2 vols. (1884-1894), an elaborate treatise on geology, with special +reference to the geology of Bavaria. In the course of his long +and active career he engaged in much palaeontological work: +he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861 introduced the +term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system; he +supported at first the view of the organic nature of <i>Eozoon</i> (1866 +and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and +described those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868); +he dealt also with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a +genus belonging to the Foraminifera. He died on the 18th of +June 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUMBINNEN,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of East Prussia, on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by +rail S.W. of Eydtkuhnen on the line to Königsberg. Pop. (1905), +14,194. The surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and +the town has spacious and regular streets shaded by linden +trees. It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, +a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public schools, a public library, +a hospital and an infirmary. In the market square there is a +statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I., who in 1724 +raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought +to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by +religious persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument +has been erected to the soldiers from the neighbourhood who +fell in the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Iron founding and +the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton, and linen weaving, +stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are the principal +industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some trade +in corn and linseed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Schneider, <i>Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit</i> (Gumbinnen, +1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUMBO,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Okra</span>, termed also <i>Okro, Ochro, Ketmia, +Gubbo</i> and Syrian mallow (Sans. <i>Tindisa</i>, Bengali <i>Dheras</i>, +Pers. <i>Bámiyah</i>—the <i>Bammia</i> of Prosper Alpinus; Fr. +<i>Gombaut</i>, or better <i>Gombo</i>, and <i>Ketmie comestible</i>), <i>Hibiscus +esculentus</i>, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of the natural order +<i>Malvaceae</i>, probably of African origin, and now naturalized or +cultivated in all tropical countries. The leaves are cordate, +and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson centre; +the fruit or pod, the <i>Bendi-Kai</i> of the Europeans of southern +India, is a tapering, 10-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length, +except in the dwarf varieties of the plant, and contains numerous +oval dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct +varieties of the gumbo (<i>Quiabo</i> and <i>Quimgombo</i>) in Brazil have +been described by Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either +pickled or prepared like asparagus. It is also an ingredient +in various dishes, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>gumbo</i> of the Southern United States +and the <i>calalou</i> of Jamaica; and on account of the large amount +of mucilage it contains, it is extensively consumed, both fresh +and in the form of the prepared powder, for the thickening of +broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced and dried. +The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of Constantinople. +It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time +of Abul-Abbas el-Nebāti, who journeyed to Alexandria in 1216 +(Wüstenfeld, <i>Gesch. d. arab. Ärzte</i>, p. 118, Gött., 1840), and is +still cultivated by the Egyptians, who called it <i>Bammgé</i>.</p> + +<p>The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee. +From their demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and +immature fruit have long been in repute in the East for the +preparation of poultices and fomentations. Alpinus (1592) +mentions the employment of their decoction in Egypt in ophthalmia +and in uterine and other complaints.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The musk okra (Sans., <i>Latákasturiká</i>, cf. the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kástor">κάστωρ</span>; Bengali, +<i>Latákasturi</i>; Ger. <i>Bisamkörnerstrauch</i>; Fr. <i>Ketmie musquée</i>), +<i>Hibiscus Abelmoschus</i> (<i>Abelmoschus moschatus</i>), indigenous to India, +and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe, is a suffruticose +plant, bearing a conical 5-ridged pod about 3 in. in length, within +which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than those of <i>H. +esculentus.</i> The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an oleo-resin +present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under the +name of <i>ambrette</i> as a substitute for musk. They are said to be used +by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee language, +<i>Incromahom</i>) are used in Africa as beads; and powdered and steeped +in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for snakebites. +The plant yields an excellent fibre, and, being rich in mucilage, +is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The best-perfumed +seeds are reported to come from Martinique.</p> + +<p>See P. Alpinus, <i>De plantis Aegypti</i>, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice, 1592); +J. Sontheimer’s <i>Abd Allah ibn Ahmad</i>, &c., i. 118 (Stuttgart, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, “La Ketmie potagère ou comestible,” +<i>La Belgique horticole</i>, iv. 63 (1853); Della Sudda, “De l’emploi +à Constantinople de la racine de l’Hibiscus esculentus,” <i>Répert. de +pharm.</i>, January 1860, p. 229; E. J. Waring, <i>Pharm. of India</i>, p. +35 (1868); O. Popp, “Über die Aschenbestandteile der Samen von +Acacia nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Ägypten,” <i>Arch. der +Pharm.</i> cxcv. p. 140 (1871); Drury, <i>The Useful Plants of India</i>, pp. +1, 2 (2nd ed., 1873); U. C. Dutt, <i>The Mat. Med. of the Hindus</i>, pp. +123, 321 (1877); Lanessan, <i>Hist. des drogues</i>, i. 181-184 (1878); +G. Watt, <i>Dictionary of the Economic Products of India</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUMTI,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in +the Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous +but generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and +Jaunpur joins the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it +is a fine stream, spanned by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen +arches, and is navigable by vessels of 17 tons burden. There +is also a small river of the same name in the Tippera district +of eastern Bengal and Assam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUMULJINA,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gumurdjina</span>, a town of European Turkey, +in the vilayet of Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom +three-fourths are Turks and the remainder Greeks, Jews or +Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the river Karaja-Su, +south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of mountains +and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the +railway between Salonica and Dédéagatch. The district produces +wheat, maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture +are both practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held +annually on Greek Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are +found in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUMUS,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gumz</span>, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes, +dwelling in the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan-Abyssinian +frontier. They live in independent groups, some +being mountaineers while others are settled on the banks +of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue signifies +“people,” and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus +are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous. +On ceremonial occasions they carry parasols of honour (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shangalla</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜMÜSH-KHANEH,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> the chief town of a sanjak of the same +name in the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on +high ground (4400 ft.) in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about +½ m. to south of the Trebizond-Erzerum <i>chaussée</i>. The silver +mines from which the place takes its name were noted in ancient +times and are mentioned by Marco Polo. Pop. about 3000, +chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of emigrating to great +distances to work in mines. They practically supply the whole +lead and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, and in consequence +the Greek bishop of Gümüsh-Khaneh has under his +jurisdiction all the communities engaged in this particular class +of mines.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUN,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from +which a projectile is discharged by means of an explosive. +When applied to artillery the word is confined to those pieces +of ordnance which have a direct as opposed to a high-angle fire, +in which case the terms “howitzer” and “mortar” are used +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Machine-Gun</a></span>). “Gun” as applied to +firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the shoulder, +the old “hand gun,” is now chiefly used of the sporting shot-gun, +with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this type +of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &c., is known collectively as +“small arms” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pistol</a></span>). The origin of the word, +which in Mid. Eng. is <i>gonne</i> or <i>gunne</i>, is obscure, but it has +been suggested by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a +female name, <i>Gunnilde</i> or <i>Gunhilda</i>. The names, <i>e.g.</i> Mons Meg +at Edinburgh Castle and <i>faule Grete</i> (heavy Peg), known to +readers of Carlyle’s <i>Frederick the Great</i>, will be familiar parallelisms. +“Gunne” would be a shortened “pet name” of Gunnhilde. +The <i>New English Dictionary</i> finds support for the suggestion +in the fact that in Old Norwegian <i>gunne</i> and <i>hilde</i> both +mean “war,” and quotes an inventory of war material at +Windsor Castle in 1330-1331, where is mentioned “una magna +balista de cornu quae vocatur Domina Gunilda.” Another +suggestion for the origin of the word is that the word represents +a shortened form, <i>gonne</i>, of a supposed French <i>mangonne</i>, a +mangonel, but the French word is <i>mangonneau</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:318px; height:227px" src="images/img717a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:220px; height:208px" src="images/img717b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Hand Gun.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Mounted Man +with Hand Gun.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare +in the 14th century. The hand gun (see fig. 1) came into +practical use in 1446 +and was of very rude +construction. It consisted +of a simple iron +or brass tube with a +touch-hole at the top +fixed in a straight stock +of wood, the end of +which passed under the +right armpit when the +“gonne” was about to +be fired. A similar +weapon (see fig. 2) was +also used by the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the +stock, by which it was suspended by a cord round the neck; +a forked rest, fitted by a ring to the saddlebow, served to steady +the gun. This rest, when not in use, hung down in front of the +right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp spun slack, +and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees of +wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel, +but afterwards at the side, with a +small pan underneath to hold the +priming, and guarded by a cover +moving on a pivot.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:382px; height:360px" src="images/img717c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From General Hardÿ de Périnï’s <i>Turenne et Condé 1626-1675</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Musketeer, 1626.</td></tr></table> + +<p>An improvement in firearms took +place in the first year of the reign +of Henry VII., or at the close of +Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr. +<i>serpentine</i>) on the hand gun to hold +the match, which was brought +down to the priming by a trigger, +whence the term matchlock. This +weapon is still in use among the +Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An improvement +in the stock was also made during this period by forming it +with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast. +Subsequently the stock was bent, a German invention, and the +arm was called a hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety +a demihague. The arquebus and hackbutt were about a yard +in length, including barrel and stock, and the demihague was +about half the +size and weight, +the forerunner of +the pistol. The +arquebus was +the standard +infantry firearm +in Europe from +the battle of +Pavia to the introduction +of the +heavier and +more powerful +musket. It did +not as a rule +require a rest, as +did the musket. +The wheel-lock, +an improvement +on the matchlock, +was invented +in Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege +of Parma in 1521; was brought to England in 1530, and continued +in partial use there until the time of Charles II. This +wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved steel wheel which +protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with a +strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted +with a piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +lock was wound up by a key, the cock was let down on the +priming pan, the pyrites resting on the wheel; on the trigger +being pressed the wheel was released and rapidly revolved, +emitting sparks, which ignited the powder in the pan. The +complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its liability +to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:428px; height:271px" src="images/img718a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From General Hardÿ de Périnï’s <i>Turenne et Condé</i>, 1626-1675.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 4</span> and 5.—Musketeers, 1675.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:1357px" src="images/img718b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span> (left)—Moorish Flint-lock.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span> (right)—Indian Matchlock.</td></tr></table> + +<p>About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier +firearm (matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to the pound, called +a musket. This weapon was introduced into England before the +middle of the 16th century, and soon came into general use +throughout Europe. The snaphance was invented about this +period in Germany, and from its comparative cheapness was +much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint +instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the +powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when +released by the trigger, and emitting sparks.</p> + +<p>As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the +invention of the wheel-lock in the beginning of the 16th century, +though firearms were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain, +Germany, and to some extent in France, in the 15th century. +Before that period the longbow in England and the crossbow on +the Continent were the usual weapons of the chase. In Great +Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms for game +shooting until the latter half of the 17th century, and the arms +then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make.</p> + +<p>The French gunmakers of St-Étienne claim for their town +that it is the oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do +not appear to have made more than the barrels of the finest +sporting arms, and these even were sometimes made in Paris. +The production of firearms by the artists of Paris reached its +zenith about the middle of the 17th century. The Italian, +German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great +skill in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards +in particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (<i>q.v.</i>) is +understood to have been made for the first time about 1540 at +Pistoia in Italy. About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock +was invented, which only differed from the snaphance by the cover +of the pan forming part of the furrowed steel struck by the flint. +Originally the priming was put into the pan from a flask containing +a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder. Later the +top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled therefrom +before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket rendered +all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge passed +through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or +hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave +way to the firelock, which came into general use in the last half +of the 17th century, and was the weapon of Marlborough’s and +Wellington’s armies. This was the famous “Brown Bess” of the +British army. The highest development of the flint-lock is found +in the fowling-pieces of the end of the 18th and beginning of the +19th centuries, particularly those made by Joseph Manton, the +celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The Napoleonic wars +afforded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they fully +utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors +in the gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight, +improved the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism +of the sporting gun, and increased the range +and efficiency of the rifle. This transference +of the gunmaking craft from the Continent +to England was also assisted by the tyranny +of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the +London gunmakers obtained their charter of +incorporation. The important gunmaking +industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and +soon rivalled that of London. Double shot-guns +do not appear to have been generally +used until the 19th century. +The first successful double +guns were built with the +barrels over and under, and +not side by side, and were +invented about 1616 by +one Guilliano Bossi of +Rome. In 1784 double +shot guns were described as +a novelty. Joseph Manton +patented the elevated rib +which rested on the barrels. +The general success of the +double gun was eventually +due to the light weight +which the better material +and workmanship of the +best gunmakers made possible, +and to the quickness +and certainty of ignition of +the modern cartridge.</p> + +<p>The objections to the +flint-lock were that it did +not entirely preserve the +priming from wet, and that +the flint sparks sometimes +failed to ignite the charge. +In 1807 the Rev. Alexander +John Forsyth obtained a +patent for priming with a +fulminating powder made +of chlorate of potash, sulphur +and charcoal, which +exploded by concussion. +This important improvement +in firearms was not +recognized and adopted by +the military authorities +until more than thirty +years later. In the meantime +it was gradually developed, +and the copper +percussion cap invented, +by various gunmakers and +private individuals. +Thomas Shaw of Philadelphia +first used fulminate +in a steel cap in 1814, which +he changed to a copper cap +in 1816. It was not until +the introduction of the +copper cap that the percussion +gun could be considered +in every way +superior to the flint. In +1834, in the reign of William +IV., Forsyth’s invention +was tested at Woolwich by +firing 6000 rounds from six +flint-lock muskets, and a +similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +This trial established the percussion principle. The shooting +was found to be more accurate, the recoil less, the charge +of powder having been reduced from 6 to 4½ drs., the +rapidity of firing greater and the number of miss-fires much +reduced, being as 1 to 26 nearly in favour of the percussion +system. In consequence of this successful trial the military +flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle. +This was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan +by a nipple with a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-hole, +and by replacing the cock which held the flint by a smaller +cock or hammer with a hollow to fit on the nipple when released +by the trigger. On the nipple was placed the copper cap containing +the detonating composition, now made of three parts of +chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one of +powdered glass.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:900px; height:793px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img719a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:516px; height:357px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img719b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion +musket, and in 1842 a new model percussion musket with a block +or back-sight for 150 yds. was issued to the British army, 11 ℔ +6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6¾ in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft. +with bayonet and with a barrel 3 ft. 3 in. in length, firing a +bullet of 14½ to the ℔ with 4½ drs. of powder. This musket +was larger in bore than that of France, Belgium, Russia and +Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to fire their +balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their barrels. +But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was +counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion musket +of 1842, the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess, +continued in use in the British army until partially superseded +in 1851 by the Minié rifle, and altogether by the Enfield rifle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +in 1855. For further information as to the history and development +of military, target and sporting rifles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Illustrations are given herewith of a German carbine of the 16th +century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9); +several forms of the Brown Bess or flint-lock military musket (English, +William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III., fig. 12; +French, Napoleon, fig. 13); and of the percussion musket adopted in +the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of non-European +firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a Moorish flint-lock +and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18 represent +various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15 showing +a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early 18th century, fig. 16 +a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry carbine of +about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All these are +drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service +Institution, London.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Modern Shot Guns.</i>—The modern sporting breech-loaders +may be said to have originated with the invention of the cartridge-case +containing its own means of ignition. The breech-loading +mechanism antedated the cartridge by many years, the earliest +breech-loading hand guns dating back to 1537. Another distinct +type of breech-loader was invented in France about the middle +of the 17th century. During the 17th and 18th centuries breech-loading +arms were very numerous and of considerable variety. +The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a paper +envelope, dates from 1586. These were used with muzzle-loaders, +the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier +before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating +cap came into use that the paper cartridge answered well in +breech-loaders. The modern breech-loader has resulted from a +gradual series of improvements, and not from any one great +invention. Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape +of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by means of an expansive +cartridge-case containing its own means of ignition. The +earlier breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the cartridge-cases +were either consumable or the load was placed in a strong +non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern +cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris +gunsmith, in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by +the force of the explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus +formed an efficient gas check. Probably no invention connected +with firearms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun-construction +as those effected by the expansive cartridge-case. +This invention has completely revolutionized the art of gunmaking, +has been successfully applied to all descriptions of +firearms, and has produced a new and important industry—that +of cartridge manufacture.</p> + +<p>About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved +the old Pauly system of breech-loading, but its breech action +was a crude mechanism, with single grip worked by a +bottom lever. The double grip for the barrels was the subsequent +invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The central-fire cartridge, +practically as now in use, was introduced into England in 1861 +by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet, of +Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable +litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled +the English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns +and cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In +his system the barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever +withdraws the holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern +type, the cap being detonated by a striker passing through the +standing breech to the inner face. The cartridge-case is withdrawn +by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech ends of the +barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the +patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having been kept +in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been +gradually and steadily improved since 1860. Westley Richards +adopted and improved Matthews’ top-lever mechanism. About +1866 the rebounding lock was introduced, and improved in 1869. +The treble wedge-fast mechanism for holding down the barrels +was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865, and perfected in 1873. +A very important improvement was the introduction of the +hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed +entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduction +of the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866 +Green, introduced hammerless guns in which the cocking was +effected by the under lever. These guns did not attain popularity. +In 1871 T. Murcott patented a hammerless gun, the first to obtain +distinct success. This also was a lever-cocking gun. About the +same time Needham introduced the principle of utilizing the +weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875 Anson and +Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock the +locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular. +Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other +gun-makers, including alternative movements introduced by +Purdey and Rogers. Improvements were also introduced +by Westley Richards, Purdey and others, including cocking by +means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham introduced +the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is +separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the +breech is opened, the necessary force being provided by the +mainspring of the lock. W. W. Greener and some other gunmakers +have since introduced minor modifications and improvements +of this mechanism. Next in turn came Perks and other +inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the lock +work. This very decided improvement is universal to-day. +A later innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single +trigger mechanism introduced by some of the leading English +gun-makers, by which both barrels can be fired in succession +by a single trigger. This improvement enables both barrels +to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of the right hand, +but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his barrel.</p> + +<p>Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the +repeating rifle, with a magazine below the single firing barrel, +are also made by some American and continental gun-makers, +but as yet have not come into general use, being comparatively +cumbersome and not well balanced. The difficulty of a shifting +balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet to be overcome. +Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun are also +made, for a description of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required +are game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling. +The game gun may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual +standard bore is 12 gauge unless it be for a boy, when it is 20 +gauge. The usual weight of the 12-bore double-barrelled game +gun is from 6 to 7 ℔ with barrels 30 in. long, there, however, +being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter length. These +barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more homogeneous +material than the barrels formerly produced, which were +mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel +barrels, drilled from the solid block, were originally produced +by Whitworth. To-day the makers of steel for this purpose +are many. The standard charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of +smokeless powder and 1 oz. to 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>th oz. of shot. Powder of a +lighter gravimetric density is occasionally employed, when the +weight of the charge is reduced to 33 grains. This charge of +powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder formerly +used. The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of +30 in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the +second. Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and +what is known as “choke” boring of the barrels, have enabled +modern gun-makers to regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety. +Choke-boring is the constriction of the diameter of the barrel +near the muzzle, and was known in America in the early part +of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of Newcastle was awarded +a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there being no other +claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been varied +and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon +gun is usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It +generally weighs from 7 to 8 ℔. Its weight, by club rules, is +frequently restricted to 7½ ℔ and its bore to 12 gauge. The +standard wild-fowling gun is a double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels +weighing 15 ℔ and firing a charge of 7 drams of powder and +2¾ to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in both smaller and +larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore, which is the +largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +barrel punt guns of 1½-in. bore, weighing 100 ℔. While no +conspicuous advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention +has been made during the last few years, the materials and +methods of manufacture, and the quality and exactitude of the +gun-maker’s work, have continued gradually and steadily to +improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns stand +pre-eminent all over the world.</p> +<div class="author">(H. S.-K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNA,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a town and military station in Central India, in the +state of Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it +became the headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose +commanding officer acts as ex-officio assistant to the resident of +Gwalior; and its trade has developed rapidly since the opening +of a station on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway +in 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNCOTTON,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> an explosive substance produced by the action +of strong nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature; +chemically it is a nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates, +according to some authorities. The first step in the history of +guncotton was made by T. J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that +when paper or cotton was immersed in cold concentrated nitric +acid the materials, though not altered in physical appearance, +became heavier, and after washing and drying were possessed +of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were +thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little +previously by Henri Braconnot and called <i>xyloidin</i>; they are +only related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schönbein of +Basel published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (<i>Phil. Mag.</i> +[3], 31, p. 7), and this was shortly after followed by investigations +by R. R. Böttger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom +added to our knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing +the use of sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process. +The chemical composition and constitution of guncotton has +been studied by a considerable number of chemists and many +divergent views have been put forward on the subject. W. Crum +was probably the first to recognize that some hydrogen atoms +of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of nitrogen, and +this view was supported more or less by other workers, especially +Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at least +three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of +which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly +obtained and known as guncotton. This particular product was +insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and its composition +could be expressed by the term tri-nitrocellulose. Other products +were soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture: they were less +highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called collodion guncotton.</p> + +<p>The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (<i>q.v.</i>) may certainly +be written C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">10</span>O<span class="su">5</span>. How much of the hydrogen and oxygen +are in the hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated, +but from the study of the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups +may be assumed. The oldest and perhaps most reasonable idea +represents guncotton as cellulose trinitrate, but this has been +much disputed, and various formulae, some based on cellulose +as C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">20</span>O<span class="su">10</span>, others on a still more complex molecule, have been +proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a difficult matter to +investigate, primarily on account of the very insoluble nature +of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that comparatively +slight variations in the concentration and temperature of the +acids used produce considerable differences in the products. +The nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called +solvents merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet +been devised by which the molecular weight can be ascertained.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +The products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose are not +nitro compounds in the sense that picric acid is, but are nitrates +or nitric esters.</p> + +<p>Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton +waste in a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The +relative amounts of the acids in the mixture and the time of +duration of treatment of the cotton varies somewhat in different +works, but the underlying idea is the same, viz. employing such +an excess of sulphuric over nitric that the latter will be rendered +anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as such in solution in +the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid shall still be sufficiently +strong to absorb and combine with the water produced +during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent +methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to +four hours at the ordinary air temperature (15° C.), in which time +it is almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having +a composition represented by the formula<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, the +remainder consisting of lower nitrated products, some oxidation +products and traces of unchanged cellulose and cellulose +sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an opening in the +bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted, and water +distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the interstices +of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of boiling +and washing with water. This washing is a most important part +of the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of +small quantities of products other than the nitrates, for instance, +some sulphates and products from impurities contained in the +original cellulose. Cellulose sulphates are one, and possibly the +main, cause of instability in guncotton, and it is highly desirable +that they should be completely hydrolysed and removed in +the washing process. The nitrated product retains the outward +form of the original cellulose. In the course of the washing, +according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is +ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the +complete removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and +is then either compressed, while still moist, into slabs or blocks +when required for blasting purposes, or it is dried when required +for the manufacture of propellants. Sometimes a small quantity +of an alkali (<i>e.g.</i> sodium carbonate) is added to the final washing +water, so that quantities of this alkaline substance ranging from +0.5% to a little over 1% are retained by the guncotton. The +idea is that any traces of acid not washed away by the washing +process or produced later by a slow decomposition of the substance +will be thereby neutralized and rendered harmless. +Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or +after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great +rapidity but does not detonate unless confined.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schönbein +proposed its employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and +General von Lenk carried out a lengthy and laborious series of +experiments intending to adapt it especially for artillery use. +All these and many subsequent attempts to utilize it, either loose +or mechanically compressed in any way, signally failed. However +much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous +mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases +from the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally +causing it actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its +action approaches detonation. The more closely it is confined +the greater is the pressure set up by a small part of the charge +burning, and the more completely will the explosion of the +remainder assume the detonating form. The employment of +guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the discovery +that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the action +of so-called solvents, <i>e.g.</i> ethylacetate and other esters, acetone +and a number of like substances (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cordite</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an +anvil or hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to +percussion or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under +those conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a considerable +effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2% of moisture it +can still be detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined +to the piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it +becomes difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary +blow. Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative +detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more +than 15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked +without danger and is much more difficult to detonate by a fulminate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +detonator than when dry.<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A small charge of dry guncotton will, +however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made +use of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A +charge of compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under +water, by the detonation of a small primer of the dry and waterproofed +material, which in turn can be started by a small fulminate +detonator. The explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is +in fact better responded to by the wet compressed material than the +dry, and its detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry. +It is not necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in +contact if they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave +can also be conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a +railway rail. The more nearly the composition of guncotton +approaches that represented by C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, the more stable is +it as regards storing at ordinary temperatures, and the higher the +igniting temperature. Carefully prepared guncotton after washing +with alcohol-ether until nothing more dissolves may require to be +heated to 180-185° C. before inflaming. Ordinary commercial guncottons, +containing from 10 to 15% of lower nitrated products, will +ignite as a rule some 20-25° lower.</p> + +<p>Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is +sufficient oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being +left. The gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a +vacuum vessel contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, +nitrogen, nitric oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a +vacuum vessel until ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO<span class="su">2</span>, +is also produced. When kept for some weeks at a temperature of +100° in steam, a considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and +glucose-like substances result. Under different pressures the relative +amounts of the combustion products vary considerably. Under very +great pressures carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main +products, but nitric oxide never quite disappears.</p> + +<p>Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. Strong +sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and later +oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown solution +according to the quantity of acid. It sometimes fires on contact with +strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed. The alkali +hydroxides (<i>e.g.</i> sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state fire it on +contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also decompose +it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose +molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing +oxidation. Ammonia is also active, but not quite in the same +manner as the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia +gas detonates at about 70°, and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all +strengths slowly decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products. +Alkali sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses, +completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called “artificial +silk” depends on this action.</p> + +<p>A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion +cotton is the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture +of these liquids. The so-called collodion cottons are nitrated +celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than guncotton. +They are sometimes spoken of as “lower” or “soluble” cottons or +nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a lower +degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under which the +process of manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be correctly +represented by the formula C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">7</span>O<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, it should contain a little +more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree +of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decomposed +by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and all the nitrogen +is evolved as nitric oxide, NO, which is measured and the weight of its +contained nitrogen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain +more than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not +exceed 12.5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of +a guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of +matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters +are usually considered as “lower” nitrates.</p> + +<p>Guncottons are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cordite</a></span>). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating +a weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide +to 130° C., passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and +finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which +retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the +guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite +time intervals so that the <i>rate</i> of decomposition can be followed. +The relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas +collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the +Abel heat test are also in use. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Explosives</a></span>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. E. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G. +Lunge (<i>Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the +formula C<span class="su">24</span>H<span class="su">40</span>O<span class="su">20</span> for cellulose, showed how the nitrocelluloses +described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula +C<span class="su">24</span>H{46-x}O<span class="su">20</span>(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">x</span>, where x has the values 4, 5, 6, ... 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity. +It also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Air-dried guncotton will contain 2% or less of moisture.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNDULICH, IVAN<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1588-1638), known also as Giovanni +Gondola, Servian poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January +1588. His father, Franco Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy +to Constantinople and councillor of the republic, gave him an +excellent education. He studied the “humanities” with the +Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father Ricasoli. +After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general. +He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the +chief magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December +1638. A born poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his +time, from whom he made many translations into Servian. It +is believed that he so translated Tasso’s <i>Gerusalemme liberata</i>. +He is known to have written eighteen works, of which eleven +were dramas, but of these only three have been fully preserved, +others having perished during the great earthquake and fire in +1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian, +and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs +furnished by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest +and justly celebrated work is an epic, entitled <i>Osman</i>, in twenty +cantos. It is the first political epic on the Eastern Question, +glorifying the victory of the Poles over Turks and Tatars in the +campaign of 1621, and encouraging a league of the Christian +nations, under the guidance of Vladislaus, the king of Poland, +for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe. The +fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed +that the Ragusan government suppressed them from consideration +for the Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two +cantos having been violently anti-Turkish.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Osman</i> was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two +missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or +Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco +Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since +that time several other editions have been made. The best are considered +to be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram +(1877) and the edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor +Yovan Boshkovich. In the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos, +fourteen and fifteen, were replaced by very fine compositions of the +Serbo-Croatian poet, Mazhuranich (Mažuranić). The complete +works of Gundulich have been published in Agram, 1847, by V. +Babukich and by the South Slavonic Academy of Agram in 1889.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Mi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNG’L, JOSEF<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and +conductor, was born on the 1st of December 1810, at Zsámbék, +in Hungary. After starting life as a school-teacher, and learning +the elements of music from Ofen, the school-choirmaster, he +became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five, bandmaster of +the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first composition, +a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice, +and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin. +With this band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is +worth recording that Mendelssohn’s complete <i>Midsummer +Night’s Dream</i> music is said to have been first played by Gung’l’s +band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to the 23rd Infantry +Regiment at Brünn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and in 1876 +at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great success +a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From +Frankfort Gung’l went to Weimar to live with his daughter, +a well-known German opera singer and local prima donna. +There he died, on the 31st of January 1889. Gung’l’s dances +number over 300, perhaps the most popular being the “Amoretten,” +“Hydropaten,” “Casino,” “Dreams on the Ocean” +waltzes; “In Stiller Mitternacht” polka, and “Blue Violets” +mazurka. His Hungarian march was transcribed by Liszt. +His music is characterized by the same easy flowing melodies +and well-marked rhythm that distinguish the dances of Strauss, +to whom alone he can be ranked second in this kind of composition.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNNER,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Master Gunner</span>, in the navy, the warrant +officer who has charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and +of the training of the men at gun drill. His functions in this +respect are of less relative importance than they were in former +times, when specially trained corps of seamen gunners had not +been formed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNNING, PETER<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1614-1684), English divine, was born at +Hoo, in Kent, and educated at the King’s School, Canterbury, +and Clare College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633. +Having taken orders, he advocated the royalist cause from the +pulpit with much eloquence. In 1644 he retired to Oxford, +and held a chaplaincy at New College until the city surrendered +to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently he was +chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington +(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapel. After the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +Restoration in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and +was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity. He also +received the livings of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke +Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661 he became head of St +John’s College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius professor +of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669, +and was translated to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding +moderate religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes +represented by Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that +which appears in the <i>Scisme Unmask’t</i> (Paris, 1658), in which the +definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNNY,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be +derived from <i>ganga</i> or <i>gania</i> of Rumphius, or from <i>gonia</i>, a +vernacular name of the <i>Crotolaria juncea</i>—a plant common in +Madras. One of the first notices of the term itself is to be found +in Knox’s <i>Ceylon</i>, in which he says: “The filaments at the bottom +of the stem (coir from the coco-nut husk, <i>Cocos nucifera</i>) may +be made into a coarse cloth called gunny, which is used for bags +and similar purposes.”</p> + +<p>Warden, in <i>The Linen Trade</i>, says:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into +cloth in the districts where it is cultivated, and this industry forms +the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts +of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every household, +almost every one, man, woman and child, being in some way +engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic +servants, everyone, in fact, being Hindu—for Mussulmans spin cotton +only—pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gunny +twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of +spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and +the latter a reel, on which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is +wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a ghurghurea, is +occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every +farmer’s house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and +every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse +pack-thread, of which ropes are twisted for the use of the farm. +The lower Hindu castes, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread +for being made into cloth, and, there being a loom in nearly every +house, very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of +people. It is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it +enables her to earn her bread without being a burden on her family. +The cloth thus made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the +family (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the +eastern frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding, +rice and sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into +short lengths and very narrow widths, two or three of which are sometimes +sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for +rice and sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches +wide, and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yarn is dyed and +woven into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also +sent out of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute +cloth for gunny bags, is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to +200 miles around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remarkably +cheap. The short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in +the local manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for +the export trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be +sold almost as cheaply as the raw material, which creates an +immense demand for them in nearly every market of the world.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time +the above was written—between 1850 and 1860. Most of the +Indian cloth for gunny bags is now made by power, and within +about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many respects the term gunny cloth +is still applied to all and sundry, but there is no doubt that the +original name was intended for cloth which was similar to what +is now known as “cotton bagging.” This particular type of +cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee, +this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons, +more satisfactory than the power loom method (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jute</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bagging</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNPOWDER,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal +and sulphur. Very few substances have had a greater effect +on civilization than gunpowder. Its employment altered the +whole art of war, and its influence gradually and indirectly +permeated and affected the whole fabric of society. Its direct +effect on the arts of peace was but slight, and had but a limited +range, which could not be compared to the modern extended +employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and +engineering work.</p> + +<p>It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the <i>discovery</i> of +gunpowder. From modern researches it seems more likely and +more just to think of it as a thing that has developed, passing +through many stages—mainly of improvement, but some +undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not sufficient solid +evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man. As +Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime (<i>Gunpowder and Ammunition</i>, +1904) says, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until +the properties of nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The +honour, however, has been associated with two names in particular, +Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, and Friar Roger +Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes (<i>Monumenta +pulveris pyrii</i>, 1904, p. 6): “Berthold Schwartz was generally +considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in England +has Roger Bacon’s claim been upheld, though there are English +writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers +are agreed that Schwartz invented the first firearms, and as +nothing was known of an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps +considered justifiable to give Schwartz the credit thereof. +There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz lived. The year +1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention of +powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on +the monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can +be no doubt as to the manufacture in England of gunpowder +and cannon in 1344, that we have authentic information of +guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326, and that the +Oxford MS. <i>De officiis regum</i> of 1325 gives an illustration of a +gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before 1354 to +have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns.” In Germany +also there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau +in 1344, and Liegnitz in 1348.</p> + +<p>Roger Bacon, in his <i>De mirabili potestate artis et naturae</i> +(1242), makes the most important communication on the history +of gunpowder. Reference is made to an explosive mixture as +known before his time and employed for “diversion, producing +a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning.” In one passage +Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent explosive, but there is +no doubt that he knew it was not a self-explosive substance, +but only so when mixed with other substances, as appears from +the statement in <i>De secretis operibus artis et naturae</i>, printed +at Hamburg in 1618, that “from saltpetre and other ingredients +we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we +please.” A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long +appeared without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of +the sentences was realized. The words of this anagram are +(chap. 11): “Item ponderis totum 30 sed tamen salis petrae <i>luru +vopo vir can utri</i><a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitruum et coruscationem, +si scias artificium. Videas tamen utrum loquar aenigmate +aut secundum veritatem.” Hime, in his chapter on the +origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives, +omitting the anagram, the translation: “Let the total weight +of the ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur; +and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a +thundering noise, if you know the trick. You may find (by +actual experiment) whether I am writing riddles to you or the +plain truth.” The anagram reads, according to Hime, “salis +petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et sulphuris” +(take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and five +of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in +possession of an explosive which was a considerable advance on +mere incendiary compositions. Bacon does not appear to have +been aware of the projecting power of gunpowder. He knew +that it exploded and that perhaps people might be blown up or +frightened by it; more cannot be said. The behaviour of small +quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative of its +behaviour in large quantities and especially when under confinement. +Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon +gunpowder whilst playing with some incendiary composition, +such as those mentioned by Marcus Graecus and others, in which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +he employed his comparatively pure saltpetre instead of crude +nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon derived his knowledge +of these fiery mixtures from the MS. <i>Liber ignium</i>, ascribed to +Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris (Dutens, +<i>Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns</i>). +Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some +incendiary composition containing the gunpowder ingredients, +but it was not gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence +of any such person as Marcus Graecus, as he says: “The <i>Liber +ignium</i> was written from first to last in the period of literary +forgeries and pseudographs ... and we may reasonably +conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the imaginary +Greek original of the tract which bears his name.” Albertus +Magnus in the <i>De mirabilibus mundi</i> repeats some of the receipts +given in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts +for Greek fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his +work, above-named, from old authors in support of his view +that a composition of the nature of gunpowder was not unknown +to the ancients. Hime’s elaborate arguments go to show that +these compositions could only have been of the incendiary type +and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good as +regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and +Chinese (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fireworks</a></span>).</p> + +<p>There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some +perhaps containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible +substances as sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c., were employed and +projected both for defence and offence, but they were projected +or blown by engines and not by themselves. It is quite inconceivable +that a real propelling explosive should have been +known in the time of Alexander or much later, and not have +immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing +this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says: +“It is needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries +pursued much the same course in Upper India as in Greece and +Arabia.” No trustworthy evidence of an explosive in India is +to be found until the 21st of April 1526, the date of the decisive +battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim, sultan of Delhi, was killed +and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who possessed both +great and small firearms.</p> + +<p>As regards also the crusader period (1097-1291), so strange +and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not +possibly have been employed in the field without the full knowledge +of both parties, yet no historian, Christian or Moslem, +alludes to an explosive of any kind, while all of them carefully +record the use of incendiaries. The employment of rockets +and “wildfire” incendiary composition seems undoubtedly of +very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of artillery +under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European, +or at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that +Europeans were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb. +The composition of present day Chinese gunpowder is almost +identical with that employed in Europe, so that in all probability +the knowledge of it was obtained from Western sources.</p> + +<p>In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the +use of powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and +destructive power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging +over the early history of gunpowder, its employment as a +propelling agent has been ascribed to the Moors or Saracens. +J. A. Conde (<i>Historia de la dominacion de los Arabes en España</i>) +states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325 +besieged Boza, had among his machines “some that cast globes +of fire,” but there is not the least evidence that these were guns. +The first trustworthy document relative to the use of gunpowder +in Europe, a document still in existence, and bearing date +February 11, 1326, gives authority to the council of twelve of +Florence and others to appoint persons to superintend the +manufacture of cannons of brass and iron balls, for the defence +of the territory, &c., of the republic. John Barbour, archdeacon +of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons (crakys +of war) were employed in Edward III.’s invasion of Scotland +in 1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas +in his <i>History of the Royal Navy</i> (London, 1846), and again by +Lieutenant-Colonel H. Brackenbury (<i>Proc. R.A. Inst.</i>, 1865), +stated to be 1338, contains references to small cannon as among +the stores of the Tower, and also mentions “un petit barrell de +gonpoudre le quart’ plein.” If authentic, this is possibly the +first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but some doubts +have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a contemporary +document in the National Library in Paris it seems that +in the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at +Rouen an iron weapon called <i>pot de feu</i>, for propelling bolts, +together with some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for +the same. Preserved in the Record Office in London are trustworthy +accounts from the year 1345 of the purchase of ingredients +for making powder, and of the shipping of cannon to France. +In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all available +saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first +year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy, +amongst other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to +be sent to the castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered +that no gunpowder should be taken out of the kingdom +without special licence, and in the same year ordered twenty +pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use of the +guns.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried +on as a crown monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and +regulations respecting gunpowder and nitre were made about +1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were probably in existence at +Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the end of the +16th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Ingredients and their Action.</i>—Roger Bacon in his anagram gives +the first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.) +saltpetre 41.2, charcoal 29.4, sulphur 29.4. Dr John Arderne of +Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to +Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66.6, +charcoal 22.2, sulphur 11.1, “which are to be thoroughly mixed on +a marble and then sifted through a cloth.” This powder is nominally +of the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus, +but the saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly +answerable for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions. +Roger Bacon had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had +appreciated the importance of thoroughly mixing the components of +the powder. Most if not all the early powder was a “loose” mixture +of the three ingredients, and the most important step in connexion +with the development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduction +of wet mixing or “incorporating.” Whenever this was done, the +improvement in the product must have been immediately evident. +In the damp or wetted state pressure could be applied with comparative +safety during the mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be +called “serpentine”; after wet mixing it was more or less granulated +or corned and was known as “corned” powder. Corned powder +seems to have been gradually introduced. It is mentioned in the +<i>Fire Book</i> of Conrad von Schöngau (in 1429), and was used for hand-guns +in England long before 1560. It would seem that corned powder +was used for hand-guns or small arms in the 15th century, but cannon +were not made strong enough to withstand its explosion for quite +another century (Hime). According to the same writer, in the period +1250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one powder could differ +from another in the proportions of the ingredients; in the modern +period—say 1700-1886—the powders in use (in each state) differed +only as a general rule in the size of the grain, whilst during the transition +period—1450-1700—they generally differed both in composition +and size of grain.</p> + +<p>Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in +1540 the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder +was the best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes +of grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th +century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition +appear to have become common. The composition of English +powder seems to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 +sulphur, somewhere about the middle of the 18th century.</p> + +<p>The composition of gunpowders used in different countries at +different times is illustrated in the following tables:—</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>English Powders</i> (<i>Hime</i>).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1250.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1350.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1560.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1647.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1670.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1742.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1781.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saltpetre</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">29.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.0<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span></p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Foreign Powders</i> (<i>Hime</i>).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">France.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sweden.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Germany.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Denmark.</td> <td class="tcc allb">France.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sweden.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Germany.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1338.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1560.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1595.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1608.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1650.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1697.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1882.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saltpetre</td> <td class="tcc rb">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">52.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">68.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">73</td> <td class="tcc rb">78</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Charcoal</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21.7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 8.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 3<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder +absorbs any material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere, +and the nitre only is a soluble substance. It seems extremely +probable that for a long period the three substances were simply +mixed dry, indeed sometimes kept separate and mixed just before +being required; the consequence must have been that, with every +care as to weighing out, the proportions of any given quantity +would alter on carriage. Saltpetre is considerably heavier than +sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to separate out towards the +bottom of the containing vessel if subjected to jolting or vibration. +When pure there can only be one kind of saltpetre or sulphur, +because they are chemical individuals, but charcoal is not. Its composition, +rate of burning, &c., depend not only on the nature of the +woody material from which it is made, but quite as much on the +temperature and time of heating employed in the making. The woods +from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and +the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in charcoal-making. +If they were, the resulting substance would be of no use for gunpowder. +1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally +remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the +fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the +mode of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which +it is made.</p> + +<p><i>Properties of Ingredients.</i>—Charcoal is the chief combustible in +powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as +possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder. +The sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood +(<i>Rhamnus frangula</i>), willow (<i>Salix alba</i>), and alder (<i>Betula alnus</i>). +Dogwood is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from +dogwood charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, &c. +The wood after cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for +two or three years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in +cylindrical iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly +larger cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with +openings for the escape of gases. The rate of heating as well as the +absolute temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow +rate of heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature +reducing the hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated +for seven hours to about 800° C. to 900° C. the remaining hydrogen +and oxygen amount to about 2% and 12% respectively. The time +of charring is as a rule from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed +from the furnace and placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are +kept comparatively air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then +sorted, and stored for some time before grinding. The charcoal is +ground, and the powder sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine +mesh copper-wire gauze. The sifted powder is again stored for +some time before use in closed iron vessels.</p> + +<p>Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and +for complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast +into moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted +as in the case of the charcoal.</p> + +<p>Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider, +not being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in +surface soils, &c., by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances. +Nitric and nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges +through the atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates +in soils, &c. Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than +in cold. Crude nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified +by recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to +saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor +to about 30° C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the usual +impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and agitating +the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient fineness for the +manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre contains +nearly 48% of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is available for +combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder explosion +are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity of nitre is 2.2 : 200 +grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres volume. +This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28 grams or +22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of oxygen as gases, +and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid which vaporizes +at a very high temperature.</p> + +<p><i>Incorporation.</i>—The materials are weighed out separately, mixed +by passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a +certain quantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating +mill. This consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to +run in a circular bed. The incorporation requires about four hours. +The mechanical action of rollers on +the powder paste is a double one: +not only crushing but mixing by +pushing forwards and twisting sideways. +The pasty mass is deflected so +that it repeatedly comes under first one +roller and then the next by scrapers, +set at an angle to the bed, which follow +each wheel.</p> + +<p>Although the charge is wet it is +possible for it to be fired either by the +heat developed by the roller friction, by +sparks from foreign matters, as bits of +stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by oxidation of the +materials. The mills are provided with a drenching apparatus +so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its neighbours +will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately +above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed +“mill-cake.”</p> + +<p>After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never +completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each +particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing +nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are +entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are +pressed to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which +a powder is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of +burning. The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate +of burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first +and tend to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less +with denser powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear +transport better and give less dust than light powders. Up to a +certain pressure, hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder +have an effect on the rate of burning and therefore on pressure. +Glazing or polishing powder grains, also exerts a slight retarding +action on burning and enables the powders to resist atmospheric +moisture better. Excess of moisture in gunpowder has a marked +effect in reducing the explosiveness. All powders are liable to +absorb moisture, the quality and kind of charcoal being the main +determinant in this respect; hard burnt black charcoal is least +absorbent. The material employed in brown powders absorbs +moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp atmosphere, +and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the saltpetre +coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing out. +The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals +of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder +into a “press-cake,” it is broken up or granulated by suitable +machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting +through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed +in this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under +the rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &c., +are then either polished by rotating in drums alone or with graphite, +which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process +is generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or +moderately small ordnance.</p> + +<p><i>Shaped Powders.</i>—Prisms or prismatic powder are made by +breaking up the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still +moist, and pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds +generally employed consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are +a number of hexagonal perforations. Accurately fitting plungers +are so applied to these that one can enter at the top and the other +at the bottom. The lower plunger being withdrawn to the bottom +of the plate the hexagonal hole is charged with the powder and the +two plungers set in motion, thus compressing the powder between +them. After the desired pressure has been applied the top plunger +is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed upward to eject the prism +of powder. The axial perforations in prism powders are made by +small bronze rods which pass through the lower plunger and fit +into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these prisms are +made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of about +1.78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so +that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is consumed, +another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which +the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in +fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions, +but the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much +greater than in the interior.</p> + +<p>The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains, +and with the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so +as to avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the +pressure in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or +tube by the movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the +perforated prismatic powder the ignition is intended to proceed +through the perforations; since in a charge the faces of the prisms +fit pretty closely together, it was thought that this arrangement +would prevent unburnt cores or pieces of powder from being blown +out. These larger grain powders necessitated a lengthened bore to +take advantage of the slower production of gases and complete +combustion of the powder. General T. J. Rodman first suggested +and employed the perforated cake cartridge in 1860, the cake having +nearly the diameter of the bore and a thickness of 1 to 2 in. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +with perforations running parallel with the gun axis. The burning +would then start from the comparatively small surfaces of the +perforations, which would become larger as the powder burnt away. +Experiments bore out this theory perfectly. It was found that +small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and +as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result +was obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning +is good only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are +driven through the densest form of granular material. After +granulating or pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried. +This is done by heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by +steam pipes. As a rule this drying is followed by the finishing or +polishing process. Powders are finally blended, <i>i.e.</i> products from +different batches or “makes” are mixed so that identical proof +results are obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Sizes and Shapes of Powders.</i>—In fig. 1, <i>a</i> to <i>k</i> show the relative +sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military purposes, +except that the three largest powders, <i>e-f-g</i> and <i>h</i> are figured half-size +to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the actual dimensions +of the grains. <i>a</i> is for small-arms, all the others are for cannon +of various sizes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:476px; height:726px" src="images/img726.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Proof of Powder.</i>—In addition to chemical examination powder is +passed through certain mechanical tests:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust.</i></p> + +<p>2. <i>For proper incorporation.</i></p> + +<p>3. <i>For shape, size and proportion of the grains.</i>—The first is judged +by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use of +sieves of different sizes.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Density.</i>—The density is generally obtained in some form of +mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then +under mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be +pumped out so that the weighing takes place <i>in vacuo</i>.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Moisture and absorption of moisture.</i>—The moisture and +hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at 100° C. +for a certain time, weighing again, &c., until constant. The dried +weighed sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of +known moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour +similarly ascertained by periodic weighings.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Firing proof.</i>—The nature of this depends upon the purpose for +which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in +the “pattern” given by the shot upon a target at a given distance, +or, if fired with a bullet, upon the “figure of merit,” or mean radial +deviation of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative +power. For military purposes the “muzzle” velocity produced +by a powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the +exact time the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known +distance between two wire screens. By means of “crusher gauges” +the exact pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior +of the bore can be found.</p> + +<p>In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be +ascertained are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or +sulphates, and correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal.</p> + +<p><i>Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on Explosion.</i>—With +a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite impossible +to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of products. +The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as gases, and +potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the ingredients +of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion. Burning +in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning in +a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of +atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The +temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure. +Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and +nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of +the heat, and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of +burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place +on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly +speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have +a volume at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of +the original powder. The temperature produced under one atmosphere +is above 2000° C., and under greater pressures considerably +higher.</p> + +<p>Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles +Hutton (1778), Count Rumford (1797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R. +Bunsen and L. Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi +(1863), and later many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir +F. A. Abel, and by H. Debus and others, all with the idea of getting +at the precise mechanism of the explosion. Debus (<i>Ann.</i>, 1882, +vols. 212, 213; 1891, vol. 265) discussed at great length the results +of researches by Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on +the combustion of powder in closed vessels in such manner that all +the products could be collected and examined and the pressures +registered. A Waltham Abbey powder, according to an experiment +by Noble and Abel, gave when fired in a closed vessel the following +quantities of products calculated from one gram of powder:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc pb1">Fractions of<br />a gram.</td> <td class="tcc pb1">Fractions of a<br />molecule or atom.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium carbonate</td> <td class="tcc">.2615</td> <td class="tcl">.00189 molecule</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium sulphate</td> <td class="tcc">.1268</td> <td class="tcl">.00072   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium thiosulphate</td> <td class="tcc">.1666</td> <td class="tcl">.00087   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium sulphide</td> <td class="tcc">.0252</td> <td class="tcl">.00017   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcc">.0012</td> <td class="tcl">.00004 atom</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc">.2678</td> <td class="tcl">.00608 molecule</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcc">.0339</td> <td class="tcl">.00121   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc">.1071</td> <td class="tcl">.00765 atom</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc">.0008</td> <td class="tcl">.0008   ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen sulphide</td> <td class="tcc">.0080</td> <td class="tcl">.00023 molecule</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Potassium thiocyanate</td> <td class="tcc">.0004</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitre</td> <td class="tcc">.0005</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium carbonate</td> <td class="tcc">.0002</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">From this, and other results, Debus concluded that Waltham +Abbey powder could be represented by the formula 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 21.18C + 6.63S +and that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results +could be fairly expressed (rounding off fractions) by +16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 21C + 5S = 5K<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span> + K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 2K<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span> + 13CO<span class="su">2</span> + 3CO + 8N<span class="su">2</span>. Some of +the sulphur is lost, part combining with the metal of the apparatus +and part with hydrogen in the charcoal. The military powders +of most nations can be represented by the formula 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 21.2C + 6.6S, +proportions which are reasonably near to a theoretical +mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion, greatest +gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists +of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium carbonate +and sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formed, and +(ii.) a reduction process in which free carbon acts on the potassium +sulphate and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing +potassium sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. Most +powders contain more carbon and sulphur than necessary, hence +the second stage. In this second stage heat is lost. The potassium +sulphide is also the most objectionable constituent as regards fouling.</p> + +<p>The energy of a powder is given, according to Berthelot, by +multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced during +burning; Debus shows that a powder composed of 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> to 8C +and 8S would have the least, and one of composition 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 24C + 16S +the greatest, when completely burnt. The greatest +capability with the lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitre +would be obtained from the mixture ÷ 16KNO<span class="su">3</span> + 22C + 8S.</p> + +<p>Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sought +for during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experimented +with in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties +in manufacture. Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy +than the black powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic +salts which although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +certainly ejected as solids or become solids at the moment of contact +with air.</p> + +<p><i>Brown Powders.</i>—About the middle of the 19th century guns and +projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously, +and it was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most +dense form burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces. +Powders were introduced containing about 3% sulphur and 17-19% +of a special form of charcoal made from slightly charred straw, +or similar material. This “brown charcoal” contains a considerable +amount of the hydrogen and oxygen of the original plant substance. +The mechanical processes of manufacture of these brown powders +is the same as for black. They, however, differ from black by burning +very slowly, even under considerable pressure. This comparative +slowness is caused by (1) the presence of a small amount of water +even when air-dry; (2) the fact that the brown charcoal is practically +very slightly altered cellulosic material, which before it can +burn completely must undergo a little further resolution or charring +at the expense of some heat from the portion of charge first ignited; +and (3) the lower content of sulphur. An increase of a few per cent +in the sulphur of black powder accelerates its rate of burning, and +it may become almost a blasting powder. A decrease in sulphur has +the reverse effect. It is really the sulphur vapour that in the early +period of combustion spreads the flame through the charge.</p> + +<p>Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates +or chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &c., are the oxygen providers +and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds +as the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found +employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most +cases their objectionable properties of fouling, smoke and mode of +exploding have prevented their use for military purposes. The +adoption by the French government of the comparatively smokeless +nitrocellulose explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an +end to the old forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder +was made in 1865 by Colonel E. Schultze (<i>Ding. Pol. Jour.</i> 174, +p. 323; 175, p. 453) by nitrating wood meal and adding potassium +and barium nitrates. It is somewhat similar in composition to the +E. C. sporting powder. F. Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smokeless +powder made from nitrated starch, but it was not adopted +owing to its hygroscopic nature and also its tendency to detonate.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Vanucchio Biringuccio, <i>De la pirotechnia</i> (Venice, +1540); Tartaglia, <i>Quesiti e invenzioni diversi</i> (lib. iii.) (Venice, 1546); +Peter Whitehorne, <i>How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder, &c.</i> (London, +1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, <i>The Arte of Warre</i>, trans. by Whitehorne +(London, 1588); Hanzelet, <i>Recueil de plusiers machines militaires</i> +(Paris, 1620); Boillet Langrois, <i>Modelles artifices de feu</i> +(1620); Kruger, <i>Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of Gunpowder</i> +(in Latin) (1636); Collado, <i>On the Invention of Gunpowder</i> +(Spanish) (1641); <i>The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder +and Matches</i> (1647); Hawksbee, <i>On Gunpowder</i> (1686); Winter, +<i>On Gunpowder</i> (in Latin); Robins, <i>New Principles of Gunnery</i> +(London, 1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D’Antoni, <i>Essame della +polvere</i> (Turin, 1765) (trans. by Captain Thomson, R. A., London, +1787); Count Rumford, “Experiments on Fired Gunpowder,” +<i>Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.</i> (1797); Charles Hutton, <i>Mathematical Tracts</i>, +vol. iii. (1812); Sir W. Congreve, <i>A Short Account of Improvements +in Gunpowder made by</i> (London, 1818); Bunsen and Schiskoff, +“On the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder,” <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>, 1857, +vol. cii.; General Rodman, <i>Experiments on Metal for Cannon, and +Qualities of Cannon Powder</i> (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., <i>Études +sur le passé et l’avenir de l’artillerie</i>, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862); Von Karolyi, +“On the Products of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gunpowder,” +<i>Phil. Mag.</i> (October 1863); Captain F. M. Smith, <i>Handbook +of the Manufacture and Proof of Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey</i> +(London, 1870); Noble and Abel, <i>Fired Gunpowder</i> (London, 1875, +1880); Noble, <i>Artillery and Explosives</i> (1906); H. W. L. Hime, +<i>Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and Progress</i> (1904); +O. Guttmann, <i>The Manufacture of Explosives</i> (1895), <i>Monumenta +pulveris pyrii</i> (1906); <i>Notes on Gunpowder and Gun Cotton</i>, published +by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907). (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Explosives</a></span>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. E. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These words were emended by some authors to read <i>luru mope +can ubre</i>, the letters of which can be arranged to give <i>pulvere carbonum</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This represents the composition of English powder at present, +and no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the +above date indicates.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is not burnt black but roasted +until brown, and is made from some variety of straw, not wood.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNPOWDER PLOT,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> the name given to a conspiracy for +blowing up King James I. and the parliament on the 5th of +November 1605.</p> + +<p>To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous +conspiracy, it is necessary to recall the political situation and +the attitude of the Roman Catholics towards the government +at the accession of James I. The Elizabethan administration +had successfully defended its own existence and the Protestant +faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this had not +been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of repression +and punishment upon those of the opposite faith. +The beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with +the opening of the new reign. The right of James to the crown +could be more readily acknowledged by the Romanists than +that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII. appeared willing to +meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature favourable +to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman +Catholic lords in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their +constant plots and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his +accession he maintained, “I am so far from any intention of +persecution as I protest to God I reverence their church as our +mother church, although clogged with many infirmities and +corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as one of +the infallible notes of a false church.” He declared to Northumberland, +the kinsman and master of Thomas Percy, the +conspirator, “as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any +that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the +law, neither will I spare to advance any of them that will be of +good service and worthily deserved.” It is probable that these +small but practical concessions would have satisfied the lay +Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were very +far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such +leniency were especially feared: “What rigour of laws would +not compass in so many years,” wrote Henry Tichborne, the +Jesuit, in 1598, “this liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days, +to wit the disfurnishing of the seminaries, the disanimating of +men to come and others to return, the expulsion of the society +and confusion as in Germany, extinction of zeal and favour, +disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the enterprise.... +We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will besides +drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a peace +which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in +building.” Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who +thus thrived on political intrigue, and who were deeply implicated +in treasonable correspondence with Spain, had obtained +a complete ascendancy over the secular priests, who were for +obeying the civil government as far as possible and keeping free +from politics. The time, therefore, as far as the Roman Catholics +themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one for introducing +the moderate concessions which alone James had +promised: James, too, on his side, found that religious toleration, +though clearly sound in principle, was difficult in practice. +During the first few months of the reign all went well. In July +1603 the fines for recusancy were remitted. In January 1604 +peaceable Roman Catholics could live unmolested and “serve +God according to their consciences without any danger.” But +James’s expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous +and seditious persons from entering the country were unfulfilled +and the numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics +greatly increased. Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil, +though like his master naturally in favour of toleration, with +his experience gained in the reign of Elizabeth, was alarmed +at the policy pursued and its results, and great anxiety was +aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end +shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the +earlier policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a +proclamation was issued banishing priests; on the 28th of +November 1604, recusancy fines were demanded from 13 wealthy +persons, and on the 10th of February 1605 the penal laws were +ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not have +been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already +conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the +repeal of the whole Elizabethan legislation against the Roman +Catholics and perhaps derived some impulse at first from the +leniency lately shown by the administration, afterwards gaining +support from the opposite cause, the return of the government +to the policy of repression.</p> + +<p>It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the +latter’s declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was +“thinking of a most sure way.” Subsequently, about the 1st of +November 1603, Catesby sent a message to his cousin Robert +Winter at Huddington, near Worcester, to come to London, +which the latter refused. On the arrival of a second urgent +summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at a house +at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby +together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parliament +house. Before putting this plan into execution, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +it was decided to try a “quiet way”; and Winter was sent over +to Flanders to obtain the good offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of +Frias and constable of Castile, who had arrived there to conduct +the negotiations for a peace between England and Spain, in order +to obtain the repeal of the penal laws. Winter, having secured +nothing but vain promises from the constable, returned to +England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy Fawkes, +a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended +for undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three +and Thomas Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a +house behind St Clement’s and, having taken an oath of secrecy +together, heard Mass and received the Sacrament in an adjoining +apartment from a priest stated by Fawkes to have been Father +Gerard. Later several other persons were included in the plot, +viz. Winter’s brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, +Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of +Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby’s servant, all, with the +exception of the last, being men of good family and all Roman +Catholics. Father Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits, +were both cognisant of the plot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garnet, Henry</a></span>). On the +24th of May 1604 a house was hired in Percy’s name adjoining +the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they proposed to +work a mine. They began on the 11th of December 1604, and by +about March had got half-way through the wall. They then +discovered that a vault immediately under the House of Lords +was available. This was at once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of +gunpowder, amounting to about 1 ton and 12 cwt., were brought +in and concealed under coal and faggots. The preparations +being completed in May the conspirators separated. Fawkes +was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh +Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham +was sent on a mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came +to gain over the pope to the cause of the successful conspirators. +An understanding was arrived at with several officers levied for +the service of the archduke, that they should return at once to +England when occasion arose of defending the Roman Catholic +cause. A great hunting match was organized at Danchurch in +Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the Roman +Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after +the successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of +November, the day fixed for the opening of parliament, and +get possession of the princess Elizabeth, then residing in the +neighbourhood; while Percy was to seize the infant prince +Charles and bring him on horseback to their meeting-place. Guy +Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for Flanders, spread +the news on the continent and get supporters. The conspirators +imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would +readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been +well kept and the preparations had been completed with extraordinary +success and without a single drawback; but a very +serious difficulty now confronted the conspirators as the time for +action arrived, and disturbed their consciences. The feelings of +ordinary humanity shrunk from the destruction of so many +persons guiltless of any offence. But in addition, among the +peers to be assassinated were included many Roman Catholics +and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with the +plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby +to allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly +rejected.</p> + +<p>On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of +Francis Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with +some of the other conspirators and had engaged in Romanist +plots against the government, but who had given his support to +the new king, unexpectedly ordered supper to be prepared at his +house at Haxton, from which he had been absent for more than a +year. While at supper about 6 o’clock an anonymous letter was +brought by an unknown messenger which, having glanced at, he +handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an intimate +friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The celebrated +letter ran as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have +a care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you +tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance +of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the +wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertisement, +but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect +the event in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir, +yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and +yet they shall not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be +contemned, because it may do you good and can do you no harm, +for the danger is past as soon as you have burnt the letter: and I +hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it, to whose +holy protection I commend you.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved, +but all evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the probability +that he had some days before warned Monteagle and agreed +with him as to the best means of making known the plot and +preventing its execution, and at the same time of giving the +conspirators time to escape (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tresham, Francis</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and +other ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the +letter, whereupon it was decided to search the cellar under the +House of Lords before the meeting of parliament, but not too +soon, so that the plot might be ripe and be fully disclosed. +Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had evidently been +intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on the +28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the +whole project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding +from Fawkes that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and +prevailed upon by Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that +the government had put no credence in Monteagle’s letter, and +Fawkes returned to the cellar to keep guard as before. On the +4th the king, having been shown the letter, ordered the earl of +Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the buildings. He was +accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar, the door +was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of +faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes +replied that they belonged to Percy. His name immediately +aroused suspicions, and accordingly it was ordered that a further +search should be made by Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster +magistrate who, coming with his men at night, discovered the +gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold.</p> + +<p>The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that +he acted as an <i>agent provocateur</i> and lured on his victims to +destruction, repeated by some contemporary and later writers and +recently formulated and urged with great ability, has no solid +foundation. Nor is it even probable that he was aware of its +existence till he received Monteagle’s letter. Even after its +reception complete belief was not placed in the warning. A +search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and +guided only by Monteagle’s letter, while no attempt was made to +seize the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the +discovery of the gunpowder do not show the possession of any +information of the plot or of the persons who were its chief agents +outside Fawkes’s first statement, and his knowledge is seen to +develop according to the successive disclosures and confessions of +the latter. Thus on the 7th of November he had no knowledge +of the <i>mine</i>, and it is only after Fawkes’s examination by torture +on the 9th, when the names of the conspirators were drawn from +him, that the government was able to classify them according +to their guilt and extent of their participation. The inquiry was +not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by several commissioners, +some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many rivals and +secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would +have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their +power to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan +agreed upon for disclosing the plot was especially designed to +allow the conspirators to escape, and therefore scarcely a method +which would have been arranged with Salisbury. Not one of the +conspirators, even when all hope of saving life was gone, made any +accusation against Salisbury or the government and all died +expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly Salisbury had no +conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this description. His +political power and position in the new reign had been already +secured and by very different methods. He was now at the +height of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +in August 1604 and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James +had already, more than 16 months before the discovery of the +plot, consented to return to the repressive measures against the +Romanists. The success with which the conspirators concealed +their plot from Salisbury’s spies is indeed astonishing, but is +probably explained by its very audacity and by the absence of +incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the +minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his +enemies.</p> + +<p>On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham, +fled in parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwickshire, +as had been agreed in case the plot had been successful. +Catesby, who with some others had covered the distance of +80 m. between London and his mother’s house at Ashby St +Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in Warwickshire, who +had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its failure, but succeeded +in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an unscrupulous +falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless cause by +assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and, +according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that +Catesby had been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot. +He pushed on the same day with his companions in the direction +of Wales, where, it was hoped, they would be joined by bands of +insurgents. They arrived at Huddington at 2 in the afternoon. +On the morning of the 7th the band, numbering about 36 persons, +confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away to Holbeche, +2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of Stephen +Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Digby, Everard</a></span>), where they arrived at 10 o’clock at night, +having on their way broken into Lord Windsor’s house at Hewell +Grange and taken all the armour they found there. Their case +was now desperate. None had joined them: “Not one came to +take our part,” said Sir Everard Digby, “though we had expected +so many.” They were being followed by the sheriff and all the +forces of the county. All spurned them from their doors when +they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled from +the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They +now began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but +by God; for an explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the +morning of the 8th, by which Catesby and some others were +scorched, struck terror into their hearts as a judgment from +heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a just cause which +till now had alone supported them was taken away. The greatness +of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and +the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in +prayer and in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived. +About 11 o’clock the sheriff and his men came up and immediately +began firing into the house. Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights +were killed, Winter and Rokewood wounded and taken prisoners +with the men who still adhered to them. In all eight of the conspirators, +including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes, Rokewood, +Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the +Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed, +while Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping.</p> + +<p>So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However +atrocious its conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel, +together with horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for +the guilty persons who took part in it. “Theirs was a crime +which it would never have entered into the heart of any man to +commit who was not raised above the lowness of the ordinary +criminal.” They sinned not against the light but in the dark. +They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather +than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary +courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them +the cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was +terrible. Not only had they risked and lost all in the attempt +and drawn upon themselves the frightful vengeance of the state, +but they saw themselves the means of injuring irretrievably the +cause for which they felt such devotion. Nothing could have +been more disastrous to the cause of the Roman Catholics than +their crime. The laws against them were immediately increased +in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious toleration +was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and +long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the +adherents of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances, +but unjust and undiscriminating, because while some of the +Jesuits were no doubt implicated, the secular priests and Roman +Catholic laity as a whole had taken no part in the conspiracy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The recent controversy concerning the nature +and origin of the plot can be followed in <i>What was the Gunpowder +Plot?</i> by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); <i>What Gunpowder Plot was</i>, by +S. R. Gardiner (a rejoinder) (1897); <i>The Gunpowder Plot ... in +reply to Professor Gardiner</i>, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); <i>Thomas +Winter’s Confession and the Gunpowder Plot</i>, by John Gerard, S.J. +(with facsimiles of his writing) (1898); <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> iii. 510 +and xii. 791; <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, clxxxv. 183; <i>Athenaeum</i> +1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i. 23, ii. 352, 420; <i>Academy</i>, vol. 52 +p. 84; <i>The Nation</i>, vol. 65 p. 400. A considerable portion of the +controversy centres round the question of the authenticity of +Thomas Winter’s confession, the MS. of which is at Hatfield, supported +by Professor Gardiner, but denied by Father Gerard principally +on account of the document having been signed “Winter” +instead of “Wintour,” the latter apparently being the conspirator’s +usual style of signature. The document was deposited by the 3rd +Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and +was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and +another from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The +cause of the variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but +ceases to have therefore any great historical importance. The +bibliography of the contemporary controversy is given in the article +on Henry Garnet in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> and in +<i>The Gunpowder Plot</i> by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still +remaining the principal authority on the subject; add to these +Gardiner’s <i>Hist. of England</i>, i., where an excellent account is given; +<i>History of the Jesuits in England</i>, by Father Ethelred Taunton +(1901); Father Gerard’s <i>Narrative in Condition of the Catholics +under James I.</i> (1872), and Father Greenway’s Narrative in <i>Troubles +of our Catholic Forefathers</i>, 1st series (1872), interesting as contemporary +accounts, but not to be taken as complete or infallible +authorities, of the same nature being <i>Historia Provinciae Anglicanae +Societatis Jesu</i>, by Henry More, S.J. (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also +History of Great Britain, by John Speed (1611), pp. 839 et seq.; +<i>Archaeologia</i>, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix. 80; <i>Harleian Miscellany</i> +(1809), iii. 119-135, or <i>Somers Tracts</i> (1809), ii. 97-117; M. A. +Tierney’s ed. of <i>Dodd’s Church History</i>, vol. iv. (1841); <i>Treason +and Plot</i>, by Martin Hume (1901); <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 7 ser. vi., +8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi. 115; <i>Add. MSS. +Brit. Mus.</i> 6178; <i>State Trials</i>, ii.; <i>Calendar of State Pap. Dom.</i> +(1603-1610), and the official account, <i>A True and Perfect Relation of +the Whole Proceedings against the late most Barbarous Traitors</i> (1606), +a neither true nor complete narrative however, now superseded as +an authority, reprinted as <i>The Gunpowder Treason ...</i> with additions +in 1679 by Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln. A large +number of letters and papers in the State Paper Office relating to +the plot were collected in one volume in 1819, called the <i>Gunpowder +Plot Book</i>; these are noted in their proper place in the printed +calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see also articles on +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fawkes, Guy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tresham, Francis</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monteagle, William +Parker, 4th Baron</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Percy, Thomas</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catesby, Robert</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garnet, Henry</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Digby, Sir Everard</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUN-ROOM,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the +rank of lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of +the boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships +it was on the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the +gunner.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNTER, EDMUND<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1581-1626), English mathematician, of +Welsh extraction, was born in Hertfordshire in 1581. He was +educated at Westminster school, and in 1599 was elected a student +of Christ Church, Oxford. He took orders, became a preacher +in 1614, and in 1615 proceeded to the degree of bachelor in +divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his favourite +study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the +6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in +Gresham College, London. This post he held till his death on the +10th of December 1626. With Gunter’s name are associated +several useful inventions, descriptions of which are given in his +treatises on the <i>Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other +Instruments</i>. He contrived his sector about the year 1606, and +wrote a description of it in Latin, but it was more than sixteen +years afterwards before he allowed the book to appear in English. +In 1620 he published his <i>Canon triangulorum</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logarithms</a></span>). +There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to discover +(in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the +same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +James I. he published in 1624 <i>The Description and Use of His +Majestie’s Dials in Whitehall Garden</i>, the only one of his works +which has not been reprinted. He introduced the words cosine +and cotangent, and he suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and +colleague, the use of the arithmetical complement (see Brigg’s +<i>Arithmetica Logarithmica</i>, cap. xv.). His practical inventions are +briefly noticed below:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gunter’s Chain</i>, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds. +long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its +decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains +make an acre.</p> + +<p><i>Gunter’s Line</i>, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales, +sectors, &c. It is also called <i>the line of lines</i> and <i>the line of numbers</i>, +being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which therefore +serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner as +logarithms do arithmetically.</p> + +<p><i>Gunter’s Quadrant</i>, an instrument made of wood, brass or other +substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere +on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed +in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form the +arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by +means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude +every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day, +the sun’s azimuth, &c., and other common problems of the sphere +or globe, and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees.</p> + +<p><i>Gunter’s Scale</i> (generally called by seamen the <i>Gunter</i>) is a large +plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about 1½ in. broad, and engraved +with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural +lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs, &c.), +and on the other side the corresponding artificial or logarithmic +ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation, trigonometry, +&c., are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1695-1723), German poet, +was born at Striegau in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695. +After attending the gymnasium at Schweidnitz, he was sent in +1715 by his father, a country doctor, to study medicine at +Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no taste for the +profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture with +his family. In 1717 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended +by J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and +there he published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded +between the German emperor and the Porte in 1718) which +acquired him reputation. A recommendation from Mencke to +Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of Poland, proved worse +than useless, as Günther appeared at the audience drunk. From +that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking ever +deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the +15th of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pronounces +Günther to have been a poet in the fullest sense of the +term. His lyric poems as a whole give evidence of deep and +lively sensibility, fine imagination, clever wit, and a true ear for +melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism is more or less +present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms are not +infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of +his genius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Günther’s collected poems were published in four volumes (Breslau, +1723-1735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann’s <i>Deutsche +Dichter des 17ten Jahrh.</i> (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of +Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (1883). A pretended autobiography +of Günther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life +of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallersleben, +<i>J. Ch. Günther</i> (Breslau, 1833); O. Roquette, <i>Leben und Dichten +J. Ch. Günthers</i> (Stuttgart, 1860); M. Kalbeck, <i>Neue Beiträge zur +Biographie des Dichters C. Günther</i> (Breslau, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1304-1349), German king, was +a descendant of the counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son +of Henry VII., count of Blankenburg. He distinguished himself +as a soldier, and rendered good service to the emperor Louis IV., +on whose death in 1347 he was offered the German throne, after +it had been refused by Edward III., king of England. He was +elected German king at Frankfort on the 30th of January 1349 +by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of Wittelsbach +and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the +emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of +Günther’s adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Günther, who +was now seriously ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000 +marks of silver. He died three weeks afterwards at Frankfort, +and was buried in the cathedral of that city, where a statue was +erected to his memory in 1352.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Graf L. Ütterodt zu Scharffenberg, <i>Günther, Graf von Schwarzburg, +erwählter deutscher König</i> (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson, +<i>Das Königtum Günthers von Schwarzburg</i> (Leipzig, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNTRAM,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gontran</span> (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one +of the sons of Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he +and his three brothers divided the Frankish realm between them, +Guntram receiving as his share the valleys of the Saône and +Rhone, together with Berry and the town of Orleans, which he +made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he further +obtained the <i>civitates</i> of Saintes, Angoulême and Périgueux. +During the civil war which broke out between the kings of +Neustria and Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of +equilibrium. After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took +the youthful Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to +his assistance against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter +was able to maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death +of Chilperic (584) he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same +way, and prevented Childebert from seizing his dominions. His +course was rendered easier by the fact that his own sons had +died; consequently, having an inheritance at his disposal, he +was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he wished. The +danger to the Frankish realm caused by the expedition of +Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the +revolts of the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour +of Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as +his heir at the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to +crush the great lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were +conquered in la Woëvre. From this time on he ceased to play a +prominent part in the affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and +Childebert received his inheritance without opposition. Gregory +of Tours is very indulgent to Guntram, who showed himself on +occasions generous towards the church; he almost always calls +him “good king Guntram,” and in his writings are to be found +such phrases as “good king Guntram took as his servant a concubine +Veneranda” (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better +than the other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious, +putting his <i>cubicularius</i> Condo to death, for instance, because he +was suspected of having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was +moreover a coward, and went in such constant terror of assassination +that he always surrounded himself with a regular bodyguard.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Krusch, “Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige,” in +the <i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, xxii. 451-490; Ulysse +Chevalier, <i>Bio-bibliographie</i> (2nd ed.), s.v. “Guntram.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUNTUR,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Madras +presidency. The town (pop. in 1901, 30,833) has a station on the +Bellary-Bezwada branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It +is situated east of the Kondavid hills, and is very healthy. +It appears to have been founded in the 18th century by the +French. At the time of the cession of the Circars to the English +in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the life of Basalat +Jang, whose personal <i>jagir</i> it was. In 1788 it came into British +possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It has +an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories. +There is a second-grade college supported by the American +Lutheran Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of +a district of the same name, and in 1904 a new <span class="sc">District of +Guntur</span> was constituted, covering territory which till then had +been divided between Kistna and Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m. +The population on this area in 1901 was 1,490,635. The district +is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna; in the W. a +considerable part of the boundary is formed by the Gundlakamma +river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain irrigated by +canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and other +crops.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUPTA,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> an empire and dynasty of northern India, which +lasted from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by +Chandragupta I., who must not be confounded with his famous +predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He gave his name to the +Gupta era, which continued in use for several centuries, dating +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +from the 26th of February, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320. Chandragupta was succeeded +by Samudragupta (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 326-375), one of the greatest +of Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and +whose alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his +name was at one time entirely lost to history, and has only +been recovered of recent years from coins and inscriptions. His +empire rivalled that of Asoka, extending from the Hugli on the +east to the Jumna and Chambal on the west, and from the foot of +the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on the south. His +son Chandragupta II. (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 375-413) was also known as Vikra-Maditya +(<i>q.v.</i>), and seems to have been the original of the mythical +Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka +satrap of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian +Sea. His administration is described in the work of Fa-hien, +the earliest Chinese pilgrim, who visited India in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 405-411. +Pataliputra was the capital of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to +have been sometimes used by both Samudragupta and Chandragupta +II. as the headquarters of government. The Gupta +dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the +expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and +literature. The golden age of the empire lasted from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 330 to +455, beginning to decline after the latter date. When Skandagupta +came to the throne in 455, India was threatened with an irruption +of the White Huns, on whom he inflicted a severe defeat, thus +saving his kingdom for a time; but about 470 the White Huns +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephthalites</a></span>) returned to the attack, and the empire was +gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When Skandagupta +died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the +dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several +generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of +Guptas was Kamaragupta II. (<i>c.</i> 535), after whom it passed “by +an obscure transition” into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes, +known as “the later Guptas of Magadha,” who seem for the +most part to have been merely local rulers of Magadha. One of +them, however, Adityasena, after the death of the paramount +sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last known +Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th +century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under +the sway of the Pal kings of Bengal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. F. Fleet, <i>Gupta Inscriptions</i> (1888); and Vincent A. Smith, +<i>The Early History of India</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURA, EUGEN<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1842-1906), German singer, was born near +Saatz in Bohemia, and educated at first for the career of a painter +at Vienna and Munich; but later, developing a fine baritone +voice, he took up singing and studied it at the Munich Conservatorium. +In 1865 he made his début at the Munich opera, and in +the following years he gained the highest reputation in Germany, +being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876 and then at Hamburg +till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the <i>Ring</i> at Bayreuth, and was +famous for his Wagnerian rôles; and his Hans Sachs in <i>Meistersinger</i>, +as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In +later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German +<i>Lieder</i>. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August 1906.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURDASPUR,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Lahore division of the Punjab. The town had a population +in 1901 of 5764. It has a fort (now containing a Brahman +monastery) which was famous for the siege it sustained in 1712 +from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only reduced by +starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after +capitulating.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District</span> comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded +on the N. by the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E. +by Kangra district and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar +district, and on the W. by Sialkot, and occupies the submontane +portion of the Bari Doab, or tract between the Beas and the +Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British dominions runs northward +into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the mountain +sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This station, +which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer +months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent +snowy range, the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two +minor ranges intervene. Below the hills stretches a picturesque +and undulating plateau covered with abundant timber, made +green by a copious rainfall, and watered by the streams of the +Bari Doab, which, diverted by dams and embankments, now +empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their +channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The +district contains several large <i>jhils</i> or swampy lakes, and is +famous for its snipe-shooting. It is historically important in +connexion with the rise of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of +the Punjab was then distributed among the Sikh chiefs who +triumphed over the imperial governors. In the course of a few +years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all the +territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the +neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill +portion of the district, formed part of the area ceded by the +Sikhs to the British after the first Sikh war in 1846. In +1862, after receiving one or two additions, the district was +brought into its present shape. In 1901 the population was +940,334, showing a slight decrease, compared with an increase of +15% in the previous decade. A branch of the North-Western +railway runs through the district. The largest town and chief +commercial centre is Batala. There are important woollen mills +at Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports +cotton, sugar, grain and oil-seeds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURGAON,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Delhi +division of the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the +headquarters of the district, but is otherwise unimportant. The +district has an area of 1984 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by +Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions of the Alwar, Nabha +and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra district of the +United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on the N.E. +by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab +province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills +of Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the +south and run northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward +the plain country. East of the western ridge the valley is wide +and open, extending to the banks of the Jumna. To the west +lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a sandy plain dotted +with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the drainage +from the upland ranges, and the most important among them +empty themselves at last into the Najafgarh <i>jhil</i>. This swampy +lake lies to the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches +long arms into the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak. +Salt is manufactured in wells at several villages. The mineral +products are iron ore, copper ore, plumbago and ochre.</p> + +<p>In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British +after Lord Lake’s conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in +May 1857, the nawab of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of +the district, rose in rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput +families followed his example. A faithful native officer preserved +the public buildings and records at Rewari from destruction; +but with this exception, British authority became extinguished +for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the rebel +capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or +dispersed the leaders of rebellion. The territory of the nawab was +confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil +administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab +government, to which province the district was formally annexed +on the final pacification of the country. The population in 1901 +was 746,208, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The +largest town and chief trade centre is Rewari. The district is +now traversed by several lines of railway, and irrigation is +provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade is in cereals, but +hardware is also exported.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURKHA<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (pronounced <i>góorka</i>; from Sans. <i>gāu</i>, a cow, and +<i>raks</i>, to protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (<i>q.v.</i>). The +Gurkhas, or Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in +Rajputana. When driven out of their own country by the +Mahommedan invasion, they took refuge in the hilly districts +about Kumaon, whence they gradually invaded the country to +the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the +valley of Nepal and even Sikkim. They were stopped by the +English in an attempt to push south, and the treaty of Segauli, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their +territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain +Hindus by religion, but show in their appearance a strong +admixture of Mongolian blood. They make splendid infantry +soldiers, and by agreement with their government about 20,000 +have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of the Indian army. +As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank, independent +and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire and +fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they +share. They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a +sturdier build. Their national weapon is the <i>kukri</i>, a heavy +curved knife, which they use for every possible purpose.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Capt. Eden Vansittart, <i>Notes on the Gurkhas</i> (1898); and P. +D. Bonarjee, <i>The Fighting Races of India</i> (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURNALL, WILLIAM<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1617-1679), English author, was born +in 1617 at King’s Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free +grammar school of his native town, and in 1631 was nominated +to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where +he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He was made +rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received +that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate, +at Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration +required by the Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was +the subject of a libellous attack, published in 1665, entitled +<i>Covenant-Renouncers Desperate Apostates</i>. He died on the 12th +of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his <i>Christian in Complete +Armour</i>, published in three volumes, dated 1655, 1658 and 1662. +It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion of the 6th +chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a “magazine from +whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the +battle, helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his +weapon; together with the happy issue of the whole war.” +The work is more practical than theological; and its quaint +fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its fervent religious tone +render it still popular with some readers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall</i>, by +H. M’Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle +to the <i>Christian in Complete Armour</i> (1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURNARD<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>Trigla</i>), a genus of fishes forming a group of the +family of “mailed cheeks” (<i>Triglidae</i>), and easily recognized by +three detached finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins, +and by their large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are +protected by strong, hard and rough bones. The pectoral +appendages are provided with strong nerves, and serve not only +as organs of locomotion when the fish moves on the bottom, but +also as organs of touch, by which it detects small animals on +which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally distributed +over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species +known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red +gurnard (<i>T. pini</i>), the streaked gurnard (<i>T. lineata</i>), the sapphirine +gurnard (<i>T. hirundo</i>), the grey gurnard (<i>T. gurnardus</i>), the piper +(<i>T. lyra</i>) and the long-finned gurnard (<i>T. obscura</i> or <i>T. lucerna</i>). +Although never found very far from the coast, gurnards descend +to depths of several hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom-fish +they are caught chiefly by means of the trawl. Not rarely, +however, they may be seen floating on the surface of the water, +with their broad, finely coloured pectoral fins spread out like +fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain localities +on the coast in the months of August and September, the pectorals +are comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to +the end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept +expanded, the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught +and taken out of the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise, +which is produced by the vibrations of a diaphragm situated +transversely across the cavity of the bladder and perforated in +the centre. This grunting noise gave rise to the name “gurnard,” +which is probably an adaptation or variation of the Fr. +<i>grognard</i>, grumbler, cf. the Fr. <i>grondin</i>, gurnard, from <i>gronder</i>, +and Ger. <i>Knurrfisch</i>. Their flesh is very white, firm and wholesome.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:229px" src="images/img732.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Trigla pleuracanthica.</i></td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURNEY,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> the name of a philanthropic English family of +bankers and merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay, +lord of Gournay, one of the Norman noblemen who accompanied +William the Conqueror to England. Large grants of land were +made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and Suffolk, and Norwich +has since that time been the headquarters of the family, the +majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers +John and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business +passing in 1779 to Henry’s son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of +Bartlett Gurney in 1802 the bank became the property of his +three cousins, of whom <span class="sc">John Gurney</span> (1750-1809) was the most +remarkable. One of his daughters was Elizabeth Fry; another +married Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton. Of his sons one was Joseph +<span class="sc">John Gurney</span> (1788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the +day; another, <span class="sc">Samuel Gurney</span> (1786-1856) assumed on his +father’s death the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney +also took over about the same time the control of the London bill-broking +business of Richardson, Overend & Company, in which +he was already a partner. This business had been founded in +1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London bill-discounter, +and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith, Payne & +Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital. +At that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic +fashion by the ordinary merchant in addition to his regular +business, but Richardson considered that there was room for a +London house which should devote itself entirely to the trade in +bills. This, at that time, novel idea proved an instant success. +The title of the firm was subsequently changed to Overend, +Gurney & Company, and for forty years it was the greatest +discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of +1825 Overend, Gurney & Company were able to make short +loans to many other bankers. The house indeed became known as +“the bankers’ banker,” and secured many of the previous clients +of the Bank of England. Samuel Gurney died in 1856. He was +a man of very charitable disposition, and during the latter years +of his life charitable and philanthropic undertakings almost +monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of Overend, +Gurney & Company, which had come under less competent +control, was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866 +the firm suspended payment with liabilities amounting to eleven +millions sterling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURNEY, EDMUND<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1847-1888), English psychologist, was +born at Hersham, near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March +1847. He was educated at Blackheath and at Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he took a high place in the classical tripos and +obtained a fellowship. His work for the schools was done, says +his friend F. W. H. Myers, “in the intervals of his practice on the +piano.” Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as a musician, +he wrote <i>The Power of Sound</i> (1880), an essay on the philosophy +of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of practising, +devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In +1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the +science of the healing profession. These studies, and his great +logical powers and patience in the investigation of evidence, he +devoted to that outlying field of psychology which is called +“Psychical Research.” He asked whether, as universal tradition +declares, there is an unexplored region of human faculty transcending +the normal limitations of sensible knowledge. That +there is such a region it was part of the system of Hegel to declare, +and the subject had been metaphysically treated by Hartmann, +Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney’s purpose was +to approach the subject by observation and experiment, especially +in the hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes +had hitherto been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians. +The tendency of his mind was to investigate whatever facts may +give a colour of truth to the ancient belief in the persistence of the +conscious human personality after the death of the body. Like +Joseph Glanvill’s, the natural bent of Gurney’s mind was sceptical. +Both thought the current and traditional reports of supernormal +occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by the ordinary +methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into evidence +at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much +more strict than that of the author of <i>Sadducismus Triumphatus</i>, +and it included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to +Glanvill. Gurney began at what he later saw was the wrong end +by studying, with Myers, the “séances” of professed spiritualistic +“mediums” (1874-1878). Little but detection of imposture +came of this, but an impression was left that the subject ought +not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research +was founded. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychical Research</a></span>.) Paid mediums were +discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in +“thought-transference” and hypnotism. Personal evidence as +to uninduced hallucinations was also collected. The first results +are embodied in the volumes of <i>Phantasms of the Living</i>, a vast +collection (Podmore, Myers and Gurney), and in Gurney’s +remarkable essay, <i>Hallucinations</i>. The chief consequence was +to furnish evidence for the process called “telepathy,” involving +the provisional hypothesis that one human mind can affect +another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was +supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the +<i>Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research</i>, and it was +argued that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for +example, in the many recorded instances of “deathbed wraiths” +among civilized and savage races. (Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, i. +chapter xi., especially pp. 449-450, 1873. Lang, <i>Making of +Religion</i>, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying man is supposed +to convey the hallucination of his presence as one living +person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by +“thought-transference.” Gurney’s hypnotic experiments, +marked by great exactness, patience and ingenuity, were undertaken +in 1885-1888. Their tendency was, in Myers’s words, +“to prove—so far as any one operator’s experience in this protean +subject can be held to prove anything—that there is sometimes, +in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency at work +which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or +sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the +subject’s mind.” These results, if accepted, of course corroborate +the idea of telepathy. (See Gurney, “Hypnotism and Telepathy,” +<i>Proceedings S. P. R.</i> vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet, +Richet, Héricourt and others are cited as tending in the same +direction. Other experiments dealt with “the relation of the +memory in the hypnotic state to the memory in another hypnotic +state, and of both to the normal or waking memory.” The result +of Gurney’s labours, cut short by his early death, was to raise and +strengthen the presumption that there exists an unexplored +region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by +science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage superstition. +Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences +which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs. +That Gurney was credulous and easily imposed upon those who +knew him, and knew his penetrating humour, cannot admit; +nor is the theory likely to be maintained by those whom bias +does not prevent from studying with care his writings. In controversy +“he delighted in replying with easy courtesy to attacks +envenomed with that <i>odium plus quam theologicum</i> which the +very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some philosophers +to inspire.” In discussion of themes unpopular and +obscure Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good +temper, humour and acuteness. There never was a more disinterested +student. In addition to his work on music and his +psychological writings, he was the author of <i>Tertium Quid</i> +(1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest against one-sided +ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton on +23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic +medicine.</p> +<div class="author">(A. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GURWOOD, JOHN<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1790-1845), British soldier, began his +career in a merchant’s office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in +the 52nd (1808). With his regiment he served in the “Light +Division” of Wellington’s army throughout the earlier Peninsular +campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (19th Jan. 1812) he +led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For his +gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood +with the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A +little later, transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made +brigade-major to the Guards’ cavalry which had just arrived in +the Peninsula. In the latter part of the war he served as brigade-major +to Lambert’s brigade of the sixth infantry division, and +was present at the various actions in which that division played +a conspicuous part—the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes and Toulouse. +At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time severely +wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was promoted +up to the grade of lieut.-colonel, and in 1841 became +brevet-colonel. He was for many years the duke of Wellington’s +private secretary, and was entrusted by him with the collection +and editing of the <i>Wellington Despatches</i>, which occupied Gurwood +from 1837 to the end of his life. This work is a monument +of industrious skill, and earned its author a Civil List Pension of +£200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds had broken +his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845. +He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSLA,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gusli</span>, an ancient stringed instrument still in use +among the Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind +of tanbur (see Pandura), consisting of a round, concave body +covered with a parchment soundboard; there is but one horse-hair +string, and the peg for tuning it is inserted in oriental fashion +in the back of the head. The gusla is played with a primitive +bow called <i>goudalo</i>. The <i>gouslars</i> or blind bards of Servia and +Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G. Anton<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a> mentions +an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon +strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper +Merimée<a name="fa2r" id="fa2r" href="#ft2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a> has taken the <i>gusla</i> as the title for a book of Servian +poems, which are supposed to have been collected by him among +the peasants, but which are thought to have been inspired by the +<i>Viaggio in Dalmazia</i> of Albarto Fortis.</p> + +<p>Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different +type, a kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched +across a flat, shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the +gusli the strings, of graduated length, are attached to little nails +or pins at one end, and at the other they are wound over a rod +having screw attachments for increasing and slackening the +tension. There is no bridge to determine the vibrating length of +the strings. The body of the instrument is shaped roughly like +the tail of the grand piano, following the line of the strings; the +longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew Guthrie +gives an illustration of the gusli.<a name="fa3r" id="fa3r" href="#ft3r"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Erste Linien eines Versuchs über den Ursprung der alten Slaven</i> +(Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>La Guzla, ou choix de poésies lyriques recueillies dans la Dalmatie, +la Bosnie, la Croatie, &c.</i> (Paris, 1827).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3r" id="ft3r" href="#fa3r"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Dissertations sur les antiquités de Russie</i> (St Petersburg, 1795), +pl. ii. No. 9, p. 31.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was +born at his mother’s estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496. +He came of a family which had shone conspicuously in 15th-century +politics, though it generally took the anti-national side. +His father, Erik Johansson of Rydboholm, “a merry and jocose +gentleman,” but, like all the Swedish Vasas, liable to sudden +fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators who voted for the +deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the <i>riksdag</i> of 1517 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>, <i>History</i>), for which act of patriotism he lost his head. +Gustavus’s mother, Cecilia Månsdåtter, was closely connected +by marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus’s youthful +experiences impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything +Danish. In his eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his +cousin Sten Sture. At the battle of Brännkyrka, when Sture +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +defeated Christian II. of Denmark, the young Gustavus bore the +governor’s standard, and in the same year (1518) he was delivered +with five other noble youths as a hostage to King Christian, who +treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. He was +detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalö, on the +east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Lübeck in +September 1519. There he found an asylum till the 20th of May +1520, when he chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish +fortresses which held out against Christian II.</p> + +<p>It was while hunting near Lake Mälar that the news of the +Stockholm massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from +the capital, who told him, at the same time, that a price had been +set upon his head. In his extremity, Gustavus saw only one +way of deliverance, an appeal for help to the sturdy yeomen of the +dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on the throne and how +he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden (1521-1523) +is elsewhere recorded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). But his worst +troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523. +The financial position of the crown was the most important of all +the problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else +depended. By releasing his country from the tyranny of +Denmark, Gustavus had made the free independent development +of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to realize that possibility. +First of all, order had to be evolved from the chaos in which +Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union; and +the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the +royal authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years. +But an effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound +financial basis; and the usual revenues of the crown, always +inadequate, were so diminished that they did not cover half the +daily expenses of government. New taxes could only be imposed +with extreme caution, while the country was still bleeding from +the wounds of a long war. And men were wanted even more +than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy administrators +in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government +weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young +man of seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in +travelling from one end of the kingdom to the other, and doing +purely clerical work for want of competent assistance. We can +form some idea of his difficulties when we learn that, in 1533, he +could not send an ambassador to Lübeck because not a single +man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was this +lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to +employ the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von +Mehlen, John von Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others.</p> + +<p>It was not the least of Gustavus’s many anxieties that he had +constantly to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival +should encroach on his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish +peasantry. He succeeded indeed in putting down the four +formidable rebellions which convulsed the realm from 1525 to +1542, but the consequent strain upon his resources was very +damaging, and more than once he was on the point of abdicating +and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in constant +fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534-1536) +to take part in <i>Grevens fejde</i> (Counts’ War) (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>, +<i>History</i>), as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated +distrust of the Danes was invincible. “We advise and exhort +you,” he wrote to the governor of Kalmar, “to put no hope or +trust in the Danes, or in their sweet scribbling, inasmuch as they +mean nothing at all by it except how best they may deceive and +betray us Swedes.” Such instructions were not calculated to +promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators. +A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian +III.’s daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On +that occasion, apparently by way of protest against the decree of +the diet of Vesterås (15th of January 1544), declaring the +Swedish crown hereditary in Gustavus’s family, the Danish king +caused to be quartered on his daughter’s shield not only the three +Danish lions and the Norwegian lion with the axe of St Olaf, but +also “the three crowns” of Sweden. Gustavus, naturally +suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation, and warned +all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the worst. +In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting against the +placing of “the three crowns” in the royal Danish seal beneath +the arms of Denmark. Christian III. replied that “the three +crowns” signified not Sweden in especial, but the three Scandinavian +kingdoms, and that their insertion in the Danish shield +was only a reminiscence of the union of Kalmar. But Gustavus +was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of “the three +crowns” dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms.</p> + +<p>The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy +See are set forth in the proper place (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). +Here it need only be added that it was a purely political act, as +Gustavus, personally, had no strong dogmatic leanings either +way. He not unnaturally expressed his amazement when that +very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently informed him +that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and graver +Laurentius Andreae, who told him how “Doctor Martinus had +clipped the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops,” +which could not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who +was never an admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the +church, accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting +object to the impecunious ruler of an impoverished people. +Subsequently, when the Protestant hierarchy was forcibly +established in Sweden, matters were much complicated by the +absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant labour, the +constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus Vasa +during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even +upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560, +conscious of an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus summoned +his last diet, to give an account of his stewardship. On +the 16th of June 1560 the assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days +later, supported by his sons, Gustavus greeted the estates in the +great hall of the palace, when he took a retrospect of his reign, +reminding them of the misery of the kingdom during the union +and its deliverance from “that unkind tyrant, King Christian.” +Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming the +hereditary right of Gustavus’s son, Prince Eric, to the throne. +The old king’s last anxieties were now over and he could die in +peace. He expired on the 29th of September 1560.</p> + +<p>Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine, +daughter of Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in +1533 his eldest son Eric. This union was neither long nor happy, +but the blame for its infelicity is generally attributed to the lady, +whose abnormal character was reflected and accentuated in her +unhappy son. Much more fortunate was Gustavus’s second +marriage, a year after the death of his first consort, with his own +countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons +and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and +Charles, and one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood. +Queen Margaret died in 1551; and a twelvemonth later +Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine Stenbock, a handsome +girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty years.</p> + +<p>Gustavus’s outward appearance in the prime of life is thus +described by a contemporary: “He was of the middle +height, with a round head, light yellow hair, a fine long beard, +sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance ... and a body as fitly and +well proportioned as any painter could have painted it. He was +of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and +unvexed, a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with, +and however many people happened to be in the same room with +him, he was never at a loss for an answer to every one of them.” +Learned he was not, but he had naturally bright and clear understanding, +an unusually good memory, and a marvellous capacity +for taking pains. He was also very devout, and his morals were +irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus had his full share +of the family failings of irritability and suspiciousness, the latter +quality becoming almost morbid under the pressure of adverse +circumstances. His energy too not infrequently degenerated +into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Alberg, <i>Gustavus Vasa and his Times</i> (London, 1882); +R. N. Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, chaps. iii. and v. (Cambridge, 1905); +P. B. Watson, <i>The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa</i> (London, +1889); O. Sjögren, <i>Gustaf Vasa</i> (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +<i>The Reformation in Sweden</i> (New York, 1883); <i>Sveriges Historia</i> +(Stockholm, 1877-1881); J. Weidling, <i>Schwedische Geschichte im +Zeitalter der Reformation</i> (Gotha, 1882).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1594-1632), king of Sweden, +the eldest son of Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of +Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm +castle on the 9th of December 1594. From the first he was +carefully nurtured to be the future prop of Protestantism by his +austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the classics, +and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may +be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and +German; at twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch; +and he learnt subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian +and Polish. But his practical father took care that he should +grow up a prince, not a pedant. So early as his ninth year he was +introduced to public life; at thirteen he received petitions and +conversed officially with the foreign ministers; at fifteen he +administered his duchy of Vestmanland and opened the Örebro +diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 1610 he may be +regarded as his father’s co-regent. In all martial and chivalrous +accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year +later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as +uncontested as it was incontestable.</p> + +<p>The first act of the young king was to terminate the fratricidal +struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knäred (28th +of January 1613). Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage +from Charles IX., had been proceeding in the far distant regions +round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as +its centre. It was not, however, like the Danish War, a national +danger, but a political speculation meant to be remunerative and +compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for Sweden +by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). By this peace Gustavus succeeded in excluding +Muscovy from the Baltic. “I hope to God,” he declared to +the Stockholm diet in 1617, when he announced the conclusion of +peace, “that the Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over +<i>that</i> little brook.” The war with Poland which Gustavus resumed +in 1621 was a much more difficult affair. It began with an +attack upon Riga as the first step towards conquering Livonia. +Riga was invested on the 13th of August and surrendered on the +15th of September; on the 3rd of October Mitau was occupied; +but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign +that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than +10,000 men. A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities +were suspended till the summer of 1625, in the course of which +Gustavus took Kokenhusen and invaded Lithuania. In January +1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and scattered the whole of +their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This victory, remarkable +besides as Gustavus’s first pitched battle, completed the +conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year more +difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now +resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland +with a view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already +secured the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the +Swedish fleet, with 14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the +chain of sand-dunes which separates the Frische-Haff from the +Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port then accessible to ships of +war, was at once occupied, and Königsberg shortly afterwards +was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was passed in +conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing +and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and +easily defensible delta of the Vistula, which he treated as a +permanent conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor-general. +Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut +off by the erection of the first of Gustavus’s famous entrenched +camps at Dirschau. From the end of August 1626 the city was +blockaded, and in the meantime Polish irregulars, under the +capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass the Swedes. +But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of operations, +was won; and in October the king departed to Sweden to get +reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men, +which raised his forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski +could only oppose 9000. But his superior strategy frustrated all +the efforts of the Swedish king, who in the course of the year was +twice dangerously wounded and so disabled that he could never +wear armour again. Gustavus had made extensive preparations +for the ensuing campaign and took the field with 32,000 men. +But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by +his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than +a match for Gustavus, who, on the 10th of September, broke up +his camp and returned to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign +had proved a failure and cost him 5000 men. During the ensuing +campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend against the combined +forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Wallenstein’s mercenaries. +The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do +with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he +defeated Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly +escaped capture. The result of the campaign was the conclusion +of the six years’ truce of Altmark, which was very advantageous +to Sweden.</p> + +<p>And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The +motives which induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in +the Thirty Years’ War are told us by himself in his correspondence +with Oxenstjerna. Here he says plainly that it was the fear lest +the emperor should acquire the Baltic ports and proceed to build +up a sea-power dangerous to Scandinavia. For the same reason, +the king rejected the chancellor’s alternative of waging a simply +defensive war against the emperor by means of the fleet, with +Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the experience of +Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies’ harbours could be +wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land; +and, while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the +face of two large armies, Tilly’s and Wallenstein’s, each of them +larger than his own, he argued that the vast extent of territory +and the numerous garrisons which the enemy was obliged to +maintain, more than neutralized his numerical superiority. +Merely to blockade all the German ports with the Swedish fleet +was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak for +that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In +Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find +himself without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an +anxious and farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who +thus opens his mind to us. No doubt religious considerations +largely influenced Gustavus. He had the deepest sympathy for +his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he regarded them as God’s +peculiar people, himself as their divinely appointed deliverer. +But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally and rightly, +he viewed the whole business from a predominantly Swedish +point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered +from a “soul-crushing tyranny”; but they were to be delivered +by a foreign if friendly power; and that power claimed as her +reward the hegemony of Protestant Europe and all the political +privileges belonging to that exalted position.</p> + +<p>On the 19th of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the +estates of the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared +before them holding in his arms his only child and heiress, the +little princess Christina, then in her fourth year, and tenderly +committed her to the care of his loyal and devoted people. Then +he solemnly took the estates to witness, as he stood there “in the +sight of the Almighty,” that he had begun hostilities “out of no +lust for war, as many will certainly devise and imagine,” but in +self-defence and to deliver his fellow-Christians from oppression. +On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two days +after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was +disembarked at Peenemünde. Gustavus’s plan was to take +possession of the mouths of the Oder Haff, and, resting upon +Stralsund in the west and Prussia in the east, penetrate into +Germany. In those days rivers were what railways now are, the +great military routes; and Gustavus’s German war was a war +waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought +along the line of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania, +and the key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a +first-class fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the +piebald imperial host composed of every nationality under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +heaven, and officered by Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats, +Danes, Spaniards and Walloons. Gustavus’s army has often +been described by German historians as an army of foreign +invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the +official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus’s +political difficulties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>) chained him to his +camp for the remainder of the year. But the dismissal of +Wallenstein and the declaration in Gustavus’s favour of Magdeburg, +the greatest city in the Lower Saxon Circle, and strategically +the strongest fortress of North Germany, encouraged him +to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as expediency +moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely invested +by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been considerably +strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty +of Bärwalde, 13th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore, +became the focus of the whole campaign of 1631; but the +obstructive timidity of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony +threw insuperable obstacles in his way, and, on the very day +when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates against Gustavus +the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany +became a heap of smoking ruins (20th of May). Gustavus, still +too weak to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the +confluence of the Havel and Elbe. Only on the 12th of September +did the elector of Saxony, alarmed for the safety of his own +states, now invaded by the emperor, place himself absolutely at +the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days later, at the head of the +combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes did all the +fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of Breitenfeld, +north of Leipzig.</p> + +<p>The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize +his advantage? Should he invade the Austrian crown lands, +and dictate peace to Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna? Or +should he pursue Tilly westwards and crush the league at its own +hearth and home? Oxenstjerna was the first alternative, +but Gustavus decided in favour of the second. His decision has +been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has +argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in +1805 and 1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty +years’ war. But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of +Gustavus, Vienna was by no means so essential to the existence +of the Habsburg monarchy as it was in the days of Napoleon; +and even Gustavus could not allow so dangerous an opponent as +Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he set out for the +Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and on the +20th of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout +the winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to +bring about the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed +to take the field with an overwhelming numerical majority. The +signal for Gustavus to break up from the Rhine was the sudden +advance of Tilly from behind the Danube. Gustavus pursued +Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the Danube at Donauwörth +and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly’s strongly +entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the +fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight +later. Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed +Protestant cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied +Munich. The same week Wallenstein chased John George from +Prague and manœuvred the Saxons out of Bohemia. Then, +armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he offered the +elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly +saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John +George such an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to +make, the elector would never have become Gustavus’s ally; +would he remain Gustavus’s ally now? Hastily quitting his +quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards Nuremberg +on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and +Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the +attempt to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each +other at Nuremberg which furnished Gustavus with a point of +support of the first order. He quickly converted the town into +an entrenched and fortified camp. Wallenstein followed the +king’s example, and entrenched himself on the western bank of +the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in circumference. +His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut off his +retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two +armies faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August, +after an unsuccessful attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of +Wallenstein’s position, the Swedish host retired southwards.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating +Saxony, was preparing to go into winter quarters at Lützen, +when the king surprised him as he was crossing the Rippach +(1st of November) and a rearguard action favourable to the +Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall, Wallenstein’s scattered +forces might have been routed. During the night, however, +Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at daybreak +on the 6th of November, while an autumn mist still lay +over the field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus’s plan +to drive Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which +he had posted himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and +subsequently, with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses, +annihilate him. The king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded +in driving the enemy from the trenches and capturing his cannon. +What happened after that is mere conjecture, for a thick mist +now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle became a colossal +mêlée the details of which are indistinguishable. It was in the +midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his death—how +or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he +lost his way in the darkness while leading the Småland horse to +the assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay +severely wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman.</p> + +<p>By his wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Brandenburg, +whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one +daughter, Christina, who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i> (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv.; A. Oxenstjerna, +<i>Skrifter och Brefvexling</i> (Stockholm, 1900, &c.); G. Björlen, +<i>Gustaf Adolf</i> (Stockholm, 1890); R. N. Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, +1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, <i>Gustavus Adolphus</i> (London, +1892); J. L. Stevens, <i>History of Gustavus Adolphus</i> (London, 1885); +J. Mankell, <i>Om Gustaf II. Adolfs politik</i> (Stockholm, 1881); E. +Bluemel, <i>Gustav Adolf, König von Schweden</i> (Eisleben, 1894); A. +Rydfors, <i>De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och England +1624-1630</i> (Upsala, 1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS III.<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest +son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of +Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th +of January 1746. Gustavus was educated under the care of two +governors who were amongst the most eminent Swedish statesmen +of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and Carl Scheffer; but he +owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof von Dalin. +The interference of the state with his education, when he was +quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents +taught him to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the +diet, and the atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he +grew up made him precociously experienced in the art of dissimulation. +But even his most hostile teachers were amazed by the +brilliance of his natural gifts, and, while still a boy, he possessed +that charm of manner which was to make him so fascinating and +so dangerous in later life, coupled with the strong dramatic +instinct which won for him his honourable place in Swedish +literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been +well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a +French author of his day with whose works he was not intimately +acquainted; while his enthusiasm for the new French ideas of +enlightenment was as sincere as, if more critical than, his +mother’s. On the 4th of November 1766, Gustavus married +Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V. of Denmark. The +match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of +temper, but still more to the mischievous interference of the +jealous queen-mother.</p> + +<p>Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the +time of his father’s interregnum, when he compelled the dominant +Cap faction to summon an extraordinary diet from which he +hoped for the reform of the constitution in a monarchical direction. +But the victorious Hats refused to redeem the pledges which they +had given before the elections. “That we should have lost the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +constitutional battle does not distress us so much,” wrote +Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; “but what does dismay +me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its +own felicity in absolute anarchy.” From the 4th of February to +the 25th of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried +both the court and the city by storm. The poets and the philosophers +paid him enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished +women of the day testified to his superlative merits. With many +of them he maintained a lifelong correspondence. But his visit +to the French capital was no mere pleasure trip; it was also a +political mission. Confidential agents from the Swedish court +had already prepared the way for him, and the duc de Choiseul, +weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the +best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before +he departed, the French government undertook to pay the outstanding +subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one +and a half million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes, +one of the great names of French diplomacy, was transferred +from Constantinople to Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus +paid a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. +Frederick bluntly informed his nephew that, in concert with +Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the integrity of the +existing Swedish constitution, and significantly advised the +young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from +violence.</p> + +<p>On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest +attempt to mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining +the country between them (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). On the 21st +of June 1771 he opened his first parliament in a speech which +awakened strange and deep emotions in all who heard it. It was +the first time for more than a century that a Swedish king had +addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native tongue. +The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the sacrifice of +all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered, as +“the first citizen of a free people,” to be the mediator between +the contending factions. A composition committee was actually +formed, but it proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of +neither of the factions being equal to the puniest act of self-denial. +The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps still +further to limit the prerogative, and reduce Gustavus to the +condition of a <i>roi fainéant</i>, induced him at last to consider the +possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there could be no +doubt. Under the sway of the Cap faction, Sweden, already the +vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was +on the point of being absorbed in that northern system, the +invention of the Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin, +which that patient statesman had made it the ambition of his +life to realize. Only a swift and sudden <i>coup d’état</i> could save the +independence of a country isolated from the rest of Europe by a +hostile league. At this juncture Gustavus was approached by +Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish nobleman of determined +character, who had incurred the enmity of the Caps, with the +project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the fortress of +Sveaborg by a <i>coup de main</i>, and, Finland once secured, Sprengtporten +proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his +friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night +attack, when the estates were to be forced, at the point of the +bayonet, to accept a new constitution from the untrammelled +king. The plotters were at this juncture reinforced by an ex-ranger +from Scania (Skåne), Johan Kristoffer Toll, also a victim +of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a second revolt should +break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the government +still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern fortress +of Kristianstad. After some debate, it was finally arranged +that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad +should openly declare against the government. Prince Charles, +the eldest of the king’s brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize +the garrisons of all the southern fortresses, for the ostensible +purpose of crushing the revolt at Kristianstad; but on arriving +before the fortress he was to make common cause with the rebels, +and march upon the capital from the south, while Sprengtporten +attacked it simultaneously from the east. On the 6th of August +1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the fortress of +Kristianstad. On the 16th Sprengtporten succeeded in surprising +Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to +Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made +his presence there unnecessary.</p> + +<p>On the 16th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived +at Stockholm with the news of the insurrection in the south, +and Gustavus found himself isolated in the midst of enemies. +Sprengtporten lay weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five +hundred miles away, the Hat leaders were in hiding. Gustavus +thereupon resolved to strike the decisive blow without waiting +for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted with military +promptitude. On the evening of the 18th all the officers whom +he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble +in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning. +At ten o’clock on the 19th Gustavus mounted his horse and rode +straight to the arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in +little groups, as if by accident, so that by the time he reached his +destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite. After +parade he reconducted them to the guard-room of the palace +and unfolded his plans to them. He then dictated a new oath of +allegiance, and every one signed it without hesitation. It absolved +them from their allegiance to the estates, and bound them solely +to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the senate +and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the +fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was +everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a +deliverer. On the evening of the 20th heralds perambulated the +streets proclaiming that the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal +on the following day; every deputy absenting himself would be +regarded as the enemy of his country and his king. On the 21st, +a few moments after the estates had assembled, the king in full +regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the throne, delivered that +famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of Swedish oratory, in +which he reproached the estates for their unpatriotic venality +and licence in the past. A new constitution was recited by the +estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was then +dissolved.</p> + +<p>Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the greatness +and welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory +direction as the other contemporary sovereigns of the “age of +enlightenment.” He took an active part in every department of +business, but relied far more on extra-official counsellors of his +own choosing than upon the senate. The effort to remedy the +frightful corruption which had been fostered by the Hats and +Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found +it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice (<i>Göta +Hofrätt</i>) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the +administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and +torture as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished. +In 1774 an ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was +even issued. The national defences were at the same time +developed on a “Great Power” scale, and the navy was so +enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in Europe. +The dilapidated finances were set in good order by the “currency +realization ordinance” of 1777. Gustavus also introduced new +national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was +promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished. +The poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was +proclaimed, and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing +a national costume which was in general use from 1778 till his +death. His one great economic blunder was the attempt to make +the sale of spirits a government monopoly, which was an obvious +infringement upon the privileges of the estates. His foreign +policy, on the other hand, was at first both wise and wary. +Thus, when the king summoned the estates to assemble at +Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a +brilliant account of his six years’ stewardship. Never was a +parliament more obsequious or a king more gracious. “There +was no room for a single No during the whole session.” Yet, +short as the session was, it was quite long enough to open the +eyes of the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +departed. They had changed places with the king. He was now +indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his gentleness, the +jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he +enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain +so. Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the +change by no means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been +obsequious; the diet of 1786 was mutinous. The consequence +was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected +outright or so modified that Gustavus himself withdrew +them.</p> + +<p>The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus’s history. +Henceforth we observe a determination on his part to rule without +a parliament; a passage, cautious and gradual, yet unflinching, +from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His +opportunity came in 1788, when the political complications +arising out of his war with Catherine II. of Russia enabled him +by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th of February 1789) +to override the opposition of the rebellious and grossly unpatriotic +gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower estates, +establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which, though +the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal authority +largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in +the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle +with Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund (9th-10th July) +the most glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms, +the Russians losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A +month later, on the 14th of August 1790, peace was signed +between Russia and Sweden at Värälä. Only eight months +before, Catherine had haughtily declared that “the odious and +revolting aggression” of the king of Sweden would be “forgiven” +only if he “testified his repentance” by agreeing to a +peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels, +and consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet (“as it would +be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone”) for the observance +of peace in the future. The peace of Värälä saved Sweden +from any such humiliating concession, and in October 1791 +Gustavus took the bold but by no means imprudent step of concluding +an eight years’ defensive alliance with the empress, who +thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies +amounting to 300,000 roubles.</p> + +<p>Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the +Jacobins, and every other consideration was subordinated +thereto. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled +him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, accurately to gauge +from the first the scope and bearing of the French Revolution. +But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy of the other +European Powers, and, after showing once more his unrivalled +mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of +January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread +aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarström at a +midnight masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th +of March 1792, he expired on the 29th.</p> + +<p>Although he may be charged with many foibles and extravagances, +Gustavus III. was indisputably one of the greatest +sovereigns of the 18th century. Unfortunately his genius never +had full scope, and his opportunity came too late. Gustavus was, +moreover, a most distinguished author. He may be said to have +created the Swedish theatre, and some of the best acting dramas +in the literature are by his hand. His historical essays, notably +the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the +Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style,—his letters to +his friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art +interested him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a +most liberal and sympathetic protector.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries</i> (London, +1904); E. G. Geijer, <i>Konung Gustaf III.’s efterlemnade papper</i> +(Upsala, 1843-1845); C. T. Odhner, <i>Sveriges politiska historia under +Konung Gustaf III.’s regering</i> (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von +Beskow, <i>Om Gustaf III. såsom Konung och människa</i> (Stockholm, +1860-1861); O. Levertin, <i>Gustaf III. som dramatisk författare</i> +(Stockholm, 1894); <i>Gustaf III.’s bref till G. M. Armfelt</i> (Fr.) (Stockholm, +1883); Y. K. Grot, <i>Catharine II. and Gustavus III.</i> (Russ.) +(St Petersburg, 1884).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS IV.<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of +Gustavus III. and Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stockholm +on the 1st of November 1778. Carefully educated under +the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he grew up serious and +conscientious. In August 1796 his uncle the regent Charles, duke +of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of arranging +a marriage between the young king and Catherine II.’s granddaughter, +the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was +actually fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole +arrangement foundered on the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to +allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites +of the Greek Orthodox Church—a rebuff which undoubtedly +accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody seems to +have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement +lay at the root of Gustavus’s abnormal piety. On the contrary, +there were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on +the fact that Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an +economical, God-fearing, commonplace monarch to deal with. +Gustavus’s prompt dismissal of the generally detested Gustaf +Reuterholm added still further to his popularity. On the 31st of +October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica Dorothea, daughter of +Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage which might +have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred of the +French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV., +which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the +king’s horror of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove +him to adopt all sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone +his coronation for some years, so as to avoid calling together a +diet; but the disorder of the finances, caused partly by the +continental war and partly by the almost total failure of the crops +in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the estates to +Norrköping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus was +crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden’s +foreign policy and its fatal consequences to the country are elsewhere +set forth (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>, <i>History</i>). By the end of 1808 it was +obvious to every thinking Swede that the king was insane. His +violence had alienated his most faithful supporters, while his +obstinate incompetence paralysed the national efforts. To +remove a madman by force was the one remaining expedient; +and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of officers +of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvärds, +and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skåne to Stockholm. +On the 13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into +the royal apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king, +and conducted him to the château of Gripsholm; Duke Charles +was easily persuaded to accept the leadership of a provisional +government, which was proclaimed the same day; and a diet, +hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the revolution. On the +29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown for his son, +voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates, +dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but +his whole family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June +the duke regent was proclaimed king under the title of Charles +XIII., after accepting the new liberal constitution, which was +ratified by the diet the same day. In December Gustavus and +his family were transported to Germany. Gustavus now assumed +the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently called himself +Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most of his +works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for +some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally +settled at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence. +He died on the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of +King Oscar II. his body was brought to Sweden and interred in +the Riddarholmskyrka. From him descend both the Baden and +the Oldenburg princely houses on the female side.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, <i>Anteckningar och minnen</i> (Stockholm, +1889); B. von Beskow, <i>Lefnadsminnen</i> (Stockholm, 1870); +K. V. Key-Åberg, <i>De diplomatiska förbindelserna mellan Sverige och +Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.’s Krig emot Napoléon</i> (Upsala, 1890); +Colonel Gustafsson, <i>La Journée du treize mars</i>, &c. (St Gall, 1835); +<i>Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson</i> (Leipzig, 1829).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS V.<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1858-  ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II., +king of Sweden and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +born at Drottningholm on the 16th of June 1858. He entered the +army, and was, like his father, a great traveller. As crown prince +he held the title of duke of Wärmland. He married in 1881 +Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William Louis, grand +duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The duchess +of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden, +and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union +between the Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal +house of Vasa. During the absence or illness of his father +Gustavus repeatedly acted as regent, and was therefore already +thoroughly versed in public affairs when he succeeded to the +Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the crown of +Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905. +He took as his motto “With the people for the Fatherland.”</p> + +<p>The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus, +duke of Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of +Connaught (b. 1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was +born to them at Stockholm on the 22nd of April 1906, and another +son in the following year. The king’s two younger sons were +William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and Eric, duke of +Westmanland (b. 1889).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gustav-Adolf-Stiftung</span>, +<span class="sc">Gustav-Adolf-Verein</span>, <span class="sc">Evangelischer Verein der Gustav-Adolf-Stiftung</span>), +a society formed of members of the Evangelical +Protestant churches of Germany, which has for its object the aid +of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries. +The project of forming such a society was first broached in connexion +with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Lützen +on the 6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a +monument to Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was +suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial +to the great champion of Protestantism would be the formation +of a union for propagating his ideas. For some years the society +was limited in its area and its operations, being practically +confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation festival +in 1841 it received a new impulse through the energy and eloquence +of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at +Darmstadt, and in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-on-the-Main, +where no fewer than twenty-nine branch associations +belonging to all parts of Germany except Bavaria and Austria +were represented. The want of a positive creed tended to make +many of the stricter Protestant churchmen doubtful of the +usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have always +held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in +relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of +the masses. At a general convention held in Berlin in September +1846 a keen dispute arose about the admission of the Königsberg +delegate, Julius Rupp (1809-1884), who in 1845 had been +deprived for publicly repudiating the Athanasian Creed and +became one of the founders of the “Free Congregations”; and +at one time it seemed likely that the society would be completely +broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the +whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another +general convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that, +although the society had lost both in membership and income, +it was still possessed of considerable vitality. From that date +the Gustav-Adolf-Verein has been more definitely “evangelical” +in its tone than formerly; and under the direction of Karl +Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in wealth. +It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two +million pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its +influence in maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can +be no doubt that the union has had a great effect in helping the +various Protestant churches of Germany to realize the number +and importance of their common interests.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Zimmermann, <i>Geschichte des Gustav-Adolf-Vereins</i> (Darmstadt, +1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜSTROW,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Nebel and the railway from +Lübeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923; +(1905) 17,163. The principal buildings are the castle, erected in +the middle of the 16th century and now used as a workhouse; +the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in +1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square +tower 100 ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings; +the town hall (Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the +music hall, and the theatre. Among the educational establishments +are the ducal gymnasium, which possesses a library of +15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial school. The town +is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has machine +works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries, and +manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also +a considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and +an annual cattle show and horse races are held.</p> + +<p>Güstrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of +the Wend district, was a place of some importance as early as the +12th century, and in 1219 it became the residence of Henry +Borwin II., prince of Mecklenburg, from whom it received +Schwerin privileges. From 1316 to 1436 the town was the +residence of the princes of the Wends, and from 1556 to 1695 of the +dukes of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. In 1628 it was occupied by the +imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during part of the +years 1628 and 1629.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTENBERG, JOHANN<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1398-1468), German printer, is +supposed to have been born <i>c</i>. 1398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do +parents, his father being Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother +Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name +he adopted). He is assumed to be mentioned under the name of +“Henchen” in a copy of a document of 1420, and again in a +document of <i>c.</i> 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he then +resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the +city of Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in +the same year, some families who had been expelled a few years +before were permitted to return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not +to have availed himself of the privilege, as he is described in the +act of reconciliation (dated March 28) as “not being in Mainz.” +It is therefore assumed that the family had taken refuge in +Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he is +said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the +town clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of +that city, releasing him, however, at the representations of the +mayor and councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the +same time all claims to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about +2400 mark).<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Between 1436 and 1439 certain documents +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +represent him as having been engaged there in some experiments +requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a fellow-citizen, who +became not only security for him but his partner to carry out +Gutenberg’s plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of +looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the +approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, according +to the documents, although there is no evidence for this +postponement) to Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this +purpose by two other friends. In 1438 another partnership was +arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas +and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the art of +printing has been inferred from the word “drucken” used by one +of the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed. +An action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two +brothers to force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their +brother’s place, but the decision was in favour of the latter. In +1441 Gutenberg became surety to the St Thomas Chapter at +Strassburg for Johann Karle, who borrowed 100 guilders (about +£16) from the chapter, and on November 17, 1442, he himself +borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brehter) from +the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12th of March +1444 (when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October +1448 nothing certain is known. But on the latter date we find +him at Mainz, borrowing 150 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold +Gelthus, against an annual interest of 7½ gold guilders. We do +not know whether the interest on this debt has ever been paid, but +the debt itself appears never to have been paid off, as the contract +of this loan was renewed (<i>vidimused</i>) on August 23, 1503, for +other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards Gutenberg +must have been able to show some convincing results of his work, +for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (<i>q.v.</i>) advanced him +800 guilders to promote it, on no security except that of +“tools” still to be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to +advance him 300 guilders a year for expenses, wages, house-rent, +parchment, paper, ink, &c., but he does not appear to have ever +done so. If at any time they disagreed, Gutenberg was to return +the 800 guilders, and the “tools” were to cease to be security. +It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the money +advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he +himself says that he had to make his “tools” with it. But he +is presumed to have begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have +printed during its progress some smaller books<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and likewise the +Letter of Indulgence (granted on the 12th of April 1451 by Pope +Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of Cyprus, against the Turks), +of 31 lines, having the earliest printed date 1454, of which +several copies are preserved in various European libraries. A +copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the Rylands +Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library).</p> + +<p>It is not known whether any books were printed while this +partnership between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius +(<i>Ann. Hirsaug.</i> ii. 421) says they first printed, from wooden +blocks, a vocabulary called <i>Catholicon</i>, which cannot have been +the <i>Catholicon</i> of Johannes de Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two +columns of 66 lines each, printed in 1460, but was perhaps a +small glossary now lost.<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Latin <i>Bible of 42 lines</i>, a folio +of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces left for +illuminated initials (so called because each column contains +42 lines, and also known as the <i>Mazarin Bible</i>, because the +first copy described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin), +was finished before the 15th of August 1456;<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a> German bibliographers +now claim this Bible for Gutenberg, but, according +to bibliographical rules, it must be ascribed to Peter Schöffer, +perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in smaller type than +the <i>Bible of 36 lines</i>, which latter is called either (<i>a</i>) the <i>Bamberg +Bible</i>, because nearly all the known copies were found in the +neighbourhood of Bamberg, or (<i>b</i>) <i>Schelhorn’s Bible</i>, because +J. G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (<i>c</i>) +<i>Pfister’s Bible</i>, because its printing is ascribed to Albrecht +Pfister of Bamberg, who used the same type for several small +German books, the chief of which is Boner’s <i>Edelstein</i> (1461, 4to), +88 leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a book of fables in German rhyme. +Some bibliographers believe this 36-line Bible to have been +begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during his partnership +with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of Indulgence +of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and, +finally, when found in Pfister’s possession in 1461, appears to +be old and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required +for German, which are clear and sharp like the types used in +the Bible. Again, others profess to prove (Dziatzko, <i>Gutenberg’s +früheste Druckerpraxis</i>) that B<span class="sp">36</span> was a reprint of B<span class="sp">42</span>.</p> + +<p>Gutenberg’s work, whatever it may have been, was not a +commercial success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward +with another 800 guilders to prevent a collapse. But some time +before November 1455 the latter demanded repayment of his +advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial Document of November +6, 1455, in Dziatzko’s <i>Beiträge zur Gutenbergfrage</i>, Berlin, 1889), +and took legal proceedings against Gutenberg. We do not know +the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg had prepared any +printing materials it would seem that he was compelled to yield +up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to +his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter +Schöffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462 +by Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years, +to be resumed again in 1465.</p> + +<p>We have no Information as to Gutenberg’s activity, and very +little of his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a +document dated June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf +of one of his relatives, which shows that he was then still at +Mainz. Entries in the registers of the St Thomas Church at +Strassburg make it clear that the annual interest on the money +which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 1442 (see above) had +borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid +till the 11th of November 1457, either by himself or by his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +surety, Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter +date appears to have been delayed, as an entry in the register +of that year shows that the chapter had incurred expenses in +taking steps to have both Gutenberg and Brechter arrested. +This time the difficulties seem to have been removed, but on and +after the 11th of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter +remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all +recorded in their registers, to get their money, but in vain. +Every year they recorded the arrears with the expenses to which +they were put in their efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last +in 1474 (six years after Gutenberg’s death) their names are no +longer mentioned.</p> + +<p>Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been <i>printing</i>, as we +learn from a document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic +of Mainz, Dr Conrad Homery (who had formerly been in the +service of the elector Count Diether of Ysenburg), had at one +time supplied him, not with money, but with some formes, types, +tools, implements and other things belonging to printing, which +Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and still, +belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the +hands of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent +it back to Homery, the latter undertaking to use it in no other +town but Mainz, nor to sell it to any person except a citizen of +Mainz, even if a stranger should offer him a higher price for the +things. This material has never yet been identified, so that we +do not know what types Gutenberg may have had at his disposal; +they could hardly have included the types of the <i>Catholicon</i> of +1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed by +Heinrich Bechtermünze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to +Eltville, or perhaps by Peter Schöffer, who, about 1470, advertises +the book as his property (see K. Burger, <i>Buchhändler-Anzeigen</i>). +It is uncertain whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed +to the neighbouring town of Eltville, where he may have been +engaged for a while with the brothers Bechtermünze, who +printed there for some time with the types of the 1460 <i>Catholicon</i>. +On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post of salaried +courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity received +annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of corn +and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the +beginning of 1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in +the Franciscan church in that city. His relative Arnold Gelthus +erected a monument to his memory near his supposed grave, +and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig set up a memorial tablet +at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing the name of +Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait +of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved +plates being all fictitious.</p> + +<p>In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a +<i>Missale speciale</i> on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises +published in 1898 and 1902, asserts to have been printed by +Gutenberg about 1450, seven years before the 1457 Psalter. +Various German bibliographers, however, think that it could +not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from the facsimiles +published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately +correct.</p> + +<p>On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of +Gutenberg’s birth was celebrated in several German cities, +notably in Mainz and Leipzig, and most of the recent literature +on the invention of printing dates from that time.</p> + +<p>So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astronomical +Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden, +Dr G. Zedler (<i>Die älteste Gutenbergtype</i>, Mainz, 1902), apparently +printed in the 36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun, +moon and other planets described in this document suits the +years 1429, 1448 and 1467, he ascribes the printing of this +Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper fragment of a poem in +German, entitled <i>Weltgericht</i>, said to be printed in the 36-line +Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of Herr +Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in +1903 to the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published +a facsimile of it in 1904 (for the <i>Gutenberg Gesellschaft</i>), with a +description, in which he places it before the 1447 <i>Kalendar</i>, +c. 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments of two editions of Donatus +different from that of 1451 (?) have recently been found; see +Schwenke in <i>Centralbl. für Bibliothekwesen</i> (1908).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The recent literature upon Gutenberg’s life and work and early +printing in general includes the following: A. von der Linde, +<i>Geschichte und Erdichtung</i> (Stuttgart, 1878); <i>id. Geschichte der +Buchdruckerkunst</i> (Berlin, 1886); J. H. Hessels, <i>Gutenberg, Was he +the Inventor of Printing?</i> (London, 1882); <i>id. Haarlem, the Birthplace +of Printing, not Mentz</i> (London, 1886); O. Hartwig, <i>Festschrift zum +fünfhundertjährigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg</i> (Leipzig, 1900), +which includes various treatises by Schenk zu Schweinsberg, K. +Schorbach, &c.; P. Schwenke, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des +ersten Buchdrucks</i> (Berlin, 1900); A. Börckel, <i>Gutenberg, sein Leben</i>, +&c. (Giessen, 1897); <i>id. Gutenberg und seine berühmten Nachfolger +im ersten Jahrhundert der Typographie</i> (Frankfort, 1900); F. +Schneider, <i>Mainz und seine Drucker</i> (1900); G. Zedler, <i>Gutenberg-Forschungen</i> +(Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, <i>The so-called Gutenberg +Documents</i> (London, 1910). For other works on the subject see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typography</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can +be trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of +Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (<i>Festschrift</i>, 1900, p. +163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate) +copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might +be based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg +documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J. +Bodmann (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at +Mainz, forged at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even +provided with four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March +24, 1424) purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a +fictitious sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents +French and German texts were published about 1800-1802; the +forger lived for twenty years afterwards but never undeceived the +public. He enriched the Gutenberg literature with other fabrications. +In fact Bodmann had trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and +documents; he openly boasted of his abilities in this respect, and +used them, sometimes to amuse his friends who were searching for +Gutenberg documents, sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in +Gutenberg’s life. (For two or three more specimens of his capacities +see A. Wyss in <i>Zeitschr. für Altert. u. Gesch. Schlesiens</i>, xv. 9 sqq.) +To one of his friends (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him +as librarian of Mainz) one or two other fabrications may be ascribed. +There are, moreover, serious misgivings as to documents said to have +been <i>discovered</i> about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed +the honour of the invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the +then archivist of Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and +canon of St Thomas’s at Strassburg). For instance, of the above +document of 1434 no original has ever come to light; while the draft +of the transaction, alleged to have been written at the time in a +register of contracts, and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker, +has also disappeared with the register itself. The document (now +only known from a copy said to have been taken by Wencker from +the draft) is upheld as genuine by Schorbach, who favours an invention +of printing at Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though +supporting Gutenberg and Mainz, declares it to be a fiction +(<i>Gutenberg-Feier</i>, Mainz, 1900, pp. 24-33). Again, suspicions are justified +with respect to the documents recording Gutenberg’s lawsuit of 1439 +at Strassburg. Bockenheimer explains at great length (<i>l.c.</i> pp. 41-72) +that they are forgeries. He even explains (<i>ibid.</i> pp. 97-107) that the +so-called Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, may be a +fabrication of the Faust von Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured +to claim Johann Fust as their ancestor. There are also (1) a fragment +of a fictitious “press,” said to have been constructed by Gutenberg +in 1441, and to have been discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a +forged imprint with the date 1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory’s +<i>Dialogues</i>, really printed at Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged +rubric in a copy of the <i>Tractatus de celebratione missarum</i>, from +which it would appear that Johann Gutenberg and Johann Nummeister +had presented it on June 19, 1463, to the Carthusian monastery +near Mainz: (4) four forged copies of the Indulgence of 1455, in the +Culemann Collection in the Kästner Museum at Hanover, &c. (see +further, Hessels, “The so-called Gutenberg Documents,” in <i>The +Library</i>, 1909).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of +Donatus, <i>De octo partibus orationis</i>, 27 lines to a page, of one of which +two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered at +Mainz in the original binding of an account book, one of them having, +but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the <i>Turk-Kalendar</i> for +1455 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich); (3) the <i>Cisianus</i> +(preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and perhaps others now +lost.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that Gutenberg +and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in missals. It +has been said that this description applies to the 42-line Bible, as its +type is as large as that of most missals printed before 1500, and that +the size now called missal type (double pica) was not used in missals +until late in the 16th century. This is no doubt true of the smaller +missals printed before 1500, some of which are in even smaller type +than the 42-line Bible. But many of the large folio missals, as that +printed at Mainz by Peter Schöffer in 1483, the Carthusian missal +printed at Spires by Peter Drach about 1490, and the Dominican +missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at Venice in 1496, are in as +large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter Schöffer (1425-1502) of +Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who was a copyist in +Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant (<i>famulus</i>), is said by +Trithemius to have discovered an easier way of founding characters, +whence Lambinet and others concluded that Schöffer invented the +punch. Schöffer himself, in the colophon of the Psalter of 1457, a +work which some suppose to have been planned and partly printed +by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics and coloured +capitals.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr +Klemm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year 1453 in old Arabic +numerals. But certain circumstances connected with this date make +it look very suspicious.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜTERSLOH,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Westphalia, 11 m. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dortmund. +Pop. (1905), 7375. It is a seat of silk and cotton industries, +and has a large trade in Westphalian hams and sausages. +Printing, brewing and distilling are also carried on, and the +town is famous for its rye-bread (<i>Pumpernickel</i>). Gütersloh has +two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, +a school and other educational establishments.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Eickhoff, <i>Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gütersloh</i> +(Gütersloh, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1859-  ), Scottish painter, and one +of the leaders of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was +born at Greenock. Though in his youth he was influenced by +John Pettie in London, and subsequently studied in Paris, his +style, which is remarkable for grasp of character, breadth and +spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him by observation of +nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he benefited in +Lincolnshire in the early ’eighties of the last century. In his +early works, such as “The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight +is Past and Gone” (1882), and the “Funeral Service in the +Highlands,” he favoured a thick impasto, but with growing +experience he used his colour with greater economy and reticence. +Subsequently he devoted himself almost exclusively to +portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of the Glasgow +artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but soon +found recognition in his native country. He was elected +associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full +member in 1892, succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the +Royal Scottish Academy in 1902, and was knighted in 1903. +His painting “Schoolmates” is at the Ghent Gallery. Among +his most successful portraits are those of his mother, Mr R. +Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and +Mrs Watson.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE, THOMAS<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born +at Brechin, Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered +the university of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and +continued to attend classes there for more than ten years. On +the 2nd of February 1825 the presbytery of Brechin licensed him +as a preacher in connexion with the Church of Scotland, and in +1826 he was in Paris studying natural philosophy, chemistry, and +comparative anatomy. For two years he acted as manager of +his father’s bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first charge, +Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic style +of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers +and weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in +the pastorate of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once +attracted notice as a great pulpit orator. Towards the close of +1840 he became minister of St John’s church, Victoria Street, +Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from London and +from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the movement +which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is +thenceforth associated with the Free Church, for which he +collected £116,000 from July 1845 to June 1846 to provide +manses for the seceding ministers. In 1844 he became a +teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his life by the +publication of his first “Plea for Ragged Schools.” This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord +Jeffrey. A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which +has been the parent of many similar institutions elsewhere, +though Guthrie’s relation to the movement is best described as +that of an apostle rather than a founder. He insisted on bringing +up all the children in his school as Protestants; and he thus +made his schools proselytizing as well as educational institutions. +This interference with religious liberty led to some controversy; +and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie founded the +United Industrial School, giving combined secular and separate +religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was +conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in +1850 William Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law +of Thomas Chalmers, was inducted as his colleague in Free St +John’s Church.</p> + +<p>In 1850 Guthrie published <i>A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and +against Drunkenness</i>, which was followed by <i>The Gospel in +Ezekiel</i> (1855); <i>The City: its Sins and Sorrows</i> (1857); <i>Christ +and the Inheritance of the Saints</i> (1858); <i>Seedtime and Harvest of +Ragged Schools</i> (1860), consisting of his three <i>Pleas for Ragged +Schools</i>. These works had an enormous sale, and portions of +them were translated into French and Dutch. His advocacy of +temperance had much to do with securing the passing of the +Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and +shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially +quoted him in support of the Light Wines Bill (1860). In 1862 +he was moderator of the Free Church General Assembly; but he +seldom took a prominent part in the business of the church +courts. His remarkable oratorical talents, rich humour, genuine +pathos and inimitable power of story-telling, enabled him to do +good service to the total abstinence movement. He was one of +the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his +health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as +pastor of Free St John’s (May 17), although his nominal +connexion with the congregation ceased only with his death. +Guthrie had occasionally contributed papers to <i>Good Words</i>, +and, about the time of his retirement from the ministry, he +became first editor of the <i>Sunday Magazine</i>, himself contributing +several series of papers which were afterwards published +separately. In 1865 he was presented with £5000 as a mark of +appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent +mostly in retirement; and after an illness of several months’ duration +he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number +of books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America, +such as <i>Speaking to the Heart</i> (1862); <i>The Way to Life</i> (1862); <i>Man +and the Gospel</i> (1865); <i>The Angel’s Song</i> (1865); <i>The Parables</i> (1866); +<i>Our Father’s Business</i> (1867); <i>Out of Harness</i> (1867); <i>Early Piety</i> +(1868); <i>Studies of Character from the Old Testament</i> (1868-1870); +<i>Sundays Abroad</i> (1871).</p> + +<p>See <i>Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir</i>, by his +sons (2 vols., London, 1874-1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (1856-  ), known by the +pseudonym of F. Anstey, English novelist, was born in Kensington, +London, on the 8th of August 1856. He was educated at +King’s College, London, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and was +called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of his story +<i>Vice-Versa</i> (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a father +for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist +of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, <i>The +Giant’s Robe</i>; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and +again in 1889 with <i>The Pariah</i>) that it was not as a serious novelist +but as a humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As +such his reputation was further confirmed by <i>The Black Poodle</i> +(1884), <i>The Tinted Venus</i> (1885), <i>A Fallen Idol</i> (1886), and other +works. He became an important member of the staff of <i>Punch</i>, +in which his “Voces populi” and his humorous parodies of a +reciter’s stock-piece (“Burglar Bill,” &c.) represent his best +work. In 1901 his successful farce <i>The Man from Blankley’s</i>, +based on a story which originally appeared in <i>Punch</i>, was first +produced at the Prince of Wales’s Theatre, in London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTHRIE,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-seat +of Logan county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood +creek, and lying one mile south of the Cimarron river. Pop. +(1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907) 11,652 (2871 negroes); (1910) +11,654. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, +the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & +Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno +& Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above +the sea, in a prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and +the cultivation of Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits, +particularly peaches. Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the +Federal courts in the state, the other being Muskogee. The +principal public buildings at Guthrie are the state Capitol, +the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie library, the +Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the +schools are St Joseph’s Academy and a state school for the deaf +and dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surrounding +country and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries +and machine shops; among its manufactures are cotton-seed +oil, cotton goods, flour, cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and +furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$1,200,662. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. +The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was +opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the +Territory, and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it +became the state capital.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTHRUM<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Godrum</span>) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first +appears in the <i>English Annals</i> in the year 875, when he is +mentioned as one of three Danish kings who went with the host +to Cambridge. He was probably engaged in the campaigns of +the next three years, and after Alfred’s victory at Edington in +878, Guthrum met the king at Aller in Somersetshire and was +baptized there under the name of Æthelstan. He stayed there +for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather +Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-Æthelstan died: he is then spoken +of as “se nor∂erna cyning” (probably) “the Norwegian king,” +referring to the ultimate origin of his family, and we are told +that he was the first (Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia. +Guthrum is perhaps to be identified with Gormr (= Guthrum) +hinn heimski or hinn riki of the Scandinavian sagas, the foster-father +of Hör∂aknutr, the father of Gorm the old. There is a +treaty known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTSCHMID, ALFRED,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1835-1887), German +historian and Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Loschwitz +(Dresden). After holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Königsberg +(1873), and Jena (1876), he was finally appointed professor +of history at Tübingen, where he died on the 2nd of March 1887. +He devoted himself to the study of Eastern language and history +in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and contributed largely +to the literature of the subject.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Works</span>.—<i>Über die Fragmente des Pompeius Trogus</i> (supplementary +vol. of <i>Jahrbücher für klass. Phil.</i>, 1857); <i>Die makedonische +Anagraphe</i> (1864); <i>Beiträge zur Gesch. des alten Orients</i> (Leipzig, +1858); <i>Neue Beiträge zur Gesch. des alt. Or.</i>, vol. i., <i>Die Assyriologie +in Deutschland</i> (Leipzig, 1876); <i>Die Glaubwürdigkeit der armenischen +Gesch. des Moses von Khoren</i> (1877); <i>Untersuchungen über die +syrische Epitome des eusebischen Canones</i> (1886); <i>Untersuch. über +die Gesch. des Königreichs Osraëne</i> (1887); <i>Gesch. Irans</i> (Alexander +the Great to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tübingen, 1887). He wrote +on Persia and Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A +collection of minor works entitled <i>Kleine Schriften</i> was published by +F. Rühl at Leipzig (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his +writings. See article by Rühl in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, +xlix. (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1759-1839), +German teacher and the principal founder of the German +school system of gymnastics, was born at Quedlinburg on the 9th +of August 1759. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native +town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he went to Schnepfenthal, +where he taught geography and gymnastics. His method +of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various +handbooks; and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics +very soon came to occupy such an important position in the +school system of Germany. He also did much to introduce a +better method of instruction in geography. He died on the +21st of May 1839.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are <i>Gymnastik für die Jugend</i> (1793); <i>Spiele +zur Übung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes für die Jugend</i> +(1796); <i>Turnbuch</i> (1817); <i>Handbuch der Geographie</i> (1810); and a +number of books constituting a <i>Bibliothek für Pädagogik, Schulwesen, +und die gesammte pädagogische Literatur Deutschlands</i>. He also +contributed to the <i>Vollständiges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbeschreibung</i>, +and along with Jacobi published <i>Deutsches Land und deutsches Volk</i>, +the first part, <i>Deutsches Land</i>, being written by him.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTTA<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (Latin for “drop”), an architectural term given to +the small frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below +the triglyph and under the regula of the entablature of the Doric +Order. They are sometimes known as “trunnels,” a corruption of +“tree-nail,” and resemble the wooden pins which in framed timber +work or in joinery are employed to fasten together the pieces +of wood; these are supposed to be derived from the original +timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the pins, +driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and, +according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the +taenia to hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples +of the Doric Order at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are completely +isolated from the architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus +the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in front of it, as if to enable the pin to +be driven in more easily. In later examples they are partly +attached to the architrave. Similar guttae are carved under the +mutules of the Doric cornice, representing the pins driven +through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the temples at +Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where +the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut +in the soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant +employment in the Doric temples suggests that, although +originally of constructive origin, they were subsequently +employed as decorative features.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTTA PERCHA,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> the name applied to the evaporated milky +fluid or latex furnished by several trees chiefly found in the +islands of the Malay Archipelago. The name is derived from +two Malay words, <i>getah</i> meaning gum, and <i>pertja</i> being the name +of the tree—probably a Bassia—from which the gum was (erroneously) +supposed to be obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Botanical Origin and Distribution.</i>—The actual tree is known +to the Malays as taban, and the product as <i>getah taban</i>. The best +gutta percha of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is +known as <i>getah taban merah</i> (red) or <i>getah taban sutra</i> (silky). The +trees in question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae, +have now been definitely identified, the first as <i>Dichopsis gutta</i> +(Bentham and Hooker), otherwise <i>Isonandra gutta</i> (Hooker) or +<i>Palaquium gutta</i> (Burck), and the second as <i>Dichopsis oblongifolia</i> +(Burck). Allied trees of the same genus and of the same natural +order yield similar but usually inferior products. Among them +may be mentioned species of <i>Payena</i> (<i>getah soondie</i>).</p> + +<p>Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and +the trunk has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to +be mature when about thirty years old. The leaves of <i>Dichopsis</i>, +which are obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex, +occur in clusters at the end of the branches, and are bright green +and smooth on the upper surface but on the lower surface are +yellowish-brown and covered with silky hairs. The leaves are +usually about 6 in. long and about 2 in. wide at the centre. The +flowers are white, and the seeds are contained in an ovoid berry +about 1 in. long.</p> + +<p>The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is +almost entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate +neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and +south of the equator and 93°-119° longitude, where the temperature +ranges from 66° to 90° F. and the atmosphere is exceedingly +moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings. +Some planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far +been done to acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent +information seems to point to the possibility of growing the tree +in Ceylon and on the west coast of Africa.</p> + +<p><i>Preparation of Gutta Percha.</i>—The gutta is furnished by the +greyish milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted +in cylindrical vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is, +between the bark and the wood (or cambium). Latex also +occurs in the leaves of the tree to the extent of about 9% of the +dried leaves, and this may be removed from the powdered leaves +by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process is not practicable +commercially. The latex flows slowly where an incision is +made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the +rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the +Malays usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which +is done by chopping off the branches and removing circles of the +bark, forming cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various +points about a foot apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and +fills these channels, from which it is removed and converted into +gutta by boiling in open vessels over wood fires. The work is +usually carried on in the wet season when the latex is more +fluid and more abundant. Sometimes when the latex is thick +water is added to it before boiling.</p> + +<p>The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees +about thirty years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 ℔ of gutta. +Older trees do not appear to yield larger amounts of gutta, +whilst younger trees are said to furnish less and of inferior +quality. The trees have been so extensively felled for the gutta +that there has been a great diminution in the total number +during recent years, which has not been compensated for by the +new plantations which have been established.</p> + +<p><i>Uses of Gutta Percha.</i>—The Chinese and Malays appear to have +been acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha +of softening in warm water and of regaining its hardness when +cold, but this plastic property seems to have been only utilized +for ornamental purposes, the construction of walking-sticks and +of knife handles and whips, &c.</p> + +<p>The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious +material to Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It +was then regarded as a form of wood, to which the name of +“mazer” wood was given on account of its employment in +making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given in a book +published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled <i>Musaeum Tradescantianum +or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth +near London</i>. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of +the world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of +the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683, +but the specimen of “mazer wood” no longer exists.</p> + +<p>In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr +William Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the +Society of Arts, and in the same year Dr José d’Almeida sent +samples to the Royal Asiatic Society. Gutta percha was also +exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851.</p> + +<p>Dr Montgomerie’s communication to the Society of Arts led +to many experiments being made with the material. Casts of +medals were successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in +conjunction with Werner von Siemens, then made the first +experiments with the material as an insulating covering for cable +and telegraph wires, which led to the discovery of its important +applications in this connexion and to a considerable commercial +demand for the substance.</p> + +<p>The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that +is its richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other +impurities which interfere with its physical characters, and +especially its insulating power or inability to conduct electricity.</p> + +<p>The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes. +Other minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking +impressions of medals, &c. It has also found application in +the preparation of belting for machinery, as well as for the +construction of the handles of knives and surgical instruments, +whilst the inferior qualities are used for waterproofing.</p> + +<p><i>Commercial Production.</i>—The amount of gutta percha exported +through Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the +East is subject to considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on +the demand for cable and telegraph construction. In 1886 the +total export from Singapore was 40,411 cwt., of which Great +Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export was 51,982 cwt. +of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in 1905, +42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It +has to be remembered that the official returns include not only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +gutta percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior +products sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are +referred to below under the head of substitutes. The value of +gutta percha cannot therefore be correctly gauged from the +value of the imports. In the ten years 1896-1906 the best +qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to about 7s. per ℔. +Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special purposes, +and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter +of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Characters and Properties.</i>—Gutta percha appears in commerce in +the form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often +exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the +nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials, +such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its appearance. +The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic but +not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed +in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65°-66° C. +in the case of gutta of the first quality, the temperature of softening +being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed. In this +condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is still inelastic. On +cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without becoming brittle. +In this respect gutta percha differs from india-rubber or caoutchouc, +which does not become plastic and unlike gutta percha is elastic. +This property of softening on heating and solidifying when cooled +again, without change in its original properties, enables gutta percha +to be worked into various forms, rolled into sheets or drawn into +ropes. The specific gravity of the best gutta percha lies between +0.96 and 1. Gutta percha is not dissolved by most liquids, although +some remove resinous constituents; the best solvents are oil of +turpentine, coal-tar oil, carbon bisulphide and chloroform, and light +petroleum when hot. Gutta percha is not affected by alkaline +solutions or by dilute acids. Strong sulphuric acid chars it when +warm, and nitric acid effects complete oxidation.</p> + +<p>When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates, +oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Composition.</i>—Chemically, gutta percha is not a single +substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions +of these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the +properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical +purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric strength +and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these properties is +influenced by the resinous constituents present.</p> + +<p>The principal constituent of the crude material is the pure gutta, +a hydrocarbon of the empirical formula C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>. It is therefore +isomeric with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of +turpentine. Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous +constituents—albane C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O and fluavil C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O—which can be +separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is +not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the +resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta +exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta +percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently +determined by ascertaining the proportion of true gutta present, the +higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha. +The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees +of the genus <i>Dichopsis</i> or <i>Palaquium</i>:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Gutta<br />per cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Resin<br />per cent.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Dichopsis (or Palaquium)</td> <td class="tcl rb">oblongifolia</td> <td class="tcc rb">88.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">   ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">gutta</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">   ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">polyantha</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">   ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">pustulata</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">52.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb bb">   ”    ”    ”</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Maingayi</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">24.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75.6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in +chemical constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high +temperature both are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydrocarbons, +isoprene (C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">8</span>) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>), +and the latter by further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a +hydrocarbon of known constitution which has been produced +synthetically and spontaneously reverts to caoutchouc. The precise +relationship of isoprene to gutta has not been ascertained, but +recently Harries has further elucidated the connexion between gutta +and caoutchouc by showing that under the action of ozone both +break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen peroxide, but differ +in the proportions of these products they furnish. The two materials +must therefore be regarded as very closely related in chemical +constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is able to combine with +sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found some commercial +applications.</p> + +<p><i>Manufacture of Gutta Percha.</i>—Among the earliest patents taken +out for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles +Hancock, the first of which is dated 1843.</p> + +<p>Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is +cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or +sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and +forced through a sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt. +It is then kneaded or “masticated” by machinery to remove the +enclosed water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic +to the rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different +thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha +is resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents +by the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.</p> + +<p><i>Substitutes for Gutta Percha.</i>—For some purposes natural and +artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The +similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield +gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes, +of which the material known as “balata” or “Surinam gutta +percha,” is the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, <i>Mimusops +balata</i> (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta +percha trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height +of 80 to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South +America, and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana. +The latex which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the +bark and wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are +tapped by making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber +trees, and the balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid. +Crude balata varies in composition. It usually contains nearly equal +proportions of resin and true gutta. The latter appears to be +identical with the chief constituent of gutta percha. The properties +of balata correspond with its composition, and it may therefore be +classed as an inferior gutta percha. Balata fetches from 1s. 6d. to +2s. 8d. per ℔.</p> + +<p>Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned +the evaporated latices derived from <i>Butyrospermum Parkii</i> (shea-butter +tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), <i>Calotropis gigantea</i> +(Madar tree of India), and <i>Dyera costulata</i> of Malaya and Borneo, +which furnishes the material known as “Pontianac.” All these +contain a small amount of gutta-like material associated with large +quantities of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a +few pence per ℔, and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.</p> + +<p>Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented +chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of +mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c., in some +cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.</p> + +<p>For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of +the trees, the following works may be consulted: Jumelle, <i>Les +Plantes à caoutchouc et à gutta</i> (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach, +“Cantor Lectures on Gutta Percha,” <i>Journal of the Society of Arts</i>, +1898.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTTER<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>goutiere</i>, mod. <i>gouttière</i>, from Lat. <i>gutta</i>, +drop), in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived +to carry away the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge +down a vertical pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more +specifically, but loosely, the similar channel at the side of a +street, below the pavement. In Greek and Roman temples the +cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the water was +discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were +carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried +along the flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the +lower edge of the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested +partly on the top of the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the +water was discharged through gargoyles. Sometimes, however, +a parapet or pierced balustrade was carried on the corbel table +enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a more ordinary class the +parapet is only a continuation of the wall below, and the gutter +is set back and carried in a trough resting on the lower end of the +roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves gutter +which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured to +and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance architecture +generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transition +work was replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters. +In France a compromise was effected, whereby instead of the +horizontal coping of the ordinary balustrade a richly carved +cresting was employed, of which the earliest example is in +the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This exists +throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief +characteristic features.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1811-1878), German novelist +and dramatist, was born on the 17th of March 1811 at Berlin, +where his father held a clerkship in the war office. After leaving +school he studied theology and philosophy at the university of +his native town, and while still a student, began his literary +career by the publication in 1831 of a periodical entitled <i>Forum +der Journalliteratur</i>. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship +of the <i>Literaturblatt</i>. At the same time he continued his university +studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he +published anonymously at Hamburg <i>Briefe eines Narren an +eine Närrin</i>, and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart <i>Maha-Guru, +Geschichte eines Gottes</i>, a fantastic and satirical romance. In +1835 he went to Frankfort, where he founded the <i>Deutsche +Revue</i>. In the same year appeared <i>Wally, die Zweiflerin</i>, from +the publication of which may be said to date the school of writers +who, from their opposition to the literary, social and religious +traditions of romanticism, received the name of “Young +Germany.” The work was directed specially against the +institution of marriage and the belief in revelation; and whatever +interest it might have attracted from its own merits was +enhanced by the action of the German federal diet, which +condemned Gutzkow to three months’ imprisonment, decreed +the suppression of all he had written or might yet write, and +prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within +the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment +at Mannheim, Gutzkow employed himself in the composition +of his treatise <i>Zur Philosophie der Geschichte</i> (1836). On +obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfort, whence he +went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch +of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy <i>Richard +Savage</i> (1839), which immediately made the round of all the +German theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority +are now neglected; but a few have obtained an established +place in the repertory of the German theatre—especially the +comedies <i>Zopf und Schwert</i> (1844), <i>Das Urbild des Tartüffe</i> (1847), +<i>Der Königsleutnant</i> (1849) and the blank verse tragedy, <i>Uriel +Acosta</i> (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he +succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Meanwhile +he had not neglected the novel. <i>Seraphine</i> (1838) was +followed by <i>Blasedow und seine Söhne</i>, a satire on the educational +theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared <i>Die +Ritter vom Geiste</i>, which may be regarded as the starting-point +for the modern German social novel. <i>Der Zauberer von Rom</i> is +a powerful study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany. +The success of <i>Die Ritter vom Geiste</i> suggested to Gutzkow the +establishment of a journal on the model of <span class="correction" title="amended from Dicken's">Dickens’</span> <i>Household +Words</i>, entitled <i>Unterhaltungen am häuslichen Herd</i>, which first +appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864 he had an +epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided traces +of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels +<i>Hohenschwangau</i> (1868) and <i>Fritz Ellrodt</i> (1872), <i>Lebensbilder</i> +(1870-1872), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and <i>Die +Söhne Pestalozzis</i> (1870), the plot of which is founded on the +story of Kaspar Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous +malady, Gutzkow in 1873 made a journey to Italy, and on his +return took up his residence in the country near Heidelberg, +whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying there on the +16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of his +comedies, Gutzkow’s writings have fallen into neglect. But he +exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany; +and his works will always be of interest as the mirror in which +the intellectual and social struggles of his time are best reflected.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An edition of Gutzkow’s collected works appeared at Jena (1873-1876, +new ed., 1879). E. Wolff has published critical editions of +Gutzkow’s <i>Meisterdramen</i> (1892) and <i>Wally die Zweiflerin</i> (1905). +His more important novels have been frequently reprinted. For +Gutzkow’s life see his various autobiographical writings such as +<i>Aus der Knabenzeit</i> (1852), <i>Rückblicke auf mein Leben</i> (1876), &c. +For an estimate of his life and work see J. Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> +(1892); also H. H. Houben, <i>Studien über die Dramen Gutzkows</i> +(1898) and <i>Gutzkow-Funde</i> (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1803-1851), +German missionary to China, was born at Pyritz in Pomerania +on the 8th of July 1803. When still apprenticed to a saddler +in Stettin, he made known his missionary inclinations to the +king of Prussia, through whom he went to the Pädagogium at +Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Jänike in Berlin. +In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary +Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese. +Leaving the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August +of the same year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the +Bible into Siamese. In 1829 he married an English lady, who +aided him in the preparation of a dictionary of Cochin Chinese, +but she died in August 1831 before its completion. Shortly +after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where, and subsequently +at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible +into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote +in Chinese various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In +1834 he published at London a <i>Journal of Three Voyages along +the Coast of China in 1831, 1832 and 1833</i>. He was appointed +in 1835 joint Chinese secretary to the English commission, and +during the opium war of 1840-42 and the negotiations connected +with the peace that followed he rendered valuable service by +his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese authorities +refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the interior, +Gützlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native missionaries, +which was so successful that during the first four years +as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work +among their fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kong on +the 9th of August 1851.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gützlaff also wrote <i>A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and +Modern</i> (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at +Stuttgart in 1847; China Opened (1838); and the <i>Life of Taow-Kwang</i> +(1851; German edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A +complete collection of his Chinese writings is contained in the library +at Munich.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUY OF WARWICK,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> English hero of romance. Guy, son of +Siward or Seguard of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign +wars wins in marriage Félice (the Phyllis of the well-known +ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt, earl of Warwick. Soon +after his marriage he is seized with remorse for the violence of +his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife and fortune +to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of absence +he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King Æthelstan +from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and +Gonelaph, by slaying in single fight their champion the giant +Colbrand. Local tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near +Winchester. Making his way to Warwick he becomes one of his +wife’s bedesmen, and presently retires to a hermitage in Arden, +only revealing his identity at the approach of death. The +versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we possess +are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a +<i>roman d’aventures</i>, opening with a long recital of Guy’s wars in +Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with +fights with dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel +of the tradition evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand, which +represents, or at least is symbolic<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of an historical fact. The +religious side of the legend finds parallels in the stories of St +Eustachius and St Alexius,<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and makes it probable that the +Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through monastic hands. +Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy’s adventures +under Æthelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf +Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern +counties of England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in +Southampton. Winchester was saved, however, not by the +valour of an English champion, but by the payment of money. +This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with Anlaf Cuaran or +Havelok (<i>i.e.</i>).</p> + +<p>The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. <i>wig</i> = war) +may be fairly connected with the family of Wigod, lord of +Wallingford under Edward the Confessor, and a Filicia, who +belongs to the 12th century and was perhaps the Norman poet’s +patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the Ardens, descended from +Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy’s Cliffe, near +Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp, earl +of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not +correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +romance. The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even +though it may be vaguely connected with the family history of +the Ardens and the Wallingford family, but it was accepted as +authentic fact in the chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of +Langtoft) written at the end of the 13th century. The adventures +of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his tutor Heraud of Arden, who +had also educated Guy, have much in common with his father’s +history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated as a separate +romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and Count +Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin’s advice to the count is +transferred to the English hero in the <i>Speculum Gy of Warewyke</i> +(<i>c</i>. 1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L. +Morrill, 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been +printed, but is described by Émile Littré in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i> +(xxii., 841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in +Paris, 1525, and subsequently (see G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire</i>, +<i>s.v.</i> “Guy de Warvich”); the English metrical romance exists in +four versions, dating from the early 14th century; the text was +edited by J. Zupitza (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge +University Lib. Paper MS. Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891, +extra series, Nos. 42, 49, 59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College +MSS. The popularity of the legend is shown by the numerous +versions in English: <i>Guy of Warwick</i>, translated from the Latin of +Girardus Cornubiensis (fl. 1350) into English verse by John Lydgate +between 1442 and 1468; <i>Guy of Warwick</i>, a poem (written in 1617 +and licensed, but not printed) by John Lane, the MS. of which (Brit. +Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father of the poet; <i>The +Famous Historie of Guy, Earl of Warwick</i> (<i>c.</i> 1607), by Samuel Rowlands; +<i>The Booke of the Moste Victoryous Prince Guy of Warwicke</i> (William +Copland, no date); other editions by J. Cawood and C. Bates; chapbooks +and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: <i>The Tragical +History, Admirable <span class="correction" title="amended from Atchievements">Achievements</span> and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of +Warwick</i>, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical with a +play on the subject Written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and +entered at Stationers’ Hall on the 15th of January 1618/19; +three verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in their +edition of the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii.; an early French MS. is +described by J. A. Herbert (<i>An Early MS. of Gui de Warwick</i>, +London, 1905).</p> + +<p>See also M. Weyrauch <i>Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy</i> +(2 pts., Breslau, 1899 and 1901); J. Zupitza in <i>Silzungsber. d. phil.-hist. +Kl. d. kgl. Akad. d. Wiss.</i> (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874), and <i>Zur +Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick</i> (Vienna, 1873); a learned +discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, <i>Catalogue of +Romances</i> (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the +<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand +symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph +would then represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf +Godfreyson (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Havelok</a></span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the English legends in C. Horstmann, <i>Altenglische Legenden</i>, +Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUY, THOMAS<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1644-1724), founder of Guy’s Hospital, +London, was the son of a lighterman and coal-dealer at Southwark. +After serving an apprenticeship of eight years with a +bookseller, he in 1668 began business on his own account. He +dealt largely in Bibles, which had for many years been poorly +and incorrectly printed in England. These he at first imported +from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the university +of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an extremely +thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in +government securities, the subscription of these into the South +Sea Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720, +he became master of an immense fortune. He died unmarried +on the 17th of December 1724. In 1707 he built three wards +of St Thomas’s Hospital, which institution he otherwise subsequently +benefited; and at a cost of £18,793, 16s. he erected +Guy’s Hospital, leaving for its endowment £219,499; he also +endowed Christ’s Hospital with £400 a year, and in 1678 endowed +almshouses at Tamworth, his mother’s birthplace, which was +represented by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The +residue of his estate, which went to distant relatives, amounted +to about £80,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Esq.</i> +(London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, <i>A New Hist. of London</i>, bk. iii. +ch. i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>, iii. 599 (1812); +Charles Knight, <i>Shadows of the Old Booksellers</i>, pp. 3-23 (1865); +and <i>A Biographical History of Guy’s Hospital</i>, by S. Wilkes and G. +T. Bettany (1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> +(1648-1717), French quietist writer, was born at Montargis, +where her family were persons of consequence, on the 13th of +April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical autobiography may be +trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most of her time +was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she +went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic +young women; these were turned in a definitely mystical +direction by the duchesse de Béthune, daughter of the disgraced +minister, Fouquet, who spent some years at Montargis after her +father’s fall. In 1664 Jeanne Marie was married to a rich invalid +of the name of Guyon, many years her senior. Twelve years +later he died, leaving his widow with three small children and +a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married life +the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it +now attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite +monk of weak character and unstable intellect. In 1681 she +left her family and joined him; for five years the two rambled +about together in Savoy and the south-east of France, spreading +their mystical ideas. At last they excited the suspicion of the +authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled to Paris, put under +surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in the autumn of +1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of Lourdes, +where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715. +Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January 1688, +and been shut up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence +she was delivered in the following year by her old friend, the +duchesse de Béthune, who had returned from exile to become a +power in the devout court-circle presided over by Madame de +Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself was introduced +into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from critical; +they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame +Guyon’s bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner, +her imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with +which she explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame +de Maintenon impressed, that she often invited Madame Guyon +to give lectures at her girls’ school of St Cyr. But by far the +greatest of her conquests was Fénelon, now a rising young +director of consciences, much in favour with aristocratic ladies. +Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic piety, he +was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and +between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as +soon as ugly reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke +off all connexion with her. Meanwhile the reports had reached +the prudent ears of Madame de Maintenon. In May 1693 she +asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr. In the hope of +clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet, +who decided that her books contained “much that was intolerable, +alike in form and matter.” To this judgment Madame +Guyon submitted, promised to “dogmatize no more,” and +disappeared into the country (1693). In the next year she again +petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent, half as a +prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet’s cathedral town of +Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695; but in the summer +she escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of +orthodoxy signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a +gross act of disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was +arrested and shut up in the Bastille. There she remained till +1703. In that year she was liberated, on condition she went to +live on her son’s estate near Blois, under the eye of a stern bishop. +Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable and pious +exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these +latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of +pilgrimage for admirers, foreign quite as often as French. +Indeed, she is one of the many prophetesses whose fame has +stood highest out of their own country. French critics of all +schools of thought have generally reckoned her an hysterical +degenerate; in England and Germany she has as often roused +enthusiastic admiration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Vie de Madame Guyon, écrite par elle-même</i> +(really a compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris, +1791). There is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854); +and an elaborate study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remarkable +review of this latter work see Brunetière, <i>Nouvelles Études +critiques</i>, vol. ii. The complete edition of Madame Guyon’s works, +including the autobiography and five volumes of letters, runs to +forty volumes (1767-1791); the most important works are published +separately, <i>Opuscules spirituels</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +been several times translated into English. See also the literature +of the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quietism</a></span>; and H. Delacroix, <i>Études sur le +mysticisme</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(St C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1803-1856), British soldier, +general in the Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha, +was born at Walcot, near Bath, in 1803. After receiving a +military education in England and in Austria he entered the +Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served until after his +marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general officer in +the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in +1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian +Honvéds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro +(September 29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October +30). He added to his reputation as a leader in various actions +in the winter of 1848-1849, and after the battle of Kapolna was +made a general officer. He served in important and sometimes +independent commands to the end of the war, after which he +escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the sultan. +He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being +required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service +in the campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55). +General Guyon died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of +October 1856.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. W. Kinglake, <i>The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon</i> (1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (1807-1884), Swiss-American +geologist and geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near +Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on the 28th of September 1807. He +studied at the college of Neuchâtel and in Germany, where +he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He was +professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived +Neuchâtel “Academy” from 1839 to 1848, when he removed, +at Agassiz’s instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge, +Massachusetts. For several years he was a lecturer for the +Massachusetts State Board of Education, and he was professor +of geology and physical geography at Princeton from 1854 until +his death there on the 8th of February 1884. He ranked high +as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he undertook, +at Agassiz’s suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the first +to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of +France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion +and structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid +flow of the centre than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of +the top than of the bottom of glaciers; described the laminated +or “ribboned” structure of the glacial ice, and ascribed the +movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement +rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de Saussure. +He subsequently collected important data concerning erratic +boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America +led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau, +and his <i>Meteorological and Physical Tables</i> (1852, revised ed. +1884) were long standard. His graded series of text-books and +wall-maps were important aids in the extension and popularization +of geological study in America. In addition to text-books, +his principal publications were: <i>Earth and Man, Lectures on +Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the History +of Mankind</i> (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); <i>A +Memoir of Louis Agassiz</i> (1883); and <i>Creation, or the Biblical +Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science</i> (1884).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James D. Dana’s “Memoir” in the <i>Biographical Memoirs of +the National Academy of Science</i>, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUYOT, YVES<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> (1843-  ), French politician and economist, +was born at Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at +Rennes, he took up the profession of journalism, coming to +Paris in 1867. He was for a short period editor-in-chief of +<i>L’Indépendant du midi</i> of Nîmes, but joined the staff of <i>La +Rappel</i> on its foundation, and worked subsequently on other +journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a +keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he +suffered six months’ imprisonment. He entered the chamber of +deputies in 1885 as representative of the first arrondissement of +Paris and was <i>rapporteur général</i> of the budget of 1888. He +became minister of public works under the premiership of P. E. +Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of C. L. de +Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal views, he lost +his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant attitude +against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published +<i>La Comédie protectionniste</i> (1905; Eng. trans. <i>The Comedy of +Protection</i>); <i>La Science économique</i> (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); +<i>La Prostitution</i> (1882); <i>La Tyrannie socialiste</i> (1893), all three +translated into English; <i>Les Conflits du travail et leur solution</i> +(1903); <i>La Démocratie individualiste</i> (1907).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1737-1816), +French chemist, was born on the 4th of January 1737, at +Dijon, where his father was professor of civil law at the university. +As a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical +mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law in the university +of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general +in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till 1782. Devoting +his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in 1772 his +<i>Digressions académiques</i>, in which he set forth his views on +phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established +in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, +mineralogy and chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, +which he published in the <i>Journal de physique</i> for May 1782, was +ultimately developed with the aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. +Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the <i>Méthode d’une nomenclature +chimique</i>, published in 1787, the principles of which were +speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly in +communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he +soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he +published his reasons in the first volume of the section “Chymie, +Pharmacie et Metallurgie” of the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i> +(1786), the chemical articles in which were written by him, as +well as some of those in the second volume (1792). In 1794 he +was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for +military purposes, being known as the author of some aeronautical +experiments carried out at Dijon some ten years previously. +In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in +the following year of the National Convention, to which he was +re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. In +1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, +in the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 +to 1814 he held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811 +he was made a baron of the French Empire. He died in Paris on +the 2nd of January 1816.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals +of the day, Guyton wrote <i>Mémoire sur l’éducation publique</i> (1762); +a satirical poem entitled <i>Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jésuite croqué</i> +(1763); <i>Discours publics et éloges</i> (1775-1782); <i>Plaidoyers sur +plusieurs questions de droit</i> (1785); and <i>Traité des moyens de désinfecter +l’air</i> (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of chlorine, +and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used at Dijon +in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Jean François +Durande (d. 1794) he also published the <i>Élémens de chymie théorique +et pratique</i> (1776-1777).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GUZMICS, IZIDÓR<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1786-1839). Hungarian theologian, was +born on the 7th of April 1786 at Vámos-Család, in the county of +Sopron. At Sopron (Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art +of poetry by Paul Horváth. In October 1805 he entered the +Benedictine order, but left it in August of the following year, +only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th of November +1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to the +study of Greek under Farkas Tóth and in 1812 he was sent to +Pesth to study theology. Here he read the best German and +Hungarian authors, and took part in the editorship of the +<i>Nemzeti</i> (National) <i>Plutarkus</i>, and in the translation of Johann +Hübner’s <i>Lexicon</i>. On obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity +in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he devoted himself to +dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed largely to +Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological +works are: <i>A kath. anyaszentegyháznak hitbeli tanitása</i> (The +Doctrinal Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and <i>A keresztényeknek +vallásbeli egyesülésökröl</i> (On Religious Unity among +Christians), both published at Pesth in 1822; also a Latin +treatise entitled <i>Theologia Christiana fundamentalis et theologia +dogmatica</i> (4 vols., Györ, 1828-1829). His translation of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His versions of +the <i>Oedipus</i> of Sophocles and of the <i>Iphigenia</i> of Euripides +were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he +was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot +of the wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybél, a village in the +county of Veszprém. There he built an asylum for 150 children, +and founded a school of harmony and singing. He died on the +1st of September 1839.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GWADAR,<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about +290 m. W. of Karachi. Pop. (1903), 4350. In the last half of the +18th century it was handed over by the khan of Kalat to the +sultan of Muscat, who still exercises sovereignty over the port, +together with about 300 sq. m. of the adjoining country. It is +a place of call for the steamers of the British India Navigation +Company.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GWALIOR,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Central India +agency, by far the largest of the numerous principalities comprised +in that area. It is the dominion of the Sindhia family. +The state consists of two well-defined parts which may roughly +be called the northern and the southern. The former is a compact +mass of territory, bounded N. and N.W. by the Chambal river, +which separates it from the British districts of Agra and +Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur +of Rajputana; E. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, +Lalitpur and Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khilchipur +and Rajgarh; and W. by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and +Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or Malwa, portion is made +up of detached or semi-detached districts, between which are +interposed parts of other states, which again are mixed up with +each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions together +have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001, showing +a decrease of 13% in the decade.</p> + +<p>The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and +hilly country. The plain country extends from the Chambal +river in the extreme southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum +width from east to west of about 120 m. This plain, though +broken in its southern portion by low hills, has generally an +elevation of only a few hundred feet above sea-level. In the +summer season the climate is very hot, the shade temperature +rising frequently to 112° F., but in the winter months (from +November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and +for short periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in., +but the period 1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and +distress was caused by famine. South of this tract there is a +gradual ascent to the Central India plateau, and at Sipri the +general level is 1500 ft. above the sea. On this plateau lies the +remainder of the state, with the exception of the small district +of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of this region +gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared +with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more +equable. The average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion +of the state, classed as hilly, comprises only the small district +of Amjhera. This is known as the Bhil country, and lies among +the Vindhya mountains with a mean elevation of about 1800 ft. +The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two years 1899 and 1900 the +monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe famine which +caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these +three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile +soil, generally of the kind known as “black cotton,” but the +low-lying plain has the densest population. The state is watered +by numerous rivers. The Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the +southern boundary. The greater part of the drainage is discharged +into the Chambal, which forms the north-western and +northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its tributaries +the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern division. +The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various kinds, +maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the +Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, turmeric +and ginger. About 60% of the population are employed +in agricultural and only 15% in industrial occupations, the +great majority of the latter being home workers. There is a +leather-factory at Morar; cotton-presses at Morena, Baghana +and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera, Shajapur and +Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry +alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being +55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1901.</p> + +<p>The population is composed of many elements, among which +Brahmans and Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing +religion is Hinduism, 84% of the people being Hindus and only +6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the state is about one +million sterling; and large reserves have been accumulated, +from which two millions were lent to the government of India +in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the +Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways +undertaken by the state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian +Midland to Goona; (2) an extension of this line to Baran, +opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to Ujjain; (4) two light +railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to Bhind, which +were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same +occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to +commemorate the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital, +built in memory of the maharaja’s father. British currency +has been introduced instead of Chandori rupees, which were +much depreciated. The state maintains three regiments of +Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a +transport corps.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state, +belong to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the +neighbourhood of Poona. Their first appearance in Central +India was early in the 18th century in the person of Ranoji +(d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished branch of the family, who +began his career as the peshwa’s slipper-carrier and rose by his +military abilities to be commander of his bodyguard. In 1726, +together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of the house of +Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute +(<i>chauth</i>) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters +at Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia’s +dominions.</p> + +<p>Ranoji’s son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at +Nagaur in 1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji +Sindhia. But the real founder of the state of Gwalior was +Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son of Ranoji, who, after narrowly +escaping with his life from the terrible slaughter of Panipat in +1761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with some difficulty +from the peshwa a re-grant of his father’s possessions in Central +India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death +of Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion +for extending his power and possessions. In 1775, however, +when Raghuba Peshwa threw himself on the protection of the +British, the reverses which Mahadji encountered at their hands—Gwalior +being taken by Major Popham in 1780—opened his +eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it was +agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British +retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open +negotiations with the other belligerents, was recognized as an +independent ruler, and a British resident was established at his +court. Mahadji, aided by the British policy of neutrality, now +set to work to establish his supremacy over Hindustan proper. +Realizing the superiority of European methods of warfare, he +availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of fortune, +Benoît de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and +command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing +the Mahratta power. Mahadji’s disciplined troops made him +invincible. In 1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial +throne at Delhi, and as his reward obtained for the peshwa the +title of <i>vakil-ul-mutlak</i> or vicegerent of the empire, contenting +himself with that of his deputy. In 1788 he took advantage of +the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on Shah Alam, to +occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the protector of +the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa he +was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of +Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants +exacted tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no +doubt that he looked with apprehension on the growing power of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +the British; but he wisely avoided any serious collision with +them.</p> + +<p>Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son, +Daulat Rao Sindhia, a grandson of his brother Tukoji. When, +during the period of unrest that followed the deaths of the +peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795 and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797, +the Mahratta leaders fought over the question of supremacy, +the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the Mahratta +confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under +British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802). +This interposition of the British government was resented by +the confederacy, and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803. +In the campaign that followed a combined Mahratta army, in +which Daulat Rao’s troops furnished the largest contingent, was +defeated by General Arthur Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum +in Central India; and Lord Lake routed Daulat Rao’s European-trained +battalions in Northern India at Agra, Aligarh and +Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty +of Sarji Anjangaon (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of +his territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of +Broach in Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same +treaty he was deprived of the forts of Gwalior and Gohad; but +these were restored by Lord Cornwallis in 1805, when the +Chambal river was made the northern boundary of the state. +By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat Rao further +agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the +revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji +Anjangaon. When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to +assist in the suppression of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of +Gwalior (1817) he promised his co-operation, his conduct was so +equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to sign a fresh treaty by +which he ceded Ajmere and other lands.</p> + +<p>Daulat Rao died without issue in 1827, and his widow, Baiza Bai +(d. 1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a distant +branch of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia. +His rule was weak; the state was distracted by interminable +palace intrigues and military mutinies, and affairs went from +bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao, who left no heir, +was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow, Tara Bai, +under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence +and misrule now induced Lord Ellenborough to interpose, and +a British force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior +(December 1843). The Mahratta troops were defeated simultaneously +at Maharajpur and Punniar (December 29), with the +result that the Gwalior government signed a treaty ceding +territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a contingent +force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the +future strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency +was appointed during the minority to act under the resident’s +advice. In 1857 the Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers; +but the maharaja himself remained loyal to the British, and fled +from his capital until the place was retaken and his authority +restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn) on the 19th of +June 1858. He was rewarded with the districts of Neemuch +and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by British troops +and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord Dufferin. +Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of +his state. He was created a G.C.S.I in 1861, and subsequently +became a counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and C.I.E.</p> + +<p>His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was +born in 1877. During his minority the state was administered +for eight years by a council of regency. He was entrusted with +ruling powers in 1894, and in all respects continued the reforming +policy of the council, while paying personal attention to every +department, being a keen soldier, an energetic administrator, and +fully alive to the responsibilities attaching to his position. He +was created an honorary aide-de-camp to the king-emperor and +an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to China as +orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the +expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his +Imperial Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the +British army in the Chitral and Tirah expeditions.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">City of Gwalior</span> is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a +population in 1901 of 119,433. This total includes the new town +of Lashkar or “the Camp” which is the modern capital of the +state and old Gwalior. The old town has a threefold interest: +first as a very ancient seat of Jain worship; secondly for its +example of palace architecture of the best Hindu period (1486-1516); +and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are several +remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the +<i>Sas Bahu</i>, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was +finished in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a +most picturesque fragment. An older Jain temple has been used +as a mosque. Another temple in the fortress of Gwalior is called +the <i>Teli-Mandir</i>, or “Oilman’s Temple.” This building was +originally dedicated to Vishnu, but afterwards converted to the +worship of Siva. The most striking part of the Jain remains at +Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures, excavated in +the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred, great and +small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though +some are cells that may have been originally intended for +residences. One curious fact regarding them is that, according to +inscriptions, they were all excavated within the short period of +about thirty-three years, between 1441 and 1474. Some of the +figures are of colossal size; one, for instance, is 57 ft. high, which +is taller than any other in northern India.</p> + +<p>The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most +interesting example of early Hindu work of its class in India. +Another palace of even greater extent was added to this in 1516; +both Jehangír and Shah Jahan added palaces to these two—the +whole making a group of edifices unequalled for picturesqueness +and interest by anything of their class in Central India. Among +the apartments in the palace was the celebrated chamber, named +the <i>Baradari</i>, supported on 12 columns, and 45 ft. square, with a +stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful palace-halls in the +world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from the expedients +to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to imitate the +vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so +excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now +remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings +are situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular +and where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been +scarped. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is a +mile and a half, and the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock +attains its maximum height of 342 ft. at the northern end. A +rampart, accessible by a steep road, and farther up by huge steps +cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The citadel stands at the +north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and presents a very +picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which is of +considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty, lies +at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahommed +Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar’s reign. The +fort of Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja +of the neighbouring country. In 1196 Gwalior was captured by +Mahommed Ghori; it then passed into the hands of several +chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained possession of it, and made it a +state prison for captives of rank. On the dismemberment of the +Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat rana of Gohad. +Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it was +wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to +whom it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern +town contains the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a +girls’ school, a service school to train officials, a law school, +hospitals for men and for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a +printing-press issuing a state gazette.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gwalior Residency</span>, an administrative unit in the Central +India agency, comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states +and estates. Its total area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population +in 1901 was 2,187,612. Of the area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to +Gwalior State, and the agency also includes the small states of +Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri and Bhadaura, +with the Chhabra <i>pargana</i> of Tonk.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GWEEDORE,<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal, +Ireland, on the Londonderry & Lough Swilly & Letterkenny +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +railway. The river Clady, running past the village from the +Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and trout fishing. The fine +surrounding scenery culminates to the east in the wild mountain +Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The place owes +its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who also +laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry +on his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute +repartition of property. In 1889, during the troubles which +arose out of evictions, Gweedore was the headquarters of the +Irish constabulary, when District Inspector Martin was openly +murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on his way to Mass.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GWILT, JOSEPH<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (1784-1863), English architect and writer, +was the younger son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the +county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark on the 11th of +January 1784. He was educated at St Paul’s school, and after a +short course of instruction in his father’s office was in 1801 +admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the same +year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and +steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a +<i>Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches</i>, and in 1815 he was elected +F.S.A. After a visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818 +<i>Notitia architectonica italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings +and Architects of Italy</i>. In 1825 he published an edition of Sir +William Chambers’s <i>Treatise on Civil Architecture</i>; and among +his other principal contributions to the literature of his profession +are a translation of the <i>Architecture of Vitruvius</i> (1826), a <i>Treatise +on the Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical</i> (1826), +and his valuable <i>Encyclopaedia of Architecture</i> (1842), which was +published with additions by Wyatt Papworth in 1867. In +recognition of Gwilt’s advocacy of the importance to architects of +a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a member of +the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in +philology and music, and was the author of <i>Rudiments of the +Anglo-Saxon Tongue</i> (1829), and of the article “Music” in the +<i>Encyclopaedia metropolitana</i>. His principal works as a practical +architect were Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St +Thomas’s church at Charlton in Kent. He died on the 14th of +September 1863.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GWYN, NELL<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Eleanor</span>] (1650-1687), English actress, and +mistress of Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February +1650/1, probably in an alley off Drury Lane, London, although +Hereford also claims to have been her birthplace. Her father, +Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a broken-down soldier of a +family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is known save that +she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in 1679 she +was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea. +Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane +Theatre, passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the +influence of the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or +Dungan, an officer of the guards who had interest with the +management. Her first recorded appearance on the stage was in +1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma’s daughter, in Dryden’s <i>Indian +Emperor</i>, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the following year +she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard’s comedy <i>The +English Monsieur</i>. Pepys was delighted with the playing of +“pretty, witty Nell,” but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden’s +<i>Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen</i>, he wrote “so great a performance +of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world +before” and, “so done by Nell her merry part as cannot be +better done in nature” (<i>Diary</i>, March 25, 1667). Her success +brought her other leading rôles—Bellario, in Beaumont and +Fletcher’s <i>Philaster</i>; Flora, in Rhodes’s <i>Flora’s Vagaries</i>; +Samira, in Sir Robert Howard’s <i>Surprisal</i>; and she remained +a member of the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing continuously +save for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she +lived at Epsom as the mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards +6th earl of Dorset (<i>q.v.</i>). Her last appearance was as Almahide +to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden’s <i>The Conquest of Granada</i> +(1670), the production of which had been postponed some +months for her return to the stage after the birth of her first +son by the king.</p> + +<p>As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who +seems to have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible +personality, and who kept her supplied with parts which suited +her. She excelled in the delivery of the risky prologues and +epilogues which were the fashion, and the poet wrote for her +some specially daring examples. It was, however, as the +mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the public. +Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired +by her rival, Louise de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to +the fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a +Protestant. But very largely it was the result of exactly those +personal qualities that appealed to the monarch himself. She +was <i>piquante</i> rather than pretty, short of stature, and her chief +beauty was her reddish-brown hair. She was illiterate, and with +difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G. at the bottom of her letters, +written for her by others. But her frank recklessness, her +generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit, her +infectious high spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed +irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living +antithesis of Puritanism. “A true child of the London streets,” +she never pretended to be superior to what she was, nor to interfere +in matters outside the special sphere assigned her; she +made no ministers, she appointed to no bishoprics, and for the +high issues of international politics she had no concern. She +never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known, remained +faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their intimacy +to his death, and, after his death, to his memory.</p> + +<p>Of her two sons by the king, the elder was created Baron +Hedington and earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St +Albans; the younger, James, Lord Beauclerk, died in 1680, +while still a boy. The king’s death-bed request to his brother, +“Let not poor Nelly starve,” was faithfully carried out by +James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service fund, +provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate +with reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long +survive her lover’s death. She died in November 1687, and was +buried on the 17th, according to her own request, in the church +of St Martin-in-the-Fields, her funeral sermon being preached by +the vicar, Thomas Tenison, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, +who said “much to her praise.” Tradition credits the foundation +of Chelsea Hospital to her influence over the king.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Peter Cunningham, <i>The Story of Nell Gwyn</i>, edited by Gordon +Goodwin (1903); Waldron’s edition of John Downes’s <i>Roscius +Anglicanus</i> (1789); Osmund Airy, <i>Charles II.</i> (1904); Pepys, <i>Diary</i>; +Evelyn, <i>Diary and Correspondence</i>; <i>Origin and Early History of the +Royal Hospital at Chelsea</i>, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872); +<i>Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn</i> (1752); Burnet, <i>History of +My Own Time</i>, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897); +<i>Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth</i>, by H. Forneron, translated +by Mrs Crawford (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GWYNIAD,<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> the name given to a fish of the genus <i>Coregonus</i> or +White fish (<i>C. clupeoides</i>), inhabiting the large lakes of North +Wales and the north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the +name of “schelly,” at Loch Lomond by that of “powen.” It is +tolerably abundant in Lake Bala, keeping to the deepest portion +of the lake for the greater part of the year, but appearing in +shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is well flavoured, +like all the species of <i>Coregonus</i>, but scarcely attains to the +weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and +signifies “shining”; and it is singular that a similar fish in +British Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is +called by the natives “quinnat,” from the silvery lustre of its +scales, the word having in their language the same meaning as +the Welsh “gwyniad.”</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38304-h.htm or 38304-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/0/38304/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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