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+Project Gutenberg's A History of the Philippines, by David P. Barrows
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
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+
+Title: A History of the Philippines
+
+Author: David P. Barrows
+
+Release Date: December 11, 2011 [EBook #38269]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project
+Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously
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+
+
+                      A HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES
+
+                                   By
+
+                        DAVID P. BARROWS, Ph.D.
+
+              General Superintendent of Public Instruction
+                       for the Philippine Islands
+
+
+
+                    New York . Cincinnati . Chicago
+
+                         American Book Company
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book has been prepared at the suggestion of the educational
+authorities for pupils in the public high schools of the Philippines,
+as an introduction to the history of their country. Its preparation
+occupied about two years, while the author was busily engaged in other
+duties,--much of it being written while he was traveling or exploring
+in different parts of the Archipelago. No pretensions are made to an
+exhaustive character for the book. For the writer, as well as for the
+pupil for whom it is intended, it is an introduction into the study
+of the history of Malaysia.
+
+Considerable difficulty has been experienced in securing the necessary
+historical sources, but it is believed that the principal ones have
+been read. The author is greatly indebted to the Honorable Dr. Pardo
+de Tavera for the use of rare volumes from his library, and he wishes
+to acknowledge also the kindness of Mr. Manuel Yriarte, Chief of the
+Bureau of Archives, for permission to examine public documents. The
+occasional reprints of the old Philippine histories have, however,
+been used more frequently than the original editions. The splendid
+series of reprinted works on the Philippines, promised by Miss Blair
+and Mr. Robertson, was not begun in time to be used in the preparation
+of this book. The appearance of this series will make easy a path
+which the present writer has found comparatively difficult, and will
+open the way for an incomparably better History of the Philippines
+than has ever yet been made.
+
+The drawings of ethnographic subjects, which partly illustrate this
+book, were made from objects in the Philippine Museum by Mr. Anselmo
+Espiritu, a teacher in the public schools of Manila. They are very
+accurate.
+
+Above every one else, in writing this book, the author is under
+obligations to his wife, without whose constant help and encouragement
+it could not have been written.
+
+
+    David P. Barrows.
+
+    Manila, Philippine Islands,
+    March 1st, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                               Page
+
+       I. The Philippines as a Subject for Historical Study       9
+      II. The Peoples of the Philippines                         25
+     III. Europe and the Far East about 1400 A.D.                42
+      IV. The Great Geographical Discoveries                     61
+       V. Filipino People Before the Arrival of the Spaniards    88
+      VI. The Spanish Soldier and the Spanish Missionary        108
+     VII. Period of Conquest and Settlement, 1565-1600          125
+    VIII. The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago               156
+      IX. The Dutch and Moro Wars, 1600-1663                    187
+       X. A Century of Obscurity and Decline, 1633-1762         212
+      XI. The Philippines During the Period of European
+          Revolution, 1762-1837                                 231
+     XII. Progress and Revolution, 1837-1897                    259
+    XIII. America and the Philippines                           287
+          Appendix                                              321
+          Index                                                 325
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF MAPS.
+
+
+                                                               Page
+
+          Philippine Islands                                   6, 7
+          Countries and Peoples of Malaysia                  26, 27
+          Races and Tribes of the Philippines                    30
+          The Spread of Mohammedanism                            39
+          Europe about 1400 AD.                                  44
+          Routes of Trade to the Far East                        50
+          The Countries of the Far East                          58
+          Restoration of Toscanelli's Map                        69
+          Early Spanish Discoveries in the Philippines           77
+          The New World and the Indies as divided between
+          Spain and Portugal                                     85
+          Conquest and Settlement by the Spaniards in the
+          Philippines, 1505-1590                                124
+          Straits of Manila                                     133
+          The City of Manila                                    134
+          Luzon                                            158, 159
+          Mindanao, Visayas, and Paragua                   288, 289
+          American Campaigns in Northern Luzon                  302
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE PHILIPPINES AS A SUBJECT FOR HISTORICAL STUDY.
+
+
+Purpose of this Book.--This book has been written for the young
+men and young women of the Philippines. It is intended to introduce
+them into the history of their own island country. The subject of
+Philippine history is much broader and more splendid than the size
+and character of this little book reveal. Many subjects have only
+been briefly touched upon, and there are many sources of information,
+old histories, letters and official documents, which the writer had
+not time and opportunity to study in the preparation of this work. It
+is not too soon, however, to present a history of the Philippines,
+even though imperfectly written, to the Philippine people themselves;
+and if this book serves to direct young men and young women to a study
+of the history of their own island country, it will have fulfilled
+its purpose.
+
+The Development of the Philippines and of Japan.--In many ways the
+next decade of the history of the Philippine Islands may resemble
+the splendid development of the neighboring country of Japan. Both
+countries have in past times been isolated more or less from the
+life and thought of the modern world. Both are now open to the full
+current of human affairs. Both countries promise to play an important
+part in the politics and commerce of the Far East. Geographically,
+the Philippines occupy the more central and influential position,
+and the success of the institutions of the Philippines may react upon
+the countries of southeastern Asia and Malaysia, to an extent that
+we cannot appreciate or foresee, Japan, by reason of her larger
+population, the greater industry of her people, a more orderly
+social life, and devoted public spirit, is at the present time far
+in the lead.
+
+The Philippines.--But the Philippines possess certain advantages which,
+in the course of some years, may tell strongly in her favor. There are
+greater natural resources, a richer soil, and more tillable ground. The
+population, while not large, is increasing rapidly, more rapidly, in
+fact, than the population of Japan or of Java. And in the character of
+her institutions the Philippines have certain advantages. The position
+of woman, while so unfortunate in Japan, as in China and nearly all
+eastern countries, in the Philippines is most fortunate, and is certain
+to tell effectually upon the advancement of the race in competition
+with other eastern civilizations. The fact that Christianity is the
+established religion of the people makes possible a sympathy and
+understanding between the Philippines and western countries.
+
+Japan.--Yet there are many lessons which Japan can teach the
+Philippines, and one of these is of the advantages and rewards
+of fearless and thorough study. Fifty years ago, Japan, which had
+rigorously excluded all intercourse with foreign nations, was forced to
+open its doors by an American fleet under Commodore Perry. At that time
+the Japanese knew nothing of western history, and had no knowledge of
+modern science. Their contact with the Americans and other foreigners
+revealed to them the inferiority of their knowledge. The leaders of
+the country awoke to the necessity of a study of western countries
+and their great progress, especially in government and in the sciences.
+
+Japan had at her service a special class of people known as the
+samurai, who, in the life of Old Japan, were the free soldiers of
+the feudal nobility, and who were not only the fighters of Japan,
+but the students and scholars as well. The young men of this samurai
+class threw themselves earnestly and devotedly into the study of the
+great fields of knowledge, which had previously been unknown to the
+Japanese. At great sacrifice many of them went abroad to other lands,
+in order to study in foreign universities. Numbers of them went to
+the United States, frequently working as servants in college towns
+in order to procure the means for the pursuit of their education.
+
+The Japanese Government in every way began to adopt measures for
+the transformation of the knowledge of the people. Schools were
+opened, laboratories established, and great numbers of scientific
+and historical books were translated into Japanese. A public school
+system was organized, and finally a university was established. The
+Government sent abroad many young men to study in almost every
+branch of knowledge and to return to the service of the people. The
+manufacturers of Japan studied and adopted western machinery and modern
+methods of production. The government itself underwent revolution
+and reorganization upon lines more liberal to the people and more
+favorable to the national spirit of the country. The result has been
+the transformation, in less than fifty years, of what was formerly
+an isolated and ignorant country.
+
+The Lesson for the Filipinos.--This is the great lesson which Japan
+teaches the Philippines. If there is to be transformation here, with
+a constant growth of knowledge and advancement, and an elevation of
+the character of the people as a whole, there must be a courageous
+and unfaltering search for the truth: and the young men and young
+women of the Philippines must seek the advantages of education, not
+for themselves, but for the benefit of their people and their land;
+not to gain for themselves a selfish position of social and economic
+advantage over the poor and less educated Filipinos, but in order
+that, having gained these advantages for themselves, they may in turn
+give them to their less fortunate countrymen. The young Filipino,
+man or woman, must learn the lessons of truthfulness, courage, and
+unselfishness, and in all of his gaining of knowledge, and in his
+use of it as well, he must practice these virtues, or his learning
+will be an evil to his land and not a blessing.
+
+The aim of this book is to help him to understand, first of all, the
+place that the Philippines occupy in the modern history of nations, so
+that he may understand how far and from what beginnings the Filipino
+people have progressed, toward what things the world outside has
+itself moved during this time, and what place and opportunities the
+Filipinos, as a people, may seek for in the future.
+
+The Meaning of History.--History, as it is written and understood,
+comprises many centuries of human life and achievement, and we must
+begin our study by discussing a little what history means. Men may
+live for thousands of years without having a life that may be called
+historical; for history is formed only where there are credible
+written records of events. Until we have these records, we have no
+ground for historical study, but leave the field to another study,
+which we call Archeology, or Prehistoric Culture.
+
+Historical Races.--Thus there are great races which have no history,
+for they have left no records. Either the people could not write,
+or their writings have been destroyed, or they told nothing about
+the life of the people. The history of these races began only with
+the coming of a historical, or more advanced race among them.
+
+Thus, the history of the black, or negro, race begins only with
+the exploration of Africa by the white race, and the history of the
+American Indians, except perhaps of those of Peru and Mexico, begins
+only with the white man's conquest of America. The white, or European,
+race is, above all others, the great historical race; but the yellow
+race, represented by the Chinese, has also a historical life and
+development, beginning many centuries before the birth of Christ.
+
+The European Race.--For thousands of years the white race was confined
+to the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It had but little
+contact with other races of men and almost no knowledge of countries
+beyond the Mediterranean shores. The great continents of America and
+Australia and the beautiful island-world of the Pacific and Indian
+oceans were scarcely dreamed of. This was the status of the white race
+in Europe a little more than five hundred years ago. How different
+is the position of this race to-day! It has now explored nearly the
+entire globe. The white people have crossed every continent and every
+sea. On every continent they have established colonies and over many
+countries their power.
+
+During these last five centuries, besides this spread of geographical
+discoveries, the mingling of all the races, and the founding of great
+colonies, has come also the development of scientific knowledge--great
+discoveries and inventions, such as the utilization of steam and
+electricity, which give to man such tremendous power over the material
+world. Very important changes have also marked the religious and
+political life of the race. Within these years came the Protestant
+revolt from the Roman Catholic Church, destroying in some degree the
+unity of Christendom; and the great revolutions of Europe and America,
+establishing democratic and representative governments.
+
+The European Race and the Filipino People.--This expansion and progress
+of the European race early brought it into contact with the Filipino
+people, and the historical life of the Philippines dates from this
+meeting of the two races. Thus the history of the Philippines has
+become a part of the history of nations. During these centuries the
+people of these islands, subjects of a European nation, have progressed
+in social life and government, in education and industries, in numbers,
+and in wealth. They have often been stirred by wars and revolutions,
+by centuries of piratical invasion, and fear of conquest by foreign
+nations. But these dangers have now passed away.
+
+There is no longer fear of piratical ravage nor of foreign invasion,
+nor is there longer great danger of internal revolt; for the
+Philippines are at the present time under a government strong enough
+to defend them against other powers, to put down plunder and ravage,
+and one anxious and disposed to afford to the people such freedom
+of opportunity, such advantages of government and life, that the
+incentive to internal revolution will no longer exist. Secure from
+external attack and rapidly progressing toward internal peace, the
+Philippines occupy a position most fortunate among the peoples of the
+Far East. They have representative government, freedom of religion,
+and public education, and, what is more than all else to the aspiring
+or ambitious race or individual, freedom of opportunity.
+
+How History is Written.--One other thing should be explained
+here. Every child who reads this book should understand a little how
+history is written. A most natural inquiry to be made regarding any
+historical statement is, "How is this known?" And this is as proper a
+question for the school boy as for the statesman. The answer is, that
+history rests for its facts largely upon the written records made by
+people who either lived at the time these things took place, or so
+near to them that, by careful inquiry, they could learn accurately
+of these matters and write them down in some form, so that we to-day
+can read their accounts, and at least know how these events appeared
+to men of the time.
+
+But not all that a man writes, or even puts in a book, of things
+he has seen and known, is infallibly accurate and free from error,
+partiality, and untruthfulness. So the task of the historian is not
+merely to read and accept all the contemporary records, but he must
+also compare one account with another, weighing all that he can find,
+making due allowance for prejudice, and on his own part trying to
+reach a conclusion that shall be true. Of course, where records are
+few the task is difficult indeed, and, on the other hand, material
+may be so voluminous as to occupy a writer a lifetime, and make it
+impossible for any one man completely to exhaust a subject.
+
+Historical Accounts of the Philippines.--For the Philippines we
+are so fortunate as to have many adequate sources of a reliable and
+attractive kind. In a few words some of these will be described. Nearly
+all exist in at least a few libraries in the Philippines, where they
+may sometime be consulted by the Filipino student, and many of them,
+at least in later editions, may be purchased by the student for his
+own possession and study.
+
+The Voyages of Discovery.--European discovery of the Philippines began
+with the great voyage of Magellan; and recounting this discovery of
+the islands, there is the priceless narrative of one of Magellan's
+company, Antonio Pigafetta. His book was written in Italian, but was
+first published in a French translation. The original copies made
+by Pigafetta have disappeared, but in 1800 a copy was discovered in
+the Ambrosian Library of Milan, Italy, and published. Translations
+into English and other languages exist. It may be found in several
+collections of Voyages, and there is a good Spanish translation and
+edition of recent date. (El Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, por
+Antonio Pigafetta, traducido por Dr. Carlos Amoretti y anotado por
+Manuel Walls y Merino, Madrid, 1899.) There are several other accounts
+of Magellan's voyage; but Pigafetta's was the only one written by
+an eye-witness, and his descriptions of the Bisaya Islands, Cebu,
+Borneo, and the Moluccas are wonderfully interesting and accurate.
+
+There were several voyages of discovery between Magellan's time (1521)
+and Legaspi's time (1565). These include the expeditions of Loaisa,
+Saavedra, and Villalobos, and accounts of them are to be found in
+the great series of publications made by the Spanish Government and
+called Coleccion de documentos ineditos, and, in another series,
+Navarrete's Coleccion de los viajes y descubrimientos.
+
+Spanish Occupation and Conquest.--As we come to the history of Spanish
+occupation and conquest of the Philippines, we find many interesting
+letters and reports sent by both soldiers and priests to the king, or
+to persons in Spain. The first complete book on the Philippines was
+written by a missionary about 1602, Father Predo Chirino's Relacion
+de las Islas Filipinas, printed in Rome in 1604. This important and
+curious narrative is exceedingly rare, but a reprint, although rude
+and poor, was made in Manila in 1890, which is readily obtainable. The
+Relacion de las Islas Filipinas was followed in 1609 by the work of
+Judge Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. This very
+rare work was printed in Mexico. In 1890 a new edition was brought
+out by Dr. Jose Rizal, from the copy in the British Museum. There is
+also an English translation.
+
+These two works abound in curious and valuable information upon
+the Filipino people as they were at the time of the arrival of the
+Spaniards, as does also a later work, the Conquista de las Islas
+Filipinas, by Friar Gaspar de San Augustin, printed in Madrid in
+1698. This latter is perhaps the most interesting and most important
+early work on the Philippine Islands.
+
+As we shall see, the history of the Philippines is closely connected
+with that of the East Indian Spice Islands. When the Spanish forces
+took the rich island of Ternate in 1606, the triumph was commemorated
+by a volume, finely written, though not free from mistakes, the
+Conquista de las Islas Moluccas, by Leonardo de Argensola, Madrid,
+1609. There is an old English translation, and also French and Dutch
+translations.
+
+To no other religious order do we owe so much historical information as
+to the Jesuits. The scholarship and literary ability of the Company
+have always been high. Chirino was a Jesuit, as was also Father
+Francisco Colin, who wrote the Labor Evangelica, a narrative of
+the Jesuit missions in the Philippines, China, and Japan, which was
+printed in Madrid in 1663. This history was continued years later by
+Father Murillo Velarde, who wrote what he called the Segunda Parte,
+the Historia de la Provincia de Filipinas de la Compania de Jesus,
+Manila, 1749.
+
+There is another notable Jesuit work to which we owe much of the
+early history of the great island of Mindanao: this is the Historia de
+Mindanao y Jolo, by Father Francisco Combes. The year 1663 marked, as
+we shall see, an epoch in the relations between the Spaniards and the
+Mohammedan Malays. In that year the Spaniards abandoned the fortress
+of Zamboanga, and retired from southern Mindanao. The Jesuits had
+been the missionaries in those parts of the southern archipelago,
+and they made vigorous protests against the abandonment of Moro
+territory. One result of their efforts to secure the reoccupancy
+of these fortresses was the notable work mentioned above. It is the
+oldest and most important writing about the island and the inhabitants
+of Mindanao. It was printed in Madrid in 1667. A beautiful and exact
+edition was brought out a few years ago, by Retana.
+
+A Dominican missionary, Father Diego Aduarte, wrote a very important
+work, the Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de
+Predicadores en Filipinas, Japon y China, which was printed in Manila
+at the College of Santo Tomas in 1640.
+
+We may also mention as containing a most interesting account of
+the Philippines about the middle of the seventeenth century, the
+famous work on China, by the Dominican, Father Fernandez Navarrete,
+Tratados historicos, politicos, ethnicos, y religiosos de la Monarchia
+de China, Madrid, 1767. Navarrete arrived in these islands in 1648,
+and was for a time a cura on the island of Mindoro. Later he was a
+missionary in China, and then Professor of Divinity in the University
+of Santo Tomas. His work is translated into English in Churchill's
+Collection of Voyages and Travels, London, 1744, second volume.
+
+The eighteenth century is rather barren of interesting historical
+matter. There was considerable activity in the production of grammars
+and dictionaries of the native languages, and more histories of the
+religious orders were also produced. These latter, while frequently
+filled with sectarian matter, should not be overlooked.
+
+Between the years 1788 and 1792 was published the voluminous Historia
+General de Filipinas, in fourteen volumes, by the Recollect friar,
+Father Juan de la Concepcion. The work abounds in superfluous matter
+and trivial details, yet it is a copious source of information,
+a veritable mine of historical data, and is perhaps the best known
+and most frequently used work upon the Philippine Islands. There
+are a number of sets in the Philippines which can be consulted by
+the student.
+
+Some years after, and as a sort of protest against so extensive
+a treatment of history, the sane and admirable Augustinian, Father
+Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, wrote his Historia de las Islas Filipinas,
+a volume of about seven hundred pages. It was printed in Sampaloc,
+Manila, in 1803. This writer is exceptional for his fairmindedness,
+his freedom from the narrow prejudices which have characterized
+most of the writers on the Philippines. His language is terse and
+spirited, and his volume is the most readable and, in many ways, the
+most valuable attempt at a history of the Philippines. His narrative
+closes with the English occupation of Manila in 1763.
+
+Recent Histories and Other Historical Materials.--The sources for
+the conditions and history of the islands during the last century
+differ somewhat from the preceding. The documentary sources in the
+form of public papers and reports are available, and there is a
+considerable mass of pamphlets dealing with special questions in
+the Philippines. The publication of the official journal of the
+Government, the Gazeta de Manila, commenced in 1861. It contains
+all acts of legislation, orders of the Governors, pastoral letters,
+and other official matters, down to the end of Spanish rule.
+
+A vast amount of material, for the recent civil history of the
+islands exists in the Archives of the Philippines, at Manila, but
+these documents have been very little examined. Notable among these
+original documents is the series of Royal Cedulas, each bearing the
+signature of the King of Spain, "Yo, el Rey." They run back from the
+last years of sovereignty to the commencement of the seventeenth
+century. The early cedulas, on the establishment of Spanish rule,
+are said to have been carried away by the British army in 1763,
+and to be now in the British Museum.
+
+Of the archives of the Royal Audiencia at Manila, the series of
+judgments begins with one of 1603, which is signed by Antonia
+de Morga. From this date they appear to be complete. The earliest
+records of the cases which came before this court that can be found,
+date from the beginning of the eighteenth century.
+
+Of modern historical writings mention must be made of the Historia
+de Filipinas, three volumes, 1887, by Montero y Vidal, and the
+publications of W. E. Retana. To the scholarship and enthusiasm of
+this last author much is owed. His work has been the republication
+of rare and important sources. His edition of Combes has already
+been mentioned, and there should also be mentioned, and if possible
+procured, his Archivo del Bibliofilo, four volumes, a collection of
+rare papers on the islands, of different dates; and his edition, the
+first ever published, of Zuniga's Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas,
+an incomparable survey of the islands made about 1800, by the priest
+and historian whose history was mentioned above.
+
+Accounts of Voyagers Who Visited the Philippines.--These references
+give some idea of the historical literature of the Philippines. They
+comprise those works which should be chiefly consulted. There should
+not be omitted the numerous accounts of voyagers who have visited
+these islands from time to time, and who frequently give us very
+valuable information. The first of these are perhaps the English and
+Dutch freebooters, who prowled about these waters to waylay the richly
+laden galleons. One of these was Dampier, who, about 1690, visited
+the Ladrones and the Philippines. His New Voyage Around the World was
+published in 1697. There was also Anson, who in 1743 took the Spanish
+galleon off the coast of Samar, and whose voyage is described in a
+volume published in 1745. There was an Italian physician, Carreri,
+who visited the islands in 1697, in the course of a voyage around the
+world, and who wrote an excellent description of the Philippines, which
+is printed in English translation in Churchill's Collection of Voyages.
+
+A French expedition visited the East between 1774 and 1781, and the
+Commissioner, M. Sonnerat, has left a brief account of the Spanish
+settlements in the islands as they then appeared. (Voyage aux Indes
+Orientales et a la Chine, Paris, 1782, Vol. 3.)
+
+There are a number of travellers' accounts written in the last century,
+of which may be mentioned Sir John Bowring's Visit to the Philippine
+Islands, 1859, and Jagor's Reisen in der Philippinen, travels in the
+year 1859 and 1860, which has received translation into both English
+and Spanish.
+
+Bibliographies.--For the historical student a bibliographical guide
+is necessary. Such a volume was brought out in 1898, by Retana,
+Catalogo abreviado de la Biblioteca Filipina. It contains a catalogue
+of five thousand seven hundred and eighty works, published in or upon
+the Philippines. A still more exact and useful bibliography has been
+prepared by the Honorable T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Biblioteca Filipina,
+and is published by the United States Government.
+
+It is lamentable that the Philippines Government possesses no library
+of works on the Archipelago. The foundation of such an institution
+seems to have been quite neglected by the Spanish Government, and works
+on the Philippines are scarcely to be found, except as they exist in
+private collections. The largest of these is said to be that of the
+Compania General de Tabacos, at Barcelona, which has also recently
+possessed itself of the splendid library of Retana. In Manila the
+Honorable Dr. Pardo de Tavera possesses the only notable library in
+the islands.
+
+Since the above was written the Philippines Government has commenced
+the collection of historic works in the Philippines, and a talented
+young Filipino scholar, Mr. Zulueta, has gone to Spain for extensive
+search, both of archives and libraries, in order to enrich the public
+collection in the Philippines.
+
+The publication of a very extensive series of sources of Philippine
+history has also been begun by the Arthur H. Clark Company in
+the United States, under the editorship of Miss E. H. Blair and
+Mr. J. A. Robertson. The series will embrace fifty-five volumes, and
+will contain in English translations all available historical material
+on the Philippines, from the age of discovery to the nineteenth
+century. This notable collection will place within the reach of the
+student all the important sources of his country's history, and will
+make possible a more extensive and accurate writing of the history
+of the islands than has ever before been possible.
+
+In addition to the published works, there repose numerous unstudied
+documents of Philippine history in the Archives of the Indies at
+Seville.
+
+Historical Work for the Filipino Student.--After reading this book,
+or a similar introductory history, the student should procure, one
+by one, as many as he can of the volumes which have been briefly
+described above, and, by careful reading and patient thought, try
+to round out the story of his country and learn the lessons of the
+history of his people. He will find it a study that will stimulate
+his thought and strengthen his judgment; but always he must search
+for the truth, even though the truth is sometimes humiliating and
+sad. If there are regrettable passages in our own lives, we cannot
+find either happiness or improvement in trying to deny to ourselves
+that we have done wrong, and so conceal and minimize our error. So if
+there are dark places in the history of our land and people, we must
+not obscure the truth in the mistaken belief that we are defending
+our people's honor, for, by trying to conceal the fact and excuse
+the fault, we only add to the shame. It is by frank acknowledgment
+and clear depiction of previous errors that the country's honor will
+be protected now and in the future.
+
+Very interesting and important historical work can be done by the
+Filipino student in his own town or province. The public and parish
+records have in many towns suffered neglect or destruction. In
+all possible cases these documents should be gathered up and cared
+for. For many things, they are worthy of study. They can show the
+growth of population, the dates of erection of the public buildings,
+the former system of government, and social conditions.
+
+This is a work in which the patriotism of every young man and
+woman can find an expression. Many sites throughout the islands are
+notable for the historic occurrences which they witnessed. These
+should be suitably marked with tablets or monuments, and the exact
+facts of the events that took place should be carefully collected,
+and put in writing. Towns and provinces should form public libraries
+containing, among other works, books on the Philippines; and it
+should be a matter of pride to the young Filipino scholar to build
+up such local institutions, and to educate his townsmen in their use
+and appreciation.
+
+But throughout such studies the student should remember that his town
+or locality is of less importance, from a patriotic standpoint, than
+his country as a whole; that the interests of one section should never
+be placed above those of the Archipelago; and that, while his first and
+foremost duty is to his town and to his people, among whom he was born
+and nurtured, he owes a greater obligation to his whole country and
+people, embracing many different islands and different tongues, and to
+the great Government which holds and protects the Philippine Islands,
+and which is making possible the free development of its inhabitants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE PEOPLES OF THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+
+The Study of Ethnology.--The study of races and peoples forms a
+separate science from history, and is known as ethnology, or the
+science of races. Ethnology informs us how and where the different
+races of mankind originated. It explains the relationships between
+the races as well as the differences of mind, of body, and of mode
+of living which different people exhibit.
+
+All such knowledge is of great assistance to the statesman as he
+deals with the affairs of his own people and of other peoples,
+and it helps private individuals of different races to understand
+one another and to treat each other with due respect, kindness, and
+sympathy. Inasmuch, too, as the modern history which we are studying
+deals with many different peoples of different origin and race, and
+as much of our history turns upon these differences, we must look
+for a little at the ethnology of the Philippines.
+
+The Negritos.--Physical Characteristics.--The great majority of the
+natives of our islands belong to what is usually called the Malayan
+race, or the Oceanic Mongols. There is, however, one interesting
+little race scattered over the Philippines, which certainly has no
+relationship at all with Malayans. These little people are called by
+the Tagalog, "Aeta" or "Ita." The Spaniards, when they arrived, called
+them "Negritos," or "little negroes," the name by which they are best
+known. Since they were without question the first inhabitants of these
+islands of whom we have any knowledge, we shall speak of them at once.
+
+They are among the very smallest peoples in the world, the average
+height of the men being about 145 centimeters, or the height of
+an American boy of twelve years; the women are correspondingly
+smaller. They have such dark-brown skins that many people suppose
+them to be quite black; their hair is very wooly or kinky, and forms
+thick mats upon their heads. In spite of these peculiarities, they
+are not unattractive in appearance. Their eyes are large and of a
+fine brown color, their features are quite regular, and their little
+bodies often beautifully shaped.
+
+The appearance of these little savages excited the attention of the
+first Spaniards, and there are many early accounts of them. Padre
+Chirino, who went as a missionary in 1592 to Panay, begins the
+narrative of his labors in that island as follows: "Among the Bisayas,
+there are also some Negroes. They are less black and ugly than those
+of Guinea, and they are much smaller and weaker, but their hair and
+beard are just the same. They are much more barbarous and wild than
+the Bisayas and other Filipinos, for they have neither houses nor
+any fixed sites for dwelling. They neither plant nor reap, but live
+like wild beasts, wandering with their wives and children through
+the mountains, almost naked. They hunt the deer and wild boar,
+and when they kill one they stop right there until all the flesh is
+consumed. Of property they have nothing except the bow and arrow." [1]
+
+Manners and Customs.--The Negritos still have this wild, timid
+character, and few have ever been truly civilized in spite of the
+efforts of some of the Spanish missionaries. They still roam through
+the mountains, seldom building houses, but making simply a little
+wall and roof of brush to keep off the wind and rain. They kill deer,
+wild pigs, monkeys, and birds, and in hunting they are very expert;
+but their principal food is wild roots and tubers, which they roast
+in ashes. Frequently in traveling through the mountains, although one
+may see nothing of these timid little folk, he will see many large,
+freshly dug holes from each of which they have taken out a root.
+
+The Negritos ornament their bodies by making little rows of cuts on the
+breast, back, and arms, and leaving the scars in ornamental patterns;
+and some of them also file their front teeth to points. In their hair
+they wear bamboo combs with long plumes of hair or of the feathers
+of the mountain cock. They have curious dances, and ceremonies for
+marriage and for death.
+
+Distribution.--The Negritos have retired from many places where they
+lived when the Spaniards first arrived, but there are still several
+thousand in Luzon, especially in the Cordillera Zambales, on the
+Pacific coast, and in the Sierra Madre range; and in the interior of
+Panay, Negros, Tablas, and in Surigao of Mindanao.
+
+Relation of the Negritos to Other Dwarfs of the World.--Although the
+Negritos have had very little effect on the history of the Philippines,
+they are of much interest as a race to scientists, and we can not
+help asking, Whence came these curious little people, and what does
+their presence here signify? While science can not at present fully
+answer these questions, what we do actually know about these pygmies
+is full of interest.
+
+The Aetas of the Philippines are not the only black dwarfs in the
+world. A similar little people, who must belong to the same race,
+live in the mountains and jungles of the Malay peninsula. On the
+Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, all the aboriginal inhabitants
+are similar pygmies, called "Mincopies." Some traces of their former
+existence are reported from many other places in the East Indies.
+
+Thus it may be that there was a time when these little men and women
+had much of this island-world quite to themselves, and their race
+stretched unbrokenly from the Philippines across Malacca to the Indian
+Ocean. As it would have been impossible for so feeble a people to force
+their way from one island to another after the arrival of the stronger
+races, who have now confined them to the mountainous interiors, we
+are obliged to believe that the Negritos were on the ground first,
+and that at one time they were more numerous. The Indian archipelago
+was then a world of black pygmies. It may be that they were even more
+extensive than this, for one of the most curious discoveries of modern
+times has been the finding of similar little blacks in the equatorial
+forests of Africa.
+
+The Negritos must not be confused with the black or negro race of
+New Guinea or Melanesia, who are commonly called Papuans; for those
+Negroes are of tall stature and belong with the true Negroes of
+Africa, though how the Negro race thus came to be formed of two so
+widely separated branches we do not know.
+
+The Malayan Race.--Origin of the Race.--It is thought that the Malayan
+race originated in southeastern Asia. From the mainland it spread
+down into the peninsula and so scattered southward and eastward over
+the rich neighboring islands. Probably these early Malayans found
+the little Negritos in possession and slowly drove them backward,
+destroying them from many islands until they no longer exist except
+in the places we have already named.
+
+With the beginning of this migratory movement which carried them from
+one island to another of the great East Indian Archipelago, these
+early Malayans must have invented the boats and praos for which they
+are famed, and have become skillful sailors living much upon the sea.
+
+Effect of the Migration.--Life for many generations, upon these
+islands, so warm, tropical, and fruitful, gradually modified these
+emigrants from Asia, until they became in mind and body quite a
+different race from the Mongol inhabitants of the mainland.
+
+Characteristics.--The Malayan peoples are of a light-brown color,
+with a light yellowish undertone on some parts of the skin, with
+straight black hair, dark-brown eyes, and, though they are a small
+race in stature, they are finely formed, muscular, and active. The
+physical type is nearly the same throughout all Malaysia, but the
+different peoples making up the race differ markedly from one another
+in culture. They are divided also by differences in religion. There
+are many tribes which are pagan. On Bali and Lombok, little islands
+south of Java, the people are still Brahmin, like most inhabitants
+of India. In other parts of Malaysia they are Mohammedans, while in
+the Philippines alone they are mostly Christians.
+
+The Wild Malayan Tribes.--Considering first the pagan or the wild
+Malayan peoples, we find that in the interior of the Malay Peninsula
+and of many of the islands, such as Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes,
+there are wild Malayan tribes, who have come very little in contact
+with the successive civilizing changes that have passed over this
+archipelago. The true Malays call these folk "Orang benua," or
+"men of the country," Many are almost savages, some are cannibals,
+and others are headhunters like some of the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+In the Philippines, too, we find what is probably this same class of
+wild people living in the mountains. They are warlike, savage, and
+resist approach. Sometimes they eat human flesh as a ceremonial act,
+and some prize above all other trophies the heads of their enemies,
+which they cut from the body and preserve in their homes. It is
+probable that these tribes represent the earliest and rudest epoch
+of Malayan culture, and that these were the first of this race to
+arrive in the Philippines and dispute with the Negritos for the
+mastery of the soil. In such wild state of life, some of them, like
+the Manguianes of Mindoro, have continued to the present day.
+
+The Tribes in Northern Luzon.--In northern Luzon, in the great
+Cordillera Central, there are many of these primitive tribes. These
+people are preeminently mountaineers. They prefer the high, cold,
+and semi-arid crests and valleys of the loftiest ranges. Here,
+with great industry, they have made gardens by the building of
+stone-walled terraces on the slopes of the hills. Sometimes hundreds
+of these terraces can be counted in one valley, and they rise one
+above the other from the bottom of a canyon for several miles almost
+to the summit of a ridge. These terraced gardens are all under
+most careful irrigation. Water is carried for many miles by log
+flumes and ditches, to be distributed over these little fields. The
+soil is carefully fertilized with the refuse of the villages. Two
+and frequently three crops are produced each year. Here we find
+undoubtedly the most developed and most nearly scientific agriculture
+in the Philippines. They raise rice, cotton, tobacco, the taro,
+maize, and especially the camote, or sweet potato, which is their
+principal food. These people live in compact, well-built villages,
+frequently of several hundred houses. Some of these tribes, like
+the Igorrotes of Benguet and the Tinguianes of Abra, are peaceable
+as well as industrious. In Benguet there are fine herds of cattle,
+much excellent coffee, and from time immemorial the Igorrotes here
+have mined gold.
+
+Besides these peaceful tribes there are in Bontoc, and in the northern
+parts of the Cordillera, many large tribes, with splendid mountain
+villages, who are nevertheless in a constant and dreadful state of
+war. Nearly every town is in feud with its neighbors, and the practice
+of taking heads leads to frequent murder and combat. A most curious
+tribe of persistent head hunters are the Ibilao, or Ilongotes, who live
+in the Caraballo Sur Mountains between Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya.
+
+On other islands of the Philippines there are similar wild tribes. On
+the island of Paragua there are the Tagbanua and other savage folk.
+
+Characteristics of the Tribes of Mindanao.--In Mindanao, there are many
+more tribes. Three of these tribes, the Aetas, Mandaya, and Manobo,
+are on the eastern coast and around Mount Apo. In Western Mindanao,
+there is quite a large but scattered tribe called the Subanon. These
+people make clearings on the hillsides and support themselves by
+raising maize and mountain rice. They also raise hemp, and from the
+fiber they weave truly beautiful blankets and garments, artistically
+dyed in very curious patterns. These peoples are nearly all pagans,
+though a few are being gradually converted to Mohammedanism, and some
+to Christianity. The pagans occasionally practice the revolting rites
+of human sacrifice and ceremonial cannibalism.
+
+The Civilized Malayan Peoples.--Their Later Arrival.--At a later
+date than the arrival of these primitive Malayan tribes, there came
+to the Philippines others of a more developed culture and a higher
+order of intelligence. These peoples rapidly mastered the low country
+and the coasts of all the islands, driving into the interior the
+earlier comers and the aboriginal Negritos. These later arrivals,
+though all of one stock, differed considerably, and spoke different
+dialects belonging to one language family. They were the ancestors
+of the present civilized Filipino people.
+
+Distribution of These Peoples.--All through the central islands,
+Panay, Negros, Leyte, Samar, Marinduque, and northern Mindanao, are
+the Bisaya, the largest of these peoples. At the southern extremity
+of Luzon, in the provinces of Sorsogon and the Camarines, are the
+Bicol. North of these, holding central Luzon, Batangas, Cavite,
+Manila, Laguna, Bataan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija, are the Tagalog,
+while the great plain of northern Luzon is occupied by the Pampango
+and Pangasinan. All the northwest coast is inhabited by the Ilocano,
+and the valley of the Cagayan by a people commonly called Cagayanes,
+but whose dialect is Ibanag. In Nueva Vizcaya province, on the Batanes
+Islands and the Calamianes, there are other distinct branches of
+the Filipino people, but they are much smaller in numbers and less
+important than the tribes marked above.
+
+Importance of These Peoples.--They form politically and historically
+the Filipino people. They are the Filipinos whom the Spaniards ruled
+for more than three hundred years. All are converts to Christianity,
+and all have attained a somewhat similar stage of civilization.
+
+Early Contact of the Malays and Hindus.--These people at the time
+of their arrival in the Philippines were probably not only of a
+higher plane of intelligence than any who had preceded them in the
+occupation of the islands, but they appear to have had the advantages
+of contact with a highly developed culture that had appeared in the
+eastern archipelago some centuries earlier.
+
+Early Civilization in India.--More than two thousand years ago,
+India produced a remarkable civilization. There were great cities of
+stone, magnificent palaces, a life of splendid luxury, and a highly
+organized social and political system. Writing, known as the Sanskrit,
+had been developed, and a great literature of poetry and philosophy
+produced. Two great religions, Brahminism and Buddhism, arose, the
+latter still the dominant religion of Tibet, China, and Japan. The
+people who produced this civilization are known as the Hindus. Fourteen
+or fifteen hundred years ago Hinduism spread over Burma, Siam, and
+Java. Great cities were erected with splendid temples and huge idols,
+the ruins of which still remain, though their magnificence has gone
+and they are covered to-day with the growth of the jungle.
+
+Influence of Hindu Culture on the Malayan Peoples.--This powerful
+civilization of the Hindus, established thus in Malaysia, greatly
+affected the Malayan people on these islands, as well as those who
+came to the Philippines. Many words in the Tagalog have been shown to
+have a Sanskrit origin, and the systems of writing which the Spaniards
+found in use among several of the Filipino peoples had certainly been
+developed from the alphabet then in use among these Hindu peoples
+of Java.
+
+The Rise of Mohammedanism.--Mohammed.--A few hundred years later
+another great change, due to religious faith, came over the Malayan
+race,--a change which has had a great effect upon the history of
+the Philippines, and is still destined to modify events far into the
+future. This was the conversion to Mohammedanism. Of all the great
+religions of the world, Mohammedanism was the last to arise, and
+its career has in some ways been the most remarkable. Mohammed, its
+founder, was an Arab, born about 572 A.D. At that time Christianity
+was established entirely around the Mediterranean and throughout
+most of Europe, but Arabia was idolatrous. Mohammed was one of those
+great, prophetic souls which arise from time to time in the world's
+history. All he could learn from Hebrewism and Christianity, together
+with the result of his own thought and prayers, led him to the belief
+in one God, the Almighty, the Compassionate, the Merciful, who as he
+believed would win all men to His knowledge through the teachings of
+Mohammed himself. Thus inspired, Mohammed became a teacher or prophet,
+and by the end of his life he had won his people to his faith and
+inaugurated one of the greatest eras of conquest the world has seen.
+
+Spread of Mohammedanism to Africa and Europe.--The armies of Arabian
+horsemen, full of fanatical enthusiasm to convert the world to their
+faith, in a century's time wrested from Christendom all Judea, Syria,
+and Asia Minor, the sacred land where Jesus lived and taught, and the
+countries where Paul and the other apostles had first established
+Christianity. Thence they swept along the north coast of Africa,
+bringing to an end all that survived of Roman power and religion,
+and by 720 they had crossed into Europe and were in possession of
+Spain. For nearly the eight hundred years that followed, the Christian
+Spaniards fought to drive Mohammedanism from the peninsula, before
+they were successful.
+
+The Conversion of the Malayans to Mohammedanism.--Not only did
+Mohammedanism move westward over Africa and Europe, it was carried
+eastward as well. Animated by their faith, the Arabs became the
+greatest sailors, explorers, merchants, and geographers of the
+age. They sailed from the Red Sea down the coast of Africa as far as
+Madagascar, and eastward to India, where they had settlements on both
+the Malabar and Coromandel coasts. Thence Arab missionaries brought
+their faith to Malaysia.
+
+At that time the true Malays, the tribe from which the common term
+"Malayan" has been derived, were a small people of Sumatra. At least
+as early as 1250 they were converted to Mohammedanism, brought to
+them by these Arabian missionaries, and under the impulse of this
+mighty faith they broke from their obscurity and commenced that
+great conquest and expansion that has diffused their power, language,
+and religion throughout the East Indies.
+
+Mohammedan Settlement in Borneo.--A powerful Mohammedan Malay
+settlement was established on the western coasts of Borneo certainly
+as early as 1400. The more primitive inhabitants, like the Dyaks,
+who were a tribe of the primitive Malayans, were defeated, and the
+possession of the coast largely taken from them. From this coast of
+Borneo came many of the adventurers who were traversing the seas of
+the Philippines when the Spaniards arrived.
+
+The Mohammedan Population of Mindanao and Jolo owes something
+certainly to this same Malay migration which founded the colony
+of Borneo. But the Maguindanao and Illano Moros seem to be largely
+descendants of primitive tribes, such as the Manobo and Tiruray, who
+were converted to Mohammedanism by Malay and Arab proselyters. The
+traditions of the Maguindanao Moros ascribe their conversion to
+Kabunsuan, a native of Johore, the son of an Arab father and Malay
+mother. He came to Maguindanao with a band of followers, and from him
+the datos of Maguindanao trace their lineage. Kabunsuan is supposed
+to be descended from Mohammed through his Arab father, Ali, and so
+the datos of Maguindanao to the present day proudly believe that in
+their veins flows the blood of the Prophet.
+
+The Coming of the Spaniards.--Mohammedanism was still increasing in
+the Philippines when the Spaniards arrived. The Mohammedans already
+had a foothold on Manila Bay, and their gradual conquest of the
+archipelago was interrupted only by the coming of the Europeans. It
+is a strange historical occurrence that the Spaniards, having fought
+with the Mohammedans for nearly eight centuries for the possession of
+Spain, should have come westward around the globe to the Philippine
+Islands and there resumed the ancient conflict with them. Thus the
+Spaniards were the most determined opponents of Mohammedanism on both
+its western and eastern frontiers. Their ancient foes who crossed
+into Spain from Morocco had been always known as "Moros" or "Moors,"
+and quite naturally they gave to these new Mohammedan enemies the
+same title, and Moros they are called to the present day.
+
+Summary.--Such, then, are the elements which form the population of
+these islands,--a few thousands of the little Negritos; many wild
+mountain tribes of the primitive Malayans; a later immigration of
+Malayans of higher cultivation and possibilities than any that preceded
+them, who had been influenced by the Hinduism of Java and who have
+had in recent centuries an astonishing growth both in numbers and in
+culture; and last, the fierce Mohammedan sea-rovers, the true Malays.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST ABOUT 1400 A.D.
+
+
+The Mediaeval Period in Europe.--Length of the Middle Age.--By the
+Middle Ages we mean the centuries between 500 and 1300 A.D. This
+period begins with the fall of the Roman Empire and the looting of
+the Imperial City by the rude German tribes, and ends with the rise
+of a new literature, a new way of looking at the world in general,
+and a passion for discovery of every kind.
+
+These eight hundred years had been centuries of cruel struggle,
+intellectual darkness, and social depression, but also of great
+religious devotion. Edward Gibbon, one of the greatest historians,
+speaks of this period as "the triumph of barbarism and religion."
+
+The population of Europe was largely changed, during the first few
+centuries of the Christian Era, as the Roman Empire, that greatest
+political institution of all history, slowly decayed. New peoples
+of German or Teutonic origin came, fighting their way into western
+Europe and settling wherever the land attracted them. Thus Spain and
+Italy received the Goths; France, the Burgundians and Franks; England,
+the Saxons and Angles or English.
+
+These peoples were all fierce, warlike, free, unlettered
+barbarians. Fortunately, they were all converted to Christianity by
+Roman priests and missionaries. They embraced this faith with ardor,
+at the same time that other peoples and lands were being lost to
+Christendom. Thus it has resulted that the countries where Christianity
+arose and first established itself, are now no longer Christian, and
+this religion, which had an Asiatic and Semitic origin, has become the
+distinguishing faith of the people of western Europe. For centuries the
+countries of Europe were fiercely raided and disturbed by pillaging
+and murdering hordes; by the Huns, who followed in the Germans from
+the East; by the Northmen, cruel pirating seamen from Scandinavia;
+and, as we have already seen, by the Mohammedans, or Saracens as they
+were called, who came into central Europe by way of Spain.
+
+Character of the Life during this Period.--Feudalism.--Life was so
+beset with peril that independence or freedom became impossible,
+and there was developed a society which has lasted almost down to
+the present time, and which we call Feudalism. The free but weak man
+gave up his freedom and his lands to some stronger man, who became
+his lord. He swore obedience to this lord, while the lord engaged to
+furnish him protection and gave him back his lands to hold as a "fief,"
+both sharing in the product. This lord swore allegiance to some still
+more powerful man, or "overlord," and became his "vassal," pledged
+to follow him to war with a certain number of armed men; and this
+overlord, on his part, owed allegiance to the prince, who was, perhaps,
+a duke or bishop (bishops at this time were also feudal lords),
+or to the king or emperor. Thus were men united into large groups
+or nations for help or protection. There was little understanding
+of love of country. Patriotism, as we feel it, was replaced by the
+passion of fidelity or allegiance to one's feudal superior.
+
+Disadvantages of Feudalism.--The great curse of this system was that
+the feudal lords possessed the power to make war upon one another,
+and so continuous were their jealousies and quarrelings that the land
+was never free from armed bands, who laid waste an opponent's country,
+killing the miserable serfs who tilled the soil, and destroying their
+homes and cattle.
+
+There was little joy in life and no popular learning. If a man did not
+enjoy warfare, but one other life was open to him, and that was in the
+Church. War and religion were the pursuits of life, and it is no wonder
+that many of the noblest and best turned their backs upon a life that
+promised only fighting and bloodshed and, renouncing the world, became
+monks. Monasticism developed in Europe under such conditions as these,
+and so strong were the religious feelings of the age that at one time
+a third of the land of France was owned by the religious orders.
+
+The Town.--The two typical institutions of the early Middle Age were
+the feudal castle, with its high stone walls and gloomy towers,
+with its fierce bands of warriors armed in mail and fighting on
+horseback with lance and sword, and the monastery, which represented
+inn, hospital, and school. Gradually, however, a third structure
+appeared. This was the town. And it is to these mediaeval cities, with
+their busy trading life, their free citizenship, and their useful
+occupations, that the modern world owes much of its liberty and its
+intellectual light.
+
+The Renaissance.--Changes in Political Affairs.--By 1400, however,
+the Middle Age had nearly passed and a new life had appeared, a new
+epoch was in progress, which is called the Renaissance, which means
+"rebirth." In political affairs the spirit of nationality had arisen,
+and feudalism was already declining. Men began to feel attachment to
+country, to king, and to fellow-citizens; and the national states,
+as we now know them, each with its naturally bounded territory,
+its common language, and its approximately common race, were appearing.
+
+France and England were, of these states, the two most advanced
+politically just previous to the fifteenth century. At this distant
+time they were still engaged in a struggle which lasted quite a
+century and is known as the Hundred Years' War. In the end, England
+was forced to give up all her claims to territory on the continent,
+and the power of France was correspondingly increased. In France
+the monarchy (king and court) was becoming the supreme power in the
+land. The feudal nobles lost what power they had, while the common
+people gained nothing. In England, however, the foundations for a
+representative government had been laid. The powers of legislation and
+government were divided between the English king and a Parliament. The
+Parliament was first called in 1265 and consisted of two parts,--the
+Lords, representing the nobility; and the Commons, composed of persons
+chosen by the common people.
+
+Germany was divided into a number of small principalities,--Saxony,
+Bavaria, Franconia, Bohemia, Austria, the Rhine principalities, and
+many others,--which united in a great assembly, or Diet, the head of
+which was some prince, chosen to be emperor.
+
+Italy was also divided. In the north, in the valley of the Po,
+or Lombardy, were the duchy of Milan and the Republic of Venice;
+south, on the western coast, were the Tuscan states, including the
+splendid city of Florence. Thence, stretching north and south across
+the peninsula, were states of the church, whose ruler was the pope,
+for until less than fifty years ago the pope was not only the head
+of the church but also a temporal ruler. Embracing the southern part
+of the peninsula was the principality of Naples.
+
+In the Spanish peninsula Christian states had arisen,--in the west,
+Portugal, in the center and east, Castile, Aragon, and Leon, from all
+of which the Mohammedans had been expelled. But they still held the
+southern parts of Spain, including the beautiful plain of Andalusia
+and Grenada.
+
+The Mohammedans, in the centuries of their life in Spain, had
+developed an elegant and prosperous civilization. By means of
+irrigation and skillful planting, they had converted southern Spain
+into a garden. They were the most skillful agriculturists and breeders
+of horses and sheep in Europe, and they carried to perfection many
+fine arts, while knowledge and learning were nowhere further advanced
+than here. Through contact with this remarkable people the Christian
+Spaniards gained much. Unfortunately, however, the spirit of religious
+intolerance was so strong, and the hatred engendered by the centuries
+of religious war was so violent, that in the end the Spaniard became
+imbued with so fierce a fanaticism that he has ever since appeared
+unable properly to appreciate or justly to treat any who differed
+from him in religious belief.
+
+The Conquests of the Mohammedans.--In the fifteenth century,
+religious toleration was but little known in the world, and the
+people of the great Mohammedan faith still threatened to overwhelm
+Christian Europe. Since the first great conquests of Islam in the
+eighth century had been repulsed from central Europe, that faith had
+shown a wonderful power of winning its way. In the tenth century Asia
+Minor was invaded by hordes of Seljuks, or Turks, who poured down from
+central Asia in conquering bands. These tribes had overthrown the
+Arab's power in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor only to become converts
+to his faith. With freshened zeal they hurled themselves upon the
+old Christian empire, which at Constantinople had survived the fall
+of the rest of the Roman world.
+
+The Crusades.--The Seljuk Turks had conquered most of Asia Minor,
+Syria, and the Holy Land. A great fear came over the people of Europe
+that the city of Constantinople would be captured and they, too, be
+overwhelmed by these new Mohammedan enemies. The passionate religious
+zeal of the Middle Age also roused the princes and knights of Europe
+to try to wrest from the infidel the Holy Land of Palestine, where
+were the birthplace of Christianity and the site of the Sepulcher of
+Christ. Palestine was recovered and Christian states were established
+there, which lasted for over a hundred and eighty years. Then the Arab
+power revived and, operating from Egypt, finally retook Jerusalem and
+expelled the Christian from the Holy Land, to which he has never yet
+returned as a conqueror.
+
+Effects of the Crusades.--These long, holy wars, or "Crusades," had a
+profound effect upon Europe. The rude Christian warrior from the west
+was astonished and delighted with the splendid and luxurious life which
+he met at Constantinople and the Arabian East. Even though he was a
+prince, his life at home was barren of comforts and beauty. Glass,
+linen, rugs, tapestries, silk, cotton, spices, and sugar were some
+of the things which the Franks and the Englishmen took home with
+them from the Holy Land. Demand for these treasures of the East
+became irresistible, and trade between western Europe and the East
+grew rapidly.
+
+The Commercial Cities of Italy.--The cities of Italy developed this
+commerce. They placed fleets upon the Mediterranean. They carried the
+crusaders out and brought back the wares that Europe desired. In this
+way these cities grew and became very wealthy. On the west coast,
+where this trade began, were Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and Florence, and
+on the east, at the head of the Adriatic, was Venice. The rivalry
+between these cities of Italy was very fierce. They fought and
+plundered one another, each striving to win a monopoly for itself of
+this invaluable trade.
+
+Venice, finally, was victorious. Her location was very favorable. From
+her docks the wares could be carried easily and by the shortest
+routes up the Po River and thence into France or northward over the
+Alps to the Danube. In Bavaria grew up in this trade the splendid
+German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, which passed these goods on
+to the cities of the Rhine, and so down this most beautiful river
+to the coast. Here the towns of Flanders and of the Low Countries,
+or Holland, received them and passed them on again to England and
+eastward to the countries of the Baltic.
+
+Development of Modern Language.--Thus commerce and trade grew up
+in Europe, and, with trade and city life, greater intelligence,
+learning, and independence. Education became more common, and the
+universities of Europe were thronged. Latin in the Middle Age had
+been the only language that was written by the learned class. Now
+the modern languages of Europe took their form and began to be used
+for literary purposes. Italian was the first to be so used by the
+great Dante, and in the same half-century the English poet Chaucer
+sang in the homely English tongue, and soon in France, Germany, and
+Spain national literatures appeared. With this went greater freedom
+of expression. Authority began to have less weight.
+
+Men began to inquire into causes and effects, to doubt certain things,
+to seek themselves for the truth, and so the Renaissance came. With
+it came a greater love for the beautiful, a greater joy in life, a
+fresh zest for the good of this world, a new passion for discovery,
+a thirst for adventure, and, it must also be confessed a new laxity of
+living and a new greed for gold. Christian Europe was about to burst
+its narrow bounds. It could not be repressed nor confined to its old
+limitations. It could never turn backward. Of all the great changes
+which have come over life and thought, probably none are greater than
+those which saw the transition from the mediaeval to the modern world.
+
+Trade with the East.--Articles of Trade.--Now we must go back for
+a moment and pursue an old inquiry further. Whence came all these
+beautiful and inviting wares that had produced new tastes and passions
+in Europe? The Italian traders drew them from the Levant, but the
+Levant had not produced them. Neither pepper, spices, sugarcane, costly
+gems, nor rich silks, were produced on the shores of the Mediterranean.
+
+Only the rich tropical countries of the East were capable of growing
+these rare plants, and up to that time of delivering to the delver
+many precious stones. India, the rich Malaysian archipelago, the
+kingdom of China,--these are the lands and islands which from time
+immemorial have given up their treasures to be forwarded far and wide
+to amaze and delight the native of colder and less productive lands.
+
+Routes of Trade to the Far East.--Three old sailing and caravan routes
+connect the Mediterranean with the Far East. They are so old that we
+can not guess when men first used them. They were old in the days of
+Solomon and indeed very ancient when Alexander the Great conquered the
+East. One of these routes passed through the Black Sea, and across
+the Caspian Sea to Turkestan to those strange and romantic ancient
+cities, Bokhara and Samarkand. Thence it ran northeasterly across Asia,
+entering China from the north. Another crossed Syria and went down
+through Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean, A third began in Egypt and
+went through the Red Sea, passing along the coast of Arabia to India.
+
+All of these had been in use for centuries, but by the year 1400 two
+had been closed. A fresh immigration of Turks, the Ottomans, in the
+fourteenth century came down upon the scourged country of the Euphrates
+and Syria, and although these Turks also embraced Mohammedanism,
+their hostility closed the first two routes and commerce over them
+has never since been resumed.
+
+Venetian Monopoly of Trade.--Thus all interest centered upon the
+southern route. By treaty with the sultan or ruler of Egypt, Venice
+secured a monopoly of the products which came over this route. Goods
+from the East now came in fleets up the Red Sea, went through the
+hands of the sultan of Egypt, who collected a duty for them, and
+then were passed on to the ships of the wealthy Venetian merchant
+princes, who carried them throughout Europe. Although the object of
+intense jealousy, it seemed impossible to wrest this monopoly from
+Venice. Her fleet was the strongest on the Mediterranean, and her
+rule extended along the Adriatic to the Grecian islands. All eager
+minds were bent upon the trade with the East, but no way was known,
+save that which now Venice had gained.
+
+Extent of Geographical Knowledge.--The Maps of this Period.--To
+realize how the problem looked to the sailor of Genoa or the merchant
+of Flanders at that time, we must understand how scanty and erroneous
+was the geographical knowledge of even the fifteenth century. It
+was believed that Jerusalem was the center of the world, a belief
+founded upon a biblical passage. The maps of this and earlier dates
+represent the earth in this way: In the center, Palestine, and beneath
+it the Mediterranean Sea, the only body of water which was well known;
+on the left side is Europe; on the right, Africa; and at the top,
+Asia--the last two continents very indefinitely mapped. Around the
+whole was supposed to flow an ocean, beyond the first few miles of
+which it was perilous to proceed lest the ship be carried over the
+edge of the earth or encounter other perils.
+
+Ideas about the Earth.--The Greek philosophers before the time of
+Christ had discovered that the world is a globe, or ball, and had
+even computed rudely its circumference. But in the Middle Ages this
+knowledge had been disputed and contradicted by a geographer named
+Cosmas, who held that the world was a vast plane, twice as long as
+it was broad and surrounded by an ocean. This belief was generally
+adopted by churchmen, who were the only scholars of the Middle Ages,
+and came to be the universal belief of Christian Europe.
+
+The Renaissance revived the knowledge of the writings of the old Greek
+geographers who had demonstrated the earth's shape to be round and had
+roughly calculated its size; but these writings did not have sufficient
+circulation in Europe to gain much acceptance among the Christian
+cosmographers. The Arabs, however, after conquering Egypt, Syria and
+northern Africa, translated into their own tongue the wisdom of the
+Greeks and became the best informed and most scientific geographers
+of the Middle Age, so that intercourse with the Arabs which began with
+the Crusades helped to acquaint Europe somewhat with India and China.
+
+The Far East.--The Tartar Mongols.--Then in the thirteenth century
+all northern Asia and China fell under the power of the Tartar
+Mongols. Russia was overrun by them and western Europe threatened. At
+the Danube, however, this tide of Asiatic conquest stopped, and then a
+long period when Europe came into diplomatic and commercial relations
+with these Mongols and through them learned something of China.
+
+Marco Polo Visits the Great Kaan.--Several Europeans visited the
+court of the Great Kaan, or Mongol king, and of one of them, Marco
+Polo, we must speak in particular. He was a Venetian, and when a
+young man started in 1271 with his father and uncle on a visit to
+the Great Kaan. They passed from Italy to Syria, across to Bagdad,
+and so up to Turkestan, where they saw the wonderful cities of this
+strange oasis, thence across the Pamirs and the Desert of Gobi to
+Lake Baikal, where the Kaan had his court. Here in the service of
+this prince Marco Polo spent over seventeen years. So valuable indeed
+were his services that the Kaan would not permit him to return. Year
+after year he remained in the East. He traversed most of China, and
+was for a time "taotai," or magistrate, of the city of Yang Chan near
+the Yangtze River. He saw the amazing wonders of the East. He heard of
+"Zipangu," or Japan. He probably heard of the Philippines.
+
+Finally the opportunity came for the three Venetians to return. The
+Great Kaan had a relative who was a ruler of Persia, and ambassadors
+came from this ruler to secure a Mongol princess for him to marry. The
+dangers and hardships of the travel overland were considered too
+difficult for the delicate princess, and it was decided to send her
+by water. Marco Polo and his father and uncle were commissioned to
+accompany the expedition to Persia.
+
+History of Marco Polo's Travels.--They sailed from the port of Chin
+Cheu, probably near Amoy, [2] in the year 1292. They skirted the
+coasts of Cambodia and Siam and reached the eastern coasts of Sumatra,
+where they waited five months for the changing of the monsoon. Of
+the Malay people of Sumatra, as well as of these islands, their
+animals and productions, Marco Polo has left us most interesting and
+quite accurate accounts. The Malays on Sumatra were beginning to be
+converted to Mohammedanism, for Marco Polo says that many of them were
+"Saracens." He gained a good knowledge of the rich and mysterious
+Indian Isles, where the spices and flavorings grew. It was two years
+before the party, having crossed the Indian Ocean, reached Persia
+and the court of the Persian king. When they arrived they found that
+while they were making this long voyage the Persian king had died;
+but they married the Mongol princess to his son, the young prince,
+who had succeeded him, and that did just as well.
+
+From Persia the Venetians crossed to Syria and thence sailed to
+Italy, and at last reached home after an absence of twenty-six
+years. But Marco Polo's adventures did not end with his return to
+Venice. In a fierce sea fight between the Venetians and Genoese,
+he was made a prisoner and confined in Genoa. Here a fellow captive
+wrote down from Marco's own words the story of his eastern adventures,
+and this book we have to-day. It is a record of adventure, travel,
+and description, so wonderful that for years it was doubted and
+its accuracy disbelieved. But since, in our own time, men have been
+able to traverse again the routes over which Marco Polo passed, fact
+after fact has been established, quite as he truthfully stated them
+centuries ago. To have been the first European to make this mighty
+circuit of travel is certainly a strong title to enduring fame.
+
+Countries of the Far East.--India.--Let us now briefly look at the
+countries of the Far East, which by the year 1400 had come to exercise
+over the mind of the European so irresistible a fascination. First
+of all, India, as we have seen, had for centuries been the principal
+source of the western commerce. But long before the date we are
+considering, the scepter of India had fallen from the hand of the
+Hindu. From the seventh century, India was a prey to Mohammedan
+conquerors, who entered from the northwest into the valley of the
+Indus. At first these were Saracens or Arabs; later they were the
+same Mongol converts to Mohammedanism, whose attacks upon Europe we
+have already noticed.
+
+In 1398 came the furious and bloody warrior, the greatest of all
+Mongols,--Timour, or Tamerlane. He founded, with capital at Delhi,
+the empire of the Great Mogul, whose rule over India was only broken
+by the white man. Eastward across the Ganges and in the Dekkan,
+or southern part of India, were states ruled over by Indian princes.
+
+China.--We have seen how, at the time of Marco Polo, China also was
+ruled by the Tartar Mongols. The Chinese have ever been subject to
+attack from the wandering horse-riding tribes of Siberia. Two hundred
+years before Christ one of the Chinese kings built the Great Wall that
+stretches across the northern frontier for one thousand three hundred
+miles, for a defense against northern foes. Through much of her history
+the Chinese have been ruled by aliens, as they are to-day. About 1368,
+however, the Chinese overthrew the Mongol rulers and established the
+Ming dynasty, the last Chinese house of emperors, who ruled China until
+1644, when the Manchus, the present rulers, conquered the country.
+
+China was great and prosperous under the Mings. Commerce flourished
+and the fleets of Chinese junks sailed to India, the Malay Islands,
+and to the Philippines for trade. The Grand Canal, which connects
+Peking with the Yangtze River basin and Hangchau, was completed. It
+was an age of fine productions of literature.
+
+The Chinese seem to have been much less exclusive then than they
+are at the present time; much less a peculiar, isolated people than
+now. They did not then shave their heads nor wear a queue. These
+customs, as well as that hostility to foreign intercourse which they
+have to-day, has been forced upon China by the Manchus. China appeared
+at that time ready to assume a position of enormous influence among
+the peoples of the earth,--a position for which she was well fitted
+by the great industry of all classes and the high intellectual power
+of her learned men.
+
+Japan.--Compared with China or India, or even some minor states,
+the development of Japan at this time was very backward. Her people
+were divided and there was constant civil war. The Japanese borrowed
+their civilization from the Chinese. From them they learned writing
+and literature, and the Buddhist religion, which was introduced
+about 550 A.D. But in temperament they are a very different people,
+being spirited, warlike, and, until recent years, despising trading
+and commerce.
+
+Since the beginning of her history, Japan has been an empire. The
+ruler, the Mikado, is believed to be of heavenly descent; but in the
+centuries we are discussing the government was controlled by powerful
+nobles, known as the Shogun, who kept the emperors in retirement in
+the palaces of Kyoto, and themselves directed the State. The greatest
+of these shoguns was Iyeyasu, who ruled Japan about 1600, soon after
+Manila was founded. They developed in Japan a species of feudalism,
+the great lords, or "daimios," owning allegiance to the shoguns, and
+about the daimios, as feudal retainers, bodies of samurai, who formed
+a partly noble class of their own. The samurai carried arms, fought
+at their lords' command, were students and literati, and among them
+developed that proud, loyal, and elevated code of morality known as
+"Bushido," which has done so much for the Japanese people. It is this
+samurai class who in modern times have effected the immense revolution
+in the condition and power of Japan.
+
+The Malay Archipelago.--If now we look at the Malay Islands, we find,
+as we have already seen, that changes had been effected there. Hinduism
+had first elevated and civilized at least a portion of the race, and
+Mohammedanism and the daring seamanship of the Malay had united these
+islands under a common language and religion. There was, however,
+no political union. The Malay peninsula was divided. Java formed a
+central Malay power. Eastward among the beautiful Celebes and Moluccas,
+the true Spice Islands, were a multitude of small native rulers, rajas
+or datos, who surrounded themselves with retainers, kept rude courts,
+and gathered wealthy tributes of cinnamon, pepper, and cloves. The
+sultans of Ternate, Tidor, and Amboina were especially powerful,
+and the islands they ruled the most rich and productive.
+
+Between all these islands there was a busy commerce. The Malay is
+an intrepid sailor, and an eager trader. Fleets of praos, laden with
+goods, passed with the changing monsoons from part to part, risking the
+perils of piracy, which have always troubled this archipelago. Borneo,
+while the largest of all these islands, was the least developed, and
+down to the present day has been hardly explored. The Philippines
+were also outside of most of this busy intercourse and had at that
+date few products to offer for trade. Their only connection with the
+rest of the Malay race was through the Mohammedan Malays of Jolo
+and Borneo. The fame of the Spice Islands had long filled Europe,
+but the existence of the Philippines was unknown.
+
+Summary.--We have now reviewed the condition of Europe and of
+farther Asia as they were before the period of modern discovery
+and colonization opened. The East had reached a condition of quiet
+stability. Mohammedanism, though still spreading, did not promise to
+effect great social changes. The institutions of the East had become
+fixed in custom and her peoples neither made changes nor desired
+them. On the other hand western Europe had become aroused to an excess
+of ambition. New ideas, new discoveries and inventions were moving
+the nations to activity and change. That era of modern discovery and
+progress, of which we cannot yet perceive the end, had begun.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.
+
+
+An Eastern Passage to India.--The Portuguese.--We have seen in the
+last chapter how Venice held a monopoly of the only trading-route
+with the Far East. Some new way of reaching India must be sought,
+that would permit the traders of other Christian powers to reach the
+marts of the Orient without passing through Mohammedan lands. This
+surpassing achievement was accomplished by the Portuguese. So low at
+the present day has the power of Portugal fallen that few realize the
+daring and courage once displayed by her seamen and soldiers and the
+enormous colonial empire that she established.
+
+Portugal freed her territory of the Mohammedan Moors nearly a century
+earlier than Spain; and the vigor and intelligence of a great king,
+John I., brought Portugal, about the year 1400, to an important place
+among the states of Europe. This king captured from the Moors the city
+of Ceuta, in Morocco; and this was the beginning of modern European
+colonial possessions, and the first bit of land outside of Europe to
+be held by a European power since the times of the Crusades. King
+John's youngest son was Prince Henry, famous in history under the
+title of "the Navigator." This young prince, with something of the
+same adventurous spirit that filled the Crusaders, was ardent to
+extend the power of his father's kingdom and to widen the sway of the
+religion which he devotedly professed. The power of the Mohammedans in
+the Mediterranean was too great for him hopefully to oppose and so he
+planned the conquest of the west coast of Africa, and its conversion
+to Christianity. With these ends in view, he established at Point
+Sagres, on the southwestern coast of Portugal, a naval academy and
+observatory. Here he brought together skilled navigators, charts,
+and geographies, and all scientific knowledge that would assist in
+his undertaking. [3]
+
+He began to construct ships larger and better than any in use. To
+us they would doubtless seem very clumsy and small, but this was the
+beginning of ocean ship-building. The compass and the astrolabe, or
+sextant, the little instrument with which, by calculating the height
+of the sun above the horizon, we can tell distance from the equator,
+were just coming into use. These, as well as every other practicable
+device for navigation known at that time, were supplied to these ships.
+
+Exploration of the African Coast.--Thus equipped and ably manned, the
+little fleets began the exploration of the African coast, cautiously
+feeling their way southward and ever returning with reports of progress
+made. Year after year this work went on. In 1419 the Madeira Islands
+were rediscovered and colonized by Portuguese settlers. The growing of
+sugarcane was begun, and vines were brought from Burgundy and planted
+there. The wine of the Madeiras has been famous to this day. Then
+were discovered the Canaries and in 1444 the Azores. The southward
+exploration of the coast of the mainland steadily continued until
+in 1445 the Portuguese reached the mouth of the Senegal River. Up to
+this point the African shore had not yielded much of interest to the
+Portuguese explorer or trader. Below Morocco the great Sahara Desert
+reaches to the sea and renders barren the coast for hundreds of miles.
+
+South of the mouth of the Senegal and comprising the whole Guinea
+coast, Africa is tropical, well watered, and populous. This is the home
+of the true African Negro. Here, for almost the first time, since the
+beginning of the Middle Ages, Christian Europe came in contact with
+a race of ruder culture and different color than its own. This coast
+was found to be worth exploiting; for it yielded, besides various
+desirable resinous gums, three articles which have distinguished the
+exploitation of Africa, namely, gold, ivory, and slaves.
+
+Beginning of Negro Slavery in Europe.--At this point begins the
+horrible and revolting story of European Negro slavery. The ancient
+world had practiced this ownership of human chattels, and the Roman
+Empire had declined under a burden of half the population sunk
+in bondage. To the enormous detriment and suffering of mankind,
+Mohammed had tolerated the institution, and slavery is permitted
+by the Koran. But it is the glory of the mediaeval church that it
+abolished human slavery from Christian Europe. However dreary and
+unjust feudalism may have been, it knew nothing of that institution
+which degrades men and women to the level of cattle and remorselessly
+sells the husband from his family, the mother from her child.
+
+Slaves in Portugal.--The arrival of the Portuguese upon the coast of
+Guinea now revived not the bondage of one white man to another, but
+that of the black to the white. The first slaves carried to Portugal
+were regarded simply as objects of peculiar interest, captives to
+represent to the court the population of those shores which had been
+added to the Portuguese dominion. But southern Portugal, from which
+the Moors had been expelled, had suffered from a lack of laborers,
+and it was found profitable to introduce Negroes to work these fields.
+
+Arguments to Justify Slavery.--So arose the institution of Negro
+slavery, which a century later upon the shores of the New World was
+to develop into so tremendous and terrible a thing. Curiously enough,
+religion was evoked to justify this enslavement of the Africans. The
+Church taught that these people, being heathen, were fortunate to
+be captured by Christians, that they might thereby be brought to
+baptism and conversion; for it is better for the body to perish than
+for the soul to be cast into hell. At a later age, when the falsity
+of this teaching had been realized, men still sought to justify the
+institution by arguing that the Almighty had created the African of
+a lower state especially that he might serve the superior race.
+
+The coast of Guinea continued to be the resort of slavers down to the
+middle of the last century, and such scenes of cruelty, wickedness,
+and debauchery have occurred along its shores as can scarcely be
+paralleled in brutality in the history of any people.
+
+The Portuguese can hardly be said to have colonized the coast in the
+sense of raising up there a Portuguese population. As he approached
+the equator the white man found that, in spite of his superior
+strength, he could not permanently people the tropics. Diseases new
+to his experience attacked him. His energy declined. If he brought
+his family with him, his children were few or feeble and shortly his
+race had died out.
+
+The settlements of the Portuguese were largely for the purposes of
+trade. At Sierra Leone, Kamerun, or Loango, they built forts and
+established garrisons, mounting pieces of artillery that gave them
+advantage over the attacks of the natives, and erecting warehouses
+and the loathsome "barracoon," where the slaves were confined to
+await shipment. Such decadent little settlements still linger along
+the African coast, although the slave-trade happily has ended.
+
+The Successful Voyage of Vasco da Gama.--Throughout the century Prince
+Henry's policy of exploration was continued. Slowly the middle coast
+of Africa became known. At last in 1486, Bartholomew Diaz rounded
+the extremity of the continent. He named it the Cape of Storms; but
+the Portuguese king, with more prophetic sight, renamed it the Cape
+of Good Hope. It was ten years, however, before the Portuguese could
+send another expedition. Then Vasco da Gama rounded the cape again,
+followed up the eastern coast until the Arab trading-stations were
+reached. Then he struck across the sea, landed at the Malabar coast
+of India, and in 1498 arrived at Calcutta. The end dreamed of by
+all of Europe had been achieved. A sea-route to the Far East had
+been discovered.
+
+Results of Da Gama's Voyage.--The importance of this performance
+was instantly recognized in Europe. Venice was ruined. "It was a
+terrible day," said a contemporary writer, "when the word reached
+Venice. Bells were rung, men wept in the streets, and even the bravest
+were silent." The Arabs and the native rulers made a desperate effort
+to expel the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean, but their opponents were
+too powerful. In the course of twenty years Portugal had founded an
+empire that had its forts and trading-marts from the coast of Arabia
+to Malaysia. Zanzibar, Aden, Oman, Goa, Calicut, and Madras were all
+Portuguese stations, fortified and secured. In the Malay peninsula was
+founded the colony of Malacca. It retained its importance and power
+until in the last century, when it dwindled before the competition
+of Singapore.
+
+The work of building up this great domain was largely that of one man,
+the intrepid Albuquerque. Think what his task was! He was thousands of
+miles from home and supplies, he had only such forces and munitions as
+he could bring with him in his little ships, and opposed to him were
+millions of inhabitants and a multitude of Mohammedan princes. Yet this
+great captain built up an Indian empire. Portugal at one bound became
+the greatest trading and colonizing power in the world. Her sources
+of wealth appeared fabulous, and, like Venice, she made every effort
+to secure her monopoly. The fleets of other nations were warned that
+they could not make use of the Cape of Good Hope route, on penalty
+of being captured or destroyed.
+
+Reaching India by Sailing West.--The Earth as a Sphere.--Meanwhile,
+just as Portugal was carrying to completion her project of reaching
+India by sailing east, Europe was electrified by the supposed
+successful attempt of reaching India by sailing directly west,
+across the Atlantic. This was the plan daringly attempted in 1492 by
+Christopher Columbus. Columbus was an Italian sailor and cosmographer
+of Genoa. The idea of sailing west to India did not originate with
+him, but his is the immortal glory of having persistently sought the
+means and put the idea into execution.
+
+The Portuguese discoveries along the African coast gradually
+revealed the extension of this continent and the presence of people
+beyond the equator, and the possibility of passing safely through
+the tropics. This knowledge was a great stimulus to the peoples
+of Europe. The geographical theory of the Greeks, that the world
+is round, was revived. The geographers, however, in making their
+calculations of the earth's circumference, had fallen into an error
+of some thousands of miles; that is, instead of finding that it is
+fully twelve thousand miles from Europe around to the East Indies,
+they had supposed it about four thousand, or even less. Marco Polo
+too had exaggerated the distance he had traveled and from his accounts
+men had been led to believe that China, Japan, and the Spice Islands
+lie much further to the east than they actually do.
+
+By sailing west across one wide ocean, with no intervening lands, it
+was thought that one could arrive at the island-world off the continent
+of Asia. This was the theory that was revived in Italy and which clung
+in men's minds for years and years, even after America was discovered.
+
+An Italian, named Toscanelli, drew a map showing how this voyage could
+be made, and sent Columbus a copy. By sailing first to the Azores, a
+considerable portion of the journey would be passed, with a convenient
+resting-stage. Then about thirty-five days' favorable sailing would
+bring one to the islands of "Cipango," or Japan, which Marco Polo
+had said lay off the continent of Asia. From here the passage could
+readily be pursued to Cathay and India.
+
+The Voyage of Christopher Columbus.--The romantic and inspiring story
+of Columbus is told in many books,--his poverty, his genius, his
+long and discouraging pursuit of the means to carry out his plan. He
+first applied to Portugal; but, as we have seen, this country had been
+pursuing another plan steadily for a century, and, now that success
+appeared almost at hand, naturally the Portuguese king would not turn
+aside to favor Columbus's plan.
+
+For years Columbus labored to interest the Spanish court. A great event
+had happened in Spanish history. Ferdinand, king of Aragon, had wedded
+Isabella of Castile, and this marriage united these two kingdoms into
+the modern country of Spain. Soon the smaller states except Portugal
+were added, and the war for the expulsion of the Moors was prosecuted
+with new vigor. In 1492, Grenada, the last splendid stronghold of
+the Mohammedans in the peninsula, surrendered, and in the same year
+Isabella furnished Columbus with the ships for his voyage of discovery.
+
+Columbus sailed from Palos, August 3, 1492, reached the Canaries
+August 24, and sailed westward on September 6. Day after day, pushed
+by the strong winds, called the "trades," they went forward. Many
+doubts and fears beset the crews, but Columbus was stout-hearted. At
+the end of thirty-four days from the Canaries, on October 12, they
+sighted land. It was one of the groups of beautiful islands lying
+between the two continents of America. But Columbus thought that he
+had reached the East Indies that really lay many thousands of miles
+farther west. Columbus sailed among the islands of the archipelago,
+discovered Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti), and then returned to convulse
+Europe with excitement over the new-found way to the East. He had
+not found the rich Spice Islands, the peninsula of India, Cathay or
+Japan, but every one believed that these must be close to the islands
+on which Columbus had landed.
+
+The tall, straight-haired, copper-colored natives, whom Columbus met on
+the islands, he naturally called "Indians"; and this name they still
+bear. Afterwards the islands were called the "West Indies." Columbus
+made three more voyages for Spain. On the fourth, in 1498, he touched
+on the coast of South America. Here he discovered the great Orinoco
+River. Because of its large size, he must have realized that a large
+body of land opposed the passage to the Orient. He died in 1506,
+disappointed at his failure to find India, but never knowing what he
+had found, nor that the history of a new hemisphere had begun with him.
+
+The Voyage of the Cabots.--In the same year that Columbus discovered
+the Orinoco, Sebastian Cabot, of Italian parentage, like Columbus,
+secured ships from the king of England, hoping to reach China and
+Japan by sailing west on a northern route. What he did discover was
+a rugged and uninviting coast, with stormy headlands, cold climate,
+and gloomy forests of pine reaching down to the sandy shores. For nine
+hundred miles he sailed southward, but everywhere this unprofitable
+coast closed the passage to China. It was the coast of Labrador and
+the United States. Yet for years and years it was not known that a
+continent three thousand miles wide and the greatest of all oceans
+lay between Cathay and the shore visited by Cabot's ships. This land
+was thought to be a long peninsula, an island, or series of islands,
+belonging to Asia. No one supposed or could suppose that there was
+a continent here.
+
+Naming the New World.--But in a few years Europe did realize that a
+new continent had been discovered in South America. If you will look
+at your maps, you will see that South America lies far to the eastward
+of North America and in Brazil approaches very close to Africa. This
+Brazilian coast was visited by a Portuguese fleet on the African route
+in 1499, and two years later an Italian fleet traversed the coast from
+the Orinoco to the harbor of Rio Janeiro. Their voyage was a veritable
+revelation. They entered the mighty current of the Amazon, the greatest
+river of the earth. They saw the wondrous tropical forests, full of
+monkeys, great snakes, and stranger animals. They dealt and fought
+with the wild and ferocious inhabitants, whose ways startled and
+appalled the European. All that they saw filled them with greatest
+wonder. This evidently was not Asia, nor was it the Indies. Here,
+in fact, was a new continent, a veritable "Mundus Novus."
+
+The pilot of this expedition was an Italian, named Amerigo Vespucci. On
+the return this man wrote a very interesting letter or little pamphlet,
+describing this new world, which was widely read, and brought the
+writer fame. A few years later a German cosmographer, in preparing
+a new edition of Ptolemy's geography, proposed to give to this new
+continent the name of the man who had made known its wonders in Europe,
+So it was called "America." Long after, when the northern shores were
+also proved to be those of a continent, this great land was named
+"North America." No injustice was intended to Columbus when America
+was so named. It was not then supposed that Columbus had discovered
+a continent. The people then believed that Columbus had found a new
+route to India and had discovered some new islands that lay off the
+coast of Asia.
+
+Spain Takes Possession of the New Lands.--Of these newly found islands
+and whatever wealth they might be found to contain, Spain claimed
+the possession by right of discovery. And of the European nations,
+it was Spain which first began the exploration and colonization of
+America. Spain was now free from her long Mohammedan wars, and the
+nation was being united under Ferdinand and Isabella. The Spaniards
+were brave, adventurous, and too proud to engage in commerce or
+agriculture, but ready enough to risk life and treasure in quest of
+riches abroad. The Spaniards were devotedly religious, and the Church
+encouraged conquest, that missionary work might be extended. So Spain
+began her career that was soon to make her the foremost power of Europe
+and one of the greatest colonial empires the world has seen. It is
+amazing what the Spaniards accomplished in the fifty years following
+Columbus's first voyage.
+
+Hispaniola was made the center from which the Spaniards extended
+their explorations to the continents of both North and South
+America. On these islands of the West Indies they found a great tribe
+of Indians,--the Caribs. They were fierce and cruel. The Spaniards
+waged a warfare of extermination against them, killing many, and
+enslaving others for work in the mines. The Indian proved unable to
+exist as a slave. And his sufferings drew the attention of a Spanish
+priest, Las Casas, who by vigorous efforts at the court succeeded in
+having Indian slavery abolished and African slavery introduced to
+take its place. This remedy was in the end worse than the disease,
+for it gave an immense impetus to the African slave-trade and peopled
+America with a race of Africans in bondage.
+
+Other Spanish Explorations and Discoveries.--Meanwhile, the Spanish
+soldier, with incredible energy, courage, and daring, pushed his
+conquests. In 1513, Florida was discovered, and in the same year,
+Balboa crossed the narrow isthmus of Panama and saw the Pacific
+Ocean. Contrary to what is often supposed, he did not dream of its vast
+extent, but supposed it to be a narrow body of water lying between
+Panama, and the Asian islands. He named it the "South Sea," a name
+that survived after its true character was revealed by Magellan. Then
+followed the two most romantic and surprising conquests of colonial
+history,--that of Mexico by Cortes in 1521, and of Peru by Pizarro
+in 1533-34. These great countries were inhabited by Indians, the
+most advanced and cultured on the American continents. And here the
+Spaniards found enormous treasures of gold and silver. Then, the
+discovery of the mines of Bogota opened the greatest source of the
+precious metal that Europe had ever known. Spaniards flocked to the
+New World, and in New Spain, as Mexico was called, was established a
+great vice-royalty. Year after year enormous wealth was poured into
+Spain from these American possessions.
+
+Emperor Charles V.--Meanwhile great political power had been added
+to Spain in Europe. In 1520 the throne of Spain fell to a young man,
+Charles, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. His mother was Juana,
+the Spanish princess, and his father was Philip the Handsome, of
+Burgundy. Philip the Handsome was the son of Maximilian, the Archduke
+of Austria. Now it curiously happened that the thrones of each of these
+three countries was left without other heirs than Charles, and in 1520
+he was King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and Duke of Burgundy and
+the Low Countries, including the rich commercial cities of Holland
+and Belgium. In addition to all this, the German princes elected him
+German emperor, and although he was King Charles the First of Spain,
+he is better known in history as Emperor Charles the Fifth. [4]
+
+He was then an untried boy of twenty years, and no one expected to
+find in him a man of resolute energy, cold persistence, and great
+executive ability. But so it proved, and this was the man that
+made of Spain the greatest power of the time. He was in constant
+warfare. He fought four wars with King Francis I. of France, five
+wars with the Turks, both in the Danube valley and in Africa, and
+an unending succession of contests with the Protestant princes of
+Germany. For Charles, besides many other important changes, saw the
+rise of Protestantism, and the revolt of Germany, Switzerland, and
+England from Catholicism. The first event in his emperorship was the
+assembling of the famous German Diet at Worms, where was tried and
+condemned the real founder of the Protestant religion, Martin Luther.
+
+The Voyage of Hernando Magellan.--In the mean time a way had at last
+been found to reach the Orient from Europe by sailing west. This
+discovery, the greatest voyage ever made by man, was accomplished, in
+1521, by the fleet of Hernando Magellan. Magellan was a Portuguese, who
+had been in the East with Albuquerque. He had fought with the Malays
+in Malacca, and had helped to establish the Portuguese power in India.
+
+On his return to Portugal, the injustice of the court drove him from
+his native country, and he entered the service of Spain. Charles the
+Fifth commissioned him to attempt a voyage of discovery down the
+coast of South America, with the hope of finding a passage to the
+East. This was Magellan's great hope and faith,--that south of the
+new continent of America must lie a passage westward, by which ships
+could sail to China. As long as Portugal was able to keep closed the
+African route to all other ships than her own, the discovery of some
+other way was imperative.
+
+On the 20th of September, 1519, Magellan's fleet of five ships set
+sail from Seville, which was the great Spanish shipping-port for the
+dispatch of the colonial fleets. On December 13 they reached the coast
+of Brazil and then coasted southward. They traded with the natives,
+and at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata stayed some days to fish.
+
+The weather grew rapidly colder and more stormy as they went farther
+south, and Magellan decided to stop and winter in the Bay of San
+Julian. Here the cold of the winter, the storms, and the lack of
+food caused a conspiracy among his captains to mutiny and return to
+Spain. Magellan acted with swift and terrible energy. He went himself
+on board one of the mutinous vessels, killed the chief conspirator with
+his own hand, executed another, and then "marooned," or left to their
+fate on the shore, a friar and one other, who were leaders in the plot.
+
+The Straits of Magellan.--The fleet sailed southward again in August
+but it was not until November 1, 1520, that Magellan entered the
+long and stormy straits that bear his name and which connect the
+Atlantic and Pacific oceans. South of them were great bleak islands,
+cold and desolate. They were inhabited by Indians, who are probably
+the lowest and most wretched savages on the earth. They live on fish
+and mussels. As they go at all times naked, they carry with them in
+their boats brands and coals of fire. Seeing the numerous lights on
+the shore, Magellan named these islands Tierra del Fuego (the Land
+of Fire). For twenty days the ships struggled with the contrary and
+shifting winds that prevail in this channel, during which time one
+ship deserted and returned to Spain. Then the remaining four ships
+passed out onto the boundless waters of the Pacific.
+
+Westward on the Pacific Ocean.--But we must not make the mistake
+of supposing that Magellan and his followers imagined that a great
+ocean confronted them. They expected that simply sailing northward to
+the latitude of the Spice Islands would bring them to these desired
+places. This they did, and then turned westward, expecting each day
+to find the Indies; but no land appeared. The days lengthened into
+weeks, the weeks into months, and still they went forward, carried
+by the trade winds over a sea so smooth and free from tempests that
+Magellan named it the "Pacific."
+
+But they suffered horribly from lack of food, even eating in their
+starvation the leather slings on the masts. It was a terrible trial
+of their courage. Twenty of their number died. The South Pacific
+is studded with islands, but curiously their route lay just too far
+north to behold them. From November 28, when they emerged from the
+Straits of Magellan, until March 7, when they reached the Ladrones,
+they encountered only two islands, and these were small uninhabited
+rocks, without water or food, which in their bitter disappointment
+they named las Desventuradas (the Unfortunate Islands).
+
+The Ladrone Islands.--Their relief must have been inexpressible when,
+on coming up to land on March the 7th, they found inhabitants and
+food, yams, cocoanuts, and rice. At these islands the Spaniards
+first saw the prao, with its light outrigger, and pointed sail. So
+numerous were these craft that they named the group las Islas de las
+Velas (the Islands of Sails); but the loss of a ship's boat and other
+annoying thefts led the sailors to designate the islands Los Ladrones
+(the Thieves), a name which they still retain.
+
+The Philippine Islands.--Samar.--Leaving the Ladrones Magellan
+sailed on westward looking for the Moluccas, and the first land
+that he sighted was the eastern coast of Samar. Pigafetta says:
+"Saturday, the 16th of March, we sighted an island which has very
+lofty mountains. Soon after we learned that it was Zamal, distant
+three hundred leagues from the islands of the Ladrones." [5]
+
+Homonhon.--On the following day the sea-worn expedition, landed on
+a little uninhabited island south of Samar which Pigafetta called
+Humunu, and which is still known as Homonhon or Jomonjol.
+
+It was while staying at this little island that the Spaniards first
+saw the people of the Philippines. A prao which contained nine men
+approached their ship. They saw other boats fishing near and learned
+that all of these people came from the island of Suluan, which lies
+off to the eastward from Jomonjol about twenty kilometres. In their
+life and appearance these fishing people were much like the present
+Samal laut of southern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago.
+
+Limasaua.--Pigafetta says that they stayed on the island of Jomonjol
+eight days but had great difficulty in securing food. The natives
+brought them a few cocoanuts and oranges, palm wine, and a chicken
+or two, but this was all that could be spared, so, on the 25th,
+the Spaniards sailed again, and near the south end of Leyte landed
+on the little island of Limasaua. Here there was a village, where
+they met two chieftains, whom Pigafetta calls "kings," and whose
+names were Raja Calambu and Raja Ciagu. These two chieftains were
+visiting Limasaua and had their residences one at Butuan and one
+at Cagayan on the island of Mindanao. Some histories have stated
+that the Spaniards accompanied one of these chieftains to Butuan,
+but this does not appear to have been the case.
+
+On the island of Limasaua the natives had dogs, cats, hogs, goats,
+and fowls. They were cultivating rice, maize, breadfruit, and had
+also cocoanuts, oranges, bananas, citron, and ginger. Pigafetta tells
+how he visited one of the chieftains at his home on the shore. The
+house was built as Filipino houses are today, raised on posts and
+thatched. Pigafetta thought it looked "like a haystack."
+
+It had been the day of San Lazarus when the Spaniards first reached
+these islands, so that Magellan gave to the group the name of the
+Archipelago of Saint Lazarus, the name under which the Philippines were
+frequently described in the early writings, although another title,
+Islas del Poniente or Islands of the West, was more common up to the
+time when the title Filipinas became fixed.
+
+Cebu.--Magellan's people were now getting desperately in need of
+food, and the population on Limasaua had very inadequate supplies;
+consequently the natives directed him to the island of Cebu, and
+provided him with guides.
+
+Leaving Limasaua the fleet sailed for Cebu, passing several large
+islands, among them Bohol, and reaching Cebu harbor on Sunday, the
+7th of April. A junk from Siam was anchored at Cebu when Magellan's
+ships arrived there; and this, together with the knowledge that the
+Filipinos showed of the surrounding countries, including China on
+the one side and the Moluccas on the other, is additional evidence
+of the extensive trade relations at the time of the discovery.
+
+Cebu seems to have been a large town and it is reported that more
+than two thousand warriors with their lances appeared to resist the
+landing of the Spaniards, but assurances of friendliness finally won
+the Filipinos, and Magellan formed a compact with the dato of Cebu,
+whose name was Hamalbar.
+
+The Blood Compact.--The dato invited Magellan to seal this compact in
+accordance with a curious custom of the Filipinos. Each chief wounded
+himself in the breast and from the wound each sucked and drank the
+other's blood. It is not certain whether Magellan participated in this
+"blood compact," as it has been called; but later it was observed many
+times in the Spanish settlement of the islands, especially by Legaspi.
+
+The natives were much struck by the service of the mass, which the
+Spaniards celebrated on their landing, and after some encouragement
+desired to be admitted to the Spaniards' religion. More than eight
+hundred were baptized, including Hamalbar. The Spaniards established
+a kind of "factory" or trading-post on Cebu, and for some time a
+profitable trade was engaged in. The Filipinos well understood trading,
+had scales, weights, and measures, and were fair dealers.
+
+Death of Magellan.--And now follows the great tragedy of
+the expedition. The dato of Cebu, or the "Christian king," as
+Pigafetta called their new ally, was at war with the islanders of
+Mactan. Magellan, eager to assist one who had adopted the Christian
+faith, landed on Mactan with fifty men and in the battle that ensued
+was killed by an arrow through the leg and spear-thrust through the
+breast. So died the one who was unquestionably the greatest explorer
+and most daring adventurer of all time. "Thus," says Pigafetta,
+"perished our guide, our light, and our support." It was the crowning
+disaster of the expedition.
+
+The Fleet Visits Other Islands.--After Magellan's death, the natives of
+Cebu rose and killed the newly elected leader, Serrano, and the fleet
+in fear lifted its anchors and sailed southward from the Bisayas. They
+had lost thirty-five men and their numbers were reduced to one hundred
+and fifteen. One of the ships was burned, there being too few men
+surviving to handle three vessels. After touching at western Mindanao,
+they sailed westward, and saw the small group of Cagayan Sulu. The few
+inhabitants they learned were Moros, exiled from Borneo. They landed
+on Paragua, called Puluan (hence Palawan), where they observed the
+sport of cock-fighting, indulged in by the natives.
+
+From here, still searching for the Moluccas, they were guided to
+Borneo, the present city of Brunei. Here was the powerful Mohammedan
+colony, whose adventurers were already in communication with Luzon and
+had established a colony on the site of Manila. The city was divided
+into two sections, that of the Mohammedan Malays, the conquerors, and
+that of the Dyaks, the primitive population of the island. Pigafetta
+exclaims over the riches and power of this Mohammedan city. It
+contained twenty-five thousand families, the houses built for most
+part on piles over the water. The king's house was of stone, and
+beside it was a great brick fort, with over sixty brass and iron
+cannon. Here the Spaniards saw elephants and camels, and there was
+a rich trade in ginger, camphor, gums, and in pearls from Sulu.
+
+Hostilities cut short their stay here and they sailed eastward
+along the north coast of Borneo through the Sulu Archipelago,
+where their cupidity was excited by the pearl fisheries, and on
+to Maguindanao. Here they took some prisoners, who piloted them
+south to the Moluccas, and finally, on November 8, they anchored
+at Tidor. These Molucca islands, at this time, were at the height
+of the Malayan power. The ruler, or raja of Tidor was Almanzar,
+of Ternate Corala; the "king" of Gilolo was Yusef. With all these
+rulers the Spaniards exchanged presents, and the rajas are said by
+the Spaniards to have sworn perpetual amnesty to the Spaniards and
+acknowledged themselves vassals of the king. In exchange for cloths,
+the Spaniards laid in a rich cargo of cloves, sandalwood, ginger,
+cinnamon, and gold. They established here a trading-post and hoped
+to hold these islands against the Portuguese.
+
+The Return to Spain.--It was decided to send one ship, the "Victoria,"
+to Spain by way of the Portuguese route and the Cape of Good Hope,
+while the other would return to America. Accordingly the "Victoria,"
+with a little crew of sixty men, thirteen of them natives, under
+the command of Juan Sebastian del Cano, set sail. The passage was
+unknown to the Spaniards and full of perils. They sailed to Timor
+and thence out into the Indian Ocean. They rounded Africa, sailing
+as far south as 42 degrees. Then they went northward, in constant
+peril of capture by some Portuguese fleet, encountering storms and
+with scarcity of food. Their distress must have been extreme, for on
+this final passage twenty-one of their small number died.
+
+At Cape Verdi they entered the Portuguese port for supplies,
+trusting that at so northern a point their real voyage would
+not be suspected. But some one of the party, who went ashore for
+food, in an hour of intoxication boasted of the wonderful journey
+they had performed and showed some of the products of the Spice
+Islands. Immediately the Portuguese governor gave orders for the
+seizure of the Spanish vessel and El Cano, learning of his danger, left
+his men, who had gone on shore, raised sail, and put out for Spain.
+
+On the 6th of September, 1522, they arrived at San Lucar, at the mouth
+of the Guadalquivir River, on which is situated Seville, one ship
+out of the five, and eighteen men out of the company of 234, who had
+set sail almost three full years before. Spain welcomed her worn and
+tired seamen with splendid acclaim. To El Cano was given a title of
+nobility and the famous coat-of-arms, showing the sprays of clove,
+cinnamon, and nutmeg, and the effigy of the globe with the motto,
+the proudest and worthiest ever displayed on any adventurer's shield,
+"Hic primus circumdedisti me."
+
+The First Circumnavigation of the Earth.--Thus with enormous suffering
+and loss of life was accomplished the first circumnavigation of the
+earth. It proved that Asia could be reached, although by a long and
+circuitous route, by sailing westward from Europe. It made known to
+Europe that the greatest of all oceans lies between the New World and
+Asia, and it showed that the earth is incomparably larger than had been
+believed and supposed. It was the greatest voyage of discovery that has
+ever been accomplished, and greater than can ever be performed again.
+
+New Lands Divided between Spain and Portugal.--By this discovery of the
+Philippines and a new way to the Spice Islands, Spain became engaged
+in a long dispute with Portugal. At the beginning of the modern age,
+there was in Europe no system of rules by which to regulate conduct
+between states. That system of regulations and customs which we
+call International Law, and by which states at the present time are
+guided in their dealings, had not arisen. During the middle age,
+disputes between sovereigns were frequently settled by reference to
+the emperor or to the pope, and the latter had frequently asserted
+his right to determine all such questions as might arise. The pope
+had also claimed to have the right of disposing of all heathen and
+newly discovered lands and peoples.
+
+So, after the discovery of the East Indies by Portugal and of the West
+Indies by Spain, Pope Alexander VI., divided the new lands between
+them. He declared that all newly discovered countries halfway around
+the earth to the east of a meridian 100 leagues west of the Azores
+should be Portuguese, and all to the west Spanish. Subsequently he
+shifted this line to 270 leagues west of the Azores. This division,
+it was supposed, would give India and the Malay islands to Portugal,
+and to Spain the Indies that Columbus had discovered, and the New
+World, except Brazil.
+
+As a matter of fact, 180 degrees west of the meridian last set by
+the pope extended to the western part of New Guinea, and not quite
+to the Moluccas; but in the absence of exact geographical knowledge
+both parties claimed the Spice Islands. Portugal denied to Spain all
+right to the Philippines as well, and, as we shall see, a conflict in
+the Far East began, which lasted nearly through the century. Portugal
+captured the traders, whom El Cano had left at Tidor, and broke up the
+Spanish station in the Spice Islands. The "Trinidad," the other ship,
+which was intended to return to America, was unable to sail against
+the strong winds, and had to put back to Tidor, after cruising through
+the waters about New Guinea.
+
+Effect of the Century of Discoveries.--This circumnavigation of the
+globe completed a period of discovery which had begun a hundred years
+before with the timid, slow attempts of the Portuguese along the coast
+of Africa. In these years a new era had opened. At its beginning the
+European knew little of any peoples outside of his own countries,
+and he held not one mile of land outside the continent of Europe. At
+the end of a hundred years the earth had become fairly well known,
+the African race, the Malay peoples, the American Indians, and the
+Pacific islanders had all been seen and described, and from now on the
+history of the white race was to be connected with that of these other
+races. The age of colonization, of world-wide trade and intercourse,
+had begun. The white man, who had heretofore been narrowly pressed
+in upon Europe, threatened again and again with conquest by the
+Mohammedan, was now to cover the seas with his fleets and all lands
+with his power.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FILIPINO PEOPLE BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF THE SPANIARDS.
+
+
+Position of Tribes.--On the arrival of the Spaniards, the population
+of the Philippines seems to have been distributed by tribes in much
+the same manner as at present. Then, as now, the Bisaya occupied the
+central islands of the archipelago and some of the northern coast of
+Mindanao. The Bicol, Tagalog, and Pampango were in the same parts of
+Luzon as we find them to-day. The Ilocano occupied the coastal plain
+facing the China Sea, but since the arrival of the Spaniards they
+have expanded considerably and their settlements are now numerous in
+Pangasinan, Nueva Vizcaya, and the valley of the Cagayan.
+
+The Number of People.--These tribes which to-day number nearly
+7,000,000 souls, at the time of Magellan's discovery were, probably,
+not more than 500,000. The first enumeration of the population made
+by the Spaniards in 1591, and which included practically all of these
+tribes, gives a population of less than 700,000. (See Chapter VIII.,
+The Philippines Three Hundred Years Ago.)
+
+There are other facts too that show us how sparse the population must
+have been. The Spanish expeditions found many coasts and islands in
+the Bisayan group without inhabitants. Occasionally a sail or a canoe
+would be seen, and then these would disappear in some small "estero"
+or mangrove swamp and the land seem as unpopulated as before. At
+certain points, like Limasaua, Butuan, and Bohol, the natives were
+more numerous, and Cebu was a large and thriving community; but the
+Spaniards had nearly everywhere to search for settled places and
+cultivated lands.
+
+The sparsity of population is also well indicated by the great scarcity
+of food. The Spaniards had much difficulty in securing sufficient
+provisions. A small amount of rice, a pig and a few chickens,
+were obtainable here and there, but the Filipinos had no large
+supplies. After the settlement of Manila was made, a large part of
+the food of the city was drawn from China. The very ease with which
+the Spaniards marched where they willed and reduced the Filipinos
+to obedience shows that the latter were weak in numbers. Laguna and
+the Camarines seem to have been the most populous portions of the
+archipelago. All of these things and others show that the Filipinos
+were but a small fraction of their present number.
+
+On the other hand, the Negritos seem to have been more numerous,
+or at least more in evidence. They were immediately noticed on the
+island of Negros, where at the present they are few and confined to
+the interior; and in the vicinity of Manila and in Batangas, where they
+are no longer found, they were mingling with the Tagalog population.
+
+Conditions of Culture.--The culture of the various tribes, which
+is now quite the same throughout the archipelago, presented some
+differences. In the southern Bisayas, where the Spaniards first entered
+the archipelago, there seem to have been two kinds of natives: the
+hill dwellers, who lived in the interior of the islands in small
+numbers, who wore garments of tree bark and who sometimes built
+their houses in the trees; and the sea dwellers, who were very much
+like the present day Moro tribes south of Mindanao, who are known as
+the Samal, and who built their villages over the sea or on the shore
+and lived much in boats. These were probably later arrivals than the
+forest people. From both of these elements the Bisaya Filipinos are
+descended, but while the coast people have been entirely absorbed,
+some of the hill-folk are still pagan and uncivilized, and must be
+very much as they were when the Spaniards first came.
+
+The highest grade of culture was in the settlements where there was
+regular trade with Borneo, Siam, and China, and especially about
+Manila, where many Mohammedan Malays had colonies.
+
+Languages of the Malayan Peoples.--With the exception of the Negrito,
+all the languages of the Philippines belong to one great family,
+which has been called the "Malayo-Polynesian." All are believed to
+be derived from one very ancient mother-tongue. It is astonishing how
+widely this Malayo-Polynesian speech has spread. Farthest east in the
+Pacific there is the Polynesian, then in the groups of small islands,
+known as Micronesian; then Melanesian or Papuan; the Malayan throughout
+the East Indian archipelago, and to the north the languages of the
+Philippines. But this is not all; for far westward on the coast of
+Africa is the island of Madagascar, many of whose languages have no
+connection with African but belong to the Malayo-Polynesian family. [6]
+
+The Tagalog Language.--It should be a matter of great interest to
+Filipinos that the great scientist, Baron William von Humboldt,
+considered the Tagalog to be the richest and most perfect of all
+the languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family, and perhaps the type
+of them all. "It possesses," he said, "all the forms collectively
+of which particular ones are found singly in other dialects; and it
+has preserved them all with very trifling exceptions unbroken, and in
+entire harmony and symmetry." The Spanish friars, on their arrival in
+the Philippines, devoted themselves at once to learning the native
+dialects and to the preparation of prayers and catechisms in these
+native tongues. They were very successful in their studies. Father
+Chirino tells us of one Jesuit who learned sufficient Tagalog in
+seventy days to preach and hear confession. In this way the Bisayan,
+the Tagalog, and the Ilocano were soon mastered.
+
+In the light of the opinion of Von Humboldt, it is interesting to
+find these early Spaniards pronouncing the Tagalog the most difficult
+and the most admirable. "Of all of them," says Padre Chirino, "the
+one which most pleased me and filled me with admiration was the
+Tagalog. Because, as I said to the first archbishop, and afterwards
+to other serious persons, both there and here, I found in it four
+qualities of the four best languages of the world: Hebrew, Greek,
+Latin, and Spanish; of the Hebrew, the mysteries and obscurities; of
+the Greek, the articles and the precision not only of the appellative
+but also of the proper nouns; of the Latin, the wealth and elegance;
+and of the Spanish, the good breeding, politeness, and courtesy." [7]
+
+An Early Connection with the Hindus.--The Malayan languages contain
+also a considerable proportion of words borrowed from the Sanskrit,
+and in this the Tagalog, Bisayan, and Ilocano are included. Whether
+these words were passed along from one Malayan group to another,
+or whether they were introduced by the actual presence and power of
+the Hindu in this archipelago, may be fair ground for debate; but the
+case for the latter position has been so well and brilliantly put by
+Dr. Pardo de Tavera that his conclusions are here given in his own
+words. "The words which Tagalog borrowed," he says, "are those which
+signify intellectual acts, moral conceptions, emotions, superstitions,
+names of deities, of planets, of numerals of high number, of botany,
+of war and its results and consequences, and finally of titles and
+dignities, some animals, instruments of industry, and the names
+of money."
+
+From the evidence of these works, Dr. Pardo argues for a period
+in the early history of the Filipinos, not merely of commercial
+intercourse, like that of the Chinese, but of Hindu political and
+social domination. "I do not believe," he says, "and I base my opinion
+on the same words that I have brought together in this vocabulary,
+that the Hindus were here simply as merchants, but that they dominated
+different parts of the archipelago, where to-day are spoken the
+most cultured languages,--the Tagalo, the Visayan, the Pampanga,
+and the Ilocano; and that the higher culture of these languages comes
+precisely from the influence of the Hindu race over the Filipino."
+
+The Hindus in the Philippines.--"It is impossible to believe that the
+Hindus, if they came only as merchants, however great their number,
+would have impressed themselves in such a way as to give to these
+islanders the number and the kind of words which they did give. These
+names of dignitaries, of caciques, of high functionaries of the court,
+of noble ladies, indicate that all of these high positions with
+names of Sanskrit origin were occupied at one time by men who spoke
+that language. The words of a similar origin for objects of war,
+fortresses, and battle-songs, for designating objects of religious
+belief, for superstitions, emotions, feelings, industrial and farming
+activities, show us clearly that the warfare, religion, literature,
+industry, and agriculture were at one time in the hands of the Hindus,
+and that this race was effectively dominant in the Philippines." [8]
+
+Systems of Writing among the Filipinos.--When the Spaniards arrived in
+the Philippines, the Filipinos were using systems of writing borrowed
+from Hindu or Javanese sources. This matter is so interesting that
+one can not do better than to quote in full Padre Chirino's account,
+as he is the first of the Spanish writers to mention it and as his
+notice is quite complete.
+
+"So given are these islanders to reading and writing that there is
+hardly a man, and much less a woman, that does not read and write in
+letters peculiar to the island of Manila, very different from those
+of China, Japan, and of India, as will be seen from the following
+alphabet.
+
+"The vowels are three; but they serve for five, and are,
+
+
+                           a    e, i    o, u
+
+
+The consonants are no more than twelve, and they serve to write both
+consonant and vowel, in this form. The letter alone, without any
+point either above or below, sounds with a.
+
+
+                    Ba    ca    da    ga    ha    la
+                    ma    na    pa    sa    ta    ya
+
+
+Placing the point above, each one sounds with e or with i.
+
+
+                    Bi    qui   di    gui   hi    li
+                    be    que   de    gue   he    le
+
+                    mi    ni    pi    si    ti    yi
+                    me    ne    pe    se    te    ye
+
+
+Placing the point below, it sounds with o or with u.
+
+
+                    bo    co    do    go    ho    lo
+                    bu    cu    du    gu    hu    lu
+
+                    mo    no    po    so    to    yo
+                    mu    nu    pu    su    tu    yu
+
+
+For instance, in order to say 'cama,' the two letters alone suffice.
+
+
+                                 ca ma
+
+
+If to the ka there is placed a point above, it will say
+
+
+                                 que ma
+
+
+If it is given to both below, it will say
+
+
+                                 co mo
+
+
+The final consonants are supplied or understood in all cases, and so
+to say 'cantar,' they write
+
+
+                                 ca ta
+
+
+barba,
+
+
+                                 ba ba
+
+
+But with all, and that without many evasions, they make themselves
+understood, and they themselves understand marvellously. And the
+reader supplies, with much skill and ease, the consonants that are
+lacking. They have learned from us to write running the lines from
+the left hand to the right, but formerly they only wrote from above
+downwards, placing the first line (if I remember rightly) at the left
+hand, and continuing with the others to the right, the opposite of
+the Chinese and Japanese.... They write upon canes or on leaves of a
+palm, using for a pen a point of iron. Nowadays in writing not only
+their own but also our letters, they use a feather very well cut,
+and paper like ourselves.
+
+They have learned our language and pronunciation, and write as well
+as we do, and even better; for they are so bright that they learn
+everything with the greatest ease. I have brought with me handwriting
+with very good and correct lettering. In Tigbauan, I had in school a
+very small child, who in three months' time learned, by copying from
+well-written letters that I set him, to write enough better than I,
+and transcribed for me writings of importance very faithfully, and
+without errors or mistakes. But enough of languages and letters;
+now let us return to our occupation with human souls." [9]
+
+Sanskrit Source of the Filipino Alphabet.--Besides the Tagalog,
+the Bisaya, Pampango, Pangasinan, and Ilocano had alphabets, or
+more properly syllabaries similar to this one. Dr. Pardo de Tavera
+has gathered many data concerning them, and shows that they were
+undoubtedly received by the Filipinos from a Sanskrit source.
+
+Early Filipino Writings.--The Filipinos used this writing for setting
+down their poems and songs, which were their only literature. None
+of this, however, has come down to us, and the Filipinos soon adopted
+the Spanish alphabet, forming the syllables necessary to write their
+language from these letters. As all these have phonetic values,
+it is still very easy for a Filipino to learn to pronounce and so
+read his own tongue. These old characters lingered for a couple of
+centuries, in certain places. Padre Totanes [10] tells us that it was
+rare in 1705 to find a person who could use them; but the Tagbanua,
+a pagan people on the island of Paragua, use a similar syllabary
+to this day. Besides poems, they had songs which they sang as they
+rowed their canoes, as they pounded the rice from its husk, and as
+they gathered for feast or entertainment; and especially there were
+songs for the dead. In these songs, says Chirino, they recounted the
+deeds of their ancestors or of their deities.
+
+Chinese in the Philippines.--Early Trade.--Very different from the
+Hindu was the early influence of the Chinese. There is no evidence
+that, previous to the Spanish conquest, the Chinese settled or
+colonized in these islands at all; and yet three hundred years
+before the arrival of Magellan their trading-fleets were coming here
+regularly and several of the islands were well known to them. One
+evidence of this prehistoric trade is in the ancient Chinese jars and
+pottery which have been exhumed in the vicinity of Manila, but the
+Chinese writings themselves furnish us even better proof. About the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, though not earlier than 1205,
+a Chinese author named Chao Ju-kua wrote a work upon the maritime
+commerce of the Chinese people. One chapter of his work is devoted to
+the Philippines, which he calls the country of Mayi. [11] According
+to this record it is indicated that the Chinese were familiar with
+the islands of the archipelago seven hundred years ago. [12]
+
+Chinese, Description of the People.--"The country of Mayi," says this
+interesting classic, "is situated to the north of Poni (Burney, or
+Borneo). About a thousand families inhabit the banks of a very winding
+stream. The natives clothe themselves in sheets of cloth resembling
+bed sheets, or cover their bodies with sarongs. (The sarong is the
+gay colored, typical garment of the Malay.) Scattered through the
+extensive forests are copper Buddha images, but no one knows how they
+got there. [13]
+
+"When the merchant (Chinese) ships arrive at this port they anchor
+in front of an open place ... which serves as a market, where they
+trade in the produce of the country. When a ship enters this port,
+the captain makes presents of white umbrellas (to the mandarins). The
+merchants are obliged to pay this tribute in order to obtain the
+good will of these lords." The products of the country are stated to
+be yellow wax, cotton, pearls, shells, betel nuts, and yuta cloth,
+which was perhaps one of the several cloths still woven of abaca,
+or pina. The articles imported by the Chinese were "porcelain, trade
+gold, objects of lead, glass beads of all colors, iron cooking-pans,
+and iron needles."
+
+The Negritos.--Very curious is the accurate mention in this Chinese
+writing, of the Negritos, the first of all accounts to be made of
+the little blacks. "In the interior of the valleys lives a race
+called Hai-tan (Acta). They are, of low stature, have round eyes of
+a yellow color, curly hair, and their teeth are easily seen between
+their lips. (That is, probably, not darkened by betel-chewing or
+artificial stains.) They build their nests in the treetops and in
+each nest lives a family, which only consists of from three to five
+persons. They travel about in the densest thickets of the forests, and,
+without being seen themselves, shoot their arrows at the passers-by;
+for this reason they are much feared. If the trader (Chinese) throws
+them a small porcelain bowl, they will stoop down to catch it and
+then run away with it, shouting joyfully."
+
+Increase in Chinese Trade.--These junks also visited the more central
+islands, but here traffic was conducted on the ships, the Chinese
+on arrival announcing themselves by beating gongs and the Filipinos
+coming out to them in their light boats. Among other things here
+offered by the natives for trade are mentioned "strange cloth,"
+perhaps cinamay or jusi, and fine mats.
+
+This Chinese trade continued probably quite steadily until the arrival
+of the Spaniards. Then it received an enormous increase through the
+demand for Chinese food-products and wares made by the Spaniards,
+and because of the value of the Mexican silver which the Spaniards
+offered in exchange.
+
+Trade with the Moro Malays of the South.--The spread of Mohammedanism
+and especially the foundation of the colony of Borneo brought the
+Philippines into important commercial relations with the Malays of the
+south. Previous to the arrival of the Spaniards these relations seem
+to have been friendly and peaceful. The Mohammedan Malays sent their
+praos northward for purposes of trade, and they were also settling
+in the north Philippines as they had in Mindanao.
+
+When Legaspi's fleet, soon after its arrival, lay near the island
+of Bohol, the "Maestro de Campo" had a hard fight with a Moro vessel
+which had come up for trade, and took six prisoners. One of them, whom
+they call the "pilot," was closely interrogated by the Adelantado
+and some interesting information obtained, which is recorded by
+Padre San Augustin. [14] Legaspi had a Malay slave interpreter with
+him and San Augustin says that Padre Urdaneta "knew well the Malayan
+language." The pilot said that "those of Borneo brought for trade with
+the Filipinos, copper and tin, which was brought to Borneo from China,
+porcelain, dishes, and bells made in their fashion, very different from
+those that the Christians use, and benzoin, and colored blankets from
+India, and cooking-pans made in China, and that they also brought iron
+lances very well tempered, and knives and other articles of barter,
+and that in exchange for them they took away from the islands gold,
+slaves, wax, and a kind of small seashell which they call 'sijueyes,'
+and which passes for money in the kingdom of Siam and other places;
+and also they carry off some white cloths, of which there is a great
+quantity in the islands."
+
+Butuan, on the north coast of Mindanao, seems to have been quite a
+trading-place resorted to by vessels from all quarters. This country,
+like many other parts of the Philippines, has produced from time
+immemorial small quantities of gold, and all the early voyagers
+speak of the gold earrings and ornaments of the natives. Butuan
+also produced sugarcane and was a trading-port for slaves. This
+unfortunate traffic in human life seems to have been not unusual,
+and was doubtless stimulated by the commerce with Borneo. Junks from
+Siam trading with Cebu were also encountered by the Spaniards.
+
+Result of this Intercourse and Commerce.--This intercourse and
+traffic had acquainted the Filipinos with many of the accessories
+of civilized life long before the arrival of the Spaniards. Their
+chiefs and datos dressed in silks, and maintained some splendor of
+surroundings; nearly the whole population of the tribes of the coast
+wrote and communicated by means of a syllabary; vessels from Luzon
+traded as far south as Mindanao and Borneo, although the products of
+Asia proper came through the fleets of foreigners; and perhaps what
+indicates more clearly than anything else the advance the Filipinos
+were making through their communication with outside people is their
+use of firearms. Of this point there is no question. Everywhere in
+the vicinity of Manila, on Lubang, in Pampanga, at Cainta and Laguna
+de Bay, the Spaniards encountered forts mounting small cannon, or
+"lantakas." [15] The Filipinos seem to have understood, moreover,
+the arts of casting cannon and of making powder. The first gun-factory
+established by the Spaniards was in charge of a Filipino from Pampanga.
+
+Early Political and Social Life.--The Barangay.--The weakest side
+of the culture of the early Filipinos was their political and social
+organization, and they were weak here in precisely the same way that
+the now uncivilized peoples of northern Luzon are still weak. Their
+state did not embrace the whole tribe or nation; it included simply
+the community. Outside of the settlers in one immediate vicinity,
+all others were enemies or at most foreigners. There were in the
+Philippines no large states, nor even great rajas and sultans such
+as were found in the Malay Archipelago, but instead on every island
+were a multitude of small communities, each independent of the other
+and frequently waging war.
+
+The unit of their political order was a little cluster of houses from
+thirty to one hundred families, called a "barangay," and which still
+exists in the Philippines as the "barrio." At the head of each barangay
+was a chief known as the "dato," a word no longer used in the northern
+Philippines, though it persists among the Moros of Mindanao. The
+powers of these datos within their small areas appear to have been
+great, and they were treated with utmost respect by the people.
+
+The barangays were grouped together in tiny federations including
+about as much territory as the present towns, whose affairs were
+conducted by the chiefs or datos, although sometimes they seem to have
+all been in obedience to a single chief, known in some places as the
+"hari," at other times by the Hindu word "raja," or the Mohammedan
+term "sultan." Sometimes the power of one of these rajas seems to
+have extended over the whole of a small island, but usually their
+"kingdoms" embraced only a few miles.
+
+Changes Made by the Spaniards.--The Spaniards, in enforcing their
+authority through the islands, took away the real power from the
+datos, grouping the barangays into towns, or "pueblos," but making
+the datos "cabezas de barrio," or "gobernadorcillos." Something of
+the old distinction between the dato, or "principal," and the common
+man may be still represented in the "gente illustrada," or the more
+wealthy, educated, and influential class found in each town, and the
+"gente baja," or the poor and uneducated.
+
+Classes of Filipinos under the Datos.--Beneath the datos, according
+to Chirino and Morga, there were three classes of Filipinos; the
+free persons, or "maharlica," who paid no tribute to the dato,
+but who accompanied him to war, rowed his boat when he went on a
+journey, and attended him in his house. This class is called by Morga
+"timauas." [16]
+
+Then there was a very large class, who appear to have been freedmen or
+liberated slaves, who had acquired their own homes and lived with their
+families, but who owed to dato or maharlica heavy debts of service;
+to sow and harvest in his ricefields, to tend his fish-traps, to
+row his canoe, to build his house, to attend him when he had guests,
+and to perform any other duties that the chief might command. These
+semi-free were called "aliping namamahay," and their condition of
+bondage descended to their children.
+
+Beneath these existed a class of slaves. These were the
+"siguiguiliris," and they were numerous. Their slavery arose in several
+ways. Some were those who as children had been captured in war and
+their lives spared. Some became slaves by selling their freedom in
+times of hunger. But most of them became slaves through debt, which
+descended from father to son. The sum of five or six pesos was enough
+in some cases to deprive a man of his freedom.
+
+These slaves were absolutely owned by their lord, who could
+theoretically sell them like cattle; but, in spite of its bad
+possibilities, this Filipino slavery was ordinarily not of a cruel
+or distressing nature. The slaves frequently associated on kindly
+relations with their masters and were not overworked. This form of
+slavery still persists in the Philippines among the Moros of Mindanao
+and Jolo. Children of slaves inherited their parents' slavery. If
+one parent was free and the other slave, the first, third, and fifth
+children were free and the second, fourth, and sixth slaves. This
+whole matter of inheritance of slavery was curiously worked out in
+minute details.
+
+Life in the Barangay.--Community feeling was very strong within the
+barangay. A man could not leave his own barangay for life in another
+without the consent of the community and the payment of money. If a man
+of one barrio married a woman of another, their children were divided
+between the two barangays. The barangay was responsible for the good
+conduct of its members, and if one of them suffered an injury from
+a man outside, the whole barangay had to be appeased. Disputes and
+wrongs between members of the same barangay were referred to a number
+of old men, who decided the matter in accordance with the customs of
+the tribe, which were handed down by tradition. [17]
+
+The Religion of the Filipinos.--The Filipinos on the arrival of
+the Spaniards were fetish-worshipers, but they had one spirit whom
+they believed was the greatest of all and the creator or maker of
+things. The Tagalog called this deity Bathala, [18] the Bisaya,
+Laon, and the Ilocano, Kabunian. They also worshiped the spirits
+of their ancestors, which were represented by small images called
+"anitos." Fetishes, which are any objects believed to possess
+miraculous power, were common among the people, and idols or images
+were worshiped. Pigafetta describes some idols which he saw in Cebu,
+and Chirino tells us that, within the memory of Filipinos whom he knew,
+they had idols of stone, wood, bone, or the tooth of a crocodile,
+and that there were some of gold.
+
+They also reverenced animals and birds, especially the crocodile,
+the raven, and a mythical bird of blue or yellow color, which was
+called by the name of their deity Bathala. [19] They had no temples
+or public places of worship, but each one had his anitos in his own
+house and performed his sacrifices and acts of worship there. As
+sacrifices they killed pigs or chickens, and made such occasions
+times of feasting, song, and drunkenness. The life of the Filipino
+was undoubtedly filled with superstitious fears and imaginings.
+
+The Mohammedan Malays.--The Mohammedans outside of southern Mindanao
+and Jolo, had settled in the vicinity of Manila Bay and on Mindoro,
+Lubang, and adjacent coasts of Luzon. The spread of Mohammedanism
+was stopped by the Spaniards, although it is narrated that for a
+long time many of those living on the shores of Manila Bay refused to
+eat pork, which is forbidden by the Koran, and practiced the rite of
+circumcision. As late as 1583, Bishop Salazar, in writing to the king
+of affairs in the Philippines, says the Moros had preached the law
+of Mohammed to great numbers in these islands and by this preaching
+many of the Gentiles had become Mohammedans; and further he adds,
+"Those who have received this foul law guard it with much persistence
+and there is great difficulty in making them abandon it; and with
+cause too, for the reasons they give, to our shame and confusion,
+are that they were better treated by the preachers of Mohammed than
+they have been by the preachers of Christ." [20]
+
+Material Progress of the Filipinos.--The material surroundings of
+the Filipino before the arrival of the Spaniards were in nearly every
+way quite as they are to-day. The "center of population" of each town
+to-day, with its great church, tribunal, stores and houses of stone
+and wood, is certainly in marked contrast; but the appearance of a
+barrio a little distance from the center is to-day probably much as it
+was then. Then, as now, the bulk of the people lived in humble houses
+of bamboo and nipa raised on piles above the dampness of the soil;
+then, as now, the food was largely rice and the excellent fish which
+abound in river and sea. There were on the water the same familiar
+bancas and fish corrals, and on land the rice fields and cocoanut
+groves. The Filipinos had then most of the present domesticated
+animals,--dogs, cats, goats, chickens, and pigs,--and perhaps in Luzon
+the domesticated buffalo, although this animal was widely introduced
+into the Philippines from China after the Spanish conquest. Horses came
+with the Spaniards and their numbers were increased by the bringing
+in of Chinese mares, whose importation is frequently mentioned.
+
+The Spaniards introduced also the cultivation of tobacco, coffee,
+and cacao, and perhaps also the native corn of America, the maize,
+although Pigafetta says they found it already growing in the Bisayas.
+
+The Filipino has been affected by these centuries of Spanish
+sovereignty far less on his material side than he has on his spiritual,
+and it is mainly in the deepening and elevating of his emotional and
+mental life and not in the bettering of his material condition that
+advance has been made.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE SPANISH SOLDIER AND THE SPANISH MISSIONARY.
+
+
+History of the Philippines as a Part of the History of the Spanish
+Colonies.--We have already seen how the Philippines were discovered by
+Magellan in his search for the Spice Islands. Brilliant and romantic
+as is the story of that voyage, it brought no immediate reward to
+Spain. Portugal remained in her enjoyment of the Eastern trade and
+nearly half a century elapsed before Spain obtained a settlement
+in these islands. But if for a time he neglected the Far East, the
+Spaniard from the Peninsula threw himself with almost incredible
+energy and devotion into the material and spiritual conquest of
+America. All the greatest achievements of the Spanish soldier and
+the Spanish missionary had been secured within fifty years from the
+day when Columbus sighted the West Indies.
+
+In order to understand the history of the Philippines, we must not
+forget that these islands formed a part of this great colonial empire
+and were under the same administration; that for over two centuries
+the Philippines were reached through Mexico and to a certain extent
+governed by Mexico; that the same governors, judges, and soldiers held
+office in both hemispheres, passing from America to the Philippines
+and being promoted from the Islands to the higher official positions of
+Mexico and Peru. So to understand the rule of Spain in the Philippines,
+we must study the great administrative machinery and the great body
+of laws which she developed for the government of the Indies. [21]
+
+Character of the Spanish Explorers.--The conquests themselves
+were largely effected through the enterprise and wealth of private
+individuals; but these men held commissions from the Spanish crown,
+their actions were subject to strict royal control, and a large
+proportion of the profits and plunder of their expeditions were
+paid to the royal treasury. Upon some of these conquerors the crown
+bestowed the proud title of "adelantado." The Spanish nobility threw
+themselves into these hazardous undertakings with the courage and
+fixed determination born of their long struggle with the Moors. Out
+of the soul-trying circumstances of Western conquest many obscure men
+rose, through their brilliant qualities of spirit, to positions of
+eminence and power; but the exalted offices of viceroy and governor
+were reserved for the titled favorites of the king.
+
+The Royal Audiencia.--Very early the Spanish court, in order
+to protect its own authority, found it necessary to succeed the
+ambitious and adventurous conqueror by a ruler in close relationship
+with and absolute dependence on the royal will. Thus in Mexico,
+Cortes the conqueror was removed and replaced by the viceroy Mendoza,
+who established upon the conquests of the former the great Spanish
+colony of New Spain, to this day the most successful of all the states
+planted by Spain in America.
+
+To limit the power of the governor or viceroy, as well as to act as
+a supreme court for the settlement of actions and legal questions,
+Spain created the "Royal Audiencia." This was a body of men of noble
+rank and learned in the law, sent out from Spain to form in each
+country a colonial court; but their powers were not alone judicial;
+they were also administrative. In the absence of the governor they
+assumed his duties.
+
+Treatment of the Natives by the Spanish.--In his treatment of
+the natives, whose lands he captured, the Spanish king attempted
+three things,--first, to secure to the colonist and to the crown
+the advantages of his labor, second, to convert the Indians to the
+Christian religion as maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, and
+third, to protect them from cruelty and inhumanity. Edict after
+edict, law after law, issued from the Spanish throne with these
+ends in view. As they stand upon the greatest of colonial law-books,
+the Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias, they display an admirable
+sensitiveness to the needs of the Indian and an appreciation of the
+dangers to which he was subjected; but in the actual practice these
+beneficent provisions were largely useless.
+
+The first and third of Spain's purposes in her treatment of the native
+proved incompatible. History has shown that liberty and enlightenment
+can not be taken from a race with one hand and protection given it
+with the other. All classes of Spain's colonial government were
+frankly in pursuit of wealth. Greed filled them all, and was the
+mainspring of every discovery and every settlement. The king wanted
+revenue for his treasury; the noble and the soldier, booty for their
+private purse; the friar, wealth for his order; the bishop, power
+for his church. All this wealth had to come out of the native toiler
+on the lands which the Spanish conqueror had seized; and while noble
+motives were probably never absent and at certain times prevailed,
+yet in the main the native of America and of the Philippines was a
+sufferer under the hand and power of the Spaniard.
+
+"The Encomenderos."--Spain's system of controlling the lives and
+the labor of the Indians was based to a certain extent on the feudal
+system, still surviving in the Peninsula at the time of her colonial
+conquests. The captains and soldiers and priests of her successful
+conquests had assigned to them great estates or fruitful lands with
+their native inhabitants, which they managed and ruled for their own
+profit. Such estates were called first "repartimientos." But very
+soon it became the practice, in America, to grant large numbers of
+Indians to the service of a Spaniard, who had over them the power
+of a master and who enjoyed the profits of their labor. In return
+he was supposed to provide for the conversion of the Indians and
+their religious instruction. Such a grant of Indians was called an
+"encomienda." The "encomendero" was not absolute lord of the lives
+and properties of the Indians, for elaborate laws were framed for the
+latter's protection. Yet the granting of subjects without the land
+on which they lived made possible their transfer and sale from one
+encomendero to another, and in this way thousands of Indians of America
+were made practically slaves, and were forced into labor in the mines.
+
+As we have already seen, the whole system was attacked by the Dominican
+priest, Las Casas, a truly noble character in the history of American
+colonization, and various efforts were made in America to limit the
+encomiendas and to prevent their introduction into Mexico and Peru;
+but the great power of the encomendero in America, together with
+the influence of the Church, which held extensive encomiendas, had
+been sufficient to extend the institution, even against Las Casas'
+impassioned remonstrances. Its abolition in Mexico was decreed in
+1544, but "commissioners representing the municipality of Mexico and
+the religious orders were sent to Spain to ask the king to revoke at
+least those parts of the 'New Laws' which threatened the interests
+of the settlers. By a royal decree of October 20, 1545, the desired
+revocation was granted. This action filled the Spanish settlers with
+joy and the enslaved Indians with despair." [22]
+
+Thus was the institution early established as a part of the colonial
+system and came with the conquerors to the Philippines.
+
+Restrictions on Colonization and Commerce.--For the management of all
+colonial affairs the king created a great board, or bureau, known as
+the "Council of the Indies," which sat in Madrid and whose members
+were among the highest officials of Spain. The Spanish government
+exercised the closest supervision over all colonial matters, and
+colonization was never free. All persons, wares, and ships, passing
+from Spain to any of her colonial possessions, were obliged to pass
+through Seville, and this one port alone.
+
+This wealthy ancient city, situated on the river Guadalquivir in
+southwestern Spain, was the gateway to the Spanish Empire. From this
+port went forth the mailed soldier, the robed friar, the adventurous
+noble, and the brave and highborn Spanish ladies, who accompanied their
+husbands to such great distances over the sea. And back to this port
+were brought the gold of Peru, the silver of Mexico, and the silks
+and embroideries of China, dispatched through the Philippines.
+
+It must be observed that all intercourse between Spain and her colonies
+was rigidly controlled by the government. Spain sought to create and
+maintain an exclusive monopoly of her colonial trade. To enforce and
+direct this monopoly, there was at Seville the Commercial House, or
+"Casa de Contratacion." No one could sail from Spain to a colonial
+possession without a permit and after government registration. No one
+could send out goods or import them except through the Commercial House
+and upon the payment of extraordinary imposts. Trade was absolutely
+forbidden to any except Spaniards. And by her forts and fleets Spain
+strove to isolate her colonies from the approach of Portuguese, Dutch,
+or English, whose ships, no less daringly manned than those of Spain
+herself, were beginning to traverse the seas in search of the plunder
+and spoils of foreign conquest and trade.
+
+Summary of the Colonial Policy of Spain.--Spain sought foreign
+colonies, first, for the spoils of accumulated wealth that could be
+seized and carried away at once, and, secondly, for the income that
+could be procured through the labor of the inhabitants of the lands she
+gained. In framing her government and administration of her colonies,
+she sought primarily the political enlightenment and welfare neither
+of the Spanish colonist nor the native race, but the glory, power,
+and patronage of the crown. The commercial and trade regulations were
+devised, not to develop the resources and increase the prosperity of
+the colonies, but to add wealth to the Peninsula. Yet the purposes of
+Spain were far from being wholly selfish. With zeal and success she
+sought the conversion of the heathen natives, whom she subjected,
+and in this showed a humanitarian interest in advance of the Dutch
+and English, who rivaled her in colonial empire.
+
+The colonial ideals under which the policy of Spain was framed were
+those of the times. In the centuries that have succeeded, public wisdom
+and conscience on these matters have immeasurably improved. Nations no
+longer make conquests frankly to exploit them, but the public opinion
+of the world demands that the welfare of the colonial subject be
+sought and that he be protected from official greed. There is great
+advance still to be made. It can hardly be said that the world yet
+recognizes that a stronger people should assist a weaker without
+assurance of material reward, but this is the direction in which
+the most enlightened feeling is advancing. Every undertaking of the
+white race, which has such aims in view, is an experiment worthy of
+the most profound interest and most solicitous sympathy.
+
+Result of the Voyage of Magellan and El Cano.--The mind of the
+Spanish adventurer was greatly excited by the results of Sebastian
+del Cano's voyage. Here was the opportunity for rich trade and great
+profit. Numerous plans were laid before the king, one of them for
+the building of an Indian trading-fleet and an annual voyage to the
+Moluccas to gather a great harvest of spices.
+
+Portugal protested against this move until the question of her
+claim to the Moluccas, under the division of Pope Alexander, could be
+settled. The exact longitude of Ternate west from the line 370 leagues
+beyond the Verde Islands was not well known. Spaniards argued that
+it was less than 180 degrees, and, therefore, in spite of Portugal's
+earlier discovery, belonged to them. The pilot, Medina, for example,
+explained to Charles V. that from the meridian 370 leagues west of
+San Anton (the most westerly island of the Verde group) to the city
+of Mexico was 59 degrees, from Mexico to Navidad, 9 degrees, and from
+this port to Cebu, 100 degrees, a total of only 168 degrees, leaving
+a margin of 12 degrees; therefore by the pope's decision the Indies,
+Moluccas, Borneo, Gilolo, and the Philippines were Spain's. [23]
+A great council of embassadors and cosmographers was held at Badajoz
+in 1524, but reached no agreement. Spain announced her resolution to
+occupy the Moluccas, and Portugal threatened with death the Spanish
+adventurers who should be found there.
+
+The First Expedition to the Philippines.--Spain acted immediately
+upon her determination, and in 1525 dispatched an expedition under
+Jofre de Loaisa to reap the fruits of Magellan's discoveries. [24]
+The captain of one vessel was Sebastian del Cano, who completed the
+voyage of Magellan. On his ship sailed Andres de Urdaneta, who later
+became an Augustinian friar and accompanied the expedition of Legaspi
+that finally effected the settlement of the Philippines. Not without
+great hardship and losses did the fleet pass the Straits of Magellan
+and enter the Pacific Ocean. In mid-ocean Loaisa died, and four days
+later the heroic Sebastian del Cano. Following a route somewhat similar
+to that of Magellan, the fleet reached first the Ladrone Islands and
+later the coast of Mindanao. From here they attempted to sail to Cebu,
+but the strong northeast monsoon drove them southward to the Moluccas,
+and they landed on Tidor the last day of the year 1526.
+
+The Failure of the Expedition.--The Portuguese were at this
+moment fighting to reduce the native rajas of these islands to
+subjection. They regarded the Spaniards as enemies, and each party of
+Europeans was shortly engaged in fighting and in inciting the natives
+against the other. The condition of the Spaniards became desperate
+in the extreme, and indicates at what cost of life the conquests of
+the sixteenth century were made. Their ships had become so battered
+by storm as to be no longer sea-worthy. The two officers, who had
+successively followed Loaisa and El Cano in command, had likewise
+perished. Of the 450 men who had sailed from Spain, but 120 now
+survived. These, under the leadership of Hernando de la Torre, threw
+up a fort on the island of Tidor, unable to go farther or to retire,
+and awaited hoped-for succor from Spain.
+
+Relief came, not from the Peninsula, but from Mexico. Under
+the instructions of the Spanish king, in October, 1527, Cortes
+dispatched from Mexico a small expedition in charge of D. Alvaro de
+Saavedra. Swept rapidly by the equatorial trades, in a few months
+Saavedra had traversed the Carolines, reprovisioned on Mindanao,
+and reached the survivors on Tidor. Twice they attempted to return
+to New Spain, but strong trade winds blow without cessation north and
+south on either side of the equator for the space of more than twelve
+hundred miles, and the northern latitude of calms and prevailing
+westerly winds were not yet known.
+
+Twice Saavedra beat his way eastward among the strange islands of
+Papua and Melanesia, only to be at last driven back upon Tidor and
+there to die. The survivors were forced to abandon the Moluccas. By
+surrendering to the Portuguese they were assisted to return to Europe
+by way of Malacca, Ceylon, and Africa, and they arrived at Lisbon
+in 1536, the survivors of Loaisa's expedition, having been gone from
+Spain eleven years.
+
+The efforts of the Spanish crown to obtain possession of the Spice
+Islands, the Celebes and Moluccas, with their coveted products of
+nutmeg, cinnamon, and pepper, were for the time being ended. By the
+Treaty of Zaragoza (1529) the Emperor, Charles V., for the sum of
+three hundred and fifty thousand gold ducats, renounced all claim
+to the Moluccas. For thirteen years the provisions of this treaty
+were respected by the Spaniards, and then another attempt was made
+to obtain a foothold in the East Indies.
+
+The Second Expedition to the Philippines.--The facts that disaster
+had overwhelmed so many, that two oceans must be crossed, and that
+no sailing-route from Asia back to America was known, did not deter
+the Spaniards from their perilous conquests; and in 1542 another
+expedition sailed from Mexico, under command of Lopez de Villalobos,
+to explore the Philippines and if possible to reach China.
+
+Across the Pacific they made a safe and pleasant voyage. In the
+warm waters of the Pacific they sailed among those wonderful coral
+atolls, rings of low shore, decked with palms, grouped in beautiful
+archipelagoes, whose appearance has never failed to delight the
+navigator, and whose composition is one of the most interesting
+subjects known to students of the earth's structure and history. Some
+of these coral islands Villalobos took possession of in the name of
+Spain. These were perhaps the Pelew Islands or the Carolines.
+
+At last Villalobos reached the east coast of Mindanao, but after
+some deaths and sickness they sailed again and were carried south by
+the monsoon to the little island of Sarangani, south of the southern
+peninsula of Mindanao. The natives were hostile, but the Spaniards
+drove them from their stronghold and made some captures of musk,
+amber, oil, and gold-dust. In need of provisions, they planted the
+maize, or Indian corn, the wonderful cereal of America, which yields
+so bounteously, and so soon after planting. Food was greatly needed
+by the Spaniards and was very difficult to obtain.
+
+The Naming of the Islands.--Villalobos equipped a small vessel and
+sent it northward to try to reach Cebu. This vessel reached the
+coast of Samar. Villalobos gave to the island the name of Filipina,
+in honor of the Spanish Infante, or heir apparent, Philip, who was
+soon to succeed his father Charles V. as King Philip the Second of
+Spain. Later in his correspondence with the Portuguese Villalobos
+speaks of the archipelago as Las Filipinas. Although for many years
+the title of the Islas del Poniente continued in use, Villalobos'
+name of Filipinas gradually gained place and has lived.
+
+The End of the Expedition.--While on Sarangani demands were made by
+the Portuguese, who claimed that Mindanao belonged with the Celebes,
+that the Spaniards should leave. Driven from Mindanao by lack of
+food and hostility of the natives, Villalobos was blown southward
+by storms to Gilolo. Here, after long negotiations, the Portuguese
+compelled him to surrender. The survivors of the expedition dispersed,
+some remaining in the Indies, and some eventually reaching Spain;
+but Villalobos, overwhelmed by discouragement, died on the island of
+Amboyna. The priest who ministered to him in his last hours was the
+famous Jesuit missionary to the Indies, Saint Francis Xavier.
+
+Twenty-three years were to elapse after the sailing of Villalobos'
+fleet before another Spanish expedition should reach the
+Philippines. The year 1565 dates the permanent occupation of the
+archipelago by the Spanish.
+
+Increase in Political Power of the Church.--Under Philip the Second,
+the champion of ecclesiasticism, the Spanish crown cemented the
+union of the monarchy with the church and devoted the resources of
+the empire, not only to colonial acquisition, but to combating the
+Protestant revolution on the one hand and heathenism on the other. The
+Spanish king effected so close a union of the church and state in
+Spain, that from this time on churchmen rose higher and higher in the
+Spanish councils, and profoundly influenced the policy and fate of
+the nation. The policy of Philip the Second, however, brought upon
+Spain the revolt of the Dutch Lowlands and the wars with England,
+and her struggle with these two nations drained her resources both on
+land and sea, and occasioned a physical and moral decline. But while
+Spain was constantly losing power and prestige in Europe, the king
+was extending his colonial domain, lending royal aid to the ambitious
+adventurer and to the ardent missionary friar. Spain's object being
+to christianize as well as to conquer, the missionary became a very
+important figure in the history of every colonial enterprise, and
+these great orders to whom missions were intrusted thus became the
+central institutions in the history of the Philippines.
+
+The Rise of Monasticism.--Monasticism was introduced into Europe from
+the East at the very commencement of the Middle Ages. The fundamental
+idea of the old monasticism was retirement from human society in the
+belief that the world was bad and could not be bettered, and that men
+could lead holier lives and better please God by forsaking secular
+employments and family relations, and devoting all their attention
+to purifying their characters. The first monastic order in Europe
+were the Benedictines, organized in the seventh century, whose rule
+and organization were the pattern for those that followed.
+
+The clergy of the church were divided thus into two groups,--first,
+the parish priests, or ministers, who lived among the people over
+whom they exercised the care of souls, and who, because they were of
+the people themselves and lived their lives in association with the
+community, were known as the "secular clergy," and second, the monks,
+or "regular clergy," were so called because they lived under the
+"rule" of their order.
+
+In the early part of the thirteenth century monasticism, which had
+waned somewhat during the preceding two centuries, received a new
+impetus and inspiration from the organization of new orders known
+as brethren or "Friars." The idea underlying their organization was
+noble, and above that of the old monasticism; for it was the idea of
+service, of ministry both to the hearts and bodies of depressed and
+suffering men.
+
+The Dominicans.--The Order of Dominicans was organized by Saint
+Dominic, an Italian, about 1215. The primary object of its members
+was to defend the doctrines of the Church and, by teaching and
+preaching, destroy the doubts and protests which in the thirteenth
+century were beginning to disturb the claims of the Catholic Church
+and the Papacy. The Dominican friars did not live in communities, but
+traveled about, humbly clad, preaching in the villages and towns, and
+seeking to expose and punish the heretic. The mediaeval universities,
+through their study of philosophy and the Roman law, were producing
+a class of men disposed to hold opinions contrary to the teachings
+of the Church. The Dominicans realized the importance of these great
+centers of instruction and entered them as teachers and masters, and
+by the beginning of the fifteenth century had made them strongholds
+of conservatism and orthodoxy.
+
+The Franciscans.--A few years after this organization, the Order of
+Franciscans was founded by Saint Francis of Assisi, of Spain. The aims
+of this order were not only to preach and administer the sacraments,
+but to nurse the sick, provide for the destitute, and alleviate the
+dreadful misery which affected whole classes in the Middle Ages. They
+took vows of absolute poverty, and so humble was the garb prescribed
+by their rule that they went barefooted from place to place.
+
+The Augustinian Order was founded by Pope Alexander IV., in 1265,
+and still other orders came later.
+
+The Degeneration of the Orders.--Without doubt the early ministrations
+of these friars were productive of great good both on the religious
+and humanitarian sides. But, as the orders became wealthy, the friars
+lost their spirituality and their lives grew vicious. By the beginning
+of the sixteenth century the administration of the Church throughout
+Europe had become so corrupt, the economic burden of the religious
+orders so great, and religious teaching and belief so material, that
+the best and noblest minds in all countries were agitating for reform.
+
+The Reformation.--In addition to changes in church administration,
+many Christians were demanding a greater freedom of religious thinking
+and radical changes in the Church doctrine which had taken form in
+the Middle Ages. Thus, while all the best minds in the Church were
+united in seeking a reformation of character and of administration,
+great differences arose between them as to the possibility of change
+in Church doctrines. These differences accordingly separated them
+into two parties, the Papacy adhering strongly to the doctrine as
+it was then accepted, while various leaders in the north of Europe,
+including Martin Luther in Germany, Swingli in Switzerland, and John
+Calvin in France and Geneva, broke with the authority of the Pope
+and declared for a liberation of the individual conscience.
+
+Upon the side of the Papacy, the Emperor Charles the Fifth threw the
+weight of the Spanish monarchy, and to enforce the Papal authority
+he attacked the German princes by force of arms. The result was
+a great revolt from the Roman Catholic Church, which spread all
+over northern Germany, a large portion of Switzerland, the lowlands
+of the Rhine, and England, and which included a numerous and very
+influential element among the French people. These countries, with
+the exception of France, have remained Protestant to the present day;
+and the great expansion of the English people in America and the East
+has established Protestantism in all parts of the world.
+
+Effects of the Reformation in the Roman Catholic Church.--The reform
+movement, which lasted through the century, brought about a great
+improvement in the Roman Catholic Church. Many, who remained devoted
+to Roman Catholic orthodoxy, were zealous for administrative reform. A
+great assembly of Churchmen, the Council of Trent, for years devoted
+itself to legislation to correct abuses. The Inquisition was revived
+and put into force against Protestants, especially in the dominions
+of Spain, and the religious orders were reformed and stimulated to
+new sacrifices and great undertakings.
+
+But greater, perhaps, than any of these agencies in re-establishing
+the power of the Pope and reviving the life of the Roman Catholic
+Church was the organization of a new order, the "Society of Jesus." The
+founder was a Spaniard, Ignatius Loyola, The Jesuits devoted themselves
+especially to education and missionary activity. Their schools soon
+covered Europe, while their mission stations were to be found in both
+North and South America, India, the East Indies, China, and Japan.
+
+The Spanish Missionary.--The Roman Catholic Church, having lost a large
+part of Europe, thus strove to make up the loss by gaining converts
+in heathen lands. Spain, being the power most rapidly advancing her
+conquests abroad, was the source of the most tireless missionary
+effort. From the time of Columbus, every fleet that sailed to gain
+plunder and lands for the Spanish kingdom carried bands of friars
+and churchmen to convert to Christianity the heathen peoples whom
+the sword of the soldier should reduce to obedience.
+
+"The Laws of the Indies" gave special power and prominence to the
+priest. In these early days of Spain's colonial empire many priests
+were men of piety, learning, and unselfish devotion. Their efforts
+softened somewhat the violence and brutality that often marred the
+Spanish treatment of the native, and they became the civilizing agents
+among the peoples whom the Spanish soldiers had conquered.
+
+In Paraguay, California, and the Philippines the power and importance
+of the Spanish missionary outweighed that of the soldier or governor
+in the settlement of those countries and the control of the native
+inhabitants. Churchmen, full of the missionary spirit, pressed upon
+the king the duties of the crown in advancing the cross, and more than
+one country was opened to Spanish settlement through the enthusiasm
+of the priest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PERIOD OF CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT, 1565-1600.
+
+
+Cause of Settlement and Conquest of the Philippines.--The previous
+Spanish expeditions whose misfortunes have been narrated, seemed
+to have proved to the Court of Spain that they could not drive the
+Portuguese from the Moluccas. But to the east of the Moluccas lay
+great unexplored archipelagoes, which might lie within the Spanish
+demarcation and which might yield spices and other valuable articles
+of trade; and as the Portuguese had made no effective occupation of
+the Philippines, the minds of Spanish conquerors turned to this group
+also as a coveted field of conquest, even though it was pretty well
+understood that they lay in the latitude of the Moluccas, and so were
+denied by treaty to Spain.
+
+In 1559 the Spanish king, Felipe II., commanded the viceroy of Mexico
+to undertake again the discovery of the islands lying "toward the
+Moluccas," but the rights of Portugal to islands within her demarcation
+were to be respected. Five years passed before ships and equipments
+could be prepared, and during these years the objects of the expedition
+received considerable discussion and underwent some change.
+
+The king invited Andres de Urdaneta, who years before had been a
+captain in the expedition of Loaisa, to accompany the expedition as
+a guide and director. Urdaneta, after his return from the previous
+expedition, had renounced military life and had become an Augustinian
+friar. He was known to be a man of wise judgment, with good knowledge
+of cosmography, and as a missionary he was able to give to the
+expedition that religious strength which characterized all Spanish
+undertakings.
+
+It was Urdaneta's plan to colonize, not the Philippines, but New
+Guinea; but the Audiencia of Mexico, which had charge of fitting
+out the expedition, charged it in minute instructions to reach
+and if possible colonize the Philippines, to trade for spices
+and to discover the return sailing route back across the Pacific
+to New Spain. The natives of the islands were to be converted to
+Christianity, and missionaries were to accompany the expedition. In
+the quaint language of Fray Gaspar de San Augustin, there were sent
+"holy guides to unfurl and wave the banners of Christ, even to the
+remotest portions of the islands, and to drive the devil from the
+tyrannical possession, which he had held for so many ages, usurping
+to himself the adoration of those peoples." [25]
+
+The Third Expedition to the Philippines.--The expedition sailed from
+the port of Natividad, Mexico, November 21, 1564, under the command
+of Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. The ships followed for a part of the
+way a course further south than was necessary, and touched at some
+inhabited islands of Micronesia. About the 22d of January they reached
+the Ladrones and had some trouble with the natives. They reached the
+southern end of Samar about February the 13th. Possession of Samar
+was taken by Legaspi in the name of the king, and small parties were
+sent both north and south to look for villages of the Filipinos.
+
+A few days later they rounded the southern part of Samar, crossed the
+strait to the coast of southern Leyte, and the field-marshal, Goyti,
+discovered the town of Cabalian, and on the 5th of March the fleet
+sailed to this town. Provisions were scarce on the Spanish vessels,
+and great difficulty was experienced in getting food from the few
+natives met in boats or in the small settlements discovered.
+
+Legaspi at Bohol.--About the middle of March the fleet arrived at
+Bohol, doubtless the southern or eastern shore. While near here Goyti
+in a small boat captured a Moro prao from Borneo and after a hard
+fight brought back the Moros as prisoners to Legaspi. There proved
+to be quite a trade existing between the Moros from Borneo and the
+natives of Bohol and Mindanao.
+
+Here on Bohol they were able to make friendly terms with the natives,
+and with Sicatuna, the dato of Bohol, Legaspi performed the ceremony
+of blood covenant. The Spanish leader and the Filipino chief each
+made a small cut in his own arm or breast and drank the blood of the
+other. According to Gaspar de San Augustin, the blood was mixed with
+a little wine or water and drunk from a goblet. [26] This custom was
+the most sacred bond of friendship among the Filipinos, and friendship
+so pledged was usually kept with great fidelity.
+
+Legaspi in Cebu.--On the 27th of April, 1565, Legaspi's fleet reached
+Cebu. Here, in this beautiful strait and fine anchoring-ground,
+Magellan's ships had lingered until the death of their leader
+forty-four years before. A splendid native settlement lined the
+shore, so Father Chirino tells us, for a distance of more than a
+league. The natives of Cebu were fearful and greatly agitated, and
+seemed determined to resist the landing of the Spaniards. But at the
+first discharge of the guns of the ships, the natives abandoned the
+shore, and, setting fire to the town, retreated into the jungles and
+hills. Without loss of life the Spaniards landed, and occupied the
+harbor and town.
+
+Finding of "the Holy Child of Cebu."--The Spanish soldiers found in
+one of the houses of the natives a small wooden image of the Child
+Jesus. A similar image, Pigafetta tells us, he had himself given to
+a native while in the island with Magellan. It had been preserved by
+the natives and was regarded by them as an object of veneration. To
+the pious Spaniards the discovery of this sacred object was hailed
+as an event of great good fortune. It was taken by the monks, and
+carried to a shrine especially erected for it. It still rests in the
+church of the Augustinians, an object of great devotion.
+
+Settlement Made at Cebu.--In honor of this image this first settlement
+of the Spaniards in the Philippines received the name of "City of
+the Most Holy Name of Jesus." Here Legaspi established himself, and,
+by great tact and skill, gradually won the confidence and friendship
+of the inhabitants. A formal peace was at last concluded in which the
+dato, Tupas, recognized the sovereignty of Spain; and the people of
+Cebu and the Spaniards bound themselves to assist each other against
+the enemies of either.
+
+They had some difficulty in understanding one another, but the
+Spaniards had with them a Mohammedan Malay of Borneo, called Cid-Hamal,
+who had been taken from the East Indies to the Peninsula and thence
+to Mexico and Legaspi's expedition. The languages of Malaysia and
+the Philippines are so closely related that this man was able to
+interpret. Almost immediately, however, the missionaries began the
+study of the native dialect, and Padre Chirino tells us that Friar
+Martin Herrada made here the first Filipino vocabulary, and was soon
+preaching the Gospel to the natives in their own language.
+
+The great difficulty experienced by Legaspi was to procure sufficient
+food for his expedition. At different times he sent a ship to the
+nearest islands, and twice his ship went south to Mindanao to procure
+a cargo of cinnamon to be sent back to New Spain.
+
+Thus month by month the Spaniards gained acquaintance with the
+beautiful island sea of the archipelago, with its green islands
+and brilliant sheets of water, its safe harbors and picturesque
+settlements.
+
+The Bisayans.--In 1569, Legaspi discovered the great island of
+Panay. Here they were fortunate in securing a great abundance
+of supplies and the friendship of the natives, who received them
+well. These beautiful central islands of the Philippines are inhabited
+by Bisaya. The Spaniards found this tribe tattooing their bodies
+with ornamental designs, a practice widespread throughout Oceanica,
+and which still is common among the tribes of northern Luzon. This
+practice caused the Spaniards to give to the Bisayas the title of
+"Islas de los Pintados" (the Islands of the Painted).
+
+Discovery of the Northern Return Route across the Pacific.--Before
+the arrival of the expedition in the Philippines, the captain of one
+of Legaspi's ships, inspired by ungenerous ambition and the hopes
+of getting a reward, outsailed the rest of the fleet. Having arrived
+first in the islands, he started at once upon the return voyage. Unlike
+preceding captains who had tried to return to New Spain by sailing
+eastward from the islands against both wind and ocean current, this
+captain sailed northward beyond the trades into the more favorable
+westerly winds, and found his way back to America and New Spain.
+
+Soon after arriving in the Philippines, Legaspi's instructions
+required him to dispatch at least one vessel on the return voyage to
+New Spain. Accordingly on June 1st the San Pablo set sail, carrying
+about two hundred men, including Urdenata and another friar. This
+vessel also followed the northern route across the Pacific, and
+after a voyage of great hardship, occupying three and a half months,
+it reached the coast of North America at California and followed it
+southward to Acapulco.
+
+The discovery made by these captains of a favorable route for vessels
+returning from the islands to New Spain safe from capture by the
+Portuguese, completed the plans of the Spanish for the occupation
+of the Philippines. In 1567 another vessel was dispatched by Legaspi
+and made this voyage successfully.
+
+The sailing of these vessels left Legaspi in Cebu with a colony
+of only one hundred and fifty Spaniards, poorly provided with
+resources, to commence the conquest of the Philippines. But he won the
+friendship and respect of the inhabitants, and in 1568 two galleons
+with reinforcements arrived from Acapulco. From this time on nearly
+yearly communication was maintained, fresh troops with munitions and
+supplies arriving with each expedition.
+
+The First Expedition against the Moro Pirates.--Pirates of
+Mindoro.--The Spaniards found the Straits of San Bernardino and the
+Mindoro Sea swarming with the fleets of Mohammedan Malays from Borneo
+and the Jolo Archipelago. To a race living so continuously upon the
+water, piracy has always possessed irresistible attractions. In the
+days of Legaspi, the island of Mindoro had been partially settled by
+Malays from the south, and many of these settlements were devoted
+to piracy, preying especially upon the towns on the north coast of
+Panay. In January, 1570, Legaspi dispatched his grandson, Juan de
+Salcedo, to punish these marauders. [27]
+
+Capture of Pirate Strongholds.--Salcedo had a force of forty Spaniards
+and a large number of Bisaya. He landed on the western coast of
+Mindoro and took the pirate town of Mamburao. The main stronghold of
+the Moros he found to be on the small island of Lubang, northwest of
+Mindanao. Here they had three strong forts with high walls, on which
+were mounted small brass cannon, or "lantakas." Two of these forts
+were surrounded by moats. There were several days of fighting before
+Lubang was conquered. The possession of Lubang brought the Spaniards
+almost to the entrance of Manila Bay, Meanwhile, a captain, Enriquez
+de Guzman, had discovered Masbate, Burias, and Ticao, and had landed
+on Luzon in the neighborhood of Albay, called then, "Italon."
+
+Conquest of the Moro City of Manila.--Expedition from Panay.--Reports
+had come to Legaspi of an important Mohammedan settlement named
+"May-nila," on the shore of a great bay, and a Mohammedan chieftain,
+called Maomat, was procured to guide the Spaniards on their conquest
+of this region. [28] For this purpose Legaspi sent his field-marshal,
+Martin de Goiti, with Salcedo, one hundred and twenty Spanish soldiers,
+and fourteen or fifteen boats filled with Bisayan allies. They left
+Panay early in May, and, after stopping at Mindoro, came to anchor
+in Manila Bay, off the mouth of the Pasig River.
+
+The Mohammedan City.--On the south bank of the river was the fortified
+town of the Mohammedan chieftain, Raja Soliman; on the north bank was
+the town of Tondo, under the Raja Alcandora, or Lacandola. Morga [29]
+tells us that these Mohammedan settlers from the island of Borneo had
+commenced to arrive on the island only a few years before the coming
+of the Spaniards. They had settled and married among the Filipino
+population already occupying Manila Bay, and had introduced some of the
+forms and practices of the Mohammedan religion. The city of Manila was
+defended by a fort, apparently on the exact sight of the present fort
+of Santiago. It was built of the trunks of palms, and had embrasures
+where were mounted a considerable number of cannon, or lantakas.
+
+Capture of the City.--The natives received the foreigners at first
+with a show of friendliness, but after they had landed on the banks of
+the Pasig, Soliman, with a large force, assaulted them. The impetuous
+Spaniards charged, and carried the fortifications, and the natives
+fled, setting fire to their settlement. When the fight was over the
+Spaniards found among the dead the body of a Portuguese artillerist,
+who had directed the defense. Doubtless he was one who had deserted
+from the Portuguese garrison far south in the Indian archipelago
+to cast in his fortunes with the Malays. It being the commencement
+of the season of rains and typhoons, the Spaniards decided to defer
+the occupation of Manila, and, after exploring Cavite harbor, they
+returned to Panay.
+
+A year was spent in strengthening their hold on the Bisayas and in
+arranging for their conquest of Luzon. On Masbate was placed a friar
+and six soldiers, so small was the number that could be spared.
+
+Founding of the Spanish City of Manila.--With a force of 280 men
+Legaspi returned in the spring of 1571 to the conquest of Luzon. It was
+a bloodless victory. The Filipino rajas declared themselves vassals
+of the Spanish king, and in the months of May and June the Spaniards
+established themselves in the present site of the city.
+
+At once Legaspi gave orders for the reconstruction of the fort, the
+building of a palace, a convent for the Augustinian monks, a church,
+and 150 houses. The boundaries of this city followed closely the
+outlines of the Tagalog city "Maynila," and it seems probable that the
+location of buildings then established have been adhered to until the
+present time. This settlement appeared so desirable to Legaspi that
+he at once designated it as the capital of the archipelago. Almost
+immediately he organized its governing assembly, or ayuntamiento.
+
+The First Battle on Manila Bay.--In spite of their ready submission,
+the rajas, Soliman and Lacandola, did not yield their sovereignty
+without a struggle. They were able to secure assistance in the Tagalog
+and Pampanga settlements of Macabebe and Hagonoy. A great fleet of
+forty war-praos gathered in palm-lined estuaries on the north shore
+of Manila Bay, and came sweeping down the shallow coast to drive the
+Spaniards from the island. Against them were sent Goiti and fifty
+men. The protective mail armor, the heavy swords and lances, the
+horrible firearms, coupled with the persistent courage and fierce
+resolution of the Spanish soldier of the sixteenth century, swept
+back this native armament. The chieftain Soliman was killed.
+
+The Conquest of Central Luzon.--Goiti continued his marching and
+conquering northward until nearly the whole great plain of central
+Luzon, that stretches from Manila Bay to the Gulf of Lingayen,
+lay submissive before him. A little later the raja Lacandola died,
+having accepted Christian baptism, and the only powerful resistance
+on the island of Luzon was ended.
+
+Goiti was sent back to the Bisayas, and the command of the army of
+Luzon fell to Salcedo, the brilliant and daring grandson of Legaspi,
+at this time only twenty-two years of age. This young knight led
+his command up the Pasig River. Cainta and Taytay, at that time
+important Tagalog towns, were conquered, and then the country south
+of Laguna de Bay. The town of Cainta was fortified and defended by
+small cannon, and although Salcedo spent three days in negotiations,
+it was only taken by storm, in which four hundred Filipino men and
+women perished. [30] From here Salcedo marched over the mountains to
+the Pacific coast and south into the Camarines, where he discovered
+the gold mines of Paracale and Mamburao.
+
+At about this time the Spaniards conquered the Cuyos and Calamianes
+islands and the northern part of Paragua.
+
+Exploration of the Coast of Northern Luzon.--In 1572, Salcedo, with a
+force of only forty-five men, sailed northward from Manila, landed in
+Zambales and Pangasinan, and on the long and rich Ilocos coast effected
+a permanent submission of the inhabitants. He also visited the coast
+farther north, where the great and fertile valley of the Cagayan,
+the largest river of the archipelago, reaches to the sea. From here he
+continued his adventurous journey down the Pacific coast of Luzon to
+the island of Polillo, and returned by way of Laguna de Bay to Manila.
+
+Death of Legaspi.--He arrived in September, 1572, to find that his
+grandfather and commander, Legaspi, had died a month before (August 20,
+1572). After seven years of labor the conqueror of difficulties was
+dead, but almost the entire archipelago had been added to the crown
+of Spain. Three hundred years of Spanish dominion secured little
+more territory than that traversed and pacified by the conquerors
+of those early years. In spite of their slender forces, the daring
+of the Spaniards induced them to follow a policy of widely extending
+their power, effecting settlements, and enforcing submission wherever
+rich coasts and the gathering of population attracted them.
+
+Within a single year's time most of the coast country of Luzon had
+been traversed, important positions seized, and the inhabitants
+portioned out in encomiendas. On the death of Legaspi, the command
+fell to Guido de Lavezares.
+
+Reasons for this Easy Conquest of the Philippines.--The explanation of
+how so small a number of Europeans could so rapidly and successfully
+reduce to subjection the inhabitants of a territory like the
+Philippines, separated into so many different islands, is to be found
+in several things.
+
+First.--The expedition had a great leader, one of those knights
+combining sagacity with resolution, who glorify the brief period when
+Spanish prestige was highest. No policy could ever be successful in the
+Philippines which did not depend for its strength upon giving a measure
+of satisfaction to the Filipino people. Legaspi did this. He appears
+to have won the native datos, treating them with consideration, and
+holding out to them the expectations of a better and more prosperous
+era, which the sovereignty of the Spaniard would bring. Almost from
+the beginning, the natives of an island already reduced flocked to
+his standard to assist in the conquest of another. The small forces
+of the Spanish soldiers were augmented by hundreds of Filipino allies.
+
+Second.--Another reason is found in the wonderful courage and great
+fighting power of the Spanish soldier. Each man, splendidly armored
+and weaponed, deadly with either sword or spear, carrying in addition
+the arquebus, the most efficient firearm of the time, was equal in
+combat to many natives who might press upon him with their naked
+bodies and inferior weapons.
+
+Third.--Legaspi was extremely fortunate in his captains, who included
+such old campaigners as the field-marshal Martin de Goiti, who had
+been to the Philippines before with Villalobos, and such gallant
+youths as Salcedo, one of the most attractive military figures in
+all Spanish history.
+
+Fourth.--In considering this Spanish conquest, we must understand
+that the islands were far more sparsely inhabited than they are
+to-day. The Bisayan islands, the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon,
+had, in Legaspi's time, only a small fraction of their present great
+populations. This population was not only small, but it was also
+extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes separated by
+the differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each tiny
+community was practically independent, and the power of a dato very
+limited. There were no great princes, with large forces of fighting
+retainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portuguese had
+encountered among the Malays south in the Moluccas.
+
+Fifth.--But certainly one of the greatest factors in the yielding
+of the Filipino to the Spaniard was the preaching of the missionary
+friars. No man is so strong with an unenlightened and barbarous race as
+he who claims power from God. And the preaching of the Catholic faith,
+with its impressive and dramatic services, its holy sacraments, its
+power to arrest the attention and to admit at once the rude mind into
+the circle of its ministry, won the heart of the Filipino. Without
+doubt he was ready and eager for a loftier and truer religious belief
+and ceremonial. There was no powerful native priesthood to oppose
+the introduction of Christianity. The preaching of the faith and the
+baptism of converts proceeded almost as rapidly as the marching of
+Salcedo's soldiers.
+
+The Dangers of the Spanish Occupation.--Such conditions assured the
+success of the Spanish occupation, provided the small colony could
+be protected from outside attacks. But even from the beginning the
+position of this little band of conquerors was perilous. Their numbers
+were small and of necessity much scattered, and their only source
+of succor lay thousands of miles away, across the greatest body of
+water on the earth, in a land itself a colony newly wrested from
+the hand of the Indian. Across the narrow waters of the China Sea,
+only a few days' distant, even in the slow-sailing junks, lay the
+teeming shores of the most populous country in the world, in those
+days not averse to foreign conquest.
+
+Attempt of the Chinese under Limahong to Capture Manila.--Activity of
+the Southern Chinese.--It was from the Chinese that the first heavy
+blow fell. The southeastern coast of China, comprising the provinces of
+Kwangtung and Fukien, has always exhibited a restlessness and passion
+for emigration not displayed by other parts of the country. From these
+two provinces, through the ports of Amoy and Canton, have gone those
+Chinese traders and coolies to be found in every part of the East
+and many other countries of the world. Two hundred years before the
+arrival of the Spaniards, Chinese junks traversed the straits and
+seas and visited regularly the coast of Mindanao.
+
+Limahong's Expedition to the Philippines.--This coast of China has
+always been notorious for its piracy. The distance of the capital at
+Peking and the weakness of the provincial viceroys have made impossible
+its suppression. It was one of these bold filibusters of the China Sea,
+called Limahong, who two years after the death of Legaspi attempted
+the conquest of the Philippines. The stronghold of this corsair was the
+island of Pehon, where he fortified himself and developed his power.
+
+Here, reports of the prosperous condition of Manila reached him,
+and he prepared a fleet of sixty-two war-junks, with four thousand
+soldiers and sailors. The accounts even state that a large number of
+women and artisans were taken on board to form the nucleus of the
+settlement, as soon as the Spaniards should be destroyed. In the
+latter part of November, 1574, this powerful fleet came sweeping
+down the western coast of Luzon and on the 29th gathered in the
+little harbor of Mariveles, at the entrance to Manila Bay. Eight
+miles south of Manila is the town of Paranaque, on an estuary which
+affords a good landing-place for boats entering from the bay. Here
+on the night following, Limahong put ashore six hundred men, under
+one of his generals, Sioco, who was a Japanese.
+
+The Attack upon Manila.--From here they marched rapidly up the beach
+and fell furiously upon the city. Almost their first victim was the
+field-marshal Goiti. The fort of Manila was at this date a weak affair,
+without ditches or escarpment, and it was here that the struggle took
+place. The Spaniards, although greatly outnumbered, were able to
+drive back the Chinese; but they themselves lost heavily. Limahong
+now sent ashore heavy reinforcements, and prepared to overwhelm the
+garrison. The Spaniards were saved from defeat by the timely arrival
+of Salcedo with fifty musketeers. From his station at Vigan he had
+seen the sails of Limahong's fleet, cruising southward along the Luzon
+coast, and, suspecting that so great an expedition could have no other
+purpose than the capture of Manila, he embarked in seven small boats,
+and reached the city in six days, just in time to participate in the
+furious battle between the Spaniards and the entire forces of the
+Chinese pirate. The result was the complete defeat of the Chinese,
+who were driven back upon their boats at Paranaque.
+
+The Result of Limahong's Expedition.--Although defeated in his attack
+on Manila, Limahong was yet determined on a settlement in Luzon, and,
+sailing northward, he landed in Pangasinan and began constructing
+fortifications at the mouth of the river Lingayen. The Spaniards
+did not wait for him to strengthen himself and to dispute with them
+afresh for the possession of the island, but organized in March an
+expedition of two hundred and fifty Spaniards and fifteen hundred
+Filipinos under Salcedo. They landed suddenly in the Gulf of Lingayen,
+burned the entire fleet of the Chinese, and scattered a part of the
+forces in the surrounding mountains. The rest, though hemmed in by
+the Spaniards, were able to construct small boats, in which they
+escaped from the islands.
+
+Thus ended this formidable attack, which threatened for a time to
+overthrow the power of Spain in the East. It was the beginning,
+however, of important relations with China. Before Limahong's escape
+a junk arrived from the viceroy of Fukien, petitioning for the
+delivery of the Chinese pirate. Two Augustinian friars accompanied
+his junk back to China, eager for such great fields of missionary
+conquest. They carried letters from Lavezares inviting Chinese
+friendship and intercourse.
+
+Beginning of a New Period of Conquest.--In the spring of 1576, Salcedo
+died at Vigan, at the age of twenty-seven. With his death may be said
+to close the first period of the history in the Philippines,--that of
+the Conquest, extending from 1565 to 1576. For the next twenty-five
+years the ambitions of the Spaniards were not content with the
+exploration of this archipelago, but there were greater and more
+striking conquests, to which the minds of both soldier and priest
+aspired.
+
+Despite the settlement with Portugal, the rich Spice Islands to the
+south still attracted them, and there were soon revealed the fertile
+coasts of Siam and Cambodia, the great empire of China, the beautiful
+island of Formosa, and the Japanese archipelago. These, with their
+great populations and wealth, were more alluring fields than the poor
+and sparsely populated coasts of the Philippines. So, for the next
+quarter of a century, the policy of the Spaniards in the Philippines
+was not so much to develop these islands themselves, as to make them
+a center for the commercial and spiritual conquest of the Orient. [31]
+
+A Treaty with the Chinese.--The new governor arrived in the Islands
+in August, 1575. He was Dr. Francisco La-Sande. In October there
+returned the ambassadors who had been sent to China by Lavezares. The
+viceroy of Fukien had received them with much ceremony. He had not
+permitted the friars to remain, but had forwarded the governor's
+letter to the Chinese emperor. In February following came a Chinese
+embassy, granting a port of the empire with which the Spaniards could
+trade. This port, probably, was Amoy, which continued to be the chief
+port of communication with China to the present day.
+
+It was undoubtedly commerce and not the missionaries that the Chinese
+desired. Two Augustinians attempted to return with this embassy to
+China, but the Chinese on leaving the harbor of Manila landed on
+the coast of Zambales, where they whipped the missionaries, killed
+their servants and interpreter, and left the friars bound to trees,
+whence they were rescued by a small party of Spaniards who happened
+to pass that way.
+
+Sir Francis Drake's Noted Voyage.--The year 1577 is notable for the
+appearance in the East of the great English sea-captain, freebooter,
+and naval hero, Francis Drake. England and Spain, at this moment, while
+not actually at war, were rapidly approaching the conflict which made
+them for centuries traditional enemies. Spain was the champion of Roman
+ecclesiasticism. Her king, Philip the Second, was not only a cruel
+bigot, but a politician of sweeping ambition. His schemes included the
+conquest of France and England, the extermination of Protestantism,
+and the subjection of Europe to his own and the Roman authority.
+
+The English people scented the danger from afar, and while the two
+courts nominally maintained peace, the daring seamen of British Devon
+were quietly putting to sea in their swift and terrible vessels,
+for the crippling of the Spanish power. The history of naval warfare
+records no more reckless adventures than those of the English mariners
+during this period. Audacity could not rise higher.
+
+Drake's is the most famous and romantic figure of them all. In the
+year 1577, he sailed from England with the avowed purpose of sweeping
+the Spanish Main. He passed the Straits of Magellan, and came up the
+western coast of South America, despoiling the Spanish shipping from
+Valparaiso to Panama. Thence he came on across the Pacific, touched
+the coast of Mindanao, and turned south to the Moluccas.
+
+The Portuguese had nominally annexed the Moluccas in 1522, but at
+the time of Drake's visit they had been driven from Ternate, though
+still holding Tidor. Drake entered into friendly relations with the
+sultan of Ternate, and secured a cargo of cloves. From here he sailed
+boldly homeward, daring the Portuguese fleets, as he had defied the
+Spanish, and by way of Good Hope returned to England, his fleet the
+first after Magellan's to circumnavigate the globe.
+
+A Spanish Expedition to Borneo.--The appearance of Drake in the
+Moluccas roused La-Sande to ambitious action. The attraction of
+the southern archipelagoes was overpowering, and at this moment the
+opportunity seemed to open to the governor to force southward his
+power. One of the Malay kings of Borneo, Sirela, arrived in Manila,
+petitioning aid against his brother, and promising to acknowledge the
+sovereignty of the king of Spain over the island of Borneo. La-Sande
+went in person to restore this chieftain to power. He had a fleet of
+galleys and frigates, and, according to Padre Gaspar de San Augustin,
+more than fifteen hundred Filipino bowmen from Pangasinan, Cagayan,
+and the Bisayas accompanied the expedition. He landed on the coast
+of Borneo, destroyed the fleet of praos and the city of the usurper,
+and endeavored to secure Sirela in his principality. Sickness among
+his fleet and the lack of provisions forced him to return to Manila.
+
+The First Attack upon the Moros of Jolo.--On his return he sent an
+officer against the island of Jolo. This officer forced the Joloanos
+to recognize his power, and from there he passed to the island of
+Mindanao, where he further enforced obedience upon the natives. This
+was the beginning of the Spanish expeditions against the Moros, which
+had the effect of arousing in these Mohammedan pirates such terrible
+retaliatory vengeance. Under La-Sande the conquest of the Camarines was
+completed by Captain Juan Chaves and the city of Nueva Caceres founded.
+
+The Appointment of Governor Ronquillo.--It was the uniform policy of
+the Spanish government to limit the term of office of the governor
+to a short period of years. This was one of the futile provisions by
+which Spain attempted to control both the ambition and the avarice
+of her colonial captains. But Don Gonzalo Ronquillo had granted to
+him the governorship of the Philippines for life, on the condition of
+his raising and equipping a force of six hundred in Spain, largely at
+his own expense, for the better protection and pacification of the
+archipelago. This Ronquillo did, bringing his expedition by way of
+Panama. He arrived in April, 1580, and although he died at the end
+of three years, his rule came at an important time.
+
+The Spanish and the Portuguese Colonies Combined.--In 1580, Philip
+II, conquered and annexed to Spain the kingdom of Portugal, and with
+Portugal came necessarily to the Spanish crown those rich eastern
+colonies which the valor of Da Gama and Albuquerque had won. Portugal
+rewon her independence in 1640, but for years Manila was the capital
+of a colonial empire, extending from Goa in India to Formosa.
+
+Events of Ronquillo's Rule.--Ronquillo, under orders from the crown,
+entered into correspondence with the captain of the Portuguese
+fortress on the island of Tidor, and the captain of Tidor petitioned
+Ronquillo for assistance in reconquering the tempting island of
+Ternate. Ronquillo sent south a considerable expedition, but after
+arriving in the Moluccas the disease of beri-beri in the Spanish
+camp defeated the undertaking. Ronquillo also sent a small armada to
+the coasts of Borneo and Malacca, where a limited amount of pepper
+was obtained.
+
+The few years of Ronquillo's reign were in other ways important. A
+colony of Spaniards was established at Oton, on the island of Panay,
+which was given the name of Arevalo (Iloilo). And under Ronquillo
+was pacified for the first time the great valley of the Cagayan. At
+the mouth of the river a Japanese adventurer, Tayfusa, or Tayzufu,
+had established himself and was attempting the subjugation of this
+important part of northern Luzon. Ronquillo sent against him Captain
+Carreon, who expelled the intruder and established on the present
+site of Lao-lo the city of Nueva Segovia. Two friars accompanied
+this expedition and the occupation of this valley by the Spaniards
+was made permanent.
+
+The First Conflicts between the Church and the State.--In March, 1581,
+there arrived the first Bishop of Manila, Domingo de Salazar. Almost
+immediately began those conflicts between the spiritual and civil
+authorities, and between bishop and the regular orders, which have
+filled to such an extent the history of the islands. The bishop
+was one of those authoritative, ambitious, and arrogant characters,
+so typical in the history of the Church. It was largely due to his
+protests against the autocratic power of the governor that the king
+was induced to appoint the first Audiencia. The character and power
+of these courts have already been explained. The president and judges
+arrived the year following the death of Ronquillo, and the president,
+Dr. Santiago de Vera, became acting governor during the succeeding
+five years.
+
+In 1587, the first Dominicans, fifteen in number, arrived, and founded
+their celebrated mission, La Provincia del Santisimo Rosario.
+
+Increasing Strength of the Malays.--De Vera continued the policy of
+his predecessors and another fruitless attack was made on Ternate
+in 1585. The power of the Malay people was increasing, while that of
+the Europeans was decreasing. The sultans had expelled their foreign
+masters, and neither Spaniard nor Portuguese were able to effect
+the conquest of the Moluccas. There were uprisings of the natives in
+Manila and in Cagayan and Ilocos.
+
+The Decree of 1589.--Affairs in the Islands did not yet, however,
+suit Bishop Salazar, and as the representative of both governor and
+bishop, the Jesuit, Alonso Sanchez, was dispatched in 1586 to lay the
+needs of the colony before the king. Philip was apparently impressed
+with the necessity of putting the government of the Islands upon a
+better administrative basis. To this end he published the important
+decree of 1589.
+
+The governor now became a paid officer of the crown, at a salary of
+ten thousand ducats. For the proper protection of the colony and the
+conquest of the Moluccas, a regular force of four hundred soldiers
+accompanied the governor. His powers were extended to those of an
+actual viceregent of the king, and the Audiencia was abolished. The man
+selected to occupy this important post was Don Gomez Perez Dasmarinas,
+who arrived with the new constitution in May, 1590. So great was
+the chagrin of the bishop at the abolition of the Audiencia and the
+increase of the governor's power, that he himself set out for Spain
+to lay his wishes before the court.
+
+The Missionary Efforts of the Friars.--Twenty-four Franciscans came
+with Dasmarinas and the presence of the three orders necessitated the
+partition of the Islands among them. The keenest rivalry and jealousy
+existed among them over the prosecution of missions in still more
+foreign lands. To the missionaries of this age it seemed a possible
+thing to convert the great and conservative nations of China and
+Japan to the Western religion.
+
+In the month of Dasmarinas' arrival, a company of Dominicans attempted
+to found a mission in China, and, an embassy coming from Japan to
+demand vassalage from the Philippines, four of the newly arrived
+Franciscans accompanied the Japanese on their return.
+
+A year later, in 1592, another embassy from the king of Cambodia
+arrived, bringing gifts that included two elephants, and petitioning
+for succor against the king of Siam. This was the beginning of an
+alliance between Cambodia and the Philippines which lasted for many
+years, and which occasioned frequent military aid and many efforts
+to convert that country.
+
+Death of Dasmarinas.--But the center of Dasmarinas' ambitions was the
+effective conquest of the East Indies and the extension of Spanish
+power and his own rule through the Moluccas. With this end in view,
+for three years he made preparations. For months the shores were lined
+with the yards of the shipbuilders, and the great forests of Bulacan
+fell before the axes of the Indians. More than two hundred vessels,
+"galeras," "galeotas," and "virrayes," were built, and assembled
+at Cavite.
+
+In the fall of 1593, the expedition, consisting of over nine
+hundred Spaniards, Filipino bowmen and rowers, was ready. Many of the
+Filipinos, procured to row these boats, were said to have been slaves,
+purchased through the Indian chiefs by the Spanish encomenderos. The
+governor sent forward this great fleet under the command of his son,
+Don Luis, and in the month of October he himself set sail in a galley
+with Chinese rowers. But on the night of the second day, while off the
+island of Maricaban, the Chinese oarsmen rose against the Spaniards,
+of whom there were about forty on the ship, and killed almost the
+entire number, including the governor. They then escaped in the boat
+to the Ilocos coast and thence to China.
+
+The murder of this active and illustrious general was a determining
+blow to the ambitious projects for the conquest of the East
+Indies. Among other papers which Dasmarinas brought from Spain was a
+royal cedula giving him power to nominate his successor, who proved to
+be his son, Don Luis, who after some difficulty succeeded temporarily
+to his father's position.
+
+Arrival of the Jesuits.--In June, 1595, there arrived Don Antonio de
+Morga, who had been appointed assessor and lieutenant-governor of
+the Islands, to succeed Don Luis. With Morga came the first Jesuit
+missionaries. He was also the bearer of an order granting to the
+Jesuits the exclusive privilege of conducting missions in China and
+Japan. The other orders were forbidden to pass outside the Islands.
+
+An attempt to Colonize Mindanao.--In the year 1596, the Captain
+Rodriguez de Figueroa received the title of governor of Mindanao,
+with exclusive right to colonize the island for "the space of
+two lives." He left Iloilo in April with 214 Spaniards, two Jesuit
+priests, and many natives. They landed in the Rio Grande of Mindanao,
+where the defiant dato, Silonga, fortified himself and resisted
+them. Almost immediately Figueroa rashly ventured on shore and was
+killed by Moros. Reinforcements were sent under Don Juan Ronquillo,
+who, after nearly bringing the datos to submission, abandoned all he
+had gained. The Spaniards burned their forts on the Rio Grande and
+retired to Caldera, near Zamboanga, where they built a presidio.
+
+Death of Franciscans in Japan.--The new governor, Don Francisco
+Tello de Guzman, arrived on June 1, 1596. He had previously been
+treasurer of the Casa de Contratacion in Seville. Soon after his
+arrival an important and serious tragedy occurred in Japan. The ship
+for Acapulco went ashore on the Japanese coast and its rich cargo was
+seized by the feudal prince where the vessel sought assistance. The
+Franciscans had already missions in these islands, and a quarrel
+existed between them and the Portuguese Jesuits over this missionary
+field. The latter succeeded in prejudicing the Japanese court against
+the Franciscans, and when they injudiciously pressed for the return
+of the property of the wrecked galleon, "San Felipe," the emperor,
+greedy for the rich plunder, and exasperated by their preaching,
+met their petitions with the sentence of death. They were horribly
+crucified at the port of Nagasaki, February 5, 1597. This emperor was
+the proud and cruel ruler, Taycosama. He was planning the conquest
+of the Philippines themselves, when death ended his plans.
+
+The First Archbishop in the Philippines.--Meanwhile the efforts of
+Salazar at the Spanish court had effected further important changes
+for the Islands. The reestablishment of the Royal Audiencia was
+ordered, and his own position was elevated to that of archbishop,
+with the three episcopal sees of Ilocos, Cebu, and the Camarines. He
+did not live to assume this office, and the first archbishop of the
+Philippines was Ignacio Santibanez, who also died three months after
+his arrival, on May 28, 1598.
+
+Reestablishment of the Audiencia.--The Audiencia was reestablished with
+great pomp and ceremony. The royal seal was borne on a magnificently
+caparisoned horse to the cathedral, where a Te Deum was chanted,
+and then to the Casas Reales, where was inaugurated the famous court
+that continued without interruption down to the end of Spanish
+rule. Dr. Morga was one of the first oidores, and the earliest
+judicial record which can now be found in the archives of this court
+is a sentence bearing his signature.
+
+The Rise of Moro Piracy.--The last years of De Guzman's governorship
+were filled with troubles ominous for the future of the Islands. The
+presidio of Caldera was destroyed by the Moros. Following this
+victory, in the year 1599, the Moros of Jolo and Maguindanao equipped
+a piratical fleet of fifty caracoas, and swept the coasts of the
+Bisayas. Cebu, Negros, and Panay were ravaged, their towns burned,
+and their inhabitants carried off as slaves.
+
+The following year saw the return of a larger and still more dreadful
+expedition. The people of Panay abandoned their towns and fled into
+the mountains, under the belief that these terrible attacks had been
+inspired by the Spaniards. To check these pirates, Juan Gallinato,
+with a force of two hundred Spaniards, was sent against Jolo,
+but, like so many expeditions that followed his, he accomplished
+nothing. The inability of the Spaniards was now revealed and the
+era of Moro piracy had begun. "From this time until the present day"
+(about the year 1800), wrote Zuniga, "these Moros have not ceased to
+infest our colonies; innumerable are the Indians they have captured,
+the towns they have looted, the rancherias they have destroyed, the
+vessels they have taken. It seems as if God has preserved them for
+vengeance on the Spaniards that they have not been able to subject
+them in two hundred years, in spite of the expeditions sent against
+them, the armaments sent almost very year to pursue them. In a very
+little while we conquered all the islands of the Philippines; but the
+little island of Jolo, a part of Mindanao, and other islands near by
+we have not been able to subjugate to this day." [32]
+
+Battle at Mariveles with the Dutch.--In October, 1600, two Dutch
+vessels appeared in the Islands; it was the famous expedition of
+the Dutch admiral, Van Noort. They had come through the Straits of
+Magellan, on a voyage around the world. The Dutch were in great need of
+provisions. As they were in their great enemy's colony, they captured
+and sunk several boats, Spanish and Chinese, bound for Manila with
+rice, poultry, palm-wine, and other stores of food. At Mariveles,
+a Japanese vessel from Japan was overhauled. Meanwhile in Manila
+great excitement and activity prevailed. The Spaniards fitted up two
+galleons and the "Oidor" Morga himself took command with a large crew
+of fighting men.
+
+On November 14, they attacked the Dutch, whose crews were greatly
+reduced to only eighty men on both ships. The vessel commanded by
+Morga ran down the flagship of Van Noort, and for hours the ships lay
+side by side while a hand-to-hand fight raged on the deck and in the
+hold. The ships taking fire, Morga disengaged his ship, which was so
+badly shattered that it sank, with great loss of life; but Morga and
+some others reached the little island of Fortuna. Van Noort was able
+to extinguish the fire on his vessel, and escape from the Islands. He
+eventually reached Holland. His smaller vessel was captured with its
+crew of twenty-five men, who were all hung at Cavite. [33]
+
+Other Troubles of the Spanish.--In the year 1600, two ships sailed
+for Acapulco, but one went down off the Catanduanes and the other was
+shipwrecked on the Ladrones. "On top of all other misfortunes, Manila
+suffered, in the last months of this government, a terrible earthquake,
+which destroyed many houses and the church of the Jesuits." [34]
+
+The Moros, the Dutch, anxieties and losses by sea, the visitations
+of God,--how much of the history of the seventeenth century in the
+Philippines is filled with these four things!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE PHILIPPINES THREE HUNDRED YEARS AGO.
+
+
+Condition of the Archipelago at the Beginning of the Seventeenth
+Century.--The Spanish Rule Completely Established.--At the close
+of the sixteenth century the Spaniards had been in possession of
+the Philippines for a generation. In these thirty-five years the
+most striking of all the results of the long period of Spanish
+occupation were accomplished. The work of these first soldiers and
+missionaries established the limits and character of Spanish rule as
+it was to remain for 250 years. Into this first third of a century
+the Spaniard crowded all his heroic feats of arms, exploration,
+and conversion. Thereafter, down to 1850, new fields were explored,
+and only a few new tribes Christianized.
+
+The survey of the archipelago given by Morga soon after 1600 reads
+like a narrative of approximately modern conditions. It reveals to
+us how great had been the activities of the early Spaniard and how
+small the achievements of his countrymen after the seventeenth century
+began. All of the large islands, except Paragua and the Moro country,
+were, in that day, under encomiendas, their inhabitants paying tributes
+and for the most part professing the Catholic faith.
+
+The smaller groups and islets were almost as thoroughly exploited. Even
+of the little Catanduanes, lying off the Pacific coast of Luzon,
+Morga could say, "They are well populated with natives,--a good
+race, all encomended to Spaniards, with doctrine and churches, and
+an alcalde-mayor, who does justice among them."
+
+He says of the Babuyanes at the extreme north of the archipelago,
+"They are not encomended, nor is tribute collected among them, nor
+are there Spaniards among them, because they are of little reason and
+politeness, and there have neither been Christians made among them,
+nor have they justices." They continued in this condition until a few
+years before the end of Spanish rule. In 1591, however, the Babuyanes
+had been given in encomienda to Esteban de la Serna and Francisco
+Castillo. They are put as having two thousand inhabitants and five
+hundred "tributantes," but all unsubdued ("todos alcados").
+
+On some islands the hold of the Spaniards was more extensive in Morga's
+day than at a later time. Then the island of Mindoro was regarded as
+important, and in the early years and decades of Spanish power appears
+to have been populous along the coasts. Later it was desolated by the
+Moro pirates and long remained wild and almost uninhabited except by
+a shifting population from the mainland of Luzon.
+
+The Encomiendas.--The first vessels that followed the expedition of
+Legaspi had brought orders from the king that the Islands should be
+settled, and divided in encomiendas to those who had conquered and
+won them. [35] On this instruction, Legaspi had given the Filipinos
+in encomienda to his captains and soldiers as fast as the conquest
+proceeded.
+
+We are fortunate to have a review of these encomiendas, made in 1591,
+about twenty-five years after the system was introduced into the
+Islands. [36] There were then 267 encomiendas in the Philippines,
+of which thirty-one were of the king, and the remainder of private
+persons.
+
+Population under the Encomiendas.--From the enumeration of these
+encomiendas, we learn that the most populous parts of the archipelago
+were La Laguna, with 24,000 tributantes and 97,000 inhabitants, and the
+Camarines, which included all the Bicol territory, and the Catanduanes,
+where there were 21,670 tributantes and a population of over 86,000, In
+the vicinity of Manila and Tondo, which included Cavite and Marigondon,
+the south shore of the bay, and Pasig and Taguig, there were collected
+9,410 tributes, and the population was estimated at about 30,000. In
+Ilocos were reported 17,130 tributes and 78,520 souls.
+
+The entire valley of the Cagayan had been divided among the soldiers
+of the command which had effected the conquest. In the list of
+encomiendas a few can be recognized, such as Yguig and Tuguegarao,
+but most of the names are not to be found on maps of to-day. Most of
+the inhabitants were reported to be "rebellious" (alcados), and some
+were apparently the same wild tribes which still occupy all of this
+water-shed, except the very banks of the river; but none the less
+had the Spaniards divided them off into "repartimientos." One soldier
+had even taken as an encomienda the inhabitants of the upper waters
+of the river, a region which is called in the Relacion "Pugao," with
+little doubt the habitat of the same Igorrote tribe as the Ipugao,
+who still dwell in these mountains. The upper valley of the Magat,
+or Nueva Vizcaya, does not appear to have been occupied and probably
+was not until the missions of the eighteenth century.
+
+The population among the Bisayan islands was quite surprisingly
+small, considering its present proportions. Masbate, for example,
+had but 1,600 souls; Burias, a like number; the whole central group,
+leaving out Panay, only 15,833 tributes, or about 35,000 souls. There
+was a single encomienda in Butuan, Mindanao, and another on the Caraga
+coast. There were a thousand tributes collected in the encomienda of
+Cuyo, and fifteen hundred in Calamianes, which, says the Relacion,
+included "los negrillos," probably the mixed Negrito population of
+northern Palawan.
+
+The entire population under encomiendas is set down as 166,903
+tributes, or 667,612 souls. This is, so far as known, the earliest
+enumeration of the population of the Philippines. Barring the Igorrotes
+of northern Luzon and the Moros and other tribes of Mindanao, it is
+a fair estimate of the number of the Filipino people three hundred
+years ago.
+
+It will be noticed that the numbers assigned to single encomenderos
+in the Philippines were large. In America the number was limited. As
+early as 1512, King Ferdinand had forbidden any single person, of
+whatever rank or grade, to hold more than three hundred Indians on
+one island. [37] But in the Philippines, a thousand or twelve hundred
+"tributantes" were frequently held by a single Spaniard.
+
+Condition of the Filipinos under the Encomiendas.--Frequent
+Revolts.--That the Filipinos on many of these islands bitterly
+resented their condition is evidenced by the frequent uprisings
+and rebellions. The encomenderos were often extortionate and cruel,
+and absolutely heedless of the restrictions and obligations imposed
+upon them by the Laws of the Indies. Occasionally a new governor,
+under the first impulse of instructions from Mexico or Spain, did
+something to correct abuses. Revolts were almost continuous during
+the year 1583, and the condition of the natives very bad, many
+encomenderos regarding them and treating them almost as slaves, and
+keeping them at labor to the destruction of their own crops and the
+misery of their families. Gov. Santiago de Vera reached the Islands
+the following year and made a characteristic attempt to improve the
+system, which is thus related by Zuniga:--
+
+"As soon as he had taken possession of the government, he studied to
+put into effect the orders which he brought from the king, to punish
+certain encomenderos, who had abused the favor they had received in
+being given encomiendas, whereby he deposed Bartolome de Ledesma,
+encomendero of Abuyo (Leyte), and others of those most culpable,
+and punished the others in proportion to the offenses which they had
+committed, and which had been proven.
+
+"In the following year of 1585, he sent Juan de Morones and Pablo de
+Lima, with a well equipped squadron, to the Moluccas, which adventure
+was as unfortunate as those that had preceded it, and they returned to
+Manila without having been able to take the fortress of Ternate. The
+governor felt it very deeply that the expedition had failed, and wished
+to send another armada in accordance with the orders which the king
+had given him; but he could not execute this because the troops from
+New Spain did not arrive, and because of the Indians, who lost no
+occasion which presented itself to shake off the yoke of the Spaniards.
+
+"The Pampangos and many inhabitants of Manila confederated with the
+Moros of Borneo, who had come for trade, and plotted to enter the city
+by night, set it on fire, and, in the confusion of the conflagration,
+slay all the Spaniards. This conspiracy was discovered through an
+Indian woman, who was married to a Spanish soldier, and measures to
+meet the conspiracy were taken, before the mine exploded, many being
+seized and suffering exemplary punishment.
+
+"The islands of Samar, Ybabao, and Leyte were also in disturbance,
+and the encomendero of Dagami, pueblo of Leyte, was in peril of losing
+his life, because the Indians were incensed by his thievings in the
+collection of tribute, which was paid in wax, and which he compelled
+them to have weighed with a steelyard which he had made double the
+legal amount, and wanted to kill him. They would have done so if he
+had not escaped into the mountains and afterwards passed by a banca
+to the island of Cebu. The governor sent Captain Lorenzo de la Mota
+to pacify these disturbances; he made some punishments, and with
+these everything quieted down." [38]
+
+Three years later, however, the natives of Leyte were again in
+revolt. In 1589 Cagayan rose and killed many Spaniards. The revolt
+seems to have spread from here to the town of Dingras, Ilocos, where
+the natives rose against the collectors of tribute, and slew six
+Spaniards of the pueblo of Fernandina. (Zuniga, Historia de Filipinas,
+p. 165.) [39]
+
+Effects of the Spanish Government.--The Spanish occupation had brought
+ruin and misery to some parts of the country. Salazar describes with
+bitterness the evil condition of the Filipinos. In the rich fields
+of Bulacan and Pampanga, great gangs of laborers had been impressed,
+felling the forests for the construction of the Spanish fleets and
+manning these fleets at the oars, on voyages which took them for
+four and six months from their homes. The governor, Don Gonzalez de
+Ronquillo, had forced many Indians of Pampanga into the mines of
+Ilocos, taking them from the sowing of their rice. Many had died
+in the mines and the rest returned so enfeebled that they could
+not plant. Hunger and famine had descended upon Pampanga, and on
+the encomienda of Guido de Lavazares over a thousand had died from
+starvation. [40]
+
+The Taxes.--The taxes were another source of abuse. Theoretically,
+the tax upon Indians was limited to the "tributo," the sum of eight
+reales (about one dollar) yearly from the heads of all families,
+payable either in gold or in produce of the district. But in fixing the
+prices of these commodities there was much extortion, the encomenderos
+delaying the collection of the tribute until the season of scarcity,
+when prices were high, but insisting then on the same amount as
+at harvest-time.
+
+The principal, who occupied the place of the former dato,
+or "maharlica," like the gobernadorcillo of recent times, was
+responsible for the collecting of the tribute, and his lot seems
+to have been a hard one. "If they do not give as much as they ask,
+or do not pay for as many Indians as they say there are, they abuse
+the poor principal, or throw him into the pillory (cepo de cabeza),
+because all the encomenderos, when they go to make collections, take
+their pillories with them, and there they keep him and torment him,
+until forced to give all they ask. They are even said to take the wife
+and daughter of the principal, when he can not be found. "Many are the
+principales who have died under these torments, according to reports."
+
+Salazar further states that he has known natives to be sold into
+slavery, in default of tribute. Neither did they impose upon adults
+alone, but "they collect tribute from infants, the aged and the slaves,
+and many do not marry because of the tribute, and others slay their
+children." [41]
+
+Scarcity of Food.--Salazar further charges that the alcaldes mayores
+(the alcaldes of provinces), sixteen in number, were all corrupt,
+and, though their salaries were small, they accumulated fortunes. For
+further enumeration of economic ills, Salazar details how prices had
+evilly increased. In the first years of Spanish occupation, food was
+abundant. There was no lack of rice, beans, chickens, pigs, venison,
+buffalo, fish, cocoanuts, bananas, and other fruits, wine and honey;
+and a little money bought much. A hundred gantas (about three hundred
+pints) of rice could then be bought for a toston (a Portuguese coin,
+worth about a half-peso), eight to sixteen fowls for a like amount, a
+fat pig for from four to six reales. In the year of his writing (about
+1583), products were scarce and prices exorbitant. Rice had doubled,
+chickens were worth a real, a good pig six to eight pesos. Population
+had decreased, and whole towns were deserted, their inhabitants having
+fled into the hills.
+
+General Improvement under Spanish Rule.--This is one side of the
+picture. It probably is overdrawn by the bishop, who was jealous of the
+civil authority and who began the first of those continuous clashes
+between the church and political power in the Philippines. Doubtless
+if we could see the whole character of Spanish rule in these decades,
+we should see that the actual condition of the Filipino had improved
+and his grade of culture had arisen. No one can estimate the actual
+good that comes to a people in being brought under the power of a
+government able to maintain peace and dispense justice. Taxation is
+sometimes grievous, corruption without excuse; but almost anything
+is better than anarchy.
+
+Before the coming of the Spaniards, it seems unquestionable that
+the Filipinos suffered greatly under two terrible grievances that
+inflict barbarous society,--in the first place, warfare, with its
+murder, pillage, and destruction, not merely between tribe and tribe,
+but between town and town, such as even now prevails in the wild
+mountains of northern Luzon, among the primitive Malayan tribes;
+and in the second place, the weak and poor man was at the mercy of
+the strong and rich.
+
+The establishment of Spanish sovereignty had certainly mitigated, if
+it did not wholly remedy, these conditions. "All of these provinces,"
+Morga could write, "are pacified and are governed from Manila,
+having alcaldes mayores, corregidors, and lieutenants, each one of
+whom governs in his district or province and dispenses justice. The
+chieftains (principales), who formerly held the other natives in
+subjection, no longer have power over them in the manner which they
+tyrannically employed, which is not the least benefit these natives
+have received in escaping from such slavery." [42]
+
+Old Social Order of the Filipinos but Little Disturbed.--Some governors
+seem to have done their utmost to improve the condition of the people
+and to govern them well. Santiago de Vera, as we have seen, even went
+so far as to commission the worthy priest, Padre Juan de Plasencia,
+to investigate the customs and social organization of the Filipinos,
+and to prepare an account of their laws, that they might be more
+suitably governed. This brief code--for so it is--was distributed
+to alcaldes, judges, and encomenderos, with orders to pattern their
+decisions in accordance with Filipino custom. [43]
+
+In ordering local affairs, the Spaniards to some extent left the
+old social order of the Filipinos undisturbed. The several social
+classes were gradually suppressed, and at the head of each barrio,
+or small settlement, was appointed a head, or cabeza de barangay. As
+these barangays were grouped into pueblos, or towns, the former datos
+were appointed captains and gobernadorcillos.
+
+The Payment of Tribute.--The tribute was introduced in 1570. [44]
+It was supposed to be eight reales or a peso of silver for each
+family. Children under sixteen and those over sixty were exempt. In
+1590 the amount was raised to ten reales. To this was added a real
+for the church, known as "sanctorum," and, on the organization of the
+towns, a real for the caja de communidad or municipal treasury. Under
+the encomiendas the tribute was paid to the encomenderos, except
+on the royal encomiendas; but after two or three generations, as
+the encomiendas were suppressed, these collections went directly
+to the insular treasury. There was, in addition to the tribute,
+a compulsory service of labor on roads, bridges, and public works,
+known as the "corvee," a feudal term, or perhaps more generally as the
+"polos y servicios." Those discharging this enforced labor were called
+"polistas."
+
+Conversion of the Filipinos to Christianity.--The population had
+been very rapidly Christianized. All accounts agree that almost
+no difficulty was encountered in baptizing the more advanced
+tribes. "There is not in these islands a province," says Morga,
+"which resists conversion and does not desire it." [45] Indeed,
+the Islands seem to have been ripe for the preaching of a higher
+faith, either Christian or Mohammedan. For a time these two great
+religions struggled together in the vicinity of Manila, [46] but
+at the end of three decades Spanish power and religion were alike
+established. Conversion was delayed ordinarily only by the lack of
+sufficient numbers of priests. We have seen that this conversion of
+the people was the work of the missionary friars. In 1591 there were
+140 in the Islands, but the Relacion de Encomiendas calls for 160
+more to properly supply the peoples which had been laid under tribute.
+
+Coming of the Friars.--The Augustinians had been the first to come,
+accompanying Legaspi. Then came the barefooted friars of the Order of
+Saint Francis. The first Jesuits, padres Antonio Sedeno and Alonzo
+Sanchez, came with the first bishop of the Islands, Domingo de
+Salazar, in 1580. They came apparently without resources. Even their
+garments brought from Mexico had rotted on the voyage. They found
+a little, poor, narrow house in a suburb of Manila, called Laguio
+(probably Concepcion). "So poorly furnished was it," says Chirino,
+"that the same chest which held their books was the table on which
+they ate. Their food for many days was rice, cooked in water, without
+salt or oil or fish or meat or even an egg, or anything else except
+that sometimes as a regalo they enjoyed some salt sardines." [47]
+After the Jesuits, came, as we have seen, the friars of the Dominican
+order, and lastly the Recollects, or unshod Augustinians.
+
+Division of the Archipelago among the Religious Orders.--The
+archipelago was districted among these missionary bands. The
+Augustinians had many parishes in the Bisayas, on the Ilocano coast,
+some in Pangasinan, and all of those in Pampanga. The Dominicans
+had parts of Pangasinan and all of the valley of Cagayan. The
+Franciscans controlled the Camarines and nearly all of southern Luzon,
+and the region of Laguna de Bay. All of these orders had convents
+and monasteries both in the city of Manila and in the country round
+about. The imposing churches of brick and stone, which now characterize
+nearly every pueblo, had not in those early decades been erected;
+but Morga tells us that "the churches and monasteries were of wood,
+and well built, with furniture and beautiful ornaments, complete
+service, crosses, candlesticks, and chalices of silver and gold." [48]
+
+The First Schools.--Even in these early years there seem to have
+been some attempts at the education of the natives. The friars had
+schools in reading and writing for boys, who were also taught to
+serve in the church, to sing, to play the organ, the harp, guitar,
+and other instruments. We must remember, however, that the Filipino
+before the arrival of the Spaniard had a written language, and even
+in pre-Spanish times there must have been instruction given to the
+child. The type of humble school, that is found to-day in remote
+barrios, conducted by an old man or woman, on the floor or in the
+yard of a home, where the ordinary family occupations are proceeding,
+probably does not owe its origin to the Spaniards, but dates from
+a period before their arrival. The higher education established by
+the Spaniards appears to have been exclusively for the children of
+Spaniards. In 1601 the Jesuits, pioneers of the Roman Catholic orders
+in education, established the College of San Jose.
+
+Establishment of Hospitals.--The city early had notable foundations
+of charity. The high mortality which visited the Spaniards in
+these islands and the frequency of diseases early called for the
+establishment of institutions for the orphan and the invalid. In
+Morga's time there were the orphanages of San Andres and Santa
+Potenciana. There was the Royal Hospital, in charge of three
+Franciscans, which burned in the conflagration of 1603, but was
+reconstructed. There was also a Hospital of Mercy, in charge of
+Sisters of Charity from Lisbon and the Portuguese possessions of India.
+
+Close by the Monastery of Saint Francis stood then, where it stands
+to-day, the hospital for natives, San Juan de Dios. It was of
+royal patronage, but founded by a friar of the Franciscan order,
+Juan Clemente. "Here," says Morga, "are cured a great number of
+natives of all kinds of sicknesses, with much charity and care. It
+has a good house and offices of stone, and is administered by the
+barefooted religious of Saint Francis. Three priests are there and
+four lay-brethren of exemplary life, who, with the doctors, surgeons,
+and apothecaries, are so dexterous and skilled that they work with
+their hands marvelous cures, both in medicine and surgery." [49]
+
+Mortality among the Spaniards.--Mortality in the Philippines in
+these years of conquest was frightfully high. The waste of life in
+her colonial adventures, indeed, drained Spain of her best and most
+vigorous manhood. In the famous old English collection of voyages,
+published by Hakluyt in 1598, there is printed a captured Spanish
+letter of the famous sea-captain, Sebastian Biscaino, on the Philippine
+trade. Biscaino grieves over the loss of life which had accompanied
+the conquest of the Philippines, and the treacherous climate of the
+tropics. "The country is very unwholesome for us Spaniards. For within
+these 20 years, of 14,000 which have gone to the Philippines, there
+are 13,000 of them dead, and not past 1,000 of them left alive." [50]
+
+The Spanish Population.--The Spanish population of the Islands
+was always small,--at the beginning of the seventeenth century
+certainly not more than two thousand, and probably less later in
+the century. Morga divides them into five classes: the prelates and
+ecclesiastics; the encomenderos, colonizers, and conquerors; soldiers
+and officers of war and marine; merchants and men of business; and
+the officers of his Majesty's government. "Very few are living now,"
+he says, "of those first conquistadores who won the land and effected
+the conquest with the Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legaspi." [51]
+
+The Largest Cities.--Most of this Spanish population dwelt in Manila
+or in the five other cities which the Spaniards had founded in the
+first three decades of their occupation. Those were as follows:--
+
+The City of Nueva Segovia, at the mouth of the Cagayan, was founded
+in the governorship of Ronquillo, when the valley of the Cagayan was
+first occupied and the Japanese colonists, who had settled there,
+were expelled. It had at the beginning of the seventeenth century two
+hundred Spaniards, living in houses of wood. There was a fort of stone,
+where some artillery was mounted. Besides the two hundred Spanish
+inhabitants there were one hundred regular Spanish soldiers, with
+their officers and the alcalde mayor of the province. Nueva Segovia
+was also the seat of a bishopric which included all northern Luzon. The
+importance of the then promising city has long ago disappeared, and the
+pueblo of Lallo, which marks its site, is an insignificant native town.
+
+The City of Nueva Caceres, in the Camarines, was founded by Governor
+La-Sande. It, too, was the seat of a bishopric, and had one hundred
+Spanish inhabitants.
+
+The Cities of Cebu and Iloilo.--In the Bisayas were the Cities of
+the Holy Name of God (Cebu), and on the island of Panay, Arevalo (or
+Iloilo). The first maintained something of the importance attaching
+to the first Spanish settlement. It had its stone fort and was also
+the seat of a bishopric. It was visited by trading-vessels from the
+Moluccas, and by permit of the king enjoyed for a time the unusual
+privilege of sending annually a ship loaded with merchandise to New
+Spain. Arevalo had about eighty Spanish inhabitants, and a monastery
+of the Augustinians.
+
+The City of Fernandina, or Vigan, which Salcedo had founded, was nearly
+without Spanish inhabitants. Still, it was the political center of the
+great Ilocano coast, and it has held this position to the present day.
+
+Manila.--But all of these cities were far surpassed in importance
+by the capital on the banks of the Pasig. The wisdom of Legaspi's
+choice had been more than justified. Manila, at the beginning of the
+seventeenth century, was unquestionably the most important European
+city of the East. As we have already seen, in 1580 Portugal had been
+annexed by Spain and with her had come all the Portuguese possessions
+in India, China, and Malaysia. After 1610, the Dutch were almost
+annually warring for this colonial empire, and Portugal regained her
+independence in 1640. But for the first few years of the seventeenth
+century, Manila was the political mistress of an empire that stretched
+from Goa to Formosa and embraced all those coveted lands which for
+a century and a half had been the desire of European states.
+
+The governor of the Philippines was almost an independent
+king. Nominally, he was subordinate to the viceroy of Mexico, but
+practically he waged wars, concluded peaces, and received and sent
+embassies at his own discretion. The kingdom of Cambodia was his ally,
+and the states of China and Japan were his friends.
+
+The Commercial Importance of Manila.--Manila was also the commercial
+center of the Far East, and the entrepot through which the kingdoms
+of eastern Asia exchanged their wares. Here came great fleets of
+junks from China laden with stores. Morga fills nearly two pages
+with an enumeration of their merchandise, which included all manner
+of silks, brocades, furniture, pearls and gems, fruits, nuts, tame
+buffalo, geese, horses and mules, all kinds of animals, "even to
+birds in cages, some of which talk and others sing, and which they
+make perform a thousand tricks; there are innumerable other gew-gaws
+and knickknacks, which among Spaniards are in much esteem." [52]
+
+Each year a fleet of thirty to forty vessels sailed with the new moon
+in March. The voyage across the China Sea, rough with the monsoons,
+occupied fifteen or twenty days, and the fleet returned at the end of
+May or the beginning of June. Between October and March there came,
+each year, Japanese ships from Nagasaki which brought wheat, silks,
+objects of art, and weapons, and took away from Manila the raw silk
+of China, gold, deer horns, woods, honey, wax, palm-wine, and wine
+of Castile.
+
+From Malacca and India came fleets of the Portuguese subjects of Spain,
+with spices, slaves, Negroes and Kafirs, and the rich productions of
+Bengal, India, Persia, and Turkey. From Borneo, too, came the smaller
+craft of the Malays, who from their boats sold the fine palm mats,
+the best of which still come from Cagayan de Sulu and Borneo, slaves,
+sago, water-pots and glazed earthenware, black and fine. From Siam
+and Cambodia also, but less often, there came trading-ships. Manila
+was thus a great emporium for all the countries of the East, the
+trade of which seems to have been conducted largely by and through
+the merchants of Manila.
+
+Trade with Mexico and Spain Restricted.--The commerce between the
+Philippines, and Mexico and Spain, though it was of vast importance,
+was limited by action of the crown. It was a commerce which apparently
+admitted of infinite expansion, but the shortsighted merchants and
+manufacturers of the Peninsula clamored against its development,
+and it was subjected to the severest limitations. Four galleons
+were at first maintained for this trade, which were dispatched two
+at a time in successive years from Manila to the port of Acapulco,
+Mexico. The letter on the Philippine trade, already quoted, states that
+these galleons were great ships of six hundred and eight hundred tons
+apiece. [53] They went "very strong with soldiers," and they carried
+the annual mail, reinforcements, and supplies of Mexican silver for
+trade with China, which has remained the commercial currency of the
+East to the present day. Later the number of galleons was reduced
+to one.
+
+The Rich Cargoes of the Galleons.--The track of the Philippine galleon
+lay from Luzon northeastward to about the forty-second degree of
+latitude, where the westerly winds prevail, thence nearly straight
+across the ocean to Cape Mendocino in northern California, which
+was discovered and mapped by Biscaino in 1602. Thence the course lay
+down the western coast of North America nearly three thousand miles
+to the port of Acapulco.
+
+We can imagine how carefully selected and rich in quality were the
+merchandises with which these solitary galleons were freighted,
+the pick of all the rich stores which came to Manila. The profits
+were enormous,--six and eight hundred per cent. Biscaino wrote that
+with two hundred ducats invested in Spanish wares and some Flemish
+commodities, he made fourteen hundred ducats; but, he added, in 1588
+he lost a ship,--robbed and burned by Englishmen. On the safe arrival
+of these ships depended how much of the fortunes of the colony!
+
+Capture of the Galleons.--For generations these galleons were probably
+the most tempting and romantic prize that ever aroused the cupidity of
+privateer. The first to profit by this rich booty was Thomas Cavendish,
+who in 1584 came through the Straits of Magellan with a fleet of five
+vessels. Like Drake before him, he ravaged the coast of South America
+and then steered straight away across the sea to the Moluccas. Here
+he acquired information about the rich commerce of the Philippines
+and of the yearly voyage of the galleon. Back across the Pacific went
+the fleet of Cavendish for the coast of California.
+
+In his own narrative he tells how he beat up and down between Capes
+San Lucas and Mendocino until the galleon, heavy with her riches,
+appeared. She fell into his hands almost without a fray. She carried
+one hundred and twenty-two thousand pesos of gold and a great and
+rich store of satins, damask, and musk. Cavendish landed the Spanish
+on the California coast, burned the "Santa Anna," and then returned
+to the Philippines and made an attack upon the shipyard of Iloilo,
+but was repulsed. He sent a letter to the governor at Manila, boasting
+of his capture, and then sailed for the Cape of Good Hope and home.
+
+There is an old story that tells how his sea-worn ships came up
+the Thames, their masts hung with silk and damask sails. From this
+time on the venture was less safe. In 1588 there came to Spain the
+overwhelming disaster of her history,--the destruction of the Great
+Armada. From this date her power was gone, and her name was no longer
+a terror on the seas. English freebooters controlled the oceans,
+and in 1610 the Dutch appeared in the East, never to withdraw.
+
+The City of Manila Three Hundred Years Ago.--We can hardly close this
+chapter without some further reference to the city of Manila as it
+appeared three hundred years ago. Morga has fortunately left us a
+detailed description from which the following points in the main are
+drawn. As we have already seen, Legaspi had laid out the city on the
+blackened site of the town and fortress of the Mohammedan prince,
+which had been destroyed in the struggle for occupation. He gave it
+the same extent and dimensions that it possesses to this day.
+
+Like other colonial capitals in the Far East, it was primarily a
+citadel and refuge from attack. On the point between the sea and
+the river Legaspi had built the famous and permanent fortress of
+Santiago. In the time of the great Adelantado it was probably only a
+wooden stockade, but under the governor Santiago de Vera it was built
+up of stone. Cavendish (1587) describes Manila as "an unwalled town and
+of no great strength," but under the improvements and completions made
+by Dasmarinas about 1590 it assumed much of its present appearance. Its
+guns thoroughly commanded the entrance to the river Pasig and made
+the approach of hostile boats from the harbor side impossible.
+
+It is noteworthy, then, that all the assaults that have been made
+upon the city, from that of Limahong, to those of the British in 1763,
+and of the Americans in 1898, have been directed against the southern
+wall by an advance from Paranaque. Dasmarinas also inclosed the city
+with a stone wall, the base from which the present noble rampart has
+arisen. It had originally a width of from seven and a half to nine
+feet. Of its height no figure is given, Morga says simply that with
+its buttresses and turrets it was sufficiently high for the purposes
+of defense.
+
+The Old Fort.--There was a stone fort on the south side facing Ermita,
+known as the Fortress of Our Lady of Guidance; and there were two
+or more bastions, each with six pieces of artillery,--St. Andrew's,
+now a powder magazine at the southeast corner, and St. Gabriel's,
+over-looking the Parian district, where the Chinese were settled.
+
+The three principal gates to the city, with the smaller wickets and
+posterns, which opened on the river and sea, were regularly closed
+at night by the guard which made the rounds. At each gate and wicket
+was a permanent post of soldiers and artillerists.
+
+The Plaza de Armas adjacent to the fort had its arsenal, stores,
+powder-works, and a foundry for the casting of guns and artillery. The
+foundry, when established by Ronquillo, was in charge of a Pampangan
+Indian called Pandapira.
+
+The Spanish Buildings of the City.--The buildings of the city,
+especially the Casas Reales and the churches and monasteries, had been
+durably erected of stone. Chirino claims that the hewing of stone, the
+burning of lime, and the training of native and Chinese artisans for
+this building, were the work of the Jesuit father, Sedeno. He himself
+fashioned the first clay tiles and built the first stone house, and so
+urged and encouraged others, himself directing, the building of public
+works, that the city, which a little before had been solely of timber
+and cane, had become one of the best constructed and most beautiful
+in the Indies. [54] He it was also who sought out Chinese painters
+and decorators and ornamented the churches with images and paintings.
+
+Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private
+nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number
+outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards
+("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Espanoles"). [55]
+
+This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments,
+exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one
+hundred and fifty, [56] the garrison, at certain times, about four
+hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and
+the Low Countries, and the official classes.
+
+The Malecon and the Luneta.--It is interesting at this early date to
+find mention of the famous recreation drive, the Paseo de Bagumbayan,
+now commonly known as the Malecon and Luneta. "Manila," says our
+historian, "has two places of recreation on land; the one, which is
+clean and wide, extends from the point called Our Lady of Guidance
+for about a league along the sea, and through the street and village
+of natives, called Bagumbayan, to a very devout hermitage (Ermita),
+called the Hermitage of Our Lady of Guidance, and from there a good
+distance to a monastery and mission (doctrina) of the Augustinians,
+called Mahalat (Malate)." [57] The other drive lay out through the
+present suburb of Concepcion, then called Laguio, to Paco, where was
+a monastery of the Franciscans.
+
+The Chinese in Manila.--Early Chinese Commerce.--We have seen that
+even as long ago as three hundred years Manila was a metropolis of
+the Eastern world. Vessels from many lands dropped anchor at the
+mouth of the Pasig, and their merchants set up their booths within
+her markets. Slaves from far-distant India and Africa were sold under
+her walls. Surely it was a cosmopolitan population that the shifting
+monsoons carried to and from her gates.
+
+But of all these Eastern races only one has been a constant and
+important factor in the life of the Islands. This is the Chinese. It
+does not appear that they settled in the country or materially affected
+the life of the Filipinos until the establishment of Manila by the
+Spaniards. The Spaniards were early desirous of cultivating friendly
+relations with the Empire of China. Salcedo, on his first punitive
+expedition to Mindoro, had found a Chinese junk, which had gone
+ashore on the western coast. He was careful to rescue these voyagers
+and return them to their own land, with a friendly message inviting
+trading relations. Commerce and immigration followed immediately the
+founding of the city.
+
+The Chinese are without question the most remarkable colonizers in the
+world. They seem able to thrive in any climate. They readily marry with
+every race. The children that follow such unions are not only numerous
+but healthy and intelligent. The coasts of China teem with overcrowding
+populations. Emigration to almost any land means improvement of the
+Chinese of poor birth. These qualities and conditions, with their
+keen sense for trade and their indifference to physical hardship and
+danger, make the Chinese almost a dominant factor wherever political
+barriers have not been raised against their entrance.
+
+The Chinese had early gained an important place in the commercial and
+industrial life of Manila. A letter to the king from Bishop Salazar
+shows that he befriended them and was warm in their praise. [58]
+This was in 1590, and there were then in Manila and Tondo about
+seven thousand resident Chinese, and they were indispensable to the
+prosperity of the city.
+
+Importance of Chinese Labor and Trade.--In the early decades
+of Spanish rule, the Philippines were poor in resources and the
+population was sparse, quite insufficient for the purposes of the
+Spanish colonizers. Thus the early development of the colony was
+based upon Chinese labor and Chinese trade. As the early writers are
+fond of emphasizing, from China came not only the finished silks and
+costly wares, which in large part were destined for the trade to New
+Spain and Europe, but also cattle, horses and mares, foodstuffs,
+metals, fruits, and even ink and paper. "And what is more," says
+Chirino, "from China come those who supply every sort of service,
+all dexterous, prompt, and cheap, from physicians and barbers to
+burden-bearers and porters. They are the tailors and shoemakers,
+metal-workers, silversmiths, sculptors, locksmiths, painters, masons,
+weavers, and finally every kind of servitors in the commonwealth." [59]
+
+Distrust of the Chinese.--In those days, not only were the
+Chinese artisans and traders, but they were also farmers and
+fishermen,--occupations in which they are now not often seen. But in
+spite of their economic necessity, the Chinese were always looked
+upon with disfavor and their presence with dread. Plots of murder
+and insurrection were supposedly rife among them. Writers object that
+their numbers were so great that there was no security in the land;
+their life was bad and vicious; through intercourse with them the
+natives advanced but little in Christianity and customs; they were
+such terrible eaters that they made foods scarce and prices high.
+
+If permitted, they went everywhere through the Islands and committed
+a thousand abuses and offenses. They explored every spot, river,
+estero, and harbor, and knew the country better even than the Spaniard
+himself, so that if any enemy should come they would be able to cause
+infinite mischief. [60] When we find so just and high-minded a man as
+the president of the Audiencia, Morga, giving voice to such charges,
+we may be sure that the feeling was deep and terrible, and practically
+universal among all Spanish inhabitants.
+
+The First Massacre of the Chinese.--Each race feared and suspected the
+other, and from this mutual cowardice came in 1603 a cruel outbreak
+and massacre. Three Chinese mandarins arrived in that year, stating
+that they had been sent by the emperor to investigate a report that
+there was a mountain in Cavite of solid precious metal. This myth was
+no more absurd than many pursued by the Spaniards themselves in their
+early conquests, and it doubtless arose from the fact that Chinese
+wares were largely purchased by Mexican bullion; but the Spaniards
+were at once filled with suspicion of an invasion, and their distrust
+turned against the Chinese in the Islands.
+
+How far these latter were actually plotting sedition and how far they
+were driven into attack by their fears at the conduct of the Spaniards
+can hardly be decided. But the fact is, that on the evening of Saint
+Francis day the Chinese of the Parian rose. The dragon banners were
+raised, war-gongs were beaten, and that night the pueblos of Quiapo
+and Tondo were burned and many Filipinos murdered.
+
+In the morning a force of 130 Spaniards, under Don Luis Dasmarinas and
+Don Tomas Bravo, were sent across the river, and in the fight nearly
+every Spaniard was slain. The Chinese then assaulted the city, but,
+according to the tradition of the priests, they were driven back in
+terror by the apparition on the walls of Saint Francis. They threw up
+forts on the site of the Parian and in Dilao, but the power of their
+wild fury was gone and the Spaniards were able to dislodge and drive
+them into the country about San Pablo de Monte. From here they were
+dispersed with great slaughter. Twenty-three thousand Chinese are
+reported by Zuniga to have perished in this sedition. If his report
+is true, the number of Chinese in the Islands must have increased
+very rapidly between 1590 and 1603.
+
+Restriction of Chinese Immigration and Travel.--Commerce and
+immigration began again almost immediately. The number of Chinese,
+however, allowed to remain was reduced. The Chinese ships that came
+annually to trade were obliged to take back with them the crews and
+passengers which they brought. Only a limited number of merchants and
+artisans were permitted to live in the Islands. They were confined
+to three districts in the city of Manila, and to the great market,
+the Alcayceria or Parian.
+
+The word "Parian" seems to have been also used for the Chinese quarter
+in and adjoining the walled city, but here is meant the district in
+Binondo about the present Calle San Fernando. A block of stores with
+small habitations above them had been built as early as the time of
+Gonsalez. It was in the form of a square, and here were the largest
+numbers of shops and stores.
+
+They could not travel about the Islands, nor go two leagues from the
+city without a written license, nor remain over night within the city
+after the gates were closed, on penalty of their lives. They had their
+own alcalde and judge, a tribunal and jail; and on the north side of
+the river Dominican friars, who had learned the Chinese language,
+had erected a mission and hospital. There was a separate barrio
+for the baptized Chinese and their families, to the number of about
+five hundred.
+
+The Chinese in the Philippines from the earliest time to the present
+have been known by the name of "Sangleyes." The derivation of this
+curious word is uncertain; but Navarrete, who must have understood
+Chinese well, says that the word arose from a misapprehension of
+the words spoken by the Chinese who first presented themselves at
+Manila. "Being asked what they came for, they answered, 'Xang Lei,'
+that is, 'We come to trade.' The Spaniards, who understood not their
+language, conceiving it to be the name of a country, and putting the
+two words together, made one of them, by which they still distinguish
+the Chinese, calling them Sangleyes."
+
+The Japanese Colony.--There was also in those early years quite a
+colony of Japanese. Their community lay between the Parian and the
+barrio of Laguio. There were about five hundred, and among them the
+Franciscans claimed a goodly number of converts.
+
+The Filipino District of Tondo.--We have described at some length
+the city south of the river and the surrounding suburbs, most of them
+known by the names they hold to-day. North of the Pasig was the great
+district of Tondo, the center of that strong, independent Filipino
+feeling which at an early date was colored with Mohammedanism and to
+this day is strong in local feeling. This region has thriven and built
+up until it has long been by far the most important and populous part
+of the metropolis, but not until very recent times was it regarded as
+a part of the city of Manila, which name was reserved for the walled
+citadel alone.
+
+A bridge across the Pasig, on the site of the present Puente de Espana,
+connected the two districts at a date later than Morga's time. It was
+one of the first things noticed by Navarrete, who, without describing
+it well, says it was very fine. It was built during the governorship
+of Nino de Tabora, who died in 1632. [61] Montero states that it was
+of stone, and that this same bridge stood for more than two centuries,
+resisting the incessant traffic and the strength of floods. [62]
+
+The Decline of Manila during the Next Century.--Such was Manila
+thirty-five and forty years after its foundation. It was at the zenith
+of its importance, the capital of the eastern colonies, the mart of
+Asia, more splendid than Goa, more powerful than Malacca or Macao, more
+populous and far more securely held than Ternate and Tidor. "Truly,"
+exclaimed Chirino, "it is another Tyre, so magnified by Ezekiel." It
+owed its great place to the genius and daring of the men who founded
+it, to the freedom of action which it had up to this point enjoyed,
+and to its superlative situation.
+
+In the years that followed we have to recount for the most part only
+the process of decline. Spain herself was fast on the wane. A few
+years later and the English had almost driven her navies from the
+seas, the Portuguese had regained their independence and lost empire,
+the Dutch were in the East, harrying Portuguese and Spaniard alike
+and fast monopolizing the rich trade. The commerce and friendly
+relations with the Chinese, on which so much depended, were broken
+by massacre and reprisal; and, most terrible and piteous of all, the
+awful wrath and lust of the Malay pirate, for decade after decade,
+was to be visited upon the archipelago.
+
+The colonial policy of the mother-land, selfish, shortsighted, and
+criminal, was soon to make its paralyzing influence felt upon trade
+and administration alike. These things were growing and taking place
+in the next period which we have to consider,--the years from 1600
+to 1663. They left the Philippines despoiled and insignificant for a
+whole succeeding century, a decadent colony and an exploited treasure.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE DUTCH AND MORO WARS. 1600-1663.
+
+
+Loss of the Naval Power of Spain and Portugal.--The seizure of
+Portugal by Philip II. in 1580 was disastrous in its consequences to
+both Portugal and Spain. For Portugal it was humiliation and loss
+of colonial power. Spain was unequal to the task of defending the
+Portuguese possessions, and her jealousy of their prosperity seems to
+have caused her deliberately to neglect their interests and permit
+their decline. In one day Portugal lost possession of that splendid
+and daring navy which had first found a way to the Indies. Several
+hundred Portuguese ships, thousands of guns, and large sums of money
+were appropriated by Spain upon the annexation of Portugal. [63]
+Most of these ill-fated ships went down in the English Channel with
+the Great Armada.
+
+When the terrible news of the destruction of this powerful armament,
+on which rested Spanish hopes for the conquest and humiliation of
+England, was brought to the Escorial, the magnificent palace where
+the years of the king were passed, Philip II., that strange man,
+whose countenance never changed at tidings of either defeat or
+victory, is reported to have simply said, "I thank God that I have
+the power to replace the loss." He was fatuously mistaken. The loss
+could never be made good. The navies of Spain and Portugal were never
+fully rebuilt. In that year (1588), preeminence on the sea passed to
+the English and the Dutch.
+
+The Netherlands Become an Independent Country.--Who were these Dutch,
+or Hollanders? How came they to wrest from Spain and Portugal a
+colonial empire, which they hold to-day without loss of prosperity or
+evidence of decline? In the north of Europe, facing the North Sea,
+is a low, rich land, intersected by rivers and washed far into its
+interior by the tides, known as Holland, the Low Countries, or the
+Netherlands. Its people have ever been famed for their industry and
+hardihood. In manufacture and trade in the latter Middle Age, they
+stood far in the lead in northern Europe, Their towns and cities were
+the thriftiest, most prosperous, and most cleanly.
+
+We have already explained the curious facts of succession by which
+these countries became a possession of the Spanish king, Emperor
+Charles the Fifth. The Low Countries were always greatly prized by
+Charles, and in spite of the severities of his rule he held their
+affection and loyalty until his death. It was in the city of Antwerp
+that he formally abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II., and,
+as described by contemporary historians, this solemn and imposing
+ceremony was witnessed with every mark of loyalty by the assembly.
+
+The Rebellion.--But the oppressions and persecutions of Philip's
+reign drove the people to rebellion. The Netherlands had embraced the
+Protestant religion, and when, in addition to plunder, intimidation,
+the quartering of Spanish soldiery, and the violation of sovereign
+promises, Philip imposed that terrible and merciless institution,
+the Spanish Inquisition, the Low Countries faced the tyrant in a
+passion of rebellion.
+
+War, begun in 1556, dragged on for years. There was pitiless cruelty,
+and the sacking of cities was accompanied by fearful butchery. In
+1575 the seven Dutch counties declared their independence, and formed
+the republic of the Netherlands. Although the efforts of Spain to
+reconquer the territory continued until the end of the century,
+practical independence was gained some years before.
+
+Trade between Portugal and the Netherlands Forbidden.--A large portion
+of the commerce of the Low Countries had been with Lisbon. The
+Portuguese did not distribute to Europe the products which their
+navies brought from the Indies. Foreign merchants purchased in Lisbon
+and carried these wares to other lands, and to a very large degree
+this service had been performed by the Dutch. But on the annexation
+of Portugal, Philip forbade all commerce and trade between the two
+countries. By this act the Dutch, deprived of their Lisbon trade,
+had to face the alternative of commercial ruin or the gaining of those
+Eastern products for themselves. They chose the latter course with all
+its risks. It was soon made possible by the destruction of the Armada.
+
+The Dutch Expeditions to the Indies.--In 1595 their first expedition,
+led by one Cornelius Houtman, who had sailed in Portuguese galleons,
+rounded the Cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian domain. The
+objective point was Java, where an alliance was formed with the
+native princes and a cargo of pepper secured. Two things were shown
+by the safe return of this fleet,--the great wealth and profit of
+the Indian trade, and the inability of Spain and Portugal to maintain
+their monopoly.
+
+In 1598 the merchants of Amsterdam defeated a combined Spanish and
+Portuguese fleet in the East, and trading settlements were secured
+in Java and Johore. In 1605 they carried their factories to Amboina
+and Tidor.
+
+Effect of the Success of the Dutch.--The exclusive monopoly over the
+waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, which Portugal and Spain
+had maintained for a century, was broken. With the concurrence of
+the Roman See, they had tried to divide the New World and the Orient
+between them. That effort was now passed. They had claimed the right
+to exclude from the vast oceans they had discovered the vessels of
+every other nation but their own.
+
+This doctrine in the History of International Law is known as that
+of mare clausum, or "closed sea." The death-blow to this domination
+was given by the entrance of the Dutch into the Indies, and it is
+not a mere coincidence that we find the doctrine of closed sea itself
+scientifically assailed, a few years later, by the great Dutch jurist,
+Grotius, the founder of the system of international law in his work,
+De Libero Mare.
+
+The Trading Methods of the Dutch.--The Dutch made no attempts in the
+Indies to found great colonies for political domination and religious
+conversion. Commerce was their sole object. Their policy was to form
+alliances with native rulers, promising to assist them against the
+rule of the Portuguese or Spaniard in return for exclusive privileges
+of trade. In this they were more than successful.
+
+In 1602 they obtained permission to establish a factory at
+Bantam, on the island of Java. This was even then a considerable
+trading-point. "Chinese, Arabs, Persians, Moors, Turks, Malabars,
+Peguans, and merchants from all nations were established there,"
+the principal object of trade being pepper. [64]
+
+The character of the treaty made by the Dutch with the king of Bantam
+is stated by Raffles. "The Dutch stipulated to assist him against
+foreign invaders, particularly Spaniards and Portuguese; and the king,
+on his side, agreed to make over to the Dutch a good and strong fort,
+a free trade, and security for "their persons and property without
+payment of any duties or taxes, and to allow no other European nation
+to trade or reside in his territories."
+
+Spanish Expedition against the Dutch in the Moluccas.--The Spaniards,
+however, did not relinquish the field to these new foes without
+a struggle, and the conflict fills the history of the eighteenth
+century. When the Dutch expelled the Portuguese from Amboina and Tidor
+in February, 1605, many of the Portuguese came to the Philippines
+and enlisted in the Spanish forces. The governor, Don Pedro Bravo de
+Acuna, filled with wrath at the loss of these important possessions,
+with great activity organized an expedition for their conquest.
+
+In the previous year there had arrived from Spain eight hundred
+troops, two hundred of them being native Mexicans. Thus Acuna was
+able to organize a powerful fleet that mounted seventy-five pieces
+of artillery and carried over fourteen hundred Spaniards and sixteen
+hundred Indians. [65] The fleet sailed in January, 1606. Tidor was
+taken without resistance and the Dutch factory seized, with a great
+store of money, goods, and weapons. The Spaniards then assailed
+Ternate; the fort and plaza were bombarded, and then the town was
+carried by storm.
+
+Thus, at last was accomplished the adventure which for nearly a
+century had inspired the ambitions of the Spaniards, which had drawn
+the fleet of Magellan, which had wrecked the expeditions of Loyasa and
+Villalobos, for which the Spaniards in the Philippines had prepared
+expedition after expedition, and for which Governor Dasmarinas had
+sacrificed his life. At last the Moluccas had been taken by the forces
+of Spain.
+
+Capture of a Dutch Fleet at Mariveles.--So far from disposing of
+their enemies, however, this action simply brought the Dutch into
+the Philippines. In 1609, Juan de Silva became governor of the
+Islands and in the same year arrived the Dutch admiral, Wittert,
+with a squadron. After an unsuccessful attack on Iloilo, the Dutch
+fleet anchored off Mariveles, to capture vessels arriving for the
+Manila trade.
+
+At this place, on the 25th of April, 1610, the Spanish fleet, which had
+been hastily fitted at Cavite, attacked the Dutch, killing the admiral
+and taking all the ships but one, two hundred and fifty prisoners, and
+a large amount of silver and merchandise. These prisoners seem to have
+been treated with more mercy than the captives of Van Noort's fleet,
+who were hung at Cavite. The wounded are said to have been cared for,
+and the friars from all the religious orders vied with one another
+to convert these "Protestant pirates" from their heresy.
+
+An Expedition against the Dutch in Java.--Spain made a truce of her
+European wars with Holland in 1609, but this cessation of hostilities
+was never recognized in the East. The Dutch and Spanish colonists
+continued to war upon and pillage each other until late in the
+century. Encouraged by his victory over Wittert, Silva negotiated with
+the Portuguese allies in Goa, India, to drive the Dutch from Java. A
+powerful squadron sailed from Cavite in 1616 for this purpose. It
+was the largest fleet which up to that date had ever been assembled
+in the Philippines. The expedition, however, failed to unite with
+their Portuguese allies, and in April, Silva died at Malacca of
+malignant fever.
+
+The Dutch Fleets.--Battles near Corregidor.--The fleet returned
+to Cavite to find that the city, while stripped of soldiers and
+artillery, had been in a fever of anxiety and apprehension over the
+proximity of Dutch vessels. They were those of Admiral Spilbergen,
+who had arrived by way of the Straits of Magellan and the Pacific. He
+has left us a chart of the San Bernadino Straits, which is reproduced
+here. Spilbergen bombarded Ilolio and then sailed for the Moluccas.
+
+A year later he returned, met a Spanish fleet of seven galleons and
+two galleras near Manila and suffered a severe defeat. [66] The battle
+began with cannonading on Friday, April 13, and continued throughout
+the day. On the following day the vessels came to close quarters,
+the Spaniards boarded the Dutch vessels, and the battle was fought
+out with the sword.
+
+The Dutch were overwhelmed. Probably their numbers were few. The
+Relacion states they had fourteen galleons, but other accounts put
+the number at ten, three vessels of which were destroyed or taken by
+the Spaniards. One of them, the beautiful ship, "The Sun of Holland,"
+was burned. This combat is known as the battle of Playa Honda. Another
+engagement took place in the same waters of Corregidor, late in 1624,
+when a Dutch fleet was driven away without serious loss to either side.
+
+The Dutch Capture Chinese Junks, and Galleons.--But through
+the intervening years, fleets of the Hollanders were continually
+arriving, both by the way of the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits
+of Magellan. Those that came across the Pacific almost invariably
+cruised up the Strait of San Bernadino, securing the fresh provisions
+so desirable to them after their long voyage.
+
+The prizes which they made of Chinese vessels, passing Corregidor
+for Manila, give us an idea of how considerably the Spaniards in the
+Philippines relied upon China for their food. Junks, or "champans,"
+were continually passing Corregidor, laden with chickens, hogs, rice,
+sugar, and other comestibles. [67]
+
+The Mexican galleons were frequently destroyed or captured by these
+lurking fleets of the Dutch, and for a time the route through the
+Straits of San Bernadino had to be abandoned, the galleons reaching
+Manila by way of Cape Engano, or sometimes landing in Cagayan,
+and more than once going ashore on the Pacific side of the island,
+at Binangonan de Lampon.
+
+The Dutch in Formosa.--The Dutch also made repeated efforts to wrest
+from Portugal her settlement and trade in China. As early as 1557
+the Portuguese had established a settlement on the island of Macao,
+one of these numerous islets that fill the estuary of the river of
+Canton. This is the oldest European settlement in China and has been
+held continuously by the Portuguese until the present day, when it
+remains almost the last vestige of the once mighty Portuguese empire
+of the East. It was much coveted by the Dutch because of its importance
+in the trade with Canton and Fukien.
+
+In 1622 a fleet from Java brought siege to Macao, and, being
+repulsed, sailed to the Pescadores Islands, where they built a
+fort and established a post, which threatened both the Portuguese
+trade with Japan and the Manila trade with Amoy. Two years later, on
+the solicitation of the Chinese government, the Dutch removed their
+settlement to Formosa, where they broke up the Spanish mission stations
+and held the island for the succeeding thirty-five years. Thus,
+throughout the century, these European powers harassed and raided
+one another, but no one of them was sufficiently strong to expel the
+others from the East.
+
+The Portuguese Colonies.--In 1640 the kingdom of Portugal freed
+itself from the domination of Spain. With the same blow Spain lost
+the great colonial possessions that came to her with the attachment of
+the Portuguese. "All the places," says Zuniga, "which the Portuguese
+had in the Indies, separated themselves from the crown of Castile and
+recognized as king, Don Juan of Portugal." "This same year," he adds,
+"the Dutch took Malacca." [68]
+
+The Moros.--Increase of Moro Piracy.--During all these years the raids
+of the Moros of Maguindanao and Jolo had never ceased. Their piracies
+were almost continuous. There was no security; churches were looted,
+priests killed, people borne away for ransom or for slavery. Obviously,
+this piracy could only be met by destroying it at its source. Defensive
+fortifications and protective fleets were of no consequence, when
+compared with the necessity of subduing the Moro in his own lairs. In
+1628 and 1630 punitive expeditions were sent against Jolo, Basilan, and
+Mindanao, which drove the Moros from their forts, burned their towns,
+and cut down their groves of cocoanut trees. But such expeditions
+served only to inflame the more the wrathful vengeance of the Moro,
+and in 1635 the government resolved upon a change of policy and the
+establishment of a presidio at Zamboanga.
+
+Founding of a Spanish Post at Zamboanga.--This brings us to a new
+phase in the Moro wars. The governor, Juan Cerezo de Salamanca,
+was determined upon the conquest and the occupation of Mindanao and
+Jolo. In taking this step, Salamanca, like Corcuera, who succeeded him,
+acted under the influence of the Jesuits. Their missions in Bohol and
+northern Mindanao made them ambitious to reserve for the ministrations
+of their society all lands that were conquered and occupied, south
+of the Bisayas.
+
+The Jesuits were the missionaries on Ternate and Siao and wherever in
+the Moluccas and Celebes the Spanish and Portuguese had established
+their power. The Jesuits had accompanied the expedition of Rodriguez
+de Figueroa in 1595, and from that date they never ceased petitioning
+the government for a military occupation of these islands and for
+their own return, as the missionaries of these regions. The Jesuits
+were brilliant and able administrators. For men of their ambition,
+Mindanao, with its rich soil, attractive productions, and comparatively
+numerous populations, was a most enticing field for the establishment
+of such a theocratic commonwealth as the Jesuits had created and
+administered in America. [69]
+
+On the other hand, the occupation of Zamboanga was strenuously
+opposed by the other religious orders; but the Jesuits, ever
+remarkable for their ascendancy in affairs of state, were able to
+effect the establishment of Zamboanga, though they could not prevent
+its abandonment a quarter of a century later.
+
+Erection of the Forts.--The presidio was founded in 1635, by a force
+under Don Juan de Chaves. His army consisted of three hundred Spaniards
+and one thousand Bisaya, The end of the peninsula was swept of Moro
+inhabitants and their towns destroyed by fire. In June the foundations
+of the stone fort were laid under the direction of the Jesuit, Father
+Vera, who is described as being experienced in military engineering
+and architecture.
+
+To supply the new site with water, a ditch was built from the river
+Tumaga, a distance of six or seven miles, which brought a copious
+stream to the very walls of the fort. The advantage or failure of
+this expensive fortress is very hard to determine. Its planting was
+a partisan measure, and it was always subject to partisan praise
+and partisan blame. Sometimes it seemed to have checked the Moros
+and sometimes seemed only to be stirring them to fresh anger and
+aggression.
+
+The same year that saw the establishment of Zamboanga, Hortado de
+Corcuera became governor of the Philippines. He was much under the
+influence of the Jesuits and confirmed their policy of conquest.
+
+Defeat of the Moro Pirate Tagal.--A few months later a notable fleet
+of pirates, recruited from Mindanao, Jolo, and Borneo, and headed by
+a chieftain named Tagal, a brother of the notorious Correlat, sultan
+of Maguindanao, went defiantly past the new presidio and northward
+through the Mindoro Sea. For more than seven months they cruised the
+Bisayas. The islands of the Camarines especially felt their ravages. In
+Cuyo they captured the corregidor and three friars. Finally, with
+650 captives and rich booty, including the ornaments and services of
+churches, Tagal turned southward on his return.
+
+The presidio of Zamboanga had prepared to intercept him and a fierce
+battle took place off the Punta de Flechas, thirty leagues to the
+northeast of Zamboanga. According to the Spanish writers, this point
+was one held sacred by Moro superstitions. A deity inhabited these
+waters, whom the Moros were accustomed to propitiate on the departure
+and arrival of their expeditions, by throwing into the sea lances and
+arrows. The victory was a notable one for the Spanish arms. Tagal
+and more than 300 Moros were killed, and 120 Christian captives
+were released.
+
+Corcuera's Expedition against the Moros at Lamitan.--Corcuera had
+meanwhile been preparing an expedition, which had taken on the
+character of a holy war. Jesuit and soldier mingled in its company
+and united in its direction. The Jesuit saint, Francis Xavier, was
+proclaimed patron of the expedition, and mass was celebrated daily
+on the ships. Corcuera himself accompanied the expedition, and at
+Zamboanga, where they arrived February 22, 1637, he united a force
+of 760 Spaniards and many Bisayans and Pampangas.
+
+From Zamboanga the force started for Lamitan, the stronghold of
+Correlat, and the center of the power of the Maguindanao. It seems
+to have been situated on the coast, south of the region of Lake
+Lanao. The fleet encountered rough weather and contrary winds off Punta
+de Flechas, which they attributed to the influence of the Moro demon.
+
+To rid the locality of this unholy influence, Padre Marcello, the
+Jesuit superior, occupied himself for two days. Padre Combes has left
+us an account of the ceremony. [70] The demon was dispossessed by
+exorcism. Mass was celebrated. Various articles, representing Moro
+infidelity, including arrows, were destroyed and burnt. Holy relics
+were thrown into the waters, and the place was finally sanctified by
+baptism in the name of Saint Sebastian.
+
+On the 14th of March the expedition reached Lamitan, fortified and
+defended by two thousand Moro warriors. The Spanish force, however,
+was overwhelming, and the city was taken by storm. Here were captured
+eight bronze cannon, twenty-seven "versos" (a kind of small howitzer),
+and over a hundred muskets and arquebuses and a great store of Moro
+weapons. Over one hundred vessels were destroyed, including a fleet
+of Malay merchant praos from Java. Sixteen villages were burned, and
+seventy-two Moros were hung. Correlat, though pursued and wounded,
+was not captured. [71]
+
+The Conquest of Jolo.--Corcuera returned to Zamboanga and organized an
+expedition for the conquest of Jolo. Although defended by four thousand
+Moro warriors and by allies from Basilan and the Celebes, Corcuera took
+Jolo after some months of siege. The sultan saved himself by flight,
+but the sultana was taken prisoner. Corcuera reconstructed the fort,
+established a garrison of two hundred Spaniards and an equal number
+of Pampangas, left some Jesuit fathers, and, having nominated Major
+Almonte chief of all the forces in the south, returned in May, 1638,
+to Manila, with all the triumph of a conqueror.
+
+Almonte continued the work of subjugation. In 1639 he conquered the
+Moro dato of Buhayen, in the valley of the Rio Grande, where a small
+presidio was founded. And in the same year the Jesuits prevailed upon
+him to invade the territory of the Malanao, now known as the Laguna
+de Lanao. This expedition was made from the north through Iligan,
+and for a time brought even this warlike and difficult territory
+under the authority of the governor and the spiritual administration
+of the Jesuits.
+
+Loss of the Spanish Settlement on Formosa.--The full military success
+of Corcuera's governorship was marred by the loss of Macao and the
+capture of the Spanish settlement on the island of Formosa by the
+Dutch. In the attempt to hold Macao, Corcuera sent over the encomendero
+of Pasig, Don Juan Claudio. The populace of Macao, however, rose in
+tumult, assassinated the governor, Sebastian Lobo, and pronounced in
+favor of Portugal. Later, by decree of the Portuguese governor of Goa,
+all the Spanish residents and missionaries were expelled. The Dutch
+seizure of Formosa, a year later, has already been described.
+
+The Archipelago and the Religious Orders.--During these decades,
+conflict was almost incessant between the archbishop of Manila and
+the regular orders. In the Philippines the regulars were the parish
+curates, and the archbishop desired that all matters of their curacy,
+touching the administration of the sacraments and other parish duties,
+should be subject to the direction of the bishops. This question of
+the "diocesan visit" was fought over for nearly two hundred years.
+
+The Governor and the Archbishop.--Even more serious to the colony
+were the conflicts that raged between the governor-general and the
+archbishop. All the points of dissension between Church and State,
+which vexed the Middle Ages, broke out afresh in the Philippines. The
+appointment of religious officers; the distribution of revenue; the
+treatment of the natives; the claim of the church to offer asylum to
+those fleeing the arm of the law; its claims of jurisdiction, in its
+ecclesiastical courts, over a large class of civil offenses--these
+disputes and many others, occasioned almost incessant discord between
+the heads of civil and ecclesiastical authority.
+
+
+The "Residencia."--We have seen that the power of the governor was
+in fact very large. Theoretically, the Audiencia was a limit upon
+his authority; but in fact the governor was usually the president of
+this body, and the oidores were frequently his abettors and rarely
+his opponents. At the end of each governor's rule there took place a
+characteristic Spanish institution, called the "Residencia." This was
+a court held by the newly elected governor, for an examination into
+the conduct of his predecessor. Complaints of every description were
+received, and often, in the history of the Philippines, one who had
+ruled the archipelago almost as an independent monarch found himself,
+at the end of his office, ruined, and in chains.
+
+It was upon the occasion of the Residencia that the ecclesiastical
+powers, after a governorship stormy with disputes, exercised their
+power for revenge. Unquestionably many a governor, despite his actual
+power, facing, as he did, the Residencia at the termination of his
+rule, made peace with his enemies and yielded to their demands.
+
+Corcuera had continuous troubles with the archbishop and with the
+religious orders other than the Jesuits. In 1644, when his successor,
+Fajardo, relieved him, the Franciscans, Augustinians, and Recollects
+procured his imprisonment and the confiscation of his property. For
+five years, the conqueror of the Moros lay a prisoner in the fortresses
+of Santiago and Cavite, when he was pardoned by the Council of the
+Indies, and appointed governor of the Canaries by the king.
+
+Weakening of the Governor's Power.--This power of private and
+religious classes to intimidate and overawe the responsible head of the
+Philippine government was an abuse which continued to the very close
+of the Spanish rule. This, together with the relatively short term of
+the governor's office, his natural desire to avoid trouble, his all
+too frequent purpose of amassing a fortune rather than maintaining the
+dignity of his position and advancing the interests of the Islands,
+combined decade after decade to make the spiritual authority more
+powerful. In the end the religious orders, with their great body of
+members, their hold upon the Filipinos, their high influence at the
+court, and finally their great landed wealth, governed the Islands.
+
+The Educational Work of the Religious Orders.--In any criticism of
+the evils connected with their administration of the Philippines,
+one must not fail to recognize the many achievements of the missionary
+friars that were worthy. To the Dominicans and the Jesuits is due the
+establishment of institutions of learning. The Jesuits in 1601 had
+planted their College of San Jose. The Dominicans, here as in Europe,
+the champions of orthodox learning, had their own institution, the
+College of Santo Tomas, inaugurated in 1619, and were the rivals of
+the Jesuits for the privilege of giving higher instruction.
+
+In 1645 the pope granted to the Dominicans the right to bestow higher
+degrees, and their college became the "Royal and Pontifical University
+of Saint Thomas Aquinas." This splendid name breathes that very spirit
+of the Middle Ages which the Dominican order strove to perpetuate in
+the Philippines down to modern days. [72] Dominicans also founded
+the College of San Juan de Letran, as a preparatory school to the
+University.
+
+We should not pass over the educational work of the religious
+orders without mention of the early printing-plants and their
+publications. The missionary friars were famous printers, and in the
+Philippines, as well as in America, some noble volumes were produced
+by their handicraft.
+
+Founding of Hospitals by the Franciscans.--Nor had the Franciscans
+in the Philippines neglected the fundamental purpose of their
+foundation,--that of ministration to the sick and unprotected. A
+narrative of their order, written in 1649, gives a long list of their
+beneficent foundations. [73] Besides the hospital of Manila, they
+had an infirmary at Cavite for the native mariners and shipbuilders,
+a hospital at Los Banos, another in the city of Nueva Caceras. Lay
+brethren were attached to many of the convents as nurses.
+
+In 1633 a curious occurrence led to the founding of the leper hospital
+of San Lazaro. The emperor of Japan, in a probably ironical mood,
+sent to Manila a shipload of Japanese afflicted with this unfortunate
+disease. These people were mercifully received by the Franciscans, and
+cared for in a home, which became the San Lazaro hospital for lepers.
+
+Life and Progress of the Filipinos.--Few sources exist that can
+show us the life and progress of the Filipino people during these
+decades. Christianity, as introduced by the missionary friars,
+was wonderfully successful, and yet there were relapses into
+heathenism. Old religious leaders and priestesses roused up from
+time to time, and incited the natives to rebellion against their new
+spiritual masters. The payment of tribute and the labor required for
+the building of churches often drove the people into the mountains.
+
+Religious Revolt at Bohol and Leyte.--In 1621 a somewhat serious
+revolt took place on Bohol. The Jesuits who administered the island
+were absent in Cebu, attending the fiestas on the canonization
+of Saint Francis Xavier. The whisper was raised that the old
+heathen deity, Diwata, was at hand to assist in the expulsion of
+the Spaniards. The island rose in revolt, except the two towns of
+Loboc and Baclayan. Four towns were burned, the churches sacked, and
+the sacred images speared. The revolt spread to Leyte, where it was
+headed by the old dato, Bancao of Limasaua, who had sworn friendship
+with Legaspi. This insurrection was put down by the alcalde mayor of
+Cebu and the Filipino leaders were hung. On Leyte, Bancao was speared
+in battle, and one of the heathen priests suffered the penalty,
+prescribed by the Inquisition for heresy--death by burning.
+
+Revolt of the Pampangas.--The heavy drafting of natives to fell trees
+and build the ships for the Spanish naval expeditions and the Acapulco
+trade was also a cause for insurrection. In 1660 a thousand Pampangas
+were kept cutting in the forests of that province alone. Sullen at
+their heavy labor and at the harshness of their overseers, these
+natives rose in revolt. The sedition spread to Pangasinan, Zambales,
+and Ilocos, and it required the utmost efforts of the Spanish forces
+on land and water to suppress the rebellion.
+
+Uprising of the Chinese.--In spite of the terrible massacre, that had
+been visited upon the Chinese at the beginning of the century, they
+had almost immediately commenced returning not only as merchants, but
+as colonists. The early restrictions upon their life must have been
+relaxed, for in 1639 there were more than thirty thousand living in
+the Islands, many of them cultivating lands at Calamba and at other
+points on the Laguna de Bay.
+
+In that year a rebellion broke out, in which the Chinese in Manila
+participated. They seized the church of San Pedro Mecati, on the Pasig,
+and fortified themselves. From there they were routed by a combined
+Filipino and Spanish force. The Chinese then broke up into small
+bands, which scattered through the country, looting and murdering,
+but being pursued and cut to pieces by the Filipinos. For five months
+this pillage and massacre went on, until seven thousand Chinese were
+destroyed. By the loss of these agriculturists and laborers Manila
+was reduced to great distress.
+
+Activity of the Moro Pirates.--The task of the Spaniards in controlling
+the Moro datos continued to be immensely difficult. During the years
+following the successes of Corcuera and Almonte, the Moros were
+continually plotting. Aid was furnished from Borneo and the Celebes,
+and they were further incited by the Dutch. In spite of the vigilance
+of Zamboanga, small piratical excursions continually harassed the
+Bisayas and the Camarines.
+
+Continued Conflicts with the Dutch.--The Dutch, too, from time to time
+showed themselves in Manila. In 1646 a squadron attacked Zamboanga,
+and then came north to Luzon. The Spanish naval strength was quite
+unprepared; but two galleons, lately arrived from Acapulco, were
+fitted with heavy guns, Dominican friars took their places among
+the gunners, and, under the protection of the Virgin of the Rosary,
+successfully encountered the enemy.
+
+A year later a fleet of twelve vessels entered Manila Bay, and nearly
+succeeded in taking Cavite. Failing in this, they landed in Bataan
+province, and for some time held the coast of Manila Bay in the
+vicinity of Abucay. The narrative of Franciscan missions in 1649,
+above cited, gives town after town in southern Luzon, where church
+and convent had been burned by the Moros or the Dutch.
+
+The Abandonment of Zamboanga and the Moluccas.--The threat of the Dutch
+made the maintenance of the presidio of Zamboanga very burdensome. In
+1656 the administration of the Moluccas was united with that of
+Mindanao, and the governor of the former, Don Francisco de Esteybar,
+was transferred from Ternate to Zamboanga and made lieutenant-governor
+and captain-general of all the provinces of the south.
+
+Six years later, the Moluccas, so long coveted by the Spaniards, and so
+slowly won by them, together with Zamboanga, were wholly abandoned, and
+to the Spice Islands the Spaniards were never to return. This sudden
+retirement from their southern possessions was not, however, occasioned
+by the incessant restlessness of the Moros nor by the plottings of
+the Dutch. It was due to a threat of danger from the north.
+
+Koxinga the Chinese Adventurer.--In 1644, China was conquered by the
+Manchus. Pekin capitulated at once and the Ming dynasty was overthrown,
+but it was only by many years of fighting that the Manchus overcame
+the Chinese of the central and southern provinces. These were years
+of turbulence, revolt, and piracy.
+
+More than one Chinese adventurer rose to a romantic position during
+this disturbed time. One of these adventurers, named It Coan, had been
+a poor fisherman of Chio. He had lived in Macao, where he had been
+converted to Christianity, and had been a cargador, or cargo-bearer,
+in Manila. He afterwards went to Japan, and engaged in trade. From
+these humble and laborious beginnings, like many another of his
+persistent countrymen, he gained great wealth, which on the conquest
+of the Manchus he devoted to piracy.
+
+His son was the notorious Kue-Sing, or Koxinga, who for years resisted
+the armies of the Manchus, and maintained an independent power over
+the coasts of Fukien and Chekiang. About 1660 the forces of the Manchus
+became too formidable for him to longer resist them upon the mainland,
+and Koxinga determined upon the capture of Formosa and the transference
+of his kingdom to that island.
+
+For thirty-eight years this island had been dominated by the Dutch,
+whose fortresses commanded the channel of the Pescadores. The colony
+was regarded as an important one by the Dutch colonial government at
+Batavia. The city of Tai-wan, on the west coast, was a considerable
+center of trade. It was strongly protected by the fortress of Zealand,
+and had a garrison of twenty-two hundred Dutch soldiers. After months
+of fighting, Koxinga, with an overpowering force of Chinese, compelled
+the surrender of the Hollanders and the beautiful island passed into
+his power.
+
+A Threatened Invasion of the Philippines.--Exalted by his success
+against European arms, Koxinga resolved upon the conquest of
+the Philippines. He summoned to his service the Italian Dominican
+missionary, Ricci, who had been living in the province of Fukien, and
+in the spring of 1662 dispatched him as an ambassador to the governor
+of the Philippines to demand the submission of the archipelago.
+
+Manila was thrown into a terrible panic by this demand, and indeed
+no such danger had threatened the Spanish in the Philippines since
+the invasion of Limahong. The Chinese conqueror had an innumerable
+army, and his armament, stores, and navy had been greatly augmented
+by the surrender of the Dutch. The Spaniards, however, were united
+on resistance. The governor, Don Sabiano Manrique de Lara, returned a
+defiant answer to Koxinga, and the most radical measures were adopted
+to place the colony in a state of defense.
+
+All Chinese were ordered immediately to leave the Islands. Fearful
+of massacre, these wretched people again broke out in rebellion,
+and assaulted the city. Many were slain, and other bands wandered
+off into the mountains, where they perished at the hands of the
+natives. Others, escaping by frail boats, joined the Chinese colonists
+on Formosa. Churches and convents in the suburbs of Manila, which might
+afford shelter to the assailant, were razed to the ground. More than
+all this, the Moluccas were forsaken, never again to be recovered by
+Spaniards; and the presidios of Zamboanga and Cuyo, which served as a
+kind of bridle on the Moros of Jolo and Mindanao, were abandoned. All
+Spanish troops were concentrated in Manila, fortifications were
+rebuilt, and the population waited anxiously for the attack. But the
+blow never fell. Before Ricci arrived at Tai-wan, Koxinga was dead,
+and the peril of Chinese invasion had passed.
+
+Effects of These Events.--But the Philippines had suffered
+irretrievable loss. Spanish prestige was gone. Manila was no longer,
+as she had been at the commencement of the century, the capital of
+the East. Spanish sovereignty was again confined to Luzon and the
+Bisayas. The Chinese trade, on which rested the economic prosperity
+of Manila, had once again been ruined. For a hundred years the history
+of the Philippines is a dull monotony, quite unrelieved by any heroic
+activity or the presence of noble character. [74]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+A CENTURY OF OBSCURITY AND DECLINE. 1663-1762.
+
+
+Political Decline of the Philippines.--For the hundred years succeeding
+the abandonment of the Moluccas, the Philippines lost all political
+significance as a colony. From almost every standpoint they were
+profitless to Spain. There were continued deficits, which had to be
+made good from the Mexican treasury. The part of Spain in the conquest
+of the East was over, and the Philippines became little more than a
+great missionary establishment, presided over by the religious orders.
+
+Death of Governor Salcedo by the Inquisition.--In 1663, Lara was
+succeeded by Don Diego de Salcedo. On his arrival, Manila had high
+hopes of him, which were speedily disappointed. He loaded the Acapulco
+galleon with his own private merchandise, and then dispatched it
+earlier than was usual, before the cargoes of the merchants were
+ready. He engaged in a wearisome strife with the archbishop, and
+seems to have worried the ecclesiastic, who was aged and feeble,
+into his grave. At the end of a few years he was hated by every one,
+and a conspiracy against him was formed which embraced the religious,
+the army, the civil officials, and the merchants. Beyond the reach of
+the power of ordinary plotters, he fell a victim to the commissioner
+of the Inquisition.
+
+The Spanish Inquisition, which wrought such cruelty and misery in the
+Peninsula, was carried also to the Spanish colonies. As we have seen,
+it was primarily the function of the Dominican order to administer
+the institution. The powers exercised by an inquisitor can scarcely
+be understood at the present day. His methods were secret, the
+charges were not made public, the whole proceedings were closeted,
+and yet so great were the powers of this court that none could
+resist its authority, or inquire into its actions. Spain forbade
+any heretics, Jews, or Moors going to the colonies, and did the
+utmost to prevent heresy abroad. She also established in America the
+Inquisition itself. Fortunately, it never attained the importance in
+the Philippines that it had in Spain. In the Philippines there was no
+"Tribunal," the institution being represented solely by a commissioner.
+
+Death of the Governor.--In 1667, when the unpopularity of Governor
+Salcedo was at its height, this commissioner professed to discover in
+him grounds of heresy from the fact that he had been born in Flanders,
+and decided to avenge the Church by encompassing his ruin. By secret
+arrangement, the master of the camp withdrew the guard from the palace,
+and the commissioner, with several confederates, gained admission. The
+door of the governor's room was opened by an old woman, who had been
+terrified into complicity, and the governor was seized sleeping,
+with his arms lying at the head of his bed.
+
+The commissioner informed the governor that he was a prisoner of the
+Holy Office. He was taken to the convent of the Augustinians. Here he
+was kept in chains until he could be sent to Mexico, to appear before
+the Tribunal there. The government in Mexico annulled the arrest of
+the commissioner, but Salcedo died at sea on the return of the vessel
+to the Philippines in 1669.
+
+Colonization of the Ladrone Islands.--In 1668 a Jesuit mission under
+Padre Diego Luis de Sanvitores was established on the Ladrones, the
+first of the many mission stations, both Roman Catholic and Protestant,
+in the South Pacific. The islands at that time were well populated
+and fertile, and had drawn the enthusiasm of Padre Sanvitores in 1662
+when he first sailed to the Philippines.
+
+The hostility of the Manchus in China, the Japanese persecutions,
+and the abandonment of Mindanao had closed many mission fields,
+and explains the eagerness with which the Jesuits sought the royal
+permission to Christianize these islands, which had been so constantly
+visited by Spanish ships but never before colonized. With Padre
+Sanvitores and his five Jesuit associates were a number of Christian
+Filipino catechists.
+
+Settlement of Guam.--The mission landed at Guam, and was favorably
+received. Society among these islanders was divided into castes. The
+chiefs were known as chamorri, which has led to the natives of the
+Ladrones being called "Chamorros." A piece of ground was given the
+Jesuits for a church at the principal town called Agadna (Agana), and
+here also a seminary was built for the instruction of young men. The
+queen regent of Spain, Maria of Austria, gave an annual sum to this
+school, and in her honor the Jesuits changed the name of the islands
+to the Marianas. The Jesuits preached on eleven inhabited islands
+of the group, and in a year's time had baptized thirteen thousand
+islanders and given instruction to twenty thousand.
+
+Troubles with the Natives at Guam.--This first year was the most
+successful in the history of the mission. Almost immediately after,
+the Jesuits angered the islanders by compulsory conversions. There were
+quarrels in several places, and priests, trying to baptize children
+against the wishes of their parents, were killed. In 1670 the Spaniards
+were attacked, and obliged to fortify themselves at Agana.
+
+The Jesuits had a guard of a Spanish captain and about thirty Spanish
+and Filipino soldiers, who, after some slaughter of the natives,
+compelled them to sue for peace. The conditions imposed by the Jesuits
+were that the natives should attend mass and festivals, have their
+children baptized, and send them to be catechised. The hatred of the
+natives was unabated, however, and in 1672 Sanvitores was killed by
+them. His biographer claims that at his death he had baptized nearly
+fifty thousand of these islanders. [75]
+
+Depopulation of the Ladrone Islands.--About 1680 a governor was
+sent to the islands, and they were organized as a dependency of
+Spain. The policy of the governors and the Jesuits was conversion by
+the sword. The natives were persecuted from island to island, and in
+the history of European settlements there is hardly one that had more
+miserable consequences to the inhabitants. Disease was introduced and
+swept off large numbers. Others fell resisting the Spaniards, and an
+entire island was frequently depopulated by order of the governor, or
+the desire of the Jesuits to have the natives brought to Guam. Many,
+with little doubt, fled to other archipelagoes.
+
+If we can trust the Jesuit accounts, there were in the whole group one
+hundred thousand inhabitants when the Spaniards arrived. A generation
+saw them almost extinct. Dampier, who touched at Guam in 1686, says
+then that on the island, where the Spaniards had found thirty thousand
+people, there were not above one hundred natives. In 1716 and 1721
+other voyagers announced the number of inhabitants on Guam at two
+thousand, but only one other island of the group was populated. When
+Anson in 1742 visited Guam, the number had risen to four thousand,
+and there were a few hundred inhabitants on Rota; but these seem
+to have been the whole population. The original native population
+certainly very nearly touched extinction. The islands were from time
+to time colonized from the Philippines, and the present population
+is very largely of Filipino blood.
+
+Conflicts between Governor and Archbishop.--Meanwhile, in the
+Philippines the conflict of the governor with the archbishop and
+the friars continued. The conduct of both sides was selfish and
+outrageous. In 1683 the actions of Archbishop Pardo became so violent
+and seditious that the Audiencia decreed his banishment to Pangasinan
+or Cagayan. He was taken by force to Lingayan, where he was well
+accommodated but kept under surveillance. The Dominicans retaliated by
+excommunication, and the Audiencia thereupon banished the provincial of
+the order from the Islands, and sent several other friars to Mariveles.
+
+But the year following, Governor Vargas was relieved by the arrival
+of his successor, who was favorable to the ecclesiastical side of
+the controversy. The archbishop returned and assumed a high hand. He
+suspended and excommunicated on all sides. The oidores were banished
+from the city, and all died in exile in remote portions of the
+archipelago. The ex-governor-general, Vargas, being placed under
+the spiritual ban, sued for pardon and begged that his repentance
+be recognized.
+
+The archbishop sentenced him to stand daily for the space of four
+months at the entrances to the churches of the city and of the Parian,
+and in the thronged quarter of Binondo, attired in the habit of a
+penitent, with a rope about his neck and carrying a lighted candle
+in his hand. He was, however, able to secure a mitigation of this
+sentence, but was required to live absolutely alone in a hut on an
+island in the Pasig River. He was sent a prisoner to Mexico in 1689,
+but died upon the voyage.
+
+The various deans and canons who had concurred in the archbishop's
+banishment, as well as other religious with whom the prelate had had
+dissensions, were imprisoned or exiled. The bodies of two oidores
+were, on their death and after their burial, disinterred and their
+bones profaned.
+
+Degeneration of the Colony under Church Rule.--Archbishop Pardo
+died in 1689, but the strife and confusion which had been engendered
+continued. There were quarrels between the archbishop and the friars,
+between the prelate and the governor. All classes seem to have shared
+the bitterness and the hatred of these unhappy dissensions.
+
+The moral tone of the whole colony during the latter part of the
+seventeenth century was lowered. Corruption flourished everywhere,
+and the vigor of the administration decayed. Violence went unrebuked,
+and the way was open for the deplorable tragedy in which this strife of
+parties culminated. Certainly no governor could have been more supine,
+and shown greater incapacity and weakness of character, than the one
+who ruled in the time of Archbishop Pardo and those that succeeded him.
+
+Improvements Made by Governor Bustamante.--Enrichment of the
+Treasury.--In the year 1717, however, came a governor of a different
+type, Fernando Manuel de Bustamante. He was an old soldier, stern of
+character and severe in his measures. He found the treasury robbed
+and exhausted. Nearly the whole population of Manila were in debt
+to the public funds. Bustamante ordered these amounts paid, and to
+compel their collection he attached the cargo of silver arriving
+by the galleon from Acapulco. This cargo was owned by the religious
+companies, officials, and merchants, all of whom were indebted to the
+government. In one year of his vigorous administration he raised the
+sum of three hundred thousand pesos for the treasury.
+
+With sums of money again at the disposal of the state, Bustamante
+attempted to revive the decayed prestige and commerce of the Islands.
+
+Refounding of Zamboanga.--In 1718 he refounded and rebuilt the
+presidio of Zamboanga. Not a year had passed, since its abandonment
+years before, that the pirates from Borneo and Mindanao had failed
+to ravage the Bisayas. The Jesuits had petitioned regularly for its
+reestablishment, and in 1712 the king had decreed its reoccupation. The
+citadel was rebuilt on an elaborate plan under the direction of the
+engineer, Don Juan Sicarra. Besides the usual barracks, storehouses,
+and arsenals, there were, within the walls, a church, hospital, and
+cuartel for the Pampangan soldiers. Sixty-one cannon were mounted upon
+the defenses. Upon the petition of the Recollects, Bustamante also
+established a presidio at Labo, at the southern point of the island of
+Paragua, whose coasts were attacked by the Moros from Sulu and Borneo.
+
+Treaty with Siam.--In the same year he sent an embassy to Siam,
+with the idea of stimulating the commerce which had flourished a
+century before. The reception of this embassy was most flattering;
+a treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce was made, and on ground
+ceded to the Spaniards was begun the erection of a factory.
+
+Improvements in the City of Manila.--How far this brave and
+determined man might have revived the colony it is impossible to
+say. The population of Manila, both ecclesiastical and civil, was at
+this time so sunk in corruption and so degenerate as to make almost
+impossible any recuperation except under the rule of a man equally
+determined as Bustamante, but ruling for a long period of time. He
+had not hesitated to order investigations into the finances of the
+Islands, which disclosed defalcations amounting to seven hundred
+thousand pesos. He fearlessly arrested the defaulters, no matter what
+their station. The whole city was concerned in these peculations,
+consequently the utmost fear and apprehension existed on all sides;
+and Bustamante, hated as well as dreaded, was compelled to enforce
+his reforms single-handed.
+
+His Murder.--He was opposed by the friars and defied by the archbishop,
+but, notwithstanding ecclesiastical condemnation, he went to the point
+of ordering the arrest of the prelate. The city rose in sedition,
+and a mob, headed by friars, proceeded to the palace of the governor,
+broke in upon him, and, as he faced them alone and without support,
+killed him in cold blood (October 11, 1719).
+
+The archbishop proclaimed himself governor and president of the
+Audiencia. The oidores and officials who had been placed under
+arrest by Bustamante were released, and his work overthrown. The new
+government had neither the courage nor the inclination to continue
+Bustamante's policy, and in 1720 the archbishop called a council of
+war, which decreed the abandonment of the fort at Labo.
+
+When the news of this murder reached Spain, the king ordered an
+investigation and the punishment of the guilty, and in 1721 Governor
+Torre Campo arrived to put these mandates into execution. The culprits,
+however, were so high and so influential that the governor did not
+dare proceed against them; and although the commands of the king were
+reiterated in 1724, the assassins of Bustamante were never brought
+to justice.
+
+Treaty with the Sultan of Jolo.--In spite of the cowardly policy
+of the successors of Bustamante, the presidio of Zamboanga was not
+abandoned. So poorly was it administered, however, that it was not
+effective to prevent Moro piracy, and the attacks upon the Bisaya and
+Calamianes continued. In 1721 a treaty was formed with the sultan of
+Jolo providing for trade between Manila and Jolo, the return or ransom
+of captives, and the restitution to Spain of the island of Basilan.
+
+The Moro Pirates of Tawi Tawi.--To some extent this treaty seems to
+have prevented assaults from Jolo, but in 1730 the Moros of Tawi Tawi
+fell upon Paragua and the Calamianes, and in 1731 another expedition
+from the south spent nearly a whole year cruising and destroying
+among the Bisayas.
+
+Deplorable State of Spanish Defenses.--The defenses of the Spaniards
+during these many decades were continually in a deplorable state, their
+arms were wretched, and, except in moments of great apprehension,
+no attention was given to fortifications, to the preservation of
+artillery, nor to the supply of ammunition. Sudden attacks ever
+found the Spaniards unprepared. Military unreadiness was the normal
+condition of this archipelago from these early centuries down to the
+destruction of the Spanish armament by the American fleet.
+
+The Economic Policy of Spain.--Restrictions of Trade.--During the
+closing years of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the
+eighteenth, commerce seemed to have been actually paralyzed. That
+brilliant trade which is described by Morga, and which was at its
+height about 1605, was a few years later defeated by the miserable
+economic policy of Spain, pandering to the demands of the merchants
+of Cadiz and Seville.
+
+Spain's economic policy had only in view benefits to the
+Peninsula. "The Laws of the Indies" abound with edicts for the purpose
+of limiting and crippling colonial commerce and industry, wherever it
+was imagined that it might be prejudicial to the protected industries
+of Spain. The manufacturers of Seville wished to preserve the colonies,
+both of America and of the Indies, as markets for their monopoly wares;
+and in this policy, for two centuries, they had the support of the
+crown. The growing trade between Mexico and the Philippines had early
+been regarded with suspicion, and legislation was framed to reduce
+it to the lowest point compatible with the existence of the colony.
+
+None of the colonies of America could conduct commerce with the
+Philippines except Mexico, and here all communication must pass
+through the port of Acapulco. This trade was limited to the passage
+of a single vessel a year. In 1605 two galleons were permitted, but
+their size was reduced to three hundred tons. They were allowed to
+carry out 500,000 pesos of silver, but no more than 250,000 pesos'
+worth of Chinese products could be returned. Neither the Spaniards
+of Mexico nor any part of America could traffic directly with China,
+nor could Spanish vessels pass from Manila to the ports of Asia. Only
+those goods could be bought which Chinese merchants themselves brought
+to the Philippines.
+
+Selfishness of Merchants in Spain.--Even these restrictions did
+not satisfy the jealousy of the merchants of Spain. They complained
+that the royal orders limiting the traffic were not regarded, and
+they insisted upon so vexatious a supervision of this commerce,
+and surrounded infractions of the law with such terrible penalties,
+that the trade was not maintained even to the amount permitted by
+law. Spanish merchants even went to the point of petitioning for the
+abandonment of the Philippines, on the ground that the importations
+from China were prejudicial to the industry of the Peninsula.
+
+The colonists upon the Pacific coast of America suffered from the
+lack of those commodities demanded by civilized life, which could
+only reach them as they came from Spain through the port of Porto
+Bello and the Isthmus of Panama. Without question, an enormous and
+beneficial commerce could have been conducted by the Philippines with
+the provinces of western America. [76]
+
+Trade Between South America and the Philippines Forbidden.--But this
+traffic was absolutely forbidden, and to prevent Chinese and Philippine
+goods from entering South America, the trade between Mexico and Peru
+was in 1636 wholly suppressed by a decree. This decree, as it stands
+upon the pages of the great Recopilacion, is an epitome of the insane
+economic policy of the Spaniard. It cites that whereas "it had been
+permitted that from Peru to New Spain there should go each year two
+vessels for commerce and traffic to the amount of two hundred thousand
+ducats [which later had been reduced to one hundred thousand ducats],
+and because there had increased in Peru to an excessive amount the
+commerce in the fabrics of China, in spite of the many prohibitions
+that had been imposed, and in order absolutely to remove the occasion
+for the future, we order and command the officers of Peru and New
+Spain that they invariably prohibit and suppress this commerce and
+traffic between the two kingdoms by all the channels through which
+it is conducted, maintaining this prohibition firmly and continually
+for the future." [77]
+
+In 1718 the merchants of Seville and Cadiz still complained that their
+profits were being injured by even the limited importation of Chinese
+silks into Mexico. Thereupon absolute prohibition of import of Chinese
+silks, either woven or in thread, was decreed. Only linens, spices,
+and supplies of such things as were not produced in Spain could be
+brought into Mexico. This order was reaffirmed in 1720, with the
+provision that six months would be allowed the people of Mexico to
+consume the Chinese silks which they had in their possession, and
+thereafter all such goods must be destroyed.
+
+Ineffectiveness of These Restrictions.--These measures, while ruining
+the commerce of the Philippines, were as a matter of fact ineffective
+to accomplish the result desired. Contraband trade between China
+and America sprang up in violation of the law. Silks to the value
+of four million pesos were annually smuggled into America. [78] In
+1734 the folly and uselessness of such laws was somewhat recognized
+by the Council of the Indies, and a cedula was issued restoring the
+permission to trade in Chinese silks and raising the value of cargoes
+destined for Acapulco to five hundred thousand pesos, and the quantity
+of silver for return to one million pesos. The celebrated traffic of
+the galleon was resumed and continued until the year 1815.
+
+An Attempt to Colonize the Carolines.--Southeastward of the
+Philippines, in that part of the Pacific which is known as Micronesia,
+there is an archipelago of small islands called the Carolines. The
+westernmost portion of the group also bear the name of the Pelews,
+or Palaos. Inasmuch as these islands were eventually acquired by
+Spain and remained in her possession down to the year 1898, it may
+be well to state something at this time of the attempt made by the
+Jesuits in 1731 to colonize them.
+
+Certain of these little islands were seen several times by expeditions
+crossing the Pacific as early as the latter part of the sixteenth
+century, but after the trade between Mexico and the Philippines had
+been definitely settled upon, a fixed course was followed westward
+from Acapulco to Guam, from which there was little variation, and
+during the seventeenth century these islands passed quite out of mind;
+but in the year 1696 a party of natives, twenty men and ten women,
+were driven by storms far from their home in the Carolines upon the
+eastern coast of Samar. It seems that similar parties of castaways
+from the Pelew and Caroline Islands had been known to reach Mindanao
+and other parts of the Philippines at an even earlier date. These
+last came under the observation of the Jesuit priests on Samar, who
+baptized them, and, learning from them of the archipelago from which
+they had been carried, were filled with missionary ambition to visit
+and Christianize these Pacific islanders.
+
+This idea was agitated by the Jesuits, until about 1730 royal
+permission was granted to the enterprise. A company of Jesuits in
+the following year sailed for the Ladrones and thence south until
+the Carolines were discovered. They landed on a small island not
+far from Yap. Here they succeeded in baptizing numerous natives and
+in establishing a mission. Fourteen of their number, headed by the
+priest, Padre Cantava, remained on the island while the expedition
+returned to secure reenforcements and supplies. Unfortunately, this
+succor was delayed for more than a year, and when Spanish vessels
+with missionary reenforcements on board again reached the Carolines
+in 1733, the mission had been entirely destroyed and the Spaniards,
+with Padre Cantava, had been killed. These islands have been frequently
+called the "New Philippines."
+
+Conditions of the Filipinos during the Eighteenth Century.--During the
+most of the eighteenth century, data are few upon the condition of the
+Filipino people. There seems to have been little progress. Conditions
+certainly were against the social or intellectual advance of the
+native race. Perhaps, however, their material well-being was quite
+as great during these years, when little was attempted, as during
+the governorships of the more ambitious and enterprising Spaniards
+who had characterized the earlier period of Philippine history.
+
+Provincial Governments.--Provincial administration seems to have
+fallen almost wholly into the hands of the missionaries. The priests
+made themselves the local rulers throughout the Christianized portion
+of the archipelago.
+
+Insurrection in Bohol.--Insurrection seems especially to have
+troubled the island of Bohol during most of the eighteenth century,
+and in 1750 an insurrection broke out which practically established
+the independence of a large portion of the island, and which was not
+suppressed for thirty-five years. The trouble arose in the town of
+Inabanga, where the Jesuit priest Morales had greatly antagonized and
+imbittered the natives by his severity. Some apostasized, and went to
+the hills. One of these men was killed by the orders of the priest and
+his body refused Christian burial, and left uncared for and exposed.
+
+A brother of this man, named Dagohoy, infuriated by this indignity,
+headed a sedition which shortly included three thousand natives. The
+priest was killed, and his own body left by the road unburied. In
+spite of the efforts of the alcalde of Cebu, Dagohoy was able to
+maintain himself, and practically established a small native state,
+which remained until the occupation of the island by the Recollects,
+after the Jesuits had been expelled from the Spanish dominions.
+
+Activity of the Jesuits.--During the eighteenth century the Jesuits
+alone of the religious orders seemed to have been active in prosecuting
+their efforts and seeking new fields for conversion. The sloth and
+inactivity which overcame the other orders place in greater contrast
+the ambition and the activities, both secular and spiritual, of
+the Jesuits.
+
+Conversion of the Sultan Alim ud Din.--In 1747 they established
+a mission even on Jolo. They were unable to overcome the intense
+antagonism of the Moro panditas and datos, but they apparently won the
+young sultan, Alim ud Din, whose strange story and shifting fortunes
+have been variously told. One of the Jesuits, Padre Villelmi, was
+skilled in the Arabic language, and this familiarity with the language
+and literature of Mohammedanism doubtless explains his ascendency
+over the mind of the sultan. Alim ud Din was not a strong man. His
+power over the subordinate datos was small, and in 1748 his brother,
+Bantilan, usurped his place and was proclaimed sultan of Jolo.
+
+Alim ud Din, with his family and numerous escort, came to Zamboanga,
+seeking the aid of the Spanish against his brother. From Zamboanga he
+was sent to Manila. On his arrival, January 3, 1749, he was received
+with all the pomp and honor due to a prince of high rank. A house for
+his entertainment and his retinue of seventy persons was prepared in
+Binondo. A public entrance was arranged, which took place some fifteen
+days after his reaching the city. Triumphal arches were erected
+across the streets, which were lined with more than two thousand
+native militia under arms. The sultan was publicly received in the
+hall of the Audiencia, where the governor promised to lay his case
+before the king of Spain. The sultan was showered with presents, which
+included chains of gold, fine garments, precious gems, and gold canes,
+while the government sustained the expense of his household. [79]
+
+Following this reception, steps were taken for his conversion. His
+spiritual advisers cited to him the example of the Emperor Constantine
+whose conversion enabled him to effect triumphant conquests over
+his enemies. Under these representations Alim ud Din expressed his
+desire for baptism. The governor-general, who at this time was a
+priest, the bishop of Nueva Segovia, was very anxious that the rite
+should take place; but this was opposed by his spiritual superior,
+the archbishop of Manila, who, with some others, entertained doubts
+as to the sincerity of the sultan's profession.
+
+In order to accomplish his baptism, the governor sent him to his own
+diocese, where at Paniqui, on the 29th of April, 1750, the ceremony
+took place with great solemnity. On the return of the party to Manila,
+the sultan was received with great pomp, and in his honor were held
+games, theatrical representations, fire-works, and bull-fights. This
+was the high-water mark of the sultan's popularity.
+
+Failure to Reinstate Alim ud Din.--Meanwhile the usurper, Bantilan,
+was giving abundant evidence of his hostility. The Spaniards were
+driven from Jolo, and the fleets of the Moros again ravaged the
+Bisayas. In July arrived the new governor, the Marquis of Obando,
+who determined to restore Alim ud Din and suppress the Moro piracy.
+
+An expedition set sail, with the sultan on board, and went as far as
+Zamboanga, but accomplished nothing. Here the conduct of the sultan
+served to confirm the doubts of the Spaniards as to the sincerity of
+his friendship. He was arrested, and returned to Manila, and imprisoned
+in the fortress of Santiago. With varying treatment he remained in
+the hands of the Spaniards until 1763, when he was returned to Jolo
+by the English.
+
+Great Increase in Moro Piracy.--The year 1754 is stated to have been
+the bloodiest in the history of Moro piracy. No part of the Bisayas
+escaped ravaging in this year, while the Camarines, Batangas, and Albay
+suffered equally with the rest. The conduct of the pirates was more
+than ordinarily cruel. Priests were slain, towns wholly destroyed,
+and thousands of captives were carried south into Moro slavery. The
+condition of the Islands at the end of this year was probably the
+most deplorable in their history.
+
+Reforms under General Arandia.--The demoralization and misery with
+which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable
+government of Arandia, who succeeded him. Arandia was one of the few
+men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs
+in these islands during two centuries.
+
+He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing
+what was known as the "Regiment of the King," made up very largely
+of Mexican soldiers. He also formed a corps of artillerists composed
+of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandia
+sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army.
+
+He reformed the arsenal at Cavite, and, in spite of opposition on
+all sides, did something to infuse efficiency and honesty into the
+government. At the head of the armament which had been sent against
+the Moros he placed a Jesuit priest, Father Ducos. A capable officer
+was also sent to command the presidio at Zamboanga, and while Moro
+piracy was not stopped, heavy retaliation was visited upon the pirates.
+
+Arandia's most popular act of government was the expulsion of the
+Chinese from the provinces, and in large part from the city. They
+seem to have had in their hands then, perhaps even more than now, the
+commerce or small trade between Manila and provincial towns. To take
+over this trade, Arandia founded a commercial company of Spaniards
+and mestizos, which lasted only for a year. The Christianized Chinese
+were allowed to remain under license, and for those having shops in
+Manila Arandia founded the Alcayceria of San Fernando. It consisted
+of a great square of shops built about an open interior. It stood
+in Binondo, on the present Calle de San Fernando, in what is still
+a populous Chinese quarter.
+
+Death of Arandia and Decline of the Colony.--Arandia died in May, 1759,
+and the government was assumed by the bishop of Cebu, who in turn was
+forced from his position by the arrival of the archbishop of Manila,
+Don Manuel Rojo. The archbishop revoked the celebrated orders of good
+government which Arandia had put into force, and the colony promised
+to relapse once more into its customary dormant condition. This was,
+however, prevented by an event which brought to an end the long period
+of obscurity and inertia under which the colony had been gradually
+decaying, and introduced, in a way, a new period of its history. This
+was the capture of the Philippine Islands by the British in 1762.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE PHILIPPINES DURING THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTION. 1762-1837.
+
+
+The New Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century.--The middle of the
+eighteenth century in Europe was a time when ideas were greatly
+liberalized. A philosophy became current which professed to
+look for its authority not to churches or hereditary custom and
+privilege, but to the laws of God as they are revealed in the natural
+world. Men taught that if we could only follow nature we could not do
+wrong. "Natural law" became the basis for a great amount of political
+and social discussion and the theoretical foundation of many social
+rights. The savage, ungoverned man was by many European philosophers
+and writers supposed to live a freer, more wholesome and more natural
+life than the man who is bound by the conventions of society and the
+laws of state.
+
+Most of this reasoning we now know to be scientifically untrue. The
+savage and the hermit are not, in actual fact, types of human
+happiness and freedom. Ideal life for man is found only in governed
+society, where there is order and protection, and where also should be
+freedom of opportunity. But to the people of the eighteenth century,
+and especially to the scholars of France, where the government was
+monarchical and oppressive, and where the people were terribly burdened
+by the aristocracy, this teaching was welcomed as a new gospel. Nor
+was it devoid of grand and noble ideas--ideas which, carried out in
+a conservative way, might have bettered society.
+
+It is from this philosophy and the revolution which succeeded it that
+the world received the modern ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity,
+and democracy. These ideas, having done their work in America and
+Europe, are here at work in the Philippines today. It remains to
+be seen whether a society can be rebuilt here on these principles,
+and whether Asia too will be reformed under their influence.
+
+Colonial Conflicts between the Great European Countries.--During
+the latter half of the eighteenth century there culminated the long
+struggle for colonial empire between European states which we have
+been following. We have seen how colonial conquest was commenced
+by the Portuguese, who were very shortly followed by the Spaniards,
+and how these two great Latin powers attempted to exclude the other
+European peoples from the rich Far East and the great New World which
+they had discovered.
+
+We have seen how this attempt failed, how the Dutch and the English
+broke in upon this gigantic reserve, drove the Spanish fleets from
+the seas, and despoiled and took of this great empire almost whatever
+they would. The Dutch and English then fought between themselves. The
+English excluded the Dutch from North America, capturing their famous
+colony of New Amsterdam, now New York, and incorporating it (1674)
+with their other American colonies, which later became the United
+States of America. But in the East Indies the Dutch maintained their
+trade and power, gradually extending from island to island, until
+they gained--what they still possess--an almost complete monopoly of
+spice production.
+
+War between England and France.--In India, England in the eighteenth
+century won great possessions and laid the foundation for what has
+been an almost complete subjugation of this Eastern empire. Here,
+however, and even more so than in America, England encountered a
+royal and brilliant antagonist in the monarch of France.
+
+French exploration in North America had given France claims to the
+two great river systems of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi,
+the latter by far the greatest and richest region of the temperate
+zone. So, during much of this eighteenth century, England and France
+were involved in wars that had for their prizes the possession of
+the continent of North America and the great peninsula of India.
+
+This conflict reached its climax between 1756 and 1763. Both states
+put forth all their strength. France called to her support those
+countries whose reigning families were allied to her by blood,
+and in this way Spain was drawn into the struggle. The monarchs of
+both France and Spain belonged to the great house of Bourbon. War was
+declared between England and Spain in 1761. Spain was totally unfitted
+for the combat. She could inflict no injury upon England and simply
+lay impotent and helpless to retaliate, while English fleets in the
+same year took Havana in the west and Manila in the east.
+
+English Victory over French in India and America.--English power in
+India was represented during these years by the greatest and most
+striking figure in England's colonial history--Lord Clive. To him is
+due the defeat of France in India, the capture of her possessions, and
+the founding of the Indian Empire, which is still regarded as England's
+greatest possession. The French were expelled from India in the same
+year that the great citadel of New France in America--Quebec--was
+taken by the English under General Wolfe.
+
+The Philippines under the English.--Expedition from India to the
+Philippines.--Lord Clive was now free to strike a blow at France's
+ally, Spain; and in Madras an expedition was prepared to destroy
+Spanish power in the Philippines. Notice of the preparation of this
+expedition reached Manila from several sources in the spring and summer
+of 1762; but with that fatality which pursued the Spaniard to the end
+of his history in the Philippines, no preparations were made by him,
+until on the 22d of September a squadron of thirteen vessels anchored
+in Manila Bay.
+
+Through the mist, the stupid and negligent authorities of Manila
+mistook them for Chinese trading-junks; but it was the fleet of
+the English Admiral Cornish, with a force of five thousand British
+and Indian soldiers under the command of General Draper. For her
+defense Manila had only 550 men of the "Regiment of the King" and
+eighty Filipino artillerists. Yet the Spaniards determined to make
+resistance from behind the walls of the city.
+
+Surrender of Manila to the English.--The English disembarked and
+occupied Malate. From the churches of Malate, Ermita, and Santiago
+the British bombarded Manila, and the Spaniards replied from the
+batteries of San Andres and San Diego, the firing not being very
+effective on either side.
+
+On the 25th, Draper summoned the city to surrender; but a council of
+war, held by the archbishop, who was also governor, decided to fight
+on. Thirty-six hundred Filipino militia from Pampanga, Bulacan,
+and Laguna marched to the defense of the city, and on the 3rd of
+October two thousand of these Filipinos made a sally from the walls
+and recklessly assaulted the English lines, but were driven back with
+slaughter. On the night of the 4th of October a breach in the walls
+was made by the artillery, and early in the morning of the 5th four
+hundred English soldiers entered almost without resistance. A company
+of militia on guard at the Puerto Real was bayoneted and the English
+then occupied the Plaza, and here received the surrender of the fort
+of Santiago.
+
+The English agreed not to interfere with religious liberty, and honors
+of war were granted to the Spanish soldiers. Guards were placed
+upon the convent of the nuns of Santa Clara and the beaterios, and
+the city was given over to pillage, which lasted for forty hours,
+and in which many of the Chinese assisted.
+
+Independent Spanish Capital under Anda at Bulacan.--The English were
+thus masters of the city, but during their period of occupation
+they never extended their power far beyond the present limits of
+Manila. Previous to the final assault and occupation of Manila, the
+authorities had nominated the oidor, Don Simon de Anda y Salazar,
+lieutenant-governor and captain-general of the Islands, with
+instructions to maintain the country in its obedience to the king of
+Spain. Anda left the capital on the night of October 4, passing in a
+little banca through the nipa swamps and esteros on the north shore
+of Manila Bay to the provincial capital of Bulacan.
+
+Here he called together the provincial of the Augustinian monks,
+the alcalde mayor of the province, and some other Spaniards. They
+resolved to form an independent government representing Spain, and
+to continue the resistance. This they were able to do as long as
+the British remained in the Islands. The English made a few short
+expeditions into Bulacan and up the Pasig River, but there was no
+hard fighting and no real effort made to pursue Anda's force. The
+Chinese welcomed the English and gave them some assistance, and for
+this Anda slew and hung great numbers of them.
+
+The Philippines Returned to Spain.--By the Treaty of Paris in 1763,
+peace was made, by which France surrendered practically all her
+colonial possessions to England; but England returned to Spain her
+captures in Cuba and the Philippines. In March, 1764, there arrived
+the Spanish frigate "Santa Rosa," bringing the first "Lieutenant of
+the King for the Islands," Don Francisco de la Torre, who brought
+with him news of the Treaty of Paris and the orders to the English
+to abandon the Islands.
+
+Resistance of the English by the Friars.--In resistance to the English
+and in the efforts to maintain Spanish authority, a leading part had
+been taken by the friars. "The sacred orders," says Martinez de Zuniga,
+[80] "had much to do with the success of Senor Anda. They maintained
+the Indians of their respective administrations loyal to the orders;
+they inspired the natives with horror against the English as enemies of
+the king and of religion, inciting them to die fighting to resist them;
+they contributed their estates and their property; and they exposed
+their own persons to great dangers." The friars were certainly most
+interested in retaining possession of the Islands and had most to
+lose by their falling into English hands.
+
+Increase of the Jesuits in Wealth and Power.--In this zealous movement
+for defense, however, the Jesuits bore no part; and there were charges
+made against them of treasonable intercourse with the English, which
+may have had foundation, and which are of significance in the light
+of what subsequently occurred.
+
+At the close of the eighteenth century, all the governments of
+Catholic Europe were aroused with jealousy and suspicious hatred
+against the Jesuits. The society, organized primarily for missionary
+labor, had gradually taken on much of a secular character. The society
+was distinguished, as we have seen in its history in the Philippines,
+by men with great capacity and liking for what we may call practical
+affairs as distinguished from purely religious or devotional life. The
+Jesuits were not alone missionaries and orthodox educators, but they
+were scientists, geographers, financiers, and powerful and almost
+independent administrators among heathen peoples. They had engaged
+so extensively and shrewdly in trade that their estates, warehouses,
+and exchanges bound together the fruitful fields of colonial provinces
+with the busy marts and money-centers of Europe. Their wealth was
+believed to be enormous. Properly invested and carefully guarded,
+it was rapidly increasing.
+
+What, however, made the order exasperating alike to rulers and
+peoples were the powerful political intrigues in which members of
+the order engaged. Strong and masterful men themselves, the field of
+state affairs was irresistibly attractive. Their enemies charged that
+they were unscrupulous in the means which they employed to accomplish
+political ends. It is quite certain that the Jesuits were not patriotic
+in their purposes or plans. They were an international corporation;
+their members belonged to no one nation; to them the Society was
+greater and more worthy of devotion than any state, in which they
+themselves lived and worked.
+
+Dissolution of the Society of Jesus.--Europe had, however, reached
+the belief, to which it adheres today, that a man must be true to
+the country in which he lives and finds shelter and protection and
+in which he ranks as a political member, or else incur odium and
+punishment. Thus it was their indifference to national feeling that
+brought about the ruin of the Jesuits. It is significant that the
+rulers, the most devoted to Catholicism, followed one another in
+decreeing their expulsion from their dominions. In 1759 they were
+expelled from Portugal, in 1764 from France, and April 2, 1767,
+the decree of confiscation and banishment from Spain and all Spanish
+possessions was issued by King Carlos III. Within a year thereafter,
+the two most powerful princes of Italy, the king of Naples and the
+Duke of Parma, followed, and then the Grand Master of the Knights of
+Malta expelled them from that island. The friends of the order were
+powerless to withstand this united front of Catholic monarchs, and in
+July, 1773, Pope Clement XIV. suppressed and dissolved the society,
+which was not restored until 1814.
+
+The Jesuits Expelled from the Philippines.--The order expelling the
+Jesuits from the Philippines was put into effect in the year 1767. The
+instructions authorized the governor in case of resistance to use
+force of arms as against a rebellion. [81] Besides their colleges in
+Manila, Tondo, Cavite, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Negros, the Jesuits
+administered curacies in the vicinity of Manila, in Cavite province,
+in Mindoro and Marinduque, while the islands of Bohol, Samar, and
+Leyte were completely under their spiritual jurisdiction. In Mindanao
+their missions, a dozen or more in number, were found on both the
+northern and southern coasts. Outside of the Philippines proper they
+were the missionaries on the Ladrones, or Marianas. Their property in
+the Philippines, which was confiscated by the government, amounted to
+1,320,000 pesos, although a great deal of their wealth was secreted
+and escaped seizure through the connivance of the governor, Raon.
+
+Governor Anda's Charges against the Religious Orders.--Don Simon
+de Anda had been received in Spain with great honor for the defense
+which he had made in the Islands, and in 1770 returned as governor
+of the Philippines. His appointment was bitterly resented by the
+friars. In 1768, Anda had addressed to the king a memorial upon the
+disorders in the Philippines, in which he openly charged the friars
+with commercialism, neglect of their spiritual duties, oppression
+of the natives, opposition to the teaching of the Spanish language,
+and scandalous interference with civil officials and affairs. Anda's
+remedy for these abuses was the rigorous enforcement of the laws
+actually existing for the punishment of such conduct and the return
+to Spain of friars who refused to respect the law.
+
+He was, however, only partially successful in his policy. During the
+six years of his rule, he labored unremittingly to restore the Spanish
+government and to lift it from the decadence and corruption that had so
+long characterized it. There were strong traits of the modern man in
+this independent and incorruptible official. If he made many enemies,
+it is, perhaps, no less to the credit of his character; and if in the
+few years of his official life he was unable to restore the colony,
+it must be remembered that he had few assistants upon whom to rely
+and was without adequate means.
+
+The Moro Pirates.--The Moros were again upon their forays, and in
+1771 even attacked Aparri, on the extreme northern coast of Luzon,
+and captured a Spanish missionary. Anda reorganized the Armada de
+Pintados, and toward the end of his life created also the Marina Sutil,
+a fleet of light gunboats for the defense of the coasts against the
+attacks of pirates.
+
+Failure of an English Settlement.--The hostility of the Moro rulers
+was complicated by the interference of the English, who, after the
+evacuation of Manila, continued to haunt the Sulu archipelago with
+the apparent object of effecting a settlement. By treaty with the
+Moro datos, they secured the cession of the island of Balanbangan,
+off the north coast of Borneo. This island was fortified and a factory
+was established, but in 1775 the Moros attacked the English with great
+fury and destroyed the entire garrison, except the governor and five
+others, who escaped on board a vessel, leaving a great quantity of
+arms and wealth to the spoils of the Moros. The English factors, who
+had taken up business on the island of Jolo, fled in a Chinese junk;
+and these events, so unfortunate to the English, ended their attempts
+to gain a position in the Jolo archipelago until many years later.
+
+Increase in Agriculture.--Anda died in October, 1776, and his
+successor, Don Jose Basco de Vargas, was not appointed until July,
+1778. With Basco's governorship we see the beginning of those numerous
+projects for the encouragement of agriculture and industry which
+characterized the last century of Spanish rule. His "Plan general
+economico" contemplated the encouragement of cotton-planting, the
+propagation of mulberry-trees and silk-worms, and the cultivation of
+spices and sugar. Premiums were offered for success in the introduction
+of these new products and for the encouragement of manufacturing
+industries suitable to the country and its people.
+
+Out of these plans grew the admirable Sociedad Economica de Amigos del
+Pais, which was founded by Basco in 1780. The idea was an excellent
+one, and the society, although suffering long periods of inactivity,
+lasted for fully a century, and from time to time was useful in the
+improvement and development of the country, and stimulated agricultural
+experiments through its premiums and awards.
+
+Establishment of the Tobacco Industry.--Up to this time the Philippine
+revenues had been so unproductive that the government was largely
+supported by a subsidy of $250,000 a year paid by Mexico. Basco was
+the first to put the revenues of the Islands upon a lucrative basis. To
+him was due the establishment, in 1782, of the famous tobacco monopoly
+(estanco de tabacos) which became of great importance many years
+later, as new and rich tobacco lands like the Cagayan were brought
+under cultivation.
+
+Favorable Commercial Legislation.--The change in economic ideas,
+which had come over Europe through the liberalizing thought of the
+eighteenth century, is shown also by a most radical step to direct into
+new channels the commerce of the Philippines. This was the creation
+in 1785 of a great trading corporation with special privileges and
+crown protection, "The Royal Company of the Philippines."
+
+The company was given a complete monopoly of all the commerce between
+Spain and the Philippines, except the long-established direct traffic
+between Manila and Acapulco. All the old laws, designed to prevent
+the importation into the Peninsula of wares of the Orient, were swept
+away. Philippine products were exempted from all customs duty, either
+on leaving Manila or entering Spain. The vessels of the company were
+permitted to visit the ports of China, and the ancient and absurd
+prohibition, which prevented the merchants of Manila from trading
+with India, and China, was removed.
+
+Though still closing the Philippines against foreign trade, this
+step was a veritable revolution in the commercial legislation of the
+Philippines. Had the project been ably and heartily supported, it might
+have produced a development that would have advanced prosperity half
+a century; but the people of Manila did not welcome the opening of
+this new line of communication. The ancient commerce with Acapulco
+was a valuable monopoly to those who had the right to participate
+in it, and their attitude toward the new company was one either of
+indifference or hostility.
+
+In 1789 the port of Manila was opened and made free to the vessels of
+all foreign nations for the space of three years, for the importation
+and sale exclusively of the wares of Asia; but the products of Europe,
+with the exception of Spain, were forbidden.
+
+The Royal Company was rechartered in 1805, and enjoyed its monopoly
+until 1830, when its privileges lapsed and Manila was finally opened
+to the ships of foreign nations.
+
+Conquest of the Igorrote Provinces of Luzon.--Basco was a zealous
+governor and organized a number of military expeditions to occupy
+the Igorrote country in the north. In 1785 the heathen Igorrotes of
+the missions of Ituy and Paniqui in Nueva Vizcaya revolted and had
+to be reconquered by a force of musketeers from Cagayan.
+
+Conquest of the Batanes Islands.--Basco also effected the conquest of
+the Batanes Islands to the north of Luzon, establishing garrisons and
+definitely annexing them to the colony. The Dominican missionaries
+long before this time had attempted to convert these islands to
+Christianity; but the poverty of the people and the fierceness of the
+typhoons which sweep these little islands prevented the cultivation of
+anything more than camotes and taro, and had made them unprofitable
+to hold. Basco was honored, however, for his reoccupation of these
+islands, and on his return to Spain, at the expiration of his
+governorship, received the title of "Count of the Conquest of the
+Batanes." [82]
+
+A Scientific Survey of the Coast of the Islands.--About 1790 the
+Philippines were visited by two Spanish frigates, the "Descubierta" and
+the "Atrevida," under the command of Captain Malaspina. These vessels
+formed an exploring expedition sent out by the Spanish government to
+make a hydrographic and astronomic survey of the coasts of Spanish
+America, the Ladrones, and the Philippines. It was one of those
+creditable enterprises for the widening of scientific knowledge which
+modern governments have successively and with great honor conducted.
+
+The expedition charted the Strait of San Bernardino, the coasts of
+several of the Bisayan Islands, and Mindanao. One of the scientists
+of the party was the young botanist, Don Antonio Pineda, who died
+in Ilocos in 1792, but whose studies in the flora of the Philippines
+thoroughly established his reputation. A monument to his memory was
+erected near the church in Malate, but it has since suffered from
+neglect and is now falling in ruins.
+
+Establishment of a Permanent Navy in the Philippines.--The intentions
+of England in this archipelago were still regarded with suspicion by
+the Spanish government, and in 1795 and 1796 a strong Spanish fleet,
+sent secretly by way of the coast of South America, was concentrated in
+the waters of the Philippines under the command of Admiral Alava. Its
+object was the defense of the Islands in case of a new war with
+Great Britain. News of the declaration of war between these two
+countries reached Manila in March, 1797, but though for many months
+there was anxiety, England made no attempt at reoccupation. These
+events led, however, to the formation of a permanent naval squadron,
+with head-quarters and naval station at Cavite. [83]
+
+The Climax of Moro Piracy.--The continued presence of the Moros in
+Mindoro, where they haunted the bays and rivers of both east and west
+coasts for months at a time, stealing out from this island for attack
+in every direction, was specially noted by Padre Zuniga, and indicated
+how feebly the Spaniards repulsed these pirates a hundred years ago.
+
+It was the last severe phase of Malay piracy, when even the strong
+merchant ships of England and America dreaded the straits of Borneo and
+passed with caution through the China Sea. Northern Borneo, the Sulu
+archipelago, and the southern coasts of Mindanao were the centers from
+which came these fierce sea-wolves, whose cruel exploits have left
+their many traditions in the American and British merchant navies,
+just as they periodically appear in the chronicles of the Philippines.
+
+Five hundred captives annually seem to have been the spoils taken
+by these Moros in the Philippines Islands, and as far south as
+Batavia and Macassar captive Filipinos were sold in the slave marts
+of the Malays. The aged and infirm were inhumanly bartered to the
+savage tribes of Borneo, who offered them up in their ceremonial
+sacrifices. The measures of the Spanish government, though constant
+and expensive, were ineffective. Between 1778 and 1793, a million and
+a half of pesos were expended on the fleets and expeditions to drive
+back or punish the Moros, but at the end of the century a veritable
+climax of piracy was attained.
+
+Pirates swarmed continually about the coasts of Mindoro, Burias,
+and Masbate, and even frequented the esteros of Manila Bay. Some
+sort of peace seems to have been established with Jolo and a friendly
+commerce was engaged in toward the end of the century, but the Moros
+of Mindanao and Borneo were increasing enemies. In 1798 a fleet of
+twenty-five Moro bancas passed up the Pacific coast of Luzon and fell
+upon the isolated towns of Paler, Casiguran, and Palanan, destroying
+the pueblos and taking 450 captives. The cura of Casiguran was ransomed
+in Binangonan for the sum of twenty-five hundred pesos. For four years
+this pirate fleet had its rendezvous on Burias, whence it raided the
+adjacent coasts and the Catanduanes.
+
+The Great Wars in America and Europe.--The English reoccupied
+Balanbangan in 1803, but held the island for only three years, when
+it was definitely abandoned. For some years, however, the coasts of
+the Philippines were threatened by English vessels, and there was
+reflected here in the Far East the tremendous conflicts which were
+convulsing Europe at this time. The wars which changed Europe at the
+close of the eighteenth century, following the French Revolution,
+form one of the most important and interesting periods of European
+history, but it is also one of the most difficult periods to judge and
+describe. We will say of it here only so much as will be sufficient
+to show the effect upon Spain and so upon the Philippines.
+
+The Revolution of the English Colonies in America.--In 1776 the
+thirteen English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America
+declared their independence of Great Britain. In the unfair treatment
+of the British king and Parliament they had, they believed, just
+grounds for revolution. For nearly eight years a war continued by which
+England strove to reduce them again to obedience. But at the end of
+that time England, having successively lost two armies of invasion
+by defeat and capture, made peace with the American colonists and
+recognized their independence. In 1789 the Americans framed their
+present constitution and established the United States of America.
+
+The French Revolution.--Condition of the People in France.--In their
+struggle for independence the Americans had been aided by France,
+who hoped through this opportunity to cripple her great colonial
+rival, England. Between America and France there was close sympathy
+of political ideas and theories, although in their actual social
+conditions the two countries were as widely separated as could
+be. In America the society and government were democratic. All
+classes were experienced in politics and government. They had behind
+them the priceless heritage of England's long struggle for free and
+representative government. There was an abundance of the necessaries
+of life and nearly complete freedom of opportunity.
+
+France, like nearly every other country of continental Europe, was
+suffering from the obsolete burden of feudalism. The ownership of the
+land was divided between the aristocracy and the church. The great
+bulk of the population were serfs bound to the estates, miserably
+oppressed, and suffering from lack of food, and despoiled of almost
+every blessing which can brighten and dignify human life. The life
+of the court and of the nobility grew more luxurious, extravagant,
+and selfish as the economic conditions in France became worse. The
+king was nearly an absolute monarch. His will was law and the earlier
+representative institutions, which in England had developed into the
+splendid system of parliamentary government, had in France fallen
+into decay.
+
+In the other countries of Europe--the German States, Austria, Italy,
+and Spain--the condition of the people was quite as bad, probably in
+some places even worse than it was in France. But it was in France
+that the revolt broke forth, and it was France which led Europe in
+a movement for a better and more democratic order. Frenchmen had
+fought in the armies of America; they had experienced the benefits of
+a freer society, and it is significant that in the same year (1789)
+that saw the founding of the American state the Revolution in France
+began. It started in a sincere and conservative attempt to remedy
+the evils under which France was suffering, but the accumulation of
+injustice and misery was too great to be settled by slow and hesitating
+measures. The masses, ignorant, and bitter with their wrongs, broke
+from the control of statesman and reformer, threw themselves upon the
+established state and church, both equally detestable to them, and tore
+them to pieces. Both king and queen died by beheading. The nobility
+were either murdered or expelled. The revolutionary government, if
+such it could be called, fell into the hands of wicked and terrible
+leaders, who maintained themselves by murder and terrorism.
+
+Effects of the Revolution.--These are the outward and terrible
+expressions of the Revolution which were Seized upon by European
+statesmen and which have been most dwelt upon by historical
+writers. But, apart from the bloody acts of the years from 1793
+to 1795, the Revolution modernized France and brought incalculable
+gains to the French people. By the seizure of the great estates and
+their division among the peasantry, the agricultural products of the
+country were doubled in a single year, and that terrible condition
+of semi-starvation which had prevailed for centuries was ended.
+
+The other monarchies of Europe regarded the events in France with
+horror and alarm. Monarchs felt their own thrones threatened, and a
+coalition of European monarchies was formed to destroy the republic
+and to restore the French monarchy and old regime. France found herself
+invaded by armies upon every frontier. It was then that the remarkable
+effects produced by the Revolution upon the people of France appeared.
+
+With a passionate enthusiasm which was irresistible, the people
+responded to the call for war; great armies were enlisted, which by
+an almost uninterrupted series of victories threw back the forces of
+the allies. Men rose from obscurity to the command of armies, and
+there was developed that famous group of commanders, the marshals
+of France. Out of this terrible period of warfare there arose,
+too, another, who was perhaps, if we except the Macedonian king,
+Alexander, the greatest man ever permitted to lead armies and to rule
+men--Bonaparte, later the emperor, Napoleon the First.
+
+The New Republic under Napoleon the First.--From 1795, when Bonaparte
+was given command of the invasion of Italy, until 1815, when he was
+finally defeated at Waterloo in Belgium, Europe experienced almost
+continuous war. The genius of Napoleon reduced to the position of
+vassal states Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Germany, and
+Austria. In all these countries the ancient thrones were humbled,
+feudalism was swept away, and the power of a corrupt church and
+aristocracy was broken. In spite of the humiliation of national
+pride, these great benefits to Europe of Napoleon's conquests can
+not be overestimated. Wherever Napoleon's power extended there
+followed the results of the Revolution--a better system of law,
+the introduction of the liberal "Code Napoleon," the liberation of
+the people from the crushing toils of mediaevalism, and the founding
+of a better society. These are the debts which Europe owes to the
+French Revolution.
+
+The Decline of Spain.--Lack of Progress.--In this advance and progress
+Spain did not share. The empire of Napoleon was never established
+in the Peninsula. In 1811 the Spaniards, with, the assistance of the
+English under the great general, Wellington, repulsed the armies of
+the French. This victory, so gratifying to national pride, was perhaps
+a real loss to Spain, for the reforms which prevailed in other parts
+of Europe were never carried out in Spain, and she remains even yet
+unliberated from aristocratic and clerical power.
+
+A liberal constitutional government was, however, set up in Spain in
+1812 by the Cortes; but in 1814 King Ferdinand, aided by the Spanish
+aristocracy and clergy, was able to overthrow this representative
+government and with tyrannical power to cast reforms aside. Fifty
+thousand people were imprisoned for their liberal opinions,
+the Inquisition was restored, the Cortes abolished, and its acts
+nullified. The effect of these acts upon the Philippines will be
+noticed presently.
+
+Separation of the Philippines from Mexico.--The events of these years
+served to separate the Philippines from their long dependency on
+Mexico. In 1813 the Cortes decreed the suppression of the subsidized
+Acapulco galleon. The Mexican trade had long been waning and voyages
+had become less profitable. The last of the galleons left Manila in
+1811 and returned from Acapulco in 1815, never again to attempt this
+classical voyage.
+
+The cessation of these voyages only briefly preceded the complete
+separation from America. From the first period of settlement,
+the Philippines had in many respects been a sub-dependency of New
+Spain. Mexico had until late afforded the only means of communication
+with the mother-country, the only land of foreign trade. Mexican
+officials frequently administered the government of the Islands,
+and Mexican Indians formed the larger part of the small standing
+army of the Philippines, including the "Regiment of the King." As we
+have seen, a large subsidy, the situado, was annually drawn from the
+Mexican treasury to support the deficient revenues of the Philippines.
+
+Rebellion of the South American Countries.--But the grievances of
+the Spanish American colonists were very great and very real. The
+revolution which had successively stirred North America and Europe
+now passed back again to the Spanish countries of the New World,
+and between 1810 and 1825 they fought themselves free of Spain. The
+last of the colonies from which the Spaniards were forced to retire
+was Peru. Mexico achieved her separation in 1820. Spain lost every
+possession upon the mainland of both Americas, and the only vestiges
+of her once vast American empire were the rich islands of the Greater
+Antilles--Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+Limited Trade with the Philippines.--The Philippines were now forced to
+communicate by ship directly with Spain. The route for the next fifty
+years lay by sailing-vessels around the Cape of Good Hope. It occupied
+from four to six months, but this route had now become practically a
+neutral passage, its winds and currents were well understood, and it
+was annually followed by great numbers of vessels of Europe, England,
+and the United States.
+
+Trade was still limited to the ships of the Royal Philippine Company,
+and this shipping monopoly lasted until 1835, when a new era in the
+commercial and industrial life of the Philippines opened. An English
+commercial house was established in Manila as early as 1809.
+
+Volcanic Eruptions.--The terrible eruptions of Mount Taal, the last
+of which occurred in 1754, were followed in the next century by the
+destructive activity of Mount Mayon. In 1814 an indescribable eruption
+of ashes and lava occurred, and the rich hemp towns around the base
+of this mountain were destroyed. Father Francisco Aragoneses, cura of
+Cagsaua, an eye-witness, states that twelve thousand people perished;
+in the church of Budiao alone two hundred lay dead. [84]
+
+Rebellions in the Philippines.--The Liberal Spanish Cortes.--Two
+revolts in the Philippines that occurred at this period are of much
+importance and show the effect in the Philippines of the political
+changes in Spain. In 1810 the liberal Spanish Cortes had declared that
+"the kingdoms and provinces of America and Asia are, and ought to
+have been always, reputed an integral part of the Spanish monarchy,
+and for that same, their natives and free inhabitants are equal in
+rights and privileges to those of the Peninsula."
+
+This important declaration, which if carried out would have
+completely revolutionized Spain's colonial policy, was published in
+the Philippines, and with that remarkable and interesting facility by
+which such news is spread, even among the least educated classes of
+Filipinos, this proclamation had been widely disseminated and discussed
+throughout the Islands. It was welcomed by the Filipino with great
+satisfaction, because he believed it exempted him from the enforced
+labor of the polos and servicios. These were the unremunerated tasks
+required of Filipinos for the construction of public works, bridges,
+roads, churches, and convents.
+
+Effect of the Repeal of the Declaration of the Cortes.--King Ferdinand
+VII. in May, 1814, on his return to power, as we have seen, published
+the famous decree abolishing constitutional government in Spain and
+annulling all the acts of the Cortes, including those which aimed
+to liberalize the government of the colonies. These decrees, when
+published in the Philippines, appeared to the Filipinos to return
+them to slavery, and in many places their disaffection turned to
+rebellion. In Ilocos twelve hundred men banded together, sacked
+convents and churches, and destroyed the books and documents of
+the municipal archives. Their fury seems to have been particularly
+directed against the petty tyrants of their own race, the caciques
+or principales.
+
+The result of Spanish civilization in the Philippines had been to
+educate, and, to a certain degree, enrich a small class of Filipinos,
+usually known as principales or the gente ilustrada. It is this class
+which has absorbed the direction of municipal and local affairs,
+and which almost alone of the Filipino population has shared in those
+benefits and opportunities which civilized life should bring.
+
+The vast majority of the population have, unfortunately, fallen or
+remained in a dependent and almost semi-servile position beneath
+the principales. In Ilocos this subordinate class, or dependientes,
+is known as kailian, and it was these kailian who now fell upon
+their more wealthy masters, burning their houses and destroying
+their property, and in some instances killing them. The assignment of
+compulsory labor had been left to the principales in their positions
+as gobernadorcillos and cabezas de barangay, and these officials had
+unquestionably abused their power and had drawn down upon themselves
+the vengeance of the kailian. [85]
+
+This revolt, it will be noticed, was primarily directed neither
+against friars nor Spanish authorities, but against the unfortunate
+social order which the rule of Spain maintained.
+
+A Revolt Lead by Spaniards.--A plot, with far more serious motives,
+took place in 1823. The official positions in the regiments and
+provinces had previously been held almost entirely by Spaniards born
+in America or the Philippines. The government now attempted to fill
+these positions with Spaniards from Manila. The officials, deprived of
+their positions, incited the native troops which they had commanded,
+into a revolt, which began in the walled city in Manila. About eight
+hundred soldiers followed them, and they gained possession of the
+Cuartel of the King, of the Royal Palace, and of the Cabildo, but
+they failed to seize the fortress of Santiago. It was not properly a
+revolt of Filipinos, as the people were not involved and did not rise,
+but it had its influence in inciting later insurrection.
+
+Insurrection on Bohol.--Since the insurrection on Bohol in 1744, when
+the natives had killed the Jesuit missionaries, a large part of the
+island had been practically independent under the leader Dagohoy. After
+the expulsion of the Jesuits, Recollects were placed in special
+charge of those towns along the seacoast, which had remained loyal to
+Spain. An effort was made to secure the submission of the rebels by
+the proclamation of a pardon, but the power of the revolt grew rather
+than declined, until in 1827 it was determined to reduce the rebellion
+by force. An expedition of thirty-two hundred men was formed in Cebu,
+and in April, 1828, the campaign took place, which resulted in the
+defeat of the rebels and their settlement in the Christian towns.
+
+The New Provinces of Benguet and Abra.--It is proper to notice
+also the slow advances of Spanish authority, which began to be made
+about this time among the heathen tribes of northern Luzon. These
+fierce and powerful tribes occupy the entire range of the Cordillera
+Central. Missionary effort in the latter half of the eighteenth
+century had succeeded in partly Christianizing the tribes along the
+river Magat in Neuva Vizcaya, but the fierce, head-hunting hillmen
+remained unsubdued and unchristianized.
+
+Between 1823 and 1829 the mission of Pidigan, under an Augustinian
+friar, Christianized some thousands of the Tinguianes of the river
+Abra. In 1829 an expedition of about sixty soldiers, under Don
+Guillermo Galvey, penetrated into the cool, elevated plateau of
+Benguet. The diary of the leader recounts the difficult march up the
+river Cagaling from Aringay and their delight upon emerging from the
+jungle and cogon upon the grassy, pine-timbered slopes of the plateau.
+
+They saw little cultivated valleys and small clusters of houses and
+splendid herds of cattle, carabaos, and horses, which to this day have
+continued to enrich the people of these mountains. At times they were
+surrounded by the yelling bands of Igorrotes, and several times they
+had to repulse attacks, but they nevertheless succeeded in reaching the
+beautiful circular depression now known as the valley of La Trinidad.
+
+The Spaniards saw with enthusiasm the carefully separated and walled
+fields, growing camotes, taro, and sugarcane. The village of about
+five hundred houses was partly burned by the Spaniards, as the
+Igorrotes continued hostile. The expedition returned to the coast,
+having suffered only a few wounds. The commandancia of Benguet was
+not created until 1846, in which year also Abra was organized as
+a province.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PROGRESS AND REVOLUTION. 1837-1897.
+
+
+Progress during the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule.--We have
+now come to the last half-century and to the last phase of Spanish
+rule. In many respects this period was one of economic and social
+progress, and contained more of promise than any other in the history
+of the Islands. During this last half-century the Spanish rulers
+had numerous plans for the development and better administration of
+the Philippines, and, in spite of a somewhat wavering policy and the
+continual sore of official peculation, this was a period of wonderful
+advancement. Revolution and separation from Spain came at last, as
+revolutions usually do, not because there was no effort nor movement
+for reform, but because progress was so discouragingly slow and so
+irritatingly blocked by established interests that desired no change.
+
+Effect of Opening the Port of Manila to Foreign Trade.--Increase in
+Agriculture.--The opening of the port of Manila to foreign trade, in
+1837, was followed by a period of rising industry and prosperity. Up
+to this time the archipelago had not been a producing and exporting
+country, but the freeing of trade led to the raising of great harvests
+for foreign export, which have made world-wide the fame of certain
+Philippine productions. Chief among these are of course Manila hemp
+and tobacco. These were followed by sugar and coffee culture, the
+latter plant enriching the province of Batangas, while the planting
+of new cocoanut groves yearly made of greater importance the yield
+of that excellent product, copra. These rich merchandises had entered
+very little into commerce during the early decades of the century.
+
+Increase in Exports.--In 1810 the entire imports of the Philippines
+amounted in value to 5,329,000 dollars, but more than half of this
+consisted of silver sent from Mexico. From Europe and the United
+States trade amounted to only 175,000 dollars. The exports in the
+same year amounted to 4,795,000 dollars, but a million and a half of
+this was Mexican silver exported on to China, and the whole amount
+of exports to Europe and the United States was only 250,000 dollars.
+
+In 1831 the exportation of hemp amounted to only 346 tons. But the
+effect upon production of opening Manila to foreign trade is seen
+in the export six years later of 2,585 tons. By 1858 the exportation
+of hemp had risen to 412,000 piculs, or 27,500 tons. Of this amount,
+nearly two thirds, or 298,000 piculs, went to the United States. At
+this time the North Atlantic seaboard of America was the center of
+a most active ship-building and ship-carrying trade. The American
+flag was conspicuous among the vessels that frequented these Eastern
+ports, and "Manila hemp" was largely sought after by American seamen
+to supply the shipyards at home. Of sugar, the export in 1858 amounted
+to 557,000 piculs, of which more than half went to Great Britain.
+
+After 1814 general permission had been given to foreigners to
+establish trading-houses in Manila, and by 1858 there were fifteen such
+establishments, of which seven were English and three American. [86]
+
+Other Ports Opened to Foreign Commerce.--In 1855 three other ports
+were opened to foreign commerce--Sual in Pangasinan on the Gulf of
+Lingayan, Iloilo, and Zamboanga. In 1863, Cebu likewise was made an
+open port. The exports of Sual consisted only of rice, and in spite
+of its exceptional harbor this port never flourished, and is to-day
+no more than an unfrequented village.
+
+Iloilo exported leaf tobacco, sugar, sapan or dyewood (an industry
+long ago ruined), hemp, and hides. Zamboanga through the Chinese had a
+small trade with Jolo and the Moro Islands, and exported the produce of
+these seas--sea-slug (tripang), shark fins, mother-of-pearl, tortoise
+shell, etc. For some years the customs laws in these ports were
+trying and vexatious, and prevented full advantage being taken of the
+privileges of export; but in 1869 this service was, by royal decree,
+greatly liberalized and improved. Since that date the Philippines
+have steadily continued to grow in importance in the commercial world.
+
+The Form of Government under the Spanish.--General Improvements.--This
+is perhaps a convenient place to examine for the last time the
+political system which the Spaniards maintained in the country. In
+1850 there were thirty-four provinces and two politico-military
+commandancias. In these provinces the Spanish administration was
+still vested solely in the alcalde mayor, who until after 1886 was
+both governor or executive officer and the judge or court for the
+trial of provincial cases and crimes.
+
+Many of the old abuses which had characterized the government of
+the alcaldes had been at least partially remedied. After 1844 they
+had no longer the much-abused monopoly privilege of trade, nor had
+they as free a hand in controlling the labor of the inhabitants; but
+opportunities for illegal enrichment existed in the administration
+of the treasury and tax system, and these opportunities were not
+slighted. Up to the very end of Spanish rule the officials, high and
+low, are accused of stealing public money.
+
+The Pueblo.--The unit of administration was the pueblo, or township,
+which ordinarily embraced many square miles of country and contained,
+numerous villages, or "barrios." The center of the town was naturally
+the site where for centuries had stood the great church and the
+convent of the missionary friars. These locations had always been
+admirably chosen, and about them grew up the market and trading-shops
+of Chinese and the fine and durable homes of the more prosperous
+Filipinos and mestizos.
+
+About 1860 the government began to concern itself with the construction
+of public buildings and improvements, and the result is seen in many
+pueblos in the finely laid-out plazas and well-built municipal edifices
+grouped about the square--the "tribunal," or town house, the jail,
+and the small but significant schoolhouses. The government of the
+town was vested in a "gobernadorcillo" and a council, each of the
+"consejales" usually representing a hamlet or barrio.
+
+But the Spanish friar, who in nearly every pueblo was the parish
+curate, continued to be the paternal guardian and administrator of the
+pueblo. In general, no matter was too minute for his dictation. Neither
+gobernadorcillo nor councillors dared act in opposition to his wishes,
+and the alcalde of the province was careful to keep on friendly terms
+and leave town affairs largely to his dictation. The friar was the
+local inspector of public instruction and ever vigilant to detect
+and destroy radical ideas. To the humble Filipino, the friar was the
+visible and only representative of Spanish authority.
+
+The Revolt of 1841.--Repression of the People by the
+Friars.--Unquestionably in the past, the work of the friars had been
+of very great value; but men as well as institutions may lose their
+usefulness, as conditions change, and the time was now approaching when
+the autocratic and paternal regime of the friars no longer satisfied
+the Filipinos. Their zeal was no longer disinterested, and their
+work had become materialized by the possession of the vast estates
+upon which their spiritual charges lived and labored as tenants or
+dependents. The policy of the religious orders had, in fact, become
+one of repression, and as the aspirations of the Filipinos increased,
+the friars, filled with doubt and fear, tried to draw still tighter
+the bonds of their own authority, and viewed with growing distrust
+the rising ambition of the people.
+
+Apolinario de la Cruz.--The unfortunate revolution of 1841 shows the
+wayward and misdirected enthusiasm of the Filipino; and the unwisdom
+of the friars. Apolinario de la Cruz, a young Filipino, a native
+of Lukban, Tayabas, came up to Manila filled with the ambition to
+lead a monastic life, and engaged in theological studies. By his
+attendance upon lectures and sermons and by imitation of the friar
+preachers of Manila, Apolinario became, himself, quite an orator,
+and, as subsequent events showed, was able to arouse great numbers
+of his own people by his appeals.
+
+It was his ambition to enter one of the regular monastic orders,
+but this religious privilege was never granted to Filipinos, and he
+was refused. He then entered a brotherhood known as the Cofradia, or
+Brotherhood of San Juan de Dios, composed entirely of Filipinos. After
+some years in this brotherhood, he returned in 1840 to Tayabas and
+founded the Cofradia de San Jose, his aim being to form a special
+cult in honor of Saint Joseph and the Virgin. For this he requested
+authorization from Manila. It was here that the lack of foresight of
+the friars appeared.
+
+The Opposition of the Friars.--Instead of sympathizing with these
+religious aspirations, in which, up to this point, there seems to have
+been nothing heretical, they viewed the rise of a Filipino religious
+leader with alarm. Their policy never permitted to the Filipino any
+position that was not wholly subordinate. They believed that the
+permanence of Spanish power in these islands lay in suppressing any
+latent ability for leadership in the Filipino himself. Their influence,
+consequently, was thrown against Apolinario, and the granting of the
+authority for his work. They secured not only a condemnation of his
+plan, but an order for the arrest and imprisonment of all who should
+attend upon his preaching.
+
+Apolinario Forced to Rebel.--Apolinario thereupon took refuge
+in independent action. His movement had already become a strong
+one, and his followers numbered several thousand people of Laguna,
+Tayabas, and Batangas. The governor of Tayabas province, Don Joaquin
+Ortega, organized an expedition to destroy the schism. Accompanied
+by two Franciscan friars, he attacked Apolinario in the month of
+October, 1840, and was defeated and killed. One account says that
+Apolinario was assisted by a band of Negritos, whose bowmanship was
+destructive. There are still a very few of these little blacks in
+the woods in the vicinity of Lukban.
+
+Apolinario was now in the position of an open rebel, and he fortified
+himself in the vicinity of Alitao, where he built a fort and chapel.
+
+His religious movement became distinctly independent and heretical. A
+church was formed, of which he was first elected archbishop and then
+supreme pontiff. He was also charged with having assumed the title of
+"King of the Tagalog."
+
+Finally a force under the new alcalde, Vital, and General Huet early in
+November attacked Apolinario's stronghold and after a fierce struggle
+defeated the revolutionists. About a thousand Filipinos perished in
+the final battle. Apolinario was captured and executed. He was then
+twenty-seven years of age.
+
+Organization of Municipal Governments.--In 1844 an able and liberal
+governor, General Claveria, arrived, and remained until the end of the
+year 1849. A better organization of the provincial governments, which
+we have seen, followed Claveria's entrance into office, and in October,
+1847, came the important decree, organizing the municipalities in
+the form which we have already described, and which remained without
+substantial modification to the end of Spanish rule, and which has
+to a considerable extent been followed in the Municipal Code framed
+by the American government.
+
+Subjection of the Igorrote Tribes.--With Claveria began a decisive
+policy of conquest among the Igorrote tribes of northern Luzon, and
+by the end of Spanish rule these mountains were dotted with cuartels
+and missions for the control of these unruly tribes. The province of
+Nueva Vizcaya has been particularly subject to the raids of these
+head-hunting peoples. Year after year the Christian towns of the
+plains had yielded a distressing sacrifice of life to satisfy the
+savage ceremonials of the Igorrotes. [87]
+
+In 1847, Claveria nominated as governor of Nueva Vizcaya, Don Mariano
+Ozcariz, whose severe and telling conquests for the first time checked
+these Igorrote outrages and made possible the development of the
+great valleys of northern Luzon.
+
+Spanish Settlements on Mindanao.--Zamboanga.--With Claveria's
+governorship we enter also upon the last phase of Moro piracy. In spite
+of innumerable expeditions, Spain's occupation of South Mindanao and
+the Sulu archipelago was limited to the presidio of Zamboanga. She had
+occupied this strategic point continuously since the reestablishment
+of Spanish power in 1763, The great stone fort, which still stands,
+had proved impregnable to Moro attack, and had long been unmolested.
+
+Distributed for a distance of some miles over the rich lands at this
+end of the Zamboanga peninsula was a Christian population, which
+had grown up largely from the descendants of rescued captives of the
+Moros. Coming originally from all parts of the Bisayas, Calamianes, and
+Luzon, this mixed population has grown to have a somewhat different
+character from that of any other part of the Islands. A corrupt
+Spanish dialect, known as the "Chabucano," has become the common
+speech, the only instance in the Philippines where the native dialect
+has been supplanted. This population, loyal and devotedly Catholic,
+never failed to sustain the defense of this isolated Spanish outpost,
+and contributed brave volunteers to every expedition against the
+Moro islands.
+
+Activity of Other Nations.--But Spain's maintenance of Zamboanga was
+insufficient to sustain her claims of sovereignty over the Sulu and
+Tawi-Tawi groups. Both the Dutch and English planned various moves for
+their occupation and acquisition, and in 1844 a French fleet entered
+the archipelago and concluded a treaty with the sultan of Sulu for
+the cession of the island of Basilan for the sum of one million
+dollars. Writings of the French minister and historian, M. Guizot,
+show that France hoped, by the acquisition of this island, to obtain
+a needed naval base in the East and found a great commercial port
+within the sphere of Chinese trade. [88]
+
+Conquest of the Gulf of Davao.--But this step roused the Spaniards
+to activity and the occupation of the island. A naval vessel subdued
+the towns along the north coast, and then proceeding to the mouth of
+the Rio Grande, secured from the sultan of Maguindanao the cession
+of the great Gulf of Davao. Spain took no immediate steps to occupy
+this gulf, but in 1847 a Spaniard, Don Jose Oyanguran, proposed to
+the governor, Claveria, to conquer the region at his own expense,
+if he could be furnished with artillery and munitions and granted a
+ten years' government of Davao, with the exclusive privilege of trade.
+
+His offer was accepted by the governor and the Audiencia, and Oyanguran
+organized a company to secure funds for the undertaking. In two
+years' time he had subdued the coast regions of this gulf, expelled
+the pirates who harbored there, and founded the settlement of Nueva
+Vergara. He seems to have been making progress toward the conquest
+and commercial exploitation of this region, when jealous attacks in
+Manila induced Governor Urbistondo to cancel his privilege and to
+relieve him by an officer of the government.
+
+In subsequent years the Jesuits had a few mission stations here and
+made a few converts among the Bagobos; but the region is still an
+unsubdued and unutilized country, whose inhabitants are mainly pagan
+tribes, and whose rich agricultural possibilities lie undeveloped
+and unclaimed.
+
+The Samal Pirates.--The Sulu.--The piratical inhabitants of the
+Sulu archipelago are made of two distinct Malayan peoples--the Sulu
+(or Sulug), and the Samal, who are known throughout Malaysia as the
+"Bajau" or "Orang laut" (Men of the Sea). The former appear to be
+the older inhabitants. They occupy the rich and populous island of
+Jolo and some islands of the Siassi group, immediately south.
+
+The Samal.--The Samal, or Bajau, are stated to have come originally
+from Johore. Many of them live almost exclusively in their boats,
+passing their lives from birth to death upon the sea. They are found
+throughout most parts of Malaysia, the position of their little fleets
+changing with the shifting of the monsoons. In the Sulu archipelago
+and a few points in South Mindanao, many of these Samal have shifted
+their homes from their boats to the shore. Their villages are built
+on piles over the sea, and on many of the low coral reefs south of
+Siassi and east of Tawi-Tawi there are great towns or settlements
+which have apparently been in existence a long while.
+
+Fifty years ago the Samal were very numerous in the many islands
+between Jolo and Basilan, and this group is still known as the Islas
+Samales. Like the Sulu and other Malays, the Samal are Mohammedans,
+and scarcely less persistent pirates than their fellow-Malays. With the
+decline of piratical power among the Sulu of Jolo, the focus of piracy
+shifted to these settlements of the Samal, and in the time of Claveria
+the worst centers were the islands of Balanguingui and Tonquil, lying
+just north of the island of Jolo. From here pirate and slaving raids
+upon the Bisayan Islands continued to be made, and nearly every year
+towns were sacked and burned and several hundred unfortunate captives
+carried away. The captives were destined for slavery, and regular marts
+existed for this traffic at Jolo and on the Bay of Sandakan in Borneo.
+
+Arrival of Steam Warships.--In 1848 the Philippines secured the
+first steam war vessels. These were the "Magellanes," the "Elcano,"
+and the "Reina de Castilla." They were destined to revolutionize
+Moro relations.
+
+The Destruction of the Samal Forts.--Hitherto it had been possible
+for the great Moro war praos, manned by many oarsmen, to drop their
+masts on the approach of an armed sailing-vessel, and, turning
+toward the "eye of the wind," where no sailing-ship could pursue,
+row calmly away from danger. Steam alone was effective in combating
+these sea-wolves. Claveria took these newly arrived ships, and with
+a strong force of infantry, which was increased by Zamboangueno
+volunteers, he entered the Samal group in February, 1848, and landed
+on the island of Balanguingui.
+
+There were four fortresses situated in the mangrove marshes of the
+island. These, in spite of a desperate resistance, were carried by
+the infantry and Zamboanguenos and the pirates scattered. The conduct
+of the campaign appears to have been admirable and the fighting
+heroic. The Moros were completely overwhelmed; 450 dead were burned
+or interred; 124 pieces of artillery--for the most part, the small
+brass cannon called "lantacas"--were captured, and 150 Moro boats were
+destroyed. The Spaniards cut down the cocoanut groves, and with spoil
+that included such rich pirate loot as silks, silver vases, ornaments,
+and weapons of war, and with over two hundred prisoners and three
+hundred rescued captives, returned to Zamboanga. This was the most
+signal victory ever won by Europeans in conflict with Malay piracy. The
+effectiveness of this campaign is shown by the fact that while in
+the preceding year 450 Filipinos had suffered capture at the hands
+of Moro pirates, in 1848 and the succeeding year there was scarcely
+a depredation. But in 1850 a pirate squadron from Tonquil, an island
+adjacent to Balanguingui, fell upon Samar and Camaguin. Fortunately,
+Governor Urbistondo, who had succeeded Claveria, vigorously continued
+the policy of his predecessor, and an expedition was promptly
+dispatched which destroyed the settlements and strongholds on Tonquil.
+
+Destruction of the Moro Forts at Jolo.--A year later war broke out
+again with Jolo, and after a varied interchange of negotiations and
+hostilities, the Spaniards stormed and took the town in February,
+1851. The question of permanent occupation of this important site was
+debated by a council of war, but their forces appearing unequal to
+the task, the forts of the Moros were destroyed, and the expedition
+returned. Jolo is described at this time as a very strongly guarded
+situation. Five forts and a double line of trenches faced the
+shore. The Moro town is said to have contained about seven thousand
+souls, and there was a barrio of Chinese traders, who numbered about
+five hundred.
+
+Treaty with the Sultan of Jolo.--A few months later the governor of
+Zamboanga concluded a treaty with the sultan of Jolo by which the
+archipelago was to be considered an incorporated part of the Spanish
+possessions. The sultan bound himself to make no further treaties
+with or cessions to foreign powers, to suppress piracy, and to fly the
+Spanish flag. The Moros were guaranteed the practice of their religion,
+the succession of the sultan and his descendants in the established
+order, boats of Jolo were to enjoy the same trading privileges in
+Spanish ports as other Filipino vessels, and the sultan retained
+the right to all customs duties on foreign trading-vessels. Finally,
+"in compensation for the damages of war," the sultan was to be paid
+an annual subsidy of 1,500 pesos and 600 pesos each to three datos
+and 360 pesos to a sherif. [89]
+
+The End of Malay Piracy.--In these very years that Malay piracy was
+receiving such severe blows from the recuperating power and activity
+of the Spanish government on the north, it was crushed also from
+the south by the merciless warfare of a great Englishman, the Raja
+Charles Brooke of Sarawak. The sources of pirate depredation were
+Maguindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and the north and west coasts of
+the great island of Borneo. We have seen how these fleets, century
+after century, swept northward and wasted with fire and murder the
+fair islands of the Philippines.
+
+But this archipelago was not alone in suffering these ravages. The
+peaceful trading inhabitants of the great island groups to the south
+were persistently visited and despoiled. Moreover, as the Chinese
+trade by the Cape of Good Hope route became established in the first
+half of the nineteenth century, these pirates became a great menace
+to European shipping. They swarmed the China Sea, and luckless indeed
+was the ship carried too far eastward on its course. Every American
+schoolboy is familiar with the stories of fierce hand-to-hand struggles
+with Malay pirates, which have come down from those years when the
+American flag was seen everywhere in the ports of the Far East.
+
+About 1839 a young English officer, [90] who had been in the Indian
+service, Charles Brooke, having armed and equipped a yacht of about
+140 tons, set sail for the coast of Borneo, with the avowed intent of
+destroying Malay piracy and founding an independent state. In all the
+romantic stories of the East there is no career of greater daring than
+that of this man. In 1841, having engaged in several bloody exploits,
+Brooke forced from the sultan of Borneo the cession of Sarawak,
+with the government vested in himself as an independent raja.
+
+Brooke now devoted himself with merciless severity to the destruction
+of the pirates in the deep bays and swampy rivers, whence they had
+so long made their excursions. Later he was assisted by the presence
+of the English man-of-war "Dido," and in 1847 the sultan of Brunei
+ceded to Great Britain the island of Labuan. In 1849, Brooke visited
+Zamboanga in the English man-of-war "Moeander," and concluded a treaty
+with the sultan of Sulu, which greatly alarmed the Spaniards.
+
+Brooke's private correspondence shows that he was ambitious and hopeful
+of acquiring for England parts of the Dutch possessions in the south
+and the Spanish Philippines in the north; but his plans were never
+followed up by England, although in 1887 North Borneo was ceded to
+an English company, and all the northern and eastern portions of this
+great island are now under English protection. [91]
+
+Liberal Ideas among the Filipinos.--The release from Moro
+piracy, the opening of foreign commerce, and the development of
+agricultural production were rapidly bringing about a great change
+in the aspirations of the Filipino people themselves. Nearly up to
+the middle of the nineteenth century the Filipinos had felt the
+full effect of isolation from the life and thought of the modern
+world. But the revolutionary changes in Europe and the struggles
+for constitutional government in Spain had their influence, even
+in these far-away Spanish possessions. Spaniards of liberal ideas,
+some of them in official positions, found their way to the Islands,
+and an agitation began, originating among Spaniards themselves,
+against the paternal powers of the friars.
+
+Influence of the Press.--The growth of periodic literature accelerated
+this liberalizing movement. The press, though suffering a severe
+censorship, has played a large part in shaping recent thought in
+these islands and in communicating to the Filipino people those
+ideas and purposes which ever inspire and elevate men. [92] The first
+newspaper to make its appearance in the Philippines was in 1822--"El
+Philantropo"; but journalism assumed no real importance until the
+forties, when there were founded "Semanario Filipino" (1843), and
+almost immediately after several others--"El Amigo de Pais" (1845),
+"La Estrella" (1846), and "La Esperanza" (1847), the first daily. These
+were followed by "Diario de Manila" (1848); in 1858 "El Comercio"
+appeared, the oldest of the papers still in existence. [93]
+
+Papers conducted by Filipinos and in the Filipino tongues are of more
+recent origin, but these early Spanish periodicals had a real effect
+upon the Filipinos themselves, training up a class familiar with the
+conduct of journalism and preparing a way for the very influential
+work of the Filipino press in recent years.
+
+Establishment of an Educational System.--Return of the Jesuits.--But
+more important than all other influences was the opening of education
+to Filipinos. In 1852 a royal decree authorized the Jesuits to return
+to the Philippines. The conditions under which they came back were
+that they should devote themselves solely to missions in the unoccupied
+fields of Mindanao, and to the higher education of the Filipinos.
+
+The Public Schools.--In 1860, O'Donnell, the Spanish minister of
+war and colonies (Ultramar), founded the system of public primary
+instruction. A primary school for boys and one for girls was to
+be established in each pueblo of the Islands. In these schools,
+instruction was to be given in the Spanish language. A superior
+commission of education was formed, which consisted of the governor,
+the archbishop, and seven other members added by the governor himself.
+
+The system was not secular, for it primarily was devoted to the
+teaching of religious doctrine. The Spanish friar, the pueblo curate,
+was the local inspector of schools and practically directed their
+conduct. It was not wholly a free system, because tuition was required
+of all but the poorest children; nor was it an adequate system,
+because, even when most complete, it reached only a small proportion
+of the children of a parish, and these very largely were of the
+well-to-do families. And yet this system, for what it accomplished,
+is deserving of great credit.
+
+Besides the church, the convent, and the tribunal, nearly every town
+in the Philippines, toward the close of Spanish rule, had also, in the
+public plaza, its public school buildings for boys and for girls. In
+these towns a number of Filipinos were taught to converse in the
+Spanish language and at least the rudiments of Spanish education. But
+this system did not give opportunity for education to the little
+child of the humble fisherman and the husbandman.
+
+The Manila Normal School.--To prepare Filipino teachers to do this
+work of primary instruction, a decree of 1863 established the Manila
+Normal School. In charge of the Jesuits, this school was inaugurated
+in January, 1865. And about the same date the government decreed the
+foundation of the Jesuit "Ateneo Municipal" for higher instruction
+in the classics and sciences that should conduct the student to the
+degree of bachelor of arts. The influence of these institutions upon
+the development of the Filipino has been remarkable. In one or the
+other of them have been trained nearly all of those young men who in
+recent years have stirred the Filipino people to wide ambitions and
+demands. At the same time the excellent Jesuit observatory, which has
+done such important work in meteorology, was established in charge
+of Padre Faura.
+
+Increase in Spanish Population.--The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
+brought immense changes to the Islands. Previous to this date Spanish
+residents had been few. Almost the only class deeply interested in the
+Islands and permanently established here had been the friars. But with
+communication by steamer in thirty days from Barcelona to Manila,
+a new interest was felt by Spaniards in the Philippines, though
+unfortunately this interest was greatest among the politicians. Some
+of the projects planned and decreed can only be regarded as visionary
+and beyond the point of serviceability, and others, more unfortunately
+still, had for their purpose the creation of offices and emoluments
+for Peninsula politicians; but they all contributed to bring to an
+end the paternal government under which there was no prospect of
+further enlightenment or progress for the Filipino.
+
+Increase in the Number of Wealthy, Educated Filipinos.--The
+Filipino had now become embarked upon a new current of intellectual
+experience--a course of enlightenment which has been so full of
+unexpected development, and which has already carried him so far from
+his ancestor of one hundred years ago, that we can not say what advance
+another generation or two may bring. Throughout all the towns of the
+Islands a class was rapidly growing up to which the new industries
+had brought wealth. Their means enabled them to build spacious and
+splendid homes of the fine, hard woods of the Philippines, and to
+surround themselves with such luxuries as the life of the Islands
+permitted. This class was rapidly gaining education. It acquired a
+knowledge of the Spanish language, and easily assumed that graceful
+courtesy which distinguishes the Spaniard.
+
+The only misfortune, as regards this class, was that it was very
+small. It could embrace but a few families in each populous town. Some
+of these had Chinese and Spanish blood in their veins, but other
+notable families were pure Filipinos.
+
+Attitude of the Spanish and the Friars toward Filipino Education.--The
+great mistake committed by the Spaniard was that he rarely welcomed
+the further progress of the native population, and the center of
+this opposition to the general enlightenment of the race was the
+friars. Thus those who had been the early protectors and educators,
+little by little, because of their extreme conservatism and their
+fear of loosening the ties that bound the Filipino to the church and
+to Spain, changed into opponents of his progress and enemies of his
+enlightenment; but the education which the church itself had given to
+the Filipino, and which had been fostered by the state and especially
+in recent times by the Jesuits, had made the Filipino passionately
+ambitious for more enlightenment and freedom.
+
+The Rule of Governor Torre.--Liberal Reforms.--In 1868, Queen
+Isabella II. of Spain was deposed, and a little later a revolutionary
+government, the "Republic of Spain," was founded. It was the brief
+triumph of that reforming and liberal spirit which for so many years
+had been struggling to free Spain from the burdens of aristocracy
+and ecclesiasticism.
+
+The natural consequence was the sending of a liberal governor
+to the Philippines and the publication of liberal principles and
+reforms. This governor was General de la Torre. He was a brave and
+experienced soldier and a thorough democrat at heart. He dispensed
+with the formality and petty pomp with which the governors of Manila
+had surrounded themselves; he dismissed the escort of halberdiers,
+with their mediaeval uniforms and weapons, which had surrounded the
+governor-generals since 1581, and rode out in civilian's clothes and
+without ostentation. His efforts were directed to encouraging the
+Filipinos and to attaching them to Spain. In the eyes of the Spanish
+law, for a brief period, Spaniard and colonists had become equal,
+and La Torre tried to enforce this principle and make no distinction
+of race or birth. While Filipinos were encouraged and delighted,
+it is impossible to describe the disgust of the Spanish population
+and the opposition of the friars. La Torre was attacked and opposed,
+and the entire course of his governorship was filled with trouble,
+in which, naturally, liberal ideas gained wider and wider currency
+among the Filipinos.
+
+Effect of the Opposition of the Friars.--The friars, being the most
+influential opponents of the Filipino, naturally came to be regarded
+by the Filipinos as their greatest enemies, and the anti-friar spirit
+daily spread and intensified. A party was formed which demanded that
+the friars vacate the parishes, and that their places be filled by
+secular priests, in accordance with the statutes of the Council of
+Trent. This party was headed by a native priest, Dr. Jose Burgos.
+
+A Filipino Movement for Reform.--After the fall of the republic in
+Spain and the restoration of the monarchy, the administration in the
+Philippines attempted to extirpate the rising tide of liberal thought;
+but these ideas had taken root and could not be suppressed. The
+Filipino party, if so we may call it, continued to plan and work
+for reform. It numbered not only those of Filipino blood, but many
+of Spanish descent, born in the Philippines. There is no certain
+evidence that they were at this time plotting for independence, or
+that their actions were treasonable; but the fear and hatred felt
+by the Spaniards resulted frequently in the exile and punishment of
+known advocates of reform.
+
+The Cavite Revolt.--In 1872 there occurred an important outbreak
+known as the Cavite Revolt. Two hundred native soldiers at the
+Cavite arsenal rose, killed their officers, and shouted "Death to
+Spain!" They had fellow-conspirators among the troops in Manila,
+but owing to mistakes in their plans these failed to rise with them
+and the revolt was easily suppressed.
+
+It was immediately followed by the arrest of a large number of
+Filipinos who had been conspicuous in La Torre's time and who were
+advocates of reform. This number included the three priests, Fathers
+Burgos, Zamora, and Gomez, besides Don Antonio Regidor, Don Joaquin
+Pardo de Tavera, Don Pedro Carillo, and others. A council of war
+condemned to death forty-one of the participants in the Cavite riot,
+and these were shot on the morning of the 27th of January, 1872,
+on the Field of Bagumbayan. On the 6th of February a council of war
+condemned to death eleven more soldiers of the regiment of artillery,
+but this sentence was commuted by the governor to life imprisonment. On
+the 15th of February the same council of war sentenced to death upon
+the garrote, the priests Burgos, Zamora, Gomez, and a countryman,
+Saldua; and this sentence was executed on the morning of the 17th.
+
+The Spread of Secret Organizations.--Masonry.--New ground for fear
+was now found in the spread of secret organizations, which were
+denounced as Free Masonry. This is a very ancient institution which,
+in Protestant countries like England and America, has a very large
+membership, and in these countries its aims are wholly respectable. It
+has never in any way been connected with sedition or other unworthy
+movements. Its services are, in fact, largely of a religious character
+and it possesses a beautiful and elaborate Christian ritual; but in
+Latin countries Masonry has been charged with political intrigue and
+the encouragement of infidelity, and this has resulted in clerical
+opposition to the order wherever found. The first Masonic lodge in the
+Philippines was established about 1861 and was composed entirely of
+Spaniards. It was succeeded by others with Filipino membership, and
+in one way or another seems to have inspired many secret organizations.
+
+The "Liga Filipina," and Dr. Rizal.--Large numbers of Filipinos were
+now working, if not for independence, at least for the expulsion of the
+friars; and while this feeling should have been met by a statesmanlike
+and liberal policy of reform, the government constantly resorted to
+measures of repression, which little by little changed the movement
+for reformation into revolution.
+
+In 1887 the "Liga Filipina," was formed by a number of the
+younger Filipino patriots, chief among whom was Dr. Jose Rizal y
+Mercado. Rizal, by his gifts, his noble character, and his sad fate,
+has gained a supreme place in the hearts of Filipinos and in the
+history of the Islands. He was born in 1861 at Calamba, on Laguna de
+Bay, and even as a child he was affected with sadness at the memory of
+the events of 1872 and with the backward and unhappy condition of his
+countrymen. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Ateneo Municipal in
+Manila, and his family having means, he was enabled to study in Spain,
+where he took a degree in medicine, and later to travel and study in
+France, England, and Germany.
+
+It was in this latter country that he produced his first novel,
+Noli Me Tangere. He had been a contributor to the Filipino paper
+published in Spain, "La Solidaridad," and, to further bring the
+conditions and needs of his country to more public notice, he wrote
+this novel dealing with Tagalog life as represented at his old home on
+Laguna de Bay and in the city of Manila. Later he published a sequel,
+El Filibusterismo, in which even more courageously and significantly
+are set forth his ideas for reform.
+
+His work made him many enemies, and on his return to Manila he found
+himself in danger and was obliged to leave. He returned again in 1893,
+and was immediately arrested and sentenced to deportation to Dapitan,
+Mindanao. Here he remained quietly in the practice of his profession
+for some years.
+
+The Katipunan.--Meanwhile the ideas which had been agitated by the
+wealthy and educated Filipinos had worked their way down to the
+poor and humble classes. They were now shared by the peasant and
+the fisherman. Especially in those provinces where the religious
+orders owned estates and took as rental a portion of the tenants'
+crop, there was growing hatred and hostility to the friars. The
+"Liga Filipina" had been composed of cultivated and moderate men,
+who while pressing for reform were not inclined to radical extremes,
+nor to obtain their ends by violent means.
+
+But there now grew up and gradually spread, until it had its
+branches and members in all the provinces surrounding Manila, a
+secret association composed largely of the uneducated classes, whose
+object was independence of Spain, and whose members, having little to
+lose, were willing to risk all. This was the society which has since
+become famous under the name of "Katipunan." This secret association
+was organized in Cavite about 1892. Its president and founder was
+Andres Bonifacio. Its objects were frankly to expel the friars, and,
+if possible, to destroy the Spanish government.
+
+Rebellion of 1896.--A general attack and slaughter of the Spaniards
+was planned for the 20th of August, 1896. The plot was discovered
+by the priest of Binondo, Padre Gil, who learned of the movement
+through the wife of one of the conspirators, and within a few hours
+the government had seized several hundred persons who were supposed to
+be implicated. The arrests included many rich and prominent Filipinos,
+and at the end of some weeks the Spanish prisons contained over five
+thousand suspects. Over one thousand of these were almost immediately
+exiled to far-distant Spanish prisons--Fernando Po, on the west coast
+of Africa, and the fortress of Ceuta, on the Mediterranean.
+
+Meanwhile the Katipunan was organizing its forces for struggle. On
+the 26th of August, one thousand insurgents attacked Caloocan,
+and four days later a pitched battle was fought at San Juan del
+Monte. In this last fight the insurgents suffered great loss,
+their leader, Valenzuela, was captured and, with three companions,
+shot on the Campo de Bagumbayan. The rising continued, however,
+and the provinces of Pampanga, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija were soon in
+full rebellion. The center of revolt, however, proved to be Cavite,
+This province was almost immediately cleared of Spaniards, except the
+long neck of land containing the town of Cavite and protected by the
+fleet. Here the insurgents received some organization under a young
+man, who had been prominent in the Katipunan--Emilio Aguinaldo.
+
+The governor-general, Blanco, a humane man, who afterwards for a short
+time commanded in Cuba, was recalled, and General Polavieja replaced
+him. The Spanish army at the beginning of the revolt had consisted
+of but fifteen hundred troops, but so serious was the revolt regarded
+that Spain, although straining every energy at the moment to end the
+rebellion in Cuba, strengthened the forces in the Philippines, until
+Polavieja had an army of twenty-eight thousand Spaniards assisted by
+several loyal Filipino regiments. With this army a fierce campaign
+in Cavite province was conducted, which after fifty-two days' hard
+fighting ended in the defeat of the insurgents and the scattering of
+their forces.
+
+Death of Dr. Rizal.--For the moment it looked as though the rebellion
+might pass. Then the Spanish government of Polavieja disgraced itself
+by an act as wanton and cruel as it was inhuman and impolitic.
+
+Four years Dr. Rizal had spent in exile at Dapitan. He had lived
+quietly and under surveillance, and it was impossible that he could
+have had any share in this rebellion of 1898. Wearied, however, with
+his inactivity, he solicited permission to go as an army doctor to the
+dreadful Spanish hospitals in Cuba. This request was granted in July,
+and Rizal had the misfortune to arrive in Manila at the very moment
+of discovery of the rebellion in August. Governor Blanco hastened to
+send him to Spain with a most kindly letter to the minister of war,
+in which he vouched for his independence of the events which were
+taking place in Manila.
+
+His enemies, however, could not see him escape. Their persecution
+followed him to the Peninsula, and, upon his arrival in Spain, Rizal
+was at once arrested and sent back to Manila a prisoner. His friend
+Blanco had gone. Polavieja, the friend and tool of the reactionary
+party, was busy punishing by imprisonment, banishment or death all
+Filipinos who could be shown to have the slightest part or association
+in the movement for reform. And by this clique Dr. Rizal was sentenced
+to execution. He was shot early on the morning of December 30,
+1896. [94] At his death the insurrection flamed out afresh. It now
+spread to Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos.
+
+End of the Revolt by Promises of Reform.--Polavieja returned to Spain,
+and was succeeded by Gen. Primo de Rivera, who arrived in the spring
+of 1897. The Spanish troops had suffered several recent reverses and
+the country swarmed with insurgents. The policy of Primo de Rivera
+was to gain by diplomacy where the energy of his predecessor had
+failed. In July, 1897, an amnesty proclamation was issued, and in
+August the governor-general opened negotiations with Aguinaldo, whose
+headquarters were now in the mountains of Angat in Bulacan. Primo
+de Rivera urged the home government to make some reforms, which
+would greatly lessen the political importance of the friars. He
+was vehemently opposed by the latter, but it was probably upon the
+promise of reform that Aguinaldo and his fellow-insurgents agreed,
+for the payment of 1,700,000 pesos, to surrender their arms, dismiss
+the insurgent forces, and themselves retire from the Islands. This
+agreement was made, and on December 27, 1897, Aguinaldo left the port
+of Sual for Hongkong.
+
+The Spanish Misrule Ended.--Conditions in the provinces still continued
+very unsatisfactory, and in its very last hours the Spanish government
+lost the remnant of its prestige with the people by a massacre in
+Calle Camba, Binondo, of a company of Bisayan sailors. Ten days after
+this occurrence a revolt blazed out on the island of Cebu. Had events
+taken their course, what would have been the final conclusion of the
+struggle between Spaniards and Filipinos it is impossible to say. On
+the 25th day of April the United States declared war upon Spain,
+and the first day of May an American fleet reached Manila harbor,
+and in the naval fight off Cavite, Spanish dominion, which had lasted
+with only one brief interruption for 332 years, was broken.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+
+Beginning of a New Era.--With the passing of the Spanish sovereignty
+to the Americans, a new era began in the Philippines. Already the
+old Spanish rule seems so far removed that we can begin to think of
+it without feeling and study it without prejudice.
+
+Development of the United States of America.--The American nation is
+the type of the New World. Beginning in a group of colonies, planted
+half a century later than the settlement of the Philippines, it has
+had a development unparalleled in the history of states. Although
+peopled by emigrants from Europe, who rigidly preserved both their
+purity of race and pride of ancestry, the American colonists, at the
+end of a century, were far separated in spirit and institutions from
+the Old World.
+
+Struggle with the wilderness and with the savage produced among them
+a society more democratic and more independent than Europe had ever
+known; while their profound religious convictions saved the colonists
+from barbarism and intellectual decline. It can truthfully be held,
+that in 1775, at the outbreak of the American Revolution, the colonists
+had abler men and greater political ability than the mother-country of
+England. It was these men who, at the close of the Revolution, framed
+the American Constitution, the greatest achievement in the history of
+public law. This nation, endowed at its commencement with so precious
+an inheritance of political genius, felt its civil superiority to the
+illiberal or ineffective governments of Europe, and this feeling has
+produced in Americans a supreme and traditional confidence in their own
+forms of government and democratic standards of life. Certainly their
+history contains much to justify the choice of their institutions.
+
+A hundred and twenty-five years ago, these colonies were a small nation
+of 2,500,000 people, occupying no more than the Atlantic coast of
+the continent. Great mountain chains divided them from the interior,
+which was overrun by the fiercest and most warlike type of man that
+the races have produced--the American Indian. With an energy which
+has shown no diminishing from generation to generation, the American
+broke through these mountain chains, subdued the wilderness, conquered
+the Indian tribes, and in the space of three generations was master
+of the continent of North America.
+
+Even while engaged in the War for Independence, the American
+frontiersman crossed the Appalachians and secured Kentucky and the
+Northwest Territory, and with them the richest and most productive
+regions of the Temperate Zone,--the Mississippi Valley. In 1803, the
+great empire of Louisiana, falling from the hand of France, was added
+to the American nation. In 1818, Florida was ceded by Spain, and in
+1857, as a result of war with Mexico, came the Greater West and the
+Pacific seaboard. This vast dominion, nearly three thousand miles in
+width from east to west, has been peopled by natural increase and by
+immigration from Europe, until, at the end of the nineteenth century,
+the American nation numbered seventy-four million souls.
+
+This development has taken place without fundamental change in the
+constitution or form of government, without loss of individual liberty,
+and constantly increasing national prosperity. Moreover, the States
+have survived the Civil War, the most bloody and persistently fought
+war of all modern centuries--a war in which a million soldiers fell,
+and to sustain which three and a half billion dollars in gold were
+expended out of the national treasury. This war accomplished the
+abolition of negro slavery, the greatest economic revolution ever
+effected by a single blow.
+
+Such in brief is the history of the American nation, so gifted with
+political intelligence, so driven by sleepless energy, so proud of
+its achievements, and inwardly so contemptuous of the more polished
+but less liberal life of the Old World. Europe has never understood
+this nation, and not until a few years ago did Europeans dream of
+its progress and its power.
+
+Relation of the United States to South American Republics.--Toward
+the republics of Spanish America the United States has always stood
+in a peculiar relation. These countries achieved their independence of
+Spain under the inspiration of the success of the United States. Their
+governments were framed in imitation of the American, and in spite of
+the turbulence and disorder of their political life, the United States
+has always felt and manifested a strong sympathy for these states as
+fellow-republics. She has moreover pledged herself to the maintenance
+of their integrity against the attacks of European powers. This
+position of the United States in threatening with resistance the
+attempt of any European power to seize American territory is known
+as the Monroe Doctrine, because it was first declared by President
+Monroe in 1823.
+
+Sympathy of American People for the Oppressed Cubans.--The fact that
+the American nation attained its own independence by revolution has
+made the American people give ready sympathy to the cause of the
+revolutionist. The people of Cuba, who made repeated ineffective
+struggles against Spanish sovereignty, always had the good wishes
+of the American people. By international usage, however, one nation
+may not recognize or assist revolutionists against a friendly power
+until their independence is practically effected.
+
+Thus, when rebellion broke out afresh in Cuba in 1894, the United
+States government actively suppressed the lending of assistance to
+the Cubans, as was its duty, although the American people themselves
+heartily wished Cuba free. The war in Cuba dragged along for years and
+became more and more merciless. The passions of Cubans and Spaniards
+were so inflamed that quarter was seldom given, and prisoners were
+not spared. Spain poured her troops into the island until there were
+120,000 on Cuban soil, but the rebellion continued.
+
+The Spanish have always been merciless in dealing with
+revolutionists. Americans, on the other hand, have always conceded
+the moral right of a people to resist oppressive government, and in
+the entire history of the United States there has scarcely been a
+single punishment for political crime. Although probably the fiercest
+war in history was the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, there
+was not a single execution for treason. Thus the stories of the
+constant executions of political prisoners, on an island in sight
+of its own shores, greatly exasperated America, as did the policy of
+Governor-general Weyler, which was excessive in its severity.
+
+War with Spain.--Destruction of the "Maine."--As the contest proceeded
+without sign of termination, the patience of the American people grew
+less. Then, February 15, 1898, occurred one of the most deplorable
+events of recent times. The American battleship "Maine," lying in the
+harbor of Havana, was, in the night, blown to destruction by mine or
+torpedo, killing 266 American officers and sailors. It is impossible
+to believe that so dastardly an act was done with the knowledge of
+the higher Spanish officials; but the American people rightly demanded
+that a government such as Spain maintained in Cuba, unable to prevent
+such an outrage upon the vessel of a friendly power, and that could
+neither suppress its rebellion nor wage war humanely, should cease.
+
+Declaration of War.--On April 19th the American Congress demanded
+that Spain withdraw from the island and recognize the independence of
+Cuba. This was practically a declaration of war. Spain indignantly
+refused, and resolved upon resistance. Unfortunately, the ignorant
+European press claimed for Spain military and naval superiority.
+
+The war was brief, and was an overwhelming disaster to Spain. Every
+vessel of her proud navy that came under the fire of American guns
+was destroyed.
+
+For a few months battle raged along the coasts of Cuba, and then
+Spain sued for peace.
+
+Dewey's Victory in Manila Bay.--But meanwhile the war, begun without
+the slightest reference to the Philippine Islands, had brought about
+surprising consequences here.
+
+At the opening of the war, both Spain and the United States had
+squadrons in Asiatic waters. The Spanish fleet lay at Cavite, the
+American ships gathered at Hongkong. Immediately on the declaration of
+war, the American naval commander, Dewey, was ordered to destroy the
+Spanish fleet, which was feared on the Pacific coast of America. Dewey
+entered the Bay of Manila in darkness on the morning of May 1st,
+and made direct for the Spanish vessels at Cavite. His fleet was the
+more powerful and immeasurably the more efficient. In a few hours
+the Spanish navy was utterly destroyed and Manila lay at the mercy
+of his guns.
+
+A New Insurrection, under Aguinaldo.--At this signal catastrophe
+to Spain, the smoldering insurrection in the Islands broke out
+afresh. The Spanish troops not in Manila were driven in upon their
+posts, and placed in a position of siege. The friars, so hated by the
+revolutionists, were captured in large numbers and were in some cases
+killed. With the permission and assistance of the American authorities,
+Aguinaldo returned from Singapore, and landed at Cavite. Here he
+immediately headed anew the Philippine insurrection.
+
+Capture of Manila.--Troops were dispatched from San Francisco for the
+capture of Manila. By the end of July, 8,500 men lay in the transports
+off Cavite. They were landed at the little estuary of Paranaque,
+and advanced northwards upon Fort San Antonio and the defenses of
+Malate. The Spaniards behind the city's defenses, although outnumbering
+the Americans, were sick and dispirited. One attempt was made to drive
+back the invading army, but on the following day the Americans swept
+through the defenses and line of blockhouses, and Manila capitulated
+(August 13, 1898).
+
+The Filipinos had scarcely participated in the attack on the city, and
+they were excluded from occupying it after its surrender. This act was
+justified, because the Filipino forces had been very recently raised,
+the soldiers were undisciplined, and had they entered the city, with
+passions as they were inflamed, it was feared by the Americans that
+their officers might not be able to keep them from looting and crime.
+
+Misunderstanding between Americans and Filipinos.--Up to this point,
+the relations between the American and Filipino armies had been
+friendly. But here began that misunderstanding and distrust which
+for so many months were to alienate these two peoples and imbitter
+their intercourse.
+
+Provisional Government of the Filipinos.--In the interval between
+the destruction of the Spanish fleet and the capture of Manila,
+the Filipinos in Cavite had organized a provisional government and
+proclaimed the independence of the archipelago.
+
+American Ideas in Regard to the Philippines.--The idea of returning
+these islands to the Spanish power was exceedingly repugnant to
+American sentiment. Spain's attitude toward revolutionists was well
+understood in America, and the Filipinos had acted as America's friends
+and allies. On the other hand, the American government was unwilling
+to turn over to the newly organized Filipino republic the government
+of the archipelago. It was felt in America, and with reason, that
+this Filipino government was not truly representative of all the
+people in the Philippines, that the Filipino leaders were untried
+men, and that the people themselves had not had political training and
+experience. The United States, having overthrown the Spanish government
+here, was under obligation to see that the government established in
+its place would represent all and do injustice to none. The Filipinos
+were very slightly known to Americans, but their educated class was
+believed to be small and their political ability unproven. Thus, no
+assurances were given to the Filipino leaders that their government
+would be recognized, or that their wishes would be consulted in the
+future of the Islands. In fact, these matters could be settled only
+by action of the American Congress, which was late in assembling and
+slow to act.
+
+The Terms of Peace.--Spain and America were now negotiating terms of
+peace. These negotiations were conducted at Paris, and dragged on
+during many critical weeks. The Filipinos were naturally very much
+concerned over the outcome.
+
+Finally, the American government demanded of Spain that she cede the
+Islands to the United States and accept the sum of $20,000,000 gold,
+for public works and improvements which she had made.
+
+Suspicions of the Filipino Leaders.--These terms became known in
+December, 1898. They served to awaken the worst suspicions of the
+Filipino leaders. Many believed that they were about to exchange
+the oppressive domination of Spain for the selfish and equally
+oppressive domination of America. There is reason to believe that some
+leaders counseled patience, and during the succeeding months made a
+constant effort to maintain the peace, but the radical party among
+the Filipinos was led by a man of real gifts and fiery disposition,
+Antonio Luna. He had received an education in Europe, had had some
+instruction in military affairs, and when in September the Filipino
+government was transferred to Malolos, Luna became the general in
+chief of the military forces. He was also editor of the most radical
+Filipino newspaper, "La Independencia."
+
+New Filipino Government.--On January 4, 1899, President McKinley
+issued a special message to General Otis, commanding the armies of the
+United States in the Philippines, declaring that American sovereignty
+must be recognized without conditions. It was thought in the United
+States that a firm declaration of this kind would be accepted by
+the Filipinos and that they would not dare to make resistance. The
+intentions of the American president and nation, as subsequent events
+have proven, were to deal with the Filipinos with great liberality;
+but the president's professions were not trusted by the Filipinos,
+and the result of Mr. McKinley's message was to move them at once to
+frame an independent government and to decide on war.
+
+This new government was framed at Malolos, Bulacan, by a congress
+with representatives from most of the provinces of central Luzon. The
+"Malolos Constitution" was proclaimed January 23, 1899, and Don Emilio
+Aguinaldo was elected president. The cabinet, or ministry, included
+Don Apolinario Mabini, secretary of state; Don Teodoro Sandico,
+secretary of interior; General Baldomero Aguinaldo, secretary of war;
+General Mariano Trias, secretary of treasury; Don Engracio Gonzaga,
+secretary of public instruction and agriculture.
+
+War with the Americans.--Battle of Manila.--The Filipino forces were
+impatient for fighting, and attack on the American lines surrounding
+Manila began on the night of February 4th. It is certain that battle
+had been decided upon and in preparation for some time, and that
+fighting would have been begun in any case, before the arrival
+of reenforcements from America; but the attack was precipitated a
+little early by the killing at San Juan Bridge of a Filipino officer
+who refused to halt when challenged by an American sentry. On that
+memorable and dreadful night, the battle raged with great fury along
+the entire circle of defenses surrounding the city, from Tondo
+on the north to Fort San Antonio de Abad, south of the suburb of
+Malate. Along three main avenues from the north, east, and south
+the Filipinos attempted to storm and enter the capital, but although
+they charged with reckless bravery, and for hours sustained a bloody
+combat, they had fatally underestimated the fighting qualities of
+the American soldier.
+
+The volunteer regiments of the American army came almost entirely from
+the western United States, where young men are naturally trained to
+the use of arms, and are imbued by inheritance with the powerful and
+aggressive qualities of the American frontier. When morning broke,
+the Filipino line of attack had, at every point, been shattered and
+thrown back, and the Americans had advanced their positions on the
+north to Caloocan, on the east to the Water Works and the Mariquina
+Valley, and on the south to Pasay.
+
+Declaration of War.--Unfortunately, during the night attack and before
+the disaster to Filipino arms was apparent, Aguinaldo had launched
+against the United States a declaration of war. This declaration
+prevented the Americans from trusting the Filipino overtures which
+followed this battle, and peace was not made.
+
+The Malolos Campaign.--On March 25th began the American advance upon
+the Filipino capital of Malolos. This Malolos campaign, as it is
+usually called, occupied six days, and ended in the driving of the
+Filipino army and government from their capital. Hard fighting took
+place in the first days of this advance, and two extremely worthy
+American officers were killed, Colonels Egbert and Stotsenberg.
+
+The Filipino army was pursued in its retreat as far as Calumpit, where
+on the southern bank of the Rio Grande de Pampanga the American line
+rested during the height of the rainy season. During this interval
+the volunteer regiments, whose terms of service had long expired,
+were returned to the States, and their places taken by regiments of
+the regular army.
+
+The American Army.--The American army at that time, besides the
+artillery, consisted of twenty-five regiments of infantry and ten of
+cavalry. Congress now authorized the organization of twenty-four new
+regiments of infantry, to be known as the 26th to the 49th Regiments
+of U. S. Volunteers, and one volunteer regiment of cavalry, the 11th,
+for a service of two years. These regiments were largely officered
+by men from civil life, familiar with a great variety of callings and
+professions,--men for the most part of fine character, whose services
+in the months that followed were very great not only in the field, but
+in gaining the friendship of the Filipino people and in representing
+the character and intentions of the American government.
+
+Anti-War Agitators in America.--Through the summer of 1899 the war was
+not pressed by the American general, nor were the negotiations with
+the Filipino leaders conducted with success. The Filipinos were by no
+means dismayed. In spite of their reverses, they believed the conquest
+of the Islands impossible to foreign troops. Furthermore, the war had
+met with tremendous opposition in America. Many Americans believed that
+the war was against the fundamental rights of the Filipino people. They
+attacked the administration with unspeakable bitterness. They openly
+expressed sympathy for the Filipino revolutionary cause, and for the
+space of two years their encouragement was an important factor in
+sustaining the rebellion.
+
+Spread of the Insurrection.--In these same summer months the
+revolutionary leaders spread their cause among the surrounding
+provinces and islands. The spirit of resistance was prominent at first
+only among the Tagalog, but gradually nearly all the Christianized
+population was united in resistance to the American occupation.
+
+Occupation of Negros.--The Americans had meanwhile occupied
+Iloilo and the Bisayas, and shortly afterwards the presidios in
+Mindanao surrendered by the Spaniards. In Negros, also, exceptional
+circumstances had transpired. The people in this island invited
+American sovereignty; and Gen. James Smith, sent to the island in March
+as governor, assisted the people in forming a liberal government,
+through which insurrection and disorder in that island were largely
+avoided.
+
+Death of General Luna.--With the cessation of heavy rains, the
+fighting was begun again in northern Luzon. The Filipino army had
+its headquarters in Tarlac, and its lines occupied the towns of the
+provinces of Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija, stretching in a long line of
+posts from the Zambales Mountains almost to the upper waters of the
+Rio Pampanga. It was still well armed, provisioned, and resolute; but
+the brilliant, though wayward, organizer of this army was dead. The
+Nationalist junta, which had directed the Philippine government and
+army, had not been able to reconcile its differences. It is reported
+that Luna aspired to a dictatorship. He was killed by soldiers of
+Aguinaldo at Cabanatuan.
+
+The Campaign in Northern Luzon.--The American generals now determined
+upon a strategic campaign. General MacArthur was to command an
+advance up the railroad from Calumpit upon Tarlac; General Lawton,
+with a flying column of swift infantry and cavalry, was to make a
+flanking movement eastward through Nueva Ecija and hem the Filipino
+forces in upon the east. Meanwhile, General Wheaton was to convey a
+force by transport to the Gulf of Lingayen, to throw a cordon across
+the Ilocano coast that should cut off the retreat of the Filipino army
+northward. As a strategic movement, this campaign was only partially
+successful. MacArthur swept northward, crushing the Filipino line on
+his front, his advance being led by the active regiment of General
+J. Franklin Bell. Lawton's column scoured the country eastward,
+marching with great rapidity and tremendous exertions. Swollen
+rivers were crossed with great loss of life, and the column,
+cutting loose from its supplies, was frequently in need of food. It
+was in this column that the Filipino first saw with amazement the
+great American cavalry horse, so large beside the small pony of
+the Philippines. Lawton's descent was so swift that the Philippine
+government and staff narrowly escaped capture.
+
+On the night of November 11th, the Filipino generals held their
+last council of war at Bayambang on the Rio Agno, and resolved upon
+dispersal. Meanwhile, Wheaton had landed at San Fabian, upon the
+southern Ilocano coast, but his force was insufficient to establish
+an effective cordon, and on the night of November 15th Aguinaldo,
+with a small party of ministers and officers, closely pursued by the
+cavalry of Lawton under the command of General Young, slipped past,
+through the mountains of Pozorubio and Rosario, and escaped up the
+Ilocano coast.
+
+Then began one of the most exciting pursuits in recent wars. The chase
+never slackened, except in those repeated instances when for the moment
+the trail of the Filipino general was lost. From Candon, Aguinaldo
+turned eastward through the comandancias of Lepanto and Bontoc, into
+the wild Igorrote country of the Cordillera Central. The trail into
+Lepanto leads over the lofty mountains through the precipitous Tila
+Pass. On the summit, in what was regarded as an impregnable position,
+Gregorio del Pilar, little more than a boy, but a brigadier-general,
+with a small force of soldiers, the remnant of his command, attempted
+to cover the retreat of his president. But a battalion of the
+33d Infantry, under Major March, carried the pass, with the total
+destruction of Pilar's command, he himself falling amid the slain.
+
+Capture of Aguinaldo.--Major March then pursued Aguinaldo into
+Bontoc and thence southward into the wild and mountainous territory
+of Quiangan. On Christmas night, 1899, the American soldiers camped
+on the crest of the Cordillera, within a few miles of the Igorrote
+village where the Filipino force was sleeping. Both parties were
+broken down and in dire distress through the fierceness of the flight
+and pursuit, but for several weeks longer Aguinaldo's party was able
+to remain in these mountains and elude its pursuers. A month later,
+his trail was finally lost in the valley of the Cagayan. He and his
+small party had passed over the exceedingly difficult trail through
+the Sierra Madre Mountains, to the little Tagalog town of Palanan
+near the Pacific coast. Here, almost entirely cut off from active
+participation in the insurrection, Aguinaldo remained until June of
+1901, when he was captured by the party of General Funston.
+
+For some weeks following the disintegration of the Filipino army, the
+country appeared to be pacified and the insurrection over. The new
+regiments arriving from the United States, an expedition was formed
+under General Schwan, which in December and January marched southward
+through Cavite and Laguna provinces and occupied Batangas, Tayabas, and
+the Camarines. Other regiments were sent to the Bisayas and to northern
+Luzon, until every portion of the archipelago, except the islands of
+Mindoro and Palawan, contained large forces of American troops.
+
+Reorganization of the Filipino Army.--The Filipinos had, by no means,
+however, abandoned the contest, and this period of quiet was simply
+a calm while the insurgent forces were perfecting their organization
+and preparing for a renewal of the conflict under a different form. It
+being found impossible for a Filipino army to keep the field, there
+was effected a secret organization for the purpose of maintaining
+irregular warfare through every portion of the archipelago. The Islands
+were partitioned into a great number of districts or "zones." At
+the head of each was a zone commander, usually with the rank of
+general. The operations of these men were, to a certain extent, guided
+by the counsel or directions of the secret revolutionary juntas in
+Manila or Hongkong, but, in fact, they were practically absolute and
+independent, and they exercised extraordinary powers. They recruited
+their own forces and commissioned subordinate commanders. They levied
+"contributions" upon towns, owners of haciendas, and individuals of
+every class, and there was a secret civil or municipal organization
+for collecting these revenues. The zone commanders, moreover, exercised
+the terrible power of execution by administrative order.
+
+Assassination of Filipinos.--Many of the Filipino leaders were
+necessarily not well instructed in those rules for the conduct of
+warfare which civilized peoples have agreed upon as being humane
+and honorable. Many of them tried, especially in the latter months
+of the war, when understanding was more widely diffused, to make
+their conduct conform to international usage; but the revolutionary
+junta had committed the great crime of ordering the punishment by
+assassination of all Filipinos who failed to support the insurgent
+cause. No possible justification, in the light of modern morality,
+can be found for such a step as this. The very worst passions were
+let loose in carrying out this policy. Scores of unfortunate men were
+assassinated, many of them as the results of private enmity. Endless
+blackmail was extorted and communities were terrorized from one end
+of the archipelago to the other.
+
+Irregular Warfare of the Filipinos.--Through the surrender of
+Spanish forces, the capture of the arsenals of Cavite and Olongapo,
+and by purchase through Hongkong, the revolutionary government
+possessed between thirty thousand and forty thousand rifles. These
+arms were distributed to the different military zones, and the
+secret organization which existed in each municipality received its
+proportion. These guns were secreted by the different members of the
+command, except when occasion arose for effecting a surprise or making
+an attack. There were no general engagements, but in some towns there
+was almost nightly shooting. Pickets and small detachments were cut
+off, and roads became so unsafe throughout most of the archipelago
+that there was no travel by Americans except under heavy escort. For a
+long time, also, the orders of the commanding general were so lenient
+that it was impossible to punish properly this conduct when it was
+discovered.
+
+Death of General Lawton.--The American army, in its attempt to garrison
+every important town in the Islands, was cut up into as many as 550
+small detachments of post garrisons. Thus, while there were eventually
+sixty thousand American soldiers in the Islands, it was rare for as
+many as five hundred to take the field, and most of the engagements
+of the year 1900 were by small detachments of fifty to one hundred men.
+
+It was in one of these small expeditions that the American army
+suffered the greatest single loss of the war. A few miles east of
+Manila is the beautiful Mariquina Valley, from which is derived the
+city's supply of water, and the headwaters of this pretty stream lie in
+the wild and picturesque fastness of San Mateo and Montalban. Although
+scarce a dozen miles from the capital and the headquarters of a
+Filipino brigade, San Mateo was not permanently occupied by the
+Americans until after the 18th of December, 1899, when a force under
+General Lawton was led around through the hills to surprise the town.
+
+Early in the morning the American force came pouring down over the
+hills that lie across the river from the village. They were met by
+a brisk fire from the insurgent command scattered along the banks of
+the river and in a sugar hacienda close to the stream. Here Lawton,
+conspicuous in white uniform and helmet, accompanying, as was his
+custom, the front line of skirmishers, was struck by a bullet and
+instantly killed.
+
+Filipino Leaders Sent to Guam.--In November, 1900, after the reelection
+in the United States of President McKinley, a much more vigorous policy
+of war was inaugurated. In this month General MacArthur, commanding
+the division, issued a notable general order, defining and explaining
+the laws of war which were being violated, and threatening punishment
+by imprisonment of those guilty of such conduct. Some thousands of
+Filipinos under this order were arrested and imprisoned. Thirty-nine
+leaders, among them the high-minded but irreconcilable Mabini, were
+in December, 1900, sent to a military prison on the island of Guam.
+
+Campaigning was much more vigorously prosecuted in all military
+districts. By this time all the American officers had become familiar
+with the insurgent leaders, and these were now obliged to leave the
+towns and establish cuartels in remote barrios and in the mountains.
+
+These measures, pursued through the winter of 1900-01, broke the
+power of the revolution.
+
+The Philippine Civil Commission.--Another very influential factor in
+producing peace resulted from the presence and labors of the Civil
+Philippine Commission. These gentlemen, Judge William H. Taft, Judge
+Luke E. Wright, Judge Henry C. Ide, Professor Dean C. Worcester,
+and Professor Bernard Moses, were appointed by the president in the
+spring of 1900 to legislate for the Islands and to prepare the way
+for the establishment of civil government. President McKinley's letter
+of instructions to this commission will probably be ranked as one of
+the ablest and most notable public papers in American history.
+
+The commission reached the Islands in June and began their legislative
+work on September 1st. This body of men, remarkable for their high
+character, was able at last to bring about an understanding with the
+Filipino leaders and to assure them of the unselfish and honorable
+purposes of the American government. Thus, by the early winter
+of 1900-01 many Filipino gentlemen became convinced that the best
+interests of the Islands lay in accepting American sovereignty, and
+that they could honorably advocate the surrender of the insurgent
+forces. These men represented the highest attainments and most
+influential positions in the Islands. In December they formed an
+association known as the Federal Party, for the purpose of inducing the
+surrender of military leaders, obedience to the American government,
+and the acceptance of peace.
+
+End of the Insurrection.--Under these influences, the insurrection,
+in the spring of 1901, went rapidly to pieces. Leader after leader
+surrendered his forces and arms, and took the oath of allegiance and
+quietly returned home. By the end of June there were but two zone
+commanders who had not surrendered,--General Malvar in Batangas,
+and General Lukban in Samar.
+
+The First Civil Governor.--Peaceful conditions and security almost
+immediately followed these surrenders and determined the president to
+establish at once civil government. On July 4, 1901, this important
+step was taken, Judge Taft, the president of the Philippine Commission,
+taking office on that date as the first American civil governor of the
+Philippines. On September 1st, the Philippine Commission was increased
+by the appointment of three Filipino members,--the Hon. T. H. Pardo
+de Tavera, M. D., the Hon. Benito Legarda, and the Hon. Jose Luzuriaga
+of Negros.
+
+The Philippine Commission has achieved a remarkable amount of
+legislation of a very high order. From September, 1900, to the end
+of December, 1902, the commission passed no less than 571 acts of
+legislation. Some of these were of very great importance and involved
+long preparation and labor. Few administrative bodies have ever worked
+harder and with greater results than the Philippine Commission during
+the first two years of its activity. The frame of government in all
+its branches had to be organized and set in motion, the civil and
+criminal law liberalized, revenue provided, and public instruction
+remodeled on a very extensive scale.
+
+The New Government.--The government is a very liberal one, and
+one which gives an increasing opportunity for participation to the
+Filipinos. It includes what is called local self-government. There
+are in the Islands about 1,132 municipalities. In these the residents
+practically manage their own affairs. There are thirty-eight organized
+provinces in the archipelago, in which the administration rests
+with the Provincial Board composed of the governor, treasurer,
+and supervisor or engineer. The governor is elected for the
+term of one year by the councilors of all the towns united in
+assembly. The treasurer and supervisor are appointed by the governor
+of the Philippine archipelago under the rules of the Civil Service
+Board. The civil service is a subject which has commanded the special
+consideration of the Commission. It gives equal opportunity to the
+Filipino and to the American to enter the public service and to gain
+public promotion; and the Filipino is by law even given the preference
+where possessed of the requisite ability.
+
+The Insular Government.--For the purposes of administration, the
+insular, or central government of the Islands is divided into four
+branches, called departments, each directed by a secretary who is
+also a member of the Philippine Commission. These departments are,
+interior, Secretary Worcester; finance and justice, Secretary Ide;
+commerce and police, Secretary Wright; and public instruction,
+Secretary Moses, until January 1, 1903, and since that date Secretary
+Smith. Under each of these departments are a large number of bureaus,
+by which the many important activities of the government are performed.
+
+We have only to examine a list of these bureaus to see how many-sided
+is the work which the government is performing. It is a veritable
+commonwealth, complete in all the branches which demand the
+attention of modern governments. Thus, under the Department of the
+Interior, there is the Bureau of Public Health, with its extremely
+important duties of combating epidemic diseases and improving public
+sanitation, with its public hospitals, sanitariums, and charities;
+the Bureau of Government Laboratories for making bacteriological and
+chemical investigations; a Bureau of Forestry; a Bureau of Mining;
+the Philippine Weather Bureau; a Bureau of Agriculture; a Bureau of
+Non-Christian Tribes for conducting the government work in ethnology
+and for framing legislation for pagan and Mohammedan tribes; and a
+Bureau of Public Lands.
+
+Under the department of Commerce and Police are the Bureau of Posts;
+Signal Service; the Philippines Constabulary, really an insular army,
+with its force of some sixty-five hundred officers and men; Prisons;
+the Coast Guard and Transportation Service, with a fleet of about
+twenty beautiful little steamers, nearly all of them newly built for
+this service and named for islands of the archipelago; the Coast and
+Geodetic Survey, doing the much-needed work of charting the dangerous
+coasts and treacherous waters of the archipelago; and the Bureau of
+Engineering, which has under its charge great public works, many of
+which are already under way.
+
+Under the Department of Finance and Justice are the Insular Treasurer;
+the Insular Auditor; the Bureau of Customs and Immigration; the
+Bureau of Internal Revenue; the Insular Cold Storage and Ice Plant;
+and the great Bureau of Justice.
+
+Under the Department of Public Instruction there is the Bureau of
+Education in charge of the system of public schools; a Bureau of
+Printing and Engraving, with a new and fully equipped plant; a Bureau
+of Architecture; a Bureau of Archives; a Bureau of Statistics; and
+the Philippine Museum.
+
+Revenues and Expenditures.--The maintenance of these numerous
+activities calls for an expenditure of large sums of money, but the
+insular government and the Filipino people are fortunate in having
+had their finances managed with exceptional ability. The revenues
+of the Islands for the past fiscal year have amounted to about
+$10,638,000, gold. Public expenditures, including the purchase
+of equipment such as the coast-guard fleet and the forwarding of
+great public works such as the improving of the harbor of Manila,
+amounted during fiscal year of 1903 to about $9,150,000, gold. The
+government has at all times preserved a good balance in its treasury;
+but the past year has seen some diminution in the amount of revenues,
+owing to the great depreciation of silver money, the falling off of
+imports, the wide prevalence of cholera, and the poverty of many parts
+of the country as a result of war and the loss of livestock through
+pest. To assist the government of the Philippines, the Congress of
+the United States in February, 1903, with great and characteristic
+generosity appropriated the sum of $3,000,000, gold, as a free gift
+to the people and government of the Philippines.
+
+The Judicial System.--Especially fortunate, also, have been the labors
+of the commission in establishing a judicial system and revising the
+Spanish law. The legal ability of the commission is unusually high. As
+at present constituted, the judicial system consists of a Supreme
+Court composed of seven justices, three of whom at the present time
+are Filipinos, which, besides trying cases over which it has original
+jurisdiction, hears cases brought on appeal from the Courts of First
+Instance, fifteen in number, which sit in different parts of the
+Islands. Each town, moreover, has its justices of the peace for the
+trial of small cases and for holding preliminary examinations in cases
+of crimes. By the new Code of Civil Procedure, the administration of
+justice has been so simplified that there are probably no courts in
+the world where justice can be more quickly secured than here.
+
+System of Public Schools.--Probably no feature of the American
+government in the Islands has attracted more attention than the
+system of public schools. Popular education, while by no means wholly
+neglected under the Spanish government, was inadequate, and was
+continually opposed by the clerical and conservative Spanish forces,
+who feared that the liberalizing of the Filipino people would be the
+loosening of the control of both Spanish state and church. On the
+contrary, the success of the American government, as of any government
+in which the people participate, depends upon the intelligence and
+education of the people. Thus, the American government is as anxious to
+destroy ignorance and poverty as the Spanish government and the Spanish
+church were desirous of preserving these deeply unfortunate conditions.
+
+Americans believe that if knowledge is generally spread among the
+Filipino people, if there can be a real understanding of the genius
+and purpose of our American institutions, there will come increasing
+content and satisfaction to dwell under American law. Thus, education
+was early encouraged by the American army, and it received the first
+attention of the commission. The widespread system of public schools
+which now exists in these islands was organized by the first General
+Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dr. Fred W. Atkinson, and by
+Professor Bernard Moses of the Philippine Commission.
+
+Instruction in the English Language.--The basis of this public
+instruction is the English language. This was early decided upon in
+view of the great number of Filipino dialects, the absence of a common
+native language or literature, and the very moderate acquaintance
+with Spanish by any except the educated class.
+
+It is fortunate for the Filipino people that English has been
+introduced here and that its knowledge is rapidly spreading. Knowledge
+of language is power, and the more widely spoken the tongue, the
+greater the possession of the individual who acquires it. Of all the
+languages of the world, English is to-day the most widely spoken and is
+most rapidly spreading. Moreover, English is preeminently the language
+of the Far East. From Yokohama to Australia, and from Manila to the
+Isthmus of Suez, English is the common medium of communication. It is
+the language alike of business and of diplomacy. The Filipino people,
+so eager to participate in all the busy life of eastern Asia, so
+ambitious to make their influence felt and their counsels regarded,
+will be debarred from all this unless they master this mighty English
+tongue.
+
+The Filipino Assembly.--Thus, after four and a half years of
+American occupation, the sovereignty of the United States has been
+established in the archipelago, and a form of government, unique
+in the history of colonial administration, inaugurated. One other
+step in the contemplation of Congress, which will still further make
+the government a government of the Filipino people, remains to be
+taken. This is the formation of a Filipino assembly of delegates or
+representatives, chosen by popular vote from all the Christianized
+provinces of the archipelago. The recent census of the Philippines
+will form the basis for the apportionment of this representation. This
+assembly will share the legislative power on all matters pertaining
+to the Christian people of the Philippines and those parts of the
+Islands inhabited by them. When this step shall have been taken,
+the government of the Philippine Islands will be like the typical
+and peculiarly American form of government known as territorial.
+
+Territorial Form of Government in the United States.--The American
+Union is composed of a number of states or commonwealths which,
+while differing vastly in wealth and population, are on absolutely
+equal footing in the Union. The inhabitants of these states form
+politically the American sovereignty. They elect the president and
+Congress, and through their state legislatures may change or amend
+the form of the American state itself.
+
+Besides these states, there have always been large possessions
+of the nation called territories. These territories are extensive
+countries, too sparsely inhabited or too undeveloped politically to
+be admitted, in the judgment of the American Congress, to statehood
+in the Union. Their inhabitants do not have the right to vote for
+the president; neither have they representation in the American
+Congress. These territories are governed by Congress, through
+territorial governments, and over them Congress has full sovereign
+powers. That is, as the Supreme Court of the United States has decided
+and explained, while Congress when legislating for the states in the
+Union has only those powers of legislation which have been specifically
+granted by the Constitution, in legislating for the territories it has
+all the powers which the Constitution has not specifically denied. The
+only limitations on Congress are those which, under the American
+system of public law, guarantee the liberty of the individual,--his
+freedom of religious belief and worship; his right to just, open,
+and speedy trial; his right to the possession of his property; and
+other precious privileges, the result of centuries of development
+in the English-speaking race, which make up civil liberty. These
+priceless securities, which no power of the government can take away,
+abridge, or infringe, are as much the possession of the inhabitants
+of a territory as of a state. [95]
+
+The government of these territories has varied greatly in form and
+may be changed at any time by Congress, but it usually consists of a
+governor and supreme court, appointed by the president of the United
+States, and a legislature elected by the people. Since 1783 there
+has always been territory so held and governed by the United States,
+and if we may judge from the remarkable history of these regions, this
+form of government of dependent possessions is the most successful and
+most advantageous to the territory itself that has ever been devised.
+
+At the present time, the territories of the United States are Oklahoma,
+the Indian Territory, New Mexico, Arizona, Alaska, the Hawaiian
+Islands, Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam.
+
+The territorial form of government has frequently been regarded
+by American statesmen as a temporary condition to be followed
+at a comparatively early date by statehood. But after more than a
+century of development, territorial government, as shaped by Congress
+and as defined by the Supreme Court, shows itself so flexible and
+advantageous that there is no reason why it should not be regarded
+as a permanent and final form. Whether it will long prevail in the
+Philippines, depends very largely upon the political development and
+ultimate desires of the Filipino people themselves. For the present,
+it is the only suitable form of government and the only form which
+it is statesmanlike to contemplate.
+
+Filipino Independence.--The events of the last few years
+seem to indicate that the American nation will not intrust the
+Philippines with independence until they have immeasurably gained
+in political experience and social self-control. The question is
+too great to be discussed here, but this much may be said: The
+rapid march of international politics in this coming century will
+not be favorable to the independence of the small and imperfectly
+developed state. Independence, while it may fascinate the popular
+leader, may not be most advantageous for this people. Independence,
+under present tendencies of international trade, means economic
+isolation. Independence, in the present age, compels preparedness
+for war; preparedness for war necessitates the maintenance of
+strong armies, the building of great navies, and the great economic
+burdens required to sustain these armaments. Especially would this
+be true of an archipelago so exposed to attack, so surrounded by
+ambitious powers, and so near the center of coming struggle, as
+are the Philippines. Japan, with a population of forty-two million,
+wonderful for their industry and economy, and passionately devoted to
+their emperor, is independent, but at great cost. The burden of her
+splendid army and her modern navy weighs heavily upon her people,
+consumes a large proportion of their earnings, and sometimes seems
+to be threatening to strain the resources of the nation almost to
+the point of breaking.
+
+Advantages of American Control.--Surely, a people is economically far
+more privileged if, like the Philippines under the American government,
+or Australia under the British, they are compelled to sustain no
+portion of the burden of exterior defense. The navies of the United
+States to-day protect the integrity of the Philippine archipelago. The
+power of a nation so strong and so terrible, when once aroused, that
+no country on the globe would think for a minute of wantonly molesting
+its territory, shields the Filipino from all outside interference
+and permits him to expend all his energy in the development of those
+abilities to which his temperament and endowment inspire him.
+
+American government means freedom of opportunity. There is no
+honorable pursuit, calling, or walk of life under heaven in which the
+Filipino may not now engage and in which he will not find his endeavors
+encouraged and his success met with generous appreciation. In politics,
+his progress may be slow, because progress here is not the development
+of the individual nor of the few, but of the whole. But in the no
+less noble pursuits of science, literature, and art, we may in this
+very generation see Filipinos achieving more than notable success
+and distinction, not only for themselves but for their land.
+
+Patriotic Duty.--Patriotic duty, as regards the Philippines, means
+for the American a wholesome belief in the uprightness of the national
+purposes; a loyal appreciation of the men who have here worked wisely
+and without selfishness, and have borne the brunt of the toil; a
+loyalty to the government of the Philippines and of the United States,
+so long as these governments live honestly, rule justly, and increase
+liberty; and a frank and hearty recognition of every advance made by
+the Filipino people themselves. And for the Filipinos, patriotic duty
+means a full acceptance of government as it has now been established,
+as better than what has preceded, and perhaps superior to what he
+himself would have chosen and could have devised; a loyalty to his own
+people and to their interests and to the public interests, that shall,
+overcome the personal selfishness that has set its cruel mark on every
+native institution in this land; and a resolution to obey the laws,
+preserve the peace, and use faithfully every opportunity for the
+development of his own character and the betterment of the race.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+SPANISH GOVERNORS OF THE PHILIPPINES.
+
+(1571-1898.)
+
+
+1571-1572 Don Miguel Lopez de Legaspi.
+1572-1575 (Tesorero) Guido do Labezares.
+1575-1580 Don Francisco La-Sande.
+1580-1583 Don Gonzalo Ronquillo.
+1583-1584 Don Diego Ronquillo.
+1584-1590 Dr. Don Santiago de Vera.
+1590-1593 Don Gomez Perez de Dasmarinas.
+1593-1595 Luis Perez Dasmarinas.
+1595-1596 Don Antonio de Morga.
+1596-1602 Don Francisco Tello de Guzman.
+1602-1606 Don Pedro Bravo de Acuna.
+1606-1608 Royal Audiencia.
+1608-1609 Don Rodrigo Vivero.
+1609-1616 Don Juan de Silva.
+1616-1618 Don Andres Alcazar.
+1618-1624 Don Alonso Faxardo y Tenza.
+1624-1625 Royal Audiencia.
+1625-1626 Don Fernando de Silva.
+1626-1632 Don Juan Nino de Tabora.
+1632-1633 Royal Audiencia.
+1633-1635 Don Juan Zerezo de Salamanca.
+1635-1644 Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera.
+1644-1653 Don Diego Faxardo y Chacon.
+1653-1663 Sabiano Manrique de Lara.
+1663-1668 Don Diego Salcedo.
+1668-1669 Senor Pena Bonifaz.
+1669-1677 Don Manuel de Leon.
+1677-1678 Royal Audiencia.
+1678-1684 Don Juan de Vargas.
+1684-1689 Don Gabriel de Curuzalequi.
+1689-1690 Don Alonso de Avila Fuertes.
+1690-1701 Don Fausto Cruzat y Gongora.
+1701-1709 Don Domingo Zabalburu.
+1709-1715 Conde de Lizarraga.
+1715-1717 Royal Audiencia.
+1717-1719 Don Fernando Manuel de Bustamante.
+1719-1721 Archbishop Cuesta.
+1721-1729 Don Toribio Jose de Cosio y Campo (Marques de Torre Campo).
+1729-1739 Don Fernando Valdes y Tamon.
+1739-1745 Don Gaspar de la Torre.
+1745-1750 Bishop Father Juan de Arrechedra.
+1750-1754 Don Francisco Jose de Obando y Solis.
+1754-1759 Don Pedro Manuel de Arandia y Santisteban.
+1759-1761 Don Miguel Lino de Ezpeleta (Bishop of Zebu).
+1761-1764 Archbishop Don Manuel Antonio Rojo del Rio y Vieyra.
+1764-1764 Dr. Don Simon de Anda y Salazar.
+1764-1765 Don Francisco de la Torre.
+1765-1770 Don Jose Raon.
+1770-1778 Dr. Don Simon de Anda y Salazar.
+1778-1787 Don Jose Basco y Vargas.
+1787-1788 Don Pedro Sarrio.
+1788-1793 Don Felix Berenguer de Marquina.
+1793-1806 Don Rafael Maria de Aguilar y Ponce de Leon.
+1806-1810 Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras.
+1810-1813 Don Manuel Gonzalez Aguilar.
+1813-1816 Don Jose de Gardoqui Jaraveitia.
+1816-1822 Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras.
+1822-1825 Don Juan Antonio Martinez.
+1825-1830 Don Mariano Ricafort Palacio y Abarca.
+1830-1835 Don Pascual Enrile y Alcedo.
+1835-1836 Don Gabriel de Torres.
+1836-1838 Don Andres Garcia Camba.
+1838-1841 Don Luis Lardizabal y Montojo.
+1841-1843 Don Marcelino de Oraa Lecumberri.
+1843-1844 Don Francisco de Paula Alcala de la Torre.
+1844-1850 Don Narciso Claveria y Zaldua.
+1850-1850 Don Antonio Maria Blanco.
+1850-1853 D. Antonio de Urbistondo, Marques de la Solana y Teniente
+          General.
+1853-1854 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero, General Segundo Cabo
+          (acting).
+1854-1854 El Teniente General Marques de Novaliches.
+1854-1854 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero (acting).
+1854-1856 El Teniente General de Manuel Crespo.
+1856-1857 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero (acting).
+1857-1860 El Teniente General de Fernando de Norzagaray.
+1860-1860 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Solano y Llanderal (acting).
+1860-1861 El Brigadier de Artilleria de Juan Herrera Davila (acting).
+1861-1862 El Teniente General de Jose Lemery.
+1862-1865 El Teniente General de Rafael Echaguee.
+1865-1865 El Mariscal de Campo de Joaquin Solano (acting).
+1865-1866 El Teniente General de Juan de Lara e Irigoyen.
+1866-1866 El Mariscal de Campo de Juan Laureano Sanz (acting).
+1866-1866 El Comandante General de Marina de Antonio Ossorio (acting).
+1866-1866 El Mariscal de Campo de Joaquin Solano (acting).
+1866-1866 El Teniente General de Jose de la Gandara.
+1866-1869 El Mariscal de Campo de Manuel Maldonado (acting).
+1869-1871 El Teniente General de Carlos de la Torre.
+1871-1873 El Teniente General de Rafael Izquierdo.
+1873-1873 El Comandante General de Marina de Manuel MacCrohon (acting).
+1873-1874 El Teniente General de Juan Alaminos y Vivar.
+1874-1874 El Mariscal de Campo de Manuel Blanco Valderrama (acting).
+1874-1877 El Contra Almirante de la Armada de Jose Malcampo y Monje.
+1877-1880 El Teniente General de Domingo Moriones y Murillo.
+1880-1880 El Comandante General de Marina de Rafael Rodriguez Arias
+          (acting).
+1880-1883 El Teniente General de Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marques
+          de Estella.
+1883-1883 El Mariscal de Campo de Emilio de Molins, General Segundo
+          Cabo (acting).
+1883-1885 El Capitan General del Ejercito de Joaquin Jovellar y Soler.
+1885-1885 El Mariscal de Campo de Emilio de Molins (acting).
+1885-1888 El Teniente General de Emilio Terrero.
+1888-1888 El Mariscal de Campo de Antonio Molto (acting).
+1888-1888 El Cotra Almirante de la Armada de Federico Lobaton (acting).
+1888-1891 El Teniente General de Valeriano Weyler.
+1891-1893 El Teniente General de Eulogio Despojol, Conde de Caspe.
+1893-1893 El General de Division de Federico Ochando, General Segundo
+          Cabo (acting).
+1893-1896 El Teniente General de Ramon Blanco y Erenas, Marques
+          de Pena-Plata.
+1896-1897 El Teniente General de Camilo G. de Polavieja, Marques
+          de Polavieja.
+1897-1897 de Jose de Lacharmbre y Dominguez, Teniente General (acting).
+1897-1898 de Fernando Primo de Rivera, Capitan General, Marques
+          de Estella.
+1898-1898 de Basilio Augustin Teniente General del Ejercito.
+1898-1898 El General Segundo Cabo de Fermin Jaudenes y Alvarez.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 38.
+
+[2] See Yule's Marco Polo for a discussion of this point and for the
+entire history of this great explorer, as well as a translation of
+his narrative. This book of Ser Marco Polo has been most critically
+edited with introduction and voluminous notes by the English scholar,
+Sir Henry Yule. In this edition the accounts of Marco Polo, covering
+so many countries and peoples of the Far East, can be studied.
+
+[3] See the noted work The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed
+the Navigator, and its Results, by Richard Henry Major, London,
+1868. Many of the views of Mr. Major upon the importance of Prince
+Henry's work and especially its early aims, have been contradicted
+in more recent writings. The importance of the Sagres Observatory
+is belittled. Doubts are expressed as to the farsightedness of
+Prince Henry's plans, and the best opinion of to-day holds that he
+did not hope to discover a new route to India by way of Africa, but
+sought simply the conquest of the "Guinea," which was known to the
+Europeans through the Arab Geographers, who called it "Bilad Ghana"
+or "Land of Wealth." The students, if possible, should read the essay
+of Mr. E. J. Payne, The Age of Discovery, in the Cambridge Modern
+History, Vol I.
+
+[4] The classical work on this famous ruler is Robertson's Life of
+Charles the Fifth, but the student should consult if possible more
+recent works.
+
+[5] Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, Spanish translation by Amoretti,
+Madrid, 1899, page 27.
+
+[6] The discovery of this famous relationship is attributed to
+the Spanish Jesuit Abbe, Lorenzo Hervas, whose notable Catalogo
+de las Lenguas de las Naciones conocidas was published in 1800-05;
+but the similarity of Malay and Polynesian had been earlier shown by
+naturalists who accompanied the second voyage of the famous Englishman,
+Captain Cook (1772-75). The full proof, and the relation also of
+Malagasy, the language of Madagascar, was given in 1838 by the work
+of the great German philologist, Baron William von Humboldt.
+
+[7] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 52.
+
+[8] Another possible explanation of the many Sanskrit terms which
+are found in the Philippine languages, is that the period of contact
+between Filipinos and Hindus occurred not in the Philippines but in
+Java and Sumatra, whence the ancestors of the Filipinos came.
+
+[9] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., pp. 58, 59, chap. XVII.
+
+[10] Arte de la Lengua Tagala.
+
+[11] This name is derived, in the opinion of Professor Blumentritt,
+from Bayi, or Bay, meaning Laguna de Bay. Professor Meyer, in his
+Distribution of the Negritos, suggests an identification from this
+Chinese record, of the islands of Mindanao, Palawan (called Pa-lao-yu)
+and Panay, Negros, Cebu, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Luzon.
+
+[12] Through the courtesy of Professor Zulueta, of the Manila Liceo,
+permission was given to use from Chao Ju-kua's work these quotations,
+translated from the Chinese manuscript by Professor Blumentritt. The
+English translation is by Mr. P. L. Stangl.
+
+[13] "This would confirm," says Professor Blumentritt, "Dr. Pardo de
+Tavera's view that in ancient times the Philippines were under the
+influence of Buddhism from India."
+
+[14] Conquista de las Islas Filipinas, p. 95.
+
+[15] Relacion de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, 1572; in Retana,
+Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. I.
+
+[16] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 297.
+
+[17] These data are largely taken from the account of the customs
+of the Tagalog prepared by Friar Juan de Plasencia, in 1589, at
+the request of Dr. Santiago de Vera, the governor and president
+of the Audiencia. Although there are references to it by the early
+historians of the Philippines, this little code did not see the light
+until a few years ago, when a manuscript copy was discovered in the
+convent of the Franciscans at Manila, by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, and was
+by him published. It treats of slave-holding, penalties for crime,
+inheritances, adoption, dowry, and marriage. (Las Costumbres de los
+Tagalog en Filipinas, segun el Padre Plasencia, by T. H. Pardo de
+Tavera. Madrid, 1892.)
+
+[18] See on this matter Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinas, by
+Blumentritt; Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. II.
+
+[19] This word is of Sanskrit origin and is common throughout Malaysia.
+
+[20] Relacion de las Cosas de las Filipinas hecha por Sr. Domingo
+de Salazar, Primer obispo de dichas islas, 1583; in Retana, Archivo,
+vol. III.
+
+[21] The foundation and character of this great colonial administration
+have been admirably described by the Honorable Bernard Moses, United
+States Philippine Commissioner and the first Secretary of Public
+Instruction, in his work, The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America.
+
+[22] Moses: Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, p. 12.
+
+[23] Demarcacion del Maluco, hecha por el maestro Medina, in Documentos
+ineditos, vol. V., p. 552.
+
+[24] This and subsequent voyages are given in the Documentos ineditos,
+vol. V., and a graphic account is in Argensola's Conquista de las
+Islas Molucas. They are also well narrated in English by Burney,
+Discoveries in the South Sea, vol. I., chapters V., XII., and XIV.
+
+[25] Fray Gaspar de San Agustin: Conquista de las Islas Filipinas,
+lib. I., c. 13.
+
+[26] One of the best paintings of the Filipino artist Juan Luna,
+which hangs in the Ayuntamiento in Manila, represents Legaspi in the
+act of the "Pacto de Sangre" with this Filipino chieftain.
+
+[27] There is an old account of this interesting expedition by one
+who participated. (Relacion de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon,
+Manila, 1572; Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. IV.)
+
+[28] Morga: Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 10.
+
+[29] Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. P. 316.
+
+[30] Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, p. 24.
+
+[31] See the letter of Bishop Salazar to the king, explaining his
+motives, in coming to the Philippines. Retana, Biblioteca Filipina,
+vol, I.; Relacion, 1583, p. 4.
+
+[32] Zuniga: Historia de Filipinas, pp. 195, 196.
+
+[33] Both Van Noort and Morga have left us accounts of this sea-fight,
+the former in his journal, Description of the Failsome Voyage Made
+Round the World, and the latter in his famous, Sucesos de las Islas
+Filipinas.
+
+[34] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 199.
+
+[35] Relacion de la Conquista de Luzon, 1572, p. 15.
+
+[36] Relacion de las Encomiendas, existentes en Filipinas, Retana,
+Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. IV.
+
+[37] Ordenanzas ... para la Reparticion de los Indios de la Isla
+Espanola, in Documentos Ineditas, vol. I., p. 236.
+
+[38] Historia de Filipinos, p. 157, et sq.
+
+[39] Among other documents, which throw a most unfavorable light upon
+the condition of the Filipinos under the encomiendas, is the letter to
+the king from Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop of the Philippines,
+which describes the conditions about 1583.
+
+[40] Domingo de Salazar, Relacion de las Cosas de las Filipinas,
+1583, p. 5, in Retana Archives, vol. 3.
+
+[41] Relacion, pp. 13, 14.
+
+[42] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 334.
+
+[43] Las Costumbres de los Tagalos en Filipinas segun el Padre
+Plasencia. Madrid, 1892.
+
+[44] Blumentritt: Organization Communale des Indigines des Philippines,
+traduis de l'Allemand, par A. Hugot. 1881.
+
+[45] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 332.
+
+[46] See Salazar's relation on this point.
+
+[47] Chirino: Relacion, pp. 19, 20.
+
+[48] Morga, p. 329.
+
+[49] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 323.
+
+[50] The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoveries
+of the English Nation, ... by Richard Hakluyt, Master of Artes and
+sometime Student of Christ Church in Oxford. Imprinted at London,
+1598. Vol. I., p. 560.
+
+[51] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 347.
+
+[52] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 352.]
+
+[53] Laws of the Indies, VIII., 45, 46.
+
+[54] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, chap. V., p. 23, and
+chap. XIII. p. 47.
+
+[55] Ibid., p. 323.
+
+[56] Ibid., p. 321.
+
+[57] Morga: Sucesos, p. 324.
+
+[58] Carta Relacion de las Cosas de la China y de los Chinos del
+Parian de Manila, 1590; in Retana, Archivo, vol. III.
+
+[59] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, p. 18. See also Salazar,
+Carta Relacion.
+
+[60] Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 364.
+
+[61] Zuniga: Historia de las Filipinas, p. 252.
+
+[62] Historia General de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 187.
+
+[63] Morris: The History of Colonization, vol. I., p. 215 sq.
+
+[64] Raffles: History of Java, vol. II., p. 116.
+
+[65] On the history of this notable expedition see Argensola, Conquista
+de las Islas Molucas. Madrid, 1609.
+
+[66] An account of this victory, written the following year, Relacion
+Verdadera de la gran vitoria, que el Armada Espanola de la China
+tuuo contra los Olandeses Pirates, has been reprinted by Retana,
+Archivo Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. II.
+
+[67] "Just before the naval engagement of Playa Honda, the Dutch
+intercepted junks on the way to Manila, bringing, amongst their
+cargoes of food, as many as twelve thousand capons."--Foreman: The
+Philippine Islands, p. 104.
+
+[68] Historia de Filipinas, p. 282.
+
+[69] How attractive the island appeared and how well they knew its
+peoples is revealed by the accurate descriptions in the first book
+of Combes' Historia de Mindanao y Jolo.
+
+[70] Historia de Mindanao y Jolo, lib. IV., chap. 7.
+
+[71] This important victory was commemorated in a number of writings,
+some of which have been reprinted by Retana. See Sucesos Felices, que
+por Mar y Tierra ha dado N. S. a las armas Espanolas, 1637. Another
+is published in the Appendix to Barrantes', Historia de Guerras
+Piraticas. The subject is also fully treated by Combes.
+
+[72] The king did not confer the title of "Royal" until 1735, although
+the University was taken under his protection in 1680.
+
+[73] Entrada de la Seraphica Religion, de Nuestro P. S. Francisco en
+las Islas Filipinas. Retana, vol, I.
+
+[74] The Jesuits, on retiring with the Spanish forces from the
+Moluccas, brought from Ternate a colony of their converts. These
+people were settled at Marigondon, on the south shore of Manila Bay,
+where their descendants can still be distinguished from the surrounding
+Tagalog population.
+
+[75] See the account of the "Settlement of the Ladrones by the
+Spaniards," in Burney's Voyages in the Pacific, vol. III.
+
+[76] Some of the benefits of such a trade are set forth by the Jesuit,
+Alonzo de Ovalle, in his Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Chili,
+printed in Rome, 1649. In Churchill's Collection of Voyages and
+Travels, vol. III.
+
+[77] Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias, lib. VIII., titulo 45,
+ley 78.
+
+[78] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 460.
+
+[79] Relacion de la Entrada del Sultan Rey de Jolo, in Archivo del
+Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. I.
+
+[80] Historia de Filipinas, p. 682.
+
+[81] These orders and other documents dealing with the Jesuit
+expulsion are printed in Montero y Vidal, Historia de Filipinas,
+vol. II. p. 180 sq.
+
+[82] But the conquest was almost valueless, and a few years later the
+inhabitants had to be transported to Cagayan because of the scarcity
+of food.
+
+[83] Alava made a series of journeys through the different provinces
+of the Philippines, and on these trips he was accompanied by Friar
+Martinez de Zuniga, whose narrative of these expeditions forms a most
+interesting and valuable survey of the conditions of the Islands and
+the people at the beginning of the nineteenth century. "Estadismo
+de las Islas Filipinas, 6 mis viajes por este pais, por el Padre
+Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga. Publica esta obra por primera vez
+extensamente anotada W. E. Retana." 2 vols. Madrid, 1893.
+
+[84] Jagor: Viajes por Filipinas, p. 81. Translated from the
+German. Madrid, 1895.
+
+[85] See Estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1847, by D. Sinibaldo de Mas.
+
+[86] Bowring: A Visit to the Philippine Islands, p. 387.
+
+[87] The reports of the Dominican missionaries of Nueva Vizcaya
+and Isabela show the extent and persistence of these raids. (See the
+files of the missionary publication, El Correo Sino-Annamita, and also
+the work by Padre Buenaventura Campa, Los Maybyaos y la Raza Ifugao,
+Madrid, 1895.
+
+[88] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. III, p. 99.
+
+[89] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. III., p. 209. The
+document is given in Appendix 4 of the same volume.
+
+[90] See Rajah Brooke, by Sir Spencer St. John, London, 1899.
+
+[91] Keppel: Expedition to Borneo of H. M. S. Dido for the Suppression
+of Piracy, with extracts from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq. 2
+vols. London, 1846. Keppel: A Visit to the Indian Archipelago in
+H. M. S. Moeandar. 2 vols. London, 1853.
+
+[92] Spain established a permanent commission of censorship in
+1856. It was composed of eight persons, one half nominated by the
+governor and one half by the archbishop.
+
+[93] El Periodismo Filipino, por W. E. Retana. Madrid, 1895.
+
+[94] An account of Rizal's trial and execution, together with many
+papers on the revolution, is printed by Retana. See Archivo, Tomo
+IV. Documentos politicos de Actualidad.
+
+[95] See the decisions of the Supreme Court in the cases of American
+Insurance Co. v. Canter (1 Peters, 511), decided in 1828; National
+Bank v. County of Yankton (101 U. S. Reports, 129), decided in 1879;
+The Mormon Church v. United States (136 U. S. Reports, 1), decided May,
+1890. On the domain of personal liberty possessed by the inhabitants
+of a territory, in addition to above cases, see also the cases of
+Reynolds v. United States (98 U. S. Reports, 154), 1878; and Murphy
+v. Ramsey (114 U. S. Reports, 15), 1884.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's A History of the Philippines, by David P. Barrows
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