diff options
Diffstat (limited to '38185.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 38185.txt | 2468 |
1 files changed, 2468 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/38185.txt b/38185.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c8b16a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/38185.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2468 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fruits of Philosophy, by Charles Knowlton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Fruits of Philosophy + A Treatise on the Population Question + +Author: Charles Knowlton + +Editor: Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant + +Release Date: December 1, 2011 [EBook #38185] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + + +FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY + +A TREATISE ON THE POPULATION QUESTION + +By Charles Knowlton + +Edited by Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant + + + + +PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. + +The pamphlet which we now present to the public is one which has been +lately prosecuted under Lord Gampbell's Act, and which we republish, +in order to test the right of publication. It was originally written +by Charles Knowlton, M. D., whose degree entitles him to be heard with +respect on a medical question. It was first published in England, about +forty years ago, by James Watson, the gallant radical, who came to +London and took up Richard Carlile's work, when Carlile was in jail. He +sold it, unchallenged, for many years, approved it, and recommended it. +It was printed and published by Messrs. Holyoake & Co., and found its +place, with other works of a similar character, in their "Freethought +Directory," of 1853, and was thus identified with freethought literature +at the then leading freethought _depot_ Mr. Austin Holyoake, working +in con-junction with Mr. Bradlaugh at the _National Reformer_ office, +Johnson's Court, printed and published it in his turn, and this +well-known freethought advocate, in his "Large or Small Families," +selected this pamphlet, together with R. D. Owen's "Moral Physiology" +and the "Elements of Social Science," for special recommendation. Mr. +Charles Watts, succeeding to Mr. Austin Holyoake's business, continued +the sale, and, when Mr. Watson died, in 1875, he bought the plates of +the work (with others) from Mrs. Watson, and continued to advertise and +to sell it until December 23, 1876. For the last forty years the +book has thus been identified with freethought, advertised by leading +freethinkers, published under the sanction of their names, and sold in +the headquarters of freethought literature. If, during this long period, +the party has thus--without one word of protest--circulated an indecent +work, the less we talk about freethought morality the better; the +work has been largely sold, and, if leading freethinkers have sold +it--profiting by the sale--through mere carelessness, few words could be +strong enough to brand the indifference which thus scattered obscenity +broadcast over the land. The pamphlet has been withdrawn from +circulation in consequence of the prosecution instituted against Mr. +Charles Watts, but the question of its legality or illegality has not +been tried; a plea of "Guilty" was put in by the publisher, and the +book, therefore, was not examined, nor was any judgment passed upon it; +no jury registered a verdict, and the judge stated that he had not read +the work. + +We republish this pamphlet, honestly believing that on all questions +affecting the happiness of the people, whether they be theological, +political or social, fullest right of free discussion ought to be +maintained at all hazards. We do not personally indorse all that +Dr. Knowles says: his "Philosophical Proem" seems to us full of +philosophical mistakes, and--as we are neither of us doctors--we are not +prepared to indorse his medical views; but since progress can only be +made through discussion, and no discussion is possible where differing +opinions are suppressed, we claim the right to publish all opinions, so +that the public, enabled to see all sides of a question, may have the +materials for forming a sound judgment. + +The alterations made are very slight, the book was badly printed, and +errors of spelling and a few clumsy grammatical expressions have been +corrected; the subtitle has been changed, and in one case four lines +have been omitted, because they are repeated word for word further on. +We have, however, made some additions to the pamphlet, which are in all +cases kept distinct from the original text. Physiology has made great +strides during the past forty years, and not considering it right to +circulate erroneous physiology, we submitted the pamphlet to a doctor +in whose accurate knowledge we have the fullest confidence, and who is +widely known in all parts of the world as the author of the "Elements of +Social Science;" the notes signed "G. B." are written by this gentleman. +References to other works are given in foot-notes for the assistance of +the reader, if he desires to study up the subject further. + +Old Radicals will remember that Richard Carlile published a work +entitled "Every Woman's Book," which deals with the same subject and +advocates the same object as Dr. Knowlton's pamphlet R. D. Owen objected +to the "style and tone" of Carlile's "Every Woman's Book," as not being +in "good taste," and he wrote his "Moral Physiology" to do in America +what Carlile's work was intended to do in England. This work of +Carlile's was stigmatized as "indecent" and "immoral," because it +advocated, as does Dr. Knowlton's, the use of preventive checks to +population. In striving to carry on Carlile's work, we cannot expect to +escape Carlile's reproach; but, whether applauded or condemned, we mean +to carry it on, socially as well as politically and theologically. + +We believe, with the Rev. Mr. Malthus, that population has a tendency to +increase faster than the means of existence, and that _some_ checks must +therefore exercise control over population. The checks now exercised are +semi-starvation and preventable disease; the enormous mortality among +the infants of the poor is one of the checks which now keep down the +population. The checks that ought to control population are scientific, +and it is these which we advocate. We think it more moral to prevent the +conception of children than, after they are born, to murder them by want +of food, air and clothing. We advocate scientific checks to population, +because, so long as poor men have large families, pauperism is a +necessity, and from pauperism grow crime and disease. The wages which +would support the parents and two or three children in comfort and +decency, is utterly insufficient to maintain a family of twelve or +fourteen, and we consider it a crime to bring into the world human +beings doomed to misery or to premature death. It is not only the +hard-working classes which are concerned in this question. The poor +preacher, the struggling man of business, the young professional man, +are often made wretched for life by their inordinately large families, +and their years are passed in one long battle to live; meanwhile, the +woman's health is sacrificed and her life embittered from the same +cause. To all of these we point the way of relief and happiness; for +the sake of these we publish what others fear to issue; and we do it +confident that if we fail the first time, we shall succeed at last, +and that the English public will not permit the authorities to stifle a +discussion of the most important social question which can influence a +nation's welfare. + +Charles Bradlaugh. + +Annie Besant. + + + + +PHILOSOPHICAL PROEM + +Consciousness is not a "principle" or substance of any kind, nor is +it, strictly speaking, a property of any substance or being. It is a +peculiar action of the nervous system, and the system is said to be +sensible, or to possess the property of sensibility, because those +sentient actions which constitute our different consciousnesses may be +excited in it. The nervous system includes not only the brain and spinal +marrow, but numerous soft white cords, called nerves, which extend +from the brain and spinal marrow to every part of the body in which a +sensation can be excited. + +A sensation is a sentient action of a nerve and the brain; a thought or +idea (both the same thing) is a sentient action of the brain alone. A +sensation or a thought is consciousness, and there is no consciousness +but that which consists either in a sensation or a thought. + +Agreeable consciousness constitutes what we call happiness, and +disagreeable consciousness constitutes misery. As sensations are a +higher degree of consciousness than mere thought, it follows that +agreeable sensations constitute a more exquisite happiness than +agreeable thoughts. That portion of happiness which consists in +agreeable sensations is commonly called pleasure. No thoughts are +agreeable except those which were originally excited by or have been +associated with agreeable sensations. Hence, if a person never had +experienced any agreeable sensations, he could have no agreeable +thoughts, and would, of course, be an entire stranger to happiness. + +There are five species of sensations--seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting +and feeling. There are many varieties of feeling--as the feelings of +hunger, thirst, cold, hardness, etc. Many of these feelings are +excited by agents that act upon the exterior of the body, such as solid +substances of every kind, heat, and various chemical irritants. These +latter feelings are called _passions_. + +Those passions which owe their existence chiefly to the state of the +brain, or to causes acting directly upon the brain, are called the moral +passion. They are grief, anger, love, etc. They consist of sentient +actions, which commence in the brain and extend to the nerves in the +region of the stomach, etc. But when the cause of the internal feeling +of passion is seated in some organ remote from the brain, as in the +stomach, genital organs, etc., the sentient action which constitutes the +passion commences in the nerves of such organ and extends to the brain, +and the passion is called an _appetite, instinct, or desire_. Some +of these passions are natural, as hunger, thirst, the reproductive +instinct, the desire to urinate, etc. Others are gradually acquired by +habit A _hankering_ for stimulants, as spirits, opium and tobacco, is +one of these. + +Such is the nature of things that our most vivid and agreeable +sensations cannot be excited under all circumstances, nor beyond a +certain extent under any circumstances, without giving rise in one +way or another to an amount of disagreeable consciousness or misery, +exceeding the amount of agreeable consciousness which attends such +ill-timed or excessive gratification. To excite agreeable sensations to +a degree not exceeding this certain extent is temperance; to excite +them beyond this extent is intemperance; not to excite them at all is +mortification or abstinence. This certain extent varies with different +individuals, according to their several circumstances, so that what +would be temperance in one person may be intemperance in another. + +To be free from disagreeable consciousness is to be in a state which, +compared with a state of misery, is a happy state; yet absolute +happiness does not exist in the absence of misery, if it does, rocks are +happy. It consists, as aforesaid, in agreeable consciousness. That which +enables a person to excite or maintain agreeable consciousness is +not happiness; but the _idea_ of having such in one's possession is +agreeable, and of course is a portion of happiness. Health and wealth go +far in enabling a person to excite and maintain agreeable consciousness. +That which gives rise to agreeable consciousness is _good_, and we +desire it. If we use it intemperately, such use is bad, but the thing +itself is still good. Those acts (and intentions are acts of that part +of man which intends) of human beings which tend to the promotion of +happiness are good, but they are also called _virtuous_, to distinguish +them from other things of the same tendency. There is nothing for the +word _virtue_ to signify, but virtuous actions. Sin signifies nothing +but sinful actions, and sinful, wicked, vicious, or bad actions are +those which are productive of more misery than happiness. + +When an individual gratifies any of his instincts in a _temperate_ +degree, he adds an item to the sum total of human happiness, and causes +the amount of human happiness to exceed the amount of misery farther +than if he had not enjoyed himself, therefore it is virtuous, or, to +say the least, it is not vicious or sinful for him to do so. But it must +ever be remembered that this temperate degree depends on circumstances; +that one person's health, pecuniary circumstances, or social relation +may be such that it would cause more misery than happiness for him to do +an act which being done by a person under different circumstances would +cause more happiness than misery. Therefore, it would be right for the +latter to perform such act, but not for the former. + +Again: owing to his _ignorance_, a man may not be able to gratify a +desire without causing misery (wherefore it would be wrong for him to +do it), but with knowledge of means to prevent this misery, he may so +gratify it that more pleasure than pain will be the result of the act, +in which case the act, to say the least, is justifiable. Now, therefore, +it is virtuous, nay, it is the _duty_, for him who has a knowledge of +such means, to convey it to those who have it not, for by so doing he +furthers the cause of human happiness. + +Man by nature is endowed with the talent of devising means to remedy +or prevent the evils that are liable to arise from gratifying our +appetites; and it is as much the duty of the physician to inform +mankind of the means to prevent the evils that are liable to arise from +gratifying the productive instinct as it is to inform them how to keep +clear of the gout or dyspepsia. Let not the old ascetic say we ought +not to gratify our appetites any further than is necessary to maintain +health and to perpetuate the species. Mankind will not so abstain, +and if any means to prevent the evils that may arise from a farther +gratification can be devised, they _need not_. Heaven has not only given +us the capacity of greater enjoyment, but the talent of devising means +to prevent the evils that are liable to arise therefrom, and it becomes +us, "with thanksgiving," to make the most of them. + + + + +FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY. + + + + +CHAPTER I. TO LIMIT AT WILL THE NUMBER OF THEIR OFFSPRING + +Showing how desirable it is, both in a political and a social point +of view, for mankind to be able to limit at WILL THE NUMBER OF +THEIR OFFSPRING, WITHOUT SACRIFICING THE PLEASURE THAT ATTENDS THE +GRATIFICATION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE INSTINCT. + +First.---_In a political point of view_.--If population be not +restrained by some great physical calamity, such as we have reason to +hope will not hereafter be visited upon the children of men, or by some +_moral restraint_, the time will come when the earth cannot support +its inhabitants. Population unrestrained will double three times in a +century. Hence, computing the present population of the earth at 1,000 +millions, there would be at the end of 100 years from the present time, +8,000 millions. + + At the end of 200 years, 64,000 millions. + + " " 300 " 512,000 " + +And so on, multiplying by eight for every additional hundred years. +So that in 500 years from the present time there would be thirty-two +thousand seven hundred and sixty eight times as many inhabitants as at +present. If the natural increase should go on without check for 1,500 +years, one single pair would increase to more than _thirty-five thousand +one hundred and eighty-four_ times as many as the present population of +the whole earth! + +Some check then there must be, or the time will come when millions will +be born but to suffer and to perish for the necessaries of life. To what +an inconceivable amount of human misery would such a state of things +give rise! And must we say that vice, war, pestilence and famine are +desirable to prevent it? Must the friends of temperance and domestic +happiness stay their efforts? Must peace societies excite to war +and bloodshed? Must the physician cease to investigate the nature +of contagion, and to search for the means of destroying its baneful +influence? Must he that becomes diseased be marked as a victim to die +for public good, without the privilege of making an effort to restore +him to health? And in case of a failure of crops in one part of the +world, must the other parts withhold the means of supporting life that +the far greater evil of excessive population throughout the world may be +prevented? Can there be no effectual moral restraint, attended with far +less human misery than such physical calamities as these? Most surely +there can. But what is it? Malthus, an English writer on the subject of +population, gives us none but celibacy to a late age. But how foolish +it is to suppose that men and women will become as monks and nuns during +the very holiday of their existence, and abjure during the fairest +years of life the nearest and dearest of social relations, to avert +a catastrophe which they and perhaps their children will not live to +witness. But, besides being ineffectual, or if effectual, requiring a +great sacrifice of enjoyment, this restraint is highly objectionable +on the score of its demoralizing tendency. It would give rise to a +frightful increase of prostitution, of intemperance and onanism, and +prove destructive to health and moral feelings. In spite of preaching, +human nature will ever remain the same; and that restraint which forbids +the gratification of the reproductive instinct will avail but little +with the mass of mankind. The checks to be hereafter mentioned are +the only moral restraints to population known to the writer that are +unattended with serious objections. + +Besides starvation, with all its accompanying evils, overpopulation is +attended with other public evils, of which may be mentioned, ignorance +and slavery. Where the mass of the people must toil incessantly to +obtain support, they must remain ignorant; and where ignorance prevails, +tyranny reigns.* + + * The scientific part of Malthus' Doctrine of Population is + not very clearly or correctly given in the above passages. + His great theory, now or generally held by the most eminent + political economists, is that the increase of population is + always powerfully checked in old countries by the difficulty + in increasing the supply of food; that the existing evils of + poverty and low wages are really at bottom caused by this + check, and are brought about by the pressure of population + on the soil, and the continual overstocking of the labor + markets with laborers; and hence that the only way in which + society can escape from poverty, with all its miseries, is + by putting a strong restraint on their natural powers of + multiplication. "It is not in the nature of things," he + says, "that any permanent and general improvement in the + condition of the poor can be effected without an increase in + the preventive checks to population."--G. R. + +Second--_In a social point of view_.--"Is it not notorious that the +families of the married often increase beyond which a regard for the +young beings coming into the world, and the happiness of those who give +them birth, would dictate. In how many instances does the hard-working +father, and more especially the mother, of a poor family remain slave +throughout their lives, tugging at the oar of incessant labor, toiling +to live, and living to toil; when, if their offspring had been limited +to two or three only, they might have enjoyed comfort and comparative +affluence? How often is the health of the mother, giving birth every +year to an infant--happy if it be not twins--and compelled to toil on, +even at those times when nature imperiously calls for some relief from +daily drudgery,--how often is the mother's comfort, health, nay, even +her life, thus sacrificed? Or if care and toil have weighed down the +spirit, and at length broken the health of the father; how often is +the widow left unable, with the most virtuous intentions, to save her +fatherless offspring from becoming degraded objects of charity, or +profligate votaries of vice! + +"Nor is this all. Many women are so constituted that they cannot give +birth to healthy, sometimes not to living children. Is it desirable, +is it moral, that such women should become pregnant? Yet this is +continually the case. Others there are who ought never to become +parents; because, if they do, it is only to transmit to their offspring +grievous hereditary diseases, which render such offspring mere subjects +of misery throughout their sickly existence. Yet such women will not +lead a life of celibacy. They marry. They become parents, and the sum of +human misery is increased by their doing so. But it is folly to expect +that we can induce such persons to live the lives of Shakers. Nor is it +necessary; all that duty requires of them is to refrain from becoming +parents. Who can estimate the beneficial effect which a rational +moral restraint may thus have on the health and beauty and physical +improvement of our race throughout future generations?" + +Let us now turn our attention to the case of unmarried youth. + +"Almost all young persons, on reaching the age of maturity, desire to +marry. That heart must be very cold, or very isolated, that does not +find some object on which to bestow its affections. Thus, early marriage +would be almost universal did not prudential consideration interfere. +The young man thinks, 'I cannot marry yet; I cannot support a family. +I must make money first, and think of a matrimonial settlement +afterwards.' + +"And so he goes to making money, fully and sincerely resolved in a few +years to share it with her whom he now loves. But passions are strong +and temptations great. Curiosity, perhaps, introduces him into the +company of those poor creatures whom society first reduces to a +dependence on the most miserable of mercenary trades, and then curses +for being what she has made them. There his health and moral feelings +are alike made shipwreck. The affections he had thought to treasure up +for their first object are chilled by dissipation and blunted by excess. +He scarcely retains a passion but avarice. Years pass on--years of +profligacy and speculation--and his wish is accomplished, his fortune is +made. Where now are the feelings and resolve of his youth? + + 'Like the dew on the mountain, + Like the foam on the river, + Like the bubbles on the fountain, + They are gone--and forever.' + +"He is a man of pleasure, a man of the world. He laughs at the romance +of his youth, and marries a fortune. If gaudy equipage and gay parties +confer happiness, he is happy. But if these be only the sunshine on +the stormy sea below, he is a victim to that system of morality which +forbids a reputable connection until the period when provision has been +made for a large expected family. Had he married the first object of his +choice, and simply delayed becoming a father until his prospects seemed +to warrant it, how different might have been his lot. Until men and +women are absolved from the fear of becoming parents, except when they +themselves desire it, they will ever form mercenary and demoralizing +connections, and seek in dissipation the happiness they might have found +in domestic life. + +"I know that this, however common, is not a universal case. Sometimes +the heavy responsibilities of a family are incurred at all risks; and +who shall say how often a life of unremitting toil and poverty is the +consequence. Sometimes, if even rarely, the young mind does hold its +first resolves. The youth plods through years of cold celibacy and +solitary anxiety, happy if, before the best hours of his life are gone +and its warmest feelings withered, he may return to claim the reward of +his forbearance and his industry. But even in this comparatively happy +case, shall we count for nothing the years of ascetic sacrifice at which +after happiness is purchased? The days of youth are not too many, nor +its affections too lasting. We may, indeed, if a great object require +it, sacrifice the one and mortify the other. But is this, in itself, +desirable? Does not wisdom tell us that such a sacrifice is a dead +loss--to the warm-hearted often a grievous one? Does not wisdom bid us +temperately enjoy the springtimes of life, 'while the evil day come not, +nor the years draw nigh, when we shall say we have no pleasure in them?' + +"Let us say, then, if we will, that the youth who thus sacrifices the +present for the future, chooses wisely between the two evils, profligacy +and asceticism. This is true. But let us not imagine the lesser evil +to be good. It is _not_ good for man to be alone. It is for no man or +woman's happiness or benefit that they should be condemned to Shakerism. +It is a violence done to the feelings and an injury to the character. +A life of rigid celibacy, though infinitely preferable to a life of +dissipation, is yet fraught with many evils. Peevishness, restlessness, +vague longings and instability of character, are amongst the least of +these. The mind is unsettled, and the judgment warped. Even the very +instinct which is thus mortified assumes an undue importance, and +occupies a portion of the thoughts which does not of right or nature +belong to it, and which, during a life of satisfied affection, it would +not obtain." + +In many instances, the genital organs are rendered so irritable by the +repletion to which unnatural continency gives rise, and by the much +thinking caused by such repletion, as to induce a disease known to +medical men by the name of _Gonorrhoea Dormientium_. It consists in +an emission or discharge of the semen during sleep. This discharge is +immediately excited in most instances by a lascivious dream, but such +dream is caused by the repletion and irritability of the genital organs. +It is truly astonishing to what a degree of mental anguish the disease +gives rise in young men. They do not understand the nature, or rather, +the cause of it. They think it depends on a weakness--indeed, the +disease is often called a "seminal weakness"--and that the least +gratification in a natural way would but serve to increase it. +Their anxiety about it weakens the whole system. This weakness they +erroneously attribute to the discharges; they think themselves totally +disqualified for entering into or enjoying the married state. Finally, +the genital and mental organs act and react upon each other so +perniciously as to cause a degree of nervousness, debility, emaciation +and melancholy--in a word, wretchedness that sets description at +defiance. Nothing is so effectual in curing this diseased state of +a body and mind in young men as marriage. All restraint, fear and +solicitude should be removed. + +"Inasmuch, then, as the scruples of incurring heavy responsibilities +deter from forming moral connections and encourage intemperance and +prostitution, the knowledge which enables man to limit the number of his +offspring would, in the present state of things, save much unhappi-ness +and prevent many crimes. Young persons sincerely attached to each other, +and who might wish to marry, should marry early, merely resolving not +to become parents until prudence permitted it. The young man, instead +of solitary toil and vulgar dissipation, would enjoy the society and the +assistance of her he has chosen as his companion; and the best years of +life, whose pleasures never return, would not be squandered in riot, nor +lost through mortification."* + + * The passages quoted are from Robert Dale Owen's "Moral + Physiology." + + + + +CHAPTER II. ON GENERATION + +I hold the following to be important and undeniable troths: That every +man has a natural right both to receive and convey a knowledge of all +the facts and discoveries of every art and science, excepting such only +as may be secured to some particular person or persons by copyright or +patent; that a physical truth in its general effect cannot be a moral +evil; that no fact in physics or in morals ought to be concealed from +the inquiring mind. + +Some may make a misuse of knowledge, but that is their fault; and it is +not right that one person should be deprived of knowledge, of spirits, +of razors, or of anything else which is harmless in itself and may be +useful to him, because another may misuse it. + +The subject on generation is not only interesting as a branch of +science, but it is so connected with the happiness of mankind that it is +highly important in a practical point of view. Such, to be sure, is +the custom of the age, that it is not considered a proper subject to +investigate before a popular assembly, nor is it proper to attend the +calls of nature in a like place; yet they must and ought to be attended +to, for the good, the happiness of mankind require it; so, too, for like +reason, the subject of generation ought to be investigated until it be +rightly understood by all people, but at such opportunities as the +good sense of every individual will easily decide to be proper. This, +I presume to say, not simply upon the abstract principle that +all knowledge of Nature's workings is useful, and the want of it +disadvantageous, but from the known moral fact that ignorance of this +process has in many instances proved the cause of a lamentable "mishap," +and more especially as it is essential to the attainment of the great +advantage, which it is the chief object of this work to bestow upon +mankind. + +People generally, as it was the case with physicians until late years, +entertain a very erroneous idea of what takes place in the conception. +Agreeably to this idea the "check" which I consider far preferable +to any other, would not be effectual, as would be obvious to all. +Consequently, entertaining this idea, people would not have due +confidence in it. Hence, it is necessary to correct a long-held and +widely extended error. But this I cannot expect to do by simply saying +it is an error. Deeply rooted and hitherto undisputed opinions are not +so easily eradicated. If I would convince any one that the steps in one +of the most recondite processes of nature are not such as he has always +believed, it will greatly serve my purpose to show what these steps are. +I must first prepare him to be reasoned with, and then reason the +matter all over with him. I must point out the facts which disprove his +opinion, and show that my own is unattended with difficulties. + +But what can be more obvious than that it is absolutely impossible +to explain any process or function of the animal economy, so as to be +understood, before the names of the organs which perform this function +have been defined, that is, before the organs themselves have been +described. Now it is well known to every anatomist, and indeed it may +be obvious to all, that in describing any organ or system of organs, +we must always begin with some external and known parts, and proceed +regularly, step by step, to the internal and unknown. As in arithmetic, +"everything must be understood as you go along."* + + * This is an Americanism, which appears to us to convey a + false idea. If it refers to the cases used as illustrations, + Dr. Knowlton is more sparing in his use of them than either + Dr. Bull or Dr. Chavasse.--Publishers' Note. + +Fully to effect the objects of this work, it is, therefore, a matter of +necessity that I give an anatomical description of certain parts--even +external parts--which some, but imagine what I have just said, might +think it useless to mention. It is not to gratify the idle curiosity of +the light-minded that this book is written; it is for _utility_ in the +broad and truly philosophical sense of the term; nay, farther, it shall +with the exception of here and there a little spicing*, have confined +to _practical utility_. I shall, therefore, endeaver to treat of the +subject in this chapter so as to be understood, without giving any +description of the male organs of generation; though I hold it an +accomplishment for one be able to speak of those organs, as diseases +often put them under the necessity of doing, without being compelled use +low and vulgar language. But I must briefly describe the female organs; +in doing which I must, of course, speak as do other anatomists and +physiologists; and whoever objects to this will discover more +affectation and prudery than good sense and good will to mankind. + +The adipose, or fatty matter, immediately over the share bone, forms +a considerable prominence in females, which, at the age of puberty, is +covered with hair, as in males. This prominence is called Mons Veneris. + +The exterior orifice commences immediately below this. On each side of +this orifice is a prominence continued from the mons veneris, which +is largest above and gradually diminishes as it descends. These two +prominences are called the Labia Externa, or external lips. Near the +latter end of pregnancy they become somewhat enlarged and relaxed, so +that they sustain little or no injury during parturition. Just within +the upper or anterior commissure, formed by the junction of these lips, +a little round oblong body is situated. The body is called the clitoris. +Most of its length is bound down, as it were, pretty closely to the +bone; and it is of very variable size in different females. Instances +have occurred where it was so enlarged as to allow the female to have +venereal commerce with others; and in Paris this fact was once made a +public exhibition to the medical faculty. Women thus formed appear to +partake in their general form of the male character, and are called +hermaphrodites. The idea of human beings, called hermaphrodites, which +could be either father or mother, is, doubtless, erroneous. The clitoris +is analogous in its structure to the penis, and like it, is exquisitely +sensitive, being, as it is supposed, the principal seat of pleasure. It +is subject to erection or distension, like the penis, from like causes. + +The skin which lines the internal surface of the external lips is folded +in such manner as to form two flat bodies, the exterior edges of which +are convex. They are called the nymphse. They extend downward, one on +each side, from the clitoris to near the middle of the external orifice, +somewhat diverging from each other. Their use is not very evident The +orifice of the urethra (the canal, short in females, which leads to the +bladder) is situated an inch or more farther inward than the clitoris, +and is a little protuberant. + +Passing by the external lips, the clitoris, the nymphse and the orifice +of the urethra, we come to the membrane called the hymen. It is situated +just at, or a trifle behind the orifice of the urethra. It is stretched +across the passage, and were it a complete septum, it would close up the +anterior extremity of that portion of the passage which is called the +vagina. But the instances in which the septum or partition is complete +are very rare, there being, in almost all cases, an aperture either in +its center, or frequently in its anterior edge, giving the membrane the +form of a crescent Through this aperture passes the menstrual fluid. +Sometimes, however, this septum is complete, and the menstrual fluid +is retained month after month, until appearances and symptoms much +like those of pregnancy are produced, giving rise to perhaps unjust +suspicions. Such cases require the simple operation of dividing the +hymen. In many instances the hymen is very imperfect, insomuch that some +have doubted whether it is to be found in the generality of virgins. +Where it exists it is generally ruptured in the first intercourse of +the sexes, and the female is said to lose her virginity. In some +rare instances it is so very strong as not to be ruptured by such +intercourse, and the nature of the difficulty not being understood, the +husband has sued for a divorce. But everything may be put to rights by +a slight surgical operation. The parts here described are among those +called the external parts of generation. + +The internal organs of generation consist in the female of the Vagina, +the Uterus, the Ovaries and their appendages. + +The Vagina is a membranous canal commencing at the hymen and extending +to the uterus. It is a little curved, and extends backward and upward +between the bladder, which lies before and above it, and that extreme +portion of the bowels called the rectum, which lies behind it. The +coat of membrane which lines the internal surface of the vagina forms a +number of transverse ridges. These are to be found only in the lower +or anterior half of the vagina, and they do not extend all round the +vagina, but are situated on its anterior and posterior sides, while +their lateral sides are smooth. I mention these ridges because a +knowledge of them may lead to a more effectual use of one of the checks +to be made known hereafter. + +The uterus or womb is also situated between the bladder and the rectum, +but above the vagina. Such is its shape that it has been compared to +a pear with a long neck. There is, of course, considerable difference +between the body and the neck, the first being twice as broad as the +last. Each of these parts is somewhat flattened. In subjects of mature +age, who have been pregnant, the whole of the uterus is about two inches +and a half in length, and more than an inch and a half in breadth at the +broadest part of the body. It is near an inch in thickness. The neck of +the uterus is situated downward, and may be said to be inserted into +the upper extremity of the vagina. It extends down into the vagina the +better part of an inch. In the uterus is a cavity which approaches the +triangular form, and from which a canal passes down through the neck of +the uterus into the vagina. This cavity is so small that its sides are +almost in contact So that the uterus is a thick, firm organ for so small +a one. Comparing the cavity of the uterus to a triangle, we say the +upper side or line of this triangle is transverse with respect to the +body, and the other two lines pass downward and inward, so that they +would form an angle below, did they not before they meet take a turn +more directly downward to form the canal just mentioned. In each of the +upper angles there is an orifice of such size as to admit of a hog's +bristle. These little orifices are the mouths of two tubes, called the +Fallopian tubes, of which more will be said presently. The canal which +passes through the neck of the uterus, connecting the cavity of +this organ with that of the vagina, is about a quarter of an inch in +diameter. It is different from other ducts, for it seems to be a part +of the cavity from which it extends, inasmuch as when the cavity of the +uterus is enlarged in the progress of pregnancy, this canal is gradually +converted into a part of that cavity. + +The lower extremity of the neck of the uterus is irregularly convex and +tumid. The orifice of the canal in it is oval, and so situated that it +divides the convex surface of the lower extremity of the neck in two +portions, which are called the lips of the uterus. The anterior is +thicker than the posterior. The orifice itself is called _os tincae_ or +_os uteri_, or in English, the mouth of the womb. When the parts are in +a weak, relaxed state, the mouth or neck of the uterus is quite low, and +in almost all oases it may be reached by a finger introduced into the +vagina, especially by a second person, who carries the hand behind. + +The Ovaries are two bodies of a flattened or oval form, one of which is +situated on each side of the uterus at a little distance from it, and +about as high up as where the uterus becomes narrow to form its neck. +The longest diameter of the ovarium is about an inch. Each ovarium has a +firm coat of membrane. In those who have not been pregnant, it contains +from ten to twenty _vesicles_, which are little round bodies, formed of +a delicate membrane, and filled with a transparent fluid. Some of +these vesicles are situated so near the surface of the ovarium as to +be prominent on its surface. They are of different sizes, the largest +nearly a quarter of a inch in diameter.* + + * The vesicles here mentioned are the so-called Graafian + vesicles, or ovisacs, each of which contains in its interior + a little ovum or egg. In the human female the ovum is + extremely minute, so as only to be visible with the aid of a + lens. The Graafian vesicles are not limited to a certain + small number, as was formerly thought, but continue to be + formed in the ovaries, and to discharge at intervals mature + ova during the whole of the fruitful period.--G. R. + +In those in whom conception has ever taken place, some of these vesicles +are removed, and in their place a cicatrix or scar is formed which +continues through life. However, the number of cicatrices does not +always correspond with the number of conceptions. They often exceed +it, and are sometimes found where conception has not been known to take +place. The Fallopian Tubes are two canals four or five inches in length, +proceeding from the upper angles of the cavity of the uterus, in a +transverse direction in respect to the body. Having so proceeded +for some distance they turn downward toward the ovaries. At their +commencement in the uterus they are very small, but they enlarge as much +as they progress. The large ends, which hang loose, terminate in open +mouths, the margins of which consist of fimbriated processes, and nearly +touch the ovaria. + +We are now prepared to treat of conception. Yet, as menstruation is +closely connected with it, and as a knowledge of many things concerning +menstruation may contribute much to the well-being of females, for +whom this work is at least as much designed as for males, I shall first +briefly treat of this subject. + +Menstruation.--When females arrive at the age of puberty they begin to +have a discharge once every month, by way of the vagina, of the color of +blood. This discharge is termed the menses. To have it is to menstruate. +The age at which menstruation commences varies with different +individuals, and also in different climates. The warmer the climate +the earlier it commences and ceases. In temperate climates it +generally commences at the age of fourteen or fifteen, and it ceases at +forty-four, or a little later. * + +Whenever it commences the girl acquires a more womanly appearance. It +is a secretion of the uterus, or, in other words, the minute vessels +distributed to the inner coat of uterus, select as it were, from the +blood, and pour out in a gradual manner the materials of this fluid. It +has one of the properties, color, of blood, but it does not coagulate, +or separate into different parts like blood, and cannot properly be +called blood.** + + * Dr. Chavasse, on p. 94 of his "Advice to a Wife" + published by W. H. Smith & Son gives instances of very + early menstruation and consequent fecundity.--Publishers' + note, + + ** "The menstrual discharge," says Dr. Kirkes, "consists of + blood effused from the inner surface of the uterus, and + mixed with mucus from the uterus, vagina, and the external + parts of the generative apparatus. Being diluted by this + admixture, the menstrual blood coagulates less perfectly + than ordinary blood; and the frequent acidity of the vaginal + mucus tends still further to diminish its coagulability."-- + Handbook of Physiology, 8th ed., p. 727, 1874.--G. R. + +When this discharge is in all respects regular, it amounts in most +females to six or eight ounces, and from two to four days' continuance. +During its continuance the women is said to be unwell, or out of order. +Various unpleasant feelings are liable to attend it; but when it is +attended with severe pain, as it not infrequently is, it becomes a +disease, and the woman is not likely to conceive until it is cured. +During the existence of the "turns," or "monthlies," as they are often +called, indigestible food, dancing in warm rooms, sudden exposure +to cold or wet, and mental agitations, should be avoided as much as +possible. The "turns" do not continue during pregnancy, nor nursing, +unless nursing be continued after the "turns" recommence. Some women, it +is true, are subject to a slight hemorrhage that sometimes occurs with +considerable regularity during pregnancy, and which has led them to +suppose they have their turns at such times; but it is not so; the +discharge at such times is real blood.* + + * Consult on the whole of this Dr. Chavasse's book, pp. 91- + 101, where full details are given.--Publishers' note. + +The use of the menstrual discharge seems to be to prepare the uterine +system for conception. For females do not become pregnant before +they commence, nor after they cease having turns; nor while they are +suppressed by some disease, by cold or by nursing. Some credible women, +however, have said that they become pregnant while nursing, without +having had any turn since their last lying-in. It is believed that in +these oases they had some discharge, colorless, perhaps, which they did +not notice, but which answered the purposes of the common one. Women +are not nearly so likely to conceive during the week before a monthly +as during the week immediately after.* But although the use of this +secretion seems to be to prepare for conception, it is not to be +inferred that the reproductive instinct ceases at the "turn of life," +or when the woman ceases to menstruate. On the contrary, it is said that +this passion often increases at this period, and continues in a greater +or less degree to an extreme age. + + * See, however, Dr. Bull's "Hints to Mothers," pp. 31-58, + and 127-129 (published by Longmans, Green & Co.)-- + Publishers' note. + +Conception.--The part performed by the male in the reproduction of the +species consists in exciting the organism of the female, and depositing +the semen in the vagina. Before I inquire what takes place in the +females I propose to speak of the semen. + +This fluid, which is secreted by the testicles, may be said to possess +three kinds of properties, physical, chemical, physiological. Its +physical properties are known to every one--it is a thickish, nearly +opaque fluid, of a peculiar odor, saltish taste, etc. As to its chemical +properties, it is found by analysis to consist of 900 parts of water, +60 of animal muscilage, 10 of soda, 30 of phosphate of lime. Its +physiological property is that of exciting the female genital organs in +a peculiar manner. + +When the semen is examined by microscope, there can be distinguished a +multitude of small animalculae, which appear to have a rounded head and a +long tail. These animalculae move with a certain degree of rapidity. They +appear to avoid the light and to delight in the shade. Leeuwenhoek, if +not the discoverer of the seminal animalculse, was the first who brought +the fact of their existence fully before the public. With respect to +their size, he remarked that ten thousand of them might exist in a space +not larger than a grain of sand. They have a definite figure, and are +obviously different from the animalculse found in any other fluid.* + + * See Dr. Carpenter's "Animal Physiology," p. 558 (published + by H. G. Bonn); Nichol's "Human Physiology," pp. 253-255 + (published by Trubner & Co.)--Publishers' note. + +Leeuwenhoek believed them to be the beginnings of future animals--that +they are of different sexes, upon which depends the future sex of the +foetus. Be this as it may, it appears to be admitted on all hands that +the animalculae are present in the semen of the various species of +male animals, and that they cannot be detected when either from age or +disease the animals are rendered sterile. "Hence," says Bostock, "we can +scarcely refuse our assent to the position that these animalculae are +in some way or other instrumental to the production of the foetus." +The secretion of the semen commences at the age of puberty. Before this +period the testicles secrete a viscid, transparent fluid, which has +never been analyzed, but which is doubtless essentially different from +semen. The revolution which the whole economy undergoes at this period, +such as the tone of the voice, and development of hairs, the beard, the +increase of the muscles and bones, etc., is intimately connected with +the testicles and the secretion of this fluid.* "Eunuchs preserve the +same form as in childhood; their voice is effeminate, they have no +beard, their disposition is timid; and finally their physical and moral +character very nearly resembles that of females. Nevertheless, many of +them take delight in venereal intercourse, and give themselves up with +ardor to a connection which must always prove unfruitful."** + + * Nichol's "Human Physiology," pp. 256-257. + --Publishers' note + + ** Magendic's Physiology.--Author's note. + +The part performed by the female in the reproduction of the species is +far more complicated than that performed by the male. It consists, in +the first instance, in providing a substance which, in connection +with the male secretion, is to constitute the foetus; in furnishing a +suitable situation in which the foetus may be developed; in affording +due nourishment for its growth; in bringing it forth, and afterward +furnishing it with food especially adapted to the digestive organs of +the young animal. Some parts of this process are not well understood, +and such variety of hypotheses have been proposed to explain them that +Drelincourt, who lived in the latter part of the seventeenth century, is +said to have collected two hundred and sixty hypotheses of generation. + +It ought to be known that women have conceived when the semen was merely +applied to the parts anterior to the hymen, as the internal surface +of the external lips, the nymphae, etc. This is proved by the fact that +several cases of pregnancy have occurred when the hymen was entire. The +fact need not surprise us, for, agreeable to the theory of absorption, +we have to account for it only to suppose that some of the absorbent +vessels are situated anterior to the hymen--a supposition by no means +unreasonable. + +There are two peculiarities of the human species respecting conception +which I will notice. First, unlike other animals they are liable, and +for what has been proved to the contrary, equally liable--to conceive +at all seasons of the year. Second, a woman rarely, if ever, conceives +until after having several sexual connections; nor does one connection +in fifty cause conception in the matrimonial state, where the husband +and wife live together uninterruptedly. Public women rarely conceive, +owing probably to a weakened state of the genital system, induced by too +frequent and promiscuous intercourse. + +It is universally agreed, that some time after a fruitful connection, +a vesicle (two in case of twins) of one or the other ovary becomes so +enlarged that it bursts forth from the ovary and takes the name of +ovum, which is taken up, or rather received, as it bursts forth, by the +fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube, and is then conducted along +the tube into the uterus, to the inner surface of which it attaches +itself.* + + * Since Dr. Knowlton's work was written, the very important + fact has been discovered that ova are periodically + discharged from the ovaries in the human female and other + animals, not in consequence of fruitful connection having + taken place, as was formerly believed, but quite + independently of intercourse with the male. Such a discharge + of ova occurs in the lower animals at the time of heat or + rut, and in women during menstruation. At each menstrual + period, a Graafian vesicle becomes enlarged, bursts, and + lets the ovum which it contains escape into the Fallopian + tube, along which it passes to the uterus. "It has long been + known," says Dr. Kirke, "that in the so-called oviparous + animals, the separation of ova from the ovary may take place + independently of impregnation by the male, or even of sexual + union. And it is now established that a like maturation and + discharge of ova, independently of coition, occurs in + Mammalia, the periods at which the matured ova are separated + from the ovaries and received into the Fallopian tubes being + indicated in the lower Mammalia by the phenomena of _heat_ + or _rut_; in the human female by the phenomena of + _menstruation_. Sexual desire manifests itself in the human + female to a greater degree at these periods, and in the + female of mammiferous animals at no other time. If the union + of the sexes takes place, the ovum may be fecundated, and if + no union occur, it perishes. From what has been said it may + therefore be concluded that the two states, heat and + menstruation, are analogous, and that the essential + accompaniment of both is the maturation and extrusion of + ova."--"Handbook of Physiology," page 724.--G. R. + +Here it becomes developed into a full grown foetus, and is brought forth +about forty-two weeks from the time of conception by a process termed +parturition. But one grand question is, how the semen operates itself, +or any part thereof reaches the ovary, and if so, in what way it is +conveyed to them. It was long the opinion that the semen was ejected +into the uterus in the act of coition, and that it afterward, by some +unknown means, found its way into and along the Fallopian tubes to the +ovary. But there are several facts which weigh heavily against this +opinion, and some that entirely forbid it. In the first place, there are +several well attested instances in which impregnation took place while +the hymen remained entire, where the vagina terminated in the rectum, +where it was so contracted by a cicatrix as not to admit the penis. In +all these cases the semen could not have been lodged anywhere near +the mouth of the uterus, much less ejected into it. Secondly, it has +followed a connection where from some defect in the male organs, as the +urethra terminating some inches behind the end of the penis, and it is +clear that the semen could not have been injected into the uterus, nor +even near its mouth. Third, the neck of the unimpregnated uterus is so +narrow as merely to admit a probe, and is filled with a thick tenacious +fluid, which seemingly could not be forced away by any force which the +male organ possesses of ejecting the semen, even if the mouth of the +male urethra were in opposition with that of the uterus. But fourth, the +mouth of the uterus is by no means fixed. By various causes it is made +to assume various situations, and probably the mouth of the urethra +rarely comes in contact with it. + +Fifth. "The tenacity of the male semen is such as renders its passage +through the small aperture in the neck of the uterus impossible, even by +a power of force much superior to that which we may rationally suppose +to reside in the male organs of generation." + +Sixth. "Harvey and DeGraaf dissected animals at almost every period +after coition for the express purpose of discovering the semen, but were +never able to detect the smallest vestige of it in the uterus in any one +instance."* + + * Dewees' Essay on Superfoetation.--Author's note. + +Aware of the insurmountable objection to this view of the manner +in which the semen reaches the ovary, it has been supposed by some +physiologists that the semen is absorbed from the vagina into the great +circulating system, where it is mixed, of course, with the blood, and +goes the whole round of the circulation subject to the influence of +those causes which produce great changes in the latter fluid. + +To this hypothesis it may be objected, that while there is no direct +evidence in support of it, it is exceedingly unreasonable, inasmuch +as we can scarcely believe that the semen can go the whole round of +circulation, and then find its way to the ovary in such a pure unaltered +state as the experiments of Spallanzani prove it must be in, that it may +impregnate. + +A third set of theorists have maintained that an imperceptible +something, which they have called _aura seminalis_, passes from the +semen lodged in the vagina to the ovary, and excites those actions which +are essential to the development of an ovum. Others, again, have told us +that it is all done by sympathy. That neither the semen nor any volatile +part of it finds its way to the ovary; but that the semen excites the +parts with which it is in contact in a peculiar manner, and by the law +of animal economy, termed sympathy, or consent of parts, a peculiar +action commences in the ovary, by which an ovum is developed. + +To both these conjectures it may be objected that they have no other +foundation but the supposed necessity of adopting them, to account for +the effect of impregnation; and, further, they "make no provision for +the formation of mules; for the peculiarities of, and likeness to, +parents, and for the propagation of predisposition to disease, from +parent to child; for the production of mulattoes," etc. + +A fifth, and to me far more satisfactory view of the subject than any +other, is that advanced by our distinguished countryman, Dr. Dewees, of +Philadelphia. It appears to harmonize with all known facts relating +to the conception and something from analogy may also be drawn in its +favor. It is this, that there is a set of absorbent vessels, leading +directly from the inner surface of the _labia externa_ and the vagina, +to the ovaries, the whole office of which vessels is to absorb the semen +and convey it to the ovaries.* I do not know that these vessels have +yet been fully discovered, but in a note on the sixteenth page of his +"Essays on Various Subjects," the doctor says: "The existence of these +vessels is now rendered almost certain, as Dr. Gartner, of Copenhagen, +has discovered a duct leading from the ovary to the vagina." + + * This view is not held at the present day. The commonly + received doctrine now is that the seminal fluid enters the + uterus, whether during the intercourse or after it, and + passes along the Fallopian tubes to the ovaries; and that + fecundation takes place at some point of this course, most + frequently in the tubes, but also at times in the ovary + itself, or even, perhaps, in the uterus. It is essentially + necessary for fecundation that the spermatozoa should come + into actual contact with the ovum. "That the spermatozoa + make their way toward the ovarium, and fecundate the ovum + either before it entirely quits the ovisac or very shortly + afterward," says Dr. Carpenter, "appears to be the general + rule in regard to the Mammalia; and their power of movement + must obviously be both vigorous and long continued to enable + them to traverse so great an extent of mucous membrane, + especially when it is remembered that they ascend in + opposition to the direction of the ciliary movement of the + epithelial cells and to the downward peristaltic action of + the Fallopian tubes. * * * There can be no doubt that it is + the contact of the spermatozoa with the ovum, and in the + changes which occur as the immediate consequence of that + contact, that the act of fecundation essentially consists." + --"Principles of Human Physiology," 8th ed., p. 961,1876.--G.R. + +Another question of considerable moment relating to generation is from +which parent are the first rudiments of the foetus derived. + +The earliest hypothesis with which we are acquainted, and which has +received the support of some of the most eminent of the moderns, +ascribes the original formation of the foetus to the combination of +particles of matter derived from each of the parents. This hypothesis +naturally presents itself to the mind as the obvious method of +explaining the necessity for the cooperation of the two sexes, and the +resemblance in external form, and even in mind and character, which the +offspring often bears to the male parent. "The principal objections," +says Bostock, "to his hypothesis, independent of the want of any direct +proof of a female seminal fluid, are of two descriptions, those which +depend upon the supposed impossibility of unorganized matter forming +an organized being, and those which are derived from observations and +experiments of Haller and Spallanzani, which they brought forward in +support of their theory of pre-existent germs." + +In relation to these objections I remark, first those whose experience +has been with hale females, I suspect, can have no doubt but that the +female organism increases like that of the male, until an emission of +fluid of some kind or other takes place. But whether this secretion may +properly be called semen, whether any part of it unites with the male +semen in forming the rudiments of the foetus, is another question. For +my part I am inclined to the opinion that it does not.* I rather regard +it as the result of exalted excitation, analogous to the increased +secretion of other organs from increased stimulation; and if it may be +for any object or use, as it probably is, it is that of affording +nature a means of relieving herself; or, in other words, of quieting the +venereal passion. If this passion, being once roused, could not by some +means or other be calmed, it would command by far too great a portion of +our thoughts, and with many constitutions the individuals, whether male +or female, could not conduct themselves with due decorum. One fact which +leads me to think that the female secretion in the act of coition is not +essential to impregnation is, that many females have conceived, if their +unbiased testimony may be relied on, when they experienced no pleasure. +In these cases it is more than probable that there was no orgasm, nor +any secretion or emission of fluid on the part of the female. + + * With regard to this secretion in the female, which has + nothing of a seminal character, Dr. Carpenter observes: "Its + admixture with the male semen has been supposed to have some + connection with impregnation; but no proof whatever has been + given that any such admixture is necessary."--"Human + Physiology," p. 991.--G. R. + +As to the objection of the supposed impossibility of unorganized matter +forming an organized being, I do not believe such a thing takes place, +even if we admit that "the original formation of the foetus is a +combination of particles of matter derived from each of the parents." +What do, or rather what ought we to mean by organized matter? Not, +surely, that it exhibits some obvious physical structure, unlike what is +to be found in inorganic matter, but that it exhibits phenomena, and of +course may be said to possess properties unlike any kind of inorganic +matter. Matter unites with matter in three ways, mechanically, +chemically and organically, and each mode of union gives rise to +properties peculiar to itself. When matter unites organically, the +substance or being so formed exhibits some phenomena essentially +different from what inorganic bodies exhibit. It is on this account that +we ascribe to organic bodies certain properties, which we call +physiological properties, such as contractility, sensibility, life, etc. +When, from any cause, these bodies have undergone such a change that +they no longer exhibit the phenomena peculiar to them, they are said to +have lost these properties, and to be dead. A substance need not possess +all the physiological properties of an animal of the higher orders to +entitle it to the name of an organized or living substance, nor need it +possess the physical property of solidity. The blood, as well as many of +the secretions, does several things, exhibits several phenomena, which +no mechanical or mere chemical combinations of matter do exhibit. We +must therefore ascribe to it certain physiological properties, and +regard it as an organized, a living fluid, as was contended by the +celebrated John Hunter. So with respect to the semen, it certainly +possesses physiological properties, one in particular peculiar to +itself, namely, the property of impregnating the female; and upon no +sound principle can it be regarded in any other light than as an +organized, and of course a living fluid. And if the female secretion or +any part of it unite with the male secretion in the formation of the +rudiments or the foetus in a different manner than any other substance +would, then it certainly has the property of doing so, whether we give +this property a name or not; and a regard to the soundest principles of +physiology compels us to class this property with the physiological or +vital, and of course to regard this secretion as an organized and living +fluid So, then, unorganized matter does not form an organized being, +admitting the hypothesis before us as correct. + +That organized being should give rise to other organized beings under +favorable circumstances as to nourishment, warmth, etc., is no more +wonderful than that fire should give rise to fire when air and fuel are +present. To be sure, there are some minute steps in the processes which +are not fully known to us; still, if they ever should be known, we +should unquestionably see that there is a natural cause for every one +of them; and that they are all consonant with certain laws of the animal +economy. We should see no necessity of attempting to explain the process +of generation by bringing to our aid, or rather to the darkening of +the subject, any imaginary principle, as the _visus formaticus_ of +Blumenbach. + +As to the "observations and experiments of Haller and Spallanzani," I +think, with Dr. Bostock, that they weigh but little, if any, against the +theory before us. I shall not be at the labor of bringing them forward +and showing their futility as objections to this theory, for I am far +from insisting on the correctness of it; that is, I do not insist that +any part of the female secretion, during coition, unites with the male +semen in the formation of the rudiments of the foetus. + +The second hypothesis or theory, I shall notice, as to the rudiments of +the foetus, is that of Leeuwenhoek, who regarded the seminal animalculse +of the male semen as the proper rudiments of the foetus, and thought +that the office of the female is to afford them a suitable receptacle +where they may be supported and nourished until they are able to exist +by the exercise of their own functions. This is essentially the view of +the subject which I intend to give more particularly presently. + +I know of no serious objections to this hypothesis, nothing but the +"extreme improbability," as its opponents say, "that these animalculae +should be the rudiments of being so totally dissimilar to them." But I +wish to know if there is more difference between a foetus and a seminal +animalcule than there is between a foetus and a few material particles +in some other form than that of such animalcule? + +The third hypothesis, or that of pre-existing germs, proceeded upon a +precisely opposite view of the subject to that of Leeuwenhoek, namely, +that the foetus is properly the production of the female; that it exists +previous to the sexual congress, with all its organs, in some parts of +the uterine system; and that it receives no proper addition from the +male, but that the seminal fluid acts merely by exciting the powers of +the foetus, or endowing it with vitality. + +It is not known who first proposed this hypothesis; but strange as it +may appear, it has had the support of such names as Bonnet, Haller and +Spallanzani, and met with a favorable reception in the middle of the +last century. Agreeable to this hypothesis, our common mother, Eve, +contained a number of homuncules (little men) one within another, like +a nest of boxes, and all within her ovaries, equal to all the number of +births that have ever been, or ever will be, not to reckon abortions. +Were I to bring forward all the facts and arguments that have been +advanced in support of this idea, it seems to me I should fail to +convince sound minds of its correctness; as to arguments against it, +they surely seem uncalled for. Having now presented several hypotheses +of generation, some as to the manner in which the semen reaches or +influences the ovary, and others as to the rudiments of the foetus, I +shall now bring together those views which, upon the whole, appear to me +the most satisfactory. + +I believe, with Dr. Dewees, that a set of absorbent vessels extend from +the innermost surface of the _labia externa_, and from the vagina to the +ovary, the whole office of which is to take up the semen or some part +thereof, and convey it to the ovary. I believe, with Leeuwenhoek, that +the seminal animalculae are the proper rudiments of the foetus, and are +perhaps of different sexes; that in cases of impregnation one of them +is carried not only to, but into a vesicle of an ovary, which is in a +condition to receive and be duly affected by it.* It is here surrounded +by the albuminous fluid which the vesicle contains. This fluid being +somewhat changed in its qualities by its new-comer, stimulates the +minute vessels of the parts which surround it, and thus causes more of +this fluid to be formed; and while it affords the animalcule material +for its development, it puts the delicate membrane of the ovary which +retains it in its place upon the stretch, and finally bursts forth +surrounded probably by an exceedingly delicate membrane of its own. This +membrane, with the albuminous fluid it contains and the animalcule in +the center of it, constitutes the ovum or egg. It is received by the +fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube, which by this time has +grasped the ovary, and is by this tube slowly conveyed into the uterus, +to the inner surface of which it attaches itself, through the medium +of the membrane, which is formed by the uterus itself in the interim +between impregnation and the arriving of the ovum in the way I have just +mentioned. + + * The opinion that the spermatozoa of seminal filaments are + real animalculae is now abandoned, but it is held by Dr. + Carpenter and other authorities that they actually, as here + stated, penetrate into the interior of the ovum. "The nature + of impregnation," says Dr. Hermann, "is as yet unknown. In + all probability it is, above all, essential, in order that + it should occur, that one or more spermatozoa should + penetrate the ovum. At any rate, spermatozoa have been found + within the fecundated eggs of the most diverse species of + animals."--Elements of "Human Physiology," translated from + the 5th ed., by Dr. Gamgee, p. 534, 1875.--G. R. + +The idea that a seminal animalcule enters an ovum while it remains in +the ovary, was never before advanced to my knowledge; hence I consider +it incumbent upon me to advance some reason for the opinion. + +First, it is admitted on all hands that the seminal animalculae are +essential to impregnation, since "they cannot be detected when either +from age or disease the animal is rendered sterile." + +Second, the ovum is impregnated while it remains in the ovary. True, +those who never met with Dr. Dewees' theory, and who, consequently, have +adopted the idea that the semen is ejected into the uterus, as the least +improbable of any with which they were acquainted, have found it very +difficult to dispose of the fact that the ovum is impregnated in the +ovary, and have consequently presumed this is not generally the case. +They admit it is certainly so sometimes, and that it is difficult to +reject the conclusion that it is always so. Dr. Bostock--who, doubtless, +had not met with Dewees' theory at the time he wrote, and who admits +it impossible to conceive how the semen can find its way along the +Fallopian tubes, how it can find its way toward the ovary, farther, at +most, than into the uterus, and, consequently, cannot see how the ovum +can be impregnated into the ovary--says, "Perhaps the most rational +supposition may be that the ovum is transmitted to the uterus in the +unimpregnated state; but there are certain facts which seem almost +incompatible with this idea, especially the cases which not infrequently +occur of perfect foetuses having been found in the tubes, or where they +escaped them into the cavity of the abdomen. Hence it is demonstrated +the ovum is occasionally impregnated in the tubes (why did he not say +ovaria?), and we can scarcely resist the conclusion that it must always +be the case."..."Haller discusses this hypothesis (Bostock's 'most +natural supposition, perhaps') and decides against it."..."The +experiments of Cruikshank, which were very numerous, and appear to have +been made with the requisite degree of skill and correctness, led to +the conclusion that the rudiment of the young animal is perfected in +the ovarium."... "A case is detailed by Dr. Granville, of a foetus which +appears to have been lodged in the body of the ovarium itself, and is +considered by its author as a proof that conception always takes place +in this organ." + +The above quotations are from the third volume of Bostock's Physiology. + +Now, as the seminal animalculae are essential to impregnation, and as the +ovum is impregnated in the ovarium, what more probable conjecture can we +form than that an animalcule, as the real proper rudiment of the foetus, +enters the ovum, where, being surrounded with albuminous fluid with +which it is nourished, it gradually becomes developed? It may be noticed +that Leeuwenhoek estimates that ten thousand animalculae of the human +semen may exist in a space not larger than a grain of sand. There can, +therefore, be no difficulty in admitting that they may find their way +along exceedingly minute vessels from the vagina, not only to, but into +the ovum while situated in the ovarium. + +I think no one can be disposed to maintain that the animalculae merely +reaches the surface of the ovum and thus impregnates it. But possibly +some may contend that its sole office is to stimulate the ovum, and +in this way set going that train of actions which are essential to +impregnation. But there is no evidence in favor of this last idea, and +certainly it does not so well harmonize with the fact that the offspring +generally partakes more or less of the character of its male parent. As +Dr. Dewees says of the doctrine of sympathy, "It makes no provision +for the formation of mules; for the peculiarities of and likeness of +parents; and for the propagation of predisposition to disease from +parent to child; for the production of mulattoes," etc. + +Considering it important to do away with the popular and mischievous +error that the semen must enter the uterus to effect impregnation, I +shall, in addition to what has been already advanced, here notice the +experiments of Dr. Haighton. He divided the Fallopian tubes in numerous +instances, and that after the operation a foetus is never produced, but +that _corpora lutea_ were formed. The obvious conclusions from these +facts are that the semen does not traverse the Fallopian tubes to reach +the ovaria; yet, that the ovum becomes impregnated while in the ovarium +and, consequently, that the semen reaches the ovum in some way, except +by the uterus and Fallopian tubes. I may remark, however, that a _corpus +luteum_ is not positive proof that impregnation at some time or other +has taken place; yet they are so rarely found in virgins that they were +regarded as such proofs until the time of Blumenbach, a writer of the +present century.* + + * A _corpus luteum_ is a little yellowish body, formed in + the ovary by changes that take place in the Graafian vesicle + after it has burst and discharged its contents. _Corpora + lutea_ were formerly considered a sure sign of impregnation, + as they were thought to be developed only or chiefly in + cases of pregnancy, but it is now known that they occur in + all cases where a vesicle has been ruptured and an ovum + discharged; though they attain a larger, size and are longer + visible in the ovary when pregnancy takes place than when it + does not.--G. R. + +"Harvey and DeGraaf dissected animals at most every period after coition +for the express purpose of discovering the semen, but were never able +to detect the smallest vestige of it in the uterus in any one +instance."--Dewells Essay on Superfoetation. The fact of superfoetation +furnishes a very strong argument against the idea that the semen enters +the uterus in impregnation. + +A woman being impregnated while she is already impregnated constitutes +superfoetation. It is established beyond a doubt that such instances +have occurred, yet those who have supposed that it is necessary for the +semen to pass through the mouth of the uterus to produce conception have +urged that superfoetation could not take place, because, say they--and +they say correctly--"so soon as impregnation shall have taken place, +the _os uteri_ closes and becomes impervious to the semen ejected in +subsequent acts of coition." + +Dr. Dewees related two cases, evidently cases of superfoetation, that +occurred to his own personal knowledge. The first shows that, agreeable +to the old theory, the semen must have met with other difficulties +than a closed month of the uterus,--it must have passed through several +membranes, as well as the waters surrounding the foetus, to have reached +even the uterine extremity of a Fallopian tube. The second case I will +give in his own words: + +"A white woman, servant to Mr. H., of Abington township, Montgomery +county, was delivered about five and twenty years since of twins, one of +which was perfectly white, the other perfectly black. When I resided +in that neighborhood I was in the habit of seeing them almost daily and +also had frequent conversations with Mrs. H. respecting them. She was +present at their birth, so that no possible deception could have been +practiced respecting them. The white girl is delicate, fair-skinned, +light-haired and blue eyed, and is said very much to resemble the +mother. The other has all the characteristic marks of the African; short +of stature, flat, broad-nosed, thick-lipped, woolly-headed, flat-footed, +and projecting heels; she is said to resemble a negro they had on the +farm, but with whom the woman would never acknowledge an intimacy; but +of this there was no doubt, as both he and the white man, with whom her +connection was detected, ran from the neighborhood as soon as it was +known the girl was with child." + +I am aware that some have thought that they had actually discovered +semen in the uterus, while Ruysch, an anatomist of considerable +eminence, who flourished at the close of the seventeenth century, +asserted in the most unequivocal manner that he found the semen in its +gross white state in one of the Fallopian tubes of a woman, who died +very soon after, or during the act of coition; but says Dewees, "the +semen, after it has escaped from the penis, quickly loses its albuminous +appearance and becomes as thin and transparent as water. And we are +certain that Ruysch was mistaken. Some alteration in the natural +secretion of the parts was mistaken for semen. This was nowise difficult +for him to do, as he had a particular theory to support, and more +especially as this supposed discovery made so much for it. It is not +merely speculative when we say that some change in the natural secretion +of the parts may be mistaken for semen, for we have the testimony of +Morgani on our side. He tells us he has seen similar appearances in +several instances in virgins and others, who have been subject during +their lives to leucorrhae, and that it has been mistaken by some for +male semen." + +On the whole I would say, that in some instances, where the mouth of the +uterus is uncommonly relaxed, the semen may, as it were, accidentally +have found its way into it; but that is not generally the case, nor is +it essential to impregnation; and further, that whatever semen may at +any time be lodged in the uterus, has nothing to do with conception. It +is not consistent with analogy to suppose that the uterus has vessels +for absorbing the semen and conveying it to the ovaria, considering the +other important functions which we know it performs. + +The circumstances under which a female is most likely to conceive are, +first, when she is in health; second, between the ages of twenty-six +and thirty; third, after she has for a season been deprived of +those intercourses she had previously enjoyed; fourth, soon after +menstruating. Respect-ing this latter circumstance, Dr. Dewees remarks, +"Perhaps it is not erring greatly to say, that the woman is liable +to conceive at any part of the menstrual interval. It is generally +supposed, however, that the most favorable instant is immediately after +the catamenia have ceased." Perhaps this is so as a general rule, but +it is certainly liable to exceptions,* and he relates the following case +which occurred to his own notice: + + * This view, which concerns a question of the utmost + practical importance, is held at the present day by the + great physiologists. It is believed that although conception + may occur at other times, it is much more likely to happen + from intercourse a few days before or after the menstrual + periods; that is to say, during the time when ova are in + process of being ripened and detached from the ovaries, and + before they perish and are conveyed out of the body. "There + is good reason to believe," says Dr. Carpenter, "that in the + human female the sexual feeling becomes stronger at the + period of menstruation; and it is quite certain that there + is a greater aptitude for conception immediately before and + after that epoch, than there is at any immediate period. + This question has been made the subject of special inquiry + by M. Raciborski, who affirms that the exceptions to the + rule--that conception occurs immediately before or after or + during menstruation--are not more than six or seven per + cent. Indeed, in his latest work on the subject, he gives + the details of fifteen cases, in which the date of + conception could be accurately fixed, and the time of the + last appearance of the catamenia was also known, and in all + but one of them the correspondence between the periods was + very close."--"Human Physiology," p. 959. So, too, Dr. + Kirkes remarks, that "although conception is not confined to + the periods of menstruation, yet it is more likely to occur + within a few days after cessation of the menstrual flux than + at other times."--"Handbook of Physiology," p. 725. + +"The husband of a lady who was obliged to absent himself many months +in consequence of the embarrassment of his affairs, returned one night +clandestinely, his visit being only known to his wife, his mother, and +myself. The consequence of this visit was the impregnation of his wife. +The lady was at that time within a week of her menstrual period; but as +this did not fail to take place, she was led to hope that she had not +suffered by the visit of her husband. But her catamenia not appearing at +the next period, gave rise to a fear that she had not escaped! and the +birth of a child nine months and thirteen days from the night of the +clandestine visit proved her apprehensions too well grounded." + +I think this case is an exception to a general rule; and, furthermore, +favors an idea which reason and a limited observation, rather than +positive knowledge, has led me to advance, the above, namely, that a +woman is more likely to conceive, other things being the same, after +being deprived for a season of those intercourses she had previously +enjoyed. Had this lady's husband remained constantly at home, she would +probably either not have conceived at all, or have done so a fortnight +sooner than she did. + +This case is also remarkable for two other facts: one, "that a woman in +perfect health, and pregnant with a healthy child, may exceed the period +of nine months by several days; the other, that a check is not always +immediately given to the catamenial flow by an ovum being impregnated." +Probably it is not so generally so as many suppose. + +The term of utero-gestation, or the length of time from conception to +the commencement of labor, is not precisely determined by physiologists. +"It seems, however," says Dr. Dewees, "from the best calculations that +can be made, that nine calendar months, or forty weeks, approaches the +truth so nearly that we can scarcely need or desire more accuracy, could +it be obtained." Unquestionably, however, some cases exceed this period +by many days, or even weeks, and it has been a question much agitated, +how far this period is ever exceeded. It is a question of some moment +in a legal point of view. Cases are reported where the usual period +was exceeded by five or six months; cases, too, where the circumstances +attending them and the respectability of their reporters are such as to +command our belief. Dr. Dewees has paid much attention to this subject, +and he declares himself entirely convinced "that the commonly fixed +period may be extended from thirteen days to six weeks, under the +influence of certain causes or peculiarities of constitution."* + + * See tables in Dr. Bull's "Hints to Mothers," pp. 130-141. + --Publishers' note. + +These occasional departures from the general rule will, perhaps, be the +more readily admitted when we consider that they are not confined to the +human species. From the experiments of Tessier, it appears that the term +of utero-gestation varies greatly with the cow, sheep, horse, swine and +other animals to which his attention was directed. + +Properly connected with the subject of generation are the signs of +pregnancy. Dr. Dewees remarks that "our experience furnishes no certain +mark by which the moment conception takes place is to be distinguished. +All appeals by the women to particular sensations experienced at the +instant should be very guardedly received, for we are certain they +cannot be relied upon; for enjoyment and indifference are alike +fallacious. Nor are certain nervous tremblings, nausea, palpitation of +the heart, the sensation of something flowing from them during coition, +etc, more to be relied upon." Burns, however, says, "Some women feel, +immediately after conception, a peculiar sensation, which apprises them +of their situation, but such instances are not frequent, and generally +the first circumstances which lead a woman to suppose herself pregnant +are the suppression of the menses;" a fickle appetite, some sickness, +perhaps vomiting, especially in the morning; returning qualms, or +languor in the afternoon; she is liable to heartburn, and to disturbed +sleep. The breasts at first often become smaller and sometimes tender; +but about the third month they enlarge, and occasionally become painful. +The nipple is surrounded with an aureole or circle of a brown color, or +at least of a color sensibly deeper or darker than before. She loses her +looks, becomes paler, and the under part of the lower eyelid is often +somewhat of a leaden hue. The features become sharper, and sometimes +the whole body begins to emaciate, while the pulse quickens. In +many instances particular sympathies take place, causing salivation, +toothache, jaundice, etc. In other cases very little disturbance is +produced, and the woman is not certain of her condition until the time +of quickening, which is generally about four months from conception. It +is possible for a woman to mistake the effects of wind for the motion of +the child, especially if they have never borne children, and be anxious +for a family; but the sensation produced by wind in the bowels is not +confined to one spot, but is often felt at a part of the abdomen where +the motion of a child could not possibly be felt. Quite as frequently, +perhaps, do fleshy women think themselves dropsical, and mistake motions +of the child for movements of water within the abdominal cavity. The +motion of the child is not to be confounded with the sensation sometimes +produced by the uterus rising out of the pelvis, which produces the +feeling of fluttering. At the end of the fourth month, the uterus +becomes so large that it is obliged to rise out of the pelvis, and if +this elevation takes place suddenly, the sensation accompanying it is +pretty strong, and the woman at the time feels sick or faint, and in +irritable habits; even a hysterical fit may accompany it After this the +morning sickness and other sympathetic effects of pregnancy generally +abate, and the health improves. + +Very soon after impregnation, if blood be drawn and suffered to stand +a short time undisturbed, it will become sizy, of a yellowish or bluish +color, and somewhat of an oily appearance. But we cannot from such +appearances of the blood alone pronounce a woman pregnant, for a +suppression of the menses, accompanied with a febrile state, may +give the blood a like appearance as pregnancy, so also may some local +disease. Of the above-mentioned symptoms, perhaps there is no _one_ on +which we can place more reliance than the increased color of the circle +around the nipple.* + + * See "Advice to a Wife," P. H. Chavasse, pp. 115-124, where + many details are given.--Publishers' note. + +Six or eight weeks after conception, the most sure way of ascertaining +pregnancy is to examine the mouth and neck of the uterus, by way of the +vagina. The uterus will be found lower down than formerly, its mouth +is not directed so much forward as before impregnation, and is more +completely closed, and the neck is felt to be thicker, or increased in +circumference. When raised on the finger it is found to be heavier or +more resisting. Whoever makes this examination must have examined the +same uterus in an unimpregnated state, and retained a tolerably correct +idea of its feeling at that time, or he will be liable to uncertainty, +because the uterus of one woman is naturally different in magnitude from +another, and the uterus is frequently lower down than natural from other +causes than pregnancy.* + + * No one but a doctor, or one trained in physiology could, + of course, make any such examination with safety and + utility.--Publishers' note. + +It has not been fully ascertained how long it is after a fruitful +connection before an effect is produced upon the ovaria, that is before +any alteration could be discovered, were the female to be dissected. +But Brighton's experiments have established the fact, that with +rabbits, whose term of utero-gestation is but thirty days, no effect +is propagated to the ovaria until nearly fifty hours after coition; we +should judge, therefore, that with the human species it must be several +days, and it is generally estimated by physiologists that the ovum does +not reach the uterus until the expiration of twenty days from the time +of connection.* + + * "The time occupied in the passage of the ovum from the + ovary to the uterus," says Dr. Kirkes, "occupies probably + eight or ten days in the human female."--"Handbook of + Physiology," p. 741.--G. R. + +It is probable that in all cases in which any matter is absorbed from +any part of the animal system, some little time is required for such +matter, after its application, to stimulate and arouse the absorbent +vessels to action; hence it is probable that after the semen is lodged +in the vagina, it is many minutes, possibly some hours, before any part +of it is absorbed. + + + + +CHAPTER III. OF PROMOTING AND CHECKING CONCEPTION + +Sterility depends either on imperfect organization, or imperfect action +of the organs of generation. In the former cases, which are rare, the +menses do not generally appear, the breasts are not developed, and the +sexual desire is inconsiderable. There is no remedy in these cases. + +The action may be imperfect in several respects. The menses may be +obstructed or sparing, or they may be too profuse or frequent. It +is extremely rare for a woman to conceive who does not menstruate +regularly. Hence where this is the case the first step is to regulate +this periodical discharge. For this purpose the advice of a physician +will generally be required, for these irregularities depend upon such +various causes and require such a variety of treatment that it would +be inconsistent with the plan of this work to give instructions for +remedying them. A state of exhaustion or weakness of the uterine +system, occasioned by too frequent intercourse, is a frequent cause of +sterility. The sterility of prostitutes is attributed to this cause, but +I doubt it being the only one. With females who are apparently healthy, +the most frequent cause is a torpor, rather than weakness of the genital +organs. + +For the removal of sterility from this cause, I shall give some +instructions, and this I do the more readily because the requisite means +are such as will regulate the menses in many cases, where they do not +appear so early in life, so freely or so frequently as they ought. + +In the first place, it will generally be necessary to do something +toward invigorating the system by exercise in the open air, by +nourishing food of easy digestion, by sufficient dress, particularly +flannel, and especially by strict temperance in all things. With this +view, also, some scales which fall from the blacksmith's anvil, or some +steel filings may be put into old cider or wine (cider the best), and +after standing a week or so, as much may be taken two or three times a +day as can be borne without disturbing the stomach. + +All the while the bowels are to be kept rather open by taking from one +to three of _Pill rufi_ every night on going to bed. These pills consist +of four parts of aloes, two parts of myrrh, and one of saffron, by +weight. + +These measures having been regularly pursued until the system be brought +into a vigorous state, medicines which are more particularly calculated +to arouse the genital organs from a state of torpor may be commenced, +and continued for months if necessary. The cheapest, most simple (and +I am not prepared to say it is not the most effectual in many cases) is +cayenne. All the virtues of this article are not generally known even +to physicians. I know it does not have the effect upon the coats of the +stomach that many have conjectured. It may be taken in the quantity of +from one to two rising teaspoonsful, or even more, everyday up on food +or on any liquid vehicle. Another medicine of much efficacy is Dewees' +Volatile Tincture of Guaiac. It is generally kept by apothecaries, and +is prepared as follows: + +Take of Gum Guaicum, in powder, eight ounces; carbonate of Potash, or +of Soda, or (what will answer) Saleratus, three drachms; Allspice, in +powder, two ounces; any common spirits of good strength, two pounds, +or what is about the same two pints and a gill. Put all into a bottle, +which may be shaken now and then, and use of it may be commenced in +a few days. To every gill of this, at least a large teaspoon-ful of +Spirits of Ammonia is to be added. A teaspoonful is to be taken for +a dose, three times a day, in a glass of milk, cider or wine. It is +usually given before eating; but if it should chance to offend the +stomach when taken before breakfast, it may in this case be taken an +hour after. + +Dr. Dewees found this tincture, taken perhaps for months, the most +effectual remedy for painful menstruation, which is an obstinate +complaint. If there be frequent strong pulse, heat, thirst, florid +countenance, etc., it is not to be taken until these symptoms be removed +by low diet, a few doses of salts, and bleeding, if required. + +A third medicine for arousing the genital organs, is tincture of Spanish +Flies. But I doubt its being equal, in sterility, to the above mentioned +medicines, though it may exceed them in some cases, and may be tried if +these fail. A drachm of them may be put to two gills of spirits. Dose, +25 drops, in water, three times a day, increasing each one by two or +three drops, until some degree of stranguary occurs, then omit until +this pass off, as it will in a day or two. Should the stranguary be +severe, drink freely of milk and water, slippery elm, or flaxseed tea. + +In many cases of sterility, where the general health is considerably +in fault, and especially when the digestive organs are torpid, I should +have much faith in a Thomsonian course. It is calculated to arouse the +capillary vessels throughout the whole system, and thus to open the +secretions, to remove obstructions, and free the blood of those effete +and phlegmy materials which nature requires to be thrown off. The views +of the Thomsonian as to heat and cold appear to me unphilosophical. But +this has nothing to do with the efficiency of their measures. + +In relation to sterility, I would here bring to mind, what has before +been stated, that a woman is most likely to conceive immediately after +a menstrual turn. And now, also, let me suggest the idea that Nature's +delicate beginnings may be frustrated by the same means that put her a +going. This idea is certainly important when the woman is known to have +miscarried a number of times. Sterility is sometimes to be attributed +to the male, though he apparently be in perfect health. It would be an +interesting fact to ascertain if there be no seminal animalculae in these +cases; and whether medicines of any kind are available. + +It has been ascertained that a male and female may be sterile in +relation to each other, though neither of them be so with others. + +The foregoing measures for sterility are also suitable in cases of +impotency. This term, I believe, is generally con-lined to, and defined +as a want of desire or ability, or both on the part of the male; but I +see no good reason why it should not comprehend the case in which there +is neither desire nor pleasure with the female. Such females, it is +true, may be fruitful; but so, on the other hand, the semen may not have +lost its fecundating property. Impotency, at a young or middle age, +and in some situations in life especially, is certainly a serious +misfortune, to say the least of it. The whole evil by no means consists, +in every case, in the loss of a source of pleasure. All young people +ought to be apprised of the causes of it--causes which, in many +instances, greatly lessen one's ability of giving and receiving that +pleasure which is the root of domestic happiness. I shall allude to +one cause, that of premature, and especially solitary gratification, in +another place. Intemperance in the use of spirits is another powerful +cause. Even a moderate use of spirits, and also of tobacco, in any form, +have some effect It is a law of animal economy, that no one part of the +system can be stimulated or excited, without an expense of vitality, as +it is termed. The part which is stimulated draws the energy from other +parts. And hence it is, that close and deep study, as well as all +the mental passions when excessive, impair the venereal appetite. +All excesses, all diseases and modes of life which impair the general +health, impair this appetite, but some things more directly and +powerfully than others. + +As to the remedies for impotency, they are much the same as for +sterility. It is of the first importance that the mind be relieved +from all care and anxiety. The general health is to be improved by +temperance, proper exercise in the open air, cheerful company, change +of scenery, or some occupation to divert the mind without requiring much +exercise of it; nourishing food of easy digestion; flannel worn next to +the skin. The cold bath may be tried, and if it be followed by agreeable +feelings, it will do good. The bowels may be gently stimulated by +the pills before mentioned; and the preparation of iron also, already +mentioned, should be taken. + +To stimulate the genital organs more directly, cayenne, Dewees' tincture +of guaiac, or tincture of flies, may be taken. I have given directions +for making and taking the tincture of flies, chiefly because it is +esteemed one of the best remedies for impotency caused by or connected +with nocturnal emissions, to which I have before alluded. + +It is in cases where little or no pleasure, nor erection, attend these +emissions--cases brought on by debauchery, or in elderly persons--that +I would recommend tincture of flies, and the other measures above +mentioned. In some bad cases, enormous doses of this tincture are +required, say two or three hundred drops. Yet the best rule for taking +it is that already given, namely, begin with small doses, and gradually +increase until some stranguary be felt, or some benefit be received. In +this affection, as well as in all cases of impaired virility, the means +I have mentioned are to be pursued for a long time, unless relief be +obtained. These have cured after having been taken for a year or more +without the result. In all cases of impotency not evidently depending +upon disease of some part besides the genital organs, I should have much +confidence in blisters applied to the lower part of the spine. + +Occasional nocturnal emissions, accompanied with erection and pleasure, +are by no means to be considered a disease, though they have given +many a one such uneasiness. Even if they be frequent, and the system +considerably debilitated, if not caused by debauch, and the person be +young, marriage is the proper measure. + +There have been several means proposed and practiced for checking +conception. I shall briefly notice them, though a knowledge of the best +is what most concerns us. That of withdrawal immediately before emission +is certainly effectual, if practiced with sufficient care. But if (as +I believe) Dr. Dewees' theory of conception be correct, and as +Spallanzani's experiments show that only a trifle of semen, even largely +diluted with water, may impregnate by being injected into the vagina, it +is clear that nothing short of entire withdrawal is to be depended +upon. But the old notion that the semen must enter the uterus to +cause conception, has led many to believe that a partial withdrawal +is sufficient, and it is on this account that this error has proved +mischievous, as all important errors generally do. It is said by those +who speak from experience that the practice of withdrawal has an effect +upon the health similar to intemperance in eating. As the subsequent +exhaustion is probably mainly owing to the shock the nervous system +sustains in the act of coition, this opinion may be correct. It is +further said that this practice serves to keep alive those fine feelings +with which married people first come together. Still, I leave it for +every one to decide for himself whether this check be so far from +satisfactory as not to render some other very desirable. + +As to the baudruche, which consists in a covering used by the male, made +of very delicate skin, it is by no means calculated to come into general +use. It has been used to secure immunity from syphilitic affections. + +Another check which the old idea of conception has led some to recommend +with considerable confidence, consists in introducing into the vagina, +previous to connection, a very delicate piece of sponge, moistened with +water, to be immediately afterward withdrawn by means of a very narrow +ribbon attached to it, But, as our views would lead us to expect, this +check has not proved a sure preventive. As there are many little ridges +or folds in the vagina, we cannot suppose the withdrawal of the sponge +would dislodge all the semen in every instance. If, however, it were +well moistened with some liquid which acted chemically upon the semen, +it would be pretty likely to destroy the fecundating property of what +might remain. But if this check were ever so sure, it would, in my +opinion, fall short of being equal, all things considered, to the one +I am about to mention--one which not only dislodges the semen pretty +effectually, but at the same time destroys the fecundating property of +the whole of it. + +It consists in syringing the vagina immediately after connection with a +solution of sulphate of zinc, of alum, pearl-ash, or any salt that acts +chemically on the semen, and at the same time produces no unfavorable +effect on the female. + +In all probability a vegetable astringent would answer--as an infusion +of white oak bark, of red rose leaves, of nut-galls, and the like. A +lump of either of the above-mentioned salts, of the size of a chestnut, +may be dissolved in a pint of water, making the solution weaker or +stronger, as it may be borne without any irritation of the parts to +which it is applied. These solutions will not lose their virtues by age. +A female syringe, which will be required in the use of the check, may be +had at the shop of an apothecary for a shilling or less. If preferred, +the semen may be dislodged as far as it can be, by syringing with simple +water, after which some of the solution is to be injected, to destroy +the fecundating property of what may remain lodged between the ridges of +the vagina, etc. + +I know the use of this check requires the woman to leave her bed for +a few moments, but this is its only objection; and it would be +unreasonable to suppose that any check can ever be devised entirely free +of objections. In its favor it may be said, it costs nearly nothing; it +is sure; it requires no sacrifice of pleasure; it is in the hand of +the female; it is to be used after, instead of before the connection, +a weighty consideration in its favor, as a moment's reflection +will convince any one; and last, but not least, it is conducive to +cleanliness, and preserves the parts from relaxation and disease. The +vagina may be very much contracted by a persevering use of astringent +injections, and they are constantly used for this purpose in cases of +_procidentia uteri_, or a sinking down of the womb; subject as women are +to _fluor albus_, and other diseases of the genital organs, it is rather +a matter of wonder that they are not more so, considering the prevailing +practices. Those who have used this check (and some have used it, to my +certain knowledge with entire success for nine or ten years, and under +such circumstances as leave no room to doubt its efficacy) affirm that +they would be at the trouble of using injections merely for the purposes +of health and cleanliness. + +By actual experiment it has been rendered highly probable that pregnancy +may, in many instances, be prevented by injections of simple water, +applied with a tolerable degree of care. But simple water has failed, +and its occasional failure is what we should expect, considering the +anatomy of the parts, and the results of Spallanzani's experiments +heretofore alluded to. + +This much did I say respecting this check in the first edition of this +work. That is what I call the chemical check. The idea of destroying the +fecundating property of the semen was original, if it did not originate +with me. My attention was drawn to the subject by the perusal of "Moral +Physiology." Such was my confidence in the chemical idea that I sat down +and wrote this work in July, 1831. But the reflection that I did not +know that this check would never fail, and that if it should, I might +do someone an injury in recommending it, caused the manuscript to lie on +hand until the following December. Some time in November I fell in with +an old acquaintance, who agreeably surprised me by stating that to his +personal knowledge this last check had been used as above stated. I have +since conversed with a gentleman with whom I was acquainted, who stated +that, being in Baltimore some few years ago, he was there informed of +this check by those who have no doubt of its efficacy. From what has +as yet fell under my observation, I am not warranted in drawing any +conclusion. I can only say that I have never known it to fail. Such are +my views on the whole subject, that it would require many instances of +its reputed failure to satisfy me that such failures were not owing to +an insufficient use of it. I even believe that quite cold water alone, +if thoroughly used, would be sufficient. In Spallanzani's experiments +warm water was unquestionably used. As the seminal animalcule are +essential to impregnation, all we have to do is to change the condition +of, or, if you will, to kill them; and as they are so exceedingly small +and delicate, this is doubtless easily done, and hence cold water may be +sufficient. + +What has now been advanced in this work will enable the reader to judge +for himself or herself of the efficacy of the chemical or syringe check, +and time will probably determine whether I am correct in this matter. I +do know that those married females who have much desire to escape will +not stand for the little trouble of using this check, especially when +they consider that on the score of cleanliness and health alone it is +worth the trouble. + +A great part of the time no check is necessary, and women of experience +and observation, with the information conveyed by this work, will be +able to judge pretty correctly when it is and when it is not. They may +rest assured that none of the salts mentioned will have any deleterious +effect. The sulphate of zinc is commonly known by the name of white +vitriol. This, as well as alum, have been extensively used for +leucorrhae. Acetate of lead would doubtless be effectual--indeed, it +has proven to be so; but I do not recommend it, because I conceive it +possible that a long continued use of it might impair the instinct. + +I hope that no failures will be charged of efficacy of this check which +ought to be attributed to negligence or insufficient use of it. I will +therefore recommend at least two applications of the syringe, the sooner +the surer, yet it is my opinion that five minutes' delay would not prove +mischievous--perhaps not ten. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. REMARKS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE INSTINCT + +I scarcely need observe that by this instinct is meant the desire for +sexual intercourse. Blumenbach speaks of this instinct as "superior +to all others in universality and violence." Perhaps hunger is an +exception. But surely no instinct commands a greater proportion of our +thoughts or has a greater influence upon happiness for better or for +worse. "Controlled by reason and chastened by good feelings, it gives +to social intercourse much of its charm and zest, but directed +by selfishness or governed by force, it is prolific of misery and +degradation. In itself it appears to be the most social and least +selfish of all instincts. It fits us to give even while we receive +pleasure, and among cultivated beings the former power is even more +highly valued than the latter. Not one of our instincts perhaps affords +larger scope for the exercise of disinterestedness, or fitter play for +the best moral feelings of our race. Not one gives birth to relations +more gentle, more humanizing and endearing; not one lies more +immediately at the root of the kindliest charities and most generous +impulses that honor and bless human nature. It is a much more noble, +because less purely selfish, instinct than hunger or thirst. It is +an instinct that entwines itself around the warmest feelings and best +affections of the heart"--_Moral Physiology_. But too frequently its +strength, together with a want of moral culture, is such that it is not +"controlled by reason;" and consequently, from time immemorial, it +has been gratified, either in a mischievous manner, or to such an +intemperate degree, or under such improper circumstances, as to give +rise to an incalculable amount of human misery. For this reason it has, +by some, been regarded as a low, degrading and "carnal" passion, with +which family life must be ever at war. But in the instinct itself the +philosopher sees nothing deserving of degrading epithets. He sees not +that nature should war against herself. He believes that in savage +life it _is_, and in wisely organized society of duly enlightened and +civilized beings it should be the source of ten-fold more happiness than +misery. + +A part of the evil consequences to which this instinct is daily giving +rise under the present state of things, it belongs more particularly to +the moralist to point out; whilst of others it falls within the province +of the physician to treat. But let me first remark that physicians have +hitherto fallen far short of giving those instructions concerning this +instinct which its importance demands. In books, pamphlets, journals, +etc., they have laid much before the public respecting eating, drinking, +bathing, lacing, air, exercise, etc., but have passed by the still more +important subject now before us, giving only here and there spine faint +allusion to it This, it is true, the customs, not to say pruderies, +of the age have compelled them to do, in publications designed for the +public eye, yet, in some small work, indicated by its title to be for +private perusal, they might, with the utmost propriety, have embodied +much highly useful instruction in relation to this instinct. + +This instinct is liable to be gratified at improper times, to an +intemperate degree, and in a mischievous manner. + +True philosophy dictates that this and all other appetites be so +gratified as will most conduce to human happiness--not merely the +happiness attending the gratification of one of the senses, but all the +senses--not merely sensual happiness, but intellectual--not merely the +happiness of the individual, but of the human family. + +First.--Of the times at which this instinct ought not to be gratified. +With females it ought not to be gratified until they are seventeen or +eighteen years of age, and with males not until they are a year or two +older. The reason is, if they refrain until these ages, the passion will +hold out the longer, and they will be able to derive much more pleasure +from it in after life, than if earlier gratified, especially to any +great extent A due regard to health also enjoins with most persons some +restraint on this instinct--indeed, at all times, but especially for +a few years after the above-mentioned ages. It ought not to be rashly +gratified at first. Begin temperately, and as the system becomes +more mature, and habituated to the effects naturally produced by the +gratification of this instinct, it will bear more without injury. Many +young married people, ignorant of the consequences, have debilitated +the whole system--the genital system in particular; have impaired their +mental energies; have induced consumptive and other diseases; have +rendered themselves irritable, unsocial, melancholy and finally much +impaired, perhaps destroyed their affection for each other by an undue +gratification of the reproductive instinct. In almost all diseases, +if gratified at all, it should be very temperately. It ought not to be +gratified during menstruation, as it might prove productive to the man +of symptoms similar to those of syphilis, but more probably to the woman +of a weakening disease called _fluor albus_. In case of pregnancy a +temperate gratification for the first two or three months may be of no +injury to the woman or the coming offspring. But it ought to be known +that the growth of the foetus in utero may be impaired, and the seeds +of future bodily infirmity and mental imbecility of the offspring may be +sown by much indulgence during utero-gestation or pregnancy, especially +when the woman experiences much pleasure in such indulgences. + +Having already glanced at some of the bad effects of an undue +gratification of this instinct, I have but little more to offer +under the head of Intemperate Degree. It will be borne in mind that +intemperance in this thing is not to be decided by numbers, but that it +depends on circumstances; and what would be temperance in one, may be +intemperance in another. And with respect to an individual, too, what +he might enjoy with impunity, were he a laboring man, or a man whose +business requires but little mental exercise, would, were he a student, +unfit him for the successful prosecution of his studies. Intemperance +in the gratification of this instinct has a tendency to lead to +intemperance in the use of ardent spirits. The languor, depression of +spirits, in some instances faintness and want of appetite, induced by +intemperate gratification, call loudly for some stimulus, and give a +relish to spirits. Thus the individual is led to drink. This inflames +the blood, the passions, and leads to further indulgence. This again +calls for more spirits; and thus two vicious habits are commenced, +which mutually increase each other. Strange as it may appear to +those unacquainted with the animal economy, an intemperate indulgence +sometimes gives rise to the same disease--so far as the name makes it +so--that is frequently cured by a temperate indulgence; viz, nocturnal +emissions. + +Every young married woman ought to know that the male system is +exhausted in a far greater degree than the female by gratification. +It seems, indeed, to have but little effect, comparatively, upon some +females. But with respect to the male, it has been estimated by Tissot +that the loss of one ounce of semen is equal in its effects upon the +system of forty ounces of blood. As it respects the immediate effects, +this estimation, generally speaking, may not be too great. But a man +living on a full meat diet might, doubtless, part with fifty ounces of +semen in the course of a year, with far less detriment to the system +than with 2,000 ounces of blood. It is a fact, that mode of living, +independent of occupation, makes a great difference with respect to what +the system will bear. A full meat diet, turtles, oysters, eggs, spirits, +wine, etc., certainly promote the secretion of semen, and enable the +system to bear its emission. But a cool vegetable and milk diet calms +all the passions, the venereal especially. Most men adopting such a diet +as this will suffer no inconvenience in extending the intervals of their +gratification to three or four weeks; on the contrary, they will enjoy +clear intellect, and a fine flow of spirits. This is the diet for men of +literary pursuits, especially the unmarried. + +As to the mischievous manner, it consists in the unnatural habit of +onanism, or solitary gratification; it is an antisocial and demoralizing +habit, which, while it proves no quietus to the mind, impairs the bodily +powers as well as mental, and not infrequently leads to insanity. + +While the gratification of the reproductive instinct in such manner +as mentioned leads to bad consequences, a temperate and natural +gratification, under proper circumstances, is attended with good, +besides the mere attendant pleasure, which alone is enough to recommend +such gratification. I admit that human beings might be so constituted +that if they had no reproductive instinct to gratify, they might enjoy +health; but being constituted as they are, this instinct cannot be +mortified with impunity. It is a fact universally admitted, that +unmarried females do not enjoy so much good health and attain to so +great an age as the married; notwithstanding that the latter are +subject to the diseases and pains incident to child-bearing. A temperate +gratification promotes the secretions, and the appetite for food; calms +the restless passions; induces pleasant sleep; awakens social feeling; +and adds a zest to life which makes one conscious that life is worth +preserving. + + + + +APPENDIX + + [I here connect with this work, by way of Appendix, the + following extract from an article which appeared in the + Boston Investigator, a paper which, _mirabile dictu_, is so + "crazy" as to be open to the investigation of all subjects + which mightily concern mankind.] + +The only seeming objection of much weight that can be brought against +diffusing a knowledge of checks is, that it will serve to increase +illegal connections. Now, this is exactly the contrary effect of that +which those who have diffused such knowledge most confidently believe +will arise from it. To diminish such connections is indeed one of the +grand objects of this publication,--an object which laws and prisons +cannot, or, at least, do not, accomplish. Why is there so much +prostitution in the land? The true answer to the question is not, and +never will be, Because the people have become acquainted with certain +facts in physiology; it is because there are so many unmarried men and +women,--men of dissipation and profligacy, owing to their not having +married in their younger days and settled down in life. But why are +there so many unmarried people in the country? Not because young hearts +when they arrive at the age of maturity do not desire to marry; but +because prudential considerations interfere. The young man thinks: I +cannot marry yet; I cannot support a family; I must make money first, +and think of a matrimonial settlement afterward. And so it is, that +through fear of having a family, before they have made a little headway +in the world, and of being thereby compelled to "tug at the oar of +incessant labor throughout their lives," thousands of young men do not +marry, but go abroad into the world and form vicious acquaintances +and practices. The truth, then, is this,--there is so much illegal +connection in the land, because the people had not, twenty years ago, +that very information which, it would seem, some, doubtless through want +of due reflection, are apprehensive will increase this evil. I might +quote pages to the point from "Every Woman's Book," but I fear my +communication would be too lengthy. I content myself with a few lines. +"But when it has become the custom here as elsewhere to limit the number +of children, so that none need have more than they wish, no man will +fear to take a wife; all will marry while young; debauchery will +diminish; while good morals and religious duties will be promoted." + +It has been asked if a general knowledge of checks would not diminish +the general increase of population? I think that such would not be +the result in this country until such result would be desirable. In +my opinion the effect would be a good many more families (and, on the +whole, as many births), but not so many overgrown and poverty-stricken +ones. It has been said, It is better to let Nature take her course. Now, +in the broadest sense of the word "Nature," I say so too. In this sense +there is nothing unnatural in the universe. But if we limit the sense +of the word Nature so as not to include what we mean by art, then is +civilized life one continued warfare against Nature. It is by art that +we subdue the forest; by art we contend against the elements; by art we +combat the natural tendency of disease, etc. + +As to the outrageous slander which here and there one has been heard +to utter against the fair sex, in saying that fear of conception is +the foundation of their chastity, it must be the sentiment of a "carnal +heart," which has been peculiarly unfortunate in its acquaintances. "To +the pure, all things are pure." Chastity, as well as its opposite, is +in a great degree constitutional; and ought, in a like degree, to be +regarded as a physical property, if I may so say, rather than a moral +quality. Where the constitution is favorable a very indifferent degree +of moral training is sufficient to secure the virgin without the +influence of the above-mentioned fear; but where it is the reverse you +may coop up the individual in the narrow dark cage of ignorance and +fear, as you will, but still you must watch. An eminent moralist has +said, "That chastity which will not bear the light [of physiology] is +scarcely worth preserving." But verily, I believe there is very little +such in the market. What there be is naturally short-lived, and, after +its demise, the unhappily constituted individual stands in great need of +this light to save her from ignominy. What might it not have prevented +in the Fall River affair? And if one of two things must happen--either +the destruction of fecundity or the destruction of life--which of the +two is the greater evil? In these cases alone this light is calculated +to do sufficient good to counterbalance all the evil that would arise +from it; so that we should have its important advantages to the married +in a political, a domestic and a medical point of view, as so much +clear gain. This, of course, is my opinion; but since I have probably +reflected more upon the subject than all the persons concerned in my +imprisonment put together, until it can be shown that I have not as +clear a head and as pure a heart as any of them, I think it entitled to +some weight. + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Fruits of Philosophy, by Charles Knowlton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRUITS OF PHILOSOPHY *** + +***** This file should be named 38185.txt or 38185.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/8/38185/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |