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diff --git a/38154-8.txt b/38154-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb82e66 --- /dev/null +++ b/38154-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3185 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Text Books of Art Education, Book IV (of 7), by +Hugo B. Froehlich and Bonnie E. Snow + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Text Books of Art Education, Book IV (of 7) + +Author: Hugo B. Froehlich + Bonnie E. Snow + +Release Date: November 27, 2011 [EBook #38154] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEXT BOOKS--ART EDUCATION, V4 *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Alex Gam and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: +Bold text will be displayed using the equals sign: =This is bold text.= + + + + +These books were planned in a series of conferences and consultations +with leading art teachers and educators, among whom were the following: + +Miss Bonnie E. Snow, Formerly Director of Art, Public Schools, +Minneapolis, Minn. + +Miss Wilhelmina Seegmiller, Director of Art, Public Schools, +Indianapolis, Ind. + +Miss Harriette L. Rice, Director of Art, Public Schools, Providence, R. +I. + +Mr. Walter Scott Perry, Director of the Art Department, Pratt Institute, +Brooklyn, N.Y. + +Mrs. M. E. Riley, Director of Art, Public Schools, St. Louis, Mo. + +Dr. Hugo Münsterberg, Professor of Psychology, Harvard University. + +Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, Department of Education, University of North +Dakota. + +Mr. John S. Clark, Boston, Mass. + + + + + TEXT BOOKS OF + ART EDUCATION + + BOOK IV. FOURTH YEAR + + BY + + HUGO B. FROEHLICH + + FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN PRATT INSTITUTE + BROOKLYN, N.Y. + + AND + + BONNIE E. SNOW + + FORMERLY SUPERVISOR OF DRAWING IN THE + PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. + +[Illustration] + + THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL COMPANY + + NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO + + Copyright, 1904, By + THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL COMPANY + + Copyright, 1906, By + THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL COMPANY + + + + +Preface. + + +In presenting to the public the series of Text Books of Art Education, of +which this volume is a part, it is desired to state briefly the aims and +purposes of the plan upon which the series is based. + +It is not necessary to review the history of art education in public +schools, nor to present argument for the introduction or retention of +drawing as an important study. These questions have been exhaustively +treated, and need no fresh discussion. The school that does not offer to +its community some kind of systematic art instruction is today an +exception. + +Education along specific lines should conform to the philosophy which is +accepted as fundamental in general educational work. The educational +principles adhered to in these books are, therefore, in accord with the +psychological laws of child development which are endorsed by the leading +educators of the present time, and the effort has been made to work out +in these books a series of lessons that shall be not only educationally +sound and artistically correct, but at the same time adapted in the +different stages to the child's ability to comprehend and his power to +express. + +With this end in view, the lessons in the Text Books of Art Education +have been divided into three groups which may be known as the +Observational or Objective Group, in which the study of things is the +aim; the Subjective Group, in which the study of principles or laws of +beauty is the aim; and the Creative Group, in which the application of +accumulated knowledge and ability is the aim. In furthering the work of +the first group, the topics so familiar to the art teacher of our modern +schools are treated--landscape, plants, life, and still life. In the +second group are presented the principles of perspective, of industrial +drawing, of color harmony, and most important of all, the principles of +pure design. In the third group are placed creative exercises in +composition, in decorative design, and in many forms of manual training. +While the same division of work is kept throughout the course, the manner +of presentation differs greatly in the different years. In the primary +grades, the work is largely objective in its character. Children are +taught to see and to do. In the intermediate grades, the children are +introduced to the principles of arrangement, Balance, Rhythm, and +Harmony, which have been adopted as the working basis of this series of +books, and in the light of which the subjective and creative work of the +upper grades is planned. As the work progresses through the different +years, the subjective and creative sides are more and more emphasized, +and the study of objects is felt to be merely a means necessary to an +end. + +All through the series, there is a definite, logical progression, so that +in schools where these ideas are put into practice, there should be no +ground for the complaint that the work of the intermediate and grammar +grades falls below the work of the primary grades, in general excellence. + +These books are the outgrowth of years of experience in practical fields +of work. They have been prepared with a keen appreciation of the +obstacles which have confronted the art teacher in public education, and +with an intimate knowledge of the child mind, in its various stages of +development. Never before has an attempt been made to put into the hands +of children a text of lessons in art. The illustrations serve the double +purpose of illuminating the text and of furnishing the children with +standards of work in the various mediums. + +For the Theory of Color Relations used in these books, special +acknowledgment is due to Dr. Denman W. Ross, of Harvard University. The +lessons in design are preparatory to the fuller exposition in the upper +books of Dr. Ross's principles of arrangement--Balance, Rhythm, and +Harmony. + +We are indebted to Messrs. Little, Brown, and Company, for permission to +use Miss Dickinson's poem, "The Railway Train," on page 58, and to Mr. +Charles G. Blanden for the lines from his poem, "Plea of the Poets," used +on the page facing page 1. The lines used on page 16 are from James +Russell Lowell's "Epistle to George William Curtis," and the verses on +page 30 are from "A Boy's Song," by James Hogg. + + + + +Contents + + + PAGE + +OUT OF DOORS (Landscape) 1 + +Use of a Finder in Selecting Material for Landscapes; Autumn, Winter +and Spring Effects in Color and in Value; The Same Landscape Expressed +in Different Arrangements of Values; Trees in Foliage and with Bare +Branches; Pictures from our Surroundings; Study of a Masterpiece; Home +Exercises. + + +GROWTH, BLOSSOM, FRUIT (Flowers and Plants) 16 + +Bittersweet, Iris, and Geranium in Color; Use of the Finder in +Sketching most Interesting Part of a Growth for a Sketch; Flowers and +Leaves in Different Positions; Growth of Stems, Joints, Buds, Leaves, +and Sprays; Root Growths; Use of the Accented Outline; Composition from +Plant Forms. + + +LIFE AND ACTION (The Human Figure, Animals, and Birds) 30 + +Brush Studies in Color from Pose; The Same Pose in Different Positions; +Different Steps in Pose Drawing; Proportion and Action Shown in Leading +Lines or "Skeleton" Figures; Hands and Feet; Dog and Pigeon in Leading +Lines, in Outline and in Values; Study of a Masterpiece; Home +Exercises. + + +BEAUTY IN COMMON THINGS (Still Life) 44 + +Beauty in Common Objects; A Bowl in Four Different Mediums; Principles +of Grouping; The Accented Outline in Object Drawing; Japanese Lanterns +Studied in Values; Use of the Finder in Making Beautiful Compositions; +Home Exercises. + + +APPARENT DIRECTION OF EDGES AND OUTLINES (Perspective) 58 + +The Circle in Three Positions; Foreshortened Surfaces in Common +Objects; How to Test Foreshortened Surfaces and Converging Lines; +Foreshortened Circle seen in Beautiful Historic Baptismal Font. + + +MEASURING AND PLANNING (Geometry) 66 + +Making Simple Tools with which to Measure and Plan; Drawing and +Dividing Circular, Square, Oblong, and Triangular Spaces; How to Place +Decorations within these Divisions; Planning of Patterns for Portfolio, +Box, Envelopes, and Pocket-book; Making Case for Newspaper Clippings; a +Simple Alphabet and How to Draw its Plan; Initial Letters. + + +DESIGN 76 + +The Color Chart Related to the Scale of Values; Colors in Full +Intensity; the Neutral Value Scale, Showing Seven Steps Between Black +and White; Dividing a Space into Large and Small Areas; Use of Values +in Expressing Light and Dark Effects; Space Divisions to Form Plaids; +Design Motives from Nature, and Their Application in Simple Rhythms and +Balanced Designs; Color Schemes from Nature, and their Application; a +Portfolio whose Beauty Depends on Arrangement and Proportion of Values; +Pottery Forms. + + + + + "_Makers of song, did you say? + Finders of song, be it told: + The music we fashion today + Is centuries old._ + + _Only we look and we see, + Only we hear and we sing: + Only we find in the tree + And we find in the spring + The beautiful thing._" + + + + +OUT OF DOORS + + +[Illustration] + + HE OWNS THE BIRD SONGS OF THE HILLS; + THE LAUGHTER OF THE APRIL RILLS; + AND HIS ARE ALL THE DIAMONDS SET + IN MORNING'S DEWY CORONET,-- + AND HIS THE DUSK'S FIRST MINTED STARS + THAT TWINKLE THROUGH THE PASTURE-BARS + AND LITTER ALL THE SKIES AT NIGHT + WITH GLITTERING SCRAPS OF SILVER LIGHT; + THE RAINBOW'S BAR, FROM RIM TO RIM + IN BEATEN GOLD, BELONGS TO HIM. + + JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY. + + +[Illustration] + +The Out-of-Door World in Autumn. + +Have you ever been in the country, or in a city park, after the green of +the maple-trees has turned to scarlet and gold? If you have noticed the +trees in their gorgeous hues, you have probably found that the grass, +also, shows patches of color not seen in the summer-time. The sky is +often very blue, and its color is reflected in the quiet water of a lake +or pool, or in a gently flowing stream. A smoky haze hangs over the +distant trees, and softens, though it does not hide, their brilliant +coloring. + +Study the sketch on this page. Then paint an autumn picture. Show a +bright blue sky, a field or hillside,--once green, but now touched with +russet and brown,--a path or a pool of water, distant foliage, and one +large tree. Save your picture to use in another lesson. + + +[Illustration] + +Making and Using a Finder. + +If you look on page 4 you will see three little pictures that seem quite +complete in themselves, and yet look like parts of the picture on page 2. +The upper sketch shows the same big tree by the stream, and the lower +right sketch has been taken from the left side of the large picture. A +small part near the middle of the large picture was then selected, and +this part was enlarged to make the third sketch shown. + +You can often find some parts of your large sketches that are more +interesting than others. On this page are some drawings of a little +device which will help you to do this. It is called a finder, and is +simply an oblong opening cut from a piece of paper so as to leave all +around it a margin an inch or two wide. It looks like a little mat for a +picture, or like a window-frame. Two square corners or L-shaped pieces of +paper can be placed together so that the size of the opening can be +changed by pushing the uprights nearer together or by pulling them +farther apart. An adjustable finder like this (shown in the right sketch) +can be used in a number of ways. + +Draw on a sheet of 9 x 12 paper, an oblong seven inches high and three, +four, or five inches wide. Around the oblong, which is to be cut out, +leave a margin of at least an inch. Slip this large finder over the +autumn sketch you made in the lesson on page 2, until you have found the +part you like best. Cut this part out, and mount it on a large sheet of +fresh paper, leaving a pleasing margin. The class sketches will make a +fine exhibition. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + +[Illustration] + +Shapes and Growth of Trees. + +No one can study out-of-door pictures without wishing to know how to draw +trees. This can best be done by observing from a distance some tree as it +grows. + +The pictures on this page tell you plainly that the willow and the +sycamore, or buttonwood tree, were chosen for the sketches, yet not a +single leaf is shown as you would see it if you held it in your hand. +What is it, then, that tells the story? It is the truthful drawing of the +big things--the shape of the mass of foliage, the height and width of the +trunk below the boughs, the size and direction of the branches, and the +way they grow from the trunk. + +In the sketch of the willow, the many small branches are plainly seen, +and you can easily understand why it is that the willow bends and sways +so gracefully in the wind. The brush strokes show something of the +slender, pointed character of the leaves. + +The sycamore is not round and regular like the willow, but shows patches +of foliage and stretches of bare branches in a ragged and uneven way. Its +shape is very different from the shape of the willow. + +Make a large drawing with ink or crayon, from some tree out of doors. + + +[Illustration] + +Shapes of Bare Trees. + +Winter is the best time in all the year to study the growth of trees. +Although the leaves are gone and the branches are bare, the trees +themselves are beautiful. + +It is well to study a tree that is at some distance from you, so that its +dark branches may be seen against the light sky. The willow and the +sycamore are shown without their leaves on this page, and their shapes +stand out clearly. You can see the strong trunk, and the branches that +spring from it. The trunk of the sycamore becomes smaller as it throws +off its boughs, and all the branches and twigs taper at the end. + +Measure the height of the sycamore tree in the sketch,--from the topmost +twig to the ground,--and see what part of the whole height the trunk +below the foliage measures. Is it half as high, or only a fourth or a +third? Notice trees out of doors and see how much of their height is +above the trunk. Children sometimes draw trees with tall, stiff trunks +and short, stunted tops. + +Study and draw a beautiful tree without leaves. Make it of large size and +use brush or crayon. Try to tell in your picture just what tree you +studied. + +[Illustration] + +What fun it is to gather nuts in the fall! + +See the children in the picture. One boy "clubs" the tree until the nuts +come rattling down and are half hidden in the grass and dry leaves. + +Recall some pleasant time you have had gathering nuts or apples. Draw a +picture showing where you were, what you gathered, and the kind of a tree +on which the fruit grew. Show distant bushes and trees, and place the +main tree so that its branches rise against the sky. + +Make your picture tell an interesting story. + + +[Illustration] + +Sunset in Winter. + +When you painted autumn landscapes, you thought, no doubt, that the world +was more beautiful in October than at any other season. Perhaps it seemed +to you that the cold, snow-covered earth could never be so interesting to +paint. + +Look at this winter picture. The sky is bright and the distant trees look +violet. Did you ever notice that the snow at sunset does not seem to be +white as you look across it to the horizon? If you hold a sheet of white +paper in your hand and glance from that across the snow-covered fields at +sunset, you will see that the whiteness of the snow has changed to +violet-gray. Sometimes, too, the snow seems to be tinted by the rosy +light of the sunset. As you study out-of-door objects, you will find that +their colors appear different at different times of the day, or as they +are near you or far away. + +Paint a winter sunset. Try to see and to paint truthfully the color of +distant trees, snow-covered ground, a far-off steeple or tower, or a tree +near at hand. + + +[Illustration] + +A Sunset Picture in Values. + +We can show with black crayons, with charcoal, or with brush and ink many +pictures of out-of-doors that are rich in color. Even a sunset sky can be +shown in grays, so that we will think of the lovely colors that the +grays, or values, express. + +Here is our winter sunset, shown in values. You will remember that by +values we mean the different degrees of light and dark used to express +color. Compare the two sunset pictures. The light gray-violet of the snow +is shown in a light gray or neutral value in the picture on this page. +The trees are very much darker, and the sky is neither as light as the +snow nor as dark as the trees. The little rabbit makes a dark spot in the +snow, and the foreground--that part of the picture that seems to be +nearest--is white. You see that it has taken about four values to express +the colors seen. + +Draw in values the sunset picture you painted in the lesson on page 8. +Which of all the colors used do you think should be shown in darkest +value? Which in lightest? Make your picture large, and use charcoal, +crayon, or brush and ink. Then with your finder select that part of your +picture which you like best. Cut out this part, and mount it neatly. + + +[Illustration] + +A Different Arrangement of Values. + + "O Moon! in the night I have seen you sailing, + And shining so round and low!" + +When you are out of doors or are looking through a window at some of +nature's pictures, think how you would paint or draw in values the +different things you see. Notice which objects appear darkest, which +lightest, and which might be expressed by a "half-way" gray, or middle +value. If you learn to see these light and dark effects in the world +about you, pictures, photographs, and out-of-door scenes will become +matters of great interest to you. + +On this page is the same little piece of the world we saw under sunset +skies. The sun has gone to rest, and the bright colors in the sky have +given place to darkness. But in the midst of the darkness the moon rises, +and sheds its white light over the sleeping world. How beautiful +"out-of-doors" is now! + +See the darker value of the sky at night, and the pleasing contrast made +by the big white moon. A soft gray shadow is over all the snow. The +moonlight on the snow does not dazzle our eyes, as the sunshine does by +day. + +Paint with ink or draw with crayon a moonlight picture. + + +[Illustration] + +A Beautiful Composition. + +In painting or drawing a picture, it is not enough to put down a number +of shapes or lines without regard to their relation to each other. We +must arrange or compose them, just as we arrange furniture in a room. We +must study to place things where they will best satisfy our idea of +beauty. + +In the picture on this page, painted by Alexander Harrison, an American +artist, the horizon line is placed above the middle, so that the artist +might show how the waves broke on the shore, and sent rippling, flowing +lines of water along the shining sand. The motion of the water is as +regular as if it were keeping time to music. Can you see how the big +curves seem to mark the beats? + +Notice, too, the arrangement of values--the light foam, the darker sky +and ocean, the wet sand, and the solid mainland. Only four things are +shown--sky, moon, sea, and shore--but they are so drawn as to give the +necessary variety. + + +Pictures from Our Own Surroundings. + +=Out of Doors in the City.= If all the beauty of out-of-doors were in the +country, what a sad thing it would be for the boys and girls who spend +their lives in cities and towns! It is true that we think of the country +when we speak of the landscape, and many artists go there when they wish +to gather material for pictures. But often the things you see out of +doors in a city or town are as interesting to sketch as country +landscapes. + +=Keeping a Journal.= Did you ever hear of a person who kept a journal, +and wrote in it the interesting things that happened from day to day? +Have you ever tried it yourself? You need not think your life dull +because you do not take journeys or see great sights or do unusual deeds. +Some of the best journals we know about have been kept by people who +lived quiet lives. They wrote about the little things they saw and heard +and did. It was the way in which they told these things that made their +journals as interesting as storybooks. + +=An Artist's Journal.= Artists and people who love to make pictures keep +a kind of journal that they call a sketch-book. They are always on the +lookout for material for pictures. They see much more than people do who +are not trained to observe. + +=Some Leaves from a Sketch-book.= Look at the sketches on page 13. They +are leaves from an artist's sketch-book. He tells of a shady road winding +by a little church in a village; of freight-boats on a canal or river; of +a view from a high window in a city office building; of a fine stone +arch, and beyond it a bridge with a railroad train rushing across it; of +a fountain in a city park, and of a grimy, noisy factory, with its long +low roofs, its smoke-stacks, and its line of waiting cars. Have you +thought of looking for pictures in places like these? + +=Pictures in Your Own Town.= Where are the interesting places in the town +in which you live? Is the town near the water? Then there are boats and +bridges. Is there a machine shop, a mill, or a quarry? Then you will find +something to draw, as interesting as the factory in the artist's sketch. +Does a railroad run through the place? There is the station, the switch +tower, the engines and the freight cars. Or, perhaps there is a +blacksmith shop or a trolley car. Keep your eyes open, and find the +things in your town that show the life of the people. Tomorrow, bring a +sketch showing some picture you have seen in the place where you live. + +[Illustration] + + +[Illustration] + +The Colors of Springtime. + +One of the earliest shrubs that blossoms in the springtime is the +forsythia. Its blossoms cover the whole bush before the leaves come, +making a mass of yellow in the midst of the green grass. Yellow and green +are favorite colors of springtime. + +Choose some flowering tree or shrub to paint in a picture. In painting a +landscape like the one on this page, one good way is first to draw with a +brush line and very light violet color, the shapes that must be carefully +placed. Then add the sky and foreground washes and drop on the damp paper +the colors you see in the bush or tree. Draw the trunk of the tree, or +the branches of the shrub, in dark gray-violet. A path or road may be +wiped out of the foreground with the nearly dry brush, and a little red +and yellow added to give the color of sandy ground. + +Paint a spring landscape, not like the one in the book. + + +Home Exercises. + +1. Draw an elm-tree as it looks in winter. + +2. Paint a maple-tree as it looks in October. + +3. Use a large finder on one or both of your tree sketches. Decide in +which space the tree looks best. Then cut out this selection and mount +your picture neatly. + +4. Show a snow man in a winter landscape. + +5. Paint a sunset on the lake or river. + +6. Show in a picture the time of year you like best. + +7. Make a brush drawing to illustrate: + + "'Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?' + 'Over the sea.' + 'Lady Moon, Lady Moon, whom are you loving?' + 'All who love me.'" + +[Illustration] + + + + +[Illustration: + +GROWTH · BLOSSOM · FRUIT + + "I know the charm of hillside, field, and wood, + Of lake and stream and the sky's downy brood, + Of roads sequestered rimmed with sallow sod, + But friends with hardhack, aster, goldenrod, + These were my earliest friends, and latest, too, + Still unestranged, whatever fate may do." +] + + +[Illustration] + +Green Things Growing. + + Oh, the green things growing, the green things growing, + The faint sweet smell of the green things growing! + I should like to live, whether I smile or grieve, + Just to watch the happy life of my green things growing. + + Oh, the fluttering and the pattering of those green things growing! + How they talk, each to each, when none of us are knowing; + In the wonderful white of the weird moonlight + Or the dim dreamy dawn when the cocks are crowing. + + I love, I love them so,--my green things growing! + And I think that they love me, without false showing; + For by many a tender touch, they comfort me so much, + With the soft mute comfort of green things growing. + + Dinah Maria Mulock. + + +[Illustration] + +Brush Studies of Grasses. + +Grasses and sedges are some of the "green things" that need but little +encouragement. In fact, they grow to greatest size in some neglected +fence corner or in places so wet that other plants do not flourish. +Grasses lack the bright colors of flowers, but they are fine studies to +draw, because of their simple, direct growth and the interesting shapes +of their leaves and heads. + +You will enjoy brush drawings, using color or ink, of different kinds of +grasses. Select three or four of large size and place them in a bottle. +They will then fall gracefully into a natural position. Behind the bottle +place a tall background of some kind, so that the shapes of the grasses +will be clearly seen. Use paper large enough to show in life size the +grass heads and part of the leaves and stems. Before beginning the study, +practice drawing grass leaves with one stroke of the brush, without first +outlining their shapes. Then draw from the arrangement before you, +working freely with the brush. In studying the leaves, notice where the +greatest width is seen. Observe the size and direction of the stems, and +draw them so that they express the upright growth and the grace of the +plant. Grass stems are not like the stems of flowering plants or vines. +Try to see and express the difference. + + +Selecting with a Finder the Most Interesting Part of a Sketch. + +[Illustration] + +Do you see what has been done with the drawing of grasses? A finder was +moved about on the sketch until a pleasing arrangement of shapes appeared +within the opening. You will notice it was not necessary to show the +whole of each leaf and head. The sketch on this page would be quite +satisfactory, if it were cut out along the inner edges of the finder and +mounted upon another sheet of paper. + +Brush drawings of grasses and common weeds are beautiful when drawn in +color upon a tinted background. You can tint paper with water-color in +much the same way that you put on landscape washes. Dampen a sheet of +paper, and then apply a very little red, blue, and yellow, washing the +three colors down the sheet. A little practice will teach you how to use +the color to get a green-gray, a yellow-gray, or a blue-gray tint. Tint +several sheets at one lesson. + +Using a sheet of your tinted paper, make a brush drawing in color, from a +growth of grass or sedge. Draw in large size, and make a "finder" picture +from your sketch. + + +[Illustration] + +Autumn Leaves and Berries. + +If you have never seen the bitter-sweet vine growing over a dead tree, +you have missed a beautiful sight. In the fall its bright berries hang in +graceful clusters, and stay on the vine long after its leaves have +fallen. The real berry is held in the close grasp of a several-parted +case until a sharp frost bursts the outer covering and shows the scarlet +fruit within. + +The sketch on this page is from a spray of bittersweet before the leaves +have dropped. + +You can see that in the leaves more yellow than is usual was used, +because their color is decidedly yellow-green. Most of the berries are +shown, still held in their orange-colored cases. Can you tell what two +colors were used in painting the berries? + +Sometimes yellow and green alone do not give you the green you may +desire; if you add a little red it will soften, or make gray, a green +that seems too bright. + +Choose a bright spray of autumn leaves and place it against a background. +Study the growth, the different shapes of leaves and berries, and the +color. Paint in life size just what you see. + + +A Flower and Its Growth Expressed in +Color. + +[Illustration] + +Members of the iris family are found in many places. The dwarf garden +iris blossoms very early in the spring, and has short, stout stems, +bearing several flowers. The common blue flag found in wet places is a +country cousin of the garden iris. Both are related to the +flower-de-luce, the stately lily of France. They are unlike other flowers +in shape, and are beautiful in color, with sword-shaped leaves. + +The sketch on this page shows two different colors of the iris. If you +cannot find flowers like them, choose a stalk of blue flag or early +garden iris. Flowers of all kinds must be painted with fresh, clean +colors, used directly from the box. Do not mix or stir color in the +palette. Colors that are "handled" too much become muddy and dead. One +color may be dropped in another, allowing them to blend on the paper. You +have made stained glass effects in this way. Sometimes two colors may be +taken in the brush at once. They will flow together as you draw. For +instance, if you fill your brush with yellow and dip it lightly in blue, +you can make a brush stroke of green. In painting the violet iris, red +may be dropped in blue. Before painting your flower study, practice +drawing leaves and large petals in this direct way. + + +[Illustration] + +A Flower in Different Positions. + +Suppose that in the sketch on page 20, each leaf had been of the same +size and shape. Would you have liked the picture as well? Plants that are +regular in their growth, like the fern or the ivy, are seldom chosen for +sketches. We like to see a variety of shapes and sizes. Even when the +leaves of a plant have the same general shape, their positions make their +shapes appear unlike. + +So it is with flowers. On this page are three different drawings of the +same flower. Can you tell why they are not alike? It is because the +flower was held in three different positions. When the flower-head is +turned toward you, as in the first sketch, its shape is quite like a +circle. In the second sketch, the shape is much narrower from front to +back, and some of the petals appear shorter. Can you tell how it was +held? The third sketch shows the back or under side of the flower, and +the shape is again different. You see, then, that every flower you draw +must be studied carefully, to find the shape as it really appears to you. + +Take a large flower, like the brown-eyed Susan or the sunflower, and draw +it in different positions. Use brush or crayon for your sketches. + +[Illustration: SILVER POPLAR + +BALM OF GILEAD + +DOGWOOD + +HORSE CHESTNUT + +LILAC] + + +Growth and Shapes of Tree Buds. + +In the bright days of February or early March, before spring has really +come, place some branches of common trees and shrubs in water, and keep +them near a sunny window in the house. You can then watch the buds swell, +as they waken from their long winter sleep. Every day will show some +change in their shape and size. You will enjoy making sketches of the +twigs, from day to day, as the buds grow and the little leaves appear. + +On this page are some drawings that show us different forms of growth, +and the different ways in which Mother Nature protects her tender baby +leaves. + +Make some sketches from the beautiful tree buds of early spring. + + +[Illustration] + +A Study of the Geranium. + +In any window box of growing plants, you will be almost sure to see the +geranium. It lifts its bright blossoms among the green leaves, and grows +thrifty and strong, if its simple needs are supplied. + +The sketch shows you a stalk of geranium. The leaves were very similar in +shape as they grew, but in the sketch their position has given them four +different shapes. When you study your own stalk, see if the leaves show +you the same interesting variety. Do you notice that the flower-head does +not show each blossom, separate and distinct? The shape of the whole +cluster is expressed, with a few petals showing more plainly near the +outside of the cluster. + +A good way to get the bright scarlet of the flower cluster is to paint it +in with a yellow wash; then drop in red. You will need red to soften the +green of the leaves, and probably you will see a rosy color in some parts +of the stalk and stems. + +Paint a stalk of geranium against a background, at some distance from +you. + + +[Illustration] + +Root Growths of Spring. + +On your walks through the woods in the early spring days, you surely have +discovered these plant growths from roots which have lived all winter. +They are the bloodroot, the hepatica, and the fern. + +The hepatica comes first, with its pale violet blossoms nearly hidden +under a thick covering of the dead leaves of the forest. Its little buds +seem to be protected from the cold by soft garments of fur. All winter +long the spotted leaves of last autumn have stayed on the plant. They are +beautiful now, in shape and in color. + +The bloodroot has a large round leaf which folds close about the +flower-bud until the snow-white blossoms open. Its root is a sort of +underground stem, and has a bright orange or red juice, from which the +plant is named. + +Find some of the root growths of early spring. Dig them up carefully, +without shaking the earth from the roots, and place them where their +whole growth can be seen. Make charcoal or brush drawings of the whole +plant. + + +[Illustration] + +The Growth of Leaves. + +There are certain forms of growth that belong to different plant +families. In drawing from flowers and plants, these family likenesses +must always be truthfully shown. A rose leaf does not grow like the leaf +of a thistle, and a pine needle is not at all like the thick, round pad +of a water-lily. + +On this page are shown different growths from trees and plants that you +know. Find the sketch of the slender leaves of the pine; the palmate or +hand-like leaves of the horse-chestnut, with its seven leaflets growing +from one footstalk; the honeysuckle, whose leaves sit closely on the +stem; the familiar clover, with its three-parted leaf; the rose, and the +wandering jew, or joint plant. Study the ways in which these different +growths are expressed. + +Bring twigs or sprays of different trees and plants, and draw them +carefully with pencil. These are good studies for your sketch-book. + + +Interesting Growth of a Vegetable. + +[Illustration: TOMATO] + +Vegetables from the garden make fine studies to draw and to paint. Almost +any fruit or vegetable is more interesting if studied as it grows. We do +not often choose to paint or draw a single flower without its stem, +leaves, buds, and all of the parts that are included when we speak of its +growth. It is the presence of all of these shapes that gives variety to a +drawing. Do you not think the sketch of the tomato is much more +interesting because it shows the growth of the plant? The leaves, stems, +stalks, and the large and small tomatoes make an attractive arrangement +of shapes. They were first drawn just as they appeared, and then the +finder was moved about upon the sketch, to find its most beautiful part. + +[Illustration] + +Beans, peas, beets, turnips, radishes, and many other vegetables may be +brought from the school garden or from the garden at home, to use in a +drawing lesson. A growth of cucumber vine would be an interesting study. +Make a brush or charcoal drawing from something of this kind, and then +use your finder to select the most interesting part. Cut out your +"finder" picture and mount it neatly. + + +The Growth of the Orange Tree. + +=A Familiar Fruit.= When you see the bright pyramids of oranges on +fruit-stands or in store windows, do you wonder where the fruit comes +from, or upon what kind of a tree it grows? In certain parts of our +country there are a great many orange trees, and the children of Florida +and Southern California know them as well as the children of the north +know apple or cherry trees. + +=The Orange Tree.= Look at the picture of the tree, on page 29. It is not +a tree that one would choose to put in a landscape, because it is not +what is called picturesque--it is too trim, even, and regular. Its chief +beauty is in its coloring. Its "spheres of golden sunshine" hang in the +midst of glossy, dark green leaves, and sometimes the fruit stays on the +tree until the buds and blossoms of a new crop appear. It is no uncommon +sight to see an orange tree bearing leaves, buds, blossoms, and fruit, +all at the same time. One of the sketches shows you a spray of orange +blossoms. They are white and waxy, with a strong, sweet fragrance. + +=Gathering the Fruit.= Sometimes, the trees are so heavily laden with +fruit that props are put under the branches to keep them from breaking +off before the crop is ready to be gathered. The fruit is not allowed to +fall from the tree, but when it is ripe an army of pickers, each one +provided with a cutter and a canvas bag, comes to the grove. The pickers +do not climb the tree and shake the boughs, as you would do if you were +gathering nuts, but they mount ladders, carefully cut each orange from +its twig, and put it in the bag. The bags, when filled, are emptied into +boxes, which are carried to the packing house. There the oranges are +sorted into lots, according to size, wrapped in tissue-paper--each orange +by itself--and packed in boxes for shipment. You have seen them in their +tissue wrapping, after they have reached their journey's end. + +=Designs from the Orange.= One of the sketches on page 29 shows the +growth of some oranges with their leaves and twigs. Below is a design +made by repeating the shapes of the orange, its leaves and stem. Any +shape or group of shapes that is repeated in a design is called a unit. +Do you know what suggested the unit shown in one of the small sketches +above the tree? + +Sketch from the growth of any fruit you can get. Try to make from the +shapes you find in your own study, a simple unit of design. + +[Illustration] + + + + +[Illustration: + +LIFE AND ACTION + + "Where the pools are bright and deep, + Where the gray trout lies asleep, + Up the river and o'er the lea, + That's the way for Billy and me." +] + + +People and Animals. + +=An Out-of-door Picture.= On the opposite page is a picture that seems to +invite you to close your books and go into the country for a picnic or +for a day's fishing. You cannot look at the grassy meadow, the little +river, the tall trees, the distant hills and woods, without wishing that +you might be there. What fun it would be to sit on those big, flat stones +and dabble your feet in the water while you ate your lunch, or to hold +your fish-pole over one of the deep pools, "where the gray trout lies +asleep!" + +=A New Interest.= If any one should ask you to tell what part of the +picture interested you most, what would you say? Would you think first of +the stream, its pleasant banks, the tall trees, the large stones, the +distant hills and fields? Or would you say at once that it was the +presence of the boys in the picture that first attracted you? You wonder +where they came from, where they are going, what they are carrying over +their shoulders and in their hands. You are glad that there are two boys +instead of one in the picture, for in your own sports and games the +pleasure is doubled if some one is with you. + +=Our Companions and Friends.= Suppose you were able to live in that part +of the world that seems most beautiful to you. Do you think that the +landscape alone, or the most interesting of plants and flowers would be +enough to make you happy? No matter how much you enjoyed these things, or +how much you might love the beautiful country, nothing could take the +place of companions and friends. No books or toys or fine houses could +keep you from being lonely if you had no one to talk to or to play with. +Our brothers and sisters and friends are worth all the books and toys and +fine houses in the world. + +=Our Friends among the Animals.= We have many good friends, too, among +the animals. It is true they cannot talk with us, but some of them seem +to understand what we say to them, and they show us in many ways what +they think and how they feel. Do you not know when your dog is glad or +sorry, thirsty or hungry, proud or ashamed? How does he tell you? + +=Drawing our Friends.= In the chapter that follows, you will study your +playmates,--the boys and girls that you know and like,--and some of your +friends among the animals. You will learn to draw them as they look, and +to express their action just as you expressed what you discovered about +flowers. + + "The world is so full of a number of things, + I'm sure we should all be as happy as kings!" + + +[Illustration] + +Drawing from a Pose. + +Little children with their bright dresses and picturesque bonnets make +delightful studies for us to draw and to paint. They are generally glad +to "pose" for a few minutes, while having their pictures taken. + +The sketch of this little child was made from the pose, in a school-room. +The little girl stood on a table in front of the pupils and held a +string, which was fastened to a toy boat. The color and shape of her +sunshade and of the color-mass of her dress, the position of her arm, the +size and length of her legs and feet, were all carefully studied and +drawn. The blue waters of the lake, the sail-boat, and the sandy shore, +were added from memory to complete the picture. + +Make a pose drawing from your small brother or sister, or from some +little friend. A pink or blue bonnet might be used as part of the +costume, instead of a hat. Let the pose represent some character or +occupation. Add a very simple landscape. Use water-color or colored +crayons. + + +[Illustration] + +Different Positions of the Same Pose. + +In your study of plants you found that the appearance of a leaf or flower +depended upon its position. In making a picture of a daisy as it grows, +we do not show the exact size and shape of leaves and petals, as they +would look if we laid them on paper and traced around them. Such a +drawing, while it might show certain facts of the plant, would not tell +the truth about its appearance. + +In drawing from boys and girls, also, we must study appearances. We know +that our model has two eyes and two ears, and that the nose is in the +middle of the face. Yet the model may stand so that we do not see all or +any of those features. Study the four drawings above, and tell how the +girl is standing in each sketch. + +One of your schoolmates will pose while you make four five-minute +sketches from four different positions of the same pupil. Make large +drawings, using charcoal or crayon. Your model should not stand more than +five minutes without resting. + + +[Illustration] + +Three Steps in Pose Drawing. + +When you drew the shapes of trees, you found that if you made a mistake +in the proportions of a tree you could not make the picture truthful by +drawing the branches, the foliage, or the little twigs ever so perfectly. + +So it is in drawing from the figure. Suppose you plan a sketch that is +ten inches from the top of the head to the foot. A good way to do would +be to draw a light line or place two dashes, to indicate the height. Then +decide how much of that height is needed for the head; for the waist; for +the length of skirt or trousers; for the legs and feet. Next, think about +the width and shape of these various parts, and sketch them in as lightly +and brokenly as the lines are in the first sketch on this page. If your +work is correct up to this point, you can finish the shapes a little +more, as in the second sketch. You will now have studied the shapes and +proportions of the things of most importance in the sketch. Then the +masses of light and dark may be expressed. + +From the pose of one of your schoolmates, try one large sketch, done by +the three stages shown above. Use charcoal or crayon. + + +[Illustration: 1] + +[Illustration: 2] + +[Illustration: 3] + +[Illustration: 4] + +Some Proportions of the Human Figure. + +Although these skeleton figures are stiff and angular in appearance, from +them you can learn something about the human figure that you will be glad +to know. In each of them the thigh line is exactly half way between the +top of the head and the foot. The knee-joint is half way between the +thigh line and the foot. The shoulder line is placed at the base of the +neck, and the elbow-joint is between two slanting lines that represent +the lower and upper arm. + +A knowledge of these things will help you in drawing the garments or +clothes of a pose. The waist is a little above the thigh line, and is so +drawn in Figure 4. The bottom of the blouse in Figure 2 is a little below +the waist line, but is still above the thigh line. Stand up and hold your +arms close to your sides, and notice where the tip of the middle finger +comes, in relation to the knee-joint. Be careful not to draw the arms too +short or too long. + +Draw two skeleton figures like Figure 1. Make them at least four inches +tall. On one skeleton draw the garments of a boy, carefully studying the +clothes worn by a real boy. The other is to be dressed like a girl. + + +[Illustration: 1] + +[Illustration: 2] + +[Illustration: 3] + +[Illustration: 4] + +Actions and Attitudes of the Human Figure. + +Action and attitude, as well as proportion, can be expressed by the +simple line figures on this page. You do not need the second and fourth +sketches to tell you of the action expressed in the first and third. + +In the figures on page 35, the lines were nearly all vertical and +horizontal; the figures were standing still. In Figure 1 on this page, +you notice that every line is slanting; the figure expresses action. +Stand erect, and think of the direction of lines that your body takes. +Then push hard with both hands against a wall. You can feel that your +erect position is changed. The vertical lines become slanting, or +oblique. + +Study the lines and their changed relations in Figure 3. Draw several +line sketches that express a familiar action, such as walking, jumping, +running, lying, or sitting. "Clothe" these action sketches. + + +[Illustration] + +Hands and Feet. + +You have drawn from the figure long enough to find out that hands and +feet are by no means the easiest things in the world to draw. Like almost +everything else, they change their appearance with every change of +position. We cannot learn to draw a hand or a foot so that we can use it +in all kinds of poses. We can only learn to see the different sizes and +shapes which each new position shows, and try to draw them as they +appear. + +The sketches on this page are good studies for you to copy. When you can +do this well, try to draw the hands or feet of one of your friends. +Sometimes a pair of boots or rubbers may be placed in exactly the same +position that they would be in were the pose actually standing. Practice +drawing from studies like these until you are better able to see shapes, +and to draw them truthfully. + + +An Animal Pose. + +Have you a dog that will sit up and beg, or carry a basket? Perhaps he +would not object to posing in school, with his master or mistress. + +[Illustration] + +If your teacher can arrange for a lesson of this kind, choose large +paper, and sketch rapidly with charcoal or crayon. Begin with the dog, +for he will change his position soon, and you must get quickly the main +lines that will show his attitude and shape. Then you can sketch the +figure of the boy or girl after the dog has grown tired. + +Do you notice in the picture, the fine arrangement of light and dark? The +boy's light waist contrasts well with his dark trousers and cap. The +little dog, too, is more attractive because of his white spotting. Finish +your drawing by adding dark masses, as suggested by the pose. + + +[Illustration] + +Actions and Attitudes of Animals. + +You will enjoy making skeleton sketches of animals. On this page are +shown three different positions of a dog. Very few lines are used in +Figure 1, yet they are so placed that you know at once the animal that is +represented, its attitude, and its shape. Lines that tell the important +facts about an object are called leading lines. The skeleton figures we +have been studying show us the leading lines in certain attitudes of +people and animals. If the leading lines of any object are correctly +drawn, the finished sketch is almost sure to be good. + +From the pose of a dog, or of any other animal that you can study, make +leading line sketches. Before you try to clothe these skeletons, study +carefully the proportions expressed by your first drawing. If a mistake +is there, correct it. Then study and draw the shapes and sizes of head, +legs, tail, ears, etc. Sometimes parts of your leading lines can be used, +as parts of the finished outline. Use pencil or charcoal for work of this +kind. These are good studies for your sketch-book. + + +[Illustration] + +The Spotting, or Light and Dark Values, of Animals. + +When you wish a more finished sketch of an animal, you should first study +and draw the leading lines, just as you did in the lesson before this. +The proportions and shapes of all parts of the sketch must be true, +before any thought is given to the planning of eyes, ears, nose, or any +other small feature. If you are able to express quickly, with a few +lines, the most important facts, it will not matter so much if the pose +moves about or changes position. We cannot expect a dog or a pigeon to +keep one position until we have made a finished sketch. The quick use of +eyes and pencil will enable you to make notes of something that you can +work on after the pose has changed position. + +Study an animal pose, and plan to make a large sketch that will show its +coloring, or values of light and dark. A black and white cat, or a +spotted rabbit will do as well as a dog. Let the animal take a natural +position on a table before the class. Sketch the leading lines that show +this position. Then draw the shape of the head and body, the legs and +tail. When all these shapes and proportions are truthfully expressed, add +the dark masses that show the spotting of the animal. + + +[Illustration] + +Study of a Pigeon. + +In the beautiful city of Venice is one of the most celebrated cathedrals +in the world. It is called the Cathedral of St. Mark. The front of the +building faces a large open space, which is surrounded on three sides by +ancient palaces of marble. These old buildings, with their arches and +towers, and the nooks and crannies of the cathedral, form fine nesting +places for pigeons, and hundreds and thousands of them are found flying +about the square. Years ago, the pigeons were fed at the city's expense, +and any one who injured or killed one of them was fined or put in prison. +The people thought that the pigeons brought peace and prosperity to their +city, and kept it from being swallowed by the waves. If you should visit +the square today, and should bring with you one of the little bags of +corn that the street venders sell for a penny, you would be instantly +surrounded by pigeons. + +Study a pet pigeon, which some one will bring to school. Notice the oval +shape of the body, the beautiful curve of the wings, and the lovely +spotting of light and dark values. The legs are set far back on the body, +and they and the little feet are as red as a rose. + +Draw the leading lines with a brush stroke of light gray. Study carefully +the proportions of head, body, wings, tail, legs, and feet. When these +are correctly drawn, add the dark and middle values, to show spotting. + + +[Illustration] + +"Life and Action" Shown in a Masterpiece. + +Of all pictures in the world probably none are more interesting to us +than those which tell us of the lives of people; of their work, their +times of rest, their joys and their sorrows. You probably know many of +the pictures of Millet, who painted the simple country life of French +peasants, as they worked in the fields, watched their flocks, or cared +for their children at home. Millet's pictures make us feel great respect +for a man or woman who works. + +The picture shown you on this page is from a painting called "Loading the +Cart," by Anton Mauve, a native of Holland. He, like Millet, was a +painter of quiet country landscapes and farm life. In this picture, +notice how few are the shapes and masses he has cared to paint. He seems +to have thought only of the big things--the sky, the ground, a clump of +trees, a bending figure, a patient horse, a loaded cart. It is the +artist's task to show us the beauty which lies in a simple country scene +like this. + +Anton Mauve was born in 1848 and died in 1888. He made his first +exhibition of paintings in America at Philadelphia in 1876. + + +Home Exercises. + +1. Paint from the pose of a little girl dressed as Red Riding Hood. + +2. Make six brush drawings showing different positions of any pet animal +that you have at home. + +3. Make a "skeleton" drawing in illustration of the following: + + "Jack be nimble, + Jack be quick, + Jack jump over the candlestick." + +4. Illustrate in a brush or outline drawing any one verse of "Old Mother +Hubbard." + +5. Show in a drawing the game you like best to play. + +6. Show by a "skeleton" drawing the action expressed by the figure of the +man in the picture on page 42. + +[Illustration] + + + + +BEAUTY IN COMMON THINGS + +[Illustration] + + WE'RE MADE SO THAT WE LOVE + FIRST WHEN WE SEE THEM PAINTED, THINGS WE HAVE PASSED + PERHAPS A HUNDRED TIMES, NOR CARED TO SEE. + + FRA LIPPO LIPPI. ROBERT BROWNING. + + +Learning to See Beauty. + +=How We See Things.= The best thing that our lessons in drawing and +painting can do for us is to teach us to see. To truly see a thing means +that eyes and brains must work together. Our eyes must look and our +brains must think; that is what gives us the power to _see_. + +=Interesting Things Out of Doors.= When you were making a special study +of landscape, you found that many things out of doors that you had not +thought about before, became very interesting to you. You began to notice +the colors of the sky and earth, the shapes of trees, the forms of +clouds, the change from day to night. These things had always been around +you, but you had not thought about them, and so you had not really _seen_ +them. + +=Observing Our Surroundings.= Your lessons from flowers and plants, and +from birds and animals help you to see and enjoy much more in nature than +you did before. A walk in the country, or even along the city street, is +never dull to one who is interested in what is going on around him, and +whose eyes are trained to really see. + +=Beauty in Common Things.= Not all of the beauty of the world is out of +doors. Things about us in our homes are often interesting in their +character, and they should be beautiful as well. The picture on the +opposite page shows you an old-fashioned kitchen fireside. The wide +hearth, the logs of wood, the andirons, the pots and kettles hanging over +the fire, all give you a sense of homely comfort and cheer. Would you not +like to draw your chair close to the blazing logs on a cold winter night, +and roast apples, or pop corn, while the wind howled and roared up the +big chimney? There is real beauty in this picture of home and the common +things of every-day use. + +=Finding and Expressing Beauty.= In the houses we live in nowadays, there +may be no kitchen fireplaces like this; but the thought that we get from +the picture is that beauty may be found in those things for which we +sometimes care the least. Let us study the common dishes we cook with, +the vegetables that come from market or garden, the furniture we use +every day. Let us discover for ourselves whether these things are +beautiful or ugly. If beauty is there, let us find it, and show it to +others. If we enjoy those things which are really beautiful, we shall +find them everywhere, and if we try, we ourselves shall be able to do +something which will add, in some small way, to the beauty of the world +in which we live. + + +[Illustration] + +A Bowl in Charcoal Mass. + +The bowl from which this sketch was made is of common earthenware, not +unlike the clay used in making flower-pots or tiles. Although this +material is neither costly nor rare, articles made from it are beautiful, +if they are pleasing in shape and proportion, tasteful in coloring, and +well adapted to their uses. + +This little bowl was probably meant to hold short-stemmed flowers. Notice +that it is low and broad, with a wide mouth or top. It will hold plenty +of water for its purpose and will not easily be upset. The inner curve +near the top suggests a vase or flower holder. A bowl designed for +holding liquids or liquid food would probably be without this curve in +its outline. + +The simple coloring of the bowl has also been carefully planned. It is +not by accident that the glaze on the inside is in darker value than the +outside color. This contrast of light and dark is one of the elements of +beauty. Look for it in things about you, and try to show its effect in +sketches that you make. + +Choose a bowl of simple form showing light and dark contrasts. Place it +at some distance from you, so that you can see a little way into it. Draw +the bowl in charcoal mass, using the flat side of a short piece of +charcoal or crayon. + + +[Illustration] + +A Wash-Drawing of the Bowl. + +The drawing on this page, the one on the page before this, and the two on +pages 48 and 49, are all pictures of the same bowl. They do not look +alike, because they are done with different materials, or, as we +sometimes say, with different mediums. It is well for us to know how to +draw with charcoal, brush and ink, pencil, crayons, and water-color, so +that we can choose the medium or material that seems best suited to the +particular object which we may wish to represent. A good workman +understands the use of many tools. + +Drawings that are made with a brush and water mixed with ink or color are +sometimes called wash-drawings. In such work, light and dark effects are +shown, rather than actual color. Wash-drawings differ in character from +drawings made with pencil, charcoal, or crayons. You can easily tell +which sketches of the bowl were made with a wet medium and which with a +dry medium. + +In the sketch on this page do you see that there are two values shown on +the inside of the bowl? Although the inner glaze was everywhere the same +color, the deep shadows in the bowl give the effect of a darker value. + +Make a wash-drawing of the bowl you studied in charcoal mass. Do not draw +its outline first. Wash in the shape of the top, and then the mass for +the front or outer surface. Notice the use made of the white line in +suggesting the edge. + + +[Illustration] + +The Bowl in Outline. + +You know that the true shape of the top of this bowl is a circle. But +when the bowl is placed on a table in front of you, its top appears +narrower from front to back than it does from left to right. The shape +that you have often drawn to show this appearance is called an ellipse. +In a circle, all diameters are equal. In an ellipse, one diameter is +always longer than the other. + +Some ellipses are more beautiful in their proportions than others. If the +bowl had been placed in a position where the width of the ellipse looked +twice as great from front to back as it is shown here, the sketch would +be less pleasing. Generally, a narrow ellipse is more beautiful than a +wide one, and in arranging objects like the bowl for studies, we should +be careful to place them so that the ellipses do not appear too wide from +front to back. The beauty of the proportions of an ellipse has much to do +with the beauty of the whole drawing. + +Make an outline drawing from a bowl, carefully studying its shape, and +the proportions of the ellipse seen at the top. Sketch the ellipse first, +beginning at the middle of the front edge, and drawing the shape with one +stroke of the pencil. Try to draw the sides of the bowl just alike. Place +a table-line in the proper place. A table-line suggests a surface on +which an object may rest. + + +[Illustration] + +The Bowl in Color. + +Artists and other people who draw and paint often speak of objects such +as you have lately been studying as "still life." + +"Still life" means objects without life, like most of those studied in +this chapter, although fruits and flowers are also frequently included. +Mounted birds and insects or other animal forms from which life has gone +are also classed as still life. It would be correct to speak of the +drawing on this page as a study of still life. The group on page 50, the +familiar objects shown on page 51, and the lanterns on page 54 are all +examples of the kind of objects that are included under the head of still +life. + +The little bowl appears again, now, perhaps, in its most attractive way. +It is always a delight for us to see a beautiful bit of color. In +studying the sketch, you can see how freely and simply the brush has done +its work, showing the fresh, clear color of the bowl, the darker value of +the inner lining, and the gray-violet shadow cast upon the table. + +Make a water-color painting of a simple piece of still life, choosing a +color not too brilliant. Make the entire drawing with the brush, trying +not to "work" your colors until the life and freshness are lost. + + +[Illustration] + +A Group of Still Life. + +Here are two common articles that might be found in any kitchen. The dish +is a sort of earthenware kettle, and shows that it was designed for +cooking purposes. It is provided with short legs and a handle or bail. +The legs serve as supports for the kettle, and keep its rounding surface +from rocking, while the handle is useful in lifting the kettle and its +contents from the fire. + +The kettle is simple in form, of pleasing proportions, and shows a good +contrast of light and dark values. As you study the sketch, notice the +drawing of the rim. Is it of the same thickness at every point? Study the +appearance of rims in different bowls, and find out where they appear +thickest. + +The beet is decidedly darker in value. It is less regular in shape, and +its surface differs in quality from the hard, smooth surface of the +kettle. + +Choose for a group two common objects of household use, that seem to +belong together. In your group you should have something large and +something small; something tall and something short; something light and +something dark; something near and something far. + +Sketch your group lightly in outline, and finish in charcoal mass. + +[Illustration] + + +[Illustration] + +A Growing Plant. + +Hyacinths and tulips grow easily indoors, and their bright blossoms fill +the florists' windows just at the time when we are beginning to grow +tired of winter and to look forward to the coming of spring. You can +plant bulbs so that they will grow and blossom in the school-room. There +is nothing more beautiful for a window decoration than a row of tulips, +hyacinths, or daffodils. + +A growing plant of this kind is a fine study in still life. We enjoy +looking at it, and we become much interested in trying to express its +beauty. We are beginning to understand some of the elements or laws of +beauty. + +Let us study the drawing on this page. We have found that a group of +still life, a spray of plant growth, or a landscape should show variety +in shapes, in sizes of shapes, and in light and dark, or values. Does the +hyacinth show these contrasts? Notice the shape of the mass of bloom, as +differing from the shapes of the long, slender leaves, the stem, and the +flower-pot. You will also find large shapes and small in different parts +of the sketch. The flower-pot and the mass of bloom are large in +proportion to the leaves and stem. Contrast and variety in color you can +easily see. + +Make a drawing with colored crayons or with water-colors from a growing +plant, in bloom. Select one that shows simple growth, few leaves, and a +bright mass of color in the blossom. + + +The Plant in Values. + +[Illustration] + +It is often well to paint in grays a study that you have painted in +color. On page 9 is a picture in values of the sunset scene on page 8. +While we cannot express the actual color of objects with anything but +color, we can show the light and dark effect of color with a gray medium, +such as pencil or charcoal, ink or charcoal-gray water-color. + +In using a gray medium, we must try to keep our contrasts as well marked +as though we were using the actual color itself. Suppose in this +wash-drawing of the hyacinth, the flower, the leaves, and the flower-pot +had all been of the same value. Can you not imagine how much such a +picture would lose in interest? The difference in values, in the picture +on this page, suggests to us the difference in color seen in the plant. +If you look again at the drawing of the hyacinth on page 52, you will see +that the darkest colors in it are the red-violet of the blossom and the +red-gray of the flower-pot. These are represented in the wash-drawing by +dark gray. The gray-green of the leaves is shown in a lighter gray value. + +In washing in the flower-pot, the flange, together with the ellipse for +the top, should be drawn first. Then the base can be added, in a value +which is deepened a little directly under the flange. + +Select a plant in bloom, from which to make a wash-drawing. A tulip or a +daffodil would make a good study. Study its growth, the shapes and sizes +of its different parts, the values of its blossom, leaves, and stems, and +of the jar in which it grows. Show how beautiful a picture of a plant and +its bright flower may be made, without the use of color. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +The Accented Line. + +Have you ever heard any one read aloud in an even tone of voice, without +changing the pitch or giving what is called expression to the story? You +soon grow tired of listening to such reading even though the words are +distinctly spoken. The same thing read with the right accent and +inflection will hold your attention. You will enjoy and remember what is +well read, because more truth and beauty are brought out by beautiful +expression. + +It is so in our drawing. We can make pictures of objects in a way that +will give the facts of their forms and proportions, and still will not +show the real beauty and character of those objects. Compare the two +sketches of the barrel at the top of this page. Sketch B gives the facts +of the barrel as well as Sketch A. But who would care for a picture that +expressed so little of real interest? In Sketch A you feel the roundness +or width of the barrel from back to front, and the quality of its rough +and splintered surface. The line that is used to express all this is +called an accented line. Such a line is varied in strength, being +deepened in some places to express certain accents of form or color, and +lightened in others. Sometimes it is broken off altogether, the eye +seeming to continue the outline. It differs from the even, uniform line +used in Sketch B just as the even, monotonous voice in reading differs +from the voice that is full of expression and feeling. + +Select a basket, or a wooden box of somewhat rough surface, and make an +outline sketch, using the accented line. + + +[Illustration] + +Japanese Lanterns in Values. + +The wash-drawings on this page show some Japanese lanterns that are +beautiful in their light and dark quality, as well as in their color. +They are fine studies in values. The lantern on the left was red, with +violet spots; the light one just behind was yellow, with blue and red +spots; and the right lantern was a soft dark green at the top, blending +to light green at the bottom. The dark bands and the wooden hangers +provide sharp contrasts in values, and give character and accent to the +picture. + +Choose two or three lanterns of contrasting colors, sizes, and shapes. +Arrange them on a cord, hung across the corner of the room. It does not +matter whether they hang above or below the level of your eyes. Paint +them in values of ink or charcoal-gray. + + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +Selecting with a Finder an Interesting Arrangement of Shapes. + +You will remember that you used a finder upon certain sketches, in order +to select parts that seemed more interesting than others. Any drawing +looks much better if the space around it is carefully planned and adapted +to the shapes shown in the drawing. This is the reason we use a finder on +a sketch like that on page 55. Although the lantern on the right is well +drawn and is a pleasing part of the whole sketch, it seems to have +received added beauty in the left sketch on this page. It has been taken +away from other interests, and placed within an enclosure which is well +adapted to its shape, size, and color. The gray oblong at the bottom +brings the eye to a part of the picture, not so important as the lantern. +This oblong would be a good place for the initials or name of the artist, +which should be as thoughtfully placed as any other part of the sketch. + +See what a different enclosure is used in the second selection. The two +lanterns make a large dark mass which needs more space. The dark +name-place on the right is placed just where it is most needed. + +Use a finder on the sketch of lanterns you made. Find a beautiful +arrangement of shapes, adjusting the finder until you have found the +enclosure and the shapes that suit you best. Cut out your selection and +mount it neatly. + + +Home Exercises. + +1. Make an outline drawing of an empty flower-pot, standing upright. +Carefully study the rim, and show where it appears thickest. + +2. Draw in outline a plain glass dish, with three apples in it. + +3. Make a wash-drawing of any cooking-bowl which shows light and dark +values. + +4. Find at home any one of the objects pictured on page 51. Group some +other suitable object with it, and make a sketch in charcoal, showing +light and dark effects. + +5. Find five drawings in this book in which the accented line is used. + +6. Make a large outline drawing of a boy's straw hat. Show the use of the +accented line. + +[Illustration] + + + + +APPARENT DIRECTION OF EDGES AND OUTLINES + + THE RAILWAY TRAIN. + + I LIKE TO SEE IT LAP THE MILES, + AND LICK THE VALLEYS UP, + AND STOP TO FEED ITSELF AT TANKS; + AND THEN, PRODIGIOUS, STEP + + AROUND A PILE OF MOUNTAINS, + AND, SUPERCILIOUS, PEER + IN SHANTIES BY THE SIDES OF ROADS; + AND THEN A QUARRY PARE + + TO FIT ITS SIDES, AND CRAWL BETWEEN, + COMPLAINING ALL THE WHILE + IN HORRID, HOOTING STANZA; + THEN CHASE ITSELF DOWNHILL + + AND NEIGH LIKE BOANERGES; + THEN, PUNCTUAL AS A STAR, + STOP--DOCILE AND OMNIPOTENT-- + AT ITS OWN STABLE DOOR. + + EMILY DICKINSON + + +[Illustration] + +The Circle in Three Positions. + +In order to understand the sketches on this page, you must place a large +bowl on a table in front of you, so that its top will be exactly opposite +the level of your eyes. You can manage this by putting some books on the +table for the bowl to rest upon, piling them up until just the right +height is reached. Then sit directly in front of the bowl, and at some +distance from it, as you would naturally do when making a sketch. Hold +your pencil straight out in front, at arm's length, so as to hide the +entire upper edge of the bowl. If the top of the bowl is exactly opposite +your eyes, your pencil will be exactly horizontal when it hides the edge +from you. You will not be able to see into the bowl, nor to find that the +edge curves above or below the pencil. The appearance of the circular +top, in this position, will be a horizontal line. + +If you lower the bowl a little, you will find that you can no longer hide +the top with a horizontal pencil. The top looks more natural in this +position. You have often drawn a narrow ellipse for the appearance of a +circular shape seen slightly below the eye. + +If the bowl is lowered still more, the ellipse will appear wider from +front to back. + +Make sketches from a bowl, in these three positions. + + +[Illustration: 1] + +[Illustration: 2] + +[Illustration: 3] + +[Illustration: 4] + +[Illustration: 5] + +[Illustration: 6] + +The Foreshortened Circle. + +When a surface, because of its position, appears less wide than it really +is, we say that it is foreshortened. The circular top of the bowl appears +in three positions on page 59. In the first picture it is foreshortened +to such an extent that its width from back to front has disappeared +altogether. In the second, the foreshortened circle appears as a narrow +ellipse. In the third, the ellipse is wider, because the bowl is seen +further below the eyes. + +On this page are some sketches of a half-orange and a half-apple. Can you +tell the positions in which they were held? Notice the foreshortened +circle in Sketch 2. The sections of the orange are changed in appearance +very much as the petals of the daisy are foreshortened, in the middle +sketch on page 22. + +Read again the lesson on page 48. Then decide which sketch of the +half-orange is most pleasing. Which picture of the half-apple do you like +best? + +Draw a half-lemon in a position showing a foreshortened circle of +pleasing proportions. + + +[Illustration] + +The Foreshortened Square. + +Circular shapes are not the only ones that are foreshortened when they +are seen under certain conditions. Figure 1 on this page is a picture of +a square hat-box, showing the top and two sides. Not one of the three +shapes is seen as it would actually measure. The top looks like a long +narrow diamond. It is not so different from the shape of a narrow ellipse +as you might at first suppose. If you changed the straight lines into +curved lines, rounding off the four corners or angles of the diamond, you +would have an ellipse. You could also place a box like this turned +cornerwise, so that its top would look like a straight line. Where would +the top be to look like that? + +The two sides of the box are also foreshortened in this position; they +appear shorter from front to back than they really are. You can see that +the two farther vertical edges or corners appear shorter than the nearer +one, just as trees in the distance appear smaller than trees of equal +size near you. The lines on the top and bottom of the box appear to slant +upward, instead of keeping their actual direction, which is horizontal. + +Figure 2 shows the same box with the cover off. The inside was lined with +colored paper and the dark value of the diamond-shaped mass adds interest +to the picture. + +Place cornerwise, on a table in front of you, a large box with a square +top. See if the three faces in sight are foreshortened. Notice if the +edges appear changed, in direction and in length. Make a sketch in +outline, showing just how the box appears to you. + + +[Illustration] + +Measuring a Foreshortened Surface. + +A good way to prove to yourself that the appearance of a surface or shape +differs from its reality, is to test it in some way. + +The girl in the picture is measuring the appearance of a book. She has +put two books on the desk, with their backs facing her. Under the cover +of the top book she has placed a string long enough to allow her to hold +both ends of it in one hand, in such a way as to hide the two ends of the +cover. She knows that in reality the ends of the cover do not slant; they +are perfectly horizontal. But she finds that to hide the ends of the +cover she must bring the lines made by the string toward each other. This +proves that the ends of the book in this position must be represented by +slanting lines. When the strings hide the ends of the cover, she finds +that they meet directly opposite the eye. Holding the string tight, and +keeping their meeting point exactly opposite the eye, she slips a +horizontal pencil between the two lines, starting near the place where +they meet, and moving down until the pencil hides the further edge of the +cover. The appearance of the cover is shown in the space bounded by the +horizontal pencil, the nearer edge of the cover, and the two slanting +parts of the string seen between them. + +Arrange a large book on the desk in front of you. With a string, make the +test that has been explained. Draw in values what you see. + + +The Study of Perspective. + +=What a Picture may Show Us.= The pencil sketch on the next page would be +quite difficult for you to draw, but it is not too difficult for you to +understand and enjoy. It is one that will help you to use your eyes +intelligently, in trying to find out of doors some of the things that are +shown you in pictures. One of the best things that pictures can do for us +is to help us to see in our own surroundings things that are interesting +and beautiful. + +=Perspective.= The lessons in this chapter have helped you to see how +surfaces and shapes change in appearance, as they are seen under +different conditions. You have also found that certain edges and outlines +appear to change their direction, when seen in different positions. There +is a name given to the study of these things, which you will often hear +used. It is perspective. Perspective is only another name for the study +of appearances, as differing from facts. You will hear some one say, for +instance, that a certain sketch or picture is good in perspective; you +will understand that the picture shows, in some interesting way, the +effect of distance and position, or how certain appearances differ from +actual facts. + +=Perspective of the Railroad.= One of the best places in which to study +perspective is on a bridge over a railroad track. You have noticed, no +doubt, how the rails seem to come together as they stretch into the +distance, and how the telegraph poles seem to grow shorter and shorter, +until they disappear altogether. You know that the rails are just as far +apart a mile away from you as they are at your feet, but a sketch drawn +so would not be correct in perspective, because it would not show how the +track looked. + +=Perspective Affecting Apparent Size.= The sketch on page 58 will +interest you. Have you watched an engine grow from a mere speck in the +distance to its full size as it rushes past you, and then grow smaller +and smaller again as it hurries away, and finally disappears in the +far-off horizon? + +=Perspective of a Street.= Do you see anything on page 64 that makes you +think of the railroad? If you stand in the middle of the street and look +down its length you will notice that the lines of the sidewalk seem to +run together, that the trees and houses decrease in height as they are +seen farther away, and that people in the distance appear smaller than +people near you. When you can see these effects for yourself, you will +begin to understand what the study of perspective means. + +[Illustration] + + +[Illustration: FONT BAPTISTERY IN PARMA XIII. CENTURY.] + +A Beautiful Baptismal Font. + +In the fine old city of Parma, in northern Italy, is a beautiful +cathedral, built hundreds of years ago. Near the cathedral is a building +much smaller in size called a baptistery, a place where baptisms are made +in connection with church services. This baptistery is built of red and +gray marble, and is one of the finest in Italy. It contains but one room, +and in the middle of its floor, under the beautiful dome, is a very large +font, carved from one piece of yellowish red marble. In one corner of the +room is a smaller font--the one shown you on this page. It is standing on +a lion whose paws are set upon the head of a ram, and it is richly carved +in foliage and in strange animal forms. To it are still brought for +baptism all the children born in Parma. + + + + +MEASURING AND PLANNING + + IF WE CARE TO CONTINUE THE SEARCH, WE MAY FIND AN ARC EXTENDED TO A + SEMICIRCLE, A SPIRAL, OR EVEN TO A COMPLETE RING, ALMOST AS TRUE AS + IF STRUCK WITH A COMPASS, AND WITH THE TELLTALE DROOPING OR BROKEN + GRASS-BLADE STILL AT WORK WITH EVERY STIR OF THE BREEZE. + + "FAIRY RINGS" THE CHILDREN USED TO CALL THEM. + + I HAVE PICTURED BOTH THE RING AND THE FAIRY. + + WILLIAM HAMILTON GIBSON + IN SHARP EYES. + + +Some Tools With Which to Measure and Plan. + +By the time you have come to this chapter in your book, you will have +drawn a great many pictures of objects. In doing this you have depended +on your eyes and hand alone. You have not used a ruler to measure with, +nor any tool that would tell you the exact length of a line or the exact +size of any shape. + +[Illustration: I] + +But sometimes it is necessary that a line or shape should be of exact +length or size. On this page are shown some very simple tools which you +can make yourself, and which you will find useful in carrying out the +lessons in this chapter on Measuring and Planning. Figure I is a "circle +maker." It can be used in place of a compass. To make it, take a strip of +cardboard seven inches long and one inch wide. Bisect its short edges and +rule a line connecting these points. Upon this line, mark off, by +measuring with a ruler, inch, half-inch, and quarter-inch spaces. Through +these points draw lines, and pierce holes with a pin where they cross the +center line. A pin placed through the first hole will act as a pivot. +Push a sharp pencil through one of the other holes, just far enough to +allow the lead to make a mark. The pin marks the center, and the pencil +swings around it, as shown in the sketch at the top of page 68. The line +drawn by the pencil is the circumference of the circle. The distance +between the center and the circumference is the radius of a circle. We +speak of one radius and of two or more _radii_ of a circle. + +[Illustration: II] + +Figure II is a little tool that will help you to draw square corners. +Mark with a ruler upon an end and one side of the back of an envelope, +the spaces for inches, and their divisions into halves and quarters. +"Square corner" is another name for right angle. You will often wish to +use this measure, called a test square, in squaring corners, and in +drawing lines at right angles to each other. A No. 9 envelope will be a +good size to use, as the long edge will serve as a ruler. You can make +the drawings in this chapter with a ruler and compass, or you can use +these simple tools, made by yourself. + + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +[Illustration: D] + +[Illustration: E] + +[Illustration: F] + +[Illustration: G] + +Dividing a Circular Space. + +There are many ways in which a circular shape may be divided and +decorated. Sketch B shows two circles drawn around the same center, with +different radii. Such circles are called concentric. Sketch C shows the +circle divided into fourths. To do this, place the angle of your test +square at the center of the circle and rule two radii. Repeat to secure +four right angles at the center of the circle. + +Sketches D, F, and G show circles divided into sixths, by setting off the +radius six times on the circumference, and drawing diameters connecting +these points. + +Sketch E shows a circle divided into thirds. Set off the radius six times +on the circumference; draw a radius from every other point. + +Draw concentric circles, and divide them into halves, fourths, thirds, +and sixths. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +Some Divisions of Square Spaces. + +A square is said to be on its diameters when one of its diameters is +vertical and the other horizontal; it is said to be on its diagonals when +the diagonals are in this position. Sketch A shows the larger square on +its diameters and the small inner square on its diagonals. + +To draw a square on its diameters, place your test square to locate the +lower left corner of the square, and draw the two sides at right angles, +extending the lines to the desired length. Use your test square in +drawing all other corners of your square. For the diameters, bisect each +side and connect the points of bisection. For a design plan like Sketch +A, bisect the semi-diameters and connect these points. Diameters of a +square bisect opposite sides; diagonals bisect opposite angles. + +In Sketch B, each side is quadrisected, or divided into fourths, and the +opposite points connected. This division of a square may be used for a +decorative plan in a number of ways, one of which is shown in the sketch. + +To draw a square in the position of Sketch C, use your test square, and +draw the diagonals first, dividing them into inch spaces. Connect the +ends of the diagonals to get a square. In the plan for the border design +in Sketch C, connect the outer points on the diagonals to form the space +for a border decoration. + +Draw two squares, one on its diameters, and one on its diagonals. Show by +divisions made in each, some plan for a design. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +How an Oblong Space May be Divided. + +You can draw an oblong with your test square in the same way that you +drew a square, measuring the sides to get the length you wish. In Sketch +A the semi-diameters are bisected and the points connected, forming a +diamond-shaped space, something like a square on its diagonals. In making +the unit used in the upper half of this space, the lines of the triangle +are changed very slightly, but this change makes an interesting +decoration. In Sketch B the sides are quadrisected, and the space is +divided by connecting some of the opposite points, making an oblong on +its diameters for the middle space. In the upper half of this space a +simple shape, very like a square, is used. It can be reversed, as can the +triangular shape in Sketch A, to fill the lower half of the space. + +Sketch C shows a plan for dividing the oblong into many small squares. In +each of these, or in every other one, a simple unit could be placed, to +make an "all-over" pattern. + +Draw an oblong, and by dividing its sides, make a plan for a decorative +design. Show how a decoration can be made by slightly changing the lines +of an enclosing shape. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: C] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: D] + +The Equilateral Triangle. + +With the help of your circle maker or compass you can easily draw an +equilateral triangle. + +Rule a horizontal line of any desired length, for the base of your +triangle--that side upon which the triangle seems to rest. Place the +pivot of your circle maker at one end of the line, and take a radius +equal to its length. Draw above this line part of the circumference of a +circle, called an arc. Then take as a center the other end of the +horizontal line, and with the same radius, draw an intersecting arc. Rule +lines from the intersecting arcs to each end of the line. You have drawn +an equilateral triangle. + +Sketches A and B show you how an equilateral triangle may be divided. +Sketch C shows how one line may divide the triangle into two shapes, +whose outlines may be slightly changed or modified, to make a decoration. + +For a surface covering like Sketch D, construct one equilateral triangle +and carry the base line across the paper. Rule a line parallel to this, +passing through the apex of the triangle. Set off upon these lines +lengths equal to one side of your triangle. Draw lines connecting these +points, as shown in the sketch. Repeat this process for a surface +covering. + + +[Illustration: A + +CASE FOR CLIPPINGS] + +[Illustration: B] + +A Case for Newspaper Clippings. + +When you know how to measure accurately and can plan good proportions, +you can make many simple articles, both useful and beautiful. + +To make the case for newspaper clippings shown on this page, cut an +oblong of stiff manila paper, 8-1/2 x 9-1/2 inches. Use your test square +in measuring all corners, to get right angles. Then cut an oblong 9-1/2 x +10-1/2 inches of "cover" paper, of some good color. Fit the manila oblong +within this, in such a way as to leave an inch margin of colored paper +all around it. Fold over this margin, pasting it down neatly. Cut an +oblong 8-1/4 x 9-1/4 inches, of tinted paper of lighter weight. Lay this +oblong as an inside lining to the cover, pasting to leave a narrow margin +of the dark cover paper around the lining. Place the cover on your desk, +with the long edges from left to right. Fold the nearer edge to meet the +farther edge. Crease well. Bisect the crease, and place a point 3/8 of an +inch up from the crease. Measure three inches from each end, and place +points at these distances, 3/8 of an inch up from the crease. Within the +folded cover, place six or eight No. 9 envelopes, the bottom edges of the +envelopes touching the crease. Fit the envelopes within the cover, to +leave an equal margin around the front and ends of the case. Holding the +envelopes firmly within the cover, make holes with an eyelet punch at the +points placed for them. Tie the envelopes in the case with raffia, tape, +or cord. + +[Illustration: DESIGN FOR BOX] + +[Illustration: DESIGNS FOR ENVELOPES] + +[Illustration: DESIGN FOR PORTFOLIO] + + +How to Draw Letters. + +=Before the Days of Printing.= There was once a time when all the books +in the world were lettered by hand. This hand printing was done by men +called monks, who lived in monasteries, away from the noise and bustle of +the world, and who often devoted their whole lives to the lettering of +religious books. They did this lettering on sheepskin or parchment +instead of on paper, and they spared no pains in making these manuscripts +as beautiful as possible. Color was often used for initials and for +capital letters, and sometimes artistically designed borders were placed +around the lettering, making each page in these manuscript books as +beautiful as a picture. The great amount of time that was necessary to +make one of these books made them very expensive, and only people of +great wealth could own them. + +=Type and the Printing Press.= When type and the printing press were +invented, the printer at first tried to make his pages look like the +manuscript pages of the monks. For this reason, the earlier printing was +artistic, although the letters were not as clear and perfect as type +letters are now. The first books printed from type were also expensive, +but little by little the process was made cheap, until at last type +letters lost much of their beauty. Lately, however, printers have +realized that single letters are like design units in an all-over +pattern. The size of the letters, their shapes and thickness, the spaces +between them, and the spaces between the lines are all of great +importance. + +=A Simple Alphabet.= On the next page is a simple alphabet, planned on +squared paper. You can print in this style, any title or words you may +wish on a program or book-cover. Plan your printing on a separate piece +of paper, marking the height of the space you intend to fill with the +letters. Quadrisect this height and draw through these points horizontal +lines. Lay off on the lower horizontal, distances equal to the +quadrisection. From these points erect vertical lines, using your test +square. Mark in a sketchy way the width of each letter in the word you +are planning, making the thickness of each letter the width of a square, +and leaving the same distance (the width of a square) between each +letter. Be careful to keep uniform thickness in slanting lines and +curves, as in K and C. Avoid angles in your curves. If you have more than +one word in your line, leave three squares for the space between the +words, and if more than one line of printing is used, guard against too +much space between the lines. The width of two squares would be a safe +distance in a style like this. + +[Illustration] + +=Transferring the Letters.= When your plan is complete, rub soft lead +pencil evenly over the back of the paper, and place the plan exactly +where you wish the lettering to go, on your book-cover or program, with +the lead painting next to the cover. Then mark over the letters with a +sharp point, and a faint tracing will appear on the under surface. You +can then finish your lettering in ink or color, as you prefer. + +All lettering must be done with much care, with exactness, and with the +greatest neatness. + + + + +DESIGN + + +[Illustration: + + King of two hands, he does his part + In every useful toil and art; + A heritage, it seems to me + A king might wish to hold in fee. + + James Russell Lowell. +] + +[Illustration: + + WHAT NEED HAD YOU OF + MONEY, MY BOY, + OR THE PRESENTS + MONEY CAN BRING, + WHEN EVERY BREATH + WAS A BREATH OF JOY? + YOU OWNED THE WHOLE WORLD, + WITH ITS HILLS AND TREES, + THE SUN, AND THE CLOUDS, + AND THE BRACING BREEZE, + AND YOUR HANDS TO WORK + WITH; HAVING THESE, + YOU WERE RICHER + THAN ANY KING. + + FROM "THE COUNTRY BOY" + BY LUCY LARCOM. +] + + +[Illustration: CHART-A] + +[Illustration: CHART-D] + + +Colors in Full Intensity and their Neutral Values. + +=Light and Dark Colors.= When you painted an autumn scene like the one on +page 2, you found that it could be done with three colors--yellow, red, +and blue. Blue made the sky and water; blue and yellow the grass and the +foliage of the smaller tree; blue and red the distance; yellow, red, and +blue the tree trunks and the autumn colors of the large tree. Look again +at the sketch. Do you see that the two trees are darker than the grass, +that the water and the sky are of nearly the same value, and that the +tree-trunks are the darkest colors in the picture? In the winter scene on +page 8, and in the spring picture of the yellow bush, both dark and light +colors have been used. The colored flower studies all show dark and light +colors. Both light and dark colors are needed to express truth and +beauty, just as in music we need both high and low tones for perfect +melody. + +=An Orderly Arrangement of Colors.= In Chart A these colors are arranged +in an orderly way. Yellow (Y) is the lightest color and is placed +directly opposite violet (V), the darkest color in the circle. +Yellow-orange (YO) and yellow-green (YG) come next to yellow on either +side. Then orange (O) and green (G) follow, and next to them are +red-orange (RO) and blue-green (BG). Next in the circle are red (R) and +blue (B), and after them red-violet (RV) and blue-violet (BV). The colors +in the chart are the strongest that your three colors can make. Colors of +this strength are said to be in full intensity. + +=Expressing Colors in Neutral Values.= On page 4 are "finder" pictures +taken from the autumn scene on page 2. These are done in gray washes that +correspond to the colors in the autumn sketch. The trees are shown in +grays that make them just as dark as the trees in the colored picture. +When we make gray washes just as light and as dark as colors that we wish +to represent, we say that we express those colors in neutral values. + +=The Neutral Value Scale.= In Chart D the scales are arranged to show the +grays or neutral values that correspond to the different colors in their +full intensity. In this chart yellow is as light as the gray wash called +High Light (HL). Yellow-orange and yellow-green are of the same value as +Light (L). Orange and green are of the same value as Low Light (LL). +Red-orange and blue-green are of the same value as Middle (M). Red and +blue equal the neutral value High Dark (HD). Red-violet and blue-violet +are equal to Dark (D), and violet, the darkest color, is expressed by Low +Dark (LD). Low Dark is almost black. + + +The Neutral Value Scale. + +[Illustration: VALUE SCALE] + +A scale of neutral values, larger in size than that on page 78, is +printed on this page. White and black are added. They do not correspond +to any color, but they help us to see the many steps that may be taken +between them. Only seven of these steps from black to white are shown in +our scale. Of course there are other grays, not represented in the scale, +just as there are tones of music not expressed in the musical scale or +octave. The musical scale and this value scale are used to help locate +all other notes and all other degrees of light and dark. You could make, +for instance, other grays between High Light and White. But it is useful +to know that certain grays have definite names, and definite places in +the scale. + +With the aid of this larger scale, we can more easily compare the values +of the colors of a landscape, a flower, or a still-life group with the +same values in gray. Turn to pages 8 and 9. On page 8 the winter +landscape is in color, and you see the same scene on page 9 in neutral +values. In it the sky and part of the snow are of the same value, and +they match the gray marked High Light in the scale. The distant hill is +Low Light; the dark band of trees on the horizon is High Dark, and the +tree in the foreground is Dark. In this way you can find in the scale the +neutral values used in a picture. + +Name the values of the hyacinth, on page 53. What values were used in the +moonlight picture on page 10? Make a little scale showing these values +and giving their names. + + +[Illustration: 1] + +[Illustration: 2] + +[Illustration: 3] + +[Illustration: 4] + +[Illustration: 5] + +[Illustration: 6] + +[Illustration: 7] + +Dividing a Space into Large and Small Spaces. + +Plaids are most attractive when seen in color. Before the color is added, +however, definite spaces must be divided by lines into other spaces, +making an interesting variety. In drawing from flowers, you found that a +spray showing large and small shapes made a more interesting sketch than +one in which leaves and flowers were of uniform shapes and sizes. + +Sketches 1 and 2 show how vertical and horizontal lines may divide a +square into a variety of spaces. Either arrangement is more beautiful +than sketch 3, where the spaces are more nearly alike. Look at the +still-life group in sketch 4, where the three objects are so nearly of +the same size. Do you think this group as pleasing as the group shown in +sketch 5? Our designs, as well as our pictures, must show variety and +good arrangement of shapes and spaces, in order to be interesting. + +Too much variety in a picture or design is as bad as not enough variety. +Look at the number of lines and spaces in sketch 6. The design is crowded +and "fussy," like an overtrimmed bonnet, or a room in which there is too +much furniture. The still-life group in sketch 7 shows the same effect of +too much variety. + +Draw four squares, each four inches on a side. Divide each into large and +small spaces of pleasing variety by using vertical and horizontal lines, +four inches in length. + + +[Illustration: 1] + +[Illustration: 2] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: 3] + +[Illustration: 4] + +Large and Small Spaces in Two Values. + +One way of adding to the interest and beauty of large and small spaces is +to show them in values. Compare Sketches 1 and 2 on this page with +Sketches 1 and 2 on page 81. You will find the plaids which are shown in +values more interesting than those which are made with lines only. The +two values in each sketch on this page are chosen from the neutral value +scale on page 80. In Sketch 1, High Light (HL) and Black (B) are used, +and in Sketch 2, we find Middle (M) and Black (B). You see how different +in effect the two plaids are. The same difference can be shown in +landscape, flowers, or in any other picture or design, by changing the +values. Sketches 3 and 4 show simple groups of still life, first drawn in +outline from the objects, and then painted in values chosen from the +value scale. Sketch 3 is painted in the same values as the plaid in +Sketch 1, and Sketches 2 and 4 are alike in values. + +Choose two of your best plaid designs, done in the lesson on page 81, and +paint the spaces in one, HL and B; in the other M and B. + + +[Illustration: 1] + +[Illustration: 2] + +[Illustration: 3] + +[Illustration: 4] + +Pictures in Different Keys. + +In your study of music you have learned to sing in different keys. Some +songs are pitched in high keys, and others in low. Or, the same song may +be sung in several different keys. The tune or melody remains the same, +but there is a difference in the sound. + +Pictures are sometimes spoken of as being painted in keys. If the darker +values of the scale are used, the picture is said to be in low key. If +the picture is full of light color, it is said to be in a high key. + +Sketches 1 and 2 show you how different the same design appears, when +painted in different keys. Sketch 3 is a landscape in the same values +used in Sketch 1. Sketch 4 shows the same scene in a lower key. The soft, +silvery light of early morning has given place to the deeper tones of +dusk. + +Draw two four-inch squares and divide them alike into large and small +spaces. Using two values, paint one in a high key, and the other in a low +key. Make a little scale under each sketch, naming the values you have +used. + + +[Illustration: GORDON] + +[Illustration: LOGAN OR MACLENNAN] + +Scotch Plaids. + +Long, long years ago, before the days of kings and queens, people lived +together in great families or tribes. In Scotland these tribes were +called clans, and the sign or badge of a clan was shown in the tartan +plaid. This was a heavy piece of woolen cloth worn over the shoulders, as +a protection from the weather. A sort of skirt, called a kilt, was made +from the same plaid, and this costume was worn by both men and women of +the clans in the Highlands of Scotland. The tartans were woven in bright +colors, forming designs like those at the top of this page. They were +often very beautiful in their arrangement of spaces and colors. Each +different design received a name from the clan that wore it. Those at the +top of this page are the Gordon and the Logan or MacLennan tartans. + +Copy in colors some good plaid design, that you can find in ginghams, in +silk, or in woolen cloth. + + +[Illustration] + +A Stained Glass Window. + +Some stained glass windows are as beautiful to look at as fine paintings. +Their rich colors glow with light, and they show an interesting variety +and arrangement of shapes. They are usually made of colored glass, held +together by lead grooves. These are represented in the design on this +page by the heavy black lines. + +You can make with water-colors an effect very much like stained glass. +With pencil, draw an oblong ten inches long and about seven inches wide. +Within this, draw another oblong, for the central piece of glass. The +size of this inner oblong you must determine for yourself. Remember that +its size fixes the width of the border. In the border space, draw some +simple straight line design. Paint the smaller oblong, by wetting its +surface evenly, and dropping in red, yellow, and blue. Let the colors +blend as they will, and use the brush to carry color to the edges of the +oblong. When this is dry, paint the shapes in the border in flat washes +of any two colors. Last of all, paint strong, black lead lines. + + +[Illustration] + +The Stained Glass Window in Values. + +The greater part of the illustrations which appear in books and magazines +is done in neutral grays. All sorts of color effects are represented by +grays in these different pictures, and this is done by people who +understand just what neutral value is needed to represent a certain +color, its tints, or its shades. You have often represented flowers, +landscapes, figures, and still life in gray washes, or with pencil or +charcoal. In Chart D you see that certain colors like yellow, +yellow-orange, orange, yellow-green and green are represented in their +full intensity by grays chosen from the upper end of the neutral value +scale, and that the darker colors like red, red-violet, blue, +blue-violet, and violet are represented in their full intensity by the +grays below middle gray. + +Compare the colors you used in making your stained glass window design +with Chart D on page 77. Draw the same plan that you used for your +colored design. Cover the smaller oblong with a water wash and drop in +charcoal-gray, in values to suit the light and dark colors in your +stained glass window design. Fill the small oblongs in the border with +flat washes of gray. Try to determine just what grays would represent the +colors you used. Your lead lines should be of even thickness throughout. +Draw them when the rest of the work is thoroughly dry. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +[Illustration: D] + +[Illustration: E] + +[Illustration: F] + +Several Ways of Decorating a Square Space. + +On pages 69, 70, and 71 you learned how to draw and divide certain +shapes. You saw that by slightly changing the direction of construction +lines, decorative designs could be made. Construction lines are lines +used in drawing and dividing a shape. They may or may not be retained, +after the design is finished. In Sketch A on this page the four sides of +the square and the horizontal diameter may be taken as construction +lines. By following these lines with a narrow pathway and slightly +changing the direction of parts of them, designs can be made in great +variety. + +In Sketch B diameters are drawn and in the center is a small square on +its diagonals. Little pathways lead from the sides of the square to the +center, resulting in a four-sided decoration. In Sketch C diagonals are +drawn and pathways sent along them to the center. Sketches D, E, and F +are like A, B, and C, except that curved lines have been used instead of +straight lines. + +Draw six four-inch squares. Copy the construction lines and their +modifications as shown in the six sketches on this page. Finish each +design and strengthen the lines which will bring out the decoration. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +[Illustration: D] + +Decorating an Oblong Shape. + +The oblong is a favorite shape for book-covers, envelopes, card-cases, +portfolios, and other articles that can be made in the school-room. +Hundreds of objects about you in school and at home are also based, in +their proportions, on the oblong. Think of the books, boxes, rugs, doors, +and windows, that you constantly see. They are nearly always shaped like +an oblong. You will be interested to know some of the ways in which +decorations for these objects are planned. In a rug or a book-cover, for +instance, we often wish a design similar to that shown in Sketch A. In +planning for this, a smaller oblong was drawn within the larger one. The +lines of the smaller one were used as construction lines, and these were +modified in the same way as were the construction lines of the square on +page 87. + +In Sketch D, the diameters of the oblong were drawn and the +semi-diameters bisected. Then these points were connected. In both Sketch +A and Sketch D, all construction lines not used in the design were +erased. + +Draw two oblongs not less than eight inches high, and wide enough to make +a panel of pleasing proportions. Plan and draw designs similar to, but +not exactly like, those shown in Sketches A and D. + + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +[Illustration: D] + +[Illustration: E] + +How to Use Shapes from Nature in Design. + +If all our designs were like those which can be made by following the +construction lines of certain definite shapes, we would very likely grow +tired of seeing so much decoration of that kind. We may get many ideas of +beautiful lines and shapes from a plant or a flower, and we may use these +ideas in making designs, as the drawings on this page and the next will +show. + +Look at the sketch of the marsh-marigold, and then at the small drawings +at the right. A is a petal, B is a stamen, C is a side view of the +flower, showing three petals and a stem, D is a leaf, and E a bud and +stem. In these sketches the lines are even, the shapes are regular, and +all "accidents of growth" are omitted. Sometimes the shapes were drawn +larger than their true size, and sometimes the parts were separated, as +in C and E. We need not copy just what we see, but we may modify shapes +or change their size and arrangement to suit the spaces which they are to +fill. + +Study a wild flower in this way. See how many design ideas you can get +from one plant. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +Shapes from Nature in Borders and Other Decorations. + +Nature has suggested some of the most beautiful decorations we have. In +the baptismal font on page 65, the carved decoration was evidently from +the growth of a vine. The vine is not represented exactly as it grew. A +decoration that showed the actual appearance of the plant would not have +been adapted to the space. + +In the three oblongs on this page, the marsh-marigold shapes have been +used in three ways. In Sketch A, the petals of the flower were used in a +border design, and the size of the unit, or shape repeated, was carefully +planned. If the petal shapes had been drawn larger, the border would have +been too heavy for the size of the oblong. + +In Sketch B, two leaves and an arrangement of petal shapes suggesting the +flower were used, and in Sketch C, the side view of the flower and a part +of the stem form a unit which is used to "spot" the oblong. These spots +are not crowded, but are placed with careful thought as to the best +appearance of the oblong. No matter how beautiful a unit, a border, or a +central group may be in itself, we must think of its effect upon the +object to be decorated. + +Draw three oblongs four times the size of those on this page. Decorate +these with a border, a central group, and by spotting. Use the design +ideas you found in the lesson on page 89. + + +A Simple Design for a Portfolio. + +[Illustration] + +Good proportion and the right arrangement of light and dark values will +often make an object beautiful, without the addition of ornament. In the +chapter on still life, the objects you studied were not decorated, but +they were well designed in their beauty of proportions, their color, and +their contrast in values. + +Many familiar objects such as envelopes, boxes, and book-covers, depend +for beauty on these simple elements. The sketch of the portfolio on this +page is beautiful because it has a fine proportion of parts, and because +the gray values of these parts are harmonious. If the dark band of the +back had been wider or narrower, if the space for the name had been +placed differently, or if the size of the corner-pieces had been changed, +the harmony of parts would have been disturbed, and the portfolio would +not have been beautiful. Or, if the dark gray trimming had been black, +there would have been too great a difference between the values used, and +that again would disturb the harmonious effect of the whole. You can tell +how large to make the parts, where to put them, and what arrangement of +values to use, only by trying several ways, and then selecting the most +beautiful. + +This portfolio may be made by pasting tinted paper or book linen over +cardboards. The boards should be covered first with the material chosen +for the outside. Then the corners and back should be added, and a lining +of paper pasted across both boards on the inside. The space for a name on +the outside should be carefully planned. Within this space should be +drawn very carefully, the letters of any name you may wish to place on +the portfolio. + + +[Illustration] + +Color Schemes from Nature. + +In the world about you, every object that you see has color. From the +bright colors you can so easily see in flowers, leaves, grasses, and the +sunset sky, to the grayed colors of tree trunks, clouds, the ground, and +buildings, there is the greatest variety and range. Even in the +moonlight, objects though greatly changed in effect, still have color. If +it were not for this, we could not see them. It is only in the darkest +night, when we can see but a few feet ahead of us, that objects seem to +lose their color. + +In our houses, too, everything has color--not the bright hues that we +find in flowers and landscapes, but softer, grayed color. We would not +like carpets and wall-paper of the bright color we find in poppies, for +instance. The colors we use in our furnishings should not be glaring and +intense, but quiet and restful. To find these color relations, and to +train the eye to know and enjoy fine color harmonies, we study what +artists have done, in paintings and other works of art. In nature, too, +we find color suggestions in endless variety. In autumn the world is +flooded with rich color. Even the common weed that is shown you on this +page shows a combination of colors that would be safe to use in any work +of our own. See how the colors in the plant have been arranged in a +little scale. Such an arrangement is called a color scheme. + +Make a sketch in color from some plant or seedhead. Under the sketch, +arrange in little oblongs the colors you found in the plant. + + +Using one of Nature's Color Schemes. + +[Illustration] + +Nature's color schemes become most interesting to us when we use them in +some work of our own. The brush-broom holder on this page shows in its +coloring the scheme found in the plant growth on page 92. + +In making a holder of this kind, choose materials that will be strong, +and that will look well together. Pasteboards should be cut in good +proportions, of a size and shape to fit a particular broom. These should +be covered on both sides in the same way that you covered the sides of +your portfolio on page 91. The material for this covering may be stout +paper, linen, plain gingham, or leather, colored to suit one of the +colors in the scheme you have chosen. A simple design may be placed on +the holder in another color chosen from your scheme. Then holes for +lacing are to be punched in the sides. The cord for lacing should +harmonize in quality and color with the rest of your design. The color of +the broom itself may be brought into harmony with the holder by painting +it with water-color, or by dipping it in a mixture of water-color that +matches one of the colors in your scheme. A few Indian beads of bright +color strung on the lacing strings will add greatly to the effect. + + +A Raffia Basket. + +[Illustration] + +Many of the baskets made by the American Indians are so beautiful that +they deserve to be classed as works of art. We wonder that a race of +people so savage in their tastes and so wandering in their habits could +have produced articles of so much beauty from the materials they found in +the wilderness of nature. Many of these materials it is impossible for us +to find or to use, but we can make with raffia and rattan, baskets that +are something like those made by the Indians. + +The sketch on this page is from a "soft coil" basket, made entirely of +raffia. The amount of raffia used depends entirely on the size of the +basket. Before beginning the basket, make a sketch showing its height, +the width of the top and bottom, the shape of its sides, and a simple +decoration in color. The bottom of the basket is to be made first, +beginning the coil at the center. The coil should measure about a quarter +of an inch in diameter, and is to be made of a number of strands of +raffia, placed with the large ends together, forming a blunt point. Wind +the strands tightly together with a strand of raffia, one end of which is +threaded through a large needle. Work back from the end until you have a +firm coil about half an inch in length. Start the spiral with this end, +doubling it back, and sewing it firmly in place. Wind the raffia strands +with the strand carrying the needle, sewing the coil thus made to the +center. After the first time around, the stitches should be made about a +quarter of an inch apart, and should be fastened through the upper part +of the last coil. Strands of raffia must be added to the coil, to keep it +of uniform size. + +When a new needleful is taken, the end of the winding and sewing strand +must be hidden in the coil. The stitch is the same throughout the basket. +The bottom is kept perfectly flat, and the sides shaped to suit the +design. Any decoration in color, such as is shown in the sketch, is wound +in with colored raffia. When finishing the basket, the coil is to be cut, +and the end tapered, wound, and sewed firmly down to the coil below. + + +[Illustration: A] + +[Illustration: B] + +[Illustration: C] + +A Woven Cushion-Cover. + +Raffia is an artistic material which lends itself to many uses. The +covers for the porch-pillow shown in the sketch on this page are woven +with raffia, on a strong loom. The size of the loom determines the size +of the woven cover. The cushion from which this sketch was made measured +eighteen inches square without the fringe, and about two and a half +pounds of raffia were used in the covers, the fringe, and the filling of +the cushion. Sketch C shows the wooden needle used in carrying the +strands of raffia over and under the warp. + +Raffia is used both for the warp and the woof of the weaving. In +"stringing" the loom, fourteen to sixteen pieces of raffia should be used +as one strand or thread of the warp, and these strands should be tied +firmly to the ends of the loom. As many of these strands must be used as +can be tied on the loom without crowding. They may touch, but not +overlap. In weaving, the large needle is threaded with raffia to make a +strand equal in size to the strands of the warp, and this strand is woven +under and over the strands of the warp, making the familiar "basket +weave." The ends of the strands used in this way form the fringe, which +is trimmed to the desired length when the weaving is done. + +Stripes, plaids, or simple figures may be woven in with colored raffia. +The two sides of the cushion may show different designs. + + +Color Schemes from Man's Handiwork. + +[Illustration] + +Leaves, plants, flowers, insects, butterflies, shells, feathers, clouds, +and countless other objects in nature can furnish us with many delightful +color schemes. We can also learn much from the artistic work of people. +In Indian pottery and weaving we often see fine combinations of color. +The Indians understood how to make beautiful dyes from roots, berries, +and other vegetable growths, and the colors obtained in this way have a +peculiar quality and beauty, not found in many of the dyes in common use +today. The picture on this page is from a fine specimen of Sikyatki +pottery. Sikyatki was an Indian village in New Mexico, and was the home +of a tribe of Pueblo Indians. + +When the Indians wished to send a written message they made use of +picture-writing; that is, they made pictures so simple that they are +called signs or symbols. Their symbol of a tree, for instance, would look +much like the tree pictures made by very little children; three short +vertical marks sometimes meant three warriors; a zigzag line stood +sometimes for the lightning, sometimes for a serpent; and a wavy line +extending in a horizontal direction was the symbol of a brook, a river, +or the great ocean. + +From a good Indian bowl or basket make an exact copy, and place +underneath it the scale of colors found in the object. + + +Using Color Schemes in Pottery. + +[Illustration] + +In planning a bowl or vase like the one shown you on this page, a sketch +of the front view should be made showing the diameter of the top and +bottom of the bowl, its height, its shape, the color scheme, and the +decoration. Such a drawing might be called a design for a bowl. + +After drawing such a design, the next step is to make the bowl of clay. +For the bowl represented here, a lump of clay was rolled and patted into +a low, roughly shaped cylinder. The thumbs were then thrust into the +middle of the cylinder, and they, together with the fingers, pushed the +clay outward to form the bottom and part of the sides of the bowl. The +sides were finished by adding flat pieces of clay, their edges being +carefully worked until the pieces added seemed a part of the form. The +sides and bottom of the bowl were kept of uniform thickness. Then the +bowl was allowed to stand about a day, or until it became what is called +"leather hard." The border was then painted on with potter's colors, the +lower part of the bowl was colored, and the inside glazed. The bowl was +again allowed to dry, this time very thoroughly. It was then fired in a +potter's kiln. + +Make a flower holder of clay. Use the color scheme you found in your +Indian bowl or basket. If possible, fire the bowl in a kiln. + +[Illustration: 3 + +CANDLE STICK] + +[Illustration: STOPPER FOR INK WELL] + +[Illustration: 4 + +INK WELL] + +[Illustration: 1 + +JEWEL BOX] + +[Illustration: 2 + +MATCH SAFE] + +[Illustration: 5 + +BUTTON BOX] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Text Books of Art Education, Book IV +(of 7), by Hugo B. Froehlich and Bonnie E. 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