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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pottery, for Artists Craftsmen & Teachers, by
+George J. Cox
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Pottery, for Artists Craftsmen & Teachers
+
+Author: George J. Cox
+
+Release Date: December 8, 2011 [EBook #38248]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POTTERY, FOR ARTISTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Mark C. Orton, Henry Gardiner and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: The original publication has been replicated
+faithfully except as shown in the TRANSCRIBER'S AMENDMENTS at the end of
+the text. This etext presumes a mono-spaced font on the user's device,
+such as Courier New. Words in italics are indicated like _this_. Text
+emphasized with bold characters or other treatment is shown like =this=.
+Superscripts are indicated like this: S^{ta} Maria. Subscripts are
+indicated like this: H_{2}O.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: "_He wrought a work upon the wheels, and the vessel that he
+made of clay was marred in the hands of the Potter: so he made it again
+another vessel, as seemed good to the Potter to make it._"--(JEREMIAH.)]
+
+
+
+
+                                POTTERY,
+
+                              FOR ARTISTS
+                               CRAFTSMEN
+                               & TEACHERS
+                                   BY
+                          GEORGE J COX, ARCA.
+                  INSTRUCTOR in POTTERY & MODELLING AT
+                 TEACHERS COLLEGE--COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+
+                       ILLUSTRATED by the AUTHOR
+
+
+                PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1914,
+                        BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+           Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1914.
+
+                             Norwood Press
+                 J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+                        Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.
+
+
+      "O Master, pardon me, if yet in vain
+      Thou art my Master, and I fail to bring
+      Before men's eyes the image of the thing
+      My heart is filled with."
+
+                                         --WILLIAM MORRIS.
+
+
+
+
+                              EXPLANATION
+
+
+In such a spacious craft as Pottery it is difficult to steer a fair course
+between the empirical and the scientific. With that in mind this book sets
+out to tell in simple terms some of the processes of Potting, practicable
+to the student and to the more finished craftsman.
+
+It is an intricate task to combine successfully the view-points of the
+artist and the scientist; but it seems that, without neglecting the many
+benefits bestowed by the advance of science, the Potter should stand with
+the former. The best in his craft has been produced by men that were
+artists rather than chemists. And what has been accomplished by loving,
+patient craftsmanship may surely be done again only in such ways.
+
+To the artist craftsman, for whom chiefly this book is intended, a little
+scientific knowledge is a dangerous thing; for that reason no great stress
+is laid on formulas and analysis. Unless thoroughly understood they are a
+hindrance rather than an aid.
+
+Although many schools teach elementary pottery, the expense of equipment
+possibly delays its introduction on a larger scale. For that reason I have
+preferred to err on the side of over-exactness of description and
+profuseness of illustration.
+
+The slight historical review and introductory remarks are to be excused on
+the ground that they are intended to help to a study of the best work of
+the best periods, and so to foster a taste for the finest Ceramics. This
+is a vital matter when laying the foundations of a craft so fascinating
+and so full of alluring avenues to beckon the student from the true path.
+
+To the scientific critic I would offer a hundred books with a thousand
+different compounds; amongst none of them will he find how to make a Sung
+bowl or a Rakka drug pot.
+
+This book will achieve its purpose if it sets one or two sincere students
+to the making of some of the many beautiful objects of utility and art
+with which the craft abounds. Then it will have done something, if never
+so little, to accelerate the arrival of that time when the artist will
+come once more into his own in the most ancient and noble of Crafts.
+
+Some of the many books consulted, to which I am indebted, are given at the
+end of the book. Among friends my thanks are especially due to Richard
+Lunn, Esq., of the Royal College of Art, London, and to Professor Arthur
+Wesley Dow of Teachers College, Columbia University, for my introduction
+to and opportunity of further study of the Craft to which I subscribe
+myself an humble devotee.
+
+                                                  G. J. C.
+
+
+
+
+                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                         PAGE
+
+         EXPLANATION                                      vii
+
+         CHAPTER
+
+            I.  HISTORICAL SUMMARY                          1
+
+           II.  CLAYS AND PASTES                           19
+
+          III.  BUILT SHAPES                               26
+
+           IV.  MOULDING, CASTING, AND PRESSING            34
+
+            V.  JIGGER AND JOLLEY WORK                     51
+
+           VI.  THROWN SHAPES                              59
+
+          VII.  TURNING OR SHAVING                         73
+
+         VIII.  TILE-MAKING                                80
+
+           IX.  DRYING: FINISHING                          89
+
+            X.  FIRING BISCUIT                             93
+
+           XI.  GLOST FIRING                              107
+
+          XII.  GLAZES AND LUSTRES                        117
+
+         XIII.  DECORATION                                129
+
+          XIV.  FIGURINES                                 141
+
+           XV.  KILNS                                     151
+
+          XVI.  THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF POTTERY          170
+
+         APPENDIX I.  EQUIPMENT FOR A SMALL POTTERY OR A
+             SCHOOL                                       177
+
+         APPENDIX II.  GLOSSARY AND GENERAL INFORMATION   185
+
+
+
+
+              POTTERY FOR ARTISTS, CRAFTSMEN, AND TEACHERS
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                           HISTORICAL SUMMARY
+
+  "After this he led them into his garden, where was great variety
+    of Flowers. Then said he again, Behold, the Flowers are diverse
+    in stature, in quality, and colour, and smell, and virtue, and
+    some are better than some."
+
+                                                 --BUNYAN.
+
+
+Without attempting a history of pottery which, however brief, would be
+somewhat out of place in a Craft Book, a short summary of its evolution,
+emphasizing those periods in which it was most beautifully developed,
+seems essential to help the beginner in the selection and appreciation of
+good form, colour, and decoration. These are very vital matters and easily
+overlooked in the struggle to acquire a craft that is full of fascination
+from the first fumbled shape upon the wheel to the finished product of
+time and art and craft.
+
+Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of close study of the
+best work, both ancient and modern; for it is a truism that however
+handily a craftsman may work, his output will be worthless if he has not,
+with his increasing powers of technique, developed a sound judgement and
+refined taste. To-day, these alone can replace the lost traditions of the
+old masters.
+
+The Potter's Craft had a coeval birth in various parts of the earth, but
+the obscurity is such that no clear idea can be gained of its antiquity.
+It was, probably, the first form of handicraft, if we except the
+fashioning of flints and clubs. Accident or the funeral pyre may have
+suggested the extraordinary durability the clay shape obtained when
+burned, and doubtless siliceous glazes were first the result of chance.
+All early work was built up by hand and for that reason possesses wide
+mouths and simple forms. The introduction of the wheel is lost in a mist
+of time, but drawings from the tombs of Beni Hassan show the potter at his
+wheel substantially as he works in Asia to this day. The wheel-made or
+thrown shape is distinguished by far more grace and symmetry than the
+built shape, and by an infinitely greater variety of form.
+
+In burial mounds from prehistoric Egypt are found many bowls and platters
+rudely scratched, and the earliest examples from mounds, lake dwellings,
+and tombs show the quick development of the pot, not only as an object of
+utility, but as a vehicle of art. The first kinds of decoration were
+incised lines followed by strappings and bandings, painted stripes and
+scrolls and hieroglyphs, with later additions in slip and modelled clay.
+Primitive wares from their method of production exhibit an interesting
+similarity of shape and style in such widely divergent countries as China,
+Egypt, and Peru.
+
+It was only when the craftsman had acquired considerable dexterity that we
+find his nationality influencing his shapes and producing the wonderful
+variety in form and decoration that characterizes and distinguishes the
+pottery of all nations. Once established, the prevalence of type is
+strong. This traditional style is particularly noticeable in Egypt, much
+modern work being identical with that of the early dynasties.
+
+Before turning to more sophisticated work it would be well to learn the
+lesson of simplicity and fitness here taught by primitive folks. The
+simple beginning leads to the simple, strong, and satisfying end. Much of
+this primitive work is inspiring for its freshness or naivete; its
+unspoiled innate taste allied to downright common sense. Properly
+approached, it should be a sure corrective to any desire for unsightly
+_new_ shapes or extravagance in decoration. A few careful studies will do
+much to drive home this valuable lesson in fine, simple line and spacing.
+
+In Egypt the thrown shape was not distinguished by any extraordinary
+beauty or variety. Nevertheless their small _Ushabti_, glazed gods and
+demons, show a very advanced knowledge of coloured enamels, and their
+fabrication of a hard sandy paste for glazing shows the first great step
+in the science of pottery. Their glaze was purely alkaline.
+
+The Assyrians appear to have been the first to use coloured tin glazes,
+and although few pieces of pottery survive, the enamelled friezes from
+Korsobad and Sousa are striking evidence of their proficiency in
+tile-making.
+
+From Egypt and Mesopotamia the craft spread east and west to Phoenicia,
+Attica, and Greece; through Persia and Arabia to India. Here it mingled
+with currents from China, then invading Korea, Japan, and Siam, the united
+floods rising until the potter was a power in every land.
+
+Phoenician pottery forms, with Cretan and early Grecian, a beautiful
+sequence from the primitive work of early dynasties to the refinements of
+later Grecian wares.
+
+It will prove an interesting and instructive study to trace the
+developments that led finally to the zenith of Greek pottery. The
+primitive Hissarlik ware leads through Mycenaean, Dipylon, Phalaeron,
+Rhodian, and Corinthian right up to the wonderful figure vases of about
+300 B.C. Although limited in paste and colour, with a thin transparent
+glaze or lustre, these vases were exquisitely fashioned. Large and small
+shapes of wide diversity were decorated in black, red, and white, ornament
+and figures both drawn straight on to the body with a sureness of touch
+and refinement of line that excite the envy of a master. Many of their
+forms are strongly influenced by contemporary bronze work and for that
+reason are not the best guides for shapes. Their incomparable terra-cottas
+known as Tanagras form a link between Pottery and Sculpture.
+
+Again, from Phoenician work one may see dimly by way of Samian, Rhodian
+and old Cairene wares the lineage of the royal wares of Persia, and recent
+investigations point to Old Cairo as the birthplace of lustre.
+
+From Persia come some of the finest pottery, painted in colours and
+lustres, that the world can show. Their wares stand pre-eminent in that
+class wherein the chief beauty is the painted decoration. Their one-colour
+pieces, whilst not comparable with the Chinese, nevertheless reach a high
+standard. Their lustres have never been surpassed or rarely equalled.
+Their shapes are true potter's shapes, and a delight to the eye. The
+finest pieces were painted in simple blues, greens, reds, and faint
+purples, with black pencilling. This appears to have been done on an
+engobe of finely ground flint, and covered with an alkaline glaze giving a
+broken white ground. This would account in some measure for the
+extraordinary freshness of both drawing and colour. Later on raised
+ornament, finely conceived and used with restraint, is seen along with
+pierced decoration having translucent effects.
+
+Rhodes and Damascus produced a somewhat coarser ware, but bold and free in
+brushwork and varied with a bright red. Syrian pottery abounds in virile
+individual shapes. Turkey also was not without a fine and vigorous style.
+
+Much time can be most profitably spent studying the masterpieces of
+Persia. A representative collection like that at South Kensington will
+show vases, bottles, bowls, pots, and tiles in bewildering variety and of
+infinite freshness. They are directly painted, with free renderings of
+flowers within geometric forms and often with an inscription in rich
+Arabic characters. The exquisite Moore Collection in the Metropolitan
+Museum, New York City, is smaller but is remarkable for the unusually high
+standard of taste shown in its acquisition. At its purest period human or
+animal figures were rarely or never represented and those shapes or tiles
+with such decoration belong to a more decadent but still fine period.
+
+Again we have the eternal lesson of simplicity and fitness. Again it will
+be borne in upon the student that originality does not mean weirdness, but
+rather a fresh spontaneous treatment of simple, well-known natural forms,
+with, above all, a fine appreciation of good line and space. No sincere
+student can fail to develop here a respect and veneration of a craft and
+of craftsmen capable of producing such glorious works.
+
+From this teeming home the craft spread to Arabia and west across the
+Mediterranean to Spain. Here in the twelfth century the Moors were
+producing their famous Hispano-Mooresque lustred wares. Their large
+plaques offer a wonderful variety of pure brushwork ornament with spirited
+heraldic additions. Sometimes the backs of these dishes are as beautifully
+lustred as the fronts.
+
+For a proper appreciation of their purely geometric decoration and its
+possibilities in pottery we must turn to the Alcazzar at Madrid. Here the
+use of opaque tin glaze permitted the extensive use of a coarse body for
+tiles and bricks. The Moors, however, first introduced glazes with a lead
+base and from that time we begin to lose the fresh _wet_ colour always
+associated with the alkaline glazes of the Persians. Analysis shows that
+they used lead, but only occasionally and in small quantities, to aid
+their lustres. The lustred wares of Spain declined late in the thirteenth
+century, but not before its exportation to Italy by way of Majorca had
+stimulated the production of Italian Majolica. Della Robbia, about 1415,
+succeeded in colouring his tin glazes, and his finely modelled but
+somewhat crudely coloured reliefs usher in the era of Italian Faience.
+Patronized by the nobles the craft quickly took root and was blossoming
+profusely at Urbino, Gubbio, Pesaro, Faenza and other cities at the end of
+the fifteenth century.
+
+Here we break ground and leave the chaste simplicity of the golden age to
+riot a blaze of exuberant decoration. Scraffito, slip, inlaid, applied,
+incised, raised, embossed and modelled and painted embellishments; all are
+here. This era is chiefly notable for its splendid ruby lustres and the
+remarkable power and freedom, amounting to absolute abandon, of the
+brushwork and drawing shown by its artists. They used their lustres to
+heighten the effects of their painting and the results are in keeping with
+that romantic age. Alongside of it our best modern work is apt to look
+spiritless and dull.
+
+Much splendid work was produced in Italy at this period, but in such a
+wide field there are naturally some places that exhibit technique rather
+than art. The student must go into it with appreciative faculties alert
+lest mere splendour should sweep him off his feet.
+
+The wares and the potters of Italy penetrated north into Europe, to
+France, the Holy Roman Empire and Britain, starting or stimulating what
+was to prove an overwhelming flood of production. In Europe in pre-Roman
+times, a coarse, unglazed, built-up ware was general, it being of simple,
+somewhat clumsy but vigorous form, low-fired and friable. It was used
+chiefly for cinerary purposes, the Germanic peoples having a decided
+preference for vessels of horn, wood, or metal.
+
+The Romans introduced the wheel and produced a far higher class of ware.
+Their importation of the fine red Samian pottery resulted in the
+fabrication of the vigorous Gallo-Roman and Romano-British pottery. This
+was good in shape and paste and characteristically decorated with slip,
+bosses, dots, and indentations. The later Gaulish work shows applied
+figures and highly finished scroll work. After the decline of Rome, Saxon
+and Germanic work shows a distinctly retrograde tendency. It is often
+built up, strapped, banded, and bossed in imitation of the Romano-British.
+Though coarse and lacking in finish, it is full of freshness and
+character.
+
+In Mediaeval England, when pottery making was at a low ebb, the monasteries
+and travelling guilds of potters produced splendid encaustic tiles. These
+were inlaid with simple yet striking geometric designs, or animal or bird
+forms, both heraldic and symbolic.
+
+In Europe for many years the domestic pottery remained coarse and
+primitive, showing still the arresting hand of the barbarian conquerors of
+Rome. The first signs of the Italian Renaissance are to be found in the
+rare Henri Deux or Orion ware. Palissy's desperate and romantic search for
+enamels was the prelude to the development of Rouen, Nevers, Lille,
+Moustiers, Sevres, Marseilles, and other less important potteries. In
+France also early experiments led eventually to the fabrication of
+porcelain much on the lines of English porcelain, a frit being used
+instead of kaolin.
+
+In Germany, as early as the fifteenth century, they produced fine
+stoneware highly decorated with relief patterns and colours. After long
+research Boettiger, by a lucky accident, discovered kaolin. Porcelain was
+made at Dresden in 1709, and many of the Dresden figures show a remarkably
+sympathetic alliance of potting, modelling and painting.
+
+The success of the German ceramists led to a wide patronage of potters by
+kings and princes which quickly spread the knowledge of porcelain
+throughout Europe.
+
+Long before this in the early part of the seventeenth century, potteries
+were established at Delft in Holland. Here was made the well-known ware
+painted in blue camaien on a fine white ground. This was for a time
+produced in great quantities, and the process of painting directly on to
+an absorbent ground led to a surprisingly fresh and skilful style.
+
+In the middle of the seventeenth century English wares commenced to rise
+from the stagnation in which they seemed sunk since Saxon times. Toft,
+with his tygs and platters, Dwight, and his bellarmines, and Elers, with
+turned shapes, started a movement which was eventually to send English
+wares into all parts of Europe, even into the far Russias, to be known
+everywhere for its excellent workmanship. And in this flood of production
+in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was much that was technically
+unrivalled despite the fact that the Art of the potter is sometimes far to
+seek. Dwight is said to have produced a fritted porcelain in 1671, before
+the discovery of kaolin. This is doubtful, but his persistent research
+eventually led up to the fine pastes of Chelsea and Bow and the unrivalled
+"fine earthenwares" of Staffordshire.
+
+This European revival gained tremendous impetus from the importation by
+the Portuguese of the wares of CHINA. The wide scope of its decoration,
+both painted and modelled, pointed the way to most potters of the West
+during the heyday of European pottery. The magnificent single-colour
+pieces were not introduced until later when the break-up of the Empire
+rendered them accessible to Europeans. It is to them that the student
+must turn to see the summit of the potter's art, which, it is logically
+contended, commences on the wheel and ends at the glost oven with the
+potter, the only attendant from the pot's inception to its finish.
+Painting or modelling is not essential to its perfection and unless
+applied by a true disciple detracts rather than adds to the beauty of the
+piece.
+
+In China, where tradition holds that earthenware was first made in 2698
+B.C., the art of the potter, in body, shape, glaze, and colour, through
+centuries reached perfection. Porcelain is said to have been first made
+about 200 B.C., but this date is conjectural. What we do know
+unmistakably, however, is that the best work of their best periods is
+unrivalled. Depending primarily on form and colour, with here and there a
+subtle decoration in raised or incised line, in crackle or simple
+brushwork, it stands alone, and despite the omnipotent chemistry of
+to-day, defies imitation. Their forms are strong, bold, and dignified, yet
+subtle and delicate, too. Then, added to a wonderful range of colours, was
+a perfection of body that was for so long the despair of western
+imitators. It is here at the altar of perfection amidst the chaste
+richness of Tang and Sung and Ming that the true disciple must worship.
+And to those who must eat bread as well as make pots it is to be pointed
+out that these pieces at the time of their production fetched prices that
+compare favourably with the "fancy" prices given to-day.
+
+To the Japanese also in great measure the same tribute is due. Although
+beginning later as disciples and scarcely getting so far as their masters,
+their more limited range of colour and form is set off by their restrained
+and even more tasteful decoration. The unique collection in the Boston
+Museum is an amplification of this bald statement. They were often more
+concerned with the touch and texture of the pot than the more obvious
+appeal of decoration. Esoteric as it is to most occidentals it is rich in
+a pure aestheticism and a deep and beautiful symbolism that is slowly but
+surely having an influence on western art, just when it seems in some
+danger of dying out in Japan. The hermit kingdom of Korea, despite its
+midway position, produced pottery that is strangely beautiful and
+distinctive and worth much more than a passing notice.
+
+In China the art decadence of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
+coupled with internal revolutions, has sadly dimmed her plots, dispersed
+her potters, and all but destroyed her priceless traditions.
+
+For the further development of pottery in Europe and America and Asia the
+student has many excellent books to consult. From the seventeenth century
+the ramifications are rapid and all-embracing, giving, however, more joy
+to the collector than to the artist. Modern work has made an enormous
+advance in the science of the craft. Since the "Eighties" it shows signs
+of a renaissance in aesthetics. Lustres of all shades, crystalline, star,
+and crackle glazes with safe methods of oxidizing and reducing in the
+fire, have been brought to perfection. Yet, with some few exceptions,
+commerce seems writ large upon them all and their very perfection of
+finish damns them in the eyes of an artist. Whichever way he looks, he
+must return again and again to refresh his eyes with the inspiring
+examples of the best that has survived from the near and far EAST.
+
+Only an antiquarian humbug would wish to go back to ancient conditions
+even to produce old pots. But it is only by seeing in so far as we may in
+museums and books the works of these ancient yet ever modern potters; by
+tracing their development, appreciating their qualities and attempting to
+work as they worked, honestly and unaffectedly, that we shall begin to
+approach the excellence and originality of their art. This study should
+not of course obey the direction it all too frequently follows. The
+slavish measuring by module and fraction of classic styles, the stark
+geometric analysis of Moorish ornament or the laborious copying of Chinese
+pattern is at best only art in cold storage. It should be self-evident
+that where an alien style is consciously imitated the result is sterility
+for the imitator. In others, it is apt to produce a powerful reaction
+that results in _Futurism_ or some such self-conscious affectation. "The
+Greeks did not draw from casts nor did the Persians haunt museums," says
+the harried student. No. But better than that, they were surrounded, if
+not by beauty, at least by nature naked and unashamed. They lived not
+easily maybe, but surely more gracefully, untrammelled by fashion, cult,
+or craze.
+
+      "The earth his sober Inn
+      And quiet pilgrimage."
+
+Their best work seems ever fresh, spontaneous, and untired. It must have
+been done with a spirit and real joy impossible to anyone but a true
+craftsman tremendously interested in his work, we might also add, his
+environment.
+
+Naturally, present-day conditions must modify the struggle for existence.
+They may mar our best aim at times. Yet some few have worked wonders even
+in this age. To mention but two instances, W. De Morgan and the Martin
+brothers, is to tell of high endeavour and great achievement. But we must
+not expect to get rich that way.
+
+Pottery is an exacting and difficult craft, abounding in as many trials
+and disappointments as excitements and rewards. Its true devotee must
+suffer. Yet the delightful tale of Palissy's heroic battle should hearten
+the more fortunate student of to-day. It is good to read of the spirit in
+which Wedgwood, scientist though he was, approached his work. In a trade
+catalogue he says, "A Competition for Cheapness, and not for Excellence of
+Workmanship, is the most frequent cause of rapid Decay and entire
+Destruction of Art and of Manufacture." "Beautiful Forms are not to be
+made by Chance and they never were made nor can be made in any kind at
+small expense." Such sentiments rarely emanate from the modern commercial
+pottery.
+
+Tradition, except the traditions of flawless glazes, certain soulless
+results, and commercial cheese paring; seems dead perhaps, but it will
+surely come to life again. To see the potter "thumping his wet clay," and
+seated at the wheel of ancient lineage, conjuring forth a wealth of
+gracious shapes, is to renew one's faith in the ultimate survival of
+simple honest handicraft even in this machine-ridden age. Masterpieces
+were never conceived in factories, and when we make pots primarily for
+love of them, not to sell them, we shall begin to beat back the
+manufacturer of debauched "Art" pots into that domestic and hygienic realm
+wherein his efforts are particularly admirable and effective. A craft that
+teems with such an endless variety of beautiful objects for such countless
+uses can never remain for all time the hand-maiden of commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Hollowing the Ball]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+                            CLAYS AND PASTES
+
+  "It is the Art which gives the value, and not the material."
+
+                                                --DRESSER.
+
+
+Clay being the chief material used by the potter, it demands a description
+which, without being too technical, will give from the start a clear idea
+of the nature of clays or pastes in general use.
+
+It would be a needless complication to enter here into a discussion of the
+chemical analysis of bodies and materials. Whilst the chemist can and does
+determine with exactitude the relative quantities of each component, he
+cannot yet, let us perhaps be thankful, lay down with the same certainty
+the structural and molecular changes all these compounds will undergo in
+the fire. The old potters' rule "of thumb" or, rather, common sense and
+experience, still count for something.
+
+Clay is the word generally applied to the natural article when used
+without preparation, or after picking and washing. Paste is the term used
+for all composite bodies that have been through a complicated process of
+washing, grinding, mixing, and sieving, or even fritting, according to
+the desired quality of the ware for which it is required. Natural clays
+range from the pure white and very infusible kaolin, containing only
+alumina and silica with a very small percentage of alkalies, to the impure
+grey, red, or brown clays, containing, along with alumina and silica,
+magnesia, potash, soda, iron, lime, and carbon. Kaolin is used with China
+stone (a combination of felspar and quartz) to make porcelain, the finest
+and hardest paste known to potters. It has a very hard white translucent
+body, only slightly vitreous at the highest fire (around 1700 deg.
+Centigrade).
+
+From this, the highest grade, we have almost insensible gradations to
+common earthenware. Old English and French porcelain were compounded of
+clay, sand, and alkalies ground together to make a frit, re-ground and
+mixed with a stiffening material (in English porcelain, bone-ash), to
+support the vitreous matter in the intense heat. The finest earthenware
+does not differ greatly in its formula from soft porcelain, but it is not
+so hard or transparent. From this the scale descends to where the presence
+of lime or iron in the body colour it and render it easily fusible, so
+that at any great heat it turns black and collapses to a slag.
+
+Clay on being dug up is usually weathered in the open, and dried and
+broken up and the greater impurities picked out. It is then thoroughly
+mixed with water in a blunger and passed through a succession of sieves
+until all foreign matter and impurities are left behind and it is the
+consistency of cream. This was formerly done by hand, the clay being raked
+into a thick "slub" and washed through a series of tanks until all
+impurities had settled, leaving only the fine clay in suspension. It is at
+this stage that any additions are made to form a paste. The modifying
+ingredients, ground and sieved to the requisite degree, are thoroughly
+incorporated with the slip, which is allowed to settle. The clear water on
+top is siphoned off and the paste dried sufficiently to handle. The modern
+method of preparation is to force the slip through a series of straining
+bags which remove most of the water and leave it stiff enough to work.
+Some of the hard pastes are so stiff or short that they require soap water
+to give plasticity, but usually after a thorough wedging it is now ready
+for the thrower.
+
+Generally speaking, kaolin, China clay, ball clay, pipe clay, China stone,
+felspar, flint, quartz, sand, lime, chalk, and calcined bone are the
+ingredients of most modern pastes. These supply the alumina, silica, lime,
+potash, and soda, with traces of iron and magnesia, that are found in all
+clays when analyzed. Carbon is only present in impure bodies fired at a
+low heat.
+
+Of these materials the clays rich in alumina and silica, such as kaolin
+or China clay, form the body-giving substance. The felspar or China stone
+furnish the fluxing ingredients for fusing and binding. The flint or bone
+supplies the stiffening matter for supporting and retaining the shape of
+the object in the fire.
+
+Porcelain, though differing so widely in appearance and texture from the
+coarse mediaeval earthenware or the pottery of the ancients, is found to
+have a distinct relationship when all these bodies are submitted to
+analysis. Much of the difference in bodies, apart from the impurities,
+lies in the temperature of the fire to which it has been submitted. At a
+low temperature such constituents as lime and iron are not much affected,
+but at a greater heat they act as fluxing agents.
+
+To generalize upon a complex and difficult subject one might say that
+porcelain, both hard and soft (pate dure and pate tendre), is
+characterized by its pure white colour and by extreme hardness of body and
+glaze with transparency; fine stoneware by a very hard, opaque, and heavy
+body which may be white, buff, or grey, and salt-glazed or with a fine
+hard transparent glaze. Earthenware is softer and mostly opaque. It may
+range from something a little softer than soft porcelain to the coarse
+"Majolica" with a tin glaze, differing widely in colour of body and
+hardness of glaze.
+
+With porcelain and the finest high-fired wares a purity of materials and
+uniformity of mass is absolutely necessary. It is here that one may well
+call in the aid of the chemist and manufacturer. In any case it is
+advisable to call in the chemist and the manufacturer when working on a
+large scale. With a small output, as with all good craftsmen, the
+fabrication of a good, reliable stoneware or earthenware paste is only a
+matter of patience and hard work. Before commencing to produce finished
+work on any scale, repeated experiments with different clays should be
+carried out. Notes of all trials, with and without glaze, are invaluable
+to the potter.
+
+Rich clays can be stiffened, short clays enriched, and colour modified
+without a mass of expensive machinery. Rich, easily fusible clays tend to
+_stunt_ or buckle at a high fire. Hard refractory clays often remain
+porous and are a fruitful source of crazing and breaking. The addition of
+flint or fine washed sand, finely powdered _grog_, or _pitchers_, or even
+refractory China clays, in quantities varying from about 5 per cent to 20
+per cent, but settled only by repeated trials, will stiffen up or open out
+rich clays inclined to warp or burst. Rich fusible clays added to hard
+clays may stop the crazing, or the fusing point may be lowered by the
+addition of spar. Stiff gravelly clay will require finer sieving or
+repeated washing to rid it of some of the grit or sand. Rich greasy clays
+are better when not too finely sieved, but this point is of course
+dependent on the class of work to be undertaken. Slip can be settled in
+tubs, the water siphoned off, and then put to dry on plaster bats, or dry
+clay, powdered and sieved, may be stirred in until the mass is stiff
+enough to wedge thoroughly by hand.
+
+In mixing or modifying without machinery it is sometimes advisable to do
+it in the dry state, otherwise some of the heavier materials are likely to
+sink and are thus not thoroughly incorporated with the body. The dry mass
+when well mixed is wetted enough to be wedged. When the body is coloured
+and a white ground is indispensable, an "engobe," or dip, of white clay
+slip must be resorted to.
+
+These processes are certainly tedious, but that will not deter a craftsman
+searching for the right clay in which best to shape his ideas. To the
+craftsman working alone it is the only way by which he can accommodate his
+clays to the various necessities of throwing, casting, or modelling. Each
+process will require a slightly different nature in the clay if the finest
+results are to be obtained.
+
+Although in this craft book we shall not approach porcelain, a good, hard,
+true-ringing body with a tough well-fitting glaze should be a _sine qua
+non_ with all craftsmen; and it is only in the fire that any true idea can
+be gained of the important influences clays and pastes have on the
+finished work. Here we have tried to indicate the chief characteristics of
+clays and to make clear the inevitable tendency of all potters who seek an
+imperishable medium for their craft towards a purer body and a higher
+fire.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                              BUILT SHAPES
+
+  "Every moment think steadily: to do what thou hast in hand with
+    perfect and simple dignity."
+
+                                           --M. ANTONINUS.
+
+
+With good plastic clay and with the aid of a few simple tools, the fingers
+can fashion shapes of considerable diversity and some refinement. In
+elementary schools this is by far the best method of teaching the
+beginner. In any case the student who has no knowledge of clay work would
+do well to start by building a few shapes in the manner still used by
+primitive peoples.
+
+The clay, which must be in good condition and not _short_, is rolled out
+on a wet plaster slab or some non-sticky surface, into ropes of something
+less than half an inch in diameter for small shapes. (Fig. 1.) The best
+way to commence is to knead up a double handful of soft clay until
+thoroughly mixed, ball it, and then form a stumpy cylinder, gradually
+elongating by rolling out on the bat. Too much pressure will flatten the
+rope and there should be a distinct pull or stretch on it in addition to
+the downward pressure, varying as necessary to insure even thickness. As
+the rope becomes thinner the fingers should be held diagonally to avoid
+ridges. This rope should be fairly firm and yet bend easily without
+cracking. With a little practice, long pliable rolls can be easily and
+rapidly produced and then a start is made with the base. This is coiled as
+in Fig. 2, pressed flat, and welded together. It is finished both sides
+before commencing the walls of the shape. These are coiled round and up,
+each ring being pressed firmly on the one below, care being taken to avoid
+air cavities which may blow out on firing. The top is levelled off and the
+sides welded together and smoothed with the fingers. (Fig. 3.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--ROLLING OUT CLAY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--FORMING COIL FOR BASE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--WELDING & SMOOTHING THE SIDES.]
+
+At first, simple and almost straight-sided shapes should be attempted;
+each ring may be added separately, while the finishing should not be
+unduly prolonged. As the technique improves, curves with slight returns
+may be attained. Where the size is so great as to prevent finishing at one
+sitting, it can be very carefully reversed; this will allow the base to
+harden and still keep the top moist for further coiling. With big pieces
+much attention must be paid to the correct shaping when coiling, otherwise
+the finishing will be laborious and quite possibly useless. Large shapes
+with difficult curves are best built in two sections or parts and then
+carefully welded together. To keep the parts damp during prolonged
+operations, use water blown from a spray diffuser.
+
+Ash trays, bulb bowls, flower pots, salt cellars, and ink wells are a few
+of the things that are suitable to be made by this method. They may be
+decorated with incised lines, raised-ornament handles, and feet.
+Additional interest is obtained by slight banding, or the incised lines
+filled in with a coloured clay pressed firmly in when the shape is tough.
+Although built forms may be quite highly finished, it is obvious that any
+elaborate decoration is out of place on shapes that by their origin must
+be simple and somewhat heavy. Enough has been said to indicate the
+process. For its logical development and suitable enrichment we must study
+the work of primitive peoples. For its possibilities we must turn to the
+vast jars made even to this day in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4--ATTACHING THE FOOT.]
+
+With great care and much taste pieces can be pinched and welded together
+into delightful forms, best shown in the refinements of the Cha Noya
+pottery of Japan. This pinching must be done carefully and above all
+sympathetically. To those that know or feel the possibilities of the clay
+it will respond readily. Much more taste and judgement is required in the
+making of a really satisfactory pinched shape, than is needed in forming
+one with coils. Square, polyhedral, or irregular shapes other than
+circular may be _stuck up_ or pieced together in the following manner:
+Upon a table nail two strips of wood one quarter of an inch thick, ten or
+twelve inches apart. Sprinkle between the strips with flint or fine sand
+and batter out some soft clay thereon. Scrape the surplus clay off with a
+straight-edge and then roll the clay between the strips flat with a
+rolling pin. Upon this thin slab mark out the sides, base, top, etc., of
+the shape to be built. Run a thin knife round each shape, but do not cut
+quite down to the table. Cut along the inside edge of each strip to allow
+the whole slab to contract evenly and allow it to toughen slightly.
+Carefully remove and reverse the slab and separate the pieces, being
+careful not to distort the shapes in the process.
+
+The shape must be stuck up before the pieces become brittle or too stiff
+to bend. Roughen each opposing edge and moisten with slip, that is, clay
+mixed with water to the consistency of thick cream.
+
+Press the edges firmly together and weld well each joint with soft clay.
+(Fig. 5.) This operation should be most thorough, as any weak joint will
+inevitably open when fired. Lids should be cut slightly larger than the
+shapes they have to fit and sandpapered true when dry. Sharp edges and
+angles should be smoothed with the fingers before the shape gets hard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5--"STICKING UP" FLAT-SIDED POT.]
+
+The chief pitfall to avoid in this process is a hard wooden look. The
+ductile plastic qualities of the clay should be remembered and such
+additions as feet or handles should emphasize this important point.
+
+Finally, the careful sympathetic craftsman, with infinite patience, by
+utilizing all three methods, can build vessels of almost any
+shape,--square, round, elliptical, banded, strapped, bossed, fluted, and
+embellished with handles, spouts, and feet. Ancient and mediaeval pottery
+is rich in such forms.
+
+[Illustration: TOOLS FOR CLAY WORK.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                    MOULDING, CASTING, AND PRESSING
+
+      "Our soundes is good, Our shapes is neat,
+      Its Davis cast us so compleat."
+
+                       --From an old bell at Stoke Rivers.
+
+
+The casting process, employed so extensively in commercial work, is in its
+essence mechanical and therefore can never have the spontaneity or
+character of thrown work. To-day when the thrower and turner with hand and
+eye trained for good shapes is rare indeed, it is often the only method by
+which the student can obtain large shapes of high finish for painting or
+glazing in transparent colours.
+
+In the process the shape is first designed and carefully drawn on paper,
+allowance being made for the shrinkage of the finished pot which may be as
+much as 1 in 6 with some kinds of slip. It should be refined in profile
+with no returns that may bind or hold in the mould when drying, yet it is
+obvious that simple shapes that can be built or thrown by the beginner are
+not suitable for casting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6--MANDREL, ROLLED IN PAPER.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7--"ONE PIECE" MOULD FOR BOWL--METHOD OF RELEASING
+ORIGINAL.]
+
+The shape correctly drawn, a mandrel, a steel tapering to a point, the
+butt wormed to screw on a lathe, and long enough to give some play at
+either end, is rolled in stout paper, gummed at the edges, as in Fig. 6.
+This is removed and allowed to set, thus giving a paper shell just fitting
+the mandrel. Trim this square at the base and stick it upright by means
+of a piece of clay on a well-oiled portion of a table. Around this as a
+centre is fitted a roll of linoleum, oiled inside and secured with string,
+with all its joints caulked with clay. The inside diameter of this
+cylinder should be about 1/2" larger than the greatest diameter of the
+drawn shape. Enough superfine plaster to fill this is now mixed. To do
+this shake plaster by handfuls into a bowl of water until it appears to
+refuse more, pour off any surplus water, and stir with a wooden ladle or
+the hand, avoiding air bubbles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8--A TWO-PIECE MOULD.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9--POURING IN PLASTER.]
+
+A little practice in casting plaster bats will give the experience
+necessary for mixing plaster. When well mixed and a slight thickening is
+perceptible, it is poured very carefully into the cylinder, the paper
+shell being kept upright in the centre. (Fig. 9.) In about 20 minutes the
+surface of the plaster will feel warm. It is now set and the linoleum is
+removed. The plaster cylinder, when dry, is fitted on the mandrel, and
+this screwed to the lathe head. Two or three chisels are now required.
+(Fig. 10.) The rest on the lathe is clamped in a convenient position and a
+cutting chisel held as shown (Fig. 11), cutting edge up. The cylinder is
+revolved briskly as indicated by arrow, and the shape is roughly hollowed
+out. Proceed gradually until the shape begins to emerge, taking care not
+to cut too deeply. (Fig. 12.) Towards the finish use the calipers
+frequently to check the measurements. At top and bottom about 1/2" waste
+is left (Fig. 13 A), turned straight, the actual line of top and base
+being slightly grooved in the plaster. The form may be pretty accurately
+finished with the chisels and then nicely smoothed with sandpaper. For
+this process the rotary movement is reversed.
+
+[Illustration: TURNING TOOL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10--CHISEL POINTS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11--POSITION OF TOOL.]
+
+The shape is now removed from the lathe and is ready for moulding.
+
+With a kick wheel having a removable head the mandrel can be screwed on
+and the block turned down in an upright position. The difficulty of
+steadying the tool renders this method somewhat unsuitable for this
+process, where perfect symmetry and a high finish are required. The
+plaster should not be so dense for turning on the wheel or the kicking is
+apt to become very arduous and this tends to dislocate the set of the
+spindle. One of the best of ways is to draw a quantity of shapes, cast
+their blocks, and turn them on a hired lathe, preferably run by power.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12--PARTLY TURNED BLOCK ON LATHE.]
+
+The finished shape is now well lathered with parting or stopping. This is
+made by boiling 1 lb. soft soap, 1/4 lb. Russian tallow, and a small piece
+of soda. Another stopping is made by dissolving 1 lb. soft soap in 1 qt.
+water and stirring in 1/4 pt. paraffin oil. Several coatings may be
+necessary to impart a waxy surface. When no longer absorbent, it is dried
+and slightly polished with a bit of cotton waste. At the finish the form
+should be clean, smooth, glossy, and non-absorbent.
+
+With simple shapes, as in Figs. 7 and 8, a one-piece or a two-piece mould
+can be made, and here the bottom waste is not necessary, but with any
+return or foot a three-piece mould will be required. The waxed shape is
+now divided perpendicularly exactly in half, by a pencil line. (A, Fig.
+13.) It is then laid on its side and bedded in clay up to the pencil
+lines, the clay being sloped slightly down from the marks. (F, Fig. 13.)
+Box in now with well-soaped boards tight against top and bottom but
+allowing about 1-1/2" at sides. Wipe the shape over with waste dipped in
+olive oil but leave no surplus oil on the surface. Plaster well mixed as
+before is poured in until about 1-1/2" to 2" above the greatest projection
+of the shape, great care being taken to avoid or dislodge air bubbles. (B,
+Fig. 13.)
+
+When the plaster is set but still warm, the shape is removed and the side
+of the plaster that rested on the clay trimmed flat and several joggles or
+natches are made. (C, Fig. 13.) The shape is now replaced exactly as cast
+and the new surfaces treated with parting and the whole slightly filmed
+with oil as before. Great care must be used, for any oil on the actual
+surface of the mould spoils the suction of the plaster at that spot. Box
+in and then cast just as before. This gives two halves with waste top and
+bottom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13--A: METHOD OF DIVIDING. B: MOULDING 1^{ST} HALF.
+C: MOULDING 2^{ND} HALF. D: A METHOD OF SECURING BOARDS. E: MOULDING BASE.
+F: MOULDING 1^{ST} HALF.]
+
+The shape is now placed on the lathe and the bottom waste turned off, the
+base of the shape being slightly hollowed. The creator having arrived so
+far successfully may now unbend and scratch his mark on this new surface
+before well waxing it.
+
+Dowels are cut in the waste of the two halves as shown, the fresh parts
+soaped, all fitted together and slightly oiled, then boxed in as in D and
+E, Fig. 13. Plaster about 2" thick at the thinnest part is poured on and
+the mould is complete. When set, the shape is removed and the three parts
+trimmed on all the outside edges. (Fig. 14.) The three pieces are
+assembled, firmly tied up to prevent warping, and thoroughly dried.
+
+If preferred, the mould can be made cylindrical instead of square. This
+will give a more even suction to the slip and may be worth the extra
+trouble. For casting purposes a refractory clay containing a good
+percentage of China clay, maturing at about 03-01 but remaining perfectly
+white and porous, will be required.
+
+Slip for casting is made thus: Clay, picked or broken into small pieces,
+is thrown into a bucket of warm water well slubbed up by hand and passed
+through a fine sieve (No. 80) with the aid of a stout brush and thinned
+to the consistency of thick cream. This should be matured for some days,
+frequently stirred, and again sieved before using. For very small or
+fragile shapes, a finer sieve (120) is advisable. The mould, quite dry and
+clean, is now slightly moistened with a scrupulously clean sponge and
+water, the parts assembled, corded, and firmly wedged, leaving the top
+free as in Fig. 15. The slip, thoroughly stirred, is poured in very gently
+to avoid bubbles. With awkward moulds, a tube or funnel should be used to
+prevent splashing. If the mould be placed on a whirler and turned to and
+fro, it will prevent the heavier matter in the slip settling too quickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14--THE THREE PARTS OF THE MOULD.]
+
+As the slip sinks in the mould, the subsidence being due to the absorption
+of the water by the plaster, the mould should be continually filled up.
+After a few minutes the mouth is scraped free to test the deposit. When
+this is thick enough, varying, of course, with the size of the shape, the
+slip is poured out into another bucket. An unorthodox but often useful
+trick for strengthening long necks is to slide a piece of glass over the
+mouth and reverse the mould for a minute or so. The neck full of slip thus
+allows a slight extra deposit on the part that most needs it when we come
+to finishing off the lip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15--MOULD READY FOR SLIP.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16--FREEING TOP.]
+
+Let the mould drain a little over the slip bucket and then reverse to dry
+slowly. When the wet look has disappeared from the surface of the slip,
+scrape the top free and run a knife around to prevent sticking as the
+shape contracts. (Fig. 16.) In a few hours it will be dry enough to permit
+of the sides being eased off and the shape left to dry on the base. (Fig.
+17.) When tough enough to handle with safety, the waste and cast lines are
+trimmed and finished off, any air bubbles or holes broken down and filled
+with clay scraped from the waste or base. If this finishing is left until
+the shape be dry, it is impossible to hide such defects. The greatest care
+must be exercised in handling cast shapes, as they are exceptionally
+fragile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17--SHAPE READY FOR TRIMMING.]
+
+When quite dry, the whole form should be carefully gone over with a very
+fine sandpaper. A superfine surface should be imparted by rubbing with the
+hands. When using transparent glazes, as with under-glaze painting, it is
+essential that all scratches be removed, and especially must all sharp
+edges be eliminated on neck or shoulder, for the glaze running away from
+these places imparts a hideously cheap look to what otherwise may be a
+fine shape. All these points having received attention, the date is
+scratched on the bottom of the shape and it is now ready to biscuit.
+
+Generally speaking, it will be found that slip the consistency of cream is
+right for casting, possibly thicker for big open shapes, and after the
+right proportion is settled it is as well to test what it weighs to the
+pint.
+
+As will be readily seen, this process, whilst open to many objections,
+lends itself to shapes that are refined and delicate and to those that
+have flutings or raised ornament. Such decorations, or the spouts of jugs,
+may be modelled in wax on the plaster shape before casting and appear in
+reverse on the mould. Designs may be scratched on the mould or shape and
+show as a delicate tracery beneath the glaze. All these things, however,
+add to the difficulty of casting and should be approached by degrees and
+with restraint. For in unskilled hands the process lends itself to
+soulless and mechanical repetition.
+
+
+                                PRESSING
+
+Moulds having moderately wide mouths enable the potter to press his shapes
+instead of cast them. This method in expert hands is even quicker than
+casting and has the advantage of imparting a sturdier look to large
+shapes. Pressing is also resorted to for those shapes to which it would be
+difficult for the slip to obtain free access.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18--ROLLING OUT CLAY.]
+
+For the ordinary three-piece mould the procedure would be thus: The clay,
+well wedged and quite plastic, is rolled out as described in Jigger and
+Jolley work, to a suitable thickness. (Fig. 18.) Butter cloth or fine
+linen will do instead of leather to roll the clay on. The insides of the
+three parts of the mould are sponged and pieces of the thin rolled clay
+roughly cut to fit them. These pieces are now fitted and well applied to
+the three parts by dabbing with the damp sponge. A soft close-textured
+sponge, or a soft felt dabber, is best for this operation. When closely
+setting, the edges are trimmed and given a slight bevel. The top is cut
+straight. Then the mould is assembled and firmly tied. Some of the waste
+clay is rolled into thin _ropes_. With the bevelled edges slightly
+moistened, these ropes are firmly wedged into the two side junctions and
+round the base. Where the mouth is large enough for the insertion of the
+hand this is not a difficult operation. If it be narrow, the two halves of
+the mould may be tied up and the joints welded together before they are
+assembled on the base. A coil of clay can then be placed on the edge of
+the base just clear of the two sides which are now fitted over and tied
+up. Then a stick sponge is used to join up the base to the sides. (Fig.
+19.) After a little while the shape is fit to be removed and is finished
+in the usual way.
+
+Nothing can rival large thrown shapes for vigour or variety, but
+unfortunately they are not always within reach of even the good craftsman.
+Then this method offers the least objectionable substitute for them and in
+clever hands is capable of many fine results.
+
+The following method is used to mould handles or simple applied ornament.
+Handles, feet, masks, etc., are usually pressed and stuck on the dry shape
+with slip. To mould them some skill is necessary if the press is to be
+quite accurate and free from twist or ugly seams.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19--SECTION OF A MOULD. STICK-SPONGE WELDING BASE TO
+SIDES.]
+
+One way, when the handle or foot is symmetrical, is to cut the model
+exactly in half. This must be done when the model is tough enough to
+handle without bending or distorting it. One half is laid cut side down
+upon a sheet of glass, and surrounded at a convenient distance with clay
+walls. Plaster is now poured on to form one half of the mould, and
+allowed to set. It is then removed and the smooth surface joggled and
+claywashed (brushed over with claywater). The other half is then very
+carefully applied to the half still embedded in the mould, the walls built
+round and the other part of the mould cast. Then all is trimmed up and a
+groove run round the form as shown. (Fig. 20.) For pressing, the form is
+well filled with clay and the two halves of the mould strongly pressed
+together. Any surplus clay will squeeze into the groove and when tough
+enough to remove the whole is "fettled" and finished before drying and
+sticking up.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20--HALF OF MOULD FOR PRESSING HANDLE.]
+
+With care and practice this method is possible: Build walls and pour in
+enough plaster to form one half of the mould. Before it stiffens, very
+carefully press in the handle or ornament just up to the halfway line and
+allow to set. Joggle, claywash, and cast the second half. Finally, when
+the object is of any size, clay walls may be used as described in the
+chapter on Figurines.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                         JIGGER AND JOLLEY WORK
+
+      "Earth I am, et is most trwe, desdan me not, for so ar you."
+
+                                    --From an old platter.
+
+
+Dishes, platters, and to some extent bowls, are usually made on a _Jigger
+and Jolley_. The jigger has a revolving head, fitted to receive moulds.
+The jolley has a pivoted arm to which different profiles may be clamped.
+In factories these things are complicated and go by power, but in a studio
+where the output of platters and dishes is likely to be limited something
+simple will do. Where the wheel is strong, well-hung, and fitted with a
+removable head, a contrivance as shown at Fig. 21 can be fitted by any
+carpenter, that should serve all purposes.
+
+The vertical supports of the jolley arm should be quite rigid. The arm
+itself must so pivot that the face of any profile screwed onto it will
+cross the head of the jigger, or wheel if one be used, through the centre.
+In other words, the cutting profile must form a diagonal of the circular
+head. Then, too, it must be hung at a height sufficient to allow a fairly
+thick block of plaster being used for a mould.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--MAKING A DISH.]
+
+When making these moulds, the slotted wheel head or the jigger head is
+removed and soaped or oiled. Then a circular block of plaster is cast to
+fit. This may be done with the aid of a roll of linoleum, much in the way
+described in casting. The paper cone will, of course, be replaced by the
+wheel head, bedded face up in clay. This plaster block has to be moulded
+to the exact size of the dish or plaque required. To do this a profile of
+zinc is necessary. The true section of the dish is drawn full size, and
+profiles giving one half of the back and front are traced on a stout sheet
+of zinc. The zinc is roughly cut to shape with shears and then finished
+with a file to a chisel edge (see cut). The two profiles are then firmly
+backed with shaped wooden forms, slotted to screw onto the arm of the
+jolley. The profile giving the _face_ of the plaque is securely adjusted
+in a horizontal position, the inner point, giving the centre of the
+platter, being exactly over the centre of the jigger head. The plaster
+block, which should be turned down before it sets hard, is shipped back
+into position, the jigger revolved and the profile gradually pressed down
+until the true section is obtained, _i.e._ when the profile is exactly
+horizontal again. The mould is now removed, trimmed at the sides if
+necessary, and set apart to dry. It is then ready to use. The mould is
+slipped into position and revolved to insure even rotation. Then the
+profile giving the back of the platter screwed onto the arm and both
+adjusted until the stop allows the profile to rest at just that distance
+from the mould required by the thickness of the platter. (Fig. 22.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22--PROFILE IN POSITION ABOVE PLATE MOULD.]
+
+The arm is then swung clear of the mould, which is well sponged with water
+to receive the clay. This is carefully wedged and then rolled out or
+batted flat on a piece of leather until it is a little thicker than the
+thickest part of the platter (see Fig. 23). The slab so made is smoothed
+with a palette knife, taken up, leather and all, slapped onto the mould,
+clay side down, and the leather removed. The clay is now well dabbed down
+with a wet sponge or dabber, to take out all wrinkles, pressed firmly onto
+the mould and the waste cut off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23--CUTTING EDGE OF PROFILE.]
+
+Now the jigger or head is set spinning, the jolley pulled over it, and the
+profile gently pressed into the clay. Water is used freely to prevent the
+profile sticking, and as it becomes clogged the clay is removed. The
+turning is continued until the profile comes to a stop on the rest. Holes
+that may appear should be filled up before the finish, at which time the
+surface should present a smooth unscratched appearance. The shape is
+allowed to dry on the mould until tough enough to be slipped face down
+onto a perfectly flat slab dusted with fine sand or flint to prevent
+sticking. In this position it is left to dry, when the edges are nicely
+trimmed with fine sandpaper.
+
+For bowls the process is similar, but the mould here gives the outside and
+the profile the inside as in cut. (Fig. 24.) If made on the outside, they
+split before they can be removed. With small bowls the clay is wedged and
+a lump pressed into the mould by hand. With large bowls requiring a deep
+foot this must be turned separately and stuck on after the bowl is removed
+from the mould.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24--BOWL.]
+
+Where a jigger and jolley is not available, plates and bowls may be
+duplicated as follows: Place the plate bottom up on a well-soaped surface
+or a piece of glass. Should the plate not lie quite flat, caulk the
+apertures with clay, then all round and distant one and one half inches
+from the rim, build clay walls, or fix a containing band of linoleum, of
+sufficient height to allow plaster being poured in an inch and a half
+above the base or foot of the model. Mix fairly stiff plaster and pour in.
+Let it set, and then remove walls and the model. This gives a mould of the
+reverse of the plate or bowl. The mould is thoroughly dried before using
+and then sponged with clean water. Clay of the desired thickness is then
+rolled out as described and applied to the mould and dabbed flat with a
+sponge or dabber. The finish is imparted with the fingers and the surplus
+at edges trimmed with a knife. When tough, the press is slipped out and
+reversed to dry on a piece of sanded glass. Where there is a rim to the
+plate or bowl, this should be filled in cleanly with clay before the whole
+is pressed. It is of course impossible to mould thus bowls that possess a
+deep or under-cut foot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25--PLATE MOULDED TO GIVE BACK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26--MOULD. TO GIVE FACE OF PLATE.]
+
+[Illustration: THE KICK WHEEL.]
+
+[Illustration: Egypt. B.C. 2000 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN POTTER.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+                             THROWN SHAPES
+
+           "The lyf so short, the craft so longe to learne."
+
+                                                --CHAUCER.
+
+
+The wheel is the true fountain head of all beautiful shapes, and the
+student who would become a potter cannot get "on the wheel" too soon.
+Throwing, sometimes _spinning_, is the term applied to the making of
+shapes on the wheel. Interesting and really fine pots may be built or
+cast, but the ultimate appeal rests with the thrown shape.
+
+Unfortunately, a complete mastery of throwing is not to be gained by a few
+spasmodic wrestles with the wheel. It comes only with long hours of
+concentrated effort. Having watched an accomplished thrower and seen the
+full round shapes rise so easily between his dexterous fingers, it is with
+a severe shock that one realizes at the first attempt the skill and
+practice that will be required before such a desirable proficiency is
+attained.
+
+The best kind of wheel is the kick wheel shown in the illustration. With
+this the feet, hands, and head work in harmony, accelerating or retarding
+the motions as required. It is a not distant relation of the earliest
+wheel, which was a heavy head on a short shaft, pivoted in a stone socket.
+Set spinning by hand, it was kept revolving some time by its own momentum.
+This form of wheel is used even to this day in the near and far East.
+
+Its first development was a secondary wheel and driving band turned by
+hand. This led to the wheel shown in the frontispiece and to the kick
+wheel and again on to the factory wheel. This in its turn is being
+superseded by the steam wheel, which gears onto a running band, the foot
+being used to start, stop, and regulate the speed. The two last named were
+introduced with the idea of accelerating the production rather than the
+improvement of the shapes. No doubt the now primitive kick wheel, much as
+used by the potters of the Renaissance, will be found good enough for us.
+
+The tools required for throwing, after the wheel itself is secured, are as
+follows: a thin copper wire twisted between two bits of wood, a pricker,
+a fine soft sponge, another bit of sponge tied to a stick, one or two
+modelling tools and a rib (see Fig. 27).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27--1, "Rib"; 2, Modelling Tools; 3, Pricker; 4,
+Sponge; 5, Wire; 6, 7, and 8, Shaving Tools; 9, Leather. THROWING &
+SHAVING TOOLS.]
+
+The clay is first knocked up into shape ready for the throwing. To do this
+it is _wedged_, a fair-sized piece being taken in both hands and thrown
+violently down on the bench, cut across, and smashed together again. This
+process is repeated until all air bubbles are expelled. This is
+ascertained by cutting with a wire. The finger is then passed across the
+surface to tell if it is well together, and not hard and soft in streaks.
+If, as must happen in a small pottery, the clay is out of condition, it is
+best remedied by cutting it with the wire into thin slabs, piling them
+criss-cross and then wedging the mass. If still streaky, it can be quickly
+tempered, piece by piece. A double handful is torn across, wedged together
+at a different angle between the hands, re-torn, and re-wedged, until hard
+and soft are welded indistinguishably together.
+
+This thorough wedging is essential, as with beginners a small lump or
+bubble will usually be sufficient to bring about the collapse of the
+shape.
+
+The clay being thoroughly wedged is rolled into balls of a convenient
+size. For first practice they should be on the small side and moderately
+tough, as this allows a little more play before the ball becomes too soft.
+The wheel is now started revolving from right to left (see cut). The head
+being clean, the ball is thrown smartly onto its centre. The hands are now
+wetted in a bowl of water, which is put, together with the tools, on the
+shelf to the right. Then gently but firmly, with hands placed as shown in
+Fig. 28, the ball is centred. At this stage, perhaps the most critical of
+all, the wheel should revolve quite briskly. The hands should be moistened
+if inclined to stick and the left hand held steady, the elbow pressed into
+the side, the forearm hard on the rest. The right hand has more freedom
+and coaxes the ball into a half sphere. This when dead centred is
+elongated, pressed down again, and re-formed into a truncated cone. The
+left hand still steadying, the thumb of the right is pressed firmly into
+the centre of the top, down and out, to hollow the ball (see page 18), but
+stopping short of the lathe head. At this stage the most convenient shape
+to form is a cylinder, its walls gradually diminishing upwards with a
+little fatness at the rim. To do this the wheel is slowed down a little
+and the fingers of the left hand inserted. The sides are felt and gently
+pulled up, between the left index finger and the two first fingers of the
+right hand, gradually higher and thinner, always endeavouring to keep the
+walls at an even but slightly tapering thickness. (Fig. 29.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28--CENTRING.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29--PULLING UP.]
+
+At first two fingers only will be inserted, but as the shapes grow in size
+the whole of the left hand will gain admittance. Then the perfect cylinder
+may be modified to almost any required form. With narrow-mouthed shapes
+the opening must be kept as small as possible, for the clay once pulled
+out it is difficult if not impossible to compress it again. The centring
+and hollowing once mastered, the chief difficulties to avoid are getting
+the bottom of the walls too thin before the top is pulled up, and making
+the top wavy and irregular. If the latter happens, it should be at once
+cut back with the pricker, which is also used to test the thickness of
+the sides and base.
+
+When the shape has been pulled up to the required form and is sufficiently
+thin, the top is smoothed and fattened between the fingers. This not only
+imparts a look of substance to the vase and takes away any _cast_ look,
+but gives strength where it is most needed. The inside, if wet, can be
+cleaned out with the stick sponge and the outside lightly smoothed with
+the other sponge. For the insides of bowls or wide-mouthed shapes, a rib
+of slate or zinc (see Fig. 30) will be useful for obliterating ridges. The
+last operation is to pass the wire, held firmly to the wheel head, beneath
+the pot and lift it off and place it on one of the pot boards or plaster
+discs. (Fig. 32.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30--"RIB" OF METAL FOR OUTSIDE. "RIB" OF SLATE OR
+BONE FOR INSIDE.]
+
+The first primitive forms are far better left frankly for what they are.
+Afterwards when bigger and more finished shapes are attempted, they can be
+thinned and refined with the aid of the rib and a modelling tool, a
+considerable finish being put on before they are removed from the wheel.
+With bowls or large shapes it will be found impossible to lift them off
+without destroying the shape in some degree. For these wood or plaster
+discs will be required. The plaster bats need soaking in water before use
+and the wood must be three-ply to prevent warping. These discs are centred
+on and firmly stuck to a layer of clay run out on the wheel head, and when
+the pot is finished they are removed with it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31--FINISHING WITH "RIB".]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32--PASSING WIRE UNDER TO REMOVE.]
+
+All this sounds very simple, but the beginner will do well first to
+practise and master centring the ball. Until this be done, the rest of
+the work is worthless. After this must be practised the pulling up, the
+pressing down, and the forming of truncated cones, then hollowing the ball
+and pulling up into a cylinder. A true cylinder accomplished, it is easy
+to branch out into simple wide-mouthed vase forms. As the skill increases,
+shapes with double curves and long or narrow necks may eventually be
+achieved. Throwing to a set copy induces a necessary concentration at this
+stage, but once a mastery is attained, shapes seem to suggest themselves.
+
+A small mirror placed so as to reflect the true form will be found of
+great service. When pairs or several duplicates are required, a drawing of
+the exact profile must be made and a "rib," of zinc or slate, filed to
+fit. Without such a guide the matching up is well-nigh impossible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33--STAGES FROM CENTRED BALL TO TURNED SHAPE.]
+
+When watching a clever thrower in a factory making some difficult and
+probably horrible vase, it is intensely interesting to see the fine forms
+evolved in the process. To the artist the impulse to stop him is almost
+irresistible. It was there that the old masters showed their wisdom and
+restraint. They stopped at the right moment and none of their shapes
+descend to the merely clever.
+
+There is a nobility about a large vase lacking in a small one. Once the
+appetite be whetted for big pots the desire for size seems insatiable. The
+only way out, except for the born thrower, is the two- or three-piece
+vase.
+
+The Chinese were masters of this as of every other process and we find
+that they frequently made vases of quite moderate size in two or three
+parts, sticking the pieces together with consummate skill. This process,
+however, should never be attempted until considerable proficiency has been
+gained in throwing to a drawing, for in any but expert hands it is doomed
+to failure. The shape must be carefully drawn out on paper and the
+sections marked off and then thrown exactly to size. Any deviation means
+endless trouble, with eventual disappointment.
+
+For this difficult work the student unable to devote a lifetime to
+throwing will find a removable wheel head a necessity. Then a slotted one
+can be screwed on which will allow a plaster disc to be shipped back into
+exactly the same position, thus saving the difficult task of re-centring.
+For prolonged operations these plaster discs require to be shellacked to
+prevent the work leaving.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34--ASSEMBLY OF THE PARTS.]
+
+To start with a shape as shown in the illustration might be attempted.
+(Fig. 34.) The drawing made full size is hung in full view. Then the gauge
+is set to the exact width of the joint. The bottom half is first made,
+being cut square and true with the pricker. The drawing is reversed and
+the upper half thrown, the neck being at the bottom with a fair amount of
+waste beneath. When each part is trimmed accurately to measure, they are
+put aside to toughen.
+
+The top portion will stiffen just as required, leaving the neck still
+moist. The bottom half will need watching to prevent the upper edge drying
+before the base gets firm enough to support the top when attached. A damp
+cloth lightly wrapped round it will help to insure the ideal condition for
+sticking up, which is a gradually diminishing state of toughness from the
+base up to lip, the junction of the parts being in exactly the same state.
+
+When fit to handle, the top half is cut through at the lip, allowing a
+trifle for finishing off. Next the bottom half, still firmly fixed to the
+bat, is slotted back into its original position on the wheel. The flat
+surfaces that have to be applied and stuck are now very carefully and
+slightly roughened, then painted with thick slip made from the same body.
+These two wet edges are now applied and gently and firmly pressed into
+position, the wheel being slowly revolved to see if the two halves run
+true. When well together and apparently sticking, a little wedge of soft
+clay can be carefully run in all around the joint. This operation should
+be very thorough, and the clay wedge must be carefully welded into the
+sides of the joint. This is finished off on the outside with the rib and
+the inside very lightly smoothed with the fingers. During this process the
+top should be covered with a soft wet cloth, then when the joint has been
+made good and will stand the slight strain, the lip is finished off in the
+ordinary way. With three-pieced shapes the lip can be finished before
+sticking up, as the last part is thrown in its right position. If at any
+time the shape shows a disposition to leave the plaster bat, it should be
+stuck down with wet clay. The toughened shape can now be turned down in
+its upright position, cut off the bat, and the base hollowed in a chuck
+(see next chapter).
+
+[Illustration: India. B.C. 2000]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                           TURNING OR SHAVING
+
+            "A sharp spear needs no polish."--Zulu proverb.
+
+
+The turning or shaving operation takes place when the green shape has
+dried to a _leathery_ condition. It consists in shaving the sides and
+hollowing the base until the thickness is uniform. The shape is thus made
+much lighter and rendered less liable to crack from unequal contraction.
+At the same time a fine finish is imparted to the surface.
+
+One of the handiest tools for shaving is shown in Fig. 27, no. 6, but a
+piece of hoop iron bent at right angles and shaped with a file will serve.
+Small hollows can be finished with a modelling tool. An old piece of
+leather will close up and finish the surface. In factories a horizontal
+lathe is usually employed, the shape being fitted over a _chum_ or
+_chuck_. Skilled men can turn shapes down until they are scarcely thicker
+than tin, but this, it is needless to add, is an abuse of method even with
+porcelain, and quite out of place with stoneware or earthenware. All that
+is necessary is to trim the thick sides, hollow the base, and smooth the
+surface. (Fig. 35.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35--SECTION SHEWING TURNED & THROWN WALL OF A
+SHAPE.]
+
+A simple way to arrive at this is to throw on the wheel a chuck of stiff
+clay to fit the shape, wide-mouthed ones being fitted over and ordinary
+shapes within the chuck. (Figs. 36 and 37.) A piece of soft linen is
+placed over this chuck to prevent sticking and the shape fitted and
+centred. When spinning quite truly from right to left and steadied with
+the left hand, the tool should be gently applied as shown in the
+illustration. Hollow the base and then shave the sides, turning all down
+very gradually and improve the outline as much as possible in the process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--SHAVING THE BASE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37--SHAVING THE SIDES.]
+
+Care must be taken with the base. If it is not quite true it should be
+sandpapered to stand flat. A little experience will soon show when it is
+in the best state for shaving. If the clay is too soft, the tool jumps,
+forming ridges, or possibly cuts deeply into the form. If it is too dry,
+the surface crumbles and the pot is liable to break. When turned in the
+right leathery condition, the shavings curl off like peel from an apple
+and all tool marks are easily removed. A beautiful finish may then be
+imparted with the leather.
+
+To end the process the shape is reversed in the chuck. Those most
+important parts, the shoulders and lip, are carefully rounded with a piece
+of felt and polished with the leather. Properly attended to, this will
+save much work and disappointment later on. Then with all holes filled up,
+all ridges, bumps, and sharp edges removed, the shape is signed and put to
+dry.
+
+For very delicate work in transparent glaze or under-glaze painting, the
+whole surface may be gone over with very fine sandpaper and polished with
+the hand. This may be done provided the body is a fine one, for with a
+coarse body this is apt to leave the surface looking gritty. Some little
+practice will be necessary in throwing stiff chucks and centring the shape
+securely, but this once mastered, the method here described will be found
+to be expeditious and satisfactory for turning shapes.
+
+A proper regard for process points to the desirability of leaving built
+shapes without a high finish.
+
+Yet they also, if built carefully and stoutly, may be turned down in the
+above manner. The building up and turning down is somewhat tedious, but it
+is sometimes the only way by which a craftsman can obtain large shapes. A
+rather more simple process is to centre the shape upon a whirler and turn
+down with a sharp wire tool, finishing off lightly with a sponge and soft
+leather.
+
+To accomplish this satisfactorily the shape must be fairly soft, as there
+can be no quick spinning motion to enable the tool to cut cleanly as in
+the chuck or the wheel. When the head of the whirler is of plaster, it
+should be well soaked in water and the centred shape stuck down with soft
+clay. The hand holding the cutting wire tool must be held steady at a
+fixed distance from the centred shape and the pot may be sprayed with
+water blown through a diffuser from time to time, to keep it moist. Some
+clays will not, however, stand much re-wetting.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38--POSITION OF TOOLS WHEN SHAVING.]
+
+It should not be necessary to caution the craftsman against angular
+profiles, splayed feet, or sharp mouldings. Such features are foreign to
+good pottery, however suited to metal or stone.
+
+With taste and judgement the irregular grooving caused by the tool can be
+made of high decorative value. In no case should the built shape try to
+masquerade as a thrown shape. When the whirler is used to shave down built
+shapes, they may be coiled very thick at the base, thus allowing more
+rapid work.
+
+The attention must then be concentrated on the profile of the inside. In
+this way many shapes that splay out or curve boldly from the foot may be
+built, which would otherwise present many difficulties in coiling.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+                              TILE-MAKING
+
+  "VI thousand and fourscore of pavynge tiles delivered at Hampton
+    Court, for to pave the Kinges new hall at XXVJs. VIIJd. the
+    thousand."
+
+                           --Sixteenth century memorandum.
+
+
+Tiles may be made of various kinds and sizes, but in every case they show
+an inclination to buckle in drying and firing. The larger the tile the
+stronger is this tendency to warp. The clay must not be so rich as that
+which is used for throwing and should be tempered to counteract the
+tendency to curl.
+
+A tile box as shown in Fig. 39, or a variant of it, will be required for
+pressing tiles by hand; for plain tiles 5/8" deep, for others 1-1/4" deep,
+the size being calculated to allow for shrinking. The sides hinge and the
+thumb screws keep it steady on the bench during work. For rough tiles, two
+strips nailed to the table will serve, the clay being rolled out between
+and cut in lengths as required.
+
+For plain tiles the wedged and tempered clay is batted out into a slab a
+full 3/4" thick. The mould is dusted with French chalk, flint, or very
+finely sifted clay dust, to prevent sticking, and into it is pressed a
+piece cut to fit easily in the tile box, from the slab. This is firmly
+pressed into the box, considerable pressure being used. The surplus is
+scraped off and the top trued with an iron straight-edge. The knife can be
+run round the sides, then with the frame reversed a smart tap on the back
+will release the tile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39--TILE FRAME--6-1/2" x 13".]
+
+Let the tiles toughen and then pile in stacks with flat pieces of clay or
+old tile between each corner and a true biscuit tile at bottom and the
+top. They can be piled one on the other with sand between or stacked like
+bricks with alternate holes for the air to circulate. This retards the
+drying, but in any case they must be dried slowly. With plain glazed tiles
+a little coarse dust sprinkled over the surface before the tile is removed
+from the box, and well pressed in, will give a slight interest to the
+surface and take away any mechanical look. If required for painting, the
+clay must be very finely sieved and the surface will need careful
+finishing by hand when dry. With coarse clay, a fine surface can be
+imparted with a flexible broad palette knife.
+
+For raised outline tiles a frame 1-1/4" deep is required. This allows a
+plaster bat 5/8" thick to be placed at the bottom. The best way, perhaps,
+is to oil the frame and cast the bat in it, removing it when set and
+sandpapering the upper surface flat and true. The design for the tile
+drawn the exact size on paper is now traced on this surface. It is far
+better to sketch it directly onto the slab, but this demands some
+proficiency if the surface is to be preserved. The design is then incised
+with a firm sharp point, clay squeezes being taken from time to time to
+show the progress of the work. The plaster should be wetted to insure easy
+working. At the finish the design should stand out in a fairly strong and
+deep line--square--not round or angular in section. (Fig. 40.) A
+chisel-pointed hard pencil will be found best for finishing. This gives a
+clear-cut line, not too round. The bat, sponged clean and porous, is then
+placed in the frame and the tile pressed as before.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40--A: POINT FOR FIRST OUTLINE. B: DO. FOR FINAL
+INCISED LINE. C: SECTION OF INCORRECT CLOISSONS. D: CORRECT.]
+
+Raised outline tiles can be even more satisfactorily made by means of
+outlining slip squeezed from a tube or tracer in the same manner that
+inscriptions are made on sugared cakes, but this requires much practice to
+obtain good results. When glazing, the coloured glazes are applied to the
+different compartments with a brush. As the glaze fuses to about one third
+of its bulk when dry, it should be applied very liberally.
+
+It will be found that large or elaborate designs are to be avoided, as in
+this process they tend to become mechanical and look thin. The old
+Spanish and Moorish tiles in this style with jewel-like bits of colour are
+excellent guides and might be studied with advantage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41--SLIP TRACER.]
+
+The process of making encaustic tiles is a little more complicated. Within
+the frame is placed a well-lathered or soaped plaster bat (or tile) high
+enough to allow only a thin layer of clay 1/8" thick being run out on top.
+On this when firm the design is traced or pounced. Then with a thin sharp
+blade it is cut down vertically to the plaster bat, and the clay removed
+until the whole design shows in white plaster beneath (see illustration
+42). The face of the clay left must be preserved carefully, as it forms
+the surface of the subsequent press.
+
+The bat with clay is now placed on the bottom of the frame to allow a cast
+5/8" thick to be made. The plaster and the sides of the frame are slightly
+oiled and the plaster mixed and poured in. A soft hair brush will be
+useful to dislodge the air bubbles that are certain to hide in some of the
+many odd corners. When nearly set, the surface of the plaster can be
+scraped flat, and when set taken out of the frame and detached. The clay
+is picked out and the whole surface of the design cleaned and trimmed so
+that it will not hold or bind in pressing. This in turn is placed in the
+frame and a careful press taken. The result is a sunk design into which a
+different coloured clay is pressed, the tile being first allowed to
+toughen. The surface is lightly scraped flat and the tile slowly dried.
+When hard, the face is scraped again with a steel straight-edge,
+sandpapered, and dusted, when the design appears in two colours. (Fig.
+43.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42--CLAY LAYER CUT OUT ON BAT & PLASTER DIE.]
+
+The most effective clays are fairly siliceous reds, buffs, browns, and
+greys. When tempered with flint or quartz sand to a uniform degree, they
+offer a splendid opportunity for counterchange pattern. If a soft clay
+that contracts considerably is inlaid in a refractory clay, cracks will
+appear round the edges of the inlay. Thus it is found best to have the
+body of the tile made of the clay that contracts most.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43--STRIKING OFF FACE OF TILE IN FRAME--SECTION ON
+A-B.]
+
+Where only a single tile is required a more direct method is possible. The
+tile is pressed and allowed to toughen slightly, the design being
+transferred as before. It is then cut round with a sharp knife and the
+waste removed with a wire tool. A certain facility of handling is
+required, for great care must be taken to preserve the edges and angles.
+This method is, however, productive of much fresh and vigorous work.
+
+Encaustic tiles must necessarily be simple and bold in character, for
+anything complicated invites confusion; the best possible guides are the
+encaustic tiles of mediaeval times, especially the simple and spirited
+English and German Gothic.
+
+The most satisfactory way to make modelled tiles or panels is to run out
+upon a stout board, cross battened to prevent warping, a flat slab of clay
+of the required thickness. Sketch in the design with a point and model
+straight away onto the clay. Care must be taken, if the panel is to be
+fired, to see that all the added work adheres firmly to the background.
+Where several presses are to be made, the edges of the modelled slab
+should be carefully trimmed with a bevel, the board oiled, and the mould
+made directly after the modelling is finished. The mould may be worked on
+in moderation. Lettering is much more easily incised in the mould than
+raised in the clay. For tiles needing much sharpness of detail almost the
+whole can be carved in the plaster. Unless done with great sympathy,
+however, this leads to a certain harshness and angularity that should be
+foreign to clay. Where a moulded frame for a panel is required, a
+_strickle_, or profile, is cut in zinc. For short use one made from a thin
+slab of plaster will serve. The strickle is keyed to a straight-edge and
+dragged over the clay until the correct moulding emerges. This is then cut
+into lengths and very carefully dried.
+
+The tendency of all transparent glassy glazes to pool in hollows and run
+off at high points must be borne in mind. With thick matt glazes any
+delicacy of detail is apt to be lost labour. These problems should be
+faced before the design is made, as in this process there is a certain
+quality of surface required by the glaze. On the other hand, in
+endeavouring to make a good surface for the glaze to enhance, it is easy
+to slip into the over-round and slimy treatment that characterizes so much
+modelled pottery.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+                           DRYING: FINISHING
+
+      "There nis no workeman whosoever he be
+      That can werke bothe welle and hastile."
+
+                                       --"Merchants Tale."
+
+
+Drying out is quite an important part of pot making. For this a drying
+cupboard is a necessity. It is easily erected, if the front and sides of
+wood be backed against a wall. Across the bottom, which should be open,
+run a row of gas jets protected above by perforated zinc or iron. At the
+top, which is boarded in, place a small sliding panel to insure a draught.
+With side brackets and removable shelves it should answer all purposes. A
+cupboard may be built over a radiator, but here the heat is not so easily
+regulated.
+
+A thermometer inside the cupboard will be an advantage, for a wet pot
+straight from the wheel will warp in a warmth that would be quite suited
+to tough shapes. The green or damp wares should be put on the top shelves
+and brought nearer the heat as they dry. Large shapes put into the
+cupboard to dry quickly are very liable to crack across the base. Any
+flush of heat upon them through any aperture in the shelves will cause
+them to dry streakily. Turning then becomes difficult or impossible.
+
+Bowls, if not too fragile, may with care be piled one within the other.
+This helps to retain their shape. Tiles are best stacked in piles dusted
+with flint or with a piece of clay at each corner between them. Tiles
+should never be placed in the cupboard until quite dry and straight. Flat
+platters or dishes require very careful drying to prevent buckling and
+should be reversed on a piece of sanded glass. When shapes are dried in
+the open air, they often get hard at the rim before the bottom stiffens.
+They need reversing to counteract this tendency.
+
+To retard drying, which may often be necessary, a damp-box is needed. A
+large box, zinc-lined and fitted with plaster slabs, is an excellent
+device. The plaster must be kept moist with water. A well-tarred box with
+a close-fitting lid is more easily constructed and will serve most
+purposes. All work to be _stuck up_ or modelled on should be kept in the
+damp-box until quite finished and then dried very gradually.
+
+In all kinds of sticking up the body and the addition should be of the
+same consistency. Re-wetting is dangerous but may be resorted to in
+moderation with stout thrown shapes. Ornament added when the shape is
+nearly dry is very likely to leave in the biscuiting, although apparently
+quite firm in the green state. Cast shapes dry very rapidly and should be
+finished before they become white dry. With practice handles, masks, and
+the like can be affixed in the dry state with slip, but it demands its
+careful and sparing use. Cracks or holes in dried shapes can with great
+care be filled, a stiff wedge of clay being firmly pressed in and welded
+to the slightly moistened sides of the crack. The plaster tools (Fig. 44)
+will be found very handy for working on the dry clay. With skill and
+patience much repairing may be done on unfired shapes, but it is a waste
+of time to attempt it unless the beauty of the piece warrants it. It is
+far better if the piece be faulty to throw it back into the bin at this
+stage. Once fired, it is likely to remain an irremediable eyesore.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44--PLASTER TOOLS.]
+
+One or two other points bearing on finish have been mentioned before in
+previous chapters, but these last touches are so important that they will
+bear some reiteration.
+
+The finality burned in by the biscuiting should induce a careful and
+sound completion of each object; yet paradoxical as it may seem, the less
+finishing, the better for the piece. It is no part of a craftsman's work
+to go finnicking with file and sandpaper; too frequently nothing remains
+of what might have been a vigorous shape but a meticulous finish. The best
+Japanese work was superb in this respect and despite the many quaint and
+surprising shapes into which they fashioned the clay, it very rarely seems
+to lose its plastic character, it never assumes forms more suited to
+metal, wood, or stone. Again the character that comes with correct
+treatment is never smothered. Often the ribs or ridges made by the fingers
+or the tool in forming the shape are frankly left to contribute their
+quota to the general effect. The lips are rounded with scrupulous care and
+angles removed without a suggestion of weakness.
+
+Where large utensils, ewers and the like, are in question, mediaeval
+pottery is rich in suggestion for handles, spouts, and such added forms.
+It is only when such additions are affixed that one realizes the nicety of
+adjustment required between the size, shape, and situation of the handle
+or spout and the vessel to which it is attached. It is here that an
+appreciation and an intelligent use of historic ornament is necessary.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+                             FIRING BISCUIT
+
+  "The Pope, the Cardinals, and the Princes of the World are
+    astonished that such excellent and noble works can be made out
+    of the earth."
+
+                            --EXIMENUS. Fifteenth century.
+
+
+When sufficient green shapes have been accumulated and are white dry, the
+next stage will be _biscuiting_. This process is the firing of the clay to
+a primrose or a white heat according to its fusibility. This permanently
+expels the water that is always present, even when dry, and converts the
+friable clay into a hard unalterable body. This may vary in colour from
+the white of kaolin to ivory, grey, buff, red, or brown, according to the
+composition of the clay; it may be vitreous or porous; soft like common
+flower pots or so hard that it will spark when struck with steel.
+
+The fire is the ultimate test of the pot and of the potter. It is
+indispensable to both. With but a small kiln the craftsman will begin to
+appreciate many things that can be learned only at the _fire hole_.
+Without a kiln he will not commence to be a potter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45--GAS KILN. SECTION SHOWING CLOSE PACKED BISCUIT.]
+
+The kinds of kilns usually found in schools are the gas and the oil kiln.
+The English gas kiln has an arrangement of nine or twelve burners beneath
+the muffle. (Fig. 45.) This is a fire-clay box, open at the front, set on
+fire bricks and cased round with fire tiles within an iron frame (see
+cut). There is an air space all round, except at the open end, leading to
+the flues on top which have dampers to regulate the draught. The open end
+may be closed by a hinged door or bricked up with fire tiles cut to fit.
+The defects of this kind of kiln are too sudden access of flame to the
+bottom of the muffle, causing it to split, and the impossibility of
+getting the front, where trials are usually placed, fired up equally with
+the back. An ideal muffle of this kind would be one with flues all round,
+gradual access of flame on all sides, spy holes each end, and the top to
+lift off, for placing. American kilns have flues in the door, and the
+chimney at the top is placed slightly forward, thus making it easy to fire
+the front up hard. They are usually fitted with two large burners, with
+air mixers, and a handy mica spy hole.
+
+The oil kiln differs considerably from the gas kiln. The oil is fed
+through tubes into fire boxes some distance below the bottom of the
+muffle. It burns on asbestos fibre in an iron pan to which the draught can
+be admitted. The flames strike the bottom of the muffle and pass up
+through fire-clay pipes, which project into the muffle, then pass off
+through a twin flue regulated by dampers. With this kiln a long flue is
+necessary and any excess of carbon is liable to choke the pipes, and
+further it cannot be "sweated" up at the finish so easily as a gas kiln
+having a large number of burners.
+
+It is a good plan when a coarse fire-clay muffle is used for glaze and
+biscuit to give the sides and top a sagger wash of lead and stone. This
+renders the muffle less liable to absorb glaze from the pots in glost
+firing. It also lessens the danger of small bits scaling off and sticking
+to the finished ware. The bottom should always be kept dusted with finely
+powdered flint. When cracks appear or joints open, they should be stopped
+with a pugging of fire clay and grog. A mixture of egg silica or water
+glass with fine grog and quartz sand will stop small cracks. _Siluma_, a
+fire-proof cement, with equal parts of sand, answers admirably for
+patching.
+
+In biscuit firing the green shapes may be packed close together, with the
+lighter shapes on top of the stronger, but all must be 1/2" to 3/4" away
+from the sides of the muffle. Triangular pieces of biscuit, called
+saddles, are used to raise the shapes off the bottom, but often a fired
+tile, sanded and placed on a spur or saddles, gives the best foundation.
+Where two layers are required, small props and fire bats, perforated to
+let the heat through, will be necessary. These form shelves as the
+exigencies of the packing dictate. (Fig. 47.)
+
+For light shapes, thimbles and fired tiles will serve the purpose. (Fig.
+48.) Where a shelf or prop rocks insecurely, a small wad of pugging (grog
+and clay) will give a steady bearing. Thrown bowls, if dried together and
+well fitting, may be fired together, and large thrown pots may be filled
+with little ones. Cast shapes can be placed on top of thrown ones, but no
+liberty is to be taken with them. Flint should be used liberally to
+prevent sticking, which may happen if the biscuit be over-fired. Tiles can
+be fired two together in tile boxes or stacked as dried. Flat ware fired
+in a small muffle requires very careful handling. Whenever possible, it
+should be placed in the centre, on a flat flint-covered fire tile or bat.
+
+One soon learns to pack a biscuit kiln, using saddles, spurs, stilts,
+thimbles, bits of tile or biscuit, and sand or flint as necessary. The
+thing that is a little difficult to realize at first is that built or
+thrown shapes, and still less tiles or modelled work, should not be
+hurried. Twelve hours is none too long to give to a 5/8" tile in the
+biscuit kiln. Although to all appearances thoroughly dry, the least hurry
+generates steam which will ruthlessly blow our best effects to bits. In
+packing, two cones or temperature indicators (Fig. 46) are placed
+somewhere near the middle in a position easily seen during the firing from
+the spy hole.
+
+These cones are made of different compositions which melt at varying
+temperatures. Thus if the firing point of a body is known, a cone of that
+degree is used and the firing continued until the cone bends. This it does
+soon after it assumes the colour of the surrounding muffle.
+
+To eliminate the uncertainty that is likely to be present at the first few
+firings it is as well to use two or even three cones, one just above and
+one below the correct temperature. Placed in order there is little chance
+then of over- or under-firing unless so much sulphur gets into the kiln
+that the cones harden and refuse to turn. Calorites are sometimes used but
+are not so reliable. The cones may be sloped to insure bending to right or
+left, as a cone bending towards the spy is deceptive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46--CONES.]
+
+A trial piece of biscuit being placed near the spy hole, the next thing is
+to close the muffle. In a kiln with hinged doors the spy hole is fixed and
+this fact has to be taken into account. But with a bricked-up door the spy
+and vent may be left where it is most convenient. These orifices have
+plugs that fit them loosely so that if necessary they can be pulled
+without disturbing the clamming. This clamming or stopping is a mixture of
+sand, sieved dust, ground pitchers, or other infusible siftings held
+together with a very little waste glaze and water. Where much is required,
+moist sand will suffice. This is plastered into the cracks that would
+otherwise let heat out of, or air into, the muffle, and so seals up the
+door. With hinged doors little stopping is required, except round the spy
+or vent. The crack above the door should not be clammed until the muffle
+begins to get warm. With this done and the two plugs out, all is now ready
+to light up.
+
+With an English kiln, a good middle course is as follows: For cone .01,
+taking 12-14 hours. See that all the burner taps are off with the main
+cock on one third to one half. Take the reading of the metre. Pull the air
+regulators right back and the dampers out nearly half. Then take out the
+plug of the lighting hole and insert a taper. Turn on tap number 1. When
+lit, withdraw the taper and turn on tap number 2. Turn down to about one
+half and continue until every burner is lit, making sure that each one is
+burning freely with a yellow flame. With a kiln having twelve burners turn
+out all but numbers 3, 6, and 9. With these on one third, very gently push
+forward the air regulators until a roaring noise tells that air is being
+admitted to the bunsen burners.
+
+The flame at this time should be blue, and the stopper should be replaced.
+If the flame appears at all fierce, turn the taps down a little. If
+turned down too much, the gas lights back and will have to be turned out
+and relighted. The same thing happens when too much air is admitted. The
+burners require watching until the right pressure is known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47--THE USE OF BATS & PROPS.]
+
+For biscuit of any thickness three hours on the three burners is not too
+much, the taps being gradually turned on to increase the length of the
+flame until at the end of the three hours the taps are at three fourths.
+At the end of the first half hour the bottom spy hole is plugged and when
+all steam has stopped issuing from the top vent, that is stopped also and
+the whole clammed, leaving just a small crack as vent. When three hours
+are up, the regulators are pulled back and all burners lit at half cock.
+Then all but 2, 5, 7, 9, and 11 are turned out. Starting at the half, they
+are gradually increased to three fourths in two hours. Then numbers 1,
+2-4, 5-7, 8-10, 11 are lighted in the same way. Colour will begin to show
+inside the muffle about the fifth or sixth hour, and the top dampers can
+come out a little, the front one more than the back, to draw the flame
+towards the door.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48--TILE THIMBLES.]
+
+When the eight burners have been on about one and one half hours the
+muffle will probably show a dull red inside and all danger of blowing will
+be passed. Two more burners at three fourths may now be put on and at the
+expiration of another one and one half hours the remaining two may be
+turned on. If the pressure weakens and the flame shortens, the main cock
+should be turned on. Just above the base of each chimney is a small hole
+and the flame should show through these towards the finish. If the flame
+flaps out of the chimney tops, it is so much waste and it should be
+checked at the taps. The dampers can come right out towards the end, being
+used to _sweat_ the flame to the front if the back appears to come up too
+fast.
+
+As white heat approaches, the cones should be observed occasionally. They
+turn the colour of their surroundings when about to topple over and as the
+first begins to curl the trial near the spy can be hooked out quickly and
+tested. When the right cone is well down, the main cock and then the
+burner taps are turned off. The air regulators are now pulled back and
+after a few minutes the dampers are closed. The metre is then checked and
+entered in the firing book.
+
+The kiln should be allowed to cool slowly for at least 12 hours, but the
+clamming at the top may come away and this will expedite the cooling
+without risk to the muffle. This time applies to a muffle of about 20" x
+15" x 30" dimensions. A smaller kiln will fire up and cool in a shorter
+time.
+
+Gas kilns as made in America vary in the arrangement of their burners, but
+the principle is the same. They are simple to manipulate and especially
+handy for firing "on" decoration, as they are fitted with shelves and
+uprights. The burners once alight, the flame is gradually increased, but
+where the pressure is uncertain, it is well to keep something in reserve.
+
+Firing with oil is somewhat different. The asbestos fibre in the pans is
+well saturated with kerosene, the tanks filled, and the taps turned off. A
+light is applied to the burners and when both are burning freely the taps
+are turned on to allow a thin stream of oil to flow into the pans. From
+the merest trickle at first, the flow should be gradually increased as the
+heat develops. This is observed through the mica spy hole in the door and
+the one above tells when the flame is reaching its maximum. Should it
+flare over irregularly before the finish it means that the combustion is
+not perfect and there is danger of clogging. The supply of oil should be
+reduced and the draught regulated until the flame in the combustion
+chamber burns clear.
+
+All soot or carbon forming in the fire box should be raked out and the oil
+supply checked, as it indicates a too liberal supply. As the oil in the
+tank subsides it should be refilled and the taps checked, as the increase
+in pressure is apt to vary the flow.
+
+The later patterns of oil kilns have several advantages over the kiln
+described. The muffle construction and the burner arrangements are
+ingenious and practical, and need little manipulation to insure even
+distribution of heat.
+
+The oil tanks and taps will need attention at each firing, otherwise
+sediment will collect and choke the even flow of paraffin oil or kerosene.
+With both gas or oil kilns the amount of fuel consumed should be recorded,
+together with the time, weather conditions, cones, and results of firing,
+in the "Kiln Log."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49--SKETCH SEC'^{TN} OF OIL KILN TO SHOW PACKING OF
+GLAZED POTS.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XI
+
+                              GLOST FIRING
+
+  "When Fortune bringeth thee affliction, console thyself by
+    remembering that one day thou must see prosperity, and another
+    day difficulty."
+
+                                          --From EL KORAN.
+
+
+The hard porous biscuit shape will now need a coat of glaze and a
+subsequent glost fire.
+
+Raw glazes for green shapes are now seldom used except for the coarser
+wares or peasant pottery. In commerce it is, however, largely used on
+tiles, mouldings, and big sanitary appliances. For common cheap crockery a
+soft lead glaze, often galena, is generally used. It is applied with a
+brush, or the pot still leathery and tough is dipped in the glaze. Raw
+glazes have a strong inclination to leave in the firing. They are very
+difficult to manipulate unless they are of the simplest formula and fired
+very slowly. The addition of a little clay in the form of slip to the
+glaze will often counteract the tendency to leave the pot.
+
+The ordinary glazes in dry powder form are mixed with water to the
+consistency of cream and passed with the aid of a stout brush through a
+phosphor bronze sieve into a large basin or tub. The sieves may range
+from eighty to two hundred mesh, according to the delicacy of the work.
+For ordinary work No. 100 suffices. The biscuit to receive the glaze
+should be quite clean and free from dust or dirt with the insides
+carefully dusted or blown out. Grease will stop absorption, but with
+opaque glazes discoloration is not of great importance. If the biscuit is
+hard and inclined to be non-porous, the glaze will need to be mixed fairly
+thick before it will cling; with soft and porous shapes a comparatively
+thin mixture will take readily.
+
+No immutable law can be laid down for the exact thickness of the coat of
+glaze. All glazes vary. One sixteenth inch may be enough for one and far
+too thin for another. From one twentieth inch for thin transparent glaze
+to one eighth inch for matts is a fair average. It is well to err on the
+thick side to avoid an impoverished look. Trials on odd pieces of biscuit
+fired in horizontal and vertical positions will best settle the point.
+
+In all cases the inside is first half filled with glaze which is rolled
+quickly round and out. The deposit is then tested with a knife. The glaze
+for the inside should be slightly thinner in composition than for the
+outside, as it is inclined to pool in the bottom if too thick. The outside
+and the neck are then scraped free of all splashes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50--POURING.]
+
+To glaze the outside of the pot the methods employed are painting,
+spraying, dipping, and pouring. In painting, two or three coats applied
+with a flat soft brush may be necessary. In spraying, the glaze is thinned
+considerably and blown through a vaporizer by means of a foot pump. (Fig.
+51.) The shape, its mouth closed with a small bowl or saucer, is placed on
+a whirler in a draught box and slowly revolved. The draught draws the
+waste spray away from the operator, who should wear a respirator. This
+method is excellent where any gradation is required. It is easily learned.
+Unfortunately, it requires expensive apparatus to render it safe with lead
+glazes. Unless it is done on a big scale and the waste glaze retained, it
+is also wasteful.
+
+In dipping, the pot is plunged right under in a tub of glaze which is kept
+well stirred to prevent the heavy constituents settling. (Figs. 52 and
+53.) This requires considerable dexterity. In a school, glaze is seldom
+mixed in sufficient quantities to permit of this being acquired.
+
+Perhaps the most satisfactory method is pouring. (Fig. 50.) The shape is
+reversed and stood upon a big stilt or two strips of wood over a bowl or
+tub. Then the glaze is poured from a jug round the edge of the base, until
+every part is covered. With a little practice a quite even coat can be
+thus applied. Owing to the inversion of the shape it is slightly thicker
+at the shoulder and neck, an excellent point in glazing. When dry, the
+base is scraped and wiped clean with a sponge and the lip touched up with
+a brush.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51--SPRAYING.]
+
+With matt glazes, as has been noted, a thick coat is necessary. If very
+porous, the shape may be soaked first in clean water to take some of the
+suction out of the biscuit. When glazed, it is essential that all dips and
+inequalities be removed. If thinly coated, the glaze will assume a glossy
+surface when fired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52--DIPPING.]
+
+Whatever process is used, the lip and base of a pot should receive careful
+attention, the rims especially should be thickly and evenly coated with
+glaze. The thickness can be tested with the point of a knife and any
+scratches or bare spots should be filled in and rubbed flat as they are
+apt to show at the finish if the glaze is at all refractory. Never starve
+the glaze, for a thin coat imparts a poor cheap look to any pot that is
+seldom remedied with entire success.
+
+When only one kind of glaze is used, the application is quickly learned.
+With hard and soft, lead and leadless glazes, both opaque and transparent,
+and possibly a combination of spraying, painting, and pouring, the
+difficulties are greatly increased. Practical experience will be the only
+safe guide. But speaking generally, a sprayed coat can be thicker than a
+poured coat. Hard glazes give less trouble than soft if too liberally
+applied. Tin glazes will stand a lot of over-firing even when thin and the
+reverse holds good of matt glazes. Raw borax glazes require much more
+careful firing than raw lead glazes but often give better colour results
+and are less liable to sulphuring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53--DIPPING.]
+
+When glazing with a transparent glaze over under-glaze painting a thin
+coat is advisable. If it be thick and run, the painting is spoiled; but
+if, after firing, it appears thin, another light spray may be tried. But
+whole chapters of writing will never settle these points. Repeated trials
+on odd pieces of biscuit will elucidate more than many books. In packing a
+glost or glaze kiln stilts and spurs instead of saddles must be used to
+prevent the pots from sticking to the floor or shelves. (Figs. 49 and 54.)
+For the same reason the pots must not touch each other. With glazes
+requiring a high temperature the space between pots of different colour
+should be considerable. An appreciable amount of glaze is liberated in the
+intense heat and a blue pot will often leave a distinct blue patch on any
+light pot placed too near. Soft glazes liable to run or drip should be
+placed on separate bats well flinted beneath. Any crack in the muffle
+should be well stopped and lime may be used to neutralize the effects of
+any sulphur that may enter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54--STILTS, BITS AND SPURS.]
+
+As the back is usually hotter than the front the hard glazes should be
+packed first, and by selecting suitable shapes a good _setter_ will pack a
+surprising amount into even a small kiln. The clamming should be done with
+care, as bits are liable to flake off and stick to the glaze. The top plug
+only need be left out and the lighting up proceeded with as before.
+
+The gradual increase of heat is very essential in firing glaze, for any
+sudden jump or reduction will play all manner of games in a glost oven.
+The slow start is not so important, there being no risk of _blowing_.
+Indeed the glaze is best in a sharp quick fire.
+
+Although cones should always be used and are excellent indicators,
+experience will soon show when a kiln is fired up. It may be advisable to
+go on a little after the cone is over until all looks fluxed so as to get
+rid of bubbles. These appear in some glazes until the last. They do not
+always go down on cooling, but those glazes that bubble through
+over-firing should be avoided. Possibly the trouble will arise from
+sulphur in the body which must be corrected. Trials are always useful but
+they must be small and easily hooked out, as constant poking about at the
+spy hole lowers the temperature of the muffle at the front, just where it
+is most difficult to get it up.
+
+When fired, a glost kiln should cool very slowly, for any sudden access of
+cold air is liable to stunt or crack the pots. When firing over glaze
+decoration where the glaze does not run, the packing is much simplified.
+With low-firing lustres the pots may even touch each other.
+
+All this has been set out at great length but we shall find over and above
+this that each kiln has its own little ways which must be studied and
+humoured before the best results can be obtained.
+
+The chief thing to avoid is a sudden flush or jump in the heat. The main
+thing to aim at is a slow start steadily increasing to a sharp finish. The
+state of the muffle, a dry or a damp day, will modify each firing a
+little, but the above generalization will have a fairly wide application
+to the working of a small kiln.
+
+Unpacking is a compound of despair and delight, and is best done slowly.
+As the colour dies the clamming, if any, may be knocked away, and later on
+the spy plugs removed. When comparatively cold, the door may be opened
+slightly, and left so for one or two hours. Then the front pots can be
+extracted but those at the back should be allowed another half hour. Be
+very careful of the razor edges of broken stilts or glaze dips. A steel
+chisel should be used for chopping rough edges or removing refractory
+stilts. If necessary the bases may be ground on an emery wheel until the
+pot stands true.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+
+                           GLAZES AND LUSTRES
+
+  "I began to think that if I should discover how to make enamels I
+    could make earthen vessels and other things very prettily,
+    because God had gifted me with some knowledge of drawing."
+
+                                                --PALISSY.
+
+
+It is in this department of potting, with its surprises, difficulties, and
+disappointments, its rare but exciting successes, that for most potters
+the greatest interest lies. To those of a scientific bent it is perhaps
+the summit of the craft, but the artist groping amidst formulas and
+methods may take heart. The finest work in pottery was not produced by
+scientists alone and does not depend altogether upon the quality of its
+paste, its unique colour, or strange lustre. The last word, the form,
+decoration, and craftsmanship, is with the artist.
+
+It is beyond the scope of a book of this description to enter into a
+necessarily long and complicated account of the different processes
+concerned in the composition of glazes. It will be sufficient to indicate
+their leading characteristics plainly enough to enable the student to
+start experimenting. None can afford to miss opportunities for
+experiment, just as surely as none can afford to be always experimenting.
+For a full description of materials and glazes and their manufacture such
+books as those of Drs. Shaw, Furnival, and Hainbach are recommended.
+
+Putting aside salt glaze we find a countless number of both lead and
+leadless glazes. They range from the thin silicious coating of the
+ancients up to the rich alkaline glazes of the Persians and Chinese; from
+the raw galena of peasant pottery to the rich Majolicas and fine hard
+glazes of modern commerce. Salt glaze is obtained by the vaporizing of
+salt inside the kiln at a great heat. The sodium oxide so formed combines
+with the silicates in the clay to form a very thin coat of refractory
+glass, intimately connected with the body. Porcelain glazes, though not
+differing so much in composition from the ordinary _fine_ earthenware
+glazes, are extremely hard, being compounded of kaolin, felspar, and
+quartz, with possibly limestone and ground sherds. It has in common with
+the salt glaze the close union with the body, so that when fractured the
+line of demarcation between glaze and body is indeterminable.
+
+With a few minor exceptions the following list comprises the ingredients
+of all colourless glazes:
+
+  Kaolin
+  Quartz
+  Cornish stone
+  Felspar
+  Fluorspar
+  Flint
+  Sand
+  Barytes
+  Bismuth
+  Gypsum
+  Limestone
+  Nitre
+  Borax
+  Bone-ash
+  White lead
+  Red lead
+  Zinc oxide
+  Tin oxide
+  Salt
+  Soda
+  Potash
+
+These materials must be free from all trace of iron. They are pulverized
+and some are calcined or oxidized. Then they are mixed in varying
+quantities to form the glaze mass. This mass is easily fusible when lead
+or borax is present in large proportions, more infusible or harder the
+more silica it contains, and very refractory if alumina is present in any
+quantity. The silica forming the glassy part of the glaze is stiffened by
+the presence of alumina, which stops any tendency to run.
+
+Lead is very largely used as a powerful flux at low temperatures but is
+unsuited to hard glazes. Borax and boracic acid are important constituents
+of leadless glazes. They are used to replace some of the silica, than
+which they are more fusible. Matt or non-reflective glazes are opaque and
+less vitreous than the glassy glazes. They do not flux or run.
+
+All these minerals are finely ground before mixing. Then those insoluble
+are mixed and _fritted_; that is, fused in a crucible or fritting furnace
+to a greater or less degree, according to the hardness of the glaze. If
+fused into a glass, the melted mass is poured into water to facilitate the
+next process, which is its reduction to a fine powder by re-grinding. Then
+the completing ingredients are added and the mass coloured by the addition
+of metallic oxides. Of these the chief are:
+
+  Iron
+  Copper
+  Nickel
+  Antimony
+  Cobalt
+  Chrome
+  Manganese
+  Titanium
+
+and the more precious metals, in various forms, as oxides, carbonates,
+sulphates, and nitrates soluble in the glaze at great heat.
+
+These metals impart the many varied colours found in pottery. Zinc oxide
+is used to brighten a glaze or to stabilize colour. Tin oxide, which is
+insoluble at great heat but remains in suspension, gives opacity.
+
+This is no more than a skeleton outline of the intricate processes often
+used in the fabrication of a glaze. The manifold minerals, metals, oxides,
+acids, and alkalies are used in a variety of ways by the modern chemical
+potter.
+
+To all this seeming complication is added the question of pastes and
+bodies. There then arises the great problem of fitting one to the other.
+Salt glaze and porcelain excepted, the finished pot presents three
+stratas. Outside is the glaze, next the body, then inside the glaze again.
+If the coefficient of expansion of these three layers differs, in other
+words, if the glaze does not fit, the result is _crazing_, that bugbear of
+the potter.
+
+This crazing, which has been followed up and developed into their
+delightful _crackle_ by the Chinese, may show itself at once or only after
+a lapse of months. It appears as a minute network of fine cracks over the
+entire surface of the pot. It is often not unsightly, but sooner or later
+it must cause devitrification. The glaze after a time assumes an
+evanescent iridescence followed by a dull smoky appearance; finally,
+perhaps not for many years, it decomposes and peels off.
+
+With low-firing natural clays rich in silica and iron, the craze is not of
+much consequence. The body itself at a moderately high temperature becomes
+non-porous. With hard short bodies containing lime or chalk it may have
+quite disastrous consequences. Water placed inside will eventually
+percolate through leaving a network of grey lines all over the pot and
+completely spoiling its appearance.
+
+It will be readily granted that, whether porous or non-porous, a craze is
+most undesirable on any piece of pottery that may be used for food or
+drink.
+
+It is here that the commercial potter is such an admirable fellow. Many of
+the glazes on modern tablewares are perfect for their purposes. Sometimes
+only a little more fire is needed to stop the nuisance, but a bad craze
+usually needs more attention. The glaze requires stiffening, and the
+addition of ground flint or quartz, China stone or clay and felspar
+introduces alumina and silica and raises the fusing point. The
+substitution of borax for a portion of the silica can also be tried and
+will permit the use of slightly lower firing point.
+
+If the glazes are bought ready mixed, the body must be altered instead.
+Refractory China clays should be replaced by more fusible clays or some
+reduction made in the amount of infusible materials. The addition of
+ground sherds or flint will have a contrary effect should the glaze peel
+or crack at the edges, as it may do on a very silicious body. In working
+with natural clays on a moderate scale it will be found best to mix "fat"
+or rich natural clays with those of a more porous or hard nature. A few
+graded mixtures submitted to a thorough trial should soon show when a
+sympathy has been established between the body and glaze.
+
+The receipts given on pages 183 and 184 will make good colourless glazes
+without fritting if thoroughly ground in a mortar and passed through a
+sieve. Numbers 3 and 7, when calcined, will give much more even results
+and they can be coloured by the addition of the oxides named. But simple
+as it sounds, the washing, grinding, fritting, re-grinding, and sieving is
+a long and laborious process demanding machinery, and on that account is
+unsuited to schools or potters of moderate means. Glazes like Nos. 1 and
+2 will do quite well for elementary work but unless the appliances are to
+hand the manufactured article will have to be relied on for more finished
+and ambitious work.
+
+If, indeed, you are already in possession of a good receipt for a fine
+colour and glaze, one quite worth while, so much the better. Mix it and
+feel the joy of the Compleat Potter unafraid of spoiling his own good
+shapes with a faulty or unknown glaze.
+
+Admittedly, to get anywhere in an original direction systematic research
+is essential. One must keep on experimenting, keep on hoping, and keep on
+taking notes; but at the start let us not be too impatient or independent
+if we wish to produce good pots.
+
+There is often among young potters a false pride that prevents them using,
+and among old potters acknowledging the use of, the manufactured article.
+Why this should be is a little difficult to understand. A painter might
+far more reasonably be ashamed to use modern tube colours or a
+stained-glass craftsman as logically insist on making his own glass, as a
+potter in the twentieth century refuse to avail himself of the wonderful
+range of glazes that modern research has placed at his disposal. These
+resources should be used intelligently, not mechanically, or by the
+book--artistically, inventively, secretly, if you will, but they should be
+used--until the multitudinous experiments have borne fruit and repeated
+trials convince you that at last you possess some gem of research worth,
+as well it may be, the months of patient toil engendered in its
+production.
+
+The various receipts are given on pages 183 and 184 without analysis of
+the composition of the paste or body to which they were applied. The first
+group have been used on common earthenware clays with complete
+satisfaction. They are to be considered as points of departure for future
+experiments in which they may be modified at will, and not regarded as a
+contribution to the science of glaze making.
+
+In colouring it will be found that combinations of cobalt, iron, and
+copper oxides give an interesting range of simple blues or greens; iron
+and manganese browns; and so forth. The colour mass or stain is ground
+fine and lawned, and from about 2 to 7 per cent mixed with the colourless
+glaze mass, according to the depth of colour required. The ordinary
+under-glaze colours may be used to stain glazes, the percentage being
+fixed by small trials. For the rare colours--turquoise, crimson, or
+purple--a more complicated process is necessary and only perfected after
+many trials. The ingredients of these fine colours are naturally kept
+secret by their fortunate possessors.
+
+It must be noted that a glaze suited to one body may peel or run off an
+unsuitable one. Then a colourant is affected differently by a lead or an
+alkaline base in the glaze. Again, copper and iron oxides may help to flux
+a glaze, whilst cobalt or nickel will exert a contrary effect. Cobalt,
+being a strong colourant, will need a sparing use, whereas a similar
+percentage of iron will merely tinge the glaze mass. And so _ad
+infinitum_.
+
+It is self-evident that any attempt to emulate the vast range of the
+modern ceramic chemist is doomed to failure. To a craftsman the
+fabrication of one fine individual glaze or lustre is an achievement of
+which he may be proud, and for which he will find abundant and varied
+uses. In this connection it is encouraging to the craftsman to learn from
+so high an authority as W. Burton, Esq., F.C.S., that it is impossible to
+obtain with purified oxides the fine tones got by the Orientals with
+impure materials. Further, that the simple glaze of the Persians--a
+mixture of clean white sand with soda or wood ash or potash--is still the
+best for under-glaze painting. Although tastes differ so widely,
+invariably it will be found that more and more heat will be the cry.
+Imperceptibly this leads to the desire for hard, cold, "fat" translucent
+glazes, neither matt nor glossy. And on the summit, far out of reach,
+stand the wonders of the Old Chinese.
+
+
+                                LUSTRES
+
+There are several kinds of lustres, but the true lustres possess a pearly
+iridescence in addition to their colour. The copper and silver _lustres_
+of the eighteenth-century Staffordshire potters were thin metallic films
+over the whole surface of the glaze. Gold or silver solutions were used.
+Only where the gold was fired on a white clay is there any iridescence,
+and then hardly so pronounced as to deserve the name of lustre. The
+bismuth and other lustres made by the modern potter are combinations of
+metallic oxides and resinates dissolved in ethereal oils. These are
+painted on the glaze, transparent or opaque, but having almost invariably
+a lead base, and then fired at a dull-red heat. The medium disappears, and
+the metal in a finely divided state is deposited on the surface of the
+glaze. This, however, gives a painted look very different from the lovely
+irradiance of the Persian Hispano-Mooresque or Italian work.
+
+With these the lustres were fired in a reducing atmosphere, one
+supercharged with combustible gases, the metals decomposed and fixed to
+the semifluxed glaze. The manipulation was not infallible and was attended
+with much risk; but the successful pieces are unrivalled, and according to
+Piccolpasso "paid in gold." De Morgan, who more nearly approached the
+works of the Italian masters than any other modern potter, used a very
+similar medium and method with his fine lustres. In the last few years
+lustres have been brought to such perfection, in preparation, application,
+and firing, that accident is practically eliminated. Glorious colours and
+gorgeous effects are obtained. Yet it may be said without senseless
+adulation of the merely mediaeval that nothing has been produced superior,
+or even akin in spirit, to the work sent out from Persia, Spain, or the
+botega of the inimitable Maestro Georgio of Gubbio.
+
+Lustres may be bought ready to apply. They are then painted on the glazed
+pot, which is re-fired at a dull-red heat in the ordinary oxidizing
+atmosphere. Once the painted look has been contrasted with the lustrous
+appearance of the _reduced_ effects there is only one kind of lustre for
+the artist. Fortunately, perhaps, their preparation is not easy, and the
+correct method of reducing is a difficulty to be overcome by practical
+experiment alone. Hainbach gives many practical receipts for lustres that
+are not beyond the scope of a craftsman. The reducing atmosphere can be
+obtained in an open kiln by the introduction at the right moment of any
+combustible giving smoke free from all traces of sulphur.
+
+In firing with a muffle kiln the introduction of coal-gas free from
+sulphur is a matter attended with some risk at the necessarily low
+temperatures required by the lustres. It should be approached with
+caution, and each mixture will have a varied firing point, the correctness
+of which is established only by trials.
+
+Lustres applied with skill and restraint enhance the most beautiful glaze,
+but in unskilled hands they inevitably vulgarize and cheapen. The fresh,
+unsophisticated renderings of the Persians or the Moors and the virility
+of the Italians should be studied, but not merely imitated before working
+in this medium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55--PAINTING OUTFIT.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII
+
+                               DECORATION
+
+              "The world is still deceiv'd with ornament."
+
+                                   --_Merchant of Venice._
+
+
+Decoration has been touched upon briefly in one or two of the preceding
+chapters. To attempt a description of the various kinds of decoration
+which it is possible to place on a pot, another book would be needed.
+Their name is legion. They range from the simple and entirely satisfactory
+work of primitive and peasant peoples to the wonderful enamel decorations
+of the Chinese. With such an enormous field and varied choice it is
+difficult to particularize and foolish to dogmatize. The hints below are
+intended but to stimulate interest in the at present unexplored fields
+that lie beyond the beaten track.
+
+Any representative collection of ceramics will prove a veritable treasure
+house of suggestion to the student. All will be there. The difficulty is
+to choose, and choose aright. The bold brushwork of Cyprus foils the
+marvellous _familles_ vert and rose of the Chinese, the faultless Wedgwood
+sets off the virile Toft. One sees how the Italians, with almost crude
+colours,--blue, green, red, yellow,--developed their wonderfully robust
+school of figure painters; then their fanciful _arabesques_ are prolific
+of ideas. The Greek style--red and black and white--is a rich field
+waiting for the reaper. The peerless Persian pots, the plaques from Spain,
+the steins and stoves from Germany, the fresh Delft wares; these and many
+others crowd round for recognition and disconcert the choice.
+
+But having come so far, let us not choose the horrific style that models
+most faithfully a cabbage, tops it with a lifelike snail as handle, and
+cunningly converts the whole into a vegetable dish!... (in S. K. M.).
+Nothing should be more distressing to the artist than to see great skill
+and craft thus misapplied. Yet how often does the search after false
+originality lead only to meretricious cleverness or vulgarity, which
+creeps in unseen during the too close struggle with the craft.
+
+But our muttons need tending. Broadly speaking, all decoration falls under
+three heads: Glaze; Relief; Painting;--subdivided into many combinations
+of these three classes.
+
+The application of glaze has already been described. A pot possessing a
+noble form and glaze is obviously in no need of _decoration_; no artist
+would attempt it. The Chinese and Japanese are safe guides here. Their
+rich glazes and fine forms are set off in the simplest and most effective
+manner. This is potting, pure and simple.
+
+Under relief, we group all modelling,--raised or sunk, embossments,
+flutings, mouldings, feet, handles, or applied figures. At one extreme
+come the earliest attempts at decoration in slip or clay, highly developed
+in the Gallo- and Egypto-Roman and Romano-British wares. The matured slip
+must be applied fairly thick to the still moist pot and then dried slowly.
+Any work applied to dry shapes is liable to crack in drying or leave in
+firing. Probably the most effective use of slip is seen in the old tygs
+and dishes of Toft and others of his time.
+
+The simple spotting and surfacing has been carried to perfection by the
+Martin Brothers, who have drawn largely upon the vegetable world for their
+inspiration. Roman Aretine ware shows finely executed reliefs of foliage
+and figures. The enrichment was probably worked on the original shape, a
+mould was then taken, and the vessel pressed. (See chapter on Casting.)
+
+Wedgwood carried this method still further (too far, maybe) and used
+different coloured bodies. The reliefs, so finely modelled by Flaxman,
+were fired, and from them moulds of a very refractory clay were made,
+called _pitcher moulds_. The reliefs were then pressed and affixed to the
+vase, and the whole touched up by a skilled craftsman. A naive and
+unpretentious form of this decoration is seen in the stoneware and
+salt-glazed pottery of the eighteenth-century English potters and the
+jolly _Bellarmines_ of earlier times. Small dies were used in the Orion
+ware, the pattern being stamped into the clay. German stoneware and the
+_Gres of Flanders_ show sunk and relief patterns. Between the two extremes
+lies a rare choice of style.
+
+This method of using patterns lends itself particularly to fine commercial
+work when used with the restraint seen in the best of the above-mentioned
+styles. To the craftsman it offers a welcome chance to enlarge his
+production, but he must be well equipped. It is easy to acquire the mere
+mechanism of commerce without its splendid technique. Finally, the further
+the relief is developed the less will be the appeal of form and the less
+the possibilities of glaze.
+
+The next division is painting.
+
+It is in this branch of ceramic decoration that the widest choice lies.
+The scale ascends from the simple earthy colourants applied to the
+unglazed pot in the manner of the American Indian up to the splendid
+enamels of China and the sumptuous but sterile wonders of--shall we
+say--Sevres or Worcester. Much of the modern eighteenth- and
+nineteenth-century work is such a technical _tour de force_ that one
+hesitates to criticise it. But careful scrutiny will often show that the
+artistic difficulties have been undermined rather than overcome. Thus the
+frank frontal attack of the Persians on their absorbent ground or of the
+potters of Delft on their unfired tin glaze is never attempted, and
+probably never can be attempted in the factory of to-day.
+
+The modern method of painting in fat oils on a prepared ground induces in
+any but the most accomplished a cramped and finnicky style. The best and
+really most beautiful results are seen in the delicate _vertu_ of the
+eighteenth century. Snuff boxes and ladies' knick-knacks exhibit the
+loveliest miniatures in an impressible medium. How far it is desirable to
+decorate pots with such pictures depends on the sophistry of the
+craftsman. (For, ever since painters were pampered by princes each
+erstwhile honest craftsman must needs try to turn painter!)
+
+The Chinese who laboured with infinite patience upon their pots still
+seemed to preserve a spirit lacking in the works of their western
+imitators, and their avoidance of realism saved them from the many
+pitfalls that yawned for the Occidental.
+
+The manner in which the Persians and Dutch preserved their freshness has
+been noticed already, but the encountering and surmounting of similar
+difficulties is at the bottom of most successes. A few of the methods of
+painting pots are here set forth, with some odd variants.
+
+The colourants described under Glazes are also used for painting. Very
+finely ground and prepared, they are mixed with a flux or other vehicle
+and applied in various ways under or over the glaze. Simple colours can be
+made from the metallic oxides. They should be finely ground in a mortar
+well mixed with a little of the glaze with which they are to be used. This
+will do for the simplest work. For more subtle colours rather involved
+processes are necessary. The range of manufactured colours, both over- and
+under-glaze, is wide enough to suit all tastes, and when working on a
+small scale are infinitely to be preferred on the score of economy and
+dependability.
+
+A method of painting entirely suited to beginners is as follows: A simple
+_palette_ is prepared with the colours ground upon a slab of glass. The
+medium employed is a solution of gum arabic and water, the colours being
+applied directly to the green shape with a brush. The difficulty of firing
+glaze on the raw clay deters any attempt at high finish, and the
+absorbent ground develops a desirable freedom and directness of touch.
+When painted, the pot is dipped or poured in a transparent glaze and
+fired. The gum prevents the colour shifting during the immersion, but does
+not prevent the glaze adhering. This method can be satisfactorily employed
+on biscuit. More finish can be obtained and a richer glaze used without
+risk. Much skill and practice will be required to produce good stuff, as
+each touch, although not apparent before, will stand out distinctly and
+often disagreeably after the fire. The gum must be used sparingly; any
+excess will cause peeling and prevent the adhesion of the glaze.
+
+For a still higher finish the biscuit is sized with a solution of gum
+tragacanth. This is smoothly applied until the pot is non-absorbent. The
+design, if elaborate, should be drawn upon the pot with a fine graphite
+pencil or, better still, India ink and brush. A common pencil is likely to
+show after firing, but the ink disappears entirely. The colours are then
+well ground and laid in with fat oil of turpentine or lavender oil.
+
+To prepare the first oil, half fill a cup with pure turps, stand it in a
+saucer, and spill a little over the sides of the cup. After standing a
+little the fat oil is deposited in the saucer and the clear turps left in
+the cup. Long, flexible brushes holding plenty of colour are used and the
+fat oil thinned if necessary with clear turps. The colour should flow
+easily from the brush, being neither _tacky_ nor too fluid, and constant
+retouching is to be avoided. Keep all free from dust. Heavy,
+greasy-looking masses should be scraped off and repainted, otherwise they
+will flake off.
+
+When the painting is finished, the colour is _hardened on_; that is, the
+gum and medium are fired off in the kiln, a dull-red heat being
+sufficient. This does anything but harden on, however, and the pot must be
+handled very carefully or the colour will rub off. The glaze should now be
+gently sprayed on, and then the final fire is given.
+
+Another way is to apply a very thin spray of glaze before hardening on,
+just sufficient to fix the colour. The pot may then be dipped or poured
+without risk. In each case the oily medium must be quite dry before the
+hardening on takes place. After the glost fire the decoration is fixed and
+unalterable. Where possible, a hard transparent glaze is best for fine
+work. A soft glaze will always run if slightly over-fired, and the result
+is the obliteration of all brushwork.
+
+Over-glaze decoration is applied in a very similar manner. Turpentine, fat
+oil, and lavender oil are used: the turps to run the colour, the fat oil
+to stiffen, and the oil of lavender to retard the drying. The colour must
+be applied evenly and thinly, thick patches being likely to peel or crack.
+On hard glazes this process lends itself to elaborate effects. The hard
+and fast colours, the blues and greens, may be fired first, the delicate
+pinks and greys last. The whole effect may then be enriched with
+low-firing lustres. These, when bought in bottles, are ready to use and
+are applied directly with a fine brush, then fired at a dull-red heat. The
+pot should then be quite finished; quite frequently it is.
+
+_Pate sur pate_ or painting in relief colours is another process that has
+many attractive features. The colours have a clay carrier and are applied
+with a gum medium. Painted boldly with a certain amount of relief, this
+gives a rich enamel effect very suitable to simple figure decoration.
+
+The full equipment of the painter will be as follows:
+
+  Colours, under- or over-glaze.
+  Brushes, tracers, and shaders.
+  A stick frame for holding the vase.
+  Turpentine and lavender oil.
+  A slab of ground glass.
+  A muller for grinding.
+  India ink and a colour slab.
+  A palette knife of horn for very delicate colours.
+  Some soft rags.
+
+Before risking decent shapes in the fire, trials,--on biscuit for
+under-glaze, on glaze for over-glaze,--should be made repeatedly.
+Graduated strips and stripes tartan fashion are the most useful and easily
+tabulated. To lay perfectly flat grounds some skill and practice are
+necessary. One method is to paint in the ornament or rather the space it
+will cover with thick molasses or black treacle. This is allowed to harden
+and the background colour applied with a soft dabber. It must be ground
+fine with fat oil and applied very evenly. Then the tile or vase is soaked
+in water, which causes the treacle to peel off. The oil is allowed to dry
+and the piece fired. This fixes the background, and the decoration itself
+is next applied.
+
+Pierced work if skilfully done is most attractive. The pattern may be
+incised on the "original," which is moulded, the design then showing in
+relief. This again shows as a slightly engraved pattern on each cast form
+or shape. Then with the aid of a fine-pointed knife or plaster tool the
+pattern is cut out and the edges are softened to take away any metallic
+look. The Chinese and Persians are said to have used rice seeds in some of
+their translucent effects. The seeds were embedded in the moist clay to
+form a delicate tracery. When fired, the grains disappeared, leaving holes
+which were completely filled with glaze.
+
+The decorative possibilities of simple incised lines and plain slip
+additions have been hinted at already. The slip may be coloured red or
+brown with iron and manganese oxides or applied white to a coloured body.
+Sharply incised lines may be filled in with colour stiffened by the
+addition of a little _hard_ clear glaze or China clay. Patterns may be dug
+out or stamped in and filled up with different coloured clays and the
+whole glazed with a coloured transparent glaze. Scraffito work is
+effective and not difficult. The green pot, tile, or dish is sprayed
+evenly with a different coloured slip, usually red on white. The piece
+should not be quite dry and the coefficient of expansion between the two
+clays as near alike as possible. The decoration is then sketched in and
+the background or the ornament itself gently scratched away to show the
+ground beneath. It is then fired, glazed, and fired again. All these
+processes have their uses and abuses, but they do not lend themselves
+readily to elaboration or realism.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56--STATUETTE FOR A THREE-PIECE MOULD.]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+
+                               FIGURINES
+
+  "But if you carve in the marble what will break with a touch, or
+    mould in the metal what a stain of rust or verdigris will spoil,
+    it is your fault not mine."
+
+                                                 --RUSKIN.
+
+
+The making of small figures is an important department of ceramics
+scarcely mentioned so far. It is one offering exceptional opportunities to
+the advanced craftsman. In this branch of potting, even more than any
+other, the possibilities and limitations of the clay and glaze need close
+study if best results are to be obtained. The archaic Sung and Tang
+figures and the well-known Tanagras are far better guides to the beginner
+than the wonderful Dresden porcelain or the _bisque_ groups of Sevres. The
+Chinese and Japanese in their glazed figures show remarkable appreciation
+and utilization of the plastic and liquid qualities of their medium.
+Splendid and sound work, too, has been turned out in recent years in
+Germany and Austria, whilst the Copenhagen porcelain is world famous.
+
+To start with, the simplest decorative figures might be attempted. Many of
+the little deities of ancient Egypt offer rich suggestions for two- or
+three-piece moulds. Japanese Netsuke and Scandinavian bone carvings are
+other stimulating, if more remote, fields. Next, a more ambitious but
+still uncomplicated figure could be moulded directly from the clay. As the
+difficulties of moulding increase, the original clay may be first fired or
+a good plaster cast made. In firing the figure a very slow fire must be
+used, and the modelling must be done carefully, as free from holes as may
+be, and without an armature. Air holes are apt to blow, and additions of
+soft clay to the model when hard are likely to crack off in firing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57--SIDE VIEW, FIGURINE.]
+
+With a plaster _original_ some retouching is possible before the final
+piece-mould is made. When modelling the head and face, the modifying
+effects of the glaze used must be realized, so that such detail as may be
+depicted shall have its full value in the finished figure. Too much
+realism in draperies with consequent under-cutting is to be avoided, and
+the inclination of all but the high-temperature glazes to leave prominent
+parts and pool in hollows must be heeded. Sharp edges are always bad, and
+projections that are liable to crack in the fire or break at a touch are a
+fruitful source of loss, and are, at the best, doubtful craft. It is quite
+possible to produce delightful figures glazed with low-firing glazes, and
+where a wide range of colour is desired, they are the only glazes
+available. But for delicate modelling, where colour is a secondary
+consideration and where refinements may be obscured by too much gloss, the
+grand feu porcelain or salt glaze are the best and only alternatives.
+
+But each man to his taste. We will start with a simple _two-piece_ mould
+for pressing. Small objects, not necessarily figures, may be modelled in
+the round, being designed therefore without under-cut to _pull_ in two
+halves. They should be highly finished and then biscuited. The fired
+original is then shellacked or oiled and carefully bedded in clay up to
+the halfway line. If the figure be first dusted with French chalk, it will
+leave the clay without trouble. Little walls being built, the first half
+is then cast. When set, the biscuit figure is removed, the sides of the
+mould trimmed, the joggles cut, and the figure fitted back. The sides are
+carefully clay washed or oiled and the second half of mould cast. When
+set, the two halves are gently pried apart and a groove hollowed out all
+round the inner edge of the mould. (Figs. 58 and 59.) This groove is for
+the reception of any surplus clay that would otherwise squeeze between the
+two parts of the mould and prevent their perfect adjustment. To make a
+_press_, each half of the mould is carefully filled with clay, well
+pressed in. Then they are applied and firmly squeezed together, until the
+two halves fit exactly. The press is then removed and trimmed up.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58--FIGURINE FOR TWO-PIECE MOULD WITH BACKPIECE IN
+POSITION.]
+
+The second essay might follow the lines of the statuette here illustrated
+for the three-piece mould. A decorative treatment, giving stiff lines and
+a simple silhouette, is chosen. The hands are concealed, and the face, the
+only flesh showing, clearly cut out by the costume. The section shows the
+comparative depth of the folds in the drapery. Three pieces only were used
+for the mould, indicated by the illustration. (Fig. 63.)
+
+In moulding from plaster or biscuit the model must be absolutely
+non-absorbent and should be carefully treated with shellac, beeswax
+dissolved in turpentine, or parting. Beeswax is best for fine work and
+should be applied very thinly and repeatedly. Clay originals need no
+preliminary treatment, if the clay is still plastic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59--SECTION OF TWO-PIECE MOULD FOR PRESSING. SHEWING
+GROOVE FOR RECEPTION OF SURPLUS CLAY.]
+
+The divisions of the mould being decided upon, plastic clay is rolled out
+thin, cut into strips, and built round the section, as shown in the
+illustrations. (Figs. 60 and 61.) The exposed figure within the clay walls
+is then very slightly filmed with olive oil. The plaster is then mixed and
+thrown on or poured. The walls should stand out at right angles to the
+circumference of the figure or so nearly as the exigencies of the figure
+permit. They should be buttressed where needing support, and be deep
+enough to give a good thickness to the mould. When the plaster sets, they
+may be removed, and when quite hard, the plaster itself detached. This
+comes away quite readily from the clay, but is apt to hold on plaster or
+biscuit. A little water dropped from a clean sponge onto the cleaving line
+will often release the two parts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60--CLAY WALLS FROM FRONT--Saint George Statuette.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61--CLAY WALLS BUTTRESSED AT BACK.]
+
+The model is cleaned up and the sides of the first section trimmed,
+slight joggles made where they will not bind, and the edges carefully
+shellacked or claywashed. (Fig. 62.) Model and section are then fitted
+together and the next section made in a similar manner, except that only
+one wall of clay will be built. The second section is treated in the same
+way, and for the last piece the clay wall is unnecessary, the plaster
+being poured directly in between the two other sections. Where the plaster
+has to be sprinkled on, or there is any danger from splashes, the exposed
+parts of the model should be protected with soft paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62--FIRST PIECE OF MOULD.]
+
+The last piece being set, the original is removed, the mould assembled,
+trimmed, or fettled, tied up, and set to dry. The casting, or pressing if
+it be large enough, is proceeded with as before described, the slip being
+poured in at the base. When removed from the mould, the open base of the
+cast may be closed with a thin slab of clay slip poured on to a plaster
+bat and allowed to set for that purpose. When tough, the figure should be
+touched up with skill and reticence. Finally, a little hole is made in
+the closed base and another as inconspicuously as may be in the back of
+the head, to prevent blowing in the fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63--SECTION OF A PIECE MOULD & RETAINING CASE WITH
+FLAT TOP TO FACILITATE PRESSING.]
+
+With more complex figures many more pieces will be needed for the mould.
+They are made in the same way, but are carefully trimmed and then encased
+in an outer frame or jacket of plaster. (Fig. 63.) Large figures should be
+pressed; the head first, the different sections of the mould being fitted
+into the containing case as the work progresses. More retouching is needed
+with pressed figures, but the time spent is well spent, for they possess a
+substance, and when retouched with art, a character, that is lacking in
+the more fragile cast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64--SECTION SHEWING DEPTH OF FOLDS IN DRAPERY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65--Early Greek Kiln.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XV
+
+                                 KILNS
+
+  "By many long, laborious, and chargeable experiments he hath found
+    out."
+
+                    --Extract from an old potter's patent.
+
+
+What must be the first representation of a kill, or kiln, is found at Beni
+Hassan. It appears to be square in form, and the potter is shown feeding
+the fire at the base. In the same illustration he is depicted unpacking or
+drawing the ware from the top. The cut from the Greek Hydra gives a very
+similar kiln, but a vessel in the museum of Berlin shows one with a
+beehive shape.
+
+The kilns left scattered about Europe by the Romans were usually of this
+domed kind, circular in plan, with one fire hole. The floor of the kiln
+was of pierced slabs, and the flames issuing thence enveloped the ware
+piled within and escaped through a vent in the top. The packing and firing
+is described in _Ceramic Art in Great Britain_, by L. Jewitt, F.S.A. It
+fully explains the trepidation of the old potters, who, before each
+firing, were wont to consult the moon and stars and evoke the aid of the
+gods. This is happily set forth in Cowper's translation of one of Homer's
+epigrams, wherein he expresses the pious hope that if the false potter
+"stoops to peep into his furnace, may the fire flash in his face and
+scorch it"; a risk often faced by potters, false or true!
+
+The smothering, or reducing, as then practised, was similar to the
+_lustring_ methods used in Italy in the sixteenth century, or in the
+manufacture of the _blue_ bricks to-day. The Japanese and Chinese built
+small kilns in tiers on the side of a hill. Starting with the lowest, the
+waste heat was utilized to warm up the kiln above, thus saving time and
+fuel. The Chinese used heavy saggars, and specimens of these with portions
+of melted pots still adhering to them attest the enormous heats to which
+they frequently attained.
+
+Modern kilns subdivide roughly into biscuit, glost, and enamel. The first
+is used for firing the green or clay shapes, the second for the hard fire
+of the glazed ware, and the last-named for fixing on the added decoration.
+Sometimes a kiln is used for the double function of biscuiting and
+glazing.
+
+Of modern kilns the one still most widely used approximates to the
+bottle-shaped, simple, up-draught kiln. It contains one or two chambers
+with hatch for entry, flue or chimney, and anything from three to nine
+fire holes. The section of such a kiln is here shown and represents a fair
+average up-draught kiln (Fig. 66), variants of which type are working in
+most pottery districts to-day. In these kilns the flames rush in at the
+fire holes, play on the built-up _bungs_ of saggars, and escape through
+the top vent. In a two chamber kiln, as sometimes used for porcelain, the
+glaze is put in the lower chamber to receive the hottest fire, the biscuit
+in the upper getting a gentle fire. Where the fire enters directly into
+the kiln in any large volume, _bags_ or small chimneys are built up inside
+the mouths to save the saggars from the worst of the fire. Of late the
+single-chamber, down-draught kiln has come into favour, as it is easily
+packed and economical of heat. Bags of firebrick protect the saggars from
+the roughest fire and direct the flames to the crown of the chamber, from
+which point they descend to pass out through flues in the floor of the
+kiln. (Fig. 67.) Biscuit ovens are often of this type, either domed or
+flat arched.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66--UP-DRAUGHT KILN.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67--DOWN-DRAUGHT KILN.]
+
+The most recent innovations are gas and oil kilns. They require
+comparatively little manual labour in the firing, are easily regulated,
+and the waste heat is frequently used for secondary purposes. Their
+freedom from smoke and their economy of labour and money must eventually
+render the other types obsolete.
+
+These large kilns are strongly banded with iron supports designed to
+prevent too much loosening of the walls when expanded by the great heat. A
+very important point is the draining of their site, as large kilns tend
+to attract moisture, and the presence of steam in a kiln is productive of
+much damage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68--ENAMEL OR MUFFLE KILN.]
+
+Enamel kilns are used for the final processes where the glazed pot is
+painted with over-glaze or enamel colours. They are of no great size and
+are made of fire-clay slabs or even iron plates when the enamel is soft.
+The flames play all round the muffle or fire-clay box during the firing,
+but no flame or fume is allowed access to the inside. (Fig. 68.)
+
+In packing a kiln with biscuit or glaze much care, thought, and expedition
+have to be exercised. An experienced setter is essential in a factory if
+the pots are to have every chance in the fire, for all kilns vary and have
+their hot and _cool_ corners. First, the floor is well bedded with quartz
+sand or flint that will not vitrify but will provide a good setting for
+the bottom saggars. These saggars are fire-clay _boxes_, round or oval,
+rarely square, and without lids, in which the pots are placed. Piled one
+above another they form the _bungs_, the bottom of one supplying the top
+of that beneath. These bungs are built at intervals that permit the flames
+to penetrate between them and give a good even fire all over the chamber.
+
+In actual practice some parts of a kiln are hotter than others, and it is
+here that a good setter shows his capabilities, setting the thin wares in
+the softest places and putting the heavier biscuit or hard glaze in the
+hottest corners. With biscuit the setting is not difficult except where
+delicate or friable ware may need very careful bedding and propping. With
+clean saggars the biscuit may touch the sides, and a competent man will
+pile an enormous amount of biscuit into a kiln without risk. In the glost
+kiln the ware requires gentle handling and must touch nothing but the spur
+or support. The saggars are usually given a saggar wash of lead and stone
+to prevent them absorbing glaze from the wares, for a glazed pot placed
+too near a raw saggar is very likely to come out with a thin or dry patch.
+
+When the pot is firmly placed on its stilt, a roll of _pugging_ is placed
+round the rim of the saggar; this provides a firm bed for the next above
+it and also stops the entry of dust and flame. This pugging is made from
+clay or marl mixed with ground sherds, sieved gravel, or some non-vitreous
+dust to prevent it sticking to the saggars. The plugging is made malleable
+with a little water and rolled out by hand or pressed through a die. It
+will readily be seen that a carelessly built bung of any height may slip
+in the stress of firing, and its fall would most likely involve others,
+whilst any slight movement may be sufficient to cause a vase to topple off
+its stilt. In a down-draught kiln the bungs over any vent must be raised
+on fire tiles to permit the escape of the flames. When all the bungs are
+filled up and piled in position, the trials and cones placed, the hatch is
+bricked up. Spy holes are left where necessary, and the whole well clammed
+to prevent the loss of heat during firing. When fired, the hatch may be
+very gradually loosened to accelerate the cooling.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69--DOWN-DRAUGHT KILN.]
+
+The fireman's job is one of the most arduous and important of all the
+prolonged processes of potting. Coming as it does at the end, it may make
+or mar kilns of great value, and it requires more than ordinary judgement
+and nerve. The chief troubles arise from bad or irregular draught or
+impure fuel. They express themselves in the form of clinkered holes,
+excessive smoke, and irregularly fired or sulphured ware. The term
+_sulphured_ is applied to pots that come out gloomy or dulled and is said
+to be equally due to a reducing fire or an oxidizing one. In the former an
+insufficiency of air causes excess of carbon in the kiln and the
+absorption of oxygen from the glaze. In the latter an excess of air
+(oxygen) allows sulphur vapour, if present, to attach itself to the glaze.
+
+The fire bars, fire holes, and flues must be kept clear and the fuel
+carefully selected if these things are to be avoided. The aim, as
+previously stated, is a gradually increasing fire, sharper towards the
+finish. For this purpose some potters finish off with wood which gives a
+long flame free from sulphur and clears the glaze. Even when sulphured, a
+clear flame at the finish will remove many ill effects. The baiting should
+be fairly heavy at the start, lighter and more frequent towards the
+finish, when smoke in any quantity should be avoided.
+
+For temperature gauges, the cones previously described are used and should
+be placed in an average place, screened as much as possible from draught
+or flame. Small sight pots and glaze rings placed near the spies can be
+hooked out and examined and are valuable aids, but their exposed position
+and the corrosive action of the flames must be taken into account.
+Pyrometers are also used, but with all these aids the experienced fireman
+pays due regard to sight and colour.
+
+For a craftsman, the kilns that have been described are unsuitable on
+account of their size, if they are not altogether beyond his means. But a
+kiln of some sort is indispensable to a potter. The craftsman is nothing
+if not inventive. Small trials can be fired in crucibles in an open fire
+or on a gas ring. I have heard of some preliminary success with a gas
+cooker, discounted later by a frontal attack from the cook. Considerable
+knowledge can be gained from small, easily constructed, experimental
+kilns.
+
+The small trial kiln shown (Fig. 70) was constructed with a stout old
+_crock_, over which was built a core of bricks plastered with marl. The
+fire was started at each corner at the bottom, and when well alight, fed
+from the top with coke. A small spy at one corner closed with a piece of
+biscuit gave some idea of the progress of the firing. This, of course, had
+to be practically rebuilt at each firing, but as a makeshift was quite
+satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70--CROCK WITH IMPROVISED SPY HOLE. CONE INSIDE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70A--CROCK BRICKED OVER & PLASTERED WITH MARL.]
+
+The gas and oil kilns described in Chapter IX are excellent as far as they
+go, and indeed the only practicable kind for indoor schools. But their
+restricted size soon becomes irksome to a craftsman, whilst the expense of
+firing makes only the finest work remunerative. For over-glaze work they
+are excellent, but for some reason glazes fired in them seem to lack some
+of the richness and maturity the same glazes exhibit when fired in the
+slower and more soaking fire of a brick kiln. The dug-out kiln here
+depicted (Fig. 71) would be quite suitable for summer schools or for a
+craftsman making soft peasant pottery. The section and sketch will
+indicate its construction. The materials are hard bricks and stout old
+boiler plates, or sheet iron. To pack or unpack, the middle section of the
+roof would have to be removed each time, and all glazed pots would need
+protection from scalings and gravel from above. The roof will sag at any
+big heat, and if of thin iron, will need propping. The firing would be
+done with soft coal or wood; a very slow start, with a brisk draught and a
+long flame at the finish.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71--"DUG-OUT" KILN OF COMMON RED BRICK.]
+
+Of course the front will be hotter than the back, but if saggars can be
+obtained, the glaze may be placed in them to the front with the biscuit
+protected behind. Clay shapes fired up at the front may bend towards the
+fire, and any broken crocks should be used to screen them.
+
+The making of rough saggars is not difficult if a supply of fire clay is
+to hand, or clay and grog will serve at a pinch. The clay is rolled out
+and the saggar stuck up, much as described on page 32. Every joint must
+be carefully welded and the whole thoroughly dried. Then they are fired up
+in the kiln, _very_ gently at first, and carried up to a temperature
+considerably above that which they will be subjected to when in use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71A--SECTION OF "DUG-OUT" KILN.]
+
+For small trial crucibles ordinary clay mixed with pitchers and powdered
+coke proves satisfactory; the coke when fired out renders the body porous
+and the heat penetrates more swiftly.
+
+To construct the muffle kiln shown at Fig. 72 the aid of a competent
+bricklayer would probably be required. In this kiln glaze and biscuit
+would fire up without saggars, but will take rather longer. The plan and
+elevation of this particular kiln are given with all reserve. The design
+would probably require considerable adjustment and modification before
+complete satisfaction was obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72--SECTIONS OF MUFFLE KILN TO SHEW SUPPORTS. FLUES.
+ETC.]
+
+A down-draught kiln, although more difficult to construct than an
+up-draught, is more economical in the end and does its work more evenly.
+For the benefit of those that may like to build a small and moderately
+cheap kiln drawings are here given. This kiln was built by me when I had
+very little practical experience of kilns other than gas, but it served
+its purpose well. It was not banded, but this is essential if the kiln is
+to stand hard and frequent fire. Firebricks were used for the fireholes,
+flues, floor, core, and dome; strong stock bricks for the rest. The glazed
+ware, which was fired harder than the biscuit, was saggared in bungs as
+usual up to about five feet; the biscuit piled on top and protected by old
+saggars and cracked pots from the roughest fire. There were no bags in
+this kiln, but the saggars used were very strong and had stood a much
+greater heat than that to which they were subjected in this kiln, so that
+they showed very little wear or tear after twenty firings. The stack of
+sixteen feet gave a good sharp draught, increased if necessary by the
+addition of an iron chimney and regulated by an iron damper. A wind screen
+or _hovel_ is advisable for rough nights, and some sort of roof is
+necessary to protect the crown from the weather. It is important to have
+the arch of the hatch very strongly built, as it has to stand a lot of
+strain, and an iron support too near the fire soon corrodes and needs
+replacing. Another essential is that the site be as dry as possible and
+the foundation made solid with concrete; otherwise even a small kiln is
+liable to settle and crack. With a little extra expense a kiln of this
+kind could be banded round the impost and fireholes, thus considerably
+prolonging its life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72A--PLAN SHEWING ARRANGEMENT OF FIRE TILES FORMING
+MUFFLE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72B--MUFFLE KILN BUILT OF FIRE TILES, FIRE BRICKS,
+AND COMMON REDS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73--POKER. SLICE. TONGS.]
+
+In firing this kiln about half a ton of coke and three quarters of a ton
+of good hard coal, giving a long flame, was used. Coke for the slow fire
+was first started on the bottom and maintained for sixteen or eighteen
+hours, lifted up on to the bars for another six or eight hours, when the
+saggars would begin to show signs of colour. The coal fire was then
+started about the 24th or 25th hour and continued another 18 hours, more
+or less, according to the varying conditions, making in all some 40 or 45
+hours. This gave a very evenly graduated heat from cone 1 at the base to
+cone .03 at the top. Bags were tried experimentally, but whilst giving a
+more uniform heat, took much longer to fire up. At the finish of the
+firing the fireholes were bricked up, the damper closed when the fires
+died down. In about 24 hours the vent and the hatch were eased a little
+at the top, and in 48 hours it was pulled down and the drawing commenced.
+Packed with the hard glazes at the bottom and the soft at the top this
+kiln answered excellently for the purposes for which it was required.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74--SAGGAR WITH A POT INSIDE.]
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER XVI
+
+                    THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF POTTERY
+
+  "The principal point in Education is that one's knowledge of the
+    World begins at the right End."
+
+                                           --SCHOPENHAUER.
+
+
+The study of the fictile art of the potter, even from the theoretical side
+alone, cannot fail to quicken and broaden education. The antiquity of the
+craft, stimulating research amongst the records of ancient civilizations,
+brings to light customs and habits bearing very closely upon the earliest
+struggles of man to emancipate himself from mere brute surroundings. The
+primitive decorations rudely scratched on clay vessels antedate and
+forecast the hieroglyphic and sign languages of all nations.
+
+It would be but hyperbole to claim that without clay the Mosaic tablets
+would have remained unwritten, but indubitably the clay cylinders of
+Assyria gave a strong impulse to the development of ciphering and writing
+and the spread of learning,--an impetus not to be derived from the
+obstinate granite medium so generally employed by the Egyptians.
+
+It is this amenable ductile quality, so easily receptive of the most
+emotional touch, that has made and still makes clay such an admirable
+medium of expression for the young,--whether young in the history of the
+world or young in actual years. And this malleability is accompanied by a
+tenacity that permits slow building up, remodelling, and high finish,
+suitable to work of the most painstaking character. To this is added the
+fixed, unalterable quality imparted by fire, so that pottery more than any
+other craft preserves an imperishable record of the ages.
+
+This positive chronicle is valuable alike to the savant or the student.
+Indeed the most trivial child's toys of the Hellenes, the quaint water
+pots of the Peruvian peasant, or the unassuming tea bowl of the esoteric
+followers of Riku may chance to convey to the sincere student a clearer
+idea of the habits and thoughts of their producers than many a pedantic
+treatise or translation.
+
+                                            "So lively shines
+      In them Divine resemblance and such grace
+      The hand that made them on their shape hath poured."
+
+                                                 --MILTON.
+
+Coming down to points in close contact with the curricula of schools, we
+all subscribe to the dictum of Ruskin that "Everyone, from the King's son
+downwards, should learn to do something finely and thoroughly with his
+hands." What then more suitable than sympathetic clay wherein to fashion
+the first fancies of the child mind. It is a medium at once attractive and
+easy to mould, giving a tangibility and reality to forms and things that
+can never be obtained by drawing or painting. Then the limitless uses to
+which clay is put, and, with the development of hygiene, increasingly will
+be put, have the closest bearing upon the everyday life of the child. They
+are intimately connected with other studies that cannot fail to be
+rendered more attractive by working in clay.
+
+But clay work is a branch now so universal that it seems unnecessary to
+dwell upon its advantages to the kindergartener.
+
+The valuable remedial effects of clay work upon the defective are perhaps
+less widely known. The manipulation induces a most beneficial
+concentration and provides a fine discipline without a trace of inimical
+restraint. Turning to higher grades, the use of clays should foster an
+interest in the formation, composition, and disintegration of rocks, and
+in the properties of the products so engendered; in short, a liking for
+geology.
+
+With the making of simple glazes and colours will awaken an intelligent
+curiosity concerning the nature of minerals and metals, their actions and
+reactions in the fire; a lively sympathy only awaiting a touch to turn it
+into a love for chemistry and physics. Then as power and ambition and
+craftsmanship develop, there must needs be a study of the history of
+ornament. This impinges too closely upon history and geography to fail to
+increase the student's attraction towards these more remote but allied
+fields.
+
+Finally, is it not in the realm of aesthetics that there looms the ultimate
+reward? The proper pursuit of pottery must eventually lead us "towards
+that idealization of daily life ... and the road that connects the love of
+the beautiful with the love of the good is short and smooth" (President
+Eliot). In the hurried curricula of to-day art plays a rather sorry part.
+Little time indeed is left for contemplation, for the realization of all
+that beauty and harmony in our surroundings may mean to us in our everyday
+work.
+
+The making of a bowl, with the concentration required to shape it in a
+manner at once beautiful and serviceable, must quicken the perception of
+beauty and sharpen the quality of judgement, not only for things fictile,
+but in far wider fields. Thus the things of everyday contact--the
+tableware, the chairs, the doors, the windows, pictures, ornaments,
+hangings, and fittings--will all come in for intelligent scrutiny and
+criticism. This in turn will be carried on and over into matters civic.
+This must result in a careful estimation, selection, and appreciation of
+our surroundings, bringing them into harmony with our cultivated thoughts
+and so enabling us to get through the day's work with the least amount of
+useless friction and with the greatest possible measure of enjoyment,
+well-being, and well-doing.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF A SMALL POTTERY.]
+
+
+
+
+                               APPENDIX I
+
+
+                             THE EQUIPMENT
+
+The divinity that presides over potting is an expensive as well as an
+exacting mistress. The equipment of even a small pottery is,
+unfortunately, a matter of considerable expense. Try it from whatever
+angle we may there is the cost of the kiln to be faced, besides a host of
+other small but cumulative expenses. The first essential is, of course, a
+roomy workshop with if possible a top as well as a side light. If the
+craftsman means business, he should remember that the initial cost of a
+kiln is often in inverse ratio to its upkeep. If he would aspire to big
+things, full-bellied pots, plaques, reliefs, and figures,--and every
+craftsman would,--a brick kiln will be wanted. One holding a dozen saggars
+could be built, but where some experience has been obtained with materials
+and processes, a larger one would be more economical. With oil or gas
+kilns of the ordinary school size the cost of firing and the extra time is
+proportionately too great to permit of any but comparatively high-priced
+pots being turned out. This may serve in some cases, but usually it is not
+practical potting where a livelihood has to be obtained. Where only the
+painting is to be fired on, an oil or gas kiln is exactly what is wanted.
+
+In this appendix is given a plan of a workshop that has all the equipment
+necessary for the whole-hearted pursuit of the craft. In such an one a
+good craftsman, capable of modelling and painting decently a figure or a
+panel, a good thrower, and a handy boy could work wonders. They would be
+capable of turning out a surprisingly wide range of "pots": jugs, mugs,
+pots, bottles, bowls, buttons, dishes, plaques, panels, vases, tiles, and
+statuettes,--useful and beautiful things. Anything in fact worth doing can
+be done except fine tableware or those articles that by their nature
+demand more mechanical accuracy than is possible, or even desirable, for a
+craftsman to exhibit. Where much plaster turning for moulds was attempted,
+a lathe would be required; ordinarily the hiring of one should be
+practicable and expedient. Where only built or cast shapes were attempted,
+the wheel and its long years of drill might be dispensed with, and it is
+possible, with strong individual work of high finish and fine quality and
+the consequently restricted output, that an oil or gas kiln would give
+economically practicable results. Between the kiln for firing decoration
+simply painted on the ready-made shape to the full equipment here
+described will be found several modifications, but to try the craft
+without a kiln of some sort is an imbecile proceeding.
+
+  Small brick kiln supplied with saggars.
+  Small muffle kiln--oil or gas--for over-glaze and lustres.
+  Small enameller's kiln for firing quick trials.
+  Kick wheel, and tools for throwing.
+  Clay bin, zinc-lined.
+  Damp-box.
+  Drying cupboard.
+  Plaster bin.
+  Pot boards and brackets.
+  Table, strong and heavy.
+  Clay: white, red, buff.
+  Plaster.
+  Glaze materials.
+  Oxides, lustres.
+  Under- and over-glaze colours.
+  Modelling tools, callipers.
+  Painter's outfit.
+  Brushes, straight-edges.
+  Shellac, beeswax, French chalk.
+  Gum arabic and tragacanth.
+  Glaze tubs, teak.
+  Sieves, glaze and slip, Nos. 80, 100, 120.
+  Buckets.
+  Bowls, enamelled and earthenware.
+  Small porcelain ball mill, hand or power.
+  Spray and pump (respirator).
+  Small outfit for carpentry.
+  Files, sheet iron, and zinc, wire and cutters, cords, sandpaper.
+  Benches and shelves ad lib., odd cupboards, chairs, etc.,
+  Shovels and slicer for firing, tongs for trials.
+  Two large tubs and rubber tubing.
+  Sand and flint.
+  Spurs, props, fire tiles.
+  Tile boxes.
+  Disc (emery) for grinding.
+  Small pestle and mortar.
+  Jugs and funnel.
+  Potter's knife, sponges.
+  Whirler.
+  Turning tools and lathe.
+  Temperature indicators.
+  Oil can, oil, waste.
+  Callipers and compass, rulers.
+
+Most of this equipment has been previously described and needs no further
+comment.
+
+The pot boards and brackets are simple but indispensable devices. The
+boards are about six feet long, iron shod or cross battened to prevent
+warping, and six or nine inches in width. The brackets of any serviceable
+kind are fixed to the wall at convenient distances. When throwing,
+turning, or glazing, the pots are stood on one of these boards to dry, and
+each board as filled is slipped onto the brackets. Thus the pots may be
+carried about to the kiln, drying cupboard, or glaze tubs without loss of
+time or frequent handling.
+
+The table must be stout enough to withstand the heavy work of wedging and
+should have a top of hard wood. Teak or hard-wood glaze tubs have the
+advantage of not breaking either themselves or pots accidentally knocked
+against them. Further, some glazes stick badly to porcelain or enamel
+tubs.
+
+
+                     EQUIPMENT FOR A SMALL POTTERY
+
+In the small pottery plotted here, the equipment and arrangement were as
+follows:
+
+  An anthracite stove with the pipe running into the large room
+    warmed the workshop in winter, but no wet or half-dry pots were
+    left where the frost could get at them.
+
+  The glaze materials, oxides, colours, painting paraphernalia,
+    finished pots, trials, and trial kiln were in the small room.
+    The wheel had a good top and side light.
+
+  The drying cupboard, plaster bin, and moulds were at the end
+    nearest the stove; the clay bin, damp-box, and sink farthest
+    away.
+
+  All the walls were copiously supplied with brackets and shelves
+    and handy benches.
+
+  Outside, in a well-built lean-to, was the muffle kiln for onglaze
+    and lustre decoration.
+
+  This was well bracketed and shelved for the biscuit, and here was
+    done the glazing, handy for packing in the brick kiln just
+    outside. This was protected from the weather and other lean-to's
+    held the saggars, coke, and coal.
+
+
+                         EQUIPMENT FOR SCHOOLS
+
+The teacher with ample funds and a free hand will find the previous
+chapter all-sufficient, but in many cases the purchase of a kiln will
+nearly exhaust the allowance and the rest of the equipment becomes
+sketchy.
+
+The indispensable appliances are as follows:
+
+  A kiln, with fire tiles or shelves, props, spurs, and stilts,
+    etc., for packing. A good clay bin and sieve for slip (No. 80)
+    with a tub and two pails.
+
+  Scales and weights, pestle and mortar and glaze lawn (No. 100),
+    shot for weights.
+
+  Plaster, for drying bats and working discs.
+
+  Large drip pan and three round pans.
+
+  Several jugs and bowls.
+
+  Spoons (wooden), knives, and big brushes.
+
+  Oil, gum, boards, strips, rolling pin.
+
+  Hammer, saw, iron straight-edge, sponges.
+
+  Glass slab and muller, palette knife and brushes for painting.
+
+  An atomizer or spray pump.
+
+  Glaze materials:
+
+  Kaolin, China stone, flint, silver sand, whiting, felspar, borax.
+    A supply of ground pitchers and grog, cones.
+
+  Metallic oxides:
+
+  Tin, white, oxide of, iron, copper, manganese, cobalt, etc.
+
+  Under-glaze colours to taste.
+
+  Glass jars with lids to contain materials. Gummed labels, India
+    ink.
+
+For a school in the country or where ground is available, a kiln like the
+one shown at p. 164 should be practicable. It costs very little to build
+or to fire. Next comes the question of the clay. This is one of the most
+abundant of nature's materials, and almost any river bank or creek will
+supply clay of some kind. Any sort of clay near to hand should be
+thoroughly tested before going to other or distant sources.
+
+The clay should be dried, then broken up with a hammer, and mixed with
+water, and the resultant "slurry" passed through a sieve (No. 80). The
+slip is allowed to settle and the water siphoned off. The thick slip is
+then dried on the plaster bats until stiff enough to work up between the
+hands. From this clay a tile, a plate, and a vase should be made and
+fired. If the pieces stand a fire of about 1100 deg. (cone .03) without
+buckling, splitting, or crumbling, the clay should do quite well for
+school work. Possibly when screened fine enough for working, the clay may
+be too rich or _long_ and will split at a moderate fire. Then the
+screenings might be pounded in the mortar, passed through the sieve, and
+added to the slip. Again, ground pitchers, fine grog, kaolin, or calcined
+flint could be tried as stiffening agents. In the unlikely event of the
+clay being too refractory or _short_, a portion of rich, fusible, or _fat_
+clay might be added, or the addition of powdered spar tested. (See chapter
+on Clays.) The colour of the body will hardly matter for schools; indeed
+a brown, red, or cane-coloured clay will give better results than a
+staring white paste, when working out simple school problems.
+
+Where necessary, tin glaze could be used for a white ground, or an engobe;
+that is, a dip of white clay slip over the coloured body. For glazing, a
+leadless glaze is strongly to be advised. Lead is often indispensable to
+the craftsman, and with care need not become a danger; but in schools a
+lead glaze is positively harmful.
+
+A glaze with a borax base, if ground dry and mixed with water and
+re-ground before sieving, will give little trouble if used immediately. It
+will answer for all grade work and may be used for spraying, dipping,
+pouring, or painting, with absolute safety.
+
+The ground pitchers and grog may be obtained by pounding up broken biscuit
+and pieces of fire tile, respectively. This, and the glaze grinding, is,
+of course, laborious work, and suggests correlation with the Physical
+Education Department. The drip pan and the round tins make excellent
+moulds for casting drying bats and working bats.
+
+For casting purposes plates and shallow bowls may be moulded in one piece
+as described, p. 26. If no lathe be handy, glazed vases may be used as
+substitutes, the "waste" being added in plasticine to the neck and base.
+
+For tile-making, strips nailed on a stout board will serve in place of
+tile boxes. The clay is rolled out on cheesecloth with a rolling pin.
+Various other expedients for drying cupboards, damp-box, etc., will
+suggest themselves as the course develops.
+
+The above equipment need not be very costly. With it the students should
+be capable of producing all kinds of tiles, built, pressed, and cast
+shapes, decorated in relief, with inlays or in colours or glaze.
+
+
+                     SIMPLE RAW GLAZES. COLOURLESS
+
+  ===================================================================
+  NO.   |MATERIALS      |PARTS| SIEVE NO.|CONE| METHOD OF USING
+  ------+---------------+-----+----------+----+----------------------
+  I     |Lead oxide, red| 50  |100. Mesh |.03 |Applied evenly
+  Glossy|China stone    | 30  |          |    |with a brush to
+        |Flint          | 10  |          |    |the _green_
+        |               |     |          |    |shapes. Fired very
+        |               |     |          |    |slowly. Earthenware
+        |               |     |          |    |body.
+        |               |     |          |    |
+  II    |Borax          | 70  | 80. Mesh | 2  |Green shapes
+  Glossy|China clay     | 10  |          |    |dipped thick
+        |Felspar        | 75  |          |    |and slowly fired.
+        |Flint          | 20  |          |    |Stoneware body.
+        |Whiting        | 25  |          |    |
+        |               |     |          |    |
+  III   |Borax          |360  |100. Mesh |.03 |Ground dry for
+  Glossy|Silver sand    |160  |          |    |1/2 hour Wet for
+        |China clay     |120  |          |    |1-1/2 Used when
+        |Whiting        | 20  |          |    |fresh on biscuit
+        |Flint          | 10  |          |    |(earthenware
+        |               |     |          |    |body) for under-glaze
+        |               |     |          |    |painting.
+        |               |     |          |    |
+  IV    |Lead carbonate |130  | 80. Mesh |.04 |Used with metallic
+  Glossy|Calcined kaolin|150  |          |    |oxides for
+        |Flint          | 50  |          |    |simple colours on
+        |Felspar        | 50  |          |    |earthenware
+        |Whiting        | 10  |          |    |body; both green
+        |Zinc oxide     | 10  |          |    |and biscuit.
+        |               |     |          |    |
+  V     |Lead carbonate |375  |120. Mesh |.04 |Used thick on
+  Matt  |Kaolin         |210  |          |    |hard white
+        |Felspar        |175  |          |    |earthenware (CC)
+        |Flint          |120  |          |    |body.
+        |Whiting        |105  |          |    |
+        |Zinc           | 25  |          |    |
+  VI    |Lead carbonate |120  |100. Mesh |.02 |Used thick on
+  Matt  |China clay     | 50  |          |    |stoneware body.
+        |Felspar        | 80  |          |    |Coloured with 3
+        |Flint          | 15  |          |    |to 7 per cent of
+        |Whiting        | 45  |          |    |glaze stains or
+        |               |     |          |    |U. G. colours.
+        |               |     |          |    |
+        |               |     |          |    |The proportion
+        |               |     |          |    |of lead and whiting
+        |               |     |          |    |may be varied
+        |               |     |          |    |as found
+        |               |     |          |    |expedient.
+        |               |     |          |    |
+  VII   |Borax          | 70  |          |    |
+  Enamel|Lead carbonate |300  |          |    |
+        |China clay     | 50  |80. Mesh  |.07-| Used with various
+        |Felspar        |120  |          |.05 | combinations
+        |Lynn sand      | 50  |          |    | oxide, and iron
+        |Tin            | 40  |          |    | oxide and copper
+        |               |     |          |    | carbonate, giving
+        |               |     |          |    | wide range of
+        |               |     |          |    | blues and greens.
+        |               |     |          |    | On stoneware
+        |               |     |          |    | body.
+
+All the above colourless glaze masses may be coloured with combinations of
+the various metallic oxides, or from 3 to 7 or even 10 per cent of glaze
+stains or under-glaze colours.
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX II
+
+
+                                GLOSSARY
+
+  =Alumina, or Oxide of Aluminium=, is one of the most abundant of
+    earths. Combined with silica it is the chief constituent of
+    kaolins and China clays. It imparts refractory qualities to
+    clays and is an indispensable ingredient of pure glazes. Pure
+    alumina or calcined Aluminium is a chemical product.
+
+  =Ammonia.=--A volatile gaseous matter, found in some clays.
+    Alkaline in action.
+
+  =Antimony.=--A silver-white metallic element, used with other
+    oxides as a colourant or to give opacity in glazes.
+
+  =Arsenic.=--A non-metallic volatile element, used in glaze making.
+
+  =Barytes.=--A heavy spar used with clays to introduce density and
+    vitrescence.
+
+  =Bauxite.=--A very aluminous earth, used in preparation of pure
+    alumina and to render clays refractory.
+
+  =Boracic Acid.=--The natural and, usually, impure product (boric
+    acid being free from chemicals).
+
+  =Borax.=--The combined chemical product of soda and boracic acid.
+    Used as a strong flux in glazes.
+
+  =Calcined Bones.=--The residuum of burned bones, used to stiffen
+    artificial porcelain.
+
+  =Calcined Kaolin.=--Kaolin after it has been subjected to heat to
+    drive off the water combined with it.
+
+  =Calcium Carbonate (Whiting).=--Found as a white rock, and ground
+    to pure powder. Used with clays for soft bodies. Gives
+    durability to glazes.
+
+  =Calcium Oxide (Lime).=--A widely distributed earthy matter.
+    Imparts fusibility to clays, in nearly all of which it is
+    present in varying proportions.
+
+  =Chrome, Oxide of.=--Used in making greens, browns, and blacks.
+    Stands a high fire.
+
+  CLAYS:
+
+  =Ball Clay.=--Blue and black. Very plastic clays. Used with
+    non-plastic materials, such as flint, stone, felspar, or
+    whiting, to form fine earthenwares.
+
+  =Cane and Red Clays.=--Clays coloured by the presence of ferric
+    oxide, and used extensively for bricks, terra-cotta tiles, and
+    common pottery.
+
+  =China Clay.=--A yellowish-white, non-vitreous clay, product of
+    the decomposition of granitic or felspathic rocks. Cornish China
+    clay is exceptionally white, pure, and plastic. It is widely
+    used with China, or Cornwall stone and calcined bones, to make
+    bone porcelain. Felspar is added to render it vitreous. Mixed
+    with ball clays, pipe clays, flint, and stone, it makes the
+    various classes of earthen and stone wares.
+
+  =Pipe Clay.=--A very white, smooth clay. Less plastic than ball
+    clays. Much used for making slips, engobes, and enamels.
+
+  =Saggar Clays or Fire Clays.=--Coarse refractory clays
+    strengthened by the addition of grog, used for saggars, fire
+    tiles, and bricks.
+
+  =Cobalt Oxide.=--The oxide of the steel-grey hard metal. Extremely
+    valuable in pottery, making all shades of blue for under-glaze
+    printing or staining. With iron or copper gives blue-greens.
+
+  =Copper, Oxides of, and Carbonate.=--Red, green, and black oxides
+    of copper have been of the utmost value to potters. They are
+    used to produce green, blue, turquoise, red, and crimson. Its
+    extraordinary changes in reducing or oxidizing fires are of the
+    greatest interest to the experimenter.
+
+  =Cornish or China Stone.=--A rock composed of felspar and quartz.
+    Its vitrification (about 1400 deg. C.) imparts hardness and density
+    to China clays. It is a valuable constituent of glazes. First
+    known as "moorstone" or "growan."
+
+  =Earthy Colourants.=--Rarely used in modern commercial pottery,
+    except for salt-glazed jars, crocks, and peasant pottery.
+
+  =Felspar.=--A fusible rock found almost pure or in combination
+    with potash and soda, the greater the percentage of alkalies the
+    more fusible being the spar. It is used to replace more
+    refractory materials in clay and to stiffen glazes.
+
+  =Flint.=--A pure silica with slight traces of calcium. Found in
+    pebble form on seashores. Calcined and ground to a white powder,
+    it is widely used to impart whiteness and strength to clays.
+    Invaluable for bedding and packing in kilns. Used with the
+    fluxes,--lead, borax, potash, and soda,--to make glazes and
+    glass.
+
+  =Fluorspar.=--A combination of fluorine and calcium, more fusible
+    than felspar, and of a white colour, felspar being pink.
+
+  =Galena.=--Lead sulphide, a highly poisonous material used on
+    "peasant" pottery, giving a soft, yellowish, transparent glaze.
+
+  =Gold.=--Used in solution for delicate purples and lustres.
+
+  =Gypsum.=--When calcined gypsum becomes plaster of Paris, these
+    two materials, together with the allied marble, limestone, and
+    alabaster, are widely used in pastes (such as Parian), slips,
+    engobes, and variously to impart fusibility or colour properties
+    to glazes.
+
+  =Iron, Oxides of.=--Have a wide range of colour, from yellow to
+    purple. They are used to stain glazes and colour bodies. They
+    impart fusibility to clays and are carefully excluded from fine
+    white bodies.
+
+  =Kaolin.=--A fine, white, very pure, and infusible China clay,
+    almost pure alumina and silica. Chiefly used in the manufacture
+    of porcelain and fine earthenware.
+
+  =Lead (Oxides and Carbonates of). White Lead, Red Lead,
+    Litharge.=--Are very widely used as a safe and cheap flux.
+    Poisonous. It cannot be used in those glazes that have to stand
+    a high fire.
+
+  =Lime.= (_See_ =Calcium=.)
+
+  =Lynn Sand.= (_See_ =Quartz Sand=.)
+
+  =Magnesia.=--A white metallic element present in small quantities
+    in most clays.
+
+  =Manganese.=--The black and brown oxides of this hard metal are
+    much used to stain slips and bodies, and to colour glazes brown
+    or purple.
+
+  =Marls.=--Amorphous deposits of lime, sand, and clay, very coarse
+    in texture. Used in making saggars, drain pipes, and similar
+    appliances.
+
+  =Nickel.=--A hard metallic element, the oxides of which are found
+    useful in preparing blacks, greys, and greens.
+
+  =Nitre or Potassium Nitrate, or Saltpetre.=--A vitreous and
+    aqueous compound, used in some glazes.
+
+  =Plaster of Paris.= (_See_ =Gypsum=.)
+
+  =Potash.=--Potassium carbonate or the leached ashes of plants.
+    Used from earliest times as a powerful alkaline flux.
+
+  =Potash, Bichromate of.=--Used for pinks and crystalline effects.
+    Poisonous.
+
+  =Quartz or Quartz Sand.=--Like Lynn or silver sand. This mineral
+    is pure silica and free from lime, although the sands may
+    contain some small percentage of iron. Used much like flint for
+    bedding or with alkaline fluxes for the finest glazes.
+
+  =Rutile. Oxide of Titanium.=--Used variously to impart a yellow
+    tinge to porcelain, and colour and irregularity to some glazes.
+
+  =Salt.=--Sodium chloride. Sometimes used in glazes, but best known
+    in connection with salt glazing. It vaporizes at about 1200 deg. C.,
+    forming a silicate or hard, thin skin of glaze over the clay.
+
+  =Silica.=--A hard, colourless crystalline element; found pure, as
+    in quartz, or in combination with alumina and alkalies, as in
+    all clays. Present in all glazes.
+
+  =Soda. Sodium Carbonate.=--Product of the decomposition of salts
+    with acids. It is a strong alkaline flux and much used in glaze
+    and glass-making.
+
+  =Silver Sand.= (_See_ =Quartz=.)
+
+  =Tin, Oxide of.=--Used from the earliest times to impart opacity
+    to glazes.
+
+  =Tincal.= (_See_ =Borax=.)
+
+  =Titanium.= (_See_ =Rutile=.)
+
+  =Whitening.= (_See_ =Lime=.)
+
+  =Zinc, Oxide of.=--A white metallic oxide; used to brighten and
+    stabilize glazes and colours.
+
+
+                             POTTER'S TERMS
+
+  =Bags.=--Chimneys or walls of fire bricks built to protect the
+    ware from flame.
+
+  =Baitings.=--The feed of fuel during firing.
+
+  =Bat.=--Any flat slab of plaster, biscuit, or fire clay.
+
+  =Biscuit.=--The fired but unglazed clay.
+
+  =Blowing.=--The shattering of the clay shape when biscuiting.
+    Usually due to hurried firing or the sudden access of heat, and
+    the consequent generation of steam.
+
+  =Blunger.=--A machine for mixing clay.
+
+  =Bungs.=--Piles of filled saggars.
+
+  =Chuck or Chum.=--The cone or cap used to support shapes during
+    turning on the lathe.
+
+  =Clamming.=--The wet marl, sand, or siftings applied to cracks in
+    the hatches or doors of kilns to retain the heat during firing.
+
+  =Craze.=--The minute cracks that appear in a badly fitting glaze.
+    When arrived at by design, as in some Chinese work, it is termed
+    a crackle, but there is then no fissure.
+
+  =Drawing.=--Unpacking the kiln after firing.
+
+  =Engobe.=--A dip or outer covering of slip; usually applied to
+    inferior bodies to improve their appearance.
+
+  =Fat.=--Clays that are sticky or greasy are sometimes termed fat
+    by potters.
+
+  =Fettle.=--To touch up, and remove traces of seams, cast lines,
+    etc.
+
+  =Fluxes.=--Those materials which by their addition to paste or
+    glaze render them fusible, although they may not always be
+    fusible themselves.
+
+  =Glost.=--The glazed ware, usually applied to the glaze in firing,
+    as glost-oven.
+
+  =Green.=--The clay shapes before biscuiting.
+
+  =Jigger.=--The wheel on which shapes are moulded with the aid of a
+    jolley or profile.
+
+  =Joggle.=--The natch or key in a mould to insure correct
+    adjustment and prevent slipping.
+
+  =Lawn.=--The fine mesh gauze through which glazes are strained.
+
+  =Long.=--A clay is termed long if very ductile and tenacious.
+
+  =Muffle.=--Usually the fire-clay box or interior of a small kiln,
+    but applied to any kiln to the inside of which the flames have
+    no access.
+
+  =Natch.= (_See_ =Joggle=.)
+
+  =Oxidizing.=--The ordinary method of firing gives an atmosphere in
+    which there is always sufficient oxygen to consume all the
+    carbon or combustible gases. If oxygen is present in excess, it
+    causes reactions known as oxidizing.
+
+  =Pitchers.=--Finely ground biscuit. Added to some clays to
+    increase refractories or porosity. Moulds made in such clays and
+    fired are termed pitcher moulds.
+
+  =Potsherds.=--Any broken biscuit or pot, sometimes used for
+    pitchers.
+
+  =Potting.=--A colloquialism used to designate the ceramic
+    industry.
+
+  =Pugging.=--The roll of infusible clay placed between each saggar
+    when building bungs.
+
+  =Reducing.=--The reaction that accompanies the introduction of
+    smoke or gas containing carbon in a very finely divided state
+    into a kiln during the process of firing glaze. Reduction is now
+    widely employed in obtaining fine lustre effects.
+
+  =Refractory.=--Hard, infusible.
+
+  =Rich.=--Used of clays that are long and fusible, such as red
+    clays.
+
+  =Riffle.=--A grooved and toothed plaster tool of steel.
+
+  =Saggars.=--Or seggers. The fire-clay receptacles in which the
+    glazed ware is set during the firing.
+
+  =Setters.=--Supports used when packing friable biscuit.
+
+  =Short.=--A word used to denote a clay that crumbles or is
+    difficult to pull up on the wheel.
+
+  =Sieve.=--Sometimes called a lawn, more correctly a screen for
+    clay or slip.
+
+  =Slip.=--The sieved clay or paste in creamy liquid condition as
+    used for slip decoration, engobes, or casting.
+
+  =Slub or Slurry.=--Clay mixed with water but not sieved, as with
+    slip.
+
+  =Spy.=--The small hole, kept plugged, through which tests and
+    cones are observed.
+
+  =Stunt.=--Or dunt. To crack or split on cooling.
+
+  =Turning.=--The shaving down of the clay shape on a lathe, to
+    impart lightness and finish.
+
+  =U. G.=--Under-glaze (applied to colours).
+
+  =Vent.=--A hole to aid the even distribution of fire in a kiln or
+    to accelerate the cooling off.
+
+  =Waster.=--Commercially, a spoiled pot; defective ones are termed
+    "seconds."
+
+  =Wedging.=--The beating or slamming operation usually employed to
+    expel air or correct inequalities just before clay is used by
+    the thrower.
+
+  =Whirler.=--A circular support pivoting on its centre, used in
+    casting or banding; similar to a banding wheel, but usually
+    heavier.
+
+
+                         MATERIALS, TERMS, ETC.
+
+  C = COMBINING WEIGHT
+  E = EQUIVALENT WEIGHT
+  ------------------------------------------------+------+--------------
+                                 SYMBOL           |C OR E| FUSING POINT
+  ------------------------------------------------+------+--------------
+  Alumina (calcined)            Al_{2}O_{3}       |C 102}|Very infusible
+  Alumina (hydrated)        Al_{2}O_{3}.3H_{2}O   |C 156}|
+  Aluminium                        Al             |E 27  |627 deg. C.
+  Ammonia                         NH_{3}          |      |Volatile
+  Antimony                         Sb             |E 120 |432 deg. C.
+  Antimony oxide                   SbO            |      |
+  Arsenic                          As             |E 75  |500 deg. C.
+  Barium (metallic                 Ba             |E 137 |Fuses above
+    element)                                      |      |  red heat
+  Barium carbonate               BaCO_{3}         |C 197 |
+  Barytes                        BaSO_{4}         |C 233 |Fuses about
+                                                  |      |  white heat
+  Bauxite                                         |      |
+  Bismuth                          Bi             |E 28  |
+  Borax (crystals)     Na_{2}B_{4}O_{7}.10H_{2}O  |C 382 |Very fusible
+  Boric acid (crystals)       B_2O_3.3H_2O        |C 124 |
+  Boric acid (dry)               B_2O_{3}         |C 70  |High fusing
+  Boron (metallic                  B              |E 11  |  point
+    element)                                      |      |
+  Calcined bones                                  |      |Infusible
+  Calcined kaolin}           Al_2O_3 . 2SiO_{2}   |C 222 |Very infusible
+  China clay (fine)}                              |      |  slightly
+                                                  |      |  vitreous
+                                                  |      |  at highest
+                                                  |      |  fire
+  Calcium oxide (lime)             CaO            |C 56  |Very refractory
+                                                  |      |  if alone
+                                                  |      |  but fusible
+                                                  |      |  with clays
+  Calcium carbonate              CaCO_{3}         |C 100 |
+  China stone}        8SiO_{2}.2Al_{2}O_{3}.K_{2}O| 1379 |1300 deg. C. about
+  Cornish stone}                                  |      |
+  Chrome oxide                 Cr_{2}O_{3}        |C 79  |
+  Chromium                         Ca             |E 51  |Above platinum
+  Cobalt                           Co             |E 59  |1500 deg. C.
+  Cobalt oxide                 Co_{2}O_{3}        |C 165 |
+  Cobalt oxide (black)         Co_{2}O_{4}        |C 240 |
+  Copper                           Cu             |E 63  |1054 deg.-1084 deg. C.
+  Copper oxide (black)             CuO            |C 79.5|
+  Earthy colourants                               |      |
+    Ochres                                        |      |
+    Siennas                                       |      |
+    Umbers                                        |      |
+  Felspar             6SiO_{2}.Al_{2}O_{3}.K_{2}O |C 556 |1200 deg.-1300 deg. C.
+                                                  |      |  about,
+                                                  |      |  according
+                                                  |      |  to purity
+  Flint (calcined)               SiO_{2}          |C 60  |1830 deg. C. about
+  Fluorspar                      CaF_{2}          |      |Much lower
+                                                  |      |  than felspar
+  Galena (lead sulphide)          PbS             |      |Very fusible
+  Gold                             Au             |E 147 |1054 deg.-1075 deg. C.
+  Gypsum  (plaster of                             |      |
+    Paris, if calcined)     CaSO_{4}.2H_{2}O      |C 172 |
+  Iron                             Fe             |E 56  |1530 deg.-1600 deg. C.
+                                                  |      |  about
+  Iron oxide                   Fe_{2}O_{3}        |C 160 |
+  Iridium                          Ir             |E 193 |1950 deg. C. about
+  Kaolin (see calcined                            |      |
+    kaolin)           Al_{2}O_{3}.2SiO_{2}.2H_{2}O|C 258 |Infusible
+  Lead (metal)                     Pb             |E 206 |326 deg. C.
+  Lead carbonate                 PbCO_{2}         |      |
+  Lead, red oxide of           Pb_{3}CO_{4}       |      |
+  Lime (see calcium oxide                         |      |
+    or carbonate)                  CaO            |      |
+  Lynn sand (see silver                           |      |
+    sand)                        SiO_{2}          |      |
+  Magnesia (calcined)              MgO            |C 40  |430 deg. C.
+  Magnesia (carbonate)          MgO.CO_{2}        |      |
+  Manganese, carbonate           MnCO_{3}         |C 115 |
+  Manganese (metal)                Mn             |E 55  |1670 deg. C. about
+  Manganese oxide (or                             |      |
+    black)                       MnO_{2}          |C 87  |
+  Nickel (metal)                   Ni             |E 58  |1427 deg.-1450 deg. C.
+  Nickel oxide                     NiO            |C 75  |
+  Nitre                          KNO_{3}          |      |
+  Pearl ash or potash              KOH            |      |
+  Plaster of Paris                                |      |
+    (calcined gypsum)      CaSO_{4}.1/2H_{2}O     |C 145 |
+  Platinum                         Pt             |E 197 |1710 deg.-1775 deg. C.
+  Potash, bichromate of      K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7}     |      |Fuses dull-red
+                                                  |      |  heat
+  Potassium carbonate          K_{2}CO_{3}        |C 138 |
+  Potassium oxide                K_{2}O           |C 94  |
+  Quartz}                        SiO_{2}          |C 60  |1830 deg. C. about
+  Quartz sand}                                    |      |
+  Rutile (see titanium)                           |      |
+  Salt                            NaCl            |      |776 deg. C.
+  Silica                         SiO_{2}          |C 60  |
+  Silver sand (or quartz                          |      |
+    sand)                        SiO_{2}          |      |
+  Silver (metal)                   Ag             |E 107 |945 deg.-962 deg. C.
+  Soda ash (calcined)          Na_{2}CO_{3}       |C 106 |
+  Soda crystals          Na_{2}CO_{3}.10 H_{2}O   |C 286 |
+  Sodium oxide                   Na_{2}O          |C 62  |
+  Tincal (see borax)                              |      |
+  Tin (metal)                      Sn             |E 119 |233 deg. C.
+  Tin oxide (white)              SnO_{2}          |C 150 |
+  Titanium oxide (rutile)        TiO_{2}          |      |Infusible
+  Uranium (metal)                  U              |E 239 |1800 deg. C. about
+  Uranium, oxide of            U_{3}O_{8}         |      |
+  Whitening (see lime                             |      |
+  carbonate)                                      |      |
+  Zinc (metal)                     Zn             |E 65  |443 deg. C.
+  Zinc oxide (white)               ZnO            |C 81  |
+  ------------------------------------------------+------+--------------
+
+
+            SEGER CONES. (STANDARD CONES. ABOUT 10 deg. HIGHER.)
+
+                 NUMBERS. TURNING POINTS. COLOUR, ETC.
+
+                                 APPROXIMATE
+                                  DEGREES OF
+  COLOUR IN KILN         CONE    HEAT AT WHICH   MATERIALS SUITABLE TO BE
+                        NUMBER    CONE TURNS   FIRED AT THESE TEMPERATURES
+                                   OR BENDS          (APPROXIMATE)
+
+                                 _Centigrade_
+
+                         .022        600 deg.
+  Commences to           .021        650 deg.     Soft  enamel or over-glaze
+  show colour            .020        670 deg.       colours.
+                         .019        690 deg.
+                         .018        710 deg.
+  Dull red               .017        730 deg.     Enamels on metals. Fluxes
+                         .016        750 deg.       and lustres.
+                         .015        790 deg.
+                         .014        815 deg.
+                         .013        835 deg.     Very soft glazes and hard
+  Red to cherry          .012        855 deg.       enamel colours. Some
+                         .011        880 deg.       lustres. Gilding.
+                         .010        900 deg.
+                          .09        920 deg.
+                          .08        940 deg.
+                          .07        960 deg.
+  Dull cherry to          .06        980 deg.     Majolica glazes or coloured
+  light cherry            .05       1000 deg.       glazes and stanniferous
+                          .04       1020 deg.       or tin glazes.
+                          .03       1040 deg.
+                          .02       1060 deg.     Earthenware glazes. Soft
+                          .01       1080 deg.       China glazes.
+                            1       1100 deg.
+  Dark orange to            2       1120 deg.     Soft to hard or fine
+  pale orange               3       1140 deg.       earthenware biscuit.
+                            4       1160 deg.
+                            5       1180 deg.     Sevres soft bisque.
+                            6       1200 deg.
+                            7       1230 deg.     Vitreous ware. Granite ware.
+  Yellowish white           8       1250 deg.     Salt glaze. Stoneware.
+                            9       1280 deg.     English bone porcelain or
+                           10       1300 deg.       China biscuit.
+  White                    11       1320 deg.
+                           12       1350 deg.
+  Intense white            13       1380 deg.     German & Chinese porcelain.
+                           14       1410 deg.     Sevres porcelain.
+                           15       1430 deg.
+  Bluish white            {16}      1460 deg.
+                          {17}      1480 deg.     Copenhagen porcelain.
+
+To convert temperatures:
+
+Centigrade into Fahrenheit.--Divide by 5, multiply by 9, and add 32.
+
+Fahrenheit into Centigrade.--Subtract 32, divide by 9, and multiply by 5.
+
+
+                        MEASURES, WEIGHTS, ETC.
+
+                              APOTHECARIES
+
+                1 grain   = .0648 gramme.
+  20 grains   = 1 scruple = 1.296 grammes.
+   3 scruples = 1 drachm  = 3.888 grammes.
+   8 drachms  = 1 ounce   = 31.103 grammes.
+
+                                  TROY
+
+                    1 grain       = .0648 gramme.
+        24 grains = 1 pennyweight = 1.555 grammes.
+  20 pennyweights = 1 troy ounce  = 31.1035 grammes.
+
+                              AVOIRDUPOIS
+
+          16 drams = 1 ounce.
+         16 ounces = 1 pound.
+         14 pounds = 1 stone.
+         28 pounds = 1 quarter.
+        112 pounds = 1 hundredweight (cwt.).
+  20 hundredweight = 1 ton (2240 lbs.).
+
+
+                             CAPACITY (WET)
+
+              1 gill   = 1.42  decilitres.
+    4 gills = 1 pint   = .568  litre.
+    2 pints = 1 quart  = 1.136 litres.
+   4 quarts = 1 gallon = 4.545 litres.
+  2 gallons = 1 peck   = 9.09  litres.
+    4 pecks = 1 bushel.
+  8 bushels = 1 quarter.
+
+
+                           BOOKS OF REFERENCE
+
+  TECHNICAL
+    Chemistry of Pottery. Langenbeck, Karl.
+    Chemistry of Pottery. Shaw, Dr. S.
+    Clays. Occurrences, Properties, and Uses. Ries.
+    Colouring and Decorating of Ceramic Ware. Brongniart, A.
+    Ceramic Technology. Binns, C. F.
+    Notes on the Manufacture of Earthen Ware. Sandeman, E. A.
+    Notes on Pottery Clays. Fairie, Jas.
+    Pottery Decoration. Hainbach, R.
+
+  TECHNICAL AND HISTORICAL
+    Leadless Decorative Tiles. Furnival, W. J.
+    Faience and Mosaic, and other volumes. Furnival, W. J.
+
+  MANUAL
+    Pottery. Lunn, Richard.
+    Grand Feu Ceramics. D'oat, Taxile.
+    The Potter's Craft. Binns, C. F.
+    Practical Keramics for Students. Janvier, C. A.
+
+  HISTORICAL AND ARTISTIC
+    Art of the Old English Potter. Solon, L. V.
+    Chinese Porcelain. Gulland.
+    Chinese Porcelain. Monkhouse, Cosmo.
+    Ceramic Art in Great Britain. Jewitt, L.
+    History of Pottery and Porcelain. Marryat.
+    Majolica. Fortnum, C. D. E.
+    Potters, Their Arts and Crafts. Sparkes and Gandy.
+    Pottery and Porcelain in the United States (and other volumes).
+      Barber.
+    Persian Ceramic Art (and other volumes). Wallis, H.
+    Illustrated catalogue of the Faience of Persia and Near East.
+      Burlington Fine Arts Club.
+
+
+                     APPLIANCES AND MATERIALS, ETC.
+
+                                         SOLD BY
+
+  BALL MILLS.                   Wengers, Ltd. Eng. (Hanley, Stoke
+                                  on Trent.)
+
+                                Abbey Engineering Co. 220 Broadway,
+                                  N. Y. City, U. S. A.
+
+  BISCUIT SHAPES.               Hirshberg Art Co. Baltimore, Md.
+
+        {CHINA AND BALL.        Mandle and Sant.  East Liverpool,
+                                  Ohio, U. S. A.
+
+        {CHINA AND MODELING.    Stewart & Co. N. Y. City, U. S. A.
+
+  CLAYS {                       Wengers. Hanley, Great Britain.
+
+        {MODELLING AND          Western Stoneware Co. Monmouth,
+        {STONEWARE                Ill., U. S. A.
+
+        {SAGGAR AND STONEWARE.  W. H. Cutter, Woodbridge, N. J.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+  CONES.                        Wengers, Ltd. Hanley, Eng.
+
+                                Drackenfeld & Co. Murray St., N. Y.
+                                  City, U. S. A.
+
+                                Professor Ed. Orton. Columbus, Ohio.
+
+  GLAZES.                       Wengers, Ltd. Hanley, Eng.
+
+                                Drackenfeld & Co. Murray St., N. Y.
+                                  City, U. S. A.
+
+                                Roessler, Haslacher Chemical Co.
+                                  William St., N. Y. City, U. S. A.
+
+  KILNS. GAS.                   Fletcher, Russell. Warrington, Eng.
+
+  KILNS. GAS AND OIL.           Bellevue Perfection. Detroit, Mich.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+  KILNS. OIL.                   Caulkins Revelation. Detroit, Mich.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+  KILNS. TRIAL.                 Wengers. Hanley, Eng.
+
+  LAWNS AND SIEVES.             Drackenfeld & Co. 50 Murray St.,
+                                  N. Y. City.
+
+                                A. Sartorious & Co. Murray St., N. Y.
+                                  City.
+
+                                Wengers. Hanley Staffs, Eng.
+
+  PLASTER.                      Wengers. Hanley, Eng.
+
+                                Drackenfeld & Co. N. Y. City.
+
+                                Calvin Thompkins. Battery Pl., N. Y.
+                                  City.
+
+  QUARTZ, FLINT, FELSPAR.       Wengers, Ltd. Hanley, Eng.
+
+                                Drackenfeld & Co. Murray St., N. Y.
+                                  City, U. S. A.
+
+                                Golding & Sons. Trenton, N. J.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+  SCALES.                       Wengers. Hanley Staffs, Eng.
+
+                                Hy. Troemner. Philadelphia, Pa.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+  STILTS, ETC.                  Trenton Stilt & Spur Co. Trenton,
+                                  N. J., U. S. A.
+
+                                Wengers. Hanley, Eng.
+
+  U. G. COLOURS, ETC.           Wengers. Eng.
+
+                                Drackenfeld & Co. N. Y. City, U. S. A.
+
+  WHEELS.                       Crossley Mfg. Co. Trenton, N. J.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+                                T. S. Nickerson. Newburyport, Mass.,
+                                  U. S. A.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                        TRANSCRIBER'S AMENDMENTS
+
+Transcriber's Note: Blank pages have been deleted. On pages that remain,
+some unnecessary page numbers may have been deleted when they fall in the
+middle of lists. Some illustrations may have been moved. When the author's
+preference can be determined, we have rendered consistent on a
+per-word-pair basis the hyphenation or spacing of such pairs when repeated
+in the same grammatical context. The publisher's inadvertent omissions of
+important punctuation have been corrected.
+
+The following list indicates any additional changes. The page number
+represents that of the original publication and applies in this etext
+except for illustrations since they may have been moved.
+
+  Page          Change
+
+   20  the highest fire (around 17000 deg.[1700 deg.] Centigrade).
+   91  but it is [a] waste of time to attempt it
+  181  The slip is allowed to settled[settle] and the water siphoned off.
+  193  AL[Al]_2O_3 . 2SiO_{2}
+  193  Cobalt                 |             C_{6}[Co]
+  194  Felspar                |6SiO_{2}.Al_{2}O_{3}.K^{2}O[K_{2}O]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Pottery, for Artists Craftsmen &
+Teachers, by George J. Cox
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